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diff --git a/old/52045-0.txt b/old/52045-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index fb94408..0000000 --- a/old/52045-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42541 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Cassell's History of England. Vol III, by Cassell - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Cassell's History of England. Vol III - From the Great Rebellion to the Fall of Marlborough. - -Author: Cassell - -Release Date: May 11, 2016 [EBook #52045] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASSELL'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND, VOL III *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - -CASSELL'S ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF ENGLAND - - - - - CASSELL'S - - HISTORY OF ENGLAND - - FROM THE GREAT REBELLION TO - THE FALL OF MARLBOROUGH - - WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS, - INCLUDING COLOURED - AND REMBRANDT PLATES - - VOL. III - - _THE KING'S EDITION_ - - CASSELL AND COMPANY, LIMITED - LONDON, NEW YORK, TORONTO AND MELBOURNE - MCMIX - -ALL RIGHTS RESERVED - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I. - - THE GREAT REBELLION. PAGE - - Condition of Ireland--Roger Moore's Pilgrimage--Negotiations of the - Anglo-Irish with Charles--Hugh M'Mahon betrays the Plot--Rising - of the Native Irish--Massacre of Protestants--Measures taken by - the English Parliament--Return of Charles to London--The Grand - Remonstrance--The King's Answer--His Lieutenant of the Tower--Riots - in London--Blunder of the Bishops--Attempted Arrest of the Five - Members--Charles leaves London--The Queen goes to Holland--Charles - at York--His Repulse from Hull--Preparations for War--The Royal - Standard Raised--Prince Rupert's Headstrong Folly--Battle of Edge - Hill--Charles marches on London--He returns to Oxford--Cromwell in - the East--The Queen in Yorkshire--Death of Hampden--Parliamentary - Disasters--Battle of Newbury--Death of Lord Falkland--Negotiations - with the Scots and Irish--Death of Pym--Royal Parliament at - Oxford--Battle of Marston Moor--Disastrous Failure of Essex in - Cornwall--Second Battle of Newbury--The Self-denying Ordinance--The - New-modelled Army 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - THE GREAT REBELLION (_concluded_). - - The Assembly at Westminster--Trial and Death of Laud--Negotiations - at Uxbridge--Meeting of the Commissioners--Impossibility - of a Settlement--Prospect of Help to the King from the - Continent--Charles agrees to the demands of the Irish - Catholics--Discipline and Spirit of the Parliamentary - Army--Campaign of the New-modelled Army--Hunting the King--Battle - of Naseby--Fairfax in the West--Exploits of Montrose--Efforts of - Charles to join Him--Battle of Kilsyth--Fall of Bristol--Battle - of Philiphaugh--Last Efforts of the Royalists--Charles Offers to - Treat--Discovery of his Correspondence with Glamorgan--Charles - Intrigues with the Scots--Flight from Oxford--Surrender to - the Scots at Newark--Consequent Negotiations--Proposals for - Peace--Surrender of Charles to Parliament 34 - - - CHAPTER III. - - END OF THE REIGN OF CHARLES I. - - Differences between the Presbyterians and Independents--The King - at Holmby--Attempt to Disband the Army--Consequent Petitions - to Parliament--The Adjutators--Meeting at Newmarket--Seizure - of the King--Advance of the Army on London--Stubbornness - of the Presbyterians--The Army Marches through London--Its - Proposals to Charles--Their Rejection--The King throws away - his best Chances--The Levellers--Cromwell's Efforts on - behalf of Charles--Renewed Intrigues of Charles--Flight to - Carisbrooke--Attempts to Rescue the King--Charles Treats with the - Scots--Consequent Reaction in his Favour--Battle of Preston and - Suppression of the Insurrection--Cromwell at Edinburgh--The Prince - of Wales in Command of the Fleet--Negotiations at Newport--Growing - Impatience of the Army--Petitions for the King's Trial--Charles's - Blindness and Duplicity--He is Removed to Hurst Castle--Pride's - Purge--Supremacy of the Independents--The Whiggamores--Hugh Peters' - Sermon in St. Margaret's, Westminster--Ordinance for the King's - Trial--Trial and Execution of Charles I. 59 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE COMMONWEALTH. - - Proclamation of the Prince of Wales Forbidden--Decline - of the Peerage--_Ultimus Regum_--Establishment of a - Republican Government--Abolition of the House of Lords and - the Monarchy--Council of State--The Oath Difficulty--The - Engagement--Religious Toleration--Trials of Royalists--Discontent - among the People--The Levellers--Activity of John - Lilburne--Quelling the Mutiny in Whalley's Regiment--Lockyer's - Funeral--Arrest of Lilburne--Spread of the Disaffection to - other Regiments--Suppression of the Insurrection--Cromwell - appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland--Royalist Movement - in Scotland--Charles's Son proclaimed King--The Scottish - Deputation at the Hague--Charles's Court--Assassination of - Dr. Dorislaus--Affairs in Ireland--Cromwell's Campaign--Defeat - and Death of Montrose--Cromwell in Scotland--Battle of - Dunbar--Movements of Charles--His March into England--Battle of - Worcester--Charles Escapes to France--Vigorous Government--Foreign - Difficulties--Navigation Act--War with Holland--Contest between - Parliament and the Army--Expulsion of the Rump--The Little - Parliament--Cromwell made Protector 90 - - - CHAPTER V. - - THE COMMONWEALTH (_concluded_). - - Naval Victory over the Dutch--Death of Van Tromp--_Quasi_-Royal - State of the Lord-Protector--Disaffection against Cromwell--His - Vigorous Rule--Charles II. offers a Reward for his - Assassination--Rebellions in Scotland--Cromwell's Dealings with the - Portuguese Ambassador--Reform of the Court of Chancery--Commission - for Purgation of the Church--The Reformed Parliament--Exclusion of - the Ultras--Dissolution of Parliament--Danger from Plots--Accident - to the Protector--Death of Cromwell's Mother--Royalist - Outbreaks--Cromwell's Major-Generals--Foreign Policy--War with - Spain--Massacre of the Piedmontese--Capture of Jamaica--The - Jews Appeal for Toleration--Cromwell's Third Parliament--Plots - against his Life--The Petition and Advice--Cromwell refuses the - Royal Title--Blake's Brilliant Victory at Santa Cruz--Death of - Blake--Successes against Spain--Failure of the Reconstructed - Parliament--Punishment of Conspirators--Victory in the - Netherlands--Absolutism of Cromwell--His Anxieties, Illness, and - Death--Proclamation of Richard Cromwell--He calls a Parliament--It - is Dissolved--Reappearance of the Rump--Richard Retires--Royalist - Risings--Quarrels of the Army and the Rump--General Monk--He - Marches upon London--Demands a Free Parliament--Royalist - Reaction--Declaration of Breda--Joyful Reception of Charles 123 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE PROGRESS OF THE NATION UNDER JAMES I., CHARLES I., AND THE - COMMONWEALTH. - - Manufactures and Commerce--Trade under the Stuarts--English - Commerce and Dutch Competition--The East India - Company--Vicissitudes of its Early History--Rival Companies--The - American Colonies and West Indies--Growth of London--National - Revenue--Extravagance of the Stuarts--Invention of the Title - of Baronet--Illegal Monopolies--Cost of Government--Money - and Coinage--Agriculture and Gardening--Dramatists of the - Period--Shakespeare and his Contemporaries--Poets of the - Occult School--Herbert, Herrick, Quarles--A Wealth of - Poetry--Prose-Writers--Bacon's "Novum Organum"--Milton's - Prose Works--Hales, Chillingworth, Jeremy Taylor, Fuller, and - other Theological Writers--Harrington's "Oceana"--Sir Thomas - Browne--Historians and Chroniclers--First Newspapers--Harvey's - Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood--Napier's - Invention of Logarithms--Music--Painting, Engraving, and - Sculpture--Architecture--Manners and Customs--Sports and - Pastimes--Furniture and Domestic Embellishment--Costumes--Arms and - Armour--Condition of the People 165 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - CHARLES II. - - Character of Charles II.--The King's First Privy Council--The - Convention Parliament--Submission of the Presbyterian - Leaders--The Plight of those who took Part in the late King's - Trial--Complaisance of the Commoners--Charles's Income--The Bill - of Sales--The Ministers Bill--Settlement of the Church--Trial - of the Regicides--Their Execution--Marriage of the Duke of - York--Mutilation of the Remains of Cromwell--The Presbyterians - Duped--The Revenue--Fifth-Monarchy Riot--Settlements of Ireland and - Scotland--Execution of Argyll--Re-establishment of Episcopacy--The - new Parliament violently Royalist--The King's Marriage--His - Brutal Behaviour to the Queen--State of the Court--Trial of Vane - and Lambert--Execution of Vane--Assassination of Regicides--Sale - of Dunkirk--The Uniformity Act--Religious Persecution--Strange - Case of the Marquis of Bristol--Repeal of the Triennial Act--The - Conventicle and Five Mile Acts--War with Holland--Appearance of the - Plague--Gross Licentiousness of the Court--Demoralisation of the - Navy--Monk's Fight with the Dutch--The Great Fire 193 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - REIGN OF CHARLES II. (_continued_). - - Demands of Parliament--A Bogus Commission--Crushing the - Covenanters in Scotland--The Dutch in the Thames--Panic in London - and at Court--Humiliation of England--Peace is Signed--Fall of - Clarendon--The Cabal--Sir William Temple at the Hague--The - Triple Alliance--Scandals at Court--Profligacy of the King and - the Duke of Buckingham--Attempt to Deprive the Duke of York of - the Succession--Persecution of Nonconformists--Trial of Penn and - Mead--The Rights of Juries--Secret Treaty with France--Suspicious - Death of Charles's Sister--"Madam Carwell"--Attack on Sir - John Coventry--National Bankruptcy--War with Holland--Battle - of Southwold Bay--Declaration of Indulgence--Fall of the - Cabal--Affairs in Scotland and Ireland--Progress of the Continental - War--Mary Marries William of Orange--Louis Intrigues with the - Opposition--Peace of Nimeguen--The Popish Plot--Impeachment of - Danby--Temple's Scheme of Government--The Exclusion Bill--Murder - of Archbishop Sharp--Bothwell Bridge--Anti-Catholic Fury--Charges - against James--Execution of Lord Stafford 221 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - REIGN OF CHARLES II. (_concluded_). - - Charles's Embarrassments--Exclusion Intrigues--Parliament - Dissolved--The King again Pensioned by Louis--New Parliament - at Oxford--Violence of the Whigs--Charles Dissolves the - Oxford Parliament--Execution of Archbishop Plunket--Arrest of - Shaftesbury--Dismay of the Gang of Perjurers--Oates turned out of - Whitehall--Shaftesbury's Lists--Visit of William of Orange--James - in Scotland--Defeat of the Cameronians--Cargill's Manifesto--The - Duke of York's Tyranny--Flight of Argyll--The Torture in - Edinburgh--Arrogance of Monmouth--Contest between the Court and the - City--Death of Shaftesbury--Rye House Plot--Suicide of the Earl of - Essex--Trial of Lord William Russell--Extraordinary Declaration - of the University of Oxford--Trial of Algernon Sidney--The - Duke of Monmouth Pardoned--Base Conduct of Monmouth--Trial of - Hampden--Trials in Scotland--Absolutism of Charles--Forfeiture - of Charters by the Corporations--Influence of the Duke of - York--Opposition of Halifax--Sickness and Death of the King 267 - - - CHAPTER X. - - REIGN OF JAMES II. - - James's Speech to the Council--Rochester supersedes Halifax--Other - Changes in the Ministry--James Collects the Customs without - Parliament--French Pension continued--Scottish Parliament--Oates - and Dangerfield--Meeting of Parliament--It grants Revenue for - Life--Monmouth and Argyll--Argyll's Expedition--His Capture and - Execution--Monmouth's Expedition--He enters Taunton--Failure of - his Hopes--Battle of Sedgemoor--Execution of Monmouth--Cruelties - of Kirke and Jeffreys--The Bloody Assize--The Case of Lady Alice - Lisle--Decline of James's Power--He Breaks the Test Act--Revocation - of the Edict of Nantes--Prorogation of Parliament--Acquittal - of Delamere--Alienation of the Church--Parties at Court--The - Dispensing Power Asserted--Livings granted to Catholics--Court of - High Commission Revived--Army on Hounslow Heath--Trial of "Julian" - Johnson--James's Lawlessness in Scotland and Ireland--Declaration - of Indulgence--The Party of the Prince of Orange and the Princess - Mary--Expulsion of the Fellows of Magdalen College--New Declaration - of Indulgence--Protest of the Seven Bishops--Birth of the Prince of - Wales--Trial and Acquittal of the Bishops--Invitation to William - of Orange--Folly of James--William's Preparations--Blindness of - James, and Treachery of his Ministers--William's Declaration--James - convinced, makes Concessions--William lands at Torbay--His Advance - to Exeter--Churchill's Treason--Flight of the Princess Anne and her - Husband--James sends Commissioners to Treat with William--Flight - of James--Riots in London--Return of James--His Final Flight to - France--The Convention--The Succession Question--Declaration of - Rights--William and Mary joint Sovereigns 289 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - PROGRESS OF THE NATION FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO THE GREAT REVOLUTION. - - Religion: Nonconformist Sects--Imprisonment of Bunyan--Fox - and the Society of Friends--The Punishment of James - Naylor--Expulsion of Roger Williams--Other Religious - Sects--Literature: Milton--His Works--Cowley--Butler--Dryden--Minor - Poets--Dramatists of the Restoration--Prose Writers: Milton and - Dryden--Hobbes--Clarendon--Baxter--Bunyan--Waiton--Evelyn and - Pepys--Founding of the Royal Society--Physical Science--Discoveries - of Napier, Newton and Flamsteed--Mathematicians and - Chemists--Harvey and Worcester--Painting, Sculpture, and - Engraving--Coinage--Music--Furniture--Costume--Manners and - Customs--State of London--Sports and Amusements--Country - Life--Travelling--The Clergy--Yeomen--Village Sports--Growth - of the Revenue and Commerce--Growing prosperity of the North - of England--The Navigation Act--Norwich and Bristol--Postal - Arrangements--Advantages Derived from the Industries of the - Foreign Refugees--The East India Company--Condition of the People: - Wages--The Poor Law--Efforts of Philanthropists 352 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - REIGN OF WILLIAM AND MARY. - - Accession of William and Mary--Discontent of the Church and - the Army--William's First Ministry--His Dutch Followers--The - Convention becomes a Parliament--Oath of Allegiance--Settlement - of the Revenue--Suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act--The Mutiny - Bill--Settlement of Religion--The Coronation--Declaration of War - with France--Violence of the Revolution in Scotland--Parties - in the Scottish Parliament--Letter from James--Secession of - Dundee--Edinburgh in Arms--Settlement of the Government--Dundee - in the Highlands--Battle of Killiecrankie--Mackay Concludes the - War--Revolution in Ireland--Panic among the Englishry--Londonderry - and Enniskillen Garrisoned--Negotiations of Tyrconnel--His - Temporary Success--Landing of James--He Enters Dublin--His Journey - into Ulster--The Siege of Londonderry--It is Saved--Legislation - of the Irish Parliament--Arrival of Schomberg--Factiousness of - the English Whigs--State of the English Army in Ireland--Renewed - Violence of the Whigs--The Corporation Act Thrown Out--William - Threatens to Leave England--Dissolution of Parliament--Tory - Reaction--Venality of the New Parliament--Settlement of the - Revenue--Whig Propositions--The Act of Grace--Preparations for - War--A Jacobite Plot--William goes to Ireland--Progress of the - War under Schomberg--Gradual Improvement of his Position and - Ruin of the Jacobite Army--The Battle of the Boyne--Flight - of James--William Enters the Irish Capital--News from - England--Siege of Limerick--Battle of Beachy Head--Landing of - the French in Torbay--Courage of the English People--Settlement - of Scotland--Marlborough's Successes in Ireland--Parliament - Grants Liberal Supplies--Preston's Plot Thwarted--William - Sets Out for Holland--Vigour of Louis--Fall of Mons--Trial of - Jacobite Conspirators--Treason in High Places--Punishment of the - Non-Jurors--The Continental Campaign--Condition of Ireland--Arrival - of St. Ruth--Siege of Athlone--Battle of Aghrim--Second Siege and - Capitulation of Limerick 396 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - REIGN OF WILLIAM AND MARY. - - Proceedings in Parliament--Complaints against Admiral - Russell--Treason in the Navy--Legislation against the - Roman Catholics--The East India Company--Treasons - Bill--The Poll Tax--Changes in the Ministry--Marlborough - is deprived of his Offices--His Treachery--The Queen's - Quarrel with the Princess Anne--William goes Abroad--Fall - of Namur--Battle of Steinkirk--Results of the Campaign--The - Massacre of Glencoe--Proposed Invasion of England--James's - Declaration--Russell's Hesitation overcome by the Queen--Battle of - La Hogue--Gallant Conduct of Rooke--Young's Sham Plot--Founding of - Greenwich Hospital--Ill Success of the Fleet--Discontent of the - People--Complaints in the Lords and Commons--The Land Tax--Origin - of the National Debt--Liberty of the Press--The Continental - Campaign--Battle of Landen--Loss of the Smyrna Fleet--Attack - on the Navy--New Legislation--Banking Schemes of Chamberlayne - and Paterson--The Bank of England Established--Ministerial - Changes--Negotiations for Peace--Marlborough's Treason and the - Death of Talmash--Illness and Death of Queen Mary 448 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - Reign of WILLIAM III. (_continued_). - - Rising Hopes of the Jacobites--Expulsion of Trevor for - Venality--Examination of the Books of the East India - Company--Impeachment of Leeds--The Glencoe Inquiry--The Darien - Scheme--Marlborough's Reconciliation with William--Campaign of - 1695--Surrender of Namur--William's Triumphant Return--General - Election and Victory of the Whigs--New Parliament--Re-establishment - of the Currency--Treasons Bill passed--A Double Jacobite - Plot--Barclay's Preparations--Failure of Berwick's Insurrection - Scheme--William Avoids the Snare--Warnings and Arrests--Sensation - in the House of Commons--Trial and Execution of the - Conspirators--The Association Bill becomes Law--Land Bank - Established--Commercial Crisis--Failure of the Land Bank--The - Bank of England supplies William with Money--Arrest of Sir John - Fenwick--His Confession--William ignores it--Good Temper of the - Commons--They take up Fenwick's Confession--His Silence--A Bill of - Attainder passes both Houses--Execution of Fenwick--Ministerial - Changes--Louis desires Peace--Opposition of the Allies--French - Successes--Terms of Peace--Treaty of Ryswick--Enthusiasm in England - 476 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - REIGN OF WILLIAM III. (_concluded_). - - William Meets his Parliament--Reduction of the Standing - Army--Visit of Peter the Great--Schemes of Louis--The East - India Company--Spanish Partition Scheme--Its Inception and - Progress--Somers's Hesitation--The Treaty is Signed--New - Parliament--Tory Reaction--Dismissal of the Dutch - Guards--William forms an Intention of Quitting England--Attack - on the late Ministry--Jobbery in the Admiralty--Paterson's - Darien Scheme--Douglas's Reasons against It--Enthusiasm - of the Scots--Departure of the First Expedition and - its Miserable Failure--The Untimely End of the Second - Expedition--Second Partition Scheme--Double-dealing of the - French--New Parliament--Attack on Somers--Report on the Irish - Grants--Resumption Bill passed--William's Unpopularity--Death of - the Duke of Gloucester--Conclusion of the New Partition Treaty - and its Results--Charles makes over his Dominions to the French - Candidate--His Death--Disgust of William at Louis's Duplicity--Tory - Temper of the House--The Succession Question--Debates on Foreign - Policy--The Succession Act passed--New Negotiations with - France--Attack on the Whig Ministers--Acknowledgment of the Spanish - King--Impeachment of the Whigs--The Kentish Petition--Its Reception - by the House--The Legion Memorial--Panic in the House--Violent - Struggle between the two Houses--The Impeachments dropped--William - goes Abroad--The Grand Alliance and its Objects--Beginning of the - War--Death of James II.--Louis acknowledges the Pretender--Reaction - in England--New Parliament and Ministry--The King's Speech--British - Patriotism is Roused--Voting of Supplies--The Bills of Attainder - and Abjuration--Illness and Death of William--His Character 502 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - THE REIGN OF QUEEN ANNE. - - Accession of the Queen--Meeting of the Houses of - Parliament--Scotland and Ireland--Power of Marlborough--The - Revenue--Tory Colour of the Ministry--The Coronation--Declaration - of War--Marlborough goes to the Seat of War--General Aspect of - Affairs--Marlborough's Difficulties--His Campaign--Operations by - Sea--Meeting of Parliament--Supply--Marlborough's Dukedom--The - Occasional Conformity Bill--Dismissal of Rochester--Opening - of the Campaign of 1703--Fall of Bonn--Failure to take - Antwerp--Savoy and Portugal join the Allies--Visit of the Archduke - Charles to England--The Storm--Jacobite Conspiracy--Ashby - _versus_ White--Queen Anne's Bounty--Marlborough's Great - Plans--The States-General hoodwinked--His March--Dismay of the - French--Junction with Eugene--Advance on the Danube--Assault - of the Schellenberg--The Prince of Baden's Conceit--Approach - of Tallard--The Eve of Blenheim--The Battle--Conclusion of the - Campaign--Marlborough's Diplomacy--Capture of Gibraltar--Battle of - Malaga--Proceedings in Parliament--The Campaign of 1705--Attempt - to recover Gibraltar--Peterborough's Exploits in Spain--Proposal - to Invite the Electress Sophia to England--Consequent - Legislation--Battle of Ramillies--Eugene relieves Turin--Disasters - in Spain--Meeting of the Commissioners for the Union--Condition of - the Treaty--Opposition in Scotland--Riots in Edinburgh--Conduct of - the Opposition--The Measure carried by Bribery--Its Discussion in - the English Parliament--The Royal Assent given 535 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - THE REIGN OF QUEEN ANNE (_continued_). - - Negotiations for Peace--The Ministry becomes - Whig--Harley--Marlborough and Charles of Sweden--The Allies in - Spain--Battle of Almanza--The French Triumphant in Spain--Attack - on Toulon--Destruction of Shovel's Fleet--Jacobitism in - Scotland--First Parliament of Great Britain--Abigail - Hill--The Gregg Affair--Retirement of Harley and St. John - from the Ministry--Attempted Invasion of Scotland--Campaign - of 1708--Battle of Oudenarde--Capture of Lille--Leake takes - Sardinia and Minorca--Death of Prince George of Denmark--The - Junto--Terrible Plight of France--Marlborough's Plans for - 1709--Louis Negotiates with Holland--Torcy's Terms--Ultimatum - of the Allies--Rejection of the Terms--Patriotism of the French - Nation--Fall of Tournay--Battle of Malplaquet--Meeting of - Parliament--Dr. Sacheverell's Sermons--His Impeachment resolved - upon--Attitude of the Court--The Trial and Sacheverell's - Defence--The Riots--Dispersal of the Rabble--The Sentence--Bias - of the Queen--The Tories in Power--Renewed Overtures for - Peace--Their Failure--The Campaigns in the Netherlands and in - Spain--Brihuega and its Consequence--Marlborough's Reign at an - End--Unpopularity of Marlborough--Dismissal of the Duchess--Triumph - of the Tories--Guiscard's Attack on Harley--Popularity of - Harley--Marlborough's Last Campaign--Failure of the Attack on - Quebec--The Ministry determine to make Peace--Overtures to - the Pretender--He refuses to Change his Religion--Gualtier's - Mission to Versailles--Indignation of the Dutch--The Basis of - Negotiations--Signing of the Preliminaries--Excitement Abroad - and at Home--Prorogation of Parliament--Strengthening of the - Ministry--Debates in the two Houses--The Whigs adopt the Occasional - Conformity Bill--Creation of Peers--Dismissal of Marlborough from - his Employments--Walpole expelled the House 574 - - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - Christ Church, Oxford, from St. Aldate's (looking West) 1 - - The Clock Tower, Dublin Castle 5 - - Charles demanding the Surrender of the Five Members 9 - - Lord Falkland 13 - - St. Mary's Church, Nottingham 17 - - Hampden mortally Wounded at Chalgrove 21 - - Archbishop Laud's Library, East Quadrangle, John's College, Oxford 25 - - Prince Rupert 28 - - Siege-piece of Charles I.--Newark (Half-crown) 29 - - Siege-piece of Charles I.--Pontefract (Shilling) 29 - - Siege-piece of Charles I.--Beeston (Two Shillings) 29 - - Siege-piece of Charles I.--Colchester (Ten Shillings, Gold) 29 - - St. Margaret's, Westminster 33 - - Interview between Charles and the Earl of Denbigh 36 - - Roundhead Soldiers 37 - - Charles at the Battle of Naseby 41 - - Cavalier Soldiers 45 - - Raglan Castle 49 - - Flight of Charles from Oxford 53 - - Queen Henrietta's Drawing-room and Bedroom, Merton College, Oxford 57 - - Lord Fairfax 61 - - Cornet Joyce's Interview with Charles 64 - - Fairfax House, Putney 65 - - Lord Clarendon 69 - - Carisbrooke Castle, Isle of Wight 73 - - Rising of the London Apprentices on behalf of Charles 76 - - Execution of Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle 77 - - Arrival of Charles under Guard at Hurst Castle 81 - - Trial of Charles 85 - - Charles's Farewell Interview with the Duke of Gloucester - and the Princess Elizabeth 89 - - Oliver Cromwell 93 - - Assassination of Dr. Dorislaus 97 - - Great Seal of the Commonwealth 101 - - Dunbar 105 - - Cromwell on his way to London after the Battle of Worcester 108 - - Henry Ireton 109 - - Royal Museum and Picture Gallery, The Hague 113 - - Cromwell addressing the Long Parliament for the Last Time 117 - - Token of the Commonwealth (Copper) 121 - - Broad of the Commonwealth (Gold) 121 - - Crown of the Commonwealth (Silver) 121 - - The Great Hall, Hampton Court Palace 125 - - John Milton 129 - - The Royalist Plotters at Salisbury insulting the Sheriff 132 - - The Painted Chamber, Westminster 133 - - Admiral Blake 137 - - Cromwell refusing the Crown 141 - - Arrest of Conspirators at the "Mermaid" 145 - - John Thurloe 149 - - The Manor House, Wimbledon (1660) 153 - - Richard Cromwell 156 - - Reception of Monk in the City of London 157 - - Interior of the Painted Chamber, Westminster (looking East) 161 - - Landing of Charles II. at Dover 164 - - Cecil, Second Lord Baltimore 169 - - Cheapside and the Cross in 1660 172 - - The "Globe" Theatre, Southwark (with the "Rose" - Theatre in the Distance), in 1613 173 - - Hawthornden in 1773 177 - - Scene at the Funeral of Chillingworth 181 - - William Harvey 184 - - Reduced Facsimile of Front Page of No. 26 of "A Perfect Diurnall" 185 - - Shopkeeper and Apprentice in the Time of Charles I. 189 - - Great Seal of Charles II. 193 - - Charles II. 197 - - Arrest of Argyll 200 - - Shilling of Charles II. 205 - - Halfpenny (with Figure of Britannia) of Charles II. 205 - - Crown of Charles II. 205 - - Five-Guinea Piece of Charles II. 205 - - Sir Harry Vane taking Leave of his Wife and Friends 209 - - The Great Plague: Scene in the Streets of London 213 - - Thumbscrew 214 - - The Great Plague: The Maniac pronouncing the Doom of London 217 - - Pie Corner, Smithfield, where the Great Fire reached its Limits 220 - - George Monk, Duke of Albemarle 221 - - Tilbury Fort 225 - - Samuel Pepys 229 - - The Assault on Sir John Coventry 232 - - Anthony Ashley Cooper, First Earl of Shaftesbury 237 - - View in the Hague: The Gevangenpoort in which Cornelius - and John De Witt were imprisoned (1672) 241 - - Sir William Temple 245 - - Titus Oates before the Privy Council 249 - - Thomas Osborne, first Duke of Leeds 253 - - Hôtel de Ville, Paris, in the Eighteenth Century 257 - - Assassination of Archbishop Sharp 260 - - The Duke of Monmouth 265 - - Arrival of Charles at Oxford 268 - - Escape of Argyll 273 - - The Rye House 277 - - Trial of Lord William Russell 281 - - The Bass Rock 284 - - Great Seal of James II. 289 - - James II. 293 - - The Last Sleep of Argyll 297 - - The Cross, Bridgewater, where Monmouth was proclaimed King 300 - - Monmouth's Interview with the King 304 - - Judge Jeffreys 309 - - Fourpenny Piece of James II. 311 - - Five-Guinea Piece of James II. 311 - - Windsor Castle, from the Brocas 313 - - Parliament Hall, Edinburgh 317 - - John Dryden 321 - - James doing Homage to the Papal Nuncio 324 - - The Seven Bishops entering the Tower 329 - - View in the Hague: The Hall of the Knights in the Binnenhof 333 - - William of Orange embarking to join the "Brill" 337 - - William of Orange entering Exeter 341 - - James hearing of the Landing of William of Orange 345 - - Roger Williams leaving his Home in Massachusetts 353 - - Milton dictating "Paradise Lost" to his Daughters 357 - - Samuel Butler 361 - - John Bunyan 364 - - Gresham College, where the Royal Society was first Housed 365 - - Sir Isaac Newton 369 - - Evelyn "Discovering" Grinling Gibbons 372 - - Costumes of the Time of Charles II. 377 - - Chelsea Hospital 380 - - May-Day Revels in the Time of Charles II. 384 - - Ships of the Time of Charles II. 385 - - The Old East India House in 1630 389 - - Great Seal of William and Mary 396 - - Kensington Palace 397 - - William III. 400 - - Mary II. 401 - - Covenanters evicting an Episcopalian Clergyman 405 - - Battle of Killiecrankie: The Last Charge of Dundee 409 - - The _Mountjoy_ and _Phœnix_ breaking the Boom at Londonderry 416 - - Landing of Marshal Schomberg at Carrickfergus 417 - - Five-Guinea Piece of William and Mary 420 - - Crown of William and Mary 420 - - Fourpenny Piece of William and Mary 420 - - Halfpenny of William and Mary 420 - - Henry VII.'s Chapel, Westminster Abbey 424 - - William Penn 425 - - James entering Dublin after the Battle of the Boyne 429 - - The French retreating from Torbay 433 - - Edinburgh Castle in 1725 436 - - The Duke of Marlborough 441 - - The Assault of Athlone 444 - - Scene at the Removal of the Irish Soldiers from Limerick 445 - - George Saville, Marquis of Halifax 449 - - Lady Marlborough and the Princess Anne at the Queen's Drawing-Room 453 - - Glencoe: Scene of the Massacre 457 - - Greenwich Hospital 464 - - Burning of Blount's Pamphlet by the Common Hangman 465 - - Louis XIV. 469 - - Costumes of the Time of William and Mary 473 - - William Paterson 477 - - Five-Guinea Piece of William 480 - - Half-Crown of William 480 - - Surrender of Boufflers 481 - - Conspirators landing at Romney Marsh 485 - - Bishop Burnet 489 - - Old Mercers' Hall, where the Bank of England was first Established 492 - - Lady Fenwick interceding for her Husband 493 - - Lord Somers 497 - - William's triumphant Procession to Whitehall 500 - - View in the Hague: Old Gate in the Binnenhof, with the - Arms of the County of Holland 505 - - Charles Montague, Earl of Halifax 509 - - Scene at the Departure from Leith of the Darien Expedition 513 - - The Royal Palace of Whitehall, from the Thames, in the beginning - of the 17th Century 520 - - Captain Kidd before the Bar of the House of Commons 525 - - The Pretender proclaimed King of England by Order of - Louis XIV. 529 - - View in the Hague: Chamber of the States-General in the Binnenhof 533 - - Bishop Burnet announcing her Accession to Anne 537 - - Lord Godolphin 541 - - View in Lisbon: The Práça de Dom Pedro 545 - - The King of Spain at Windsor: His Gallantry to the - Duchess of Marlborough 549 - - Prince Eugene of Savoy 553 - - The Battle of Blenheim 557 - - Queen Anne 561 - - Great Seal of Queen Anne 568 - - The People of Edinburgh Escorting the Duke of Hamilton - to Holyrood Palace 569 - - Costumes of the Reign of Queen Anne 572 - - Wreck of Sir Cloudesley Shovel's Fleet 577 - - Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough 581 - - London Coffee House in the Reign of Queen Anne 585 - - Five-Guinea Piece of Queen Anne 588 - - Farthing of Queen Anne 588 - - Two-Guinea Piece of Queen Anne 588 - - Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford 589 - - Drinking to the Health of Dr. Sacheverell 592 - - Making Friends with Mrs. Masham 593 - - The Duke of Marlborough's Interview with Queen Anne 597 - - The Fracas in the Privy Council 601 - - Marlborough House in the Time of Queen Anne 604 - - Henry St. John (afterwards Viscount Bolingbroke) 605 - - - - -LIST OF PLATES - - - CHARLES I. ON HIS WAY TO EXECUTION, 1649. - (_By Ernest Crofts, R.A._) _Frontispiece_ - - MAP OF ENGLAND DURING THE CIVIL WAR, 1642-1649. _To face p._ 50 - - THE CHILDREN OF CHARLES I. (_By Miss Margaret I. Dicksee_) " 71 - - DEATH OF THE PRINCESS ELIZABETH, CARISBROOKE CASTLE, - SEPT. 8TH, 1650. (_By C. W. Cope, R.A._) " 102 - - CROMWELL REFUSING THE CROWN. (_By J. Schex_) " 145 - - RESCUED FROM THE PLAGUE, LONDON, 1665. - (_By F. W. W. Topham, R.I._) " 209 - - CHARLES II. AND NELL GWYNN. (_By E. M. Ward, R.A._) " 210 - - THE GREAT FIRE OF LONDON, 1666. - (_By Stanhope A. Forbes, A.R.A._) " 225 - - THE DISGRACE OF LORD CLARENDON AFTER HIS LAST INTERVIEW - WITH THE KING IN WHITEHALL PALACE, 1667. - (_By E. M. Ward, R.A._) " 233 - - THE ANTE-CHAMBER OF WHITEHALL DURING THE LAST MOMENTS OF - CHARLES II., 1685. (_By E. M. Ward, R.A._) " 289 - - "AFTER SEDGEMOOR." (_By W. Rainey, R.I._) " 302 - - COVENANTERS PREACHING. (_By Sir George Harvey, R.S.A._) " 402 - - WILLIAM III. AT THE BATTLE OF THE BOYNE. (_By Jan Wyck_) " 430 - - A LOST CAUSE: FLIGHT OF JAMES II. AFTER THE BATTLE OF THE - BOYNE, 1690. (_By Andrew C. Gow, R.A._) " 433 - - THE FOUNDING OF THE BANK OF ENGLAND, 1694. - (_By George Harcourt_) " 471 - - PETER THE GREAT AT DEPTFORD DOCKYARD. - (_By Daniel Maclise, R.A._) " 503 - - H.R.H. PRINCESS ANNE OF DENMARK, AFTERWARDS QUEEN OF ENGLAND. - (_By W. Wissing and J. Vandervaart_) " 545 - -[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs. S. Hildesheimer & Co., Ld._ - -CHARLES I. ON HIS WAY TO EXECUTION, 1649. - -FROM THE PICTURE BY ERNEST CROFTS, R.A.] - - - - -[Illustration: CHRIST CHURCH, OXFORD, FROM ST. ALDATE'S (LOOKING WEST.)] - - - - -CASSELL'S - -ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF ENGLAND. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE GREAT REBELLION. - - Condition of Ireland--Roger Moore's Pilgrimage--Negotiations of the - Anglo-Irish with Charles--Hugh M'Mahon betrays the Plot--Rising - of the Native Irish--Massacre of Protestants--Measures taken by - the English Parliament--Return of Charles to London--The Grand - Remonstrance--The King's Answer--His Lieutenant of the Tower--Riots - in London--Blunder of the Bishops--Attempted Arrest of the Five - Members--Charles leaves London--The Queen goes to Holland--Charles - at York--His Repulse from Hull--Preparations for War--The Royal - Standard Raised--Prince Rupert's Headstrong Folly--Battle of Edge - Hill--Charles marches on London--He returns to Oxford--Cromwell in - the East--The Queen in Yorkshire--Death of Hampden--Parliamentary - Disasters--Battle of Newbury--Death of Lord Falkland--Negotiations - with the Scots and Irish--Death of Pym--Royal Parliament at - Oxford--Battle of Marston Moor--Disastrous Failure of Essex in - Cornwall--Second Battle of Newbury--The Self-denying Ordinance--The - New-modelled Army. - - -The causes which drove the Irish to rebellion were for the most part -of long standing. Their religion had been ruthlessly persecuted; their -property had been confiscated by whole provinces at a time; their -ancient chiefs had been driven from their lands, and many of them -exterminated. Elizabeth, James, and Charles, had proffered them new -titles on condition of making large sacrifices, but had never kept -their word, and at this moment, the graces promised by Charles to -tolerate their religion and confirm the titles of their estates, were -unfulfilled. The example of the Scots had aroused them to the hope of -achieving a like triumph. Their great enemy the Earl of Strafford had -fallen, but, on the other hand, they were menaced by Parliament with -a still more fierce persecution, and even an avowed extermination of -their religion. They believed that the Scottish Presbyterians would -join with avidity in the attempt to subdue them, and come in for a -share of the plunder of their estates; and they now seized on the idea -of rising and reclaiming their ancient power and property. True, they -were not one united people like the Scots: there were the ancient -Irish, and the Anglo-Irish of the pale, that is, English settled in -Ireland holding the estates of the expelled native chiefs, but keeping -themselves aloof from the Irish. Yet many of the pale were Catholics, -and the Catholic religion was the unanimous object of attachment on -the part of the natives. The Parliament and the Scottish settlers -in the north were banded against this religion, and this produced a -counter-bond between the Catholic natives and the Catholics of the -pale. From the British Parliament neither of these parties had anything -to hope for on the score of religion; but the king was in need of aid -against this Parliament, and it occurred to them that they might make -common cause with him. - -Roger Moore, a gentleman of Kildare, entered into this scheme with -all the impetuosity of his nation. He saw the lands of his ancestors -for the most part in the hands of English and Scottish settlers, -and he made a pilgrimage into almost every quarter of Ireland to -incite his countrymen to grasp this opportunity, when the king and -Parliament of England were engrossed by their disputes, to recover -their rights. Everywhere he was listened to with enthusiasm, and the -natives held themselves ready to rise, and take a terrible vengeance -on the usurpers of their lands at the first signal. The great chiefs -of Ulster, Cornelius Maguire, Baron of Enniskillen, and Sir Phelim -O'Neil, who had become the chieftain of the sept of Tyrone after the -death of the son of the late persecuted Tyrone, fell into his views -with all their followers. The Catholic members of the pale were more -disposed to negotiate with Charles than to rush into insurrection -against his authority. They knew that it was greatly to his interest -at this moment to conciliate his Irish subjects, and they despatched -to him a deputation previous to his journey to Scotland, demanding -the ratification of those graces for which he had received the -purchase money thirteen years before, and offering in return their -warmest support to his authority in Ireland. Charles received them -very graciously, promised them the full satisfaction of all their -demands, and by Lord Gormanstown, who headed the deputation, and on -whom he lavished the most marked attentions, he sent word to the Earls -of Ormond and Antrim to secure in his interest the eight thousand -troops which had been raised by Strafford, to keep them in efficient -discipline, to augment rather than decrease their number, and to -surprise the castle of Dublin, where they would find twelve thousand -stand of arms. - -But the English Parliament were by no means unaware of the danger from -the army in Ireland, which consisted almost entirely of Catholics. -They insisted on its being disbanded, as promised by the king on the -Scottish pacification. He was not able to prevent this, and signed the -order; but at the same time sent secret instructions by Gormanstown to -Ormond and Antrim, to frustrate this by enlisting the whole body as -volunteers to serve the King of Spain in Flanders. - -At this juncture Sir William Parsons and Sir John Borlase were at the -head of the English Government in Ireland; they were in the interest -of the Parliament, and were detested by almost all classes of Irish. -Sir John Clotworthy, in the House of Commons, had openly declared that -"the conversion of the Papists in Ireland was only to be effected by -the Bible in one hand, and the sword in the other." Pym was reported -to have said that they would not leave a priest in Ireland; and at a -public entertainment Parsons had echoed those sentiments by declaring -that "in a twelvemonth not a Catholic would be left in that country." -The Irish were, therefore, delighted with their success with the king, -and Gormanstown and his associates hastened home again, with two Bills -signed by the king, granting the possession of lands which had been -held sixty years, and setting aside all the sequestrations made by -Strafford. But Parsons and Borlase, aware that the passing of these -Bills would attach Ireland to the interests of the king, defeated the -object by proroguing Parliament a few days before the arrival of the -deputies. - -It was now resolved by Ormond and Antrim to defer any movement till -the reassembling of the Irish Parliament in November, when they could -at the same moment secure Dublin castle and the persons of Parsons -and Borlase, and issue in the name of the two Houses his Majesty's -concession to the people of Ireland. But the native Irish, stimulated -by the addresses of Moore, could not wait so long. They determined to -rise, without waiting for the combined force, on the 23rd of October. -Two hundred and twenty men were to surprise the castle, but at the time -appointed only eighty appeared. They concluded to wait till the next -day for the arrival of the rest, but that night one Hugh M'Mahon, in a -drunken fit, betrayed the secret to Owen O'Connelly, a servant of Sir -John Clotworthy, and a Protestant. He instantly carried the news to Sir -William Parsons; the city gates were closed, and a quick search was -made for the conspirators. All but M'Mahon and Lord Maguire escaped, -but the castle was saved. - -Ignorant of the failure of the plot, the people of Ulster rose on the -appointed day. Charlemont and Dungannon were surprised by Sir Phelim -O'Neil, Mountjoy by O'Quin, Tanderagee by O'Hanlan, and Newry by -Macginnis. In little more than a week all the open country in Tyrone, -Monaghan, Longford, Leitrim, Fermanagh, Cavan, Donegal, Derry, and -part of Down, were in their hands. The other colonies in which there -were English or Scottish plantations followed their example, and the -greater part of Ireland was in a dreadful state of anarchy and terror. -The Protestant people on the plantations fell beneath the butchering -revenge of the insurgents, or fled wildly into the fortified towns. -The horrors of the Irish massacre of 1641 have assumed a fearful place -in history; the cruelties, expulsions, and oppressions of long years -were repaid by the most infuriated cruelty. Men, women, and children, -fell indiscriminately in the onslaught, and they who escaped, says -Clarendon, "were robbed of all they had, to their very shirts, and so -turned naked to endure the sharpness of the season, and by that means, -and for want of relief, many thousands of them perished by hunger and -cold." - -Great care has been taken by Catholic writers to contradict these -accounts, and to represent the atrocities committed as of no -extraordinary extent. They remind us that no accounts of these -barbarous slaughters were transmitted in the reports to the English -Parliament, which would have been only too glad to spread, and even -exaggerate bloody deeds of the Catholics. They reduce the number of -people slain during the whole insurrection to about ten thousand, -instead of the grossly exaggerated statements of Milton in his -"Iconoclastes," that there were one hundred and fifty-four thousand -in Ulster alone, or of Sir John Temple, that three hundred thousand -were slain or expelled altogether. But nothing less than a most -frightful massacre could have left the awful impression which still -lives in tradition, and the calculations of moderate historians do not -make the number massacred less than from fifteen thousand to twenty -thousand. The Earl of Castlehaven, a Catholic, says that all the water -in the sea could not wash from the Irish the taint of that rebellion. -Whilst remembering the vengeance, however, we must never forget the -long and maddening incentives to it. Much blame was attached to the -Deputy-Governors, Borlase and Parsons, who, shut up in security in -Dublin, took no measures for suppressing the insurgents. They were -charged with purposely allowing the rebellion to spread, in order that -there might be more confiscations, in which they would find their own -benefit; but it must not be forgotten that they had few soldiers on -whom they could rely, for these were nearly all Catholics; nor did -the insurgents escape without severe chastisement in many places, for -wherever there was a trusty garrison, the soldiers easily repelled the -disorderly mob of plunderers; and Sir Phelim O'Neil suffered during the -month of November severe losses. - -Before Charles reached England, O'Connelly, the discoverer of the plot, -arrived in London, with letters from the lords justices, and was called -before the House of Lords to relate all that he knew. They immediately -invited the House of Commons to a conference on the state of Ireland, -and on the better providing for the security of England. They presented -O'Connelly with five hundred pounds in money, and settled on him an -annuity of two hundred pounds a year. It was resolved to look well -after the Catholics in England, and to put the ports into a state of -defence. The Commons voted that two hundred thousand pounds should be -set apart for the requirements of Ireland; that six thousand foot and -two thousand horse should be raised for service there; and that the -fleet should carefully guard its coast. The Earl of Leicester, the -Lord-Lieutenant, was desired to furnish a list of the most suitable -officers for the service, and arms and ammunition were prepared in -haste, to be despatched to Dublin. A pardon was offered to all rebels -who laid down their arms by a certain day, at the same time that a -reward was set on the heads of the leaders. But the Commons did not -stop there; they passed a resolution never to tolerate the Catholic -worship either in Ireland or in any part of his Majesty's dominions. -Commissioners were appointed to disarm the recusants in every part -of the kingdom; pursuivants were sent out in every direction to seize -priests and Jesuits; orders were given for the trial of all such -persons; and the king was advised not to pardon or reprieve them. The -queen's chapel was closed, her priests were dismissed, her confessor -was sent to the Tower, and no less than seventy Catholic lords and -gentlemen were denounced by the Commons to the Lords, as persons who -ought to be secured to prevent them from doing injury to the State. - -Such was the condition of things when Charles arrived in London. He -was well received by the Lord Mayor and aldermen of the city, and in -return gave them an entertainment at Hampton Court; but he was greatly -chagrined at the proceedings of the Commons, telling them that they -were converting the war in Ireland, which was a civil war, into a -war of religion. He took umbrage also at Parliament sitting with a -guard round their House. The Earl of Essex, on the king's arrival, -surrendered his command of the forces south of the Trent to the king, -and announced to the Lords that having resigned his commission, he -could no longer furnish the guard. A message was sent from the Houses, -requesting the king to restore them the guard, but he refused, saying -he saw no occasion for it; but the Commons let him know that many -dangerous persons, Irish and others, were lurking about, and that the -"Incident" in Scotland, and the late attempt to surprise the castle in -Dublin, warned them of their danger; and that not only must they have a -guard, but they must nominate the commander of it themselves. - -Whilst Charles was pondering on the answer which he should return to -this unwelcome message, Sir Ralph Hopton appeared at Hampton Court -with another address from the Commons yet more ominous. This bore the -alarming title of a "Remonstrance on the state of the kingdom." It had -been drawn up and passed by the Commons before the king came back from -Scotland, that is, on the 22nd of November; and it was resolved to -present it to him on his return. It was the act of the Commons alone, -and had not been carried even there without a violent debate, which -lasted till two o'clock in the morning, the House having sat that day -eighteen hours. The heat to which the proposal gave rise was such, that -Sir Philip Warwick says, "We had sheathed our swords in each others' -bowels, had not the sagacity and calmness of Mr. Hampden, by a soft -speech, prevented it." Cromwell is reported by Clarendon to have said -to Lord Falkland as they came out, that had it not been carried, he -would have sold all and gone to America. "So near," adds the Royalist -historian, "was the poor kingdom at that time to its deliverance." - -And yet this famous Remonstrance was only carried by a majority of -nine, according to Clarendon; according to others, by eleven. It was, -as Clarendon describes it, "a very bitter representation of all the -illegal things that had been done from the first hour of the king's -coming to the crown, to that minute." It consisted of two hundred -and six clauses, and dealt among other matters with the war against -the French Protestants; the innovations in the Church; the illegal -imposition of ship-money; forced loans; the cruelties of the Star -Chamber and High Commission; the forcing of episcopacy on Scotland; -the forcing of it on the Irish by Strafford, and all the other illegal -proceedings there; the opposition of the king and his ministers to -necessary reforms; and the plotting of the queen with the Papists at -home and abroad. It went on to remind the king of what they had done -in pulling down his evil counsellors, and informed him that other good -things were in preparation. - -[Illustration: THE CLOCK TOWER, DUBLIN CASTLE.] - -The king the next day delivered his answer in the House of Lords, -protesting, as usual, his good intentions, telling the Commons, before -he removed evil counsellors, they must point out who they were and -bring real facts against them; at the same time he significantly -reminded them that he had left Scotland in perfect amity with him, so -that they might infer that they were not to look for support against -him there, and calling on them to stir themselves in aiding him to -put down the rebellion in Ireland. Matters continued getting worse -every day between the king and Parliament. From the 8th to the 20th of -December there was a sullen humour between them. So far from granting -the Parliament the usual guard, Charles had posted a guard of his own -near the Commons. They summoned the commander of the guard before them, -pronounced its being placed there a breach of their privileges, and -demanded that it should be removed. On the 14th of December Charles -objected to their ordering the impressment of soldiers from Ireland, -that being his prerogative, but that he would permit it for the time -on the understanding that his right was not thereby affected. The -next day the Commons passed an order for the printing and publishing -of their Remonstrance, which measure they had failed to carry at the -same time as the Remonstrance itself. This had a great effect with -the public, and the king, in a restless, angry humour, prevailing in -nothing against the House, sought to strengthen himself by getting -into the Tower a lieutenant of his own party. But in this movement he -was equally injudicious and equally unfortunate. Charles dismissed Sir -William Balfour, who had honestly resisted his warrant and refused -a bribe of Strafford to permit his escape; but to have deprived the -Commons of any plea for interfering in what was unquestionably his -own prerogative, he should have replaced him by a man of character. -Instead of that, he gave the post to Colonel Lunsford, a man of -desperate fortunes and the most unprincipled reputation; outlawed for -his violent attacks on different individuals, and known to be capable -of executing the most lawless designs. The City immediately petitioned -the Commons against the Tower being in the hands of such a man; the -Commons called for a conference with the Lords on the subject, but the -Lords refused to meddle in what so clearly was the royal prerogative. -The Commons then called on them to enter the protest they had made -on their books; but the Lords took time to consider it. On Thursday, -December 23rd, a petition was addressed to the Commons, purporting -to be from the apprentices of London, against Papists and prelates, -who, they contended, caused the destruction of trade by their plots, -and the fears which thence unsettled men of capital; whereby they, -the apprentices, "were nipped in the bud," on entering the world. -The Corporation waited on his Majesty on Sunday, the 26th, to assure -him that the apprentices were contemplating a rising, and meant to -carry the Tower by storm, unless Lunsford were removed; and that the -merchants had already taken away their bullion from the Mint for fear -of him, and the owners of ships coming in with new would not carry it -there. That evening Charles took the keys from his new lieutenant, and -appointed Sir John Byron in his place. - -And now, notwithstanding their reluctance, the Lords were compelled to -entertain this question, for they found Lord Newport, the Constable of -the Tower, also brought into controversy by the king. It appeared that -during Charles's absence in Scotland, at a meeting of a number of the -peers and members of the Commons at Kensington, regarding some rumour -of plots against Parliament, Lord Newport was reported to have said, -"Never mind, we have his wife and children." Newport stated in the -House that he had waited on the queen at the time, and assured her that -no such words had been spoken; yet on Friday last the king had reminded -him of it, and intimated his belief of it. It was now the turn of the -Lords to call for a conference with the Commons. This was granted -on Monday, and whilst it was sitting, the House of Parliament was -surrounded by tumultuous mobs, crying, "Beware of plots! No bishops! no -bishops!" - -Poor Williams, made Archbishop of York on the 4th of this month, was -surrounded by this mob and much frightened; but he got away unhurt, -any further than in his feelings, from the execrations heaped on the -bishops. One David Hide, however, a ruffian officer, who had been -in the army in the north, and was now appointed to the service in -Ireland, drew his sword, and swore that "he would cut the throats -of those _roundheaded_ dogs that bawled against bishops," and by -that expression, says Clarendon, gave the first utterance to the -name "roundheads," which was at once universally applied to the -Parliamentary party; the term "cavaliers" soon being introduced to -designate the Royalists. The same day Lunsford had the insolence to -go through Westminster Hall with thirty or forty of his partisans at -his back. The mob fell on them, and they drew their swords and cut -right and left among the crowd. Presently there came pouring down to -Westminster hundreds of fresh apprentices, with swords, cudgels, and -other weapons, crying, "Slash us now! Slash us now!" And this was -renewed by thousands the next day, December 28th, with the same "Slash -us now, whilst we wait on the honourable House to request an answer to -our petition." Some of the youths were shut into the abbey and brought -before Williams, whilst those without cried that if they were not -released, they would break in and pull down the organs. This, however, -they were prevented from doing, by numbers of the bishop's men coming -out on the abbey leads, and flinging down stones upon them, by which -many were injured; and Sir Richard Wiseman, who happened to be passing, -was so much hurt that he died of his injuries. - -Williams, the archbishop, was so incensed at the cry against the -bishops, that he forgot his usual cunning, and got eleven other bishops -to join him in an address to the king, declaring that the bishops -could not get to their places for the riotous crowds, and from fear -of their lives from them; and therefore, as bishops had at all times -formed part and parcel of the Upper House, that House, so long as -they were detained from it, was no longer a competent House, and that -all its acts, of whatever kind, would be utterly invalid. This was -supposed to be a manœuvre of the king's to get rid of the authority -of Parliament for the present, and thus of his unfortunate surrender -of the powers of adjournment; but the Lords, taking no notice of the -protest of the bishops, desired a conference with the Commons, and then -denounced the protest of the bishops as subversive of the fundamental -rights of Parliament. The Commons, on their part, instead of contenting -themselves with passing a resolution condemnatory of the folly of the -bishops, at once declared them guilty of high treason, and called on -the Lords to apprehend them, which was at once done, and ten of the -bishops were committed to the Tower, and two, on account of their age, -to the custody of the Usher of the Black Rod. - -On the last day of this eventful year, Denzil Holles waited on his -Majesty, by order of the Commons, to represent to him, that whilst his -faithful Parliament was ready to shed the last drop of its blood in -defence of his Majesty, it was itself daily exposed to the danger of -plots and ruffians who had dared to shed the blood of the people coming -to petition at the very doors of the House. They demanded, therefore, a -guard. Charles had taken care to surround his own palace day and night -since the commotions. Such a guard was reluctantly granted three days -after. - -But if 1641 had been an astonishing year, 1642 was destined to cast -even it into the shade, and its very opening was with nothing short -of the first trumpet note of civil war. On the 3rd of January Charles -sent his answer to the Commons respecting the guard, acceding to the -request, but immediately followed it up by a demand that electrified -the Houses, and was soon to electrify the nation. Whilst the Commons -were debating on the royal message, the king's new Attorney-General, -Herbert, appeared at the bar of the House of Lords, and presented -articles of high treason against six leading Members of Parliament, -one peer and five commoners. These members were, Lord Kimbolton in the -Peers, and Holles, Hazelrig, Pym, Hampden, and Strode, in the Commons. -There were seven articles exhibited against them of high treason and -other misdemeanour. These were stated in the following words:--"1st. -That they have traitorously endeavoured to subvert the fundamental laws -and government of the kingdom of England, to deprive the king of his -royal power, and to place in subjects an arbitrary and tyrannical power -over the lives, liberties, and estates of his Majesty's liege people. -2nd. That they have traitorously endeavoured, by many foul aspersions -upon his Majesty and his Government, to alienate the affections of his -people, and to make his Majesty odious unto them. 3rd. That they have -endeavoured to draw his Majesty's late army to disobedience to his -Majesty's commands, and to side with them in their traitorous designs. -4th. That they have traitorously invited and encouraged a foreign -power to invade his Majesty's kingdom of England. 5th. That they have -traitorously endeavoured to subvert the rights and the very being of -Parliaments. 6th. That for the completing of their traitorous designs, -they have endeavoured, so far as in them lay, by force and terror, to -compel the Parliament to join with them in their traitorous designs, -and to that end have actually raised and countenanced tumults against -the king and Parliament. 7th. And that they have traitorously conspired -to levy, and actually have levied war against the king." - -"The House of Peers," says Clarendon, "was somewhat startled by this -alarm, but took time to consider it till the next day, that they might -see how their masters, the Commons, would behave themselves." Lord -Kimbolton declared his readiness to meet the charge: the Lords sent a -message upon the matter to the Commons; and at the same time came the -news that officers of the Crown were sealing up the doors, trunks, and -papers of Pym, Hampden and the other impeached members. The House -immediately ordered the seals put upon the doors and papers of their -Members to be broken, and they who had presumed to do such an act to -be seized and brought before them. At this moment the serjeant-at-arms -arrived at the door of the House; they ordered him to be admitted, -but without his mace, and having heard his demand for the delivery -of the five Members, they bade him withdraw, and sent Lord Falkland -and three other Members to inform the king that they held the Members -ready to answer any legal charge against them. But the next day the -Commons were informed by Captain Languish, that the king, at the head -of his gentlemen pensioners, and followed by some hundreds of courtiers -and officers, armed with swords and pistols, was advancing towards -the House. The House was well supplied with halberds, which they had -previously ordered into it when the king withdrew their guard; but they -saw the advantage of preventing an armed collision, and ordered the -accused Members to withdraw. - -Charles entered the House, his attendants remaining at Westminster -Hall, and at the door of the Commons. As he advanced towards the -Speaker's chair, he glanced towards the place where Pym usually sat, -and then approaching the chair, said, "By your leave, Mr. Speaker, I -must borrow your chair a little." The House, at his entrance, arose and -stood uncovered; Lenthall, the Speaker, dropped upon his knees, and -Charles, much excited, said, "Gentlemen, I am sorry for this occasion -of coming unto you. Yesterday I sent a serjeant-at-arms to apprehend -some that at my command were accused of high treason, wherewith I did -expect obedience, and not a message; and I must declare unto you here, -that albeit no king that ever was in England shall be more careful of -your privileges, to maintain them to the utmost of his power, than I -shall be; yet you must know that in cases of treason no person hath -a privilege, and therefore I am come to know if any of those persons -that I have accused, for no slight crime, but for treason, are here. -I cannot expect that this House can be in the right way that I do -heartily wish it, therefore I am come to tell you that I must have -them, wheresoever I find them." He looked earnestly round the House, -but seeing none of them, demanded of the Speaker where they were. -Lenthall, still on his knees, declared that he had neither eyes to see, -nor tongue to speak, but as the House directed. "Well," said the king, -"since I see all the birds are flown, I do expect that as soon as they -return hither, you do send them to me." And with mingled assurances -that he meant no force, yet not without a threat, he withdrew. As he -walked out, there were raised loud cries of "Privilege! Privilege!" and -the House instantly adjourned. - -The Commons, to testify that they no longer felt themselves safe in -their own House, betook themselves to the City where, establishing a -permanent committee to sit at the Grocers' Hall, they adjourned till -the 11th of January. The next day Charles, taking his usual attendants, -went into the City, and at Guildhall demanded of the Lord Mayor and -aldermen that they should hunt out and deliver to him the accused -Members who had taken refuge amongst them. His demand was coldly -received, and after dining with one of the sheriffs he returned. His -passage through the city was attended by continued cries of "Privilege! -Privilege of Parliament!" And one Henry Walker, an ironmonger and -political pamphleteer, threw into his Majesty's carriage a paper -bearing the words, "To your tents, O Israel!" Scarcely had Charles -reached Whitehall, when a deputation from the Corporation waited on -him, complaining of the Tower being put into unsafe hands, of the -fortifying of Whitehall, the wounding of citizens on their way to -petition Parliament, of the dangerous example of the king entering the -House of Commons attended by armed men, and praying him to cease from -the prosecution of the five Members of Parliament, and to remove from -Whitehall and the Tower all suspicious personages. - -As Charles still persisted by proclamation in endeavouring to get -possession of the five Members, and as a hundred stand of arms, with -gunpowder and shot, had been removed from the Tower to Whitehall, a -thousand marines and boatmen signed a memorial to the committee of the -Commons sitting at Guildhall, offering to guard them on the appointed -day to their House in Westminster. The committee accepted the offer, -which was immediately followed by one from the apprentices. Seeing that -the City, the seamen, and everybody were of one mind in condemning his -violent invasion of the national sanctuary of the House of Commons, -Charles on the 10th of January, the day previous to the meeting again -of Parliament, quietly withdrew with his family to Hampton Court, -and the next day removed thence to Windsor. Little did he imagine, -deplorable as was his retreat, that he would never enter his capital -again till he came as a prisoner in the hands of this insulted -Parliament. Yet his feelings at this moment must have been melancholy -in the extreme. "In this sad condition," says Clarendon, "was the king -at Windsor; fallen in ten days from a height and greatness that his -enemies feared, to a lowness, that his own servants durst hardly avow -the waiting on him." - -Charles had now decided on war. But money was necessary, and to obtain -it he determined to send the queen abroad. A pretext was easily found. -The Princess Mary, who had been some time betrothed to the Prince of -Orange, though she was yet a mere child, only about ten years of age, -was to be delivered to the Dutch Court, and nothing was more natural -than that her mother should accompany her. Even the stern reformers, -who had forbidden her twice before leaving the kingdom, could find no -excuse for forbidding this maternal office. On the 9th of February -Charles and the Court returned from Windsor to Hampton Court, and the -next day the royal party set out for Dover, where, on the 23rd, the -queen and her daughter embarked for Holland. The Prince of Orange -received her majesty with all kindness, which he indeed owed her, for -she had always taken the part of him and his country against Richelieu; -but the civic authorities were not so glad to see her, fearing that -she might embroil them with the all-powerful Parliament of England. -They entered her presence with their hats on, seated themselves in her -presence, and took their leave without a bow or a word. But Henrietta -restrained her disgust better than her husband would have done, for -she had great interests at stake, and succeeded by her flattering -courtesies in so melting the Dutch phlegm, that she eventually -succeeded in borrowing of the authorities of Amsterdam eight hundred -and forty-five thousand guilders, at Rotterdam sixty-five thousand, of -the merchants at the Hague one hundred and sixty-six thousand, besides -pawning her pearls for two hundred and thirteen thousand, and six -rubies for forty thousand, thus raising for her husband two million -pounds sterling. - -[Illustration: CHARLES DEMANDING THE SURRENDER OF THE FIVE MEMBERS. -(_See p._ 7.)] - -Whilst the king was at Canterbury waiting for the queen's departure, -the Commons urged him to sign the two Bills for the removal of the -bishops from Parliament, and of them and the clergy from all temporal -offices, and for power to press soldiers for the service of Ireland. -He passed them, the second Bill to be in force only till the 1st of -November. The Commons expressed their satisfaction, but still urged the -removal of all Privy Councillors and officers of State, except such -as held posts hereditarily, and the appointment of others having -the confidence of Parliament. They then returned to the subject of -the Militia Bill, which would put the whole force of the army into -the hands of Parliament; but there Charles made a stand. He sent -orders that the Prince of Wales should meet him at Greenwich. The -Parliament--which watched his every movement and no doubt was informed -of his intentions--sent a message to the king, praying him to allow the -prince to remain at Hampton Court; but Charles, complaining of these -suspicions, ordered the prince's governor, the Marquis of Hertford, to -bring him to Greenwich. On Sunday, the 27th of February, some of the -Lords went to Greenwich, to endeavour to bring the prince back; but -Charles would not suffer it, declaring that the prince should accompany -him wherever he went. He removed to Theobalds, and there again a -deputation followed him, urging him to grant the matter of the militia, -or that the Parliament would feel compelled to assume it for the safety -of the kingdom. They also renewed their request for the return of the -prince. Charles expressed much surprise at these importunities, and -refused them both. - -On receiving this answer, the two Houses issued an order to fit out the -fleet, and put it into the command of the Earl of Northumberland, as -Lord High Admiral. The Lords, who had hesitated to join the Commons in -the demand of the control of the militia, now passed the ordinance for -it with very few dissentients. Fifty-five Lords and Commons were named -as lord-lieutenants of counties, many of them Royalists, but still -not such as the Commons feared joining the king in an open rupture. -The Commons then proceeded to issue a declaration, expressing their -apprehensions of the favour shown to the Irish rebels by the Court; -of the intention of evil advisers of the king to break the neck of -Parliament, and of the rumours of aid from abroad for these objects -from the Pope, and the Kings of France and Spain. The Lords, with only -sixteen dissentient voices, joined in this declaration, and the Earls -of Pembroke and Holland waited on the king with it at Royston. On -hearing this outspoken paper read, Charles testified much indignation, -pronouncing some assertions in it, in plain terms, lies; and when the -earls entreated him to consent to the granting of the militia for a -time, he exclaimed:--"No, by God, not for an hour. You have asked -that of me which was never asked of any king, and with which I should -not trust my wife and children." This was true, but he had formerly -said he would sooner lose his life than consent to the Bill against -the bishops, and yet he gave them up. That he would on the first -opportunity break his word, was certain; that at this very moment his -wife was moving heaven and earth abroad, and pawning her jewels for -money to put down Parliament and people, was equally well known. In -vain, therefore, were the solemn asseverations which he made, that he -desired nothing so much as to satisfy his subjects. - -At this moment he was stealing away towards the north. He got away to -Newmarket, thence to Huntingdon, next to Stamford, and from that place -wrote to the two Houses, informing them that he proposed to take up his -residence for a time in York. The deputies had strongly importuned him -to return to the neighbourhood of his Parliament; this was his answer, -accompanied by a positive refusal to put the militia into their hands. -The Houses were at once roused to action. War was inevitable; the king -was intending to take them by surprise. They therefore voted that the -king's absence was most detrimental to the affairs of Ireland; that -the king was easily advised, and that it was necessary for Parliament -that the power of commanding the militia must be exercised by the sole -authority of Parliament, and orders for that purpose were issued to the -lieutenants and deputy-lieutenants of the counties. - -Charles had meanwhile proceeded by Doncaster to York, where he arrived -on the 19th of March. On the 26th the Lords Willoughby and Dungarvan, -with Sir Anthony Ereby, arrived from Parliament with a justification of -their proceedings. They admitted that he had passed many satisfactory -Bills at their instance, but that always at the same time some attempts -had been set on foot to render them abortive. They informed him that -they had certain information of preparations making abroad, and of a -design to enter Hull with foreign forces. Charles denied the truth of -these allegations, and assured them that he would return and reside -near his Parliament as soon as he was sure of the safety of his person. -He did not forget, however, the words dropped about Hull. It was of -immense consequence to obtain possession of that place; but it was in -the keeping of the stout Sir John Hotham and his son, who had declared -in Parliament "fall back, fall edge, he would carry out the wishes -of Parliament." As Charles could not hope to obtain it by force, he -conceived the idea of winning it by stratagem. He sent the Earl of -Newcastle to request that the town and arsenals might be put into -his hands. Newcastle assumed the name of Sir John Savage to obtain -admission to the town, but was discovered, and this clumsy trick only -increased the suspicions of the people. Parliament then sent an order -for the removal of the arms and ammunition to the Tower of London; but -Charles told them that he claimed them as purchased with money borrowed -on his own account, and begged they would leave him to look after his -own property. He also sent them word that it was his intention to pass -over to Ireland, to suppress the rebellion; that he should require -all the arms and ammunition for that purpose, and that they would be -necessary for the use of his guard of two thousand foot and two hundred -horse, which he meant to embark there for Ireland. - -On the 22nd of April he sent the Duke of York, the Prince Palatine, -his nephew, the Lords Newport, Willoughby, and some other persons of -distinction, but without any armed force, to see the town of Hull. -Sir John Hotham and the mayor received them with all honour, and -entertained them as became their rank. They were shown the place, -and were to dine with the governor on the morrow, being St. George's -Day. Just before dinner-time, however, Hotham was startled by the -sudden appearance of Sir Lewis Dives, brother-in-law of the outlawed -Lord Digby, who informed him that his Majesty intended to do him the -honour to dine with him, and was already within a mile of the town, -accompanied by three hundred horse. Sir John, who saw the trick, -instantly ordered the drawbridges to be raised, and shut the gates in -the king's face, for by this time he had arrived at the Beverley gate. - -Charles commanded Sir John to open the gate and admit him and his -guard, but Sir John replied that, though a loyal subject of his -Majesty, he could not do so without consent of Parliament, which had -put the town into his keeping. If his Majesty would be pleased to enter -with the prince and twelve attendants he should be welcome; but Charles -refused to enter without the whole of his guard. He staid before the -gate from one o'clock till four, continuing the parley, trusting to the -people being affected by the sight of their sovereign, and compelling -the governor to admit him. But he was disappointed, and at four, going -away for an hour, he gave Hotham that time to consider of it. On his -return at five Hotham still refused entrance to more than before, when -Charles proclaimed him a traitor, and rode off with the prince and -his guard to Beverley. The next day he sent a herald to offer Hotham -pardon and promotion on surrender of the town, but in vain; and he then -returned to York. - -Each party now hastened to raise forces and prepare for the struggle. -On the 5th of May the Parliament issued a declaration that as the king -refused his consent to the Militia Bill, they called on all men to obey -their own ordinance for the raising of forces and the defence of the -king. In this ordinance they nominated the lieutenants of counties, -who nominated their deputy-lieutenants, subject to the approbation of -Parliament. Amongst these deputies appeared Hampden, Whitelock, St. -John, Selden, Maynard, Grimstone, and other leaders of Parliament, -who now became equally zealous enrollers and drillers of soldiers. -The king, on his side, denounced the order as traitorous and illegal, -forbade all men obeying it, and summoned a county meeting at York for -promoting the levy of troops for his service. At that meeting we find -Sir Thomas Fairfax stepping forward as a Parliamentary leader, and -laying on the pommel of the king's saddle a strong remonstrance from -the freeholders and farmers of Yorkshire, who advised the king to come -to an agreement with his Parliament. - -The country was now come to that crisis when every man must make up -his mind, and show to which side of the dispute he leaned. It was -a day of wonderful searching of characters and interests, and many -strange revolutions took place. Towns, villages, families, now appeared -in convulsion and strife, and some fell one way, some another, not -without much heart-ache and many tears, old friends and kindred parting -asunder, to meet again only to shed each others' blood. Then was there -a strange proclaiming and contradiction of proclamations, one party -denouncing and denying the proceedings of the other. The king raised -only a troop of horse and a regiment of foot; the Parliament soon -found themselves at the head of eight thousand men, consisting of six -regiments, commanded by zealous officers, and the month of May saw -the fields of Finsbury white with tents, and Major-General Skippon -manœuvring his train-bands. - -The next shift was for the fleet. The Earl of Northumberland being ill, -or more probably indisposed, the Commons ordered him to surrender his -command to the Earl of Warwick for the time. The Lords hesitated, on -account of the king's sanction being wanted for such an appointment; -but the Commons settled it alone. Clarendon says that the king -remained passive, confiding in the attachment of the sailors, whose -pay he had advanced; but we hear from other sources that Charles had -contrived to alienate the mariners as much as the rest of his subjects, -by calling them "water-rats." His popularity with them was soon tested, -for he ordered the removal of Warwick, and that Pennington should take -his place; but the sailors would not receive him. Without ammunition or -arms, Charles's forces were of little use, and the Commons proclaimed -that any one who should bring in such material without consent of -Parliament, or should bring in money raised on the Crown jewels, would -be considered an enemy to the country. - -The coasts being diligently watched by the fleet, Charles now turned -to the Scots, the leaders of whom he hoped to win over by the honours -and favours he had distributed on his last visit; and, in truth, the -members of the Council seemed quite inclined to fall in with his -wishes; but the English Commons being made aware of it, soon turned -the scale, letting both Council and people know that it was their -interest, as much as that of England, that the king should come to an -understanding with his Parliament, which, they asserted, sought only -the good of both king and people. The Parliament had now, however, to -witness considerable defections from its own body, for many thought -that they were driving matters too far; that the king had conceded -more than was reasonable, and that the Commons were themselves aiming -at inordinate power. Amongst those who had gone off to the king were -the Lord Falkland, Sir John Colepepper, and Mr. Hyde (afterwards Lord -Clarendon and historian of the Rebellion). Falkland and Colepepper, -Charles had, before leaving, made his ministers, and Hyde had long been -secretly seeing the king, conveying all the news to him at night, and -writing his declarations. The Commons had perceived well enough who -composed those papers by the style, yet they could not directly prove -it; but he was found by the Earls of Essex and Holland shut up with the -king at Greenwich, and by the Marquis of Hamilton at Windsor. In April -the king summoned Hyde to attend him at York; but even then, as if -afraid of the Parliament, he had gone in a very private way, pretending -that he sought the country for his health; and even after reaching -the neighbourhood of York, instead of openly avowing his adhesion to -the royal cause, he kept himself concealed in the neighbourhood, and -attended to the king's correspondence. He arrived in Yorkshire at -the end of May; but, before leaving London, he had contrived that the -Lord Keeper Lyttelton should run off with the Great Seal to the king, -a matter of no little importance, as regarded the authenticity of all -public documents. - -Numbers of both Lords and Commons continued to steal away to the king, -especially, says May, lawyers and clergy, "whose callings made them -capable of easier and greater gratifications from the king than other -men, and therefore apt to lean that way where preferment lies." The -Commons summoned nine peers, who had gone away to York, to appear in -their places in Westminster, and, on their refusing, impeached them of -high treason. These were Spencer, Earl of Northampton, the Earls of -Devonshire, Dover, Monmouth, and the Lords Howard of Charlton, Rich, -Grey of Ruthven, Coventry, and Capel. - -On the 2nd of June the Lords and Commons sent proposals to the king -for an amicable arrangement of the national affairs on a permanent -basis; but matters had so far changed with Charles, that he was in no -mood to listen. On that very day, one of the ships, freighted by the -queen in Holland with arms and ammunition, managed to elude the fleet -and land supplies on the Yorkshire coast. With these, and the prospect -of more, with a number of lords and courtiers around him, Charles at -once dropped the humble and conciliatory tone, called the Parliament a -nest of caballers and traitors, who had no right to dictate to him, the -descendant of a hundred kings, and protested that he would never agree -to their terms if he were bound and at their mercy. - -From this moment all hope of accommodation was at an end, and king -and Parliament went on preparing with all diligence for trying their -strength at arms. The question to be decided was, whether England -should be an abject despotism or a free nation. If the Parliament -were worsted, then must England sink to the level of the rest of the -king-ridden nations. On the part of the king, his adherents joined -him in his solemn engagement to maintain the Protestant religion, and -to claim nothing but his rightful prerogative; on the part of the -Parliament, an avowal as solemn was, that they fought not against the -king, but for him and his crown, as well as for the liberties and -privileges of the people, which were endangered by the evil counsellors -of the king. - -[Illustration: LORD FALKLAND. (After the Portrait by Vandyke.)] - -On the 10th of June the Commons issued an address, in which they -intimated that they would receive money and plate for maintaining the -struggle, engaging to pay eight per cent. interest, and appointing Sir -John Wollaston and three other aldermen of London treasurers. In a very -short time an immense treasure was accumulated in Guildhall, the poor -contributing as freely as the rich. Charles wrote to the Corporation -of London, forbidding this collection, but without effect. He made -an attempt also to secure the fleet, inducing the Earl of Warwick to -surrender the command to Admiral Pennington, but only five captains -consented, and these were speedily secured and superseded. On the -12th of July Parliament appointed the Earl of Essex commander of the -army, and many members of the Parliament, both Lords and Commons, took -commissions under him. Amongst these were Sir John Merrick, Lord Grey -of Groby, Denzil Holles, Sir William Waller, Hampden, and Cromwell. -Hampden's regiment was clad in a green uniform, and carried a banner, -having on one side his motto, "_Vestigia nulla retrorsum_;" on the -other, "God is with us." Cromwell, who was also appointed a colonel, -was extremely active in the eastern counties. The whole country was -thrown into the most wonderful state of confusion by the exertions -of the noblemen and gentlemen endeavouring to seize strong places, -and engage the people, some for this side, some for that. Never had -there been such a state of anarchy, opposition, and rending asunder -of old ties. For the most part, the southern counties and mercantile -places were for the Parliament--the more purely agricultural and -remote districts for the king. In many, however, there was a pretty -equal division of interests, and fierce contests for superiority. -In Lincolnshire Lord Willoughby of Parham was very successful for -Parliament. In Essex the Earl of Warwick was equally so, and Kent, -Surrey, Middlesex, and the sea-coast of Sussex, were strongly -Parliamentary. Cromwell did wonders in Suffolk, Norfolk, and Cambridge. -In Berkshire Hampden and the Earl of Holland were opposed by the Earl -of Berkshire, Lord Lovelace, and others; but the Earl of Berkshire was -seized by Hampden, and sent up to the Parliament. In Buckinghamshire -Hampden had it nearly all his own way. Colonel Goring, who was Governor -of Portsmouth, after receiving a large sum from Parliament to put that -place in full condition of defence, betrayed it, as he had before -done the royal party; but the Parliament seized the Earl of Portland, -Goring's ally, and put the Isle of Wight into the keeping of the Earl -of Pembroke. Warwickshire was divided between Lord Brooke for the -Parliament, and the Earl of Northampton for the king; Leicestershire -between the Earl of Huntingdon for the king, and the Earl of Stamford -for the Parliament. Derbyshire was almost wholly for the king, and so -on northward; yet in Yorkshire Lord Fairfax was zealous for Parliament, -and so were Sir Thomas Stanley and the Egertons in Lancashire. The -Earl of Derby and his son, Lord Strange, embraced the side of royalty; -and the first blood in this war was shed by Lord Strange endeavouring -to secure Manchester, where he was repulsed and driven out. Great -expectations were entertained by the Royalists of the assistance of the -numerous Catholics in Lancashire and Cheshire, but they were either -indifferent or overawed. In the west of England the king had a strong -party. Charles, in his commission of array, had appointed the Marquis -of Hertford Lieutenant-general of the West, including seven counties in -Wales, and the second skirmish took place in Somersetshire, between him -and the deputy-lieutenant of the county, where ten men were killed and -many wounded. - -No exertions were spared by the Parliament at the same time to induce -the king to come to an arrangement; but he showed that he was at heart -totally unchanged, for he replied to their overtures by still insisting -that the Lord Kimbolton and the five Members of the Commons should be -given up to him, as well as Alderman Pennington, the Lord Mayor of -London, and Captain Venn, commander of the train-bands. He demanded -indictments of high treason against the Earls of Essex, Warwick, and -Stamford, Sir John Hotham, Major-General Skippon, and all who had -dared to put in force the ordinance of Parliament for the raising of -the militia. Yet at the same time he was in secret negotiation with -Hotham for the betrayal of Hull; and Hotham sullied that reputation for -patriotic bravery which he had acquired by listening to him. He was, -however, stoutly resisted by the inhabitants, the garrison, and his -own son. The king then invested Hull, and intrigued with some traitors -within to set fire to the town, so that he might assault it in the -confusion. But the plot was discovered, and the incensed inhabitants -made a sortie under Sir John Meldrum, and put the king's forces to a -precipitate flight. - -Charles then marched away to Nottingham, where he raised his standard -on the 25th of August, according to Clarendon; on the 22nd, according -to Rushworth. It was a most tempestuous time; the standard, which -was raised on the castle-hill, an elevated and exposed place, was -blown down in the night, an ominous occurrence in the opinion of both -soldiers and people, and it was three days before it could be erected -again, owing to the fierceness of the wind. Besides the prostration -of the standard, the condition of the king's affairs was equally -discouraging. The people showed no enthusiasm in flocking to the royal -banner, the arms and ammunition did not arrive from York, and the royal -arms had received a severe repulse at Coventry. News came that the -Earl of Essex was at the head of fifteen thousand men at Northampton, -and the Earl of Southampton and his other officers entreated the king -to make overtures of peace to the Parliament, telling him that if -they refused them, it would turn the tide of popular favour against -them. At first Charles listened to such counsels with anger, but at -length despatched Sir John Colepepper to London to treat. But the -Parliament would not hear of any accommodation till the king had pulled -down his standard, and withdrawn his proclamations of high treason -against the Earl of Essex, the accused Members of Parliament, and -all who had supported them. In fact, all attempts at agreement were -become useless, and were rendered more so by the conduct of Charles's -nephew, Prince Rupert, who, with his younger brother Maurice, sons of -Charles's sister, Elizabeth of Bohemia, had arrived in England, and -were placed at the head of the royal cavalry. Whilst Colepepper was -trying to effect a peace in London, Rupert, with that rashness which -afterwards grew so notorious, and so fatal to Charles's army, was -making war through the midland counties, insulting all who advocated -peace, ordering rather than inviting men to the king's standard, and -plundering towns and villages at will for the supply of his troopers. - -About the middle of September Charles marched from Nottingham, -intending to reach the west of England and unite his forces with -those of the Marquis of Hertford. He conducted himself in a very -different manner to the fiery Rupert, or Robber, as the people named -him. He everywhere issued the most positive assurances of his love for -his people, and his resolve to maintain their liberties; but these -assurances were not well maintained by his actions betraying the fact -that he was playing a part. He in one place invited the train-bands to -attend his march as his bodyguard, but when they arrived, he expressed -his doubts of their loyalty, forcibly seized their arms, and sent them -away. In spite of his professions to respect his subjects' rights, -he still levied money and supplies in the old arbitrary manner. On -the 20th of September he was at Shrewsbury, where he assured the -inhabitants that he would never suffer an army of Papists, and on the -23rd he wrote to the Earl of Newcastle, telling him that the rebellion -had reached that height, that he must raise all the soldiers he could, -without any regard to their religion. He received five thousand pounds -in cash from the Catholics in Shropshire, sold a title of baron for six -thousand pounds more, and began minting money from plate with great -alacrity. And to put the finish to his insincerity, he despatched -orders to Ireland to send him as many troops thence as they could, who -were almost wholly Catholic. - -But the Earl of Essex was carefully watching the king's progress; -he had sent him the Parliamentary proposals of accommodation, which -he refused to receive from what he called a set of traitors. Essex -reached Worcester, in his march to cut off the king's movement towards -London, just as Prince Rupert and Colonel Sandys had had a skirmish in -that town, from which Rupert was forced to fly. There Essex lay still -for three weeks, till at length Charles, encouraged by his inaction, -ventured to quit Shrewsbury on the 20th of October, and by a bold -march by Wolverhampton, Birmingham, and Kenilworth, actually shot past -Essex's position on the road to London. The Parliamentary general, -however, gave quick pursuit, and on the 22nd reached Kineton, in -Warwickshire, just as the king encamped on Edge Hill, close above him. - -Charles had the way open, but a council of war advised the attack of -Essex, who had marched at such a rate, that a great part of his forces -was left behind. On the following morning, the 23rd of October--it was -Sunday--Essex accordingly found the royal army drawn up in order of -battle on the heights of Edge Hill. It was a serious disadvantage to -the Parliamentary army to have to charge up hill, and both parties were -loth to strike the first blow. They remained, therefore, looking at -each other till about two o'clock in the afternoon. Charles was on the -field in complete armour, and encouraging the soldiers by a cheerful -speech. He held the title of generalissimo of his own forces; the Earl -of Lindsay was his general, an experienced soldier, who had fought side -by side in the foreign wars with Essex, to whom he was now opposed. So -much, however, was he disgusted with the youthful insolence of Prince -Rupert, that he gave himself no further trouble than to command his -own regiment. Sir Jacob Astley was major-general of the horse, under -Lindsay, Prince Rupert commanding the right wing of the horse, and Lord -Wilmot the left, two reserves of horse being also under the command of -Lord Digby and Sir John Byron. In numbers, both of horse and foot, the -royal army exceeded that which Essex had on the field; but Essex had a -better train of artillery. - -Essex had drawn out his army at the foot of the hill in the broad Vale -of the Red Horse. Sir John Meldrum, who had so lately chased the king's -forces from Hull, led the van. Three regiments of horse were posted on -the right, commanded by Sir Philip Stapleton and Sir William Balfour. -On the left were the twenty troops of horse under Sir James Ramsay. In -the centre, behind the cavalry, were posted the infantry, Essex's own -regiment occupying the main position, flanked by two reserves of horse -under Lord Brooke and Denzil Holles. - -At two o'clock, according to one historian, Essex commanded his -artillery to fire on the enemy. According to another, the cavaliers -grew impatient of inaction, and demanded to be led against the foe; -and the king firing a cannon with his own hand as a signal for the -assault, the Royalists began to descend the hill. When they came within -musket shot, their spirits were greatly raised by seeing Sir Faithful -Fortescue fire his pistol into the ground, and range himself with two -troops of horse on their side. The Parliamentary cavalry made a charge -on the king's centre, and endeavoured to seize the standard, but could -not resist the pikes of the Royalists. Prince Rupert made a furious -charge on the left wing of the Parliamentarians, broke it, and pursued -it in headlong chase into the village of Kineton, where finding the -baggage of the enemy, he allowed his men an hour to plunder it. This -uncalculating conduct on the part of Rupert continued through the -whole war, and no amount of experience of the disastrous results of it -ever cured him of it in the least. Put him at the head of a body of -horse, and such was his valour and impetuosity that he would carry all -before him, but he was rarely seen again in the field till the battle -was over, when he returned from the headlong chase, often to find his -friends totally defeated. - -To-day, during Rupert's absence, the main bodies of infantry were -led into action by Essex and Lindsay, each marching on foot at the -head of his men. The steady valour of the Roundheads astonished the -Cavaliers. The left wing of Charles's army, under Lord Wilmot, sought -refuge behind a body of pikemen, but Balfour, one of the commanders -of the Parliamentary right wing, wheeled his regiment round on the -flank of the king's infantry, broke through two divisions, and seized -a battery of cannon. In another part of the field the king's guards -displayed extraordinary valour, and forced back all that were opposed -to them. Essex perceiving it, ordered two regiments of infantry and a -squadron of horse to charge them in front and flank, and at the same -time Balfour, abandoning the guns he had captured, attacked them in -the rear. They were now overpowered and broke. Sir Edward Varney, the -standard-bearer, was killed, and the standard taken; but this being -entrusted by Essex to his secretary, Chambers, was, by treachery or -mistake, given up to a Captain Smith, one of the king's officers, whom -Charles, for this service, made a baronet on the field. Charles beheld -with dismay his guards being cut to pieces by overwhelming numbers, -and advanced at the head of the reserve to their rescue. At this -moment Rupert returned from his chase, and the remnant of the guards -was saved. Lord Lindsay had received a mortal wound, his son, Lord -Willoughby, and Colonel Vavasour, were taken prisoners in endeavouring -to rescue him, and Colonel Monroe and other officers had fallen. Had -Rupert returned on having put to the rout the Parliamentary right wing, -all this might have been prevented. As it was, a check was given to the -vehemence of the Roundheads, the firing ceased, and both armies having -stood looking at each other till the darkness fell, each drew off, the -Royalists back to their hill, the Parliamentarians to Kineton. - -Both parties claimed the victory, but if remaining on the field of -battle, and being the last to march away, are any criterions of -success, these were on the side of Essex. His men lay in the field all -night, a keenly frosty one, without covering, but supplied with meat -and beer; and the next morning Charles marched away to Banbury. It -was said that gunpowder failed in Essex's army, or that he would have -pursued the royal army up the hill. As it was, though strengthened by -the arrival of most of his forces left behind under Hampden, he did not -think fit to follow Charles the next day, but allowed him to continue -his route, himself retreating to Warwick. This was not the part of a -victor, so that neither could be said to have won. The number of slain -has been variously estimated; most writers state it at about five -thousand, but the clergyman of Kineton, who buried the dead, reports -them only twelve hundred. - -Charles marched from Banbury to Oxford, where a number of gentlemen, -well mounted, having heard his engagement at Edge Hill represented as -a victory, came in, and thus recruited the wasted body of his cavalry. -Rupert, during the king's stay, kept up that species of warfare which -he had been taught to admire in Count Mansfeld, in Germany. He made -rapid rides round the country, to Abingdon, Henley, and other towns, -where he levied contributions without scruple from the Roundhead -partisans. The Londoners were in the greatest alarm at the tidings -of the king's growing army at Oxford, and sent pressing orders to -Essex to hasten to the defence of the capital. The train-bands were -kept constantly under arms, trenches were thrown up round the city, -forces were despatched to hold Windsor Castle, seamen and boatmen were -sent up the Thames to prevent any approach in that direction, and the -apprentices were encouraged to enrol themselves by the promise of the -time they served being reckoned in the term of their apprenticeship. -At length Essex reached London, posted his men about Acton on the -7th of November, and rode to Westminster, to give an account of his -campaign. It could not be said that he had shown much generalship, but -it was not a time to be too critical with commanders: the brilliant -military genius of Cromwell had not yet revealed itself, therefore the -Parliament gave him hearty thanks, voted him five thousand pounds, and -recommended the capital to his care. - -[Illustration: ST. MARY'S CHURCH, NOTTINGHAM. (_From a Photograph by -Frith & Co._)] - -Essex was scarcely arrived when news came that Charles had quitted -Oxford, and was directing his march on London. Henry Martin, a member -of the Commons, who commanded at Reading, considering that town -untenable, fell back on London. The panic in the capital was great. A -deputation was sent, consisting of the Earl of Northumberland and three -members of the Commons, to meet the king and present a petition for -an accommodation. They encountered him at Colnbrook: he received the -petition very graciously, and called God to witness that he desired -nothing so much as peace, and the sparing of his bleeding country. -This being reported to Parliament, they ordered Essex to suspend -hostilities, and sent Sir Peter Killigrew to request the same on the -part of the king, supposing that after this gracious message, in which -he promised to reside near London till the differences were settled, he -would have ceased all offensive operations. But scarcely was Killigrew -gone, when Parliament was startled by the sound of artillery, and -Essex rushed from the House and rode in the direction of the sound. He -found Prince Rupert closely followed by the king in the full attack -of Brentford, which was defended by a small force of Holles's horse. -The king had taken advantage of a thick November fog to endeavour to -steal a march on London; but Holles's horse though few were stout, -and withstood the whole weight of the attack till reinforced by the -regiments of Hampden and Brooke. Thus the king's object was defeated, -and the next day, the 13th of November, being Sunday, there was such -an outpouring from London of the train-bands, and of zealous citizens, -that Essex found himself at the head of twenty-four thousand men, drawn -up on Turnham Green. Hampden, Holles, and all the members of Parliament -advised sending a body of soldiers to make a detour and get into the -king's rear, and then to fall vigorously on in front, and Hampden -with his regiment was despatched on this service. But Essex speedily -recalled him, saying he would not divide his forces; and thus not only -was the retreat left open to the king, but three thousand troops, -which had been posted at Kingston Bridge, were called away to add to -the force in London. Charles therefore finding a very formidable body -in front and the way open behind, drew off his forces and retreated -to Reading, and then again to his old quarters at Oxford. Again -Essex had displayed miserably defective tactics, or he might have -readily surrounded and cut up the royal force. It was in vain that -the Parliamentary leaders urged Essex to give instant pursuit of the -retreating army; other officers also thought it better to let the king -take himself away. The Parliament, in great indignation at the king's -conduct, passed a resolution never to enter into any negotiations with -him again; and Charles, pretending equal surprise and resentment, -declared that the Parliament had thrown three regiments into Brentford -after sending to treat with him. But it must be remembered that they -proposed this accommodation at Colnbrook, and what business, then, -had he at Brentford? The march, and the hour of it, were sufficiently -decisive of the king being the aggressor. - -Charles lay with his army at Oxford during the winter, and Prince -Rupert exercised his marauding talents in the country round. Of the -Parliamentary proceedings or preparations we have little account, -except that the Parliamentarians were generally discontented with -Essex, who was slow, by no means sagacious, and, many believed, not -hearty in the cause. Sir William Waller, however, drove Goring out -of Portsmouth and took possession of it, so that he was dubbed by -the people William the Conqueror, and it was agitated to put him at -the head of the army in the place of Essex. But another man was now -being heard of. This was Oliver Cromwell, who had quitted his farm -and raised a regiment of his own. He was Colonel Cromwell now. He had -told Hampden at the battle of Edge Hill, where they both were, that it -would never do to trust to a set of poor tapsters and town apprentices -for fighting against men of honour. They must have men, too, imbued -with a principle still higher, and that must be religion. Hampden said -it was a good notion if it could be carried out; and from that time -Cromwell kept it in view, and so collected and trained that regiment -of serious religious men, known as his invincible Ironsides. Cromwell -was active all this winter along the eastern coast, in Cambridgeshire, -Huntingdonshire, Essex, and elsewhere, raising supplies, stopping those -of the enemy, and forming Associations of counties for mutual defence. -Four or six were formed, but all soon went to pieces except that of the -counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridge, Hertfordshire, of which -Lord Grey of Wark was the commander, and Oliver, his lieutenant, the -soul. This Association maintained its district during the whole war. -In February we find Cromwell at Cambridge, the castle of which, with -its magazines, he had taken by storm, and had now collected there great -forces from Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk. - -The queen's arrival in Yorkshire early in February created immense -enthusiasm amongst the Cavaliers. Her spirit, her manners, her -condescension fascinated all who came near her. She was in every sense -now a heroine, and the fact of the Parliament having impeached her -of high treason, and her head being forfeited if she fell into their -hands, only raised her own resolution and the devotion of all around -her. She was conducted to York by a guard of two thousand Cavaliers, -headed by the Marquis of Montrose himself, and attended by six -pieces of cannon, two mortars, and two hundred and fifty waggons of -ammunition. The Lord Fairfax, who was the only Parliamentary general -with any force in the north besides the Governor of Hull, was gallant -enough to offer to escort her himself with his Roundheads; but she knew -she was outlawed, and declined the honour. She rode on horseback on the -march, calling herself the "she-majesty-generalissima," ate her meals -in the sight of the army, in the open air, and delighted the soldiers -by talking familiarly to them. She remained nearly four months at York, -doing wonderful service to the king's cause, and, as we shall find, -succeeding through the Earl of Newcastle even in corrupting the faith -of the Hothams at Hull. Her arrival gave new spirit to the royal cause, -but was undoubtedly, at the same time, the most fatal thing which could -have happened to it, as it strengthened the king in his obstinate -determination to refuse all accommodation with the Parliament. - -And although the Parliament, in its resentment at the king's treachery -at Brentford, had vowed never to treat with him again, in March, 1643, -it made fresh overtures to him. The deputation sent to him consisted -of the Earls of Northumberland, Pembroke, Salisbury, and Holland, -Viscounts Wenman and Dungarvan, John Holland and William Litton, -knights, and William Pierpoint, Bulstrode Whitelock, Edmund Waller, and -Richard Winwood, esquires. They were received by the king in the garden -of Christ Church, and permitted to kiss his hands. On Waller performing -that ceremony, Charles said graciously, "You are the last, but not the -worst, nor the least in my favour." In fact, Waller at that moment was -engaged in a plot for the king, whence the significant remark. As -the two parties insisted on their particular demands, the interview -came to nothing. Courteous as the king was to Waller, he was otherwise -by no means so to the deputation. The queen was in the country with -abundant supplies of arms and ammunition, and he was elated with the -fact. He interrupted the Earl of Northumberland so rudely and so -frequently, whilst reading the Parliamentary proposals, that the earl -stopped, and demanded proudly whether his majesty would allow him to -proceed. To which Charles replied curtly, "Ay! ay!" The negotiations -continued for several weeks, but during their abortive proceedings -military movement was going on. Essex took Reading after a siege of -ten days, and Hampden proposed to invest Oxford and finish the war at -once, which Clarendon confesses would have done it, for the town was -ill fortified, was so crowded with people that it could not long hold -out, and Charles had not then received his ammunition from the queen. -The dilatory spirit of Essex, however, and his officers prevailed, and -this opportunity was lost. In May the ammunition arrived, and whilst -Charles was preparing to act, the Parliament was busy in unravelling -different plots against them. One was that in which Waller was engaged. -This was a most daring one. Waller had been one of the most determined -declaimers in Parliament against the king; but now he had been won over -by Lord Falkland, and had entered into a scheme for betraying London -to the Royalists, and seizing the leaders of the opposition. Mixed up -with this scheme, besides himself, were Tomkins, his brother-in-law, -Challoner, Blinkhorne, and others. A commission of array was smuggled -into the City through Lady Aubigny, whose husband fell at Edge Hill, by -which all inclined to the king's service might receive due authority. -But the servant of Tomkins overheard the conspirators, carried the news -to Pym, and they were speedily in custody. Tomkins and Challoner were -hanged within sight of their own houses; Blinkhorne, White, Hasell, and -Waller were, by the intercession of Essex, reprieved, but Waller was -fined ten thousand pounds and confined in the Tower for a year. - -About the same time a similar plot for betraying Bristol was detected -by Colonel Fiennes, the governor, son of Lord Say and Sele. The chief -conspirators were Robert and William Yeomans, who were condemned to be -executed; but one of them was saved by the king declaring that he would -hang as many of his prisoners. The prospect which was opened of terror -and barbarity by such retaliation put an end to it, and saved at this -time Colonel Lilburne, who had been taken at Brentford. Lilburne was an -ultra-republican, and at the same time a declaimer from the Bible on -the mischief of kings. He had been whipped in Westminster, but had only -been made more outrageous, and was so pugnaciously inclined, that it -was said that if he were left alone in the world, John would be against -Lilburne, and Lilburne against John. Charles ordered his execution, -but the threats of the Parliament of sweeping retaliation saved the -democratic orator and soldier. - -The Parliament now made a new Great Seal, and passed under it no less -than five hundred writs in one day. All other events, however, sank -into comparative insignificance before one which now occurred. Prince -Rupert had extended his flying excursions of cavalry, and committed -great depredations in Gloucestershire, Wilts, Hants, and even as far -as Bath; and though the Earl of Essex had his forces lying about Thame -and Brickhill, in Buckinghamshire, yet he was so inert that Rupert -burst into both Bucks and Berkshire in his very face. Colonel Hurry, -who had gone over from Essex to the king, now informed Rupert that two -Parliamentary regiments were lying at Wycombe, apart from the rest of -the army and easy to be cut off. The fiery prince at once determined -to make a night attack upon them. He trotted away from Oxford on the -17th of June with two thousand horsemen, rode past Thame, where Essex -was lying, without any opposition, and reached the hamlet of Postcombe -at three o'clock in the morning. Here, to their surprise, they found a -body of horse posted to stop them. Hampden, in fact, who ought to have -been at the head of the army, had been uneasy about the unprotected -condition of the two regiments at Wycombe, and had in vain urged Essex -to call in the outposts from Wycombe, Postcombe, and Chinnor. Not being -able to rouse him to this prudent measure, he continued on the alert, -and hearing of the march of Rupert in that direction, despatched a -trooper in all haste to Essex, to advise him to move a body of horse -and foot instantly to Chiselhampton Bridge, the only place where Rupert -could cross the Cherwell. Not satisfied with this, he himself rode -with some cavalry in that direction, and found Rupert on the field -of Chalgrove, in the midst of the standing corn. On being checked -at Postcombe, Rupert had diverged to Chinnor, surprised the outpost -there, killed fifty men, and captured sixty others. On descrying -Hampden's detachment coming down Beacon Hill, he posted himself in -the wide field of Chalgrove, where he was attacked by the troops of -Captains Gunter and Sheffield, with whom Hampden had ridden. They -boldly charged Rupert, but Gunter was soon slain, and Hampden, who was -looking impatiently but in vain for Essex's reinforcements, rode up to -lead on Gunter's troopers to the charge, and received a mortal wound. -He did not fall, but, feeling his death blow, wheeled round his horse, -and rode away towards the house of his father-in-law at Pyrton, whence -he married his first wife, whose early death had made such a change -in him. The soldiers of Rupert barred the way in that direction, and -he made for Thame, and reached the house of Ezekiel Browne. He still -continued to live for a week, and spent the time with what strength -he had in urging on Parliament a correction of the palpable military -errors of the campaign, and especially of the dilatory motions of -Essex, which in fact had cost him his life. He expired on the 24th of -June, and was buried in his own parish church at Hampden, followed to -the grave by his regiment of green-coats with reversed arms and muffled -drums. - -The news of this national disaster spread dismay through London and -over the whole country. The prudence, the zeal, and activity united -in Hampden, had made him one of the most efficient men in the House -and in the field. The suavity of his manners, the generosity of his -disposition, the soundness of his judgment, had won him universal -confidence. It was clearly seen that nothing but the deepest and most -patriotic concern for the real welfare of the country animated him. -Though he was conscientiously convinced of the mischief of political -bishops, he was attached to the doctrines of the Church of England; -and though he was, like Pym, firmly persuaded that nothing but the -strongest obligations, the most imperative necessity, would ever tie -down Charles to an observance of the limits of the Constitution, he -was far from dreaming of his death, or of sweeping away the monarchy -to make way for a republic. A little more time must have placed him -at the head of the army, and, with such a right-hand man as Cromwell, -must have soon terminated the campaign. His death seemed like a general -defeat, and struck the deepest and most lasting sorrow into the public -mind. Time has only increased the veneration for the name of John -Hampden, which has become the watchword of liberty, and the object of -popular appeal in every great crisis of his country's history. - -Other discouragements fell on the Parliament at the same period. The -Earl of Newcastle had established so strong a power in the North, that -he had reduced the resistance of the Fairfaxes to almost nothing. His -army abounded with Papists, and was officered by many renegade Scots, -amongst them, conspicuous, Sir John Henderson. He had possession of -Newark Castle, and even repulsed Cromwell in Lincolnshire. But his -greatest triumph was in seducing the Hothams, father and son, and -nearly succeeding in obtaining possession of Hull from their treason. -Newcastle had defeated the Fairfaxes at Atherton Moor, and if Hull -was lost, all was lost in the North. It was therefore proposed to put -Hull into the hands of Lord Fairfax and his son Sir Thomas, which -probably hastened the defection of the Hothams. The plot, however, was -discovered in time; the Hothams were seized, their papers secured, -their letters intercepted, the whole treason made open to the daylight, -and the delinquents shipped off to London. Great as had been their -services in Hull, their apostasy wiped away all past merits, and they -were condemned and executed on Tower Hill. - -These melancholy events were considerably softened by the growing -successes of Cromwell, who seemed to be almost everywhere at once, -always fighting, mostly successful. On the 13th of March he dashed -into St. Albans and seized the sheriff, who was enrolling soldiers by -the king's writ, and sent him off to London. On the 17th he marched -from Norwich and took Lowestoft, with a number of prisoners, amongst -them Sir Thomas Barker, Sir John Pettus, and Sir John Wentworth, who -were glad to compromise with good fines, Wentworth paying one thousand -pounds. He next made an attempt to wrest Newark Castle from the Earl -of Newcastle, but in vain (it stood out to the end of the war); but -he raised the siege of Croyland, made his appearance at Nottingham -and Lynn, and in July he defeated Newcastle's troops near Grantham, -took Burghleigh House and Stamford, and, before the month closed, -fought a stout battle under the walls of Gainsborough to relieve Lord -Willoughby, who was sorely pressed in that town by Newcastle's forces, -and but for Cromwell's timely march to his aid, would have been cut -to pieces. Cromwell attacked the besiegers on some sandhills near -the town, dispersed them, and killed General Cavendish, a cousin of -Newcastle's. After this exploit, however, Newcastle's main army came -down upon them, and they were compelled to retreat to Lincoln, and even -beyond it. - -[Illustration: HAMPDEN MORTALLY WOUNDED AT CHALGROVE. (_See p._ 20.)] - -Meanwhile, the Parliamentary affairs went greatly wrong in the West. -Waller, who had gained the name of Conqueror by his rapid reduction of -Portsmouth, Winchester, Malmesbury, and Hereford, was now defeated with -an army eight thousand strong by Prince Maurice, near Bath, and by Lord -Wilmot, near Devizes. His whole army was dispersed, and he hastened -to London to complain of the inaction of Essex as the cause of his -failure. Indeed, the army of Essex distinguished itself this summer so -far only by inaction, whilst Rupert in the west laid siege to Bristol, -and in three days made himself master of it, through the incapacity of -Fiennes, the governor, who was tried by a council of war and sentenced -to death, but pardoned by Essex with loss of his commission. - -It was imagined that Charles, being now reinforced by a number of -French and Walloons who came with the queen, and strengthened by -victory, would make a grand attempt on the capital. There was no -little alarm there. Essex, who had done nothing through the summer but -watch his men melt away from his standard, recommended Parliament to -come to terms with the king, and the Lords were of his opinion. Many -of them were ready to run off to Charles on the first opportunity. -Bedford, Holland, Northumberland, and Clare, father of Denzil Holles, -were strongly suspected, and soon after proved that these suspicions -were not unjust. Four nobles had been appointed to raise new forces, -but seeing how things were going, all declined their commissions -except Lord Kimbolton, now by the death of his father become Earl of -Manchester. He accepted the command of the Eastern Association, having -Cromwell and three other colonels under him, and soon had a fine force -in those counties. - -Parliament, listening to neither Essex nor the faint-hearted fears -of the peers, refused to open fresh negotiations with the king. They -called on the Londoners to invigorate their train-bands, and to put the -City into a state of defence; and their call was zealously responded -to. Ladies as well as gentlemen turned out and handled spades and -pickaxes in casting up an entrenchment all round the City. Pym and -St. John were sent to the army and seemed to infuse a new spirit into -Essex, pronouncing him sound in the cause. Charles, if he ever thought -of attacking London, seeing the spirit there, turned his attention to -the West and invested Gloucester. Essex was despatched to relieve that -city, and made a march much more active and efficient than was his -wont. He set out on the 26th of August, and on the night of the tenth -day--though he had been harassed on his way by the flying troopers of -Rupert and Lord Wilmot--that is, on the 5th of September, the people -of Gloucester saw his signal fires on the top of Prestbury Hill, amid -the rain and darkness. The king also saw them, fired his tents in the -morning, and marched away. From that hour the prospects of Charles grew -gloomier. - -Essex having relieved Gloucester, and left a good garrison there under -the brave governor, Colonel Massey, made the best of his way back -again, lest the king should outstrip him and take up a position before -London. Charles had not neglected the attempt to cut off his return. -At Auborne Chase Essex was attacked by the flying squadrons of Rupert, -and after beating them off he found the king posted across his path at -Newbury on the 20th of September. The royal army occupied the bank of -the river which runs through the place, to prevent his passage. Every -part where there was a chance of the Parliamentary forces attempting -to cross was strongly defended by breastworks, and musketeers lined -the houses facing the river. It was supposed that Charles could easily -keep the Roundheads at bay, and force them to retreat or starve. Essex -drew up his forces, however, with great skill upon an eminence called -Bigg's Hill, about half a mile from the town, and Charles was prepared -to wait for a chance of taking him at a disadvantage. But the rashness -of the young Cavaliers under Digby, Carnarvon, and Jermyn, led to -skirmishes with the Parliamentarians, and Charles soon found himself -so far involved, that he was obliged to give orders for a general -engagement. The royal horse charged that of Essex with a recklessness -amounting almost to contempt; but though they threw them into disorder, -they found it a different matter with the infantry, consisting of the -train-bands and apprentices of London. These received the Cavaliers -on their pikes, and stood as immovable as a rock, and showed such -resolute and steady spirit, that they soon allowed the horse to -recover itself, and the whole army fought with desperation till dark. -The effect was such, that Charles would not risk another day of it. -Waller was lying at Windsor with two thousand horse and as many foot, -and should he come up as he ought, the king would be hemmed in and -placed in imminent peril. But Waller lay perfectly still--purposely, -as many thought--leaving Essex to take care of himself, as the earl -had formerly left him at Roundaway Hill. In the morning, therefore, -Essex found the king's forces withdrawn and the way open. Charles -had retreated again towards Oxford, having deposited his guns and -ammunition at Donnington Castle, Chaucer's old residence, which lay -within sight, and ordered Rupert to harass the Parliament army on its -march. Essex made his way to Reading, whence he hurried up to town -to complain of the neglect of Waller, and to offer the surrender of -his commission. This was not accepted, but the only alternative was -adopted, that of withdrawing the command from Waller, which, after much -reluctance, was done on the 9th of October. - -The Parliamentarians lost five hundred men in the battle, the king -three times that number and many officers; but the greatest loss of -all was that of the amiable and conscientious Lord Falkland, a man on -the Royalist side as much respected as Hampden was on the Parliament -side. He had gone with the Parliament till he thought they had -obtained all that they were justly entitled to, and pressed too hard -on the king, when he felt it his duty to support the Crown, and had -accepted office as Secretary of State. He was a man of a most cheerful, -cordial, courteous disposition; but from the moment the war broke -out, his cheerfulness fled. He seemed to feel in himself the wounds -and miseries of his bleeding country. He was constantly an advocate -of peace, and was often observed sitting in a state of abstraction, -uttering aloud and unconsciously the words, "Peace! peace!" As the war -went on his melancholy increased; he neglected his dress, and became -short and hasty in his temper. He declared that "the very agony of the -war, and the view of the calamities and desolation which the kingdom -did and must endure, took his sleep from him, and would break his -heart." Whitelock says that "on the morning of the fight he called -for a clean shirt, and being asked the reason of it, answered that -if he were slain in the battle, they would not find his body in foul -linen. Being dissuaded by his friends against going into the fight, as -having no call to it, being no military officer, he said he was weary -of the times, and foresaw much misery to his country, and did believe -he should be out of it ere night, and could not be persuaded to the -contrary, but would enter into the battle, and was there slain." His -death was deeply lamented by all parties. Besides him fell the Earls of -Sunderland and Carnarvon. - -When the king's affairs were in the ascendant by the successes in the -West, the taking of Bristol, and the defeat of Waller at Roundaway -Hill, near Devizes, the Earls of Bedford, Northumberland, Holland, and -Clare deserted the Parliament cause. Northumberland, being cautious, -retired to Petworth, to see how the other lords who meant to go over to -Charles should be received. Bedford, Clare, and Holland offered their -services to the king, and went to Wallingford, where they were suffered -to wait a great while, much to their chagrin. They then went to Oxford, -whilst Charles was in the West, and were ordered to await his return. -The queen and the courtiers, meanwhile, treated them not as valuable -and influential allies, whose good reception would certainly bring over -many more, but, with consummate folly, as renegades, who had forfeited -all respect by taking part with the king's enemies. They followed -the king to Gloucester, where they were coolly enough received, and -afterwards fought on his side at Newbury; but nothing winning them -that estimation which good policy would have granted them at once, -they made their peace with Parliament and went back to London, where, -however, they found they had sunk greatly in public opinion, and were -not permitted to take their seats in the House of Peers or hold office. -Their flight had lowered the public estimation of the Lords, and their -reception at Oxford had seriously injured the king's cause. Whilst the -king and queen retained their impolitic resentments, there was no hope -of winning over friends from the ranks of their opponents. It was clear -that neither time nor trouble had really taught them anything. Moreover -we also learn from the pages of Clarendon that there existed great -discord and division in the camp at Oxford. Every one was jealous of -the slightest promotion or favour shown to another; and the Cavaliers, -he says, had grown disorderly, and devoted to the plundering of the -people, just as the Parliamentary army was growing orderly, zealous, -and efficient. To such an extent was this the case that one side seemed -to fight for monarchy with weapons of confusion, and the other to -destroy the king and Government with all the principles and regularity -of monarchy. - -This was seen in nothing more than in the management with regard to -Scotland. To both parties it was of the highest consequence to have -the alliance of the Scots. Charles, on his last visit, had flattered -the people, given in to the notions of the Covenanters, and conferred -honours on their leaders. But Montrose, who knew the Covenanters well, -assured the king that he would never get them to fight on his side. -They were too much united in interest and opinion with the Puritan -Parliament not to adhere to it. He proposed, therefore, to raise -another power in Scotland--that of the nobility and the Highlanders, -who should at least divide the country, delay if not prevent the army -of the Covenanters from leaving the country, and thus save the king -from the danger of an invasion in that quarter, the first result of -which would be the loss of his ascendency in the northern counties of -England. When the queen came to York, Montrose waited on her, and did -all in his power to awaken a sense of peril in Scotland, and offered -to raise ten thousand men there, and paralyse the designs of the -Covenanters. But when these representations were made to Charles, the -Marquis of Hamilton, now made duke, strongly opposed the advice of -Montrose, declared that it was monstrous to set Scots against Scots, -and that he would undertake to keep them quiet. He prevailed, and -Montrose, disappointed, retired again to Scotland to watch the progress -of events. Hamilton went to Scotland, with authority from the king to -take the lead in all movements of the Royalists. - -As was foreseen, the English Parliament made overtures to the Scots -for assistance, and the Scots were by no means loth to grant it, -provided they could make advantageous terms. A Commission was sent to -Edinburgh to treat, and the Scots on their part resolved to call a -Parliament to receive their offers. The time fixed for the reassembling -of the Scottish Parliament was not come by a full year, and the Duke -of Hamilton had most particularly pledged himself to the king to -prevent it from meeting. Yet on the 22nd of June, notwithstanding -his remonstrance, it came together, and on the 20th of July the -Commissioners from the English Parliament arrived, and were received by -both Parliament and General Assembly with exultation, and their letters -from the Parliament of England were read with shouts of triumph--by -many, with tears of joy. Their arrival was regarded as a national -victory. - -The conduct of Hamilton was now suspicious. If he was honest he had -misled the king, for he found he had no power to resist the popular -feeling in Scotland; but the general opinion coincided with that of -Montrose, that he was a traitor. The Royalists called upon him to -summon them to his aid, to assemble them in a large body, mounted and -armed, and, supported by them, to forbid the meeting of Parliament as -illegal. But that, Hamilton assured them, would frighten the people, -and lead to disturbance. He proposed that the meeting should take -place, that all the Royalist members should appear in their places, -and then he would declare the meeting illegal, and dismiss it. To -their astonishment, however, Hamilton did not dismiss it, but allowed -it to sit. On this Montrose posted away to England, followed the king -to Gloucester, and represented to him the conduct of Hamilton as -confirming all former declarations of his perfidy. After the battle of -Newbury, Charles listened more at leisure to these representations. He -was so far convinced that he thought of ordering the Earl of Newcastle -to send for Hamilton and his brother Lord Lanark, and to confine them -at York. But at that moment the two brothers, probably aware of the -proceedings of Montrose, appeared themselves at Oxford, where Charles -ordered the Council to examine into the charges against them. Lanark -managed to escape from custody, and hastened direct to London and to -the Parliament, which received him most cordially, a pretty strong -proof of mutual understanding. This satisfied Charles of Hamilton's -complicity, and he sent him in custody to the castle of Bristol, thence -to Exeter, and thence to Pendennis in Cornwall. - -The Commissioners sent to Scotland were Henry Vane the younger, Armyn, -Hatcher, Darley, and Marshall, with Nye, an independent. The Scots -proposed to invade England on condition that the Parliament adopted -the Covenant, and engaged to establish uniformity of religion in both -countries, "according to the pattern of the most reformed Church," -which, of course, meant Presbyterianism. But the Commissioners knew -that this was impossible, for though a considerable number of the -people were Presbyterian in doctrine, many more were Independent, and -just as sturdy in their faith, to say nothing of the large section -of the population which held conscientiously to both Episcopacy and -Catholicism. Vane himself was a staunch Independent, and he was at -the same time one of the most adroit of diplomatists. He consented -that the Kirk should be preserved in its purity and freedom, and that -the Church of England should be reformed "according to the Word of -God." As the Scots could not object to reformation according to the -Word of God, and "the example of the first Reformed churches," which -they applied especially to their own, they were obliged to be content -with that vague language. Vane also obtained the introduction of the -word League, giving the alliance a political as well as a religious -character. It was concluded to send a deputation with the Commissioners -to London, to see the solemn "League and Covenant" signed by the two -Houses of Parliament, at the head of which went Alexander Henderson, -the well-known Moderator of the Assembly. Whilst they were on their -journey, the ministers in Scotland readily proclaimed from their -pulpits that now the Lord Jesus had taken the field against antichrist, -that Judah would soon be enslaved if Israel was led away captive, and -that the curse of Meroz would fall on all who did not come to the help -of the Lord against the mighty. - -[Illustration: ARCHBISHOP LAUD'S LIBRARY, EAST QUADRANGLE, JOHN'S -COLLEGE, OXFORD.] - -On the 25th of September, the very day that Essex arrived in London -after the battle of Newbury, and received the thanks of Parliament, -the two Houses met with the Westminster divines in the church of St. -Margaret, where, after various sermons, addresses, and blessings, -the two Houses signed the League and Covenant, and their example was -followed by the Scottish Commissioners and the divines. It was then -ordered to be subscribed in every parish by all persons throughout the -country. - -It was agreed that the Estates of Scotland should send an army of -twenty-one thousand men into England, headed by the old Earl of Leven. -They were to receive thirty-one thousand pounds a month,--one hundred -thousand pounds of it in advance, and another sum at the conclusion of -peace. Sixty thousand pounds were soon remitted, the levies began, and -in a few months Leslie mustered his army at Harlaw. - -The union of the Scots with the Parliament was an alarming blow to -the Royalists. If they had found it difficult to cope with Parliament -alone, how were they to withstand them and the Scots? To strengthen -himself against this formidable coalition, Charles turned his attention -to Ireland. There the army had actually grown to fifty thousand men. -As the restorers of the English influence, these were to be paid out -of the estates of the revolted Irish, and numbers of both English -and Scots had flocked over. A large body of Scots had landed under -the command of General Monro, eager to avenge the massacre of their -Presbyterian brothers in Ulster. The natives had been driven back, and -the invaders were busy parcelling out the evacuated lands. Two million -and a half of acres had been promised by the English Parliament as the -reward of the victors. - -To resist the tempest which threatened to exterminate them, the Irish -Catholics formed themselves into a confederation, and created a kind -of Parliament at Kilkenny. They imitated in everything the measures by -which the Scots had succeeded in enfranchising their religion. They -professed the most profound loyalty to the sovereign, and asserted -that they were in arms only for the protection of their religion and -their lives. They established a synod which assumed the same religious -authority as the Scottish Assembly, and ordered a covenant to be taken, -by which every one bound himself to maintain the Catholic faith and -the rights of the sovereign and the subject. They appointed generals -in each province, and all necessary officers for the command of their -force. Charles, who suspected the allegiance of the Earl of Warwick, -had contrived to remove him, and appointed the Marquis of Ormond in his -place. To him the confederate Catholics transmitted their petition, -avowing the most unshaken loyalty, declaring that they had only taken -up arms to defend their lives and properties from men who were equally -the enemies of the king and their own,--from the same puritanic people, -so they said, who were seeking to deprive the king of his crown. These -petitions, forwarded to Charles, suggested to him the idea of deriving -use from these forces. As they prayed him to assemble a new Parliament -in Ireland, to grant them the freedom of their religion and the rights -of subjects, he instructed Ormond to come to terms with them, so that -in their pacification they might be able to spare a considerable -body of troops for his assistance in England. This was effected in -September, 1643, and the confederates contributed directly thirty -thousand pounds for the support of the royal army, fifteen thousand -pounds in money, and fifteen thousand pounds in pensions. - -This was not accomplished without exciting the notice of the English -Parliament, who sent over Commissioners to endeavour to win over the -Protestants in Ormond's army, but in vain. In November Ormond shipped -five regiments to the king. These were sent to Chester to garrison that -town under Lord Byron; but they were rather marauders than soldiers; -they had been raised by the Parliament, yet fought against it for -the king; and they were as loose in discipline as in principles. In -about six weeks after their arrival, they were visited by Sir Thomas -Fairfax at Nantwich, when fifteen thousand of them threw down their -arms, amongst them the afterwards notorious General Monk. Nor was this -the only mischief occasioned to the royal cause by these Irish troops. -Their arrival disgusted the royal forces under Newcastle in the North, -who declared they would not fight with Catholics and Irish rebels. - -Whilst the Scots were mustering to enter England, the Marquis of -Newcastle was bearing hard on the Parliament forces in Yorkshire. He -had cleared the country of them except Hull, which he was besieging; -and Lincolnshire was also so overrun with his forces, that Lord -Fairfax, governor of Hull, was obliged to send his son, Sir Thomas, -across the Humber, to the help of the Earl of Manchester. Fairfax -united with Cromwell near Boston, and at Winceby-on-the-Wolds, about -five miles from Horncastle, the united army under Manchester came to a -battle with the troops of Newcastle, and completely routed them, thus -clearing nearly all Lincolnshire of them. Cromwell had a horse killed -under him, and Sir Ingram Hopton, of Newcastle's army, was killed. The -battle was won by Cromwell and Fairfax's cavalry. - -The close of 1643 was saddened to the Parliament by the death of -Pym (December 8). It was, indeed, a serious loss, following that of -Hampden. No man had done so much to give firmness to the Commons, and -clearness to the objects at which they aimed. His mind was formed on -the old classic model of patriotic devotion. He had no desire to pull -down the Crown or the Church, but he would have the one restrained -within the limits of real service to the country, and the other -confined to those of its communion. Therefore he recommended, sternly, -resistance to the royal power--preferring civil war to perpetual -slavery--and the exemption of bishops and clergymen from all civil -offices. Seeing from the first the ends that he would attain, guided -by the most solemn and perspicuous principles, he never swerved from -them under pressure of flattery or difficulty, nor would he let the -State swerve. His eloquence and address, but far more his unselfish -zeal, enabled him to prevail with the Commons and intimidate the Lords. -He boldly told the Peers that they must join in the salvation of the -country, or see it saved without them, and take the consequences in the -esteem or the contempt of the people. They would have fared better had -they profited by his warning. Pym was the Aristides of the time: he -sought no advantage to himself, he gained nothing from his exertions -or his prominent position, but the satisfaction of seeing his country -saved by his labours. He derived no influence from his wealth or rank, -for he had none of either. His whole prestige was intellectual and -moral. He wore himself out for the public good, and died as poor as he -commenced, the only grant which he received from the State being an -honourable burial in Westminster Abbey. - -At the opening of 1644 Charles had devised a scheme for undermining -the authority of the Parliament, namely, by issuing a proclamation -for its extinction. Clarendon, who was now the Lord Chancellor, -very wisely assured him that the members of Parliament sitting at -Westminster would pay no heed to his proclamation, and that a better -measure would be to summon Parliament to meet at Oxford. That would -give every member of both Houses, who was at all inclined to again -recognise the royal authority, the opportunity to join him; and, on -the other hand, a Parliament assembling by call and authority of the -king at his court, would stamp the other as illegal and rebellious. -The advice was adopted, and at the summons forty-three Peers and one -hundred and eighteen Commoners assembled at Oxford. These, however, -consisted of such as had already seceded from the Parliamentary party, -and the king claimed as the full number of his Parliament at Oxford, -eighty-three Lords, and one hundred and seventy-five Commons. According -to Whitelock, there met at Westminster twenty-two Lords only, and -eleven more were excused on different accounts, making thirty-three; -of the Commons there were more than two hundred and eighty. The -king, in his Parliament, promised all those privileges which he had -so pertinaciously denied to all his past Parliaments, and a letter, -subscribed by all the members of both Houses, was addressed to the Earl -of Essex, requesting him to inform "those by whom he was trusted," that -they were desirous to receive commissioners, to endeavour to come to -a peaceable accommodation on all matters in dispute. Essex returned -the letter, refusing to forward a paper which did not acknowledge the -authority of the body addressed. The point was conceded, and Charles -himself then forwarded him a letter addressed to the Lords and Commons -of Parliament assembled at Westminster in his own name, soliciting, by -advice of the Lords and Commons of Parliament assembled at Oxford, the -appointment of such commissioners "for settling the rights of the Crown -and Parliament, the laws of the land, and the liberties and property -of the subject." But there was no probability of agreement, and so the -Oxford Parliament proceeded to proclaim the Scots, who had entered -England contrary to the pacification, and all who countenanced them -guilty of high treason. - -The Scots passed the Tweed on the 16th of January, 1644. The winter -was very severe, and the march of the army was dreadful. They made -their way, however, to Newcastle, where the Marquis of Newcastle had -just forestalled them in getting possession of it. They then went on -to Sunderland. Newcastle offered them battle, but the Scots, though -suffering from the weather and want of provisions, having posted -themselves in a strong position, determined to wait for the arrival of -Parliamentary forces to their aid. The defeat of Lord Byron at Nantwich -permitted Sir Thomas Fairfax and Lord Fairfax, his father, to draw -towards them, and these generals having also defeated at Leeds the -Royalists under Lord Bellasis, the son of Lord Falconberg, Newcastle -betook himself to York, where he was followed by both the Fairfaxes and -the Scots. - -Charles was lying at Oxford with a force of ten thousand men; Waller -and Essex, with the Parliamentary army, endeavoured to invest him in -that city, but as they were marching down upon him from two different -quarters, he issued from it with seven thousand men and made his way -to Worcester. As these two generals detested each other and could not -act in concert, Essex turned his march towards the West of England, -where Prince Maurice lay, and Waller gave chase to the king. Charles, -by feint of marching on Shrewsbury, induced Waller to proceed in that -direction, and then suddenly altering his course at Bewdley regained -Oxford. After beating up the Parliamentary quarters in Buckinghamshire, -he encountered and worsted Waller at Cropredy Bridge, and then marched -westward after Essex. - -[Illustration: PRINCE RUPERT. (_After the Portrait by Vandyke._)] - -While these manœuvres were in progress, the Earl of Manchester, having -as his lieutenant-general Oliver Cromwell, marched northward to -co-operate with Leslie and the Fairfaxes at York against Newcastle. -Charles, who saw the imminent danger of Newcastle, and the loss of -all the North if he were defeated, sent word to Prince Rupert to -hasten to his assistance. Rupert had been gallantly fighting in -Nottinghamshire, Cheshire, and Lancashire, and everywhere victorious. -He had compelled the Parliamentary army to raise the siege of Newark, -had taken Stockport, Bolton, and Liverpool, and raised the siege of -Lathom House, which had been nobly defended for eighteen weeks by the -Countess of Derby. On receiving the king's command, he mustered what -forces he could, and reached York on the 1st of July. The Parliamentary -generals, at his approach, raised the siege, and withdrew to Marston -Moor, about four miles from the city. Rupert had about twenty thousand -men, with whom he had committed dreadful ravages on the Lancashire -hills; he had now relieved the marquis, and might have defended the -city with success, but he was always ready to fight, and Newcastle -having six thousand men, making, with his own forces, twenty-six -thousand, Rupert persuaded him to turn out and chastise the Roundheads. -The English and Scots had about the same number. So little did the -Parliamentarians expect a battle, that they were in the act of drawing -off their forces to a greater distance, when Rupert attacked their -rear with his cavalry. On this they turned, and arranged themselves in -front of a large ditch or drain, and the Royalists posted themselves -opposite. The Scots and English occupied a large rye field bounded by -this ditch, and they placed their troops in alternate divisions, so -that there should be no jealousy between them. It was not till five -o'clock in the afternoon of the 2nd of July that the two armies had -arranged themselves for the fight, and then they stood gazing on each -other for two hours, each loth to risk the disadvantage of crossing -the ditch first. Newcastle, who did not want to fight, had retired to -his carriage in ill-humour, and all began to think that there would be -no battle till the morrow, when Rupert, who was posted on the right -wing with his cavalry, another body of cavalry covering the flank of -the infantry on the left, made one of his sudden and desperate charges. -Like all these exploits of his, it was so impetuous, that it bore the -Parliamentary cavalry on their left wing clear away before it, and -the officers and their horse were speedily in full flight, pursued by -the fiery Rupert, who, as was his wont, forgot all but the fugitives -before him, and with three thousand cavalry galloped after them for -some miles. The Royalist infantry followed up the effect by attacking -that of the Parliament with such fury, that the latter was thrown -into confusion, and the three generals, Manchester, Lord Fairfax, and -Leslie, believing all lost, fled with the rest, in the direction of -Tadcaster and Cawood Castle. Cromwell, who commanded the right wing -of the Parliamentary army, was thus left to fight or flee, as might -happen, but nothing daunted, he attacked the Royalist cavalry with such -vigour that he completely routed them, and then turned again to oppose -the horse of Rupert, who were just returning from the chase, to find -their side in flight. These and a body of pikemen,--Newcastle's "white -coats"--fought desperately. The cavalry, on exhausting their charges, -flung their pistols at the enemies' heads, and then fell to with their -swords. At length the victory remained with Cromwell, Rupert drew off, -and Cromwell remained all night on the field. He sent messages after -the fugitive generals to recall them, but Leslie was already in bed at -Leeds when the news reached him, when he exclaimed, "Would to God I -had died on the place!" Cromwell won great renown by this action. He -kept the field all night with his troopers, who were worn out by the -tremendous exertions of the day, and were in expectation every moment -of a fresh attack from Rupert, who might have collected a large body -of troops together to overwhelm him. But he had lost the battle by -his incurable rashness, after having induced the unwilling Newcastle -to risk the engagement, and he made his retreat into Lancashire, and -thence into the western counties. - -[Illustration: SIEGE-PIECE OF CHARLES I.--NEWARK (HALF-CROWN).] - -[Illustration: SIEGE-PIECE OF CHARLES I.--PONTEFRACT (SHILLING).] - -[Illustration: SIEGE-PIECE OF CHARLES I.--BEESTON (TWO SHILLINGS).] - -[Illustration: SIEGE-PIECE OF CHARLES I.--COLCHESTER (TEN SHILLINGS, -GOLD).] - -Four thousand one hundred and fifty bodies of the slain were buried on -the moor; the greater part of the arms, ammunition, and baggage of the -Royalists fell into the hands of Cromwell, with about a hundred colours -and standards, including that of Rupert himself, and the arms of the -Palatinate. Newcastle evacuated York and retired to the Continent, -accompanied by the Lords Falconberg and Widderington, and about eighty -gentlemen, who believed the royal cause was totally ruined. This the -bloodiest battle of the war was fought on the 2nd of July, and on the -morning of the 4th the Parliamentary forces were again in muster, and -sat down before the walls of York. On the 7th, being Sunday, they held -a public thanksgiving for their victory, and on the 11th being ready -to take the city by escalade, Glenham, the governor, came to terms, on -condition that the garrison should be allowed to march out with all the -honours of war, and retire to Skipton. On the 16th they evacuated the -city, and the Parliamentarians entered, and marched directly to the -cathedral, to return thanks for their victory. The battle of Marston -Moor had indeed utterly destroyed the king's power in the North. -Newcastle alone stood out; but this the Scots invested, and readily -reduced, taking up their quarters there for the present. - -In the West, matters for awhile wore a better aspect for the king. -Essex, on the escape of the king from Oxford, directed his course -west. The Royalists were strong in Devon, Cornwall, and Somersetshire; -but to effectually compete with them, Waller should have united his -forces with the commander-in-chief. He was too much in rivalry with -him to do that. The king set off after Essex, to support his forces -in the western counties, and Essex, as if unaware of the royal army -following him, continued to march on. The queen, who had been confined -of a daughter at Exeter, on the approach of Essex requested of him -a safe conduct to Bath, on pretence of drinking the waters, whence -she proposed to get to Falmouth, and thence back to France. Essex -ironically replied that he would grant her an escort to London, where -she could consult her own physicians, but where he knew that she was -proclaimed guilty of high treason. Henrietta Maria, however, made her -way to Falmouth without his courtesy, and thence in a Dutch vessel, -accompanied by ten other ships, she reached France, though closely -pursued by the English admiral, who came near enough to discharge -several shots at the vessel. - -Essex advanced to Lyme Regis, where he relieved Robert Blake, -afterwards the celebrated admiral, who was there closely besieged by -Prince Maurice; and still proceeding, took Taunton, Tiverton, Weymouth, -and Bridport. This was something like victory; but meanwhile, all men -were wondering at his apparent unconsciousness that the Royalist forces -were enclosing him, and that with the exception of about two thousand -horse under Middleton, which kept at a distance and never united with -him, he was wholly unsupported by Waller's troops. In this manner he -advanced into Cornwall, where Prince Maurice joined his forces with -those of the king to cut off his return. At this crisis many began to -suspect that he meant to go over to the king's party, but in this they -misjudged him, for at this time Charles made overtures to him, but in -vain. He received a letter from the king, promising him if he would -join him in endeavouring to bring the Parliament to terms, he would -guarantee both the liberties and religion of the people; and another -from eighty-four of the king's principal officers, protesting that if -the king should attempt to depart from his engagements they would take -up arms against him. Essex sent the letter to the Parliament, proving -his faith to them; but it would have been still better if he could -have proved to them also his military ability. But near Liskeard, he -suffered himself to be hemmed in by different divisions of the royal -army, and his supplies to be cut off by allowing the little port of -Fowey to fall into the hands of the king's generals, Sir Jacob Astley -and Sir Richard Grenville. He was now attacked by Charles on the one -hand, and Colonel Goring on the other. Essex sent pressing demands to -Parliament for succour and provisions, but none came; and one night -in September his horse, under Sir William Balfour, by a successful -manœuvre, passed the enemy, and made their way back to London. Essex, -with Lord Roberts and many of his officers, escaped in a boat to -Plymouth, and Major-General Skippon, with the fort, capitulated, -leaving to the king their arms and artillery. - -Essex had no right to expect anything but the most severe censure for -his failure; he retired to his house, and demanded an investigation, -charging his disasters to the neglect of Waller. The Parliament, -however, instead of reproaching him, thanked him for the fidelity which -he had shown when tempted by the king, and for his many past services. - -To Cromwell the general aspect of things had become well nigh -intolerable. But it was in vain that he endeavoured to move the heavy -spirit of his superior, the Earl of Manchester, and hence they came -more and more to disputes. Cromwell was insubordinate because it was -impossible that fire could be subordinate to earth. In vain he pointed -out what ought to be done, and he grew impatient and irritated at -what was not done. That irritation and impatience became the greater -as he turned his eyes on what Essex, Waller, and the rest of the -Parliamentary generals were doing. It seemed to him that they were -asleep, paralysed, when a few bold strokes would bring the war to a -close. - -Charles having broken up Essex's army in Cornwall, and put Essex -himself to flight, made a hasty march back again to Oxford to avoid -being himself in turn cooped up in the narrow West. Already the -Parliament was mustering its forces for that purpose. Essex and Waller -were again set at the head of troops, and the victorious forces of -Marston Moor, under Manchester and Cromwell, were summoned to join -them. They endeavoured to stop the king in his attempt to reach Oxford, -and encountered him again near the old ground of battle at Newbury. -Charles was attacked in two places at once--Shaw on the eastern, and at -Speen on the western side of the town. The Earl of Essex was ill, or, -as many believed, pretended to be so; at all events, the command fell -to Manchester. On the 26th of October, the first brush took place, and -the next morning being Sunday, the attack was renewed more vigorously. -The soldiers of Manchester, or rather of Cromwell, went into the fight -singing psalms, as was their wont. The battle was fiercely contested, -and it was not till ten o'clock at night that Charles retreated towards -Wallingford. It was full moonlight, and Cromwell prepared to pursue -him, but was withheld by Manchester. Again and again did Cromwell -insist on the necessity of following and completing the rout of the -royal army. "The next morning," says Ludlow, "we drew together and -followed the enemy with our horse, which was the greatest body that I -saw together during the war, amounting at least to seven thousand horse -and dragoons; but they had got so much ground, that we could never -recover sight of them, and did not expect to see any more in a body -that year; neither had we, as I suppose, if encouragement had not been -given privately by some of our party." - -In other words, there were strong suspicions that the aristocratic -generals did not want to press the king too closely. This became -apparent ten days after. Charles, on retreating, had done exactly as -he did before at this same Newbury; he had thrown all his artillery -into the Castle of Donnington, and now he came back again to fetch it, -nobody attempting to hinder him, as nobody had attempted to reduce -Donnington and secure the artillery. So extraordinary was the conduct -of the Parliamentary generals, that though Charles passed through -their lines both in going and returning from Donnington, and even -offered them battle, no one stirred. The generals dispersed their -army into winter quarters, and both Parliament and people complained -of the affair of Newbury. The Parliament set on foot an inquiry into -the causes of the strange neglect of public duty, and they soon found -one powerful cause in the jealousies and contentions of the generals. -It was time a new organisation was introduced, and Cromwell saw that -besides the incapacity of the commanders, there were aristocratic -prejudices that stood in the way of any effectual termination of the -war. - -Cromwell was at the head of the Independents, and these were as adverse -to the dominance and intolerance of the Presbyterians, as Cromwell -was to the slow-going generals. He knew that he should have their -support, and he determined to come to a point on the vital question of -the arrangement of the war. He had declared plumply, in his vexation, -"That there never would be a good time in England till we had done -with lords;" and he had horrified the milk-and-water aristocrats, by -protesting that "if he met the king in battle, he would fire his pistol -at him as he would at another." He was now resolved to have lords out -of the army at least, and therefore, on the 25th of November, 1644, -he exhibited a charge in the House of Commons against the Earl of -Manchester, asserting that he had shown himself indisposed to finish -the war; that since the taking of York he had studiously obstructed the -progress of the Parliamentary army, as if he thought the king already -too low, and the Parliament too high, especially at Donnington; and -that since the junction of the armies he had shown this disposition -still more strongly, and had persuaded the Council not to fight at all. - -Manchester, eight days after, replied at great length, accusing -Cromwell of insubordination, and was supported by Major-General -Crawford, whom the Scottish Presbyterians had got into the army -of Manchester, to counteract the influence of Cromwell and the -Independents. Crawford even dared to charge Cromwell with leaving the -field of Newbury from a slight wound. Cromwell, on the 9th of December, -leaving such charges to be answered by Marston Moor and his share -of Newbury, proposed a measure which at once swept the army of all -its deadweights. In the Grand Committee there was a general silence -for a good space of time, one looking on the other, to see who would -venture to propose the only real remedy for getting rid of the Essexes -and Manchesters out of the army, when Cromwell arose and proposed -the celebrated Self-denying Ordinance. It is now time to speak, he -said, or for ever hold the tongue. They must save the dying nation by -casting off all lingering proceedings, like those of the soldiers of -fortune beyond the sea, who so pursued war because it was their trade. -"What," he asked, "did the nation say?" That members of both Houses -had got good places and commands, and by influence in Parliament or -in the army, meant to keep them by lingering on the war. What he told -them to their faces, he assured them was simply what all the world was -saying behind their backs. But there was a sure remedy for all that, -and for himself, he cared to go no farther into the inquiry, but to -apply that remedy. It was for every one to _deny themselves_ and their -own private interests, and for the public good to do what Parliament -should command. He told them that he would answer for his own soldiers, -not that they idolised him, but because they looked to Parliament, and -would obey any commands the Parliament should lay upon them for the -Cause. - -Accordingly, the same day, Mr. Tate, of Northampton, formally moved -the Self-denying Ordinance--that is, that no member of either House -should hold a command in the army or a civil office. This was so -surprising a measure, that even Whitelock observed that "our noble -generals, the Earls of Denbigh, Warwick, Manchester, the Lords Roberts, -Willoughby, and other lords in your armies, besides those in civil -offices, and your members the Lord Grey, Lord Fairfax, Sir William -Waller, Lieutenant-General Cromwell, Mr. Hollis, Sir Philip Stapleton, -Sir William Brereton, Sir John Meyrick, and many others must be laid -aside if you pass this ordinance." The proposition seen in these -dimensions was daring and drastic. Manchester, Essex, Denzil Holles, -Meyrick, Stapleton, and others, who had so long gone on side by side -with Cromwell, Whitelock, and others, were now not only indignant at -Cromwell's bold and aspiring tone, but bitterly opposed to him on the -ground of faith and Church government. They were for preserving Church -and State, and they were linked with the Scots, who were vehement for -the general acceptation of the Presbyterian doctrine, if they could not -carry its formula. They met at Essex House, and concerted how they were -to put down not only this troublesome man, but the troublesome party of -which he was the representative, the Independents, who were for liberty -in the Church and the State, and would hear nothing of the domination -of synods and presbyteries any more than of bishops. They sent to -Whitelock and Maynard, to consult them as lawyers, on nothing less than -impeaching Cromwell as an incendiary. The Lord Chancellor of Scotland -addressed them thus:--"Ye ken varra weel that, Lieutenant-General -Cromwell is no friend of ours, and since the advance of our army into -England, he hath used all underhand and cunning means to take off -from our honour and merit with this kingdom--an evil requital of all -our hazards and services; but so it is, and we are nevertheless fully -satisfied of the affections and gratitude of the gude people of this -nation in general. It is thought requisite for us, and for the carrying -on of the cause of the twa kingdoms, that this obstacle or _remora_ may -be moved out of the way, who, we foresee, will otherwise be no small -impediment to us, and the gude design that we have undertaken. He not -only is no friend to us, and to the government of our Church, but he -is also no well-willer to his excellency, whom you and us all have -cause to love and honour; and if he be permitted to go on in his ways, -it may, I fear, endanger the whole business. Ye ken varra weel the -accord atwixt the twa kingdoms, and the union by the Solemn League and -Covenant, and if any be an incendiary betwin the twa nations, how he is -to be proceeded against." - -Whitelock replied that the word "incendiary" meant just the same thing -in English as it did in Scottish, but that whether Cromwell was an -incendiary, was a thing that could only be established by proofs, -and that, he thought, would be a tough matter. Maynard agreed with -Whitelock, and though Holles and others of the Presbyterian party urged -an immediate impeachment, the Scots cautiously paused. - -The question of the Self-denying Ordinance was vigorously debated -for ten days in the Commons. Vane seconded the motion of Tate, and -another member observed that two summers had passed over, and they -were not saved. A fast was appointed for imploring a blessing on the -new project. The people of London, on the 12th of December, petitioned -the House, thanking them for their proceedings, and, after serious -debate and opposition, the Bill was passed on the 19th. On the 21st it -was sent up to the Peers, where it was vigorously attacked by Essex, -Manchester, and the rest of the Lords affected. On the 13th of January, -1646, the Lords threw it out. But the Commons went on remodelling the -army, fixed its numbers at twenty-one thousand effective men, namely, -fourteen thousand foot, six thousand horse, and one thousand dragoons. -They then nominated Sir Thomas Fairfax commander-in-chief instead of -Essex; Skippon, the old train-band major, was made major-general; the -lieutenant-general was left unnamed, the Commons, in spite of their own -ordinance, resolving that Cromwell should hold that post, but avoiding -to increase the opposition to the general measure by not mentioning him. - -[Illustration: ST. MARGARET'S, WESTMINSTER. (1888.)] - -On the 28th of January, the Commons, having completed the organisation -of the army and the appointment of the officers, again sent the -Ordinance up to the Peers who, seeing that they should be obliged to -swallow it, moulded it into a more digestible shape, by insisting -that all officers should be nominated by both Houses, and that no -one should be capable of serving who did not take the Solemn League -and Covenant within twenty days. But the Lords were struck with an -apprehension that the Commons meant to do without them in the end, and -they therefore exercised their rights in opposing the acts of the Lower -House. They refused to sanction one-half of the officers appointed -by Sir Thomas Fairfax, who had been introduced to the Commons on the -18th of February, thanked for his past services, and complimented on -his appointment. To remove the suspicion of the Lords, the Commons -assured them by message that they had bound themselves to be as tender -of the honours and rights of the Peers as they were of their own. This -pacified the Lords, and yielding to a necessity too strong for them, -Essex, Manchester, Denbigh, and the rest resigned their commands, and -on the 3rd of April the Self-denying Ordinance was passed by the Peers. -Sir Thomas Fairfax proceeded to Windsor to remodel the army according -to this Act. He did not find it an easy task; many, who were dismissed -by the Act or for their past conduct, were unwilling to be cashiered; -others would not serve under the new officers; and Dalbier, who had -been one of the worst counsellors of Essex, lay apart with eight troops -of horse, as if he contemplated going over to the king. At length, -however, he came in, and the work was completed. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE GREAT REBELLION (_concluded_). - - The Assembly at Westminster--Trial and Death of Laud--Negotiations - at Uxbridge--Meeting of the Commissioners--Impossibility - of a Settlement--Prospect of Help to the King from the - Continent--Charles agrees to the demands of the Irish - Catholics--Discipline and Spirit of the Parliamentary - Army--Campaign of the New-modelled Army--Hunting the King--Battle - of Naseby--Fairfax in the West--Exploits of Montrose--Efforts of - Charles to join Him--Battle of Kilsyth--Fall of Bristol--Battle - of Philiphaugh--Last Efforts of the Royalists--Charles Offers to - Treat--Discovery of his Correspondence with Glamorgan--Charles - Intrigues with the Scots--Flight from Oxford--Surrender to - the Scots at Newark--Consequent Negotiations--Proposals for - Peace--Surrender of Charles to Parliament. - - -Whilst these events were happening in the field and the Parliament, -other events were occurring also both in England and Scotland, the -account of which, not to interrupt the narrative of the higher -transactions, has been deferred. From the month of June, 1643, the -Synod of divines at Westminster had been at work endeavouring to -establish a national system of faith and worship. This Westminster -Assembly consisted of one hundred and twenty individuals appointed by -the Lords and Commons. They included not only what were called pious, -godly, and judicious divines, but thirty laymen, ten lords, and twenty -commoners, and with them sat the Scottish commissioners. The Scottish -and English Presbyterians had a large majority, and endeavoured to -fix on the nation their gloomy, ascetic, and persecuting notions; -but they found a small but resolute party of a more liberal faith, -the Independents, including Vane, Selden, and others, whose bearing -and spirit, backed by Cromwell, Whitelock, St. John, and others in -Parliament, were more than a match for this overbearing intolerance. -On the subject of Church government, therefore, there could be no -agreement. Cromwell demanded from the House of Commons an act of -toleration, and that a Committee should be formed of deputies from -both Houses and from the Assembly to consider it. The subject was -long and fiercely debated, the Lords Say and Wharton, Sir Henry Vane, -and St. John contending for the independence of the Church from all -bishops, synods, and ruling powers. The only thing agreed on was, that -the English Common Prayer-book should be disused, and a Directory of -worship introduced which should regulate the order of the service, -the administration of the Sacrament, the ceremonies of marriage and -burial--but left much liberty to the minister in the matter of his -sermons. This Directory was, by an ordinance of both Houses, ordered to -be observed both in England and Scotland. - -Poor old Archbishop Laud, who was still in prison, was in the turmoil -of civil war almost totally forgotten. But the Puritans of England and -the people of Scotland needed only a slight reminder to demand the -punishment of the man who, with so high a hand, had trodden down their -liberties and their religion. This was given them by the Lords, who, -insisting on appointing ministers to livings in his gift, called on -Laud to collate the vacant benefices to such persons as they should -nominate. The king forbade him to obey. At length, in February, 1643, -the rectory of Chartham, in Kent, became vacant by the death of the -incumbent, the Lords nominated one person, the king another, and Laud, -placed in a dilemma dangerous to his life under his circumstances, -endeavoured to excuse himself by remaining passive. But the Lords, -in the month of April, sent him a peremptory order, and on his still -delaying, sent a request to the Commons to proceed with his trial. -There were fourteen articles of impeachment already hanging over his -head, and the Commons appointed Prynne, still smarting under the -ear-lopping, branding, and cruelties of the archbishop, to collect -evidence and co-operate with a Committee on the subject. - -What an apparition must that earless man, with those livid brand marks -on his cheeks, have been as he entered the cell of Laud, and told him -that the day of retribution was come! Prynne collected all his papers, -even the diary which he had been so long employed in writing, as the -defence of his past life, and sought everywhere for remaining victims -and witnesses of the archbishop's persecutions and cruelties, to bring -them up against him. In six months the Committee had obtained evidence -enough to furnish ten new articles of impeachment against him, and on -the 4th of March, 1644, more than three years after his commitment, -Laud was called upon to take his trial. He demanded time to consult his -papers, and to have them for that purpose restored, to have counsel, -and money out of the proceeds of his estate to pay his fees and other -expenses. He was not likely to find much more tenderness from his -enemies than he had showed to them; the Scots demanded stern justice -upon him, as the greatest enemy which their country had known for -ages. Time was given him till the 12th of March, when he was brought -to the bar of the House of Lords. There, after the once haughty but -now humbled priest had been made to kneel a little, Mr. Serjeant Wild -opened the case against him, and went over, at great length, the whole -story of his endeavours to introduce absolutism in Church and State -in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and the dreadful cruelties and -oppressions which he had inflicted on the king's subjects in the Star -Chamber and High Commission Courts. - -When he had done, Laud defended himself from a written paper, -contending that though he had leaned towards the law, he had never -intended to overthrow the laws, and that he had in the Church laboured -only for the support of the external form of worship, which had been -neglected. But the hearers had not forgotten the "Thorough," nor the -utter suppression of all forms of religion but his own, the sweeping -away utterly of the faith of Scotland, and the substitution of -Arminianism and the liturgy. - -It was not till the 2nd of September that Laud was called to the bar of -the Lords to deliver his recapitulation of the arguments in answer to -his charges. Mr. Samuel Brown, a member of the Commons, and a Manager -of the trial, replied to them. Laud was then allowed counsel to speak -to the parts of law, who took the same course of defence as had been -taken in the case of Strafford, declaring that the prisoner's offence -did not amount to high treason, and the Commons then adopted their plan -in Strafford's case, of proceeding by attainder. He was, therefore, -on the 2nd of November, brought to the bar of their own House, where -Mr. Brown repeated the sum of the evidence produced in the Lords, and -Laud was called on to reply himself to the charges. He demanded time to -prepare his answer, and obtained eight days. On the 11th of November -he was heard, and Brown in reply; and the Commons the same day passed -their Bill of Attainder, finding him fully convicted of the offences -charged against him. On the 16th they sent up this Bill to the Lords; -but it was not till the 4th of January, 1645, that the Lords also -passed the Bill, and soon after fixed the day of his execution for the -10th. The last effort to save the old man's life was by the production -of a pardon which had been prepared at Oxford, as soon as the danger of -his conviction was seen, and was signed and sealed by the king. This -pardon was read in both Houses, but was declared of no effect, the -king having no power to pardon a crime adjudged by Parliament. On the -appointed day, the archbishop was beheaded on Tower Hill. Meanwhile -some useless negotiations had been set on foot by the Presbyterian -party at Uxbridge. - -Charles had, during the last summer, after every temporary success, -proposed negotiations, thus showing his readiness to listen to -accommodation, and throwing on the Parliament the odium of continued -warfare. At the same time it must be confessed that he was by no -means inclined to accept terms which would surrender altogether his -prerogative, or sacrifice the interests of those who had ventured -everything for him. He was constantly exhorted by the queen from France -to make no peace inconsistent with his honour, or the interests of -his followers. She contended that he must stipulate for a bodyguard, -without which he could enjoy no safety, and should keep all treaty -regarding religion to the last, seeing plainly the almost insuperable -difficulty on that head; for since nothing would satisfy the Puritans -but the close binding down of the Catholics, that would effectually -cut off all hope of his support from Ireland, or from the Catholics of -England. Charles, in fact, was in a cleft stick, and the contentions of -his courtiers added so much to his embarrassments, that he got rid of -the most troublesome by sending them to attend the queen in France. He -then assembled his Parliament for the second time, but it was so thinly -attended, and the miserable distractions which rent his Court were so -completely imported into its debates, that he was the more disposed -to accept the offer of negotiation with the Parliament. His third -proposal, happening to be favoured by the recommendation of the Scots, -was at length acceded to by Parliament, but the terms recommended by -the Scots--the recognition of Presbytery as the national religion, and -the demands of the Parliament of the supreme control not only of the -revenue but of the army--rendered negotiations from the first hopeless. - -In November, 1644, the propositions of the Scots, drawn up by Johnston -of Wariston, were sent to the king by a Commission consisting -of the Earl of Denbigh, the Lords Maynard and Wenman, and Mr. -Pierpoint, Denzil Holles, and Whitelock, accompanied by the Scottish -Commissioners--Lord Maitland, Sir Charles Erskine, and Mr. Barclay. - -[Illustration: INTERVIEW BETWEEN CHARLES AND THE EARL OF DENBIGH. (_See -p._ 36.)] - -Charles probably received a private copy of the propositions, for he -received the Commissioners most ungraciously. They were suffered to -remain outside the gates of Oxford in a cold and wet day for several -hours, and then conducted by a guard, more like prisoners than -ambassadors, to a very mean inn. On the propositions being read by -the Earl of Denbigh, Charles asked him if they had power to treat, -to which the earl replied in the negative, saying that they were -commissioned to receive his majesty's answer. "Then," said Charles, -rudely, "a letter-carrier might have done as much as you." The earl, -resenting this, said, "I suppose your majesty looks upon us as persons -of another condition than letter-carriers." "I know your condition," -retorted the king, "but I repeat it, that your condition gives you -no more power than a letter-carrier." Whilst Denbigh had read over -the list of persons who were to be excepted from the conditions of -the treaty, Rupert and Maurice, who were of the excepted, and were -present, laughed in the earl's face. This insolence displeased even the -king, and he bade them be quiet. The interview terminated, however, as -unfavourably as it began. The king gave them a reply but sealed up, and -not addressed to the Parliament or anybody. The commissioners refused -to carry an answer of which they did not know the particulars, on which -Charles insolently remarked, "What is that to you, who are but to carry -what I send; and if I choose to send the song of Robin Hood or Little -John, you must carry it?" As they could get nothing else, not even an -address upon it to Parliament, the commissioners, wisely leaving it to -Parliament to treat the insult as they deemed best, took their leave -with it. - -When this document was presented to both Houses on the 29th of -November, 1644, assembled for the purpose, it was strongly urged by -many to refuse it; but this was overruled by those who wisely would -throw no obstacle in the way of negotiation; and the king thought well -immediately to send the Duke of Richmond and the Earl of Southampton -with a fuller answer. They, on their part, found a safe-conduct refused -them by Essex, then the commander, unless he were acknowledged by the -king as general of the army of the Parliament of England, and the -Commons informed them that they would receive no further Commission -which was not addressed to the Parliament of England assembled at -Westminster, and the Commissioners of the Parliament of Scotland. -With this the king was compelled to comply; but at the same time he -wrote to the queen--"As to my calling those at London a Parliament, if -there had been two besides myself of my opinion, I had not done it; -and the argument that prevailed with me was that _the calling did no -wise acknowledge them to be a Parliament_, upon which construction and -condition I did it, and no otherwise." - -[Illustration: ROUNDHEAD SOLDIERS.] - -Under these unpromising circumstances, Commissioners on both sides were -at length appointed, who met on the 29th of January, in the little -town of Uxbridge. Uxbridge was within the Parliamentary lines, and the -time granted for the sitting was twenty days. The Commissioners on the -part of the king were the Duke of Richmond, the Marquis of Hertford, -the Earls of Southampton, Chichester, and Kingston, the Lords Capel, -Seymour, Hatton, and Colepepper, Secretary Nicholas, Sir Edward Hyde, -Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir Edward Lane, Sir Orlando Bridgeman, -Sir Thomas Gardener, Mr. Ashburnham, Mr. Palmer, and Dr. Stewart. On -that of the Parliament appeared the Earls of Northumberland, Pembroke, -Salisbury, and Denbigh, Lord Wenman, Sir Henry Vane the younger, -Denzil Holles, Pierpont, St. John, Whitelock, Crew, and Prideaux. The -Scottish Commissioners were the Earl of Loudon, the Marquis of Argyll, -the Lords Maitland and Balmerino, Sir Archibald Johnston, Sir Charles -Erskine, Sir John Smith, Dundas, Kennedy, Robert Barclay, and Alexander -Henderson. John Thurloe, afterwards Oliver Cromwell's secretary, -and the friend of Milton, was secretary for the English Parliament, -assisted by Mr. Earle, and Mr. Cheesly was secretary for the Scottish -Commissioners. - -The four propositions submitted to the king by the Parliament -concerning religion were, that the Common Prayer Book should be -withdrawn, the Directory of the Westminster divines substituted, that -he should confirm the assemblies and synods of the Church, and take the -Solemn League and Covenant. These, contrary to the warning of Queen -Henrietta, were brought on first, and argued with much learning and -pertinacity, and as little concession on either side, for four days. -Then there arose other equally formidable subjects, the command of the -army and navy, the cessation of the war in Ireland; and the twenty -days being expired, it was proposed to prolong the term, but this -was refused by the two Houses of Parliament, and the Commissioners, -separated, mutually satisfied that nothing but the sword would settle -these questions. The Royalists had not been long in discovering that -Vane, St. John, and Prideaux had come to the conference, not so much -to treat, as to watch the proceedings of the Presbyterian deputies, -and to take care that no concessions should be made inimical to the -independence of the Church. - -Gloomy as to the general eye must have appeared the prospects of the -king at this period, he was still buoyed up by various hopes. He -had been using every exertion to obtain aid from the Continent, and -at length was promised an army of ten thousand men by the Duke of -Lorraine, and Goffe was sent into Holland to prepare for their being -shipped over. On the other hand, he had made up his mind to concede -most of their demands to the Irish Catholics, on condition of receiving -speedily an army thence. He wrote to Ormond, telling him that he had -clearly discovered, by the treaty of Uxbridge, that the rebels were -aiming at nothing less than the total subversion of the Crown and -the Church; that they had made the Earl of Leven commander of all -the English as well as Scottish forces in Ireland, and therefore he -could no longer delay the settlement of Ireland in his favour, through -scruples that at another time would have clung to him. He therefore -authorised him to grant the suspension of Poynings' Act, and to remove -all the penal acts against the Catholics on condition that they at once -gave him substantial aid against the rebels of Scotland and Ireland. At -this moment, too, the news of the successes of Montrose in Scotland -added to his confidence. - -The two armies in England now prepared to try their strength. Charles, -lying at Oxford, had a considerable number of troops: the west of -England was almost entirely in his interest, north and south Wales -were wholly his, excepting the castles of Pembroke and Montgomery. He -had still Scarborough, Carlisle, and Pontefract; but his army, though -experienced in the field, was not well disciplined. The Parliamentary -army, now new-modelled, presented a very different spectacle to that -of the king. The strictest discipline was introduced, and the men -were called upon to observe the duties of religion. The officers had -been selected from those who had served under Essex, Manchester, and -the other lords; but having cleared the command of the aristocratic -element, a new spirit of activity and zeal was infused into it. The -king's officers ridiculed the new force, which had no leaders of great -name except Sir Thomas Fairfax, and was brought together in so new a -shape, that it appeared a congregation of raw soldiers. The ridicule -of the Cavaliers even infected the adherents of the Commonwealth, -and there was great scepticism as to the result of such a change. -May, the Parliamentary historian, says, never did an army go forth -who had less the confidence of their friends, or more the contempt -of their enemies. But both parties were extremely deceived. Cromwell -was now the real soul of the movement, and the religious enthusiasm -which glowed in him was diffused through the whole army. The whole -system seemed a revival of that of the pious Gustavus Adolphus--no -man suffered a day to go over without religious service, and never -commenced a battle without prayer. The soldiers now employed their time -in zealous military exercises and in equally zealous prayer and singing -of psalms. They sang in their march, they advanced into battle with a -psalm. The letters of Cromwell to the Parliament, giving an account of -the proceedings of the army, are full of this religious spirit, which -it has been the custom to treat as cant, but which was the genuine -expression of his feelings, and was shown by effects such as cant and -sham never produce. Victory, which he and his soldiers ascribed only to -God, success the most rapid and wonderful, attended him. - -It is remarkable that the very man who had introduced the Self-denying -Ordinance was the only man who was never debarred by it from -pursuing his military career. This has, therefore, been treated as an -artifice on his part; but, on the contrary, it was the mere result -of circumstances. Cromwell was the great military genius of the age. -Every day the success of his plans and actions was bursting more and -more on the public notice, and no one was more impressed by the value -of his services than the new Commander-in-Chief, Sir Thomas Fairfax. -He had sent Cromwell, Massey, and Waller into the West, before laying -down their commissions, to attack Colonel Goring, who was threatening -the Parliamentary lines. They had driven him back towards Wells and -Glastonbury, and not deeming it safe to push farther with their small -force into a quarter where the Royal interest was so strong, and -Cromwell advising Parliament to send more troops to Salisbury to defend -that point against Rupert, who was reported at Trowbridge, he had -returned to Windsor to resign his command according to the Ordinance. -There, however, he found the Parliament had suspended the Ordinance in -his instance for forty days, in order that he might execute a service -of especial consequence, and which it particularly wished him to -undertake. This was to attack a body of two thousand men conveying the -king's artillery from Oxford to Worcester, to which place Rupert had -marched, having defeated Colonel Massey at Ledbury. - -This was on the 22nd of April, and Cromwell took horse the next -morning, dashed rapidly into Oxfordshire and at Islip Bridge routed -the enemy, consisting of four regiments of cavalry, took many of their -officers, and especially those of the queen's regiment, seizing the -standard which she had presented to it with her own hands. Many of -the fugitives got into Bletchington House, which Cromwell immediately -assaulted and took. The king was so enraged at the surrender of -Bletchington, that he ordered the commander, Colonel Windebank, to -be shot, and no prayers or entreaties could save him. Cromwell next -sent off his cannon and stores to Abingdon, and pushed on to Radcot -Bridge, or Bampton-in-the-Bush, where others of the enemy had fled: -here he defeated them, and took their leaders Vaughan and Littleton. -Cromwell next summoned Colonel Burgess, the governor of the garrison at -Faringdon, to surrender; but he was called away to join the main army, -the king being on the move. - -Charles, in fact, issued from Oxford, and, joined by both Rupert -and Maurice, advanced to relieve Chester, then besieged by Sir -William Brereton. Fairfax, instead of pursuing him, thought it a good -opportunity to take Oxford and prevent his returning there; but the -king's movements alarmed him for the safety of the eastern counties, to -which he had despatched Cromwell to raise fresh forces and strengthen -their defences. Cromwell was recalled, and Fairfax set out in pursuit -of the king. Charles relieved Chester by the very news of his march. -Brereton retired from before it, and the Scottish army, which was -advancing southward, fell back into Westmoreland and Cumberland, to -prevent a rumoured junction of the king and the army of Montrose. -Whatever had been Charles's intentions in this movement, he wheeled -aside and directed his way through Staffordshire into Leicestershire, -and took Leicester by assault. From Leicester he extended his course -eastward, and took up his headquarters at Daventry, where he amused -himself with hunting, and Rupert and his horse with foraging and -plundering the whole country round. - -Fairfax, now apprehensive of the royal intentions being directed to -the eastern counties, which had hitherto been protected from the -visitations of his army, pushed forward to prevent this, and came in -contact with the king's outposts on the 13th of June, near Borough -Hill. Charles fired his huts, and began his march towards Harborough, -intending, perhaps, to proceed to the relief of Pontefract and -Scarborough; but Fairfax did not allow him to get far ahead. A council -of war was called, and in the midst of it Cromwell rode into the lines -at the head of six hundred horse. It was now determined to bring the -king to action. Harrison and Ireton, officers of Cromwell--soon to be -well known--led the way after the royal army, and Fairfax, with his -whole body, was at once in full chase. The king was in Harborough, and -a council being called, it was considered safer to turn and fight than -to pursue their way to Leicester like an army flying from the foe. It -was therefore resolved to wheel about and meet the enemy. - -At five o'clock the next morning, the 14th of June, the advanced -guards of each army approached each other on the low hills a little -more than a mile from the village of Naseby, in Northamptonshire, -nearly midway between Market Harborough and Daventry. The Parliament -army ranged itself on a hill yet called the Mill Hill, and the king's -on a parallel hill, with its back to Harborough. The right wing was -led by Cromwell, consisting of six regiments of horse, and the left, -consisting of nearly as many, was, at his request, committed to his -friend, Colonel Ireton, a Nottinghamshire man. Fairfax and Skippon took -charge of the main body, and Colonels Pride, Rainsborough, and Hammond -brought up the reserves. Rupert and his brother Maurice led on the -right wing of Charles's army, Sir Marmaduke Langdale the left, Charles -himself the main body, and Sir Jacob Astley, the Earl of Lindsay, the -Lord Baird, and Sir George Lisle the reserves. The word for the day of -the Royalists was, "God and Queen Mary!" that of the Parliamentarians, -"God our strength!" A wide moorland, called Broad Moor, lay between -them. The Cavaliers made themselves very merry at the new-modelled -army of Roundheads, for which they had the utmost contempt, having -nothing aristocratic about it, and its head being farmer Cromwell, or -the brewer of Huntingdon, as they pleased to call him. They expected -to sweep them away like dust, and Rupert, making one of his headlong -charges, seemed to realise their anticipations, for he drove the -left wing of the Roundheads into instant confusion and flight, took -Ireton prisoner, his horse being killed under him, and himself wounded -severely in two places; and, in his regular way, Rupert galloped after -the fugitives, thinking no more of the main battle. But the scattered -horse, who had been diligently taught to rally, collected behind him, -returned to the defence of their guns, and were soon again ready for -action. On the other hand, Cromwell had driven the left wing of the -king's army off the field, but took care not to pursue them too far. -He sent a few companies of horse to drive them beyond the battle, and -with his main body he fell on the king's flank, where at first the -royal foot was gaining the advantage. This unexpected assault threw -them into confusion, and the soldiers of Fairfax's front, which had -given way, rallying and falling in again with the reserves as they -came to the rear, were brought up by their officers, and completed the -rout. Rupert, who was now returning from the chase, rode up to the -waggon-train of the Parliamentary army, and, ignorant of the state of -affairs, offered quarter to the troops guarding the stores. The reply -was a smart volley of musketry, and falling back and riding forward -to the field, he found an overwhelming defeat. His followers stood -stupefied at the sight, when Charles, riding up to them in despair, -cried frantically, "One charge more, and the victory is ours yet!" -But it was in vain, the main body was broken, that of Fairfax was -complete; the artillery was seized, and the Roundheads were taking -prisoners as fast as they could promise them quarter. Fairfax and -Cromwell the next moment charged the dumfoundered horse, and the whole -fled at full gallop on the road towards Leicester, pursued almost to -the gates of the town by Cromwell's troopers. - -The slaughter at this battle was not so great as might have been -expected. But though the loss on the Parliamentarian side was small, -amounting to about two hundred men, the Royalists had one thousand -killed. Five thousand prisoners were taken, including a great number -of officers, and a considerable number of ladies in carriages. All -the king's baggage and artillery, with nine thousand stand of arms, -were taken, and amongst the carriages that of the king containing -his private papers: a fatal loss, for it contained the most damning -evidences of the king's double-dealing and mental reservations, which -the Parliament took care to publish, to Charles's irreparable damage. -Clarendon accuses the Roundheads of killing above a hundred women, many -of them of quality, but other evidence proves that this was false, the -only women who were rudely treated being a number of wild Irish ones, -who were armed with skeans--knives a foot long--and who used them like -so many maniacs. - -The next day Fairfax sent Colonel Fiennes and his regiment to London -with the prisoners and the colours taken, above a hundred of them, -and he prayed that a day of thanksgiving might be appointed for the -victory. But the most essential fruit of the victory was the reading -in Parliament of the king's letters. In these the affair of the Duke -of Lorraine came to light--the attempt to bring in the Lorrainers, the -French, the Danes, and the Irish to put down the Parliament, whilst -Charles had been making the most sacred protestations to that body -that he abhorred bringing in foreign soldiers. There appeared his -promise to give the Catholics full liberty of conscience, whilst he had -been vowing constantly that he would never abrogate the laws against -Popery; and his letter to his wife, showing that at the treaty of -Uxbridge he was merely conceding the name of a Parliament, with a full -determination, on the first opportunity, to declare it no Parliament -at all. These exposures were so dreadful, and gave such an assurance -that the king was restrained by no moral principle, that the Royalists -would not believe the documents genuine till they had examined them -for themselves; and for this examination the Parliament wisely gave -the amplest facilities. There were copies of his letters to the queen, -in which he complained of the quarrels and harassing jealousies of his -own courtiers and supporters, and of his getting rid of as many as he -could by sending them on one pretence or another to her. The sight of -these things struck his own party dumb with a sense of his hollowness -and ingratitude; and the battle of Naseby itself was declared far less -fatal to his interests than the contents of his cabinet. From this -moment his ruin was certain, and the remainder of the campaign was only -the last feeble struggles of the expiring Cause. His adherents stood -out rather for their own chance of making terms than from any possible -hope of success. - -[Illustration: CHARLES AT THE BATTLE OF NASEBY. (_See p._ 40.)] - -The defeated and dishonoured king did not stop to pass a single night -at Leicester, but rode on to Ashby that evening, and after a few -hours' rest pursued his course towards Hereford. At Hereford Rupert, -fearful of the Parliamentary army attacking their only remaining strong -quarter, the West, left the king and hastened to Bristol to put it into -a state of defence. Charles himself continued his march into Wales, -and took up his headquarters at Raglan Castle, the seat of the Marquis -of Worcester. There, pretty sure that Fairfax was intending to go -westward, he spent the time as though nothing had been amiss, hunting -like his father, when he should have been studying the retrieval of -his affairs, and passing the evenings in entertainments and giving of -audiences. The most probable cause of Charles thus spending his time -there and at Cardiff, to which he next retired, is that he had been -urging the despatch of an Irish army, and was expecting it there. -At the same time he could there more easily communicate with Rupert -regarding the defence of the west of England. - -The Parliament forces under Cromwell marched on Bristol where Rupert -lay, whilst Fairfax met and defeated Goring at Langport, and then -besieged and took Bridgewater on the 23rd of July. Matters now -appeared so threatening that Rupert proposed to Charles to sue for -peace; but the king rejected the advice with warmth, declaring that, -though as soldier and statesman he saw nothing but ruin before him, -yet as a Christian he was sure God would not prosper rebels, and that -nothing should induce him to give up the Cause. He avowed that whoever -stayed by him must do so at the cost of his life, or of being made -as miserable as the violence of insulting rebels could make him. But -by the grace of God he would not alter, and bade Rupert not on any -consideration "to hearken after treaties." He would take no less than -he had asked for at Uxbridge. - -Charles, blind to the last, was still hoping for assistance from -Ireland, and was elated by the news of successes from Montrose. - -It will be recollected that the Earls of Antrim and Montrose had been -engaged by Charles to exert themselves in Ireland and Scotland on his -behalf. Their first attempt was to take vengeance on the Covenanting -Earl of Argyll, who had so much contributed to defeat the king's -attempts on the Scottish Church and Government. Montrose, therefore, -unfurled the royal standard as the king's lieutenant-general at -Dumfries; but having before been a strong Covenanter, he did not all at -once win the confidence of the Royalists. His success was so poor that -he returned to England. At Carlisle he was more effective in serving -the king, and was made a marquis in consequence. After the battle of -Marston Moor he again returned into the Highlands, and there learned -the success of Antrim's labours in Ireland. He had sent over a body of -fifteen hundred men under the command of his kinsman Alaster Macdonald, -surnamed MacColl Keitache, or Colkitto. They landed at Knoidart, but -a fleet of the Duke of Argyll's burnt their ships, and hung in their -rear waiting a fitting chance to destroy them. To their surprise -they received no welcome from the Scottish Royalists. However, they -continued their march to Badenoch, ravaging the houses and farms of -the Covenanters, but every day menaced by the gathering hosts of their -foes, and learning nothing of their ally Montrose. At last Montrose -obtained tidings of them: they met at Blair Athol, in the beginning of -August, 1644. Montrose assumed the command, and published the royal -commission. At the sight of a native chief the Highlanders flocked to -his standard, and the Covenanters saw to their astonishment an army -of between three and four thousand men spring at once, as it were, -out of the ground. Montrose wrote to Charles that if he could receive -five hundred horse on his way, he would soon be in England with twenty -thousand men. - -The movements and exploits of Montrose now became rather a story of -romance than of sober modern warfare. Argyll and Lord Elcho dogged his -steps, but he advanced or disappeared, with his half-clad Irish and -wild mountaineers, amongst the hills in a manner that defied arrest. -At Tippermuir, in Perthshire, he defeated Elcho, took his guns and -ammunition, and surprised and plundered the town of Perth. As was -constantly the case, the Highlanders, once loaded with booty, slipped -off to their homes; and, left alone with his Irish band, who were -faithful because their way home was cut off, he retreated northward, -in hope of joining the clan Gordon. Montrose found himself stopped -at the Bridge of Dee by two thousand seven hundred Covenanters under -Lord Balfour of Burleigh, but he managed to cross at a ford higher -up, and, falling on their rear, threw them into a panic. They fled to -Aberdeen, pursued by the Irish and Highlanders, and the whole mass of -pursuers and pursued rushed wildly into the city together. The place -was given up to plunder, and for three days Aberdeen became a scene of -horror and revolting licence, as it had been from an attack of Montrose -four years before, when fighting on the other side. The approach of -Argyll compelled the pillagers to fly into Banffshire, and, following -the banks of the Spey, he crossed the hills of Badenoch, and, after -a series of wild adventures in Athol, Angus, and Forfar, he was met -by the Covenanters at Fyvie Castle, and compelled to retreat into the -mountains. His followers then took their leave of him, worn out with -their rapid flights and incessant skirmishes, and he announced his -intention of withdrawing for the winter into Badenoch. - -The Earl of Argyll, on his part, retired to Inverary and sent his -followers home. He felt secure in the mighty barrier of mountains -around, which in summer offered a terrible route to an army, but which, -now blockaded with snow, he deemed impregnable. But he was deceived; -the retirement of Montrose was a feint. He was busily employed in -rousing the northern clans to a sweeping vengeance on Argyll, and the -prospect of a rich booty. In the middle of December he burst through -all obstacles, threaded the snow-laden defiles of the mountains, and -descended with fire and sword into the plains of Argyleshire. The earl -was suddenly roused by the people from the hills, whose dwellings -were in flames behind them, and only effected his escape by pushing -across Loch Fyne in an open boat. Montrose divided his host into three -columns, which spread themselves over the whole of Argyleshire, burning -and laying everything waste. Argyll had set a price upon Montrose's -head; and Montrose now reduced his splendid heritage to a black and -frightful desert. The villages and cottages were burnt down, the cattle -destroyed or driven off, and the people slain wherever found with arms -in their hands. This miserable and melancholy state of things lasted -from the 13th of December to the end of January, 1645. - -Argyll by that time had mustered the Clan Campbell, and Lord Seaforth -the mountaineers of Moray, Ross, Sutherland, and Caithness, to bear -down on the invaders. Montrose, therefore, led forth his Highlanders -and Irish to encounter them, and came first on Argyll and his army at -Inverlochy Castle, in Lochaber. There he totally defeated Argyll, and -slew nearly fifteen hundred of his people. This success brought to -his standard the clan Gordon and others. The whole north was in their -power, and they marched from Inverlochy to Elgin and Aberdeen. At -Brechin they were met by Baillie with a strong force, which protected -Perth; but Montrose marched to Dunkeld, and thence to Dundee, which -he entered, and began plundering, when Baillie arrived with his -Covenanters and caused him to retire. Once more he escaped to the -mountains, but this time not without severe losses, for his indignant -foes pursued him for threescore miles, cutting off many of his -soldiers, besides those that had perished in the storming of Dundee. -When he appeared again it was at Auldearn, a village near Nairn, where, -on the 9th of May, he defeated the Covenanters (under John Urry or -Hurry) after a bloody battle, two thousand men being said to be left -upon the field. - -The General Assembly addressed a sharp remonstrance to the king, -which was delivered to him soon after the battle of Naseby, but it -produced no effect. In fact, it was more calculated to inflame a man of -Charles's obstinate temper, for it recapitulated all his crimes against -Scotland, from his first forcing the Common Prayer upon them till -then, and called on him to fall down at the footstool of the Almighty -and acknowledge his sins, and no longer steep his kingdom in blood. -They did not merely remonstrate; the Covenanters continued to fight. -But, unfortunately, their commanders having divided their forces, as -Urry was defeated at Auldearn, so Baillie was soon afterwards routed -at Alford, in Aberdeenshire, with such effect that scarcely any but -his principal officers and the cavalry escaped. Again the Covenanters -raised a fresh army of ten thousand men, and sent them against -Montrose; and the Scottish army, which lay on the borders of England -under the Earl of Leven, commenced their march southward, to attack the -king himself. On the 2nd of July, the very day on which Montrose won -the battle of Alford, they were at Melton Mowbray, whence they marched -through Tamworth and Birmingham into Worcestershire and Herefordshire. -On the 22nd they stormed Canon-Frome, a garrison of the king's between -Worcester and Hereford; and, as they were pressing on, Charles sent -Sir William Fleming to endeavour to seduce the old Earl of Leven and -the Earl of Callender from their faith to Parliament by magnificent -promises, but they sent his letters to the Parliament and marched on -and laid siege to Hereford. - -Charles, thus pressed by the Scottish army, quitted Cardiff and made -a grand effort to reach the borders of Scotland to effect a junction -with Montrose. He flattered himself that could he unite his forces with -those of Montrose, by the genius of that brilliant leader his losses -would be retrieved, and that he should bear down all before him. But -he was not destined to accomplish this object. He at first approached -Hereford, as if he designed the attempt of raising the siege; but this -was too hazardous, and, dismissing his foot, he dashed forward with -his cavalry to cut his way to the North. But the Earl of Leven sent -after him Sir David Leslie, with nearly the whole body of the Scottish -cavalry; and from the North, the Parliamentarian commanders, Poyntz -and Rossiter, put themselves in motion to meet him. He had made a -rapid march through Warwickshire and Northamptonshire to Doncaster, -when these counter-movements of the enemy convinced him that to reach -the Border was hopeless; and he made a sudden divergence south-east, -to inflict a flying chastisement on those counties of the Eastern -Association, which had so long kept him at bay, and sent out against -him the invincible Cromwell and his Ironsides. These were now engaged -in the West, and he swept through Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, -ravaging and plundering without stint or remorse. On the 24th of August -he took Huntingdon itself by assault; he did not delay, however, but -continued his marauding course through Woburn and Dunstable, thence -into Buckinghamshire, and so to Oxford, where he arrived on the 28th. -In this flying expedition, Charles and his soldiers had collected much -booty from his subjects, and especially from the town of Huntingdon, -no doubt with much satisfaction, from its being Cromwell's place of -residence. - -At Oxford Charles received the cheering news that Montrose had -achieved another brilliant victory over the Covenanters. He had, on -again issuing from the mountains, menaced Perth, where the Scottish -Parliament was sitting, and then descended into the Lowlands. It was -evident that he was acting in concert with the king, who at that very -time was making his hurried march for the Border. Montrose crossed the -Forth near Stirling, where at Kilsyth he was met by Baillie and his -new army. The Committee of Estates insisted on Baillie giving battle. -Fasting and prayer for four days had been held, and they were confident -of success. But at the first charge the cavalry of the Covenanters were -scattered, the infantry fled almost without a blow, and such was the -fury of the pursuit, that five thousand of them were slain (August 15, -1645). This victory opened all the Lowlands to the Royalists. Argyll -and the principal nobles escaped by sea to England. Glasgow opened -its gates to the conqueror, and the magistrates of Edinburgh hastened -to implore his clemency towards the city, and to propitiate him by -liberating all the Royalist prisoners, promising obedience to the king. -Most of these liberated prisoners, and many of the nobility, joined the -standard of Montrose. - -Had the king been able to effect a junction with him at this moment, -the result must have been important, but it could only have occasioned -more bloodshed, without insuring any decided victory, for all England -was by this time in the hands of the Parliament. Sir David Leslie, -instead of following the king with his cavalry southward again, had -continued his march northward, to prevent any inroad on the part of -Montrose, and the Earl of Leven, quitting Hereford, advanced northward -to support him. Charles immediately left Oxford, and advanced to -Hereford, where he was received in triumph. Thence he set out to -relieve Rupert, who was besieged by Fairfax and Cromwell in Bristol; -but on reaching Raglan Castle, he heard the appalling news that it had -surrendered. The prince had promised to hold it for four months, yet he -surrendered it in the third week of the siege. Fairfax having decided -to storm it on the 10th of September, 1645, this was done accordingly. -It was assaulted by the troops under Colonel Welden, Commissary-general -Ireton, Cromwell, Fairfax, General Skippon, Colonels Montague, Hammond, -Rich, and Rainsborough, from different sides at the same time. The -town was set on fire in three places by the Royalists themselves, and -Rupert, foreseeing the total destruction of the city, capitulated. He -was allowed to march out, and was furnished with a convoy of cavalry, -and the loan of one thousand muskets to protect them from the people on -the way to Oxford, for he had made himself so detested by his continual -ravagings of the inhabitants that they would have knocked him and his -men on the head. Even as he passed out of the city the people crowded -round with fierce looks, and muttered, "Why not hang him?" - -[Illustration: CAVALIER SOLDIERS.] - -We have Cromwell's account of the taking of the place. He says that the -royal fort was victualled for three hundred and twenty days, and the -castle for nearly half as long, and that there were abundant stores -of ammunition, with one hundred and forty cannon mounted, between two -and three thousand muskets, and a force of nearly six thousand men in -foot, horse, train-bands, and auxiliaries. Well might Charles feel -confounded at the surrender. He was so exasperated that he overwhelmed -Rupert with reproaches: he even accused him of cowardice or treason, -revoked his commission, and bade him quit the kingdom. He ordered -the Council to take him into custody if he showed any contumacy. He -arrested Rupert's friend, Colonel Legge, and gave the prince's office -of Governor of Oxford to Sir Thomas Glenham. And yet Rupert appears -to have only yielded to necessity. He was more famous at the head of -a charge of horse than for defending cities. Bristol was carried by -storm by a combination of the best troops and the most able commanders -of the Parliament army, and was already burning in three places. -Further resistance could only have led to indiscriminate massacre. -But allowance must be made for the irritation of Charles. The fall of -Bristol was a most disheartening event, and it was followed by news -still more prostrating. - -The success of Montrose had proved the ruin of his army. A Highland -force is like a Highland torrent; under its clan chiefs it is impetuous -and overwhelming; but it is soon exhausted. The soldiers, gathered only -for the campaign, no sooner collected a good booty than they walked -off back to their mountains, and thus no Highland force, under the old -clan system, ever effected any lasting advantage, especially in the -Lowlands. So it was here; Montrose's descent from the hills resembled -the torrent, and disappeared without any traces but those of ravage. He -had secured no fortified places, nor obtained any permanent possession. -He executed a few incendiaries, as they were called, at Glasgow, and -then advanced towards the Border, still in hope of meeting the royal -forces. But the Gordon clan had disappeared; Colkitto had led back -the other Highlanders to their mountains, and Montrose found himself -at the head of only about six hundred men, chiefly the remains of the -Irish. Meanwhile, Sir David Leslie, with his four thousand cavalry, was -steadily advancing towards the Forth, to put himself between Montrose -and the Highlands, and then suddenly wheeling westward, he returned on -the unwary marquis, and surprised the commander who had before been -accustomed to surprise every one else. - -Montrose was in Selkirk busy writing despatches to the king, and -his little army was posted at Philiphaugh. Leslie had approached -cautiously, and, favoured by the unvigilant carelessness of the -Royalists, came one night into their close vicinity. Early in the -morning, under cover of a thick fog, he crossed the Ettrick, and -appeared to their astonishment in the encampment on the Haugh. -Notwithstanding their surprise, the soldiers formed hastily into a -compact body; and Montrose, being informed of the danger, flew to the -rescue at the head of a body of horse; but the odds were too great, -the troops were surrounded and cut to pieces. In vain they begged -quarter. Sir David consented, but the ministers raised a fierce shout -of indignation, denounced the sparing of a single "malignant" as a sin, -and the whole body was massacred (September 13, 1645). - -Before receiving this disastrous news, Charles resolved to make another -effort to form a junction with Montrose. He retraced his steps through -Wales, and advanced to the relief of Chester, which was invested by -the Parliamentarians. He reached that place on the 22nd of September, -and posted the bulk of his cavalry on Rowton Heath, near the city, -under Sir Marmaduke Langdale, himself being able to get into the city -with a small body of troopers. But the next morning his cavalry at -Rowton Heath was attacked by Poyntz, the Parliamentary general, who -had been carefully following on the king's heels, and now, having his -little army penned between his troops and those of the Parliamentary -besiegers, a simultaneous attack was made on the Royalists from both -sides. More than six hundred of Charles's troopers were cut to pieces, -one thousand more obtained quarter, and the rest were dispersed on -all sides. The king escaped out of the city and fled to Denbigh with -the remnant of his cavalry. By this blow the only port which had been -left open for his expected succours from Ireland was closed. Still -the news of Montrose's defeat at Philiphaugh had not reached him, -and Lord Digby advised the king to allow him to make the attempt to -reach him with the seventeen hundred cavalry still remaining. Charles -accepted the offer, but before Digby left, it was agreed that the -king should get into his castle of Newark, as the securest place for -him to abide the result. Having seen his majesty safely there, Digby -set out northward. At Doncaster he defeated a Parliamentary force, -but was a few days after defeated himself by another at Sherburn. -Notwithstanding this, with the remainder of his horse he pushed -forward, entered Scotland, and reached Dumfries, but finding Montrose -already defeated, he returned to the Border, and at Carlisle disbanded -the troop. Sir Marmaduke Langdale and the officers retired to the -Isle of Man, the men got home as they could, and Digby passed over to -Ireland, to the Marquis of Ormond. But the greatest loss which Digby -had made during this expedition was that of his portfolio with his -baggage, at Sherburn. In this, as in the king's at Naseby, the most -unfortunate discoveries were made of his own proceedings, and of his -master's affairs. There was a revelation of plottings and agents in -sundry counties for bringing foreign forces to put down the Parliament. -Goffe was in Holland promoting a scheme for the marriage of the Prince -of Wales to the daughter of the Prince of Orange, and for forces to be -furnished in consequence. There were letters of the queen to Ireland, -arranging to bring over ten thousand men, and of Lord Jermyn--who was -living in Paris with the queen in such intimacy as to occasion much -scandal--to Digby himself, regarding probable assistance from the King -of Denmark, the Duke of Lorraine, and the Prince of Courland, and of -money from the Pope. But perhaps the most mischievous was a letter from -Digby, written a few days before, letting out how much the Marquis of -Ormond was secretly in the king's interest, though appearing to act -otherwise. These disclosures were precisely such as must wonderfully -strengthen the Parliament with the public, and sink the king still -lower. - -The king's ruin was virtually complete. The enemy was pressing close -on his quarters, and at midnight, on the 3rd of November, he quitted -Newark with five hundred horse, and reached Belvoir, where the -governor, Sir Gervas Lucas, attended him with his troop till break of -day. Thence the king made a harassing and dangerous journey to Oxford, -pursued by detachments of the enemy as he passed Burleigh-on-the-Hill, -the garrison sallying and killing some of his attendants. In the -evening Charles was obliged to rest for five hours at Northampton, and -then push forward by Banbury, and so reached Oxford the next evening, -"finishing," says Clarendon, "the most tedious and grievous march -that our king was exercised in." In truth, never was king reduced to -such a melancholy and pitiable condition--a condition which cannot be -contemplated without commiseration, blind and incorrigible believer as -he was in the divine right of despotism. - -Whilst Charles had been making these unhappy tours and detours, Fairfax -and Cromwell had been clearing away his garrisons, and driving back -his troops into the farthest West. Cromwell first addressed himself -by command of Parliament to reduce Winchester, Basing House, Langford -House, and Donnington Castle. On Sunday, September 28th, he appeared -before Winchester, which surrendered after a breach had been made; and, -on the 16th of October he also carried Basing by storm. Basing House -and Donnington had long annoyed Parliament and the country with their -royal garrisons, so that there was no travelling the Western road for -them. Basing House belonged to the Marquis of Winchester, and was one -of the most remarkable places in the country. Hugh Peters, who was sent -up by Cromwell to give an account of the taking of it to Parliament, -declaring that its circumvallation was above a mile in circumference. -It had stood many a siege, one of four years, without any one being -able to take it. Cromwell, however, now bombarded and stormed it, -taking prisoners the marquis, Sir Robert Peak, and other distinguished -officers. Eight or nine gentlewomen of rank ran out as the soldiers -burst in, and were treated with some unceremonious freedoms, but, says -Peters, "not uncivilly, considering the action in hand." - -Having demolished Basing, Cromwell next summoned Langford House, near -Salisbury, and thence he was called in haste down into the West, where -Fairfax and he drove back Goring, Hopton, Astley, and others, beating -them at Langport, Torrington, and other places, storming Bridgewater, -and forcing them into Cornwall, where they never left them till they -had reduced them altogether in the spring of 1646. - -Charles lying now at Oxford, his council, seeing that his army was -destroyed, except the portion that was cooped up by the victorious -generals in the West, and which every day was forced into less compass, -advised him strongly to treat with the Parliament, as his only chance. -They represented that they had no funds even for subsistence, except -what they seized from the country around, which exasperated the people, -and made them ready to rise against them. There were some circumstances -yet in his favour, and these were the jealousies and divisions of his -enemies. The Parliament and country were broken up into two great -factions of Presbyterians and Independents. The Presbyterians were -by far the most numerous, and were zealously supported by the Scots, -who were nearly all of that persuasion, and desired to see their form -of religion prevail over the whole country. They were as fiercely -intolerant as the Catholics, and would listen to nothing but the entire -predominance of their faith and customs. But the Independents, who -claimed and offered liberty of conscience, and protested against any -ruling church, possessed almost all the men of intellect in Parliament, -and the chiefs at the head of the army. Cromwell, in his letter from -the field of Naseby, called for toleration of conscience, and Fairfax -urged the same doctrine in all his despatches from the West. There -was, moreover, a jealousy growing as to the armies of the Scots, who -had got most of the garrisons in the North of England and Ireland into -their hands. These divisions opened to Charles a chance of treating -with one party at the expense of the other, and in his usual way he -made overtures to all. To the Scots he offered full concession of all -their desires, and great advantages from the influence which their -alliance with him would give. To the Independents he offered the utmost -toleration of religious opinion, and all the rewards of pre-eminence in -the State and the army. To the Presbyterians he was particularly urged -by the queen to promise the predominance of their Church and the like -advantages. With the Catholics of Ireland he was equally in treaty; -but whilst his secret negotiations were going on in Ireland, the Scots -endeavoured to bring theirs to a close, by applying to the queen in -Paris. Three great changes had taken place, all favourable to Charles. -Both the king, Louis XIII., and Richelieu, were dead. Richelieu had -never forgiven Charles's attempts on La Rochelle, and his effort to -raise the Huguenots into an independent power in France, nor his -movements in Flanders against his designs. Mazarin, who now succeeded -as the minister of Louis XIV., had no particular resentment against -Charles, and though cautious in taking direct measures against the -English Parliament, did not oppose any of the attempts at pacification -between the king and his subjects. The Scots had always found -Richelieu their ally, and they now applied to his successor to assist -them in bringing matters to bear with Charles. In consequence of this, -Montreuil was sent over to London, who conferred with the Scottish -Commissioners, and then conveyed to Charles their proposals. But the -king, who had promised them all concessions consistent with his honour, -found the very first proposition to be that Episcopacy should be for -ever abolished not only in Scotland, but in England, and Presbytery -made the Established Church. He had conceived that they would be -satisfied with the supremacy of their faith in their own country, and -he at once refused this demand. It was in vain that Montreuil pointed -out to him that the Scots and the Presbyterians of England were agreed -upon this point, and that consequently any arrangement with the -latter party must inevitably be upon the same basis. Charles declared -that rather than consent to any such terms, he would agree with the -Independents. Montreuil replied that the Scots sought only to make him -king, first having their own wishes as to religion gratified; but the -Independents, he was confident, contemplated nothing less than the -subversion of his throne. He informed him that the queen had given to -Sir Robert Murray a written promise that the king would accede to the -demand of the Scots, which promise was now in the hands of the Scottish -Commissioners; moreover, that this was the earnest desire of the queen, -the queen-regent of France, and of Mazarin. - -Nothing, however, could shake Charles's resolution on this head, and -he therefore made a direct application to Parliament to treat for an -accommodation. They received his offer coolly, almost contemptuously. -He desired passports for his Commissioners, or a safe-conduct for -himself, that they might treat personally; but it was bluntly refused, -on the ground that he was not to be trusted, having, on all similar -occasions, employed the opportunities afforded to endeavour to -corrupt the fidelity of the Commissioners. Not to appear, however, -to reject the treaty, they sent fresh proposals to him, but so much -more stringent than those at Uxbridge, that it was plain that they -were rather bent on delaying than treating. The king was now in a very -different position since the battle of Naseby and the fall of Bristol; -and it was obviously the interest of Parliament to allow Fairfax and -Cromwell to put down his last remains of an army in the West, when -they would have nothing to do but to shut up the king in Oxford, and -compel him to submit at discretion. Montreuil, seeing this, again -urged him to come to terms with the Scots, and that not a moment was -to be lost. But nothing could move him to consent to their demand of -a universal Presbyterianism, and he again, on the 26th of January, -1646, demanded a personal interview with the Parliament at Westminster. -His demand, however, arrived at a most unfortunate crisis, for the -discovery of his negotiations with the Irish Catholics had just been -made: the entire correspondence was in the hands of the Commons, and -the whole House was in the most violent ferment of indignation. The -king's letter was thrown aside and left without notice. - -On October 17th, 1645, the titular Archbishop of Tuam was killed in a -skirmish between two parties of Scots and Irish near Sligo, and in his -carriage were discovered copies of a most extraordinary negotiation, -which had been going on for a long time in Ireland between Charles -and the Catholics, for the restoration of popish predominance in -that country, on condition of their sending an army to put down the -Parliament in England. - -We have already spoken of the confederate Irish Catholics, who -maintained an army for their own defence, and had a council at -Kilkenny. Charles had instructed the Marquis of Ormond, the -Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, to make a peace with these Confederates: -he had some time ago obtained a cessation of hostilities, but they -would not consent to a permanent peace, nor to furnish the king troops -until they obtained a legal guarantee for the establishment of their -own religion. Lord Ormond, in his endeavours, did not satisfy the king, -or rather his position disabled him from consenting publicly to such a -treaty, as it would have roused all the Protestants, and the Scottish -and English Parliaments against him. Charles, therefore, who was always -ready with some underhand intrigue to gain his ends, and break his -bargain when it became convenient, sent over Lord Herbert, the son of -the Marquis of Worcester, and whom he now created Earl of Glamorgan, to -effect this difficult matter. - -[Illustration: RAGLAN CASTLE.] - -Glamorgan was as zealous in his loyalty as in his speculative pursuits. -He and his father had spent two hundred thousand pounds in the king's -cause, and he was now engaged in an enterprise where he risked -everything for Charles--name, honour, and life. He was furnished -with a warrant which authorised him to concede the demands of the -Catholics regarding their religion, and to engage them to send over ten -thousand men. After many difficulties he reached Dublin, communicated -to Ormond the plan, saw with him the Catholic deputies in Dublin, and -then hastened to Kilkenny, to arrange with the council there. But at -this time occurred the revelation of the scheme by the seizure of the -Archbishop of Tuam's papers. The Parliament was thrown into a fury; -the Marquis of Ormond, to make his loyalty appear, seized Glamorgan, -and put him into prison, and the king sent a letter to the two Houses -of Parliament, utterly disavowing the commission of Glamorgan, and -denouncing the warrant in his name as a forgery. All this had been -agreed upon before between the king and Glamorgan, should any discovery -take place; and on searching for Glamorgan's papers a warrant was -found, not sealed in the usual manner, and the papers altogether -informal, so that the king might by this means be able to disavow them. -But that Ormond and the council of Kilkenny had seen a real and formal -warrant, there can be no question. The king, by a second letter to the -two Houses, reiterated his disavowal of the whole affair, and assured -them that he had ordered the privy council in Dublin to proceed against -Glamorgan for his presumption. The proceedings were conducted by Lord -Digby, who assumed a well-feigned indignation against Glamorgan, -accusing him of high treason. The animus with which this accusation -appeared to be made has induced many to believe that Digby was really -incensed, because he had not been let wholly into the secret of -Glamorgan's commission; and his letter to the king on the subject, -noticed by Clarendon as rude and unmanly, would seem to confirm this. -However, Glamorgan, on his part, took the whole matter very cheerfully, -allowed the king's disclaimers without a remonstrance or evidence of -vexation, and produced a copy of his secret treaty with the Catholics, -in which he had inserted an article called a _defeasance_, by which the -king was bound by the treaty no further than he pleased till he had -seen what the Catholics did for him, and by which the Catholics were -to keep this clause secret till the king had done all in his power to -secure their claims. - -Surely such a system of royal and political hocus-pocus had never been -concerted before. Ormond, on seeing the defeasance, declared that -it was quite satisfactory, binding the king to nothing; in fact, he -had to avoid the danger of alarming the Catholics and losing their -army for the king; and the Protestants having seen the affected zeal -to prosecute Glamorgan had become greatly appeased. Glamorgan was, -therefore, liberated, and hastened again to Kilkenny to urge on the -sending of the forces. But the late disclosures had not been without -their effect. One part of the council insisted on the full execution -of the king's warrant, the open acknowledgment of Catholicism as the -established religion, and the pope's nuncio, Runcini, who had lately -arrived, strongly urged them to stand by that demand. But another part -of the council were more compliant, and by their aid Glamorgan obtained -five thousand men, with whom he marched to Waterford, to hasten their -passage for the relief of Chester, where Lord Byron was driven to -extremities by the Parliamentarians. There, however, he received the -news that Chester had fallen, and there was not a single port left -where Glamorgan could land his troops; he therefore disbanded them. - -Despite the failure of his efforts, the unfortunate monarch still -endeavoured to negotiate some terms for himself, first with one party -and then with another, or with all together. The Parliament had treated -with contempt two offers of negotiation from him. They did not even -deign him an answer. But his circumstances were now such that he -submitted to insults that a short time before would have been deemed -incredible. On the 29th of January, 1646, he made his second offer; he -repeated it on the 23rd of March. He offered to disband his forces, -dismantle his garrisons--he had only five, Pendennis in Cornwall, -Worcester, Newark, Raglan, and Oxford--and to take up his residence -at Westminster, near the Parliament, on a guarantee that he and his -followers should be suffered to live in honour and safety, and his -adherents should retain their property. But the Parliament were now -wholly in the ascendant, and they made the wretched king feel it. -Instead of a reply, they issued an order that if he should come within -their lines, he should be conducted to St. James's, his followers -imprisoned, and none be allowed to have access to him. At the same time -they ordered all Catholics, and all who had borne arms for the king, -to depart within six days, or expect to be treated as spies, and dealt -with by martial law. - -But whilst thus ignominiously repelled by Parliament, Montreuil was -still pursuing negotiations on his behalf with the Scots. He obtained -for the purpose the post of agent from the French Court to Scotland, -and with some difficulty obtained from the Parliament leave to visit -the king at Oxford with letters from the King of France and the Queen -Regent, before proceeding northwards. He employed his time there in -urging Charles to agree with the Scots by conceding the point of -religion; and at length it was concluded that Charles should force -his way through the Parliamentary army investing Oxford, and that the -Scots at Newark should send three hundred horse to receive him, and -escort him to their army. Montreuil delivered to Charles an engagement -from the Scottish commissioners for the king's personal safety, his -conscience, and his honour, as well as for the security and religious -freedom of his followers. This was also guaranteed by the King and -Queen Regent of France on behalf of the Scots who had applied to them -for their good offices. Charles wrote to Ormond in Ireland, informing -him that he had received this security, and on the 3rd of April, 1646, -Montreuil set forward northwards. - -[Illustration: ENGLAND During the CIVIL WAR 1642-1649. - -_Artiste Illustrators. Ltd. 84_] - -Montreuil carried with him an order from the king to Lord Bellasis, -to surrender Newark into the hands of the Scots, but on arriving at -Southwell, in the camp of the Scots, he was astonished to find that the -leaders of the army professed ignorance of the conditions made with the -Scottish Commissioners in London. They would not, therefore, undertake -the responsibility of meeting and escorting the king--which they -declared would be a breach of the solemn league and covenant between -the two nations--till they had conferred with their Commissioners, -and made all clear. The security mentioned by Charles to Ormond -would, if this were true, have been from the Commissioners only; and -there must have been gross neglect in not apprising the officers of -it. Montreuil was greatly disconcerted by this discovery, burnt the -order for the surrender of Newark, and wrote to Charles to inform him -of the unsatisfactory interview with the Scots. It is doubtful whether -Charles ever received this letter. At all events, impatient of some -results, for the Parliamentary army was fast closing round Oxford, he -snatched at another chance. Captain Fawcett, Governor of Woodstock, -sent to tell him that that garrison was reduced to extremities, and to -inquire whether he might expect relief, or whether he should surrender -it on the best terms he could obtain. Charles immediately applied to -Colonel Rainsborough, the chief officer conducting the siege of Oxford, -for passports for the Earl of Southampton and Lindsay, Sir William -Fleetwood, and Mr. Ashburnham, to treat with him about the surrender -of Woodstock; but the main thing was to propose the coming of the king -to them on certain conditions. Rainsborough and the other officers -appeared much pleased, but said they could not decide so important an -affair without reference to their superior officers, but if the offer -were entertained, they would the next day send a pass for them to -come and complete the negotiation. If the pass did not come, it must -be understood that the offer was not accepted. No pass came, and the -king was reduced to great straits, for the Parliamentarian armies were -coming closer and closer. He applied then to Ireton who was posted at -Woodstock, but he returned him no answer; to Vane, but he referred -him to Parliament; and thus was the humiliated king treated with the -most insulting contempt. It was believed that it was the intention of -Parliament to keep Charles there till Fairfax and Cromwell, who were -now marching up from the west, should arrive, when they would capture -him and have him at their mercy. - -At length Montreuil informed Charles that deputies from the army had -met the Commissioners at Royston, and that it was settled to receive -the king. There are conflicting accounts of the proceedings at this -period. Clarendon and Ashburnham, who have both left narratives, vary -considerably. Ashburnham, the king's groom of the chambers, says that -word was sent that David Leslie would meet his majesty at Gainsborough -with two thousand horse, but Montreuil's message was that the Scots -would send a strong party to Burton-on-Trent, beyond which they could -not go with that force, but would send a few straggling horse to -Harborough, and if the king informed them of the day he would be there, -they would not fail him. As to a proposal that Charles was impolitic -enough to make to these Scottish Covenanters, to form a junction with -Montrose, a man whom they hated with a deadly hatred for his ravages -and slaughters of their party, they treated it with scorn; and, says -Montreuil, "with regard to the Presbyterian government, they desire -his majesty to agree with them as soon as he can. Such is the account -they make here of the engagement of the king, my master, and of the -promises I had from their party in London." He adds that if any better -conditions could be had from any other quarter, these ought not to -be thought of. Montreuil wrote twice more, the last time on the 20th -of April, expressing no better opinion of the Scots, and saying that -they would admit none of his majesty's followers save his two nephews, -Rupert and Maurice, and such servants as were not excepted from the -pardon; and that they could not then refuse to give them up to the -Parliament, but would find means to let them escape. - -A gloomier prospect for the king than the one in that quarter could -scarcely present itself. It appears that he had not yet agreed to -the ultimatum of the Scots--the concession of the supremacy of the -Presbyterian Church--and therefore there was no actual treaty between -them. But all other prospects were closed; Charles must choose between -the Scots and the Parliament, the latter body pursuing a contemptuous -and ominous silence. Fairfax and Cromwell were now within a day's march -of the city, and Charles made his choice of the Scots. Yet so undecided -even at the moment of escaping from the city was he, that he would not -commit himself irrevocably to the Scots, by announcing to them his -departure and the direction of his journey. It is remarkable, indeed, -that he had not before, or even now, thought of endeavouring to escape -to Ireland, and making a second stand there with the confederates, or -of getting to the Continent and awaiting a turn of fortune. But he -seemed altogether like a doomed mortal who could not fly his fate. - -About two o'clock on the morning of the 27th of April, Charles set out -from Oxford, disguised as the servant of Ashburnham. He had his hair -cut short by Ashburnham, and rode after that gentleman and Hudson the -chaplain, who knew the country well and was their guide. They rode -out unsuspected over Magdalen Bridge, Charles having, groom-like, -a cloak strapped round his waist. To prevent particular attention -or pursuit, several others of them rode out at the same time in -different directions. Charles and his pretended masters got without -suspicion through the lines of the Parliamentary army, and reached -Henley-on-Thames. But now that he was in temporary safety, he appeared -more undecided than ever. He did not attempt to send word to the Scots -to meet him; but, says Clarendon, he was uncertain whether to go to the -Scottish army, or to get privately into London, and lie concealed there -till he might choose what was best. Clarendon declares that he still -thought so well of the City of London, as not to have been unwilling to -have found himself there. But certainly the City had never shown itself -more favourable to him than the Parliament; and now with the Parliament -in the ascendant, it was not likely that it would undertake to contend -with it for the protection or rights of the king. Charles still trusted -that he might hear of Montrose making a fresh movement on his behalf, -in which case he would endeavour to get to him; and he never for long -after abandoned the hope of still hearing something from Ireland in his -favour. From Henley, he therefore directed his way to Slough, thence -to Uxbridge, Hillingdon, Brentford, so near did he reach London, and -then again off to Harrow. His uncertainty increased more and more. He -proceeded towards St. Albans, and near that town was alarmed by the -sound of horses' feet behind them. It was only a drunken man; but to -avoid danger they kept out of St. Albans, and continued through the -bye-ways to Harborough, where he was on the 28th. Two days afterwards -he reached Downham in Norfolk, and spent some time in inquiring after a -vessel that might carry him to Newcastle or Scotland. He seems to have -expected at Harborough some message from the Scots or from Montreuil, -but as none was there, he had despatched Hudson to Montreuil at -Southwell. No prospect of escape by sea offering--for the coasts were -strictly guarded by the Parliamentary vessels--Charles determined to -go over to the Scots on Hudson returning with a message from Montreuil -that they still declared that they would receive the king on his -personal honour; that they would press him to do nothing contrary to -his conscience; that Ashburnham and Hudson should be protected; that -if the Parliament refused, on a message from the king, to restore him -to his rights and prerogatives, they would declare for him, and take -all his friends under their protection; and that if the Parliament did -agree to restore the king, not more than four of his friends should be -punished, and that only by banishment. All this Montreuil, according to -Hudson's own account afterwards to Parliament, assured Charles by note, -but added that the Scots would only give it by word of mouth and not by -writing. - -At the best this was suspicious; but where was the king to turn? He was -treated with the most contemptuous silence by the Parliament, which was -at this very moment hoping to make him unconditionally their prisoner. -Fairfax had drawn his lines of circumvallation round Oxford five days -after the king's departure, ignorant that he had escaped, and in the -full hope of taking him. For nine days Charles was wandering about, -nobody knowing where he was, and during that time Clarendon says he had -been in different gentlemen's houses, where "he was not unknown, but -untaken notice of." - -On the 5th of May he resolved, on the report of Hudson, to go to the -Scots, and accordingly, early on that morning he rode into Southwell, -to Montreuil's lodgings, and announced his intention. The manner -in which he was received there is related in very contradictory -terms by Ashburnham and Clarendon. Ashburnham says that some of the -Scottish Commissioners came to Montreuil's lodgings to receive him, -and accompanied him with a troop of horse to the headquarters of the -Scottish army at Kelham, where they went after dinner, and were well -received, many lords coming instantly to wait on him with professions -of joy that his majesty had so far honoured their army as to think it -worthy of his presence after so long an opposition. Clarendon, on the -other hand, declares that "very early in the morning he went to the -general's lodgings, and discovered himself to him, who either was, or -seemed to be, exceedingly surprised and confounded at his majesty's -presence, and knew not what to say, but presently gave notice to the -committee, who were no less perplexed." - -Both of them, however, agree that the Scots soon convinced Charles that -they considered that he had surrendered himself unconditionally into -their hands; that he had not complied with their terms, and that there -was no treaty actually between them; and from all that appears, this -was the case. Charles had trusted to the assurances of Montreuil, and -had really no written evidence of any engagement on the part of the -Scots, nor was any ever produced. Some of the lords, says Ashburnham, -desiring to know how they might best testify their gratitude to his -majesty for the confidence he had reposed in them, he replied that the -only way was to apply themselves to the performance of the conditions -on which he had come to them. At the word "conditions," Lord Lothian -expressed much surprise, and declared he knew of no conditions -concluded, nor did he believe any of the Commissioners residing with -the army knew of such. On this Charles desired Montreuil to present a -summary of the conditions concluded with the Commissioners in London, -sanctioned by the King of France. It should, however, be borne in mind -that since then the army Commissioners had met with the commissioners -from London at Royston, and had agreed to the terms to be offered -to the king. When Ashburnham, therefore, affirms that many of the -Commissioners of the army still protested their ignorance of these -conditions, it can only mean that such conditions were not concluded -with the king, either there or anywhere, for Charles had never -consented to accept them. When Charles, therefore, asked them what they -meant, then, by inviting him to come to them, and why they had sent -word that all differences were reconciled, and that David Leslie should -meet him with an escort of horse, they replied that this was on the -understanding that his majesty meant to accept their terms, from which -they had never receded, and that they now thought that by his coming to -them he had meant to accept the cardinal condition--the taking of the -Covenant. - -[Illustration: FLIGHT OF CHARLES FROM OXFORD. (_See p._ 51.)] - -Charles must have been well aware of the truth of all this, but he was -a man who played fast and loose so constantly, that it was impossible -to make any treaty with him. At the very time that he was preparing -to leave Oxford, so alive were all these quibbles and evasions in his -mind, that he wrote to Lord Digby, expressing his intention to get to -London if he could, "not," he says, "without hope that I shall be able -so to draw either the Presbyterians or the Independents to side with -me, for extirpating one another, that I shall really be king again." -This proves that on setting out from Oxford, he had held himself loose -from any compact with the Scots, and did not mean to go to them at all -if he could manage to cozen the Presbyterians or Independents to take -his part, and "extirpate one another." - -Such a man was as slippery as an eel. He now insisted solemnly on the -existence of the very conditions that he had purposely kept clear of. -The Scots stood by their offered terms, and exhorted him to accept -the Covenant, entreating him with tears and on their knees to take -it, or to sanction the Presbyterian worship if he could not adopt it, -and pledging themselves on that condition to fight for him to the -last man. But this Charles would not do. He was still--though beaten -and voluntarily surrendered to his enemies--as full of the persuasion -of the divinity of kingship as ever. He therefore undertook to give -the word to the guard, in virtue of his being the chief person in the -army; but old Leven quickly undeceived him, by saying, "I am the older -soldier; your majesty had better leave that office to me." - -It was now necessary to apprise the Parliament of the king having -entered their camp--a piece of intelligence which produced a wonderful -sensation. Fairfax had already announced to the Parliament that the -king had escaped out of Oxford, and was believed to have gone towards -London, whereupon the two Houses had issued a proclamation forbidding -any one to harbour or conceal his person on pain of high treason, and -of forfeiting the whole of their estate, and being put to death without -mercy. All Papists and other disaffected persons were ordered, on the -supposition that the king might be in London, to remove before the 12th -of May to twenty-five miles' distance from the metropolis, leaving, -before they went, a notice at Goldsmiths' Hall of the places to which -they intended to retire. When the letter arrived from the Scottish -Commissioners, the Parliament was filled with jealousy and alarm. -There had long been a feeling of the design of the Scots, supported -by the Presbyterians, assuming an undue power; and now to hear that -they had the king in their hands was most embarrassing. They instantly -sent word to the Scots that his majesty must be disposed of according -to the will of the two Houses of Parliament, and that for the present -he must be sent to Warwick Castle; that Ashburnham and Hudson, the -king's attendants, should be sent for by the sergeant-at-arms or his -deputy, to be dealt with as delinquents; and that a narrative must be -prepared of the manner in which the king came to the Scottish camp, -and forthwith sent to the two Houses. To enforce these orders, they -commanded Poyntz to watch the Scottish army with five thousand men, and -Sir Thomas Fairfax to prepare to follow him. - -The Scots were not prepared to enter into a civil war with England -for the restoration of the king, who would not comply even with their -propositions; but they knew too well the power they possessed in the -possession of his person, to let the Parliament frighten them out -of their advantage till they had secured their own terms with them. -They therefore immediately addressed a letter to the Parliament, -expressing their astonishment at finding the king coming among them, -for which they solemnly but untruly protested there had been no treaty -nor capitulation. Perhaps they saved their word by meaning no treaty -concluded. They assured the two Houses that they would do everything -possible to maintain a right understanding between the two kingdoms, -and therefore solicited their advice, as they had also sent to solicit -that of the Committee of Estates in Scotland, as to the best measures -to be adopted for the satisfactory settlement of the affairs of the -kingdom. Charles also sent to Parliament, repeating his offers of -accommodation and requesting the two Houses to forward to him the -propositions for peace. To show his sincerity, he ordered his officers -to surrender the fortresses still in their hands to the Committee of -both kingdoms for the English Parliament. He had offered to surrender -them to the Scots, but they refused to accept them, knowing that it -must embroil them with the Parliament. This surrender on the part of -the king, on the 10th of June, closed the war. The last to pull down -the royal standard was the old Marquis of Worcester, the father of -Glamorgan, who held Raglan Castle, and who, though he was eighty years -of age, was compelled by Parliament to travel from Raglan to London, -where he immediately died. Worcester had refused to give up Raglan, -as it was his own house. He did not surrender it till the 19th of -August. Oxford was given up on the 24th of June. Rupert and Maurice -were suffered to withdraw to the Continent. The Duke of York, Charles's -second son, was sent up to London to the custody of Parliament, and put -under the care of the Earl of Northumberland. - -Things being in this position, and both Charles and the Scots being -anxious to keep at a distance from Fairfax and his army till the terms -were settled, the Scots rapidly retreated to Newcastle, carrying the -king with them. - -The treaty between the Scots and the English Parliament was now carried -on with much diplomacy on both sides, and was not finally settled -till the 16th of January, 1647. The Scots, soon after leaving Newark, -proposed a meeting with the Parliamentary Commissioners, to explain -the reasons of their retreat northwards, and also for not surrendering -Ashburnham and Hudson; but the meeting did not take place, and soon -after Ashburnham contrived to escape and get into France, to the queen. -Charles said that he could have escaped, too, had he been so disposed; -but Hudson attempting it, was stopped. - -Charles did not neglect to try the effect of brilliant promises on -David Leslie and others of the Scottish officers, if they would side -with him and make a junction with Montrose for his restoration. He -offered to make David Earl of Orkney, but the Committee of Estates sent -the Earls of Argyll and Loudon, and Lord Lanark, to Newcastle, to see -that all was kept in order in the camp; and they told Charles plainly -that he must take the Covenant, and order Montrose to disband his -forces in the Highlands, if he expected them to do anything important -for him. Charles consented to order the disbanding of Montrose's -followers and his retirement to France, but he could not bring himself -to accept the Covenant. In fact, on the same day that he gave the -order to surrender his remaining fortresses, he sent a letter to the -English Parliament, informing them that he was in full freedom, and -in a capacity to settle with them a peace, and offering to leave the -question of religion to the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, to -place the militia in their hands as proposed at Uxbridge, for seven -years, and, in short, to do all in his power to settle the kingdom -without further effusion of blood. The Parliament, however, knew that -he was in no condition to make war on them, and were too sensible of -their power to notice such overtures, further than that they thought -his terms now too high. - -At this very time Charles was in active secret endeavour to obtain an -army from Ireland and France. Glamorgan and the Pope's nuncio were -busy in Ireland; the queen was equally busy in France; Mazarin again -promised her ten thousand men, and incited Lord Jermyn to seize Jersey -and Guernsey; and the king, though he had ordered Montrose to disband -his forces and quit Scotland, desired him to be ready to raise the -royal standard once more in the Highlands in conjunction with the -French and Irish. All these wild schemes, however, were knocked on -the head by the Earl of Ormond making peace with the Parliament on -condition that he should recover his estates. He surrendered the Castle -of Dublin and the fortresses to Parliament, went over to England, and -all hope of aid from Ireland was at an end. - -Whilst these political designs were in agitation, Charles was deeply -engaged with the religious difficulty of giving up Episcopacy and -consenting to the dominance of Presbyterianism. He consulted Juxon, -the ex-Bishop of London, and gave him leave to advise with Dr. -Sheldon and the late Bishop of Salisbury, whether he might not accept -Presbyterianism as a man under compulsion, and therefore not really -bound by it; and he was at the same time engaged with Alexander -Henderson on the Scriptural authority of Episcopacy or Presbyterianism. -During this dispute, in which each champion supported his opinion with -Scriptural passages, and yet came no nearer than such disputants ever -do, the Scottish divine was taken ill and died, and the Royalists -declared that the king had so completely worsted him that he died of -chagrin. - -On the 23rd of July the English Parliament at length made proposals -of peace, sending the Earls of Pembroke, Denbigh, and Montague, and -six members of the Commons, to Newcastle, to treat with him. The -conditions were not so favourable as those offered at Uxbridge, things, -indeed, being now very different; the great point, however, being the -abandonment of Episcopacy. They were to receive an answer or return -in ten days; but the king would not yield the question of the Church. -The Scottish Commissioners were present, and urged the king warmly to -consent to the conditions, and thus to restore peace. The Earls of -Loudon and Argyll implored it on their knees. Then Loudon, Chancellor -of Scotland, told him "that the consequences of his answer to the -propositions were so great, that on it depended the ruin of his crown -and kingdoms; that the Parliament, after many bloody battles, had -got the strongholds and forts of the kingdom into their hands; that -they had his revenue, excise, assessments, sequestrations, and power -to raise all the men and money in the kingdom; that they had gained -victory over all, and that they had a strong army to maintain it, so -that they might do what they would with Church or State; that they -desired neither him nor any of his race longer to reign over them, -and had sent these propositions to his majesty, without the granting -whereof the kingdom and his people would not be in safety; that if -he refused to assent, he would lose all his friends in Parliament, -lose the city, and lose the country; and that all England would join -against him as one man to process and depose him, and to set up another -Government; and that both kingdoms for safety would be compelled to -agree to settle religion and peace without him, to the ruin of his -majesty and posterity;" and he concluded by saying, "that if he left -England, he would not be allowed to go and reign in Scotland." This, -it must be confessed, was plain and honest, and therefore loyal and -patriotic speaking. The General Assembly of the Kirk had already come -to this conclusion; but all was lost on the king. - -Parliament now having proved that all negotiation was useless, their -Commissioners returned, and reported that they could obtain no -answer from the king, except that he was ready to come up to London -and treat in person. A Presbyterian member, on hearing this report, -exclaimed--"What will become of us, now the king has rejected our -propositions?" "Nay," replied an Independent member, "what would have -become of us had he accepted them?" And really it is difficult to -see what could have been the condition of the kingdom had a man of -Charles's incorrigible character been again admitted to power. The -Parliament returned thanks to the Scottish Commissioners for their -zealous co-operation in the endeavour to arrange matters with the -king--a severe blow to Charles, who had till now clung to the hope of -seizing some advantage from the jealousies which for many months had -prevailed between the Parliament and the Scottish army. - -On the 12th of August the Scottish Commissioners presented a paper to -the House of Lords, stating that the kingdom of Scotland had, on the -invitation of both Houses, carefully undertaken and faithfully managed -their assistance in the kingdom towards obtaining the ends expressed -in the covenant; and as the forces of the common enemy were now broken -and destroyed, through the blessing of God, they were willing to -surrender up the fortresses in their hands, and retire into their own -country, on a reasonable compensation being made for their sufferings -and expenses. They stated truly that many base calumnies and execrable -aspersions had been cast upon them by printed pamphlets and otherwise, -which they had not suffered to turn them from that brotherly affection -which was requisite for the great end in view, and which they trusted -would yet be effected, notwithstanding the lamentable refusal of their -propositions by the king. They claimed, moreover, still to be consulted -on the measure for accomplishing the common object of peace for the -kingdom. The Commons appointed a committee to settle the accounts -between them. The Scots demanded six hundred thousand pounds as the -balance due, but agreed to receive four hundred thousand pounds, one -half of which was to be paid before quitting the kingdom. - -Scarcely had this amicable arrangement been made, when the two English -Houses of Parliament passed a resolution that the disposal of the -king's person belonged to them. This alarmed the Scots, who instantly -remonstrated, saying that as Charles was king of Scotland as well as -of England, both nations had an equal right to be consulted regarding -the disposal of his person. This is a sufficient answer to the calumny -so zealously propagated by the Royalists that the Scots had sold -the king to the Parliament. On the contrary, they had claimed a sum -of money as a just payment of their expenses and services, and the -person or liberty of the king had not entered at all into the bargain. -This bargain, in fact, was made five months--that is, on the 5th of -September--before they delivered up the king, that is, on the 30th -of January, 1647, and during these five months they were zealously -engaged in contending for the personal security of the monarch to the -very verge of a civil war. All this time they strove equally to induce -Charles to accept the terms, which would have removed all difficulties. -From September 21st, when the English Parliament voted this resolution, -to October 13th, a fierce contest was carried on on this subject, and -various conferences were held. The Scots published their speeches on -these occasions; the English seized them, and imprisoned the printers; -there was imminent danger of civil war, and on the 13th of October the -Commons voted payment for the army for the next six months, giving an -unmistakable proof of their resolve on the question. - -All this was beheld with delight by Charles; and he wrote to his wife -that he believed yet that they would have to restore him with honour. -He believed one party or the other would, to settle the question, -concede all to him, and with his sanction put the other down. For some -time the public spirit in Scotland favoured his hopes. The question -was discussed there with as much vehemence as in England. His friends -exerted themselves, the national feeling was raised in his favour, -and the Scottish Parliament passed a vote on the 10th of December, -under the management of the Hamiltons, that they would exert all their -power and influence to maintain the monarchical system of government, -and the king's title to the English crown, which it was now notorious -that the Independents sought to subvert. This gave wonderful spirit -to the royal party; but the Commission of the Kirk instantly reminded -Parliament that Charles had steadily refused to take the Covenant, and -that even if he were deposed in England, he could not be allowed to -come into Scotland; or if he did enter it, his royal functions must be -suspended till he had embraced the Covenant, and given freedom to their -religion. This brought the Parliament to reflection, and the next day -it rescinded the resolution. - -[Illustration: QUEEN HENRIETTA'S DRAWING-ROOM AND BEDROOM, MERTON -COLLEGE, OXFORD.] - -This dashed the last hopes of the king, and, now that it was too late, -he began seriously to contemplate escape to the Continent. Montreuil -wrote to the French Court on the 21st of January, 1647--the very day -that the money was paid to the Scots, and a receipt given previous to -their departure--that Charles still continued to dream of escaping, -though to himself it appeared impossible, unless the Scots had rather -see him do so than fall into the hands of the Independents. The king -had arranged with Sir Robert and William Murray his scheme of escape in -disguise, but it was found impossible. Once more, therefore, he wrote -to the Parliament of England for permission to go to London and open -a free debate with both Houses for the settlement of all differences. -The message received no notice whatever; but the two Houses went on -debating as to the disposal of the king's person. The Lords voted -that he should be allowed to come to Newmarket; the Commons that he -should go to Holmby, in Northampton, one of his houses, to which he was -considerably attached. After further debate this was agreed to by the -Lords. - -The Scots, seeing that they must yield up the person of Charles to -the English Parliament or prepare to fight for it, asked themselves -what they were to gain by a civil war for a king who would not move -one jot towards complying with their wishes? They made one more effort -to persuade him to take the Covenant, but in vain. In reply to their -solicitation, he made this ominous reply:--"It is a received opinion by -many, that engagements, acts, or promises of a restrained person, are -neither valid nor obligating; how true or false this is I will not now -dispute, but I am sure if I be not free, I am not fit to answer your or -any propositions." And he demanded if he went to Scotland whether he -should be free, with honour and safety. It was clear what was in his -mind--that if he did take the Covenant he would be at liberty to break -it when he had the power; and as the Scots had determined that they -would not receive him into Scotland at the certain cost of civil war, -when they could with such a person have no possible guarantee of his -keeping his engagements even were he brought to make them, they replied -that he must at once accept their propositions, or they must leave -him to the resolution of Parliament. Two days afterwards (the 16th of -January, 1647), the Parliament of Scotland acceded to the demand of the -English Parliament that the king should be given up, a promise being -exacted that respect should be had to the safety of his person in the -defence of the true religion, and the liberties of the two kingdoms, -according to the Solemn League and Covenant. More was demanded by the -Scots, namely, that no obstacle should be opposed to the legitimate -succession of his children, and no alteration made in the existing -government of the kingdom. To this the Lords fully assented, but the -Commons took no notice of it. - -On the 5th of January the two hundred thousand pounds, engaged to -be paid to the Scots before leaving England, arrived at Newcastle, -in thirty-six carts, under a strong escort, and having been duly -counted, a receipt was signed on the 21st at Northallerton, and on the -30th Charles was committed to the care of the English Commissioners, -consisting of three lords and six commoners, the Earl of Pembroke being -at their head. He professed to be pleased with the change, as it would -bring him nearer to his Parliament. The Scots, having finished their -business in England, evacuated Newcastle, and marched away into their -own country. - -In all these transactions we have endeavoured in vain to discover any -ground for the common calumny against the Scots, that they bought -and sold the king. On the contrary, we have shown that all contract -regarding their reimbursements and remunerations was completed five -months before the delivery of the king; and that they did all in their -power to induce him to accept their Covenant, and with that their -pledge to defend him to the last drop of their blood. Montreuil says, -that even at the last moment the Earls of Lauderdale and Traquair -again pressed the king to consent to accept the Covenant and establish -Presbyterianism, and they would convey him to Berwick and compel the -English to be satisfied with what he had thus offered them. He stated -that the Scots offered him (Montreuil) twenty thousand Jacobuses to -persuade the king to comply, but that he could not prevail. It must -be remembered, too, that when they did surrender him, it was only on -promise of safety to his person, and that they delivered him not to the -Independents, who made no secret of their designs against the monarchy, -but to their fellow believers, the Parliament, which entertained no -such intentions, and had already offered Charles the same terms on the -same conditions. - -Before the close of this year, that is in September, the Earl of Essex -died; Ireton married Bridget Cromwell, second daughter of Oliver -Cromwell; and a great number of officers in the army were again in -Parliament--the Self-denying Ordinance, having served its turn, being -no more heard of. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -END OF THE REIGN OF CHARLES I. - - Differences between the Presbyterians and Independents--The King - at Holmby--Attempt to Disband the Army--Consequent Petitions - to Parliament--The Adjutators--Meeting at Newmarket--Seizure - of the King--Advance of the Army on London--Stubbornness - of the Presbyterians--The Army Marches through London--Its - Proposals to Charles--Their Rejection--The King throws away - his Best Chances--The Levellers--Cromwell's Efforts on - behalf of Charles--Renewed Intrigues of Charles--Flight to - Carisbrooke--Attempts to Rescue the King--Charles Treats with the - Scots--Consequent Reaction in his Favour--Battle of Preston and - Suppression of the Insurrection--Cromwell at Edinburgh--The Prince - of Wales in Command of the Fleet--Negotiations at Newport--Growing - Impatience of the Army--Petitions for the King's Trial--Charles's - Blindness and Duplicity--He is Removed to Hurst Castle--Pride's - Purge--Supremacy of the Independents--The Whiggamores--Hugh Peters' - Sermon in St. Margaret's, Westminster--Ordinance for the King's - Trial--Trial and Execution of Charles I. - - -For a long time the difference of opinion between the Presbyterians -and the Independents had been growing more marked and determined. -The latter, from a small knot of Dissenters, had grown into a -considerable one, and the more influential, because the most able -and active, leaders of both Parliament and army were of that sect. -Under the head of Independents, however, ranged themselves, so far as -politics were concerned, a variety of other Dissenters--Arminians, -Millenaries, Baptists and Anabaptists, Familists, Enthusiasts, Seekers, -Perfectists, Socinians, Arians, and others--all of whom claimed freedom -of worship, according to their peculiar faiths. On the other hand, -the Presbyterians, backed by the Scots, were bent on establishing a -religious despotism. Their tenets and form of government were alone -to be tolerated. They were as resolute sticklers for conformity as -the Catholics, or Charles and Laud themselves. They set up the same -claims to be superior to the State, and allowed of no appeal from their -tribunals to those of the civil magistrate. Having established the -Directory for the form of worship, they erected an assembly, with its -synods, and divided the whole kingdom into provinces, the provinces -into classes, the classes into presbyteries or elderships. They -declared that "the keys of the kingdom of heaven were committed to the -officers of the Church, by virtue whereof they had power to retain and -remit sins, to shut the kingdom of heaven against the impenitent by -censures, and to open it to the penitent by absolution." They claimed a -right to inquire into the private lives of persons, and of suspending -the unworthy from the Sacrament. - -All these assumptions the Independents denied, and would not admit -any authority over the free action of individual congregations. The -Commons, through the influence of Selden and Whitelock, proposed -to the Assembly of Divines nine questions respecting the nature and -object of the divine right to which they aspired, and before they could -answer these, the army and the Independents, its leaders, had effected -still more embarrassing changes. The king being conquered, and the -Scots having withdrawn, the contest lay no longer between the king and -Parliament, but between the Presbyterians and Independents, or, what -was nearly synonymous, the Parliament and the Army. - -The king was conducted to Holmby by easy journeys, and treated by his -attendants with courtesy. The people flocked to see him, and showed -that the traditions of royalty were yet strong in them. They received -him with acclamations, uttered prayers for his preservation, and not -a few of them pressed forward to be touched for the "evil." On his -arrival at Holmby, he found a great number of ladies and gentlemen -assembled to welcome him, with every demonstration of pleasure, and -his house and table well appointed and supplied. He passed his time in -reading, in riding about the country, and in different amusements--as -chess and bowls, riding to Althorpe, or even to Harrowden, because -there was no good bowling-green at Holmby. One thing only he complained -of, and requested to have altered. The Parliament sent him clergymen -of their own persuasion to attend him; he begged that any two out -of his twelve chaplains might be substituted, but was refused. -The Presbyterian ministers allotted him were Thomas Herbert, and -Harrington, the author of "Oceana," with whose conversation Charles was -much pleased on all subjects but religion and form of government. But -though Charles passed the bulk of his time in relaxation, he was not -insensible to his situation; and when he had been left there for three -months without notice, he addressed to Parliament a letter in which -he proposed to allow Presbyterian Church government for three years, -his own liberty of worship being granted, and twenty clergymen of the -Church of England admitted to the Westminster Assembly; the question of -religion at the end of that period was to be finally settled by himself -and the two Houses in the usual way, and the command of the army was -also to be left to Parliament for ten years, and then to revert to -him. The Lords gladly assented to this offer, but the Commons did not -entertain it, and other matters soon claimed their attention. - -The Presbyterians had, during the active engagements of the army, and -the consequent absence of the leading Independents, strengthened their -ranks by many new members of Parliament, and they now set about to -reduce the power of their opponents by disbanding the greater part of -the army. They decreed in February that three thousand horse, twelve -hundred dragoons, and eight thousand four hundred foot, should be -withdrawn from Fairfax's army and sent to Ireland, and that besides one -thousand dragoons and five thousand four hundred horse, all the rest of -the army should be disbanded, except as many soldiers as were necessary -to man the forty-five castles and fortresses which remained. This would -have completely prostrated the power of the Independents; and Cromwell, -on whose shrewd character and military success they now looked with -terror, would have been first sacrificed, as well as Ireton, Ludlow, -Blake, Skippon, Harrison, Algernon Sidney, and others, who had fought -the real battle of the late contest. The heads of the Presbyterians -in Parliament consisted of unsuccessful commanders--Holles, Waller, -Harley, Stapleton, and others--who hated the successful ones, both on -account of their brilliant success and of their religion. Fairfax, -though a Presbyterian, went along with his officers in all the love of -toleration. - -It was voted in the Commons, not only that no officer under Fairfax -should have higher rank than that of colonel, but that no one should -hold a commission who did not take the Covenant and conform to the -government of the Church as fixed by Parliament. This would have been -a sweeping measure, had the Parliament not had a very obvious party -motive in it, and had it paid its soldiers, and been in a condition -to discharge them. But at this moment they were immensely in arrears -with the pay of the army, and that body, feeling its strength, at once -broke up its cantonments round Nottingham, and marched towards London, -halting only at Saffron Walden. This movement created a terrible alarm -in the City, Parliament regarded it as a menace, but Fairfax excused -it on the plea of the exhausted state of the country round their old -quarters. The Commons hastened to vote sixty thousand pounds towards -the payment of arrears, which amounted to forty-three weeks for the -horse and eighteen for the infantry. In the City, the Council and -the Presbyterians got up a petition to both Houses, praying that the -army might be removed farther from London; but at the same moment a -more startling one was in progress from the Independents, addressed -to "the supreme authority of the nation, the Commons in Parliament -assembled." It not only gave this significant hint of its opinion -where the real power of the State lay, but denounced the House of -Lords as assuming undue authority, and complained of the persecution -and exclusion from all places of trust of those who could not conform -to the Church government imposed. The House of Commons condemned this -Republican petition, and ordered the army not to approach nearer than -twenty-five miles of London. A deputation was sent down to Saffron -Walden, where Fairfax summoned a convention of officers to answer them. -These gentlemen, on the mention of being sent to Ireland, said they -must know, before they could decide, what regiments, what commanders -were to go, and whether they were sure of getting their arrears and -their future daily pay. They demanded their arrears and some recompense -for past services. The Commissioners, not being able to answer these -demands, returned and reported to the Commons, mentioning also a -petition in progress in the army. Alarmed at this, the Commons summoned -to their bar some of the principal officers--Lieutenant-General -Hammond, Colonel Robert Hammond, his brother, Colonel Robert Lilburn, -Lieutenant-Colonel Grimes, and Colonel Ireton, Cromwell's son-in-law, -a member of the House; and they voted that three regiments, commanded -by the staunch Presbyterian officers Poyntz, Copley, and Bethell should -remain at home. But what roused the army more than all besides, was a -motion made by Denzil Holles, and carried, that the army's petition, -which was not yet presented, was an improper petition, and that all -who were concerned in it should be proceeded against as enemies to the -State and disturbers of the public peace. - -This declaration of the 30th of March was little short of an act of -madness. It could only excite the indignation of a power against -which the Parliament, grown unpopular, and divided against itself, was -but as a reed in a whirlwind. The officers pronounced it "a blot of -infamy" upon them, and the Parliament was glad to attempt to lay the -storm by voting, on the 8th of April, that the regiments of Fairfax, -Cromwell, Rossiter, Whalley, and Graves, should remain in England. A -week afterwards the Commons sent down another deputation, accompanied -by the Earl of Warwick, who harangued the officers earnestly to engage -for Ireland, promising that Major-General Skippon should command them. -Many were pleased with them, but more cried out, "Fairfax and Cromwell! -Give us Fairfax and Cromwell, and then we all go!" - -[Illustration: LORD FAIRFAX. (_After the Portrait by Cooper._)] - -On the return of the deputation without success, the Commons debated -whether they should not disband the whole army. Holles strongly -recommended it, and that they should give the soldiers six weeks' -pay on disbanding. He thought it would be easy then to engage the -men to go to Ireland under other officers, and that four of those -officers who were regarded as most hostile in this movement should -be summoned to the bar of the House. How miserably he was mistaken -was immediately shown, for a petition was presented that very day -(the 27th of April), signed by Lieutenant-General Hammond, fourteen -colonels and lieutenant-colonels, six majors, and one hundred and -thirty captains, lieutenants, and other commissioned officers. It was -drawn up in energetic language, complaining of the calumnies spread -abroad regarding the army, and enumerating the services they had -done, the sacrifices they had made for the Commonwealth, and praying -for the payment of the soldiers' arrears. It declared, indeed, that -this movement of petitioning had commenced amongst the soldiers, and -that the officers had been induced to take it up to prevent anything -unacceptable to the House from being put forward. - -But the petition of the officers did not prevent the petition of the -men. When they saw the Commons did not immediately comply with the -petition of the officers, smarting under the vote of disbandment, -coupled with the withholding of their pay, horse dragoons and infantry -went on their own way. They had lately entered into an association to -make their complaints known. The officers had established a military -council to consult on and take care of the interests of the army, and -the men established a council too. Two commissioned officers, but not -exceeding in rank ensigns, and two private soldiers from each regiment, -met from time to time to discuss the wants of the army. They were -called Adjutators or assistants in the cause, and the word soon became -corrupted into Agitators. Thus there was a sort of army Parliament--the -officers representing the Peers, the soldiers the Commons. The whole -scheme has been, and it is probable very justly, ascribed to the genius -of Cromwell. What confirms the supposition is, that an old friend -of his, Berry, a captain, became its president, and that Ayres and -Desborough, his two particular friends, the latter of whom had married -his sister, were in close communication with the leading officers -amongst the Agitators. - -These movements on the part of the army, and the zealous manner in -which Cromwell rose and vindicated the conduct of the soldiers on this -occasion, warning the House not to drive so loyal and meritorious a -body as the army to desperation, caused them to order him, Skippon, and -Fleetwood to go down to the army and quiet its discontent by assuring -the soldiers of pay and indemnification. These three, on the 7th of -May, met the officers, who demanded time to prepare an answer after -consulting their regiments. There appeared to have been doubts and -dissension sown by the Presbyterians, and as the different regiments -came to opposite conclusions, the Parliament thought it might venture -to disband them. On the 25th it was settled that such regiments as -did not volunteer for Ireland should be disbanded at fixed times and -places. Fairfax, pleading indisposition, left the House and hastened -down to the army, and immediately marched it from Saffron Walden to -Bury St. Edmunds. The soldiers declared that they would not disband -till they were paid, and demanded a rendezvous, declaring that if -the officers did not grant it they would hold it themselves. Fairfax -announced this to the Parliament, praying it to adopt soothing -measures; and that, though he was compelled to comply with a measure -out of order, he would do what he could to preserve it. The House, on -the 28th, sent down the Earl of Warwick, the Lord Delaware, Sir Gilbert -Gerrard, and three other members of the Commons, to promise eight -weeks' pay, and to see the disbanding effected. On hearing the terms -from the Commissioners, the soldiers exclaimed:--"Eight weeks' pay! -We want nearer eight times eight!" There was universal confusion; the -men refused to disband without full payment. They hastened to their -rendezvous at Bury St. Edmunds, each man paying fourpence towards the -expenses; and they ordered that the army should draw together, and a -general rendezvous be held on the 4th of June. At Oxford the soldiers -seized the disbanding money as _part_ payment, and demanded the rest, -or no disbanding. - -On the 4th and 5th of June, accordingly, the grand rendezvous was held -on Kentford Heath, near Newmarket. They entered into a covenant to see -justice done to one and all, and not till then to listen to any other -orders or terms. Meanwhile, a still more extraordinary scene had taken -place, of which the direct springs may be guessed, but which springs -were so closely concealed that no clever historian could ever lay them -bare. Scarcely was the honourable House of Commons in possession of the -news of the Kentford Heath rendezvous, when it was paralysed by this -still more amazing announcement. - -The House of Lords, not liking the proceedings of the army, had ordered -the king for greater safety to be removed from Holmby to Oatlands, -nearer the capital. The army anticipated that move; and by whose orders -no man knows, nor ever will know, Cornet Joyce, of Whalley's regiment, -followed by a strong party of horse, presented himself on the 2nd of -June, a little after midnight, at Holmby House. After surrounding the -house with his troop, said to be one thousand strong, he knocked and -demanded admittance, telling Major-General Brown and Colonel Graves -that he was come to speak to the king. "From whom?" demanded these -officers, awoke from their sleep. "From myself," said Joyce; whereat -they laughed. But Joyce told them it was no laughing matter. They -then advised him to draw off his troops, and in the morning he should -see the Commissioners. Joyce replied that he was not come there to -be advised by them, or to talk to the Commissioners, but to speak to -the king; and speak to him he would, and that soon. At this threat -Brown and Graves bade their soldiers stand to their arms and defend -the place; but the soldiers, instead, threw open the doors, and bade -their old comrades welcome. Joyce then went direct to the chamber of -the Commissioners, and informed them that there was a design to seize -the king, and place him at the head of an army to put down that under -General Fairfax; and that, to prevent another war, he was come to -secure the person of the king, and see that he was not led into further -mischief; for, added the cornet, "there be some who endeavour to pull -down king and people, and set up themselves." - -The Commissioners desired him not to disturb the king's sleep, but -to wait till morning, and they would tell his majesty of his arrival -and business. In the morning Joyce found that Brown had contrived to -send off Graves to fetch up the king's guard; and "some of his damning -blades did say and swear they would fetch a party." But Joyce--a stout -fellow for a tailor, which he had been--did not trouble himself about -that, for he knew the guard would not move, and at length insisted on -being admitted to the king himself. - -According to Joyce's own account, it was ten o'clock in the evening -again when he was ushered, with two or three of his followers, into -the royal presence. The soldiers took off their hats, and displayed no -rudeness, but a blunt proceeding to business. According to Clarendon, -the cornet told the king that he was sorry to have disturbed his sleep, -but that he must go with him. Charles asked whither. He said to the -army. But where was the army, replied the king. The cornet said they -would show him. His majesty asked by what authority they came. Joyce -said "By this!" and showed him his pistol, and desired his majesty to -cause himself to be dressed, because it was necessary they should make -haste. The king sent for the Commissioners, who asked Joyce whether he -had any order from Parliament. He said no. From the general? No. What, -then, was his authority? He gave the same reply as to the king, by -holding up his pistol. They said they would write to the Parliament to -learn its pleasure, to which Joyce replied, they could do so, but the -king meanwhile must go with him. - -Finding that the soldiers sent for would not come, and that the -officers of the guard said that Joyce's troop were not soldiers of one -regiment, but drawn from several regiments, and that Joyce was not -their proper officer, it was clear that there was a general design -in the affair, and the king said he would go with them at six in -the morning. At the hour appointed the king appeared on horseback, -and found the troop all mounted and ready. The king had overnight -demanded of Joyce whether he should be forced to do anything against -his conscience, and whether he should have his servants with him; and -Joyce replied that there was no intention to lay any constraint on -his majesty, only to prevent his being made use of to break up the -army before justice had been done to it. Before starting, Charles -again demanded from Joyce, in the presence of the troop, where was his -commission, enjoining him to deal ingenuously with him, and repeating, -"Where, I ask you again, is your commission?" "Here," said Joyce, -"behind me," pointing to the soldiers. Charles smiled, and said, "It is -a fair commission, and as well written as I have ever seen a commission -written in my life; a company of handsome, proper gentlemen, as I have -seen a great while. But what if I should refuse to go with you? I hope -you would not force me. I am your king; you ought not to lay violent -hands on your king. I acknowledge none to be above me here but God." -He then demanded again whither they proposed to conduct him. Oxford -and Cambridge were named, to both of which places Charles objected. -Newmarket was next named, and to that he consented. So the first day -they rode to Hinchinbrook, and the next to Childersley, near Newmarket. - -The news of these proceedings of the army carried consternation into -the two Houses of Parliament, and into the City, where the Presbyterian -party was in full strength. They ordered the immediate arrest of -Cromwell, which they had been intending some time, but they were -informed that he left town the very same morning that Joyce appeared -at Holmby--a significant fact--and was seen riding away with only one -attendant. He reached the headquarters of the army with his horse all -in foam. The House voted to sit all the next day, though it was Sunday, -and have Mr. Marshall to pray for them. Rumour declared that the army -was on its march, and would be there the next day at noon. The House -ordered the Committee of Safety to sit up all night, taking measures -for the protection of the City; the train-bands to be called out, and -all the lines of communication guarded. The next day the shops were -shut, the town was in indescribable confusion, and terror in every -face, as though the army was already there. The Parliament wrote to -Fairfax, commanding that the army should not infringe the order of the -two Houses, by coming within twenty-five miles of London, that the -king should be returned to the care of the Commissioners who attended -him at Holmby, and that Colonel Rossiter's regiment should guard his -person. Fairfax replied that the army had reached St. Albans before he -received their command, but it should proceed no farther; that he had -sent Colonel Whalley with his regiment to meet his majesty on his way -from Holmby, and offered to return him thither, but that he preferred -the air of Newmarket, and that all care should be taken of his person. - -[Illustration: CORNET JOYCE'S INTERVIEW WITH CHARLES. (_See p._ 63.)] - -In fact, Charles was delighted with the change. He had escaped from -the harsh keeping and the strict regimen of the Presbyterians, whom he -detested, and felt himself, as it were, a king again at the head of -an army: the dissensions now rushing on so hotly between his enemies -wonderfully encouraging his hopes of making friends of the more liberal -party. He was in a condition of greater freedom and respect in the -army than he had been at Holmby: there was a larger number of troops -and the officers were superior. He was relieved from the presence of -Cornet Joyce. All restraint being taken off from persons resorting to -him, he saw every day the faces of many that were grateful to him. No -sooner did he ask for the attendance of his own chaplains than those -he named (Drs. Sheldon, Morley, Sanderson, and Hammond) were sent for, -and performed the service regularly, no one being forbidden to attend. -The king was left to his leisure and his friends, only removing with -the army as it moved, and in all places he was as well provided for -and accommodated as he had been in any progress. The best gentlemen, -Clarendon admits, of the several counties through which he passed, -daily resorted to him without distinction. He was attended by some of -his old trusty servants in the places nearest his person. On hearing of -his present condition, the queen sent Sir John Berkeley from Paris, -and his old groom of the chambers, who had been living at Rouen, to be -with him again, and they were freely admitted by Cromwell and Ireton. -"Many good officers," says Clarendon, "who had served his majesty -faithfully, were civilly received by the officers of the army, and -lived quietly in their quarters, which they could not do anywhere -else, which raised a great reputation to the army throughout England, -and as much reproach upon Parliament." This was raised still more by -the army's address to Parliament, desiring that "care might be taken -for settling the king's rights, according to the several professions -they had made in their declarations; and that the royal party might -be treated with more candour and less rigour." Even the most devoted -of Royalists, Sir Philip Warwick, says, "The deep and bloody-hearted -Independents all this while used the king very civilly, admitting -several of his servants and some of his chaplains to attend him, and -officiate by the service-book." - -[Illustration: FAIRFAX HOUSE, PUTNEY. (_From a Photograph by W. Field & -Co., Putney._)] - -The Commons ordered all officers to attend their regiments, and sent -down Commissioners to inform the army of the votes of the two Houses. -The army gave the Commissioners such a reception as no Commissioners -had ever witnessed before. Twenty-one thousand men had assembled to -a rendezvous on Triploe Heath, near Royston; and the General and -the Commissioners rode to each regiment, to acquaint them with the -Parliamentary votes as to their instalment of pay, their disbanding, -and their not approaching within twenty-five miles of London. The -answer was sent up in shouts of "Justice! justice!" A petition also -from the well-affected people of Essex was delivered on the field to -the General in presence of the Commissioners, against the disbanding, -declaring "that the Commonwealth had many enemies, who watched for such -an opportunity to destroy the good people." A memorial was, moreover, -drawn up and signed by the General and all the chief officers, to -the Lord Mayor and Corporation of London, warning them against false -representations of the intentions of the army, for that the war being -at an end, all that they desired and prayed for was that the peace -of the kingdom should be settled according to the declarations of -Parliament before the army was called out, and that being done, the -army should be paid before it was disbanded. - -So far from pacifying the Parliament, these proceedings alarmed it -infinitely more, and it issued an order that the army should not -come within forty-five miles of the capital. On its part, the army -collected addresses from Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and the surrounding -counties, praying the purgation of the House from all such members as -were disqualified from sitting there by corruption, delinquency, abuse -of the State, or undue election; and on the 16th of June, from its -headquarters at St. Albans, the army formally impeached of high treason -eleven of the most active Presbyterian members. This impeachment was -presented to the House by twelve officers of the army--colonels, -lieutenant-colonels, majors, and captains. Within a few days the -General and officers sent a letter to the House, informing it that they -would appoint proper persons to conduct the impeachment, and make good -their charges; and desired the House to suspend the accused forthwith, -as it was not fitting that those persons who had done their best to -prejudice the army should sit as judges of their own actions. - -This, says Clarendon, was an arrow out of their own quiver, which the -Commons did not expect; and though it was a legitimate consequence of -the impeachments of Strafford, Laud, and others, they endeavoured to -set it at defiance. The Parliament and its army were, in fact, come to -the pass which the brave old Royalist, Sir Jacob Astley, had foreseen -when he surrendered his regiment at Stowe, in 1646:--"You have done -your work, my masters, and may go and play, unless you will fall out -amongst yourselves." - -The army, to settle the matter, marched from St. Albans to Uxbridge, -and at that sight the eleven members withdrew from the House of -Commons, and the Commons assumed a modest and complying behaviour, -voting the army under Fairfax to be the real army of England and worthy -of all respect. They sent certain proposals to Fairfax, which induced -him to remove his headquarters from Uxbridge to Wycombe. The eleven -members, looking on this as a degree of submission to Parliament, -immediately plucked up courage, and Holles and the rest appeared in -their places, preferring charges in return against the officers, and -demanding a fair trial. But they soon perceived their mistake, and, -soliciting the Speaker's leave of absence and his passport to go out of -the kingdom, disappeared. - -The struggle between the army and Parliament--that is, between the -Presbyterian and Independent interests--was all this time raging. -For six weeks the army was advancing or retiring, according as the -Parliament acted; the Parliament only giving way through intimidation. -According as affairs stood, the City was either peaceful or in alarm, -now shutting its shops, now carrying on much negotiation; the army -lying still near, and paid more regularly, out of terror, by the -Parliament. At length the army had so far succeeded as to have the -insulting declaration of Holles--"the blot of ignominy"--erased -from the journals of the House, and the ordinance of the 4th of -May--procured by Holles--for the placing of the militia of the City -in more exclusively Presbyterian hands--revoked. But towards the end -of July the strong Presbyterian element in London was again in such -ferment that it forgot its terrors of the army, and proceeded to daring -extremities. The Presbyterian faction demanded that conventicles--that -is, the meeting-houses of all classes, except Presbyterians--should be -closed, and called on the citizens to meet in Guildhall to hear the -Covenant read, and sign an engagement--soldiers, sailors, citizens, and -apprentices--to drive away the army and bring the king to Westminster, -and make a treaty with him. A hundred thousand signatures were put -to this paper, and had the courage been half as great as the bluster -the army had been swept to destruction. On the 26th of July, a few -days afterwards, a vast rabble surrounded the Houses of Parliament, -calling on both Lords and Commons to restore the order regarding -the City militia; they crowded into the Houses with their hats on, -crying, "Vote! vote!" and their numbers keeping the doors open. Under -this intimidation both Lords and Commons voted the restoration of the -Presbyterian ordinance for the change of the militia, and adjourned to -Friday. - -On Friday the two Houses met, but were astonished to find that their -Speakers had fled, accompanied by several members of both Houses, and -were gone to the army. It was found that Sir Henry Vane, the Earl of -Northumberland, the Earl of Warwick, and other Lords and Commoners -were gone. Had it been only Sir Henry Vane and the Independents who -had gone, it would have astonished nobody; but neither Lenthall, the -Speaker of the Commons, nor the Earl of Manchester, the Speaker of -the Lords, was suspected of any great leaning to the army, whilst -Warwick was a staunch Presbyterian, and Northumberland so much in -the favour of that party as to have the care of the royal children. -This circumstance showed the violence of the mob which had forced -Parliament, and rendered moderate men resolved to escape rather than -submit to be its puppets. There were no less than fifteen Lords and a -hundred Commoners who had thus resented mob intimidation. - -On making this lamentable discovery, the two Houses elected temporary -Speakers, and issued orders forbidding the army to advance, recalling -the eleven fugitive members, and ordered Massey, Waller, and Poyntz to -call out the militia and defend the City. - -No sooner had Fairfax heard the news of these proceedings than he -instantly sent the king to Hampton Court, and marched from Bedford to -Hounslow Heath, where he ordered a general rendezvous of the whole -army. On Hounslow Heath, at the appointed rendezvous, the Speakers -of the two Houses, with their maces, and attended by the fugitive -Lords and Commons, stated to the general that they had not freedom in -Westminster, but were in danger of their lives from tumult, and claimed -the protection of the army. The general and the officers received the -Speakers and members with profound respect, and assured them they -would reinstate them in their proper places, or perish in the attempt. -Nothing, in fact, could have been such a godsend to the army; for, -besides their own grievances, they had the grievances of the coerced -members to redress, and the sanctity of Parliament to defend. They -ordered the most careful accommodation for the comfort of the members, -and a guard to attend them, consulting them on all their measures. -Fairfax quartered his army about Hounslow, Brentford, Twickenham, and -the adjacent villages, at the same time ordering Colonel Rainsborough -to cross the Thames at Hampton Court with a brigade of horse and foot -and cannon, and to secure Southwark and the works which covered the end -of London Bridge. - -Meanwhile, never was London in more terrible confusion. The Commons, -having no mace of their own, sent for the City mace. The colonels were -in all haste calling out the militia. On Saturday and Monday, August -1 and 2, the shops were all shut, nothing going on but enlisting -and mustering. St. James's Fields were in a stir with drilling; -news constantly coming of the approach of the army. "Massey," says -Whitelock, "sent out scouts to Brentford; but ten men of the army beat -thirty of his, and took a flag from them. The City militia and Common -Council sat late, and a great number of people attended at Guildhall. -When a scout came in and brought news that the army made a halt, or -other good intelligence, they cried, 'One and all!' But if the scouts -brought word that the army was advancing, then they would cry as loud, -'Treat! treat! treat!' and thus they spent the night." - -Tuesday, August the 3rd, was a fearful day. The people of Southwark -declared that they would not fight against the army, and went in crowds -to Guildhall, demanding peace, at which Poyntz lost all patience, drew -his sword, and slashed many of them, some mortally. - -The Southwarkers kept their word, for they received Rainsborough -and his troops; the militia openly fraternised with the soldiers, -shaking hands with them through the gates, and abandoned to them the -works which protected the City. Rainsborough took possession, without -opposition, of all the forts and works on that side of the river from -Southwark to Gravesend. In the morning the authorities of the City, -finding that Southwark was in possession of the army, and the City gate -on that side in their hands, were completely prostrated and hastened to -make their submission. Poyntz, accustomed to conquest in the field, and -the hardihood of the Presbyterian soldiers, was filled with contempt -for these cringing, cowering citizens. What! had they not ten thousand -men in arms, a loan of ten thousand pounds arranged and orders to -raise auxiliary troops to the amount of eighteen regiments? Had they -not plenty of ammunition and arms in the Tower, whence they had drawn -four hundred barrels of gunpowder and other material for present -defence? But all availed not; the citizens hastened to lay themselves -and the City at the feet of Fairfax. He had fixed his headquarters -at Hammersmith, but he met the civic authorities at Holland House, -Kensington, where he dictated the following conditions:--That they -should abandon the Parliament now sitting and the eleven impeached -members; should restore the militia to the Independents; surrender -all their forts, including the Tower; recall their declarations, and -conduct themselves peaceably. - -On Friday, the 6th of August, Fairfax entered the City, preceded by -a regiment of infantry and another of cavalry. He was on horseback, -attended by his body-guards and a crowd of gentlemen. A long train -of carriages, containing the fugitive Speakers and members (Lords -and Commons), followed, and then another regiment of cavalry. The -soldiers marched three abreast, with boughs of laurel in their hats. -The late turbulent multitudes completed their shame by raising forced -acclamations as they passed. Fairfax thus proceeded through Hyde Park, -where the Corporation met him, and offered him a great gold cup, -which he curtly declined, and so rode on to the Houses of Parliament, -where he replaced the Speakers in their respective chairs, and the -members in their old places. Not one of the Lords who had remained, -except the Earl of Pembroke, ventured to appear, and he declared that -he considered the proceedings since the departure of the Speakers as -null. No sooner were the Speakers in their places than Parliament voted -thanks to the general and the army; made Fairfax commander of all the -forces in England and Wales, and Constable of the Tower. It ordered -a gratuity of a month's pay for the army, and that the City militia -should be divided, and Southwark, Westminster, and the Tower Hamlets -should command their own. The Lords voted all Acts of Parliament from -the departure of the Speakers, on the 26th of June, to their return on -the 6th of August, void; but the resolution did not pass the Commons, -where there was a large body of Presbyterians, without much opposition. - -The eleven impeached members fled, and were allowed to escape into -France, whereupon they were voted guilty of high treason, as well -as the Lord Mayor and four aldermen of London, two officers of the -train-band, and the Earls of Suffolk, Lincoln, and Middleton, the -Lords Willoughby, Hunsdon, Berkeley, and Maynard. The civic officers -were sent to the Tower. The City was ordered to find the one hundred -thousand pounds voted for the army. Fairfax distributed different -regiments about Whitehall and the Houses of Parliament for their -protection, and others in the Strand, Holborn, and Southwark, to keep -the City quiet. His headquarters were moved to Putney, with forces -at Chelsea and Fulham. On Sunday he and the officers attended the -preaching of Hugh Peters, the army chaplain, at Putney Church, and thus -the Independents were in full power, and the Presbyterians signally -humbled. - -Before, and also whilst, these events had been taking place, the army -had made overtures to the king for peace and a solid settlement of -the kingdom. As we have seen, from the moment that the king came into -their hands, they had treated him in a far different style to the -Presbyterians. He seemed, in his freedom of action, in the admission -of his children and friends to his society, in the respect and even -friendliness shown him to feel himself a king again. There were many -reasons why the Independents should desire to close with the king. -Though they had the army with them, they knew that the Presbyterians -were far more numerous. London was vehemently Presbyterian, and the -Scots were ready to back that party, because essentially the same -in religion as themselves. The Independents and all the Dissenters -who ranged themselves under their banners were anxious for religious -liberty; the Scottish and English Presbyterians had no more idea of -such a thing as belonging to Christianity than had the Catholics or the -Church of England as represented by Charles and Laud. - -From the moment that the king was received by the army, he seems to -have won on the goodwill of the officers. Fairfax, on meeting him -on his way from Holmby, kissed his hand, and treated him with all -the deference due to the sovereign. Cromwell and Ireton, though they -did not so far condescend, and kept a degree of distant reserve, as -remembering that they had to treat Charles as an enemy, were soon -softened, and Cromwell sent him assurances of his attachment, and of -his desire to see his affairs set right. Many of the officers openly -expressed commiseration of his misfortunes, and admiration of his real -piety, and his amiable domestic character. It was not long before -such relations were established with him, and with his confidential -friends Berkeley, Ashburnham, and Legge, that secret negotiations were -commenced for a settlement of all the difficulties between him and his -people. The officers made him several public addresses expressive of -their sincere desire to see a pacification effected; and Fairfax, to -prepare the way, addressed a letter to the two Houses, repelling the -aspersion cast upon the army of its being hostile to the monarchy, and -avowing that "tender, equitable, and moderate dealings towards him, his -family, and his former adherents," should be adopted to heal the feuds -of the nation. - -[Illustration: LORD CLARENDON. (_After the Portrait by Sir Peter -Lely._)] - -It has been the fashion to consider Cromwell as a consummate hypocrite, -and to regard all that he did as a part acted for the ultimate -attainment of his own ends. This is the view which Clarendon has taken -of him; but, whatever he might do at a later period, everything shows -that at this time both he and his brother officers were most really -in earnest, and, could Charles have been brought to subscribe to any -terms except such as gave up the nation to his uncontrolled will, at -this moment his troubles would have been at an end, and he would have -found himself on a constitutional throne, with every means of honour -and happiness in his power. Nothing more convincingly demonstrates this -than the conditions which the Parliament submitted to him. They, in -fact, greatly resembled the celebrated conditions of peace offered at -Uxbridge, with several propositions regarding Parliament and taxation, -which mark a wonderfully improved political knowledge and liberality -in the officers. They did not even insist on the abolition of the -hierarchy, but merely stipulated for the toleration of other opinions, -taking away all penalties for not attending church, and for attending -what were called conventicles. The command of the army by Parliament -was to be restricted to ten years; only five of the Royalist adherents -were to be excluded from pardon, and some less objectionable mode -of protecting the State against Catholic designs than the present -oppressive laws against recusants was to be devised. Parliaments were -to continue two years, unless dissolved earlier by their own consent; -and were to sit every year for a prescribed term, or a shorter one, if -business permitted. Rotten boroughs, or such as were insignificant, -were to be disfranchised, and a greater number of members returned -from the counties in proportion to the amount of rates; and all that -regarded election of members or reforms of the Commons should belong -exclusively to the Commons. There were very judicious regulations for -the nomination of sheriffs and of magistrates; the excise was to be -taken from all articles of life at once, and from all other articles -very shortly: the land-tax was to be fairly and equally apportioned; -the irritating maintenance of the clergy by tithes was to be done away -with; suits at law were to be made less expensive; all men to be made -liable for their debts; and insolvent debtors who had surrendered all -their property to their creditors were to be discharged. - -The whole project was decidedly creditable to the officers of the army. -Charles's own friends and advisers were charmed with it, and flattered -themselves that at length they saw a prospect of ending all troubles; -but they were quickly undeceived, and struck down in dumb astonishment -by Charles rejecting them. - -Charles was still the same man; he was at the same moment secretly -listening to the overtures of the Scottish Commissioners, who were -jealous of the army, and instead of seizing the opportunity to be -once more a powerful and beloved king, he was flattering himself with -the old idea that he would bring the two great factions "to extirpate -each other." Sir John Berkeley, his earnest adviser, says:--"What -with having so concurring a second as Mr. Ashburnham, and what with -the encouraging messages of Lord Lauderdale and others from the -Presbyterian party and the city of London, who pretended to despise -the army, and to oppose them to death, his Majesty seemed very much -elated; inasmuch that when the proposals were solemnly sent to him, -and his concurrence most humbly and earnestly desired, his Majesty, -not only to the astonishment of Ireton and the rest, but even to mine, -entertained them with very tart and bitter discourses, saying sometimes -that he would have no man suffer for his sake, and that he repented of -nothing so much as the Bill against the Lord Strafford, which, though -most true, was unpleasant for them to hear; that he would have the -Church established according to law, by the proposals. They replied it -was none of their work to do it; that it was enough for them to waive -the point, and, they hoped, enough for his Majesty, since he had waived -the government of the Church in Scotland. His Majesty said that he -hoped God had forgiven him that sin, and repeated often, 'You cannot be -without me; you will fall to ruin if I do not sustain you!'" - -It was still the old man; the old intolerable, incorrigible talk. -He could not give up a single proposition to save all the rest--his -life, his family, his crown, and kingdom. The officers looked at one -another in amazement; the king's friends in consternation. Sir John -Berkeley whispered in his ear that his Majesty seemed to have some -secret strength that they did not know of, on which Charles seemed to -recollect himself, and spoke more softly; but it was too late, for -Colonel Rainsborough, who was least inclined for the pacification, -rode to the army and made known the king's obstinacy. The agitators -rushed together in crowds, and, excessively chagrined at the rejection -of such terms, burst into the bedchamber of Lord Lauderdale, whom they -suspected of having thus perverted the king's mind, and compelled him, -in spite of his standing in his position as Commissioner from the -Estates of Scotland, to rise, and get off back again to Edinburgh. - -At this crisis the alarm at the proceedings in London, and the march -upon it just related, took place. Still the officers did not cease -their exertions to persuade the king to adopt the proposals; but he -was waiting to see what turn affairs would take, and listening at the -same time to the Scots and the Irish Catholics. This idea was so little -concealed that, talking with Ireton, he let slip the observation, -"I shall play my game as well as I can." On which Ireton replied, -"If your Majesty has a game to play, you must give us leave also to -play ours." As the bluster of the City seemed to subside before the -approaching army, Charles sent Berkeley to ask the officers, "If he -should accept the proposals, what would ensue?" They said, "We will -offer them to the Parliament." "And if they should reject them, what -then?" The rest of the officers hesitating to answer such a question, -Rainsborough said bluntly, "If they won't agree, we will make them!" to -which all the rest instantly assented. Berkeley carried this decisive -answer to Charles, but there, he says, he had very different work; he -was just as unyielding as ever. Cromwell and Ireton then begged that -though the king would not sign the proposals, he would at least write a -kind letter to the army, which should show the country that they were -doing nothing contrary to his Majesty's mind. With the co-operation -of Berkeley, Ashburnham, and others of the king's friends, they met -at Windsor, and drew up such a letter, but they could not prevail on -him to sign it till the City had yielded, and it was too late. Still -the officers, to prove that their triumph had not altered in the least -their desire for agreement with the king, again voted the proposals -as their terms of settlement. Charles renewed his discussion with -them, and was every day sending messages by Ashburnham to Cromwell and -Ireton, yet never coming nearer; but, on the other hand, bringing those -officers into suspicion with a new and fanatic party which had arisen, -which originally called themselves Rationalists, but soon after -Levellers. - -[Illustration: THE CHILDREN OF CHARLES I. - -FROM THE PICTURE BY MISS MARGARET I. DICKSEE, IN THE OLDHAM ART GALLERY] - -The Levellers were, in fact, a set of men amongst whom Lilburne, now -Colonel John Lilburne, was a leading character. They had imbibed -from the Old Testament, which was their favourite study, a spirit of -Republicanism combined with a wild fanatic style of language. They -found in the remarks on monarchs in the Scriptures, on the election of -Saul by Israel, a clear denunciation of all kings, and they declared -they would no longer seek after kings, who aimed only at absolute -power; nor after lords, who sought only honours and places; but they -would have a free government by a Parliament, and a free religion. They -drew up a paper called "The Case of the Army," and another called "The -Agreement of the People," which were presented to the general and the -Agitators of the eleven regiments. Religious Republicanism was abroad -in the army, and they drew up a new constitution, at which a biennial -Parliament, with six monthly sessions, a widely-extended franchise, -and a more equally-distributed representation, was at the head. There -were to be neither king nor lords in their system. Colonels Pride and -Rainsborough supported their views: Cromwell and Ireton strenuously -opposed them. They were, therefore, immediately the objects of attack, -and represented as being in a close and secret compact with the king, -the Ahab of the nation, to betray the people. Lilburne was busily -employed in writing and printing violent denunciations in flaming -style, and strongly garnished with Bible terms. Parliament denounced -the doctrines of the Levellers as destructive of all government, and -ordered the authors to be prosecuted. - -Whilst this fanatic effervescence had broken out in the army, the -Presbyterians in Parliament and the Scottish Commissioners made one -effort more for the recovery of their ascendency. Regarding the -religious toleration proposed in the army conditions as something -horrible and monstrously wicked, they drew up fresh proposals of their -own, and presented them to the king. If Charles could not endure the -army proposals, he was not likely to accept those of the Presbyterians, -who gave no place to his own Church at all; and he told them that he -liked those of the army better. This answer Berkeley showed to the -officers of the army before it was sent; they highly approved of it, -and promised to do all they could in the House to get an order voted -for a personal treaty, "and," Berkeley adds, "to my understanding, -performed it, for both Cromwell and Ireton, with Vane and all their -friends, seconded with great resolution this desire of his Majesty." -Cromwell, indeed, he says, spoke so zealously in its favour that it -only increased, both in the House and out of it, the suspicion of -his having made a compact with the king to restore him. The more the -officers argued for a personal treaty, the more the Presbyterians in -the House opposed it; but at length a resolution was carried for it. It -was thought that it would occupy twenty days, but it went on for two -months, and came to nothing--other and strange events occurring. - -The Levellers, after this display of zeal on the part of Cromwell, -vowed that they would kill both him and the king, whom they not only -styled an Ahab, a man of blood, and the everlasting obstacle to peace -and liberty, but demanded his head as the cause of the murder of -thousands of free-born Englishmen. Cromwell declared that his life -was not safe in his own quarters, and we are assured that Lilburne -and another Agitator named Wildman had agreed to assassinate him as -a renegade and traitor to liberty. To check this wild and dangerous -spirit in the army, Cromwell and Ireton recommended that it should be -drawn closer together, and thus more under the immediate discipline of -its chief officers. This was agreed upon, and a general rendezvous was -appointed to take place at Ware on the 16th of November. - -During the interval Charles was royally lodged at Hampton Court, and -was freely permitted to have his children with him, but all the time -he was at his usual work of plotting. The Marquis of Ormond, having -surrendered his command in Ireland to the Parliament, was come hither; -and Lord Capel, who had been one of Charles's most distinguished -commanders, being also permitted by Parliament to return from abroad, -a scheme was laid, whilst Charles was amusing the army and Parliament -with the discussion of the "Proposals," that the next spring, through -the Scottish Commissioners, who were also in the plot, a Scottish -army should enter England forty thousand strong, and calling on the -Presbyterians to join them should march forward. At the same time -Ormond should lead an army from Ireland, whilst Capel summoned the rest -of the king's friends in England to join the converging forces, and -plant the king on the throne. But this wholesale conspiracy could not -escape the secret agents of Cromwell; the whole was revealed to him, -and he bitterly upbraided Ashburnham with the incurable duplicity of -his master, who, whilst he was negotiating with the army, was planning -its destruction. - -From this moment, whatever was the cause, and the preceding incidents -appear both certain and sufficient, Cromwell, Ireton, and the army -in general, came to the conclusion that all attempts to bring so -double-faced and intriguing a person to honourable and enduring -terms were vain; that if he were restored to power, he would use it -to destroy every one who had been compelled to oppose his despotic -plans; if he were not restored, they would be in a perpetual state -of plottings, alarms, and disquietudes, destructive of all comfort -or prosperity to the nation. As the officers drew back from further -intercourse with the king, the menaces of the Levellers became -louder; and there were not wanting persons to carry these threats to -the king. He saw the Levellers growing in violence, and in numbers; -in fact, Leveller and Agitator were synonymous terms; the infection -had spread through the greater part of the army. The fact of the -officers having been friendly with him, had made them suspicious to -the men; they had driven Ireton from the council, and there were loud -threats of impeaching Cromwell. Several regiments were in a state -of insubordination, and it was doubtful whether, at the approaching -rendezvous, Fairfax could maintain the discipline of the army. The -reports of the proceedings of the Levellers (who really threatened to -seize his person to prevent the Parliament or officers agreeing with -him) and their truculent manifestoes, were all diligently carried to -Charles by the Scottish Commissioners, who, according to Berkeley, -"were the first that presented his dangers to him." He was assured by -Mr. Ackworth that Colonel Rainsborough, the favourite of the Levellers, -meant to kill him; and Clarendon says that "every day he received -little billets or letters, secretly conveyed to him without any name, -which advertised him of wicked designs upon his life;" many, he adds, -who repaired to him brought the same advice from men of unquestionable -sincerity. - -Charles resolved to escape, and, as he was in some cases as religiously -scrupulous of his word as he was in others reckless of it, he withdrew -his promise not to attempt to escape, on the plea that he found -himself quite as rigorously watched as if he were not on honour. -Colonel Whalley, who commanded his guard, at once ordered it to be -doubled, and dismissed all the king's servants except Legge, refusing -further admittance to him. Notwithstanding this, he found means of -communicating with Ashburnham and Berkeley, and consulted with them -on the means of escape, and the place to escape to. He suggested the -City, and Ashburnham advised him to go to the house of the Lord Mayor, -in London, there to meet the Scottish Commissioners, agree with them -on their last propositions, and then send for the Lords. Berkeley -disapproved of this, believing they would not bring over the Commons; -and then Ashburnham recommended the king to flee to the Isle of Wight, -and throw himself on the generosity of Colonel Hammond, the governor -there. This, he says, he did, because Colonel Hammond had a few days -before told him he was going down to his government, "because he found -the army was resolved to break all promises with the king, and that he -would have nothing to do with such perfidious actions." - -This seems to have inspired a belief in these men that Hammond was -secretly in favour of the king, strengthened, no doubt, by the fact -that Dr. Hammond, the king's chaplain, was his uncle, and had lately -introduced him to his Majesty as an ingenuous and repentant youth, and, -notwithstanding his post, of real loyalty. They forgot that Hammond had -another uncle, Lieutenant-General Hammond, who was as democratic as the -chaplain was loyal, and was a great patron of the Adjutators. They seem -to have reckoned as little on the honour of the young man, who was a -gentleman and officer, and had married a daughter of John Hampden. - -There were other schemes, one to seek refuge in Sir John Oglander's -House, in the Isle of Wight; and there was a talk of a ship being -ordered to be somewhere ready for him; but when the escape was made, -it appeared to have been just as ill contrived as all the rest of -Charles's escapes. Ashburnham and Berkeley had contrived to meet the -king in the evening in the gallery of Hampton Court, and settled the -mode of escape. It was the king's custom, on the Mondays and Thursdays, -to write letters for the foreign post, and in the evenings he left his -bedchamber between five and six o'clock and went to prayers, and thence -to supper. On one of these evenings, Thursday, the 11th of November, -Whalley, finding the king much later than usual in leaving his chamber, -became uneasy, went thither, and found him gone. On the table he had -left some letters, one to the Parliament, another to the Commissioners, -and a third to Colonel Whalley. In the letter to the Parliament he -said liberty was as necessary to kings as others; that he had endured -a long captivity in the hope that it might lead to a good peace, but -that, as it did not, he had withdrawn himself; that, wherever he might -be, he should earnestly desire a satisfactory agreement without further -bloodshed, and was ready to break through his cloud of retirement and -show himself the father of his country whenever he could be heard with -honour, freedom, and safety. - -[Illustration: CARISBROOKE CASTLE, ISLE OF WIGHT. (_From a photograph -by F. G. O. Stuart, Southampton._)] - -It appeared that he had escaped by way of Paradise, a place so called -in the gardens; his cloak was found lying in the gallery, and there -were tramplings about a back gate leading to the waterside. Legge -accompanied him down the backstairs, and Ashburnham and Berkeley joined -them at the gate. The night was dark and stormy, which favoured their -escape. They crossed the river at Thames Ditton, and made for Sutton, -in Hampshire, where they had horses in readiness. Why they had not -provided horses at a nearer point does not appear. In the night they -lost their way in the forest, and reaching Sutton only at daybreak, and -hearing that a county committee on Parliamentary business was sitting -there, they got out their horses, and rode away towards Southampton. - -That night Cromwell was aroused from his bed at Putney with a startling -express that the king had escaped. He at once despatched a letter to -the Speaker, Lenthall, dated twelve o'clock, with the tidings for -Parliament, and the news was announced next morning to both Houses. The -confusion may be imagined; orders were issued to close all ports; and -those who concealed the place of the king's retreat, or harboured his -person, were declared guilty of high treason, and menaced with loss of -all their estate, and with death without mercy. On the 13th of November -Whalley gave a narrative to the Lords of the particulars of his escape -as far as known. It appeared that the repeated howling of a greyhound -in the king's chamber first assured them that he could not be there. -However, on Monday, the 15th, a letter from Colonel Hammond, from the -Isle of Wight, much to the relief of Parliament and army, announced -that the absconded king was safe in his hands at Carisbrooke Castle. - -Charles was at first treated by Colonel Hammond with great leniency, -and again employed the time on his hands in negotiation. As the army -had restored unity to itself, he sought to obtain its concurrence to a -personal treaty, and sent Berkeley to Fairfax, Cromwell, and Ireton, -at Windsor. On his way there he fell in with Cornet Joyce, who carried -off the king from Holmby, who informed him of an ominous proposition -discussed by the Agitators, namely, to bring the king to trial; not, he -said, with any design of putting him to death, but to prove on evidence -who really bore the blame of the war. This prelude too truly prefigured -the interview itself. Fairfax, Cromwell, and Ireton received Berkeley -with severe aspects and distant coldness, and told him that they were -but the servants of the Parliament, and referred him to it. He was not -prevented by this, however, from sending a secret message to Cromwell, -reminding him of his promises, and letting him know that he had secret -instructions from the king to him. But Cromwell had now had convincing -proofs of the king's duplicity; he refused to receive the letters, -informed Berkeley that he would do all in his power towards effecting -a real peace, but was not disposed to risk his head for the king's -sake. Repulsed here, Charles applied to Parliament, which sent him -four propositions as the basis of agreement, namely, that his Majesty -should concur in the Bill for settling the militia; should recall all -the proclamations, oaths, etc., against Parliament; should disqualify -all peers made since the renewal of the Great Seal from sitting in -the House of Peers; and should pass a Bill for the adjournment of -Parliament being placed in the power of the Houses themselves. These -Bills were sent by Commissioners to Carisbrooke; but the Scottish -Commissioners, who dreaded the acceptance of them as rendering the -English Parliament independent of the League and Covenant, hastened -there, too, with a modified treaty of their own. Charles, thus -encouraged, refused the four Bills; the Commissioners kissed hands -and returned, and Charles signed the proposals of the Scots, which -guaranteed the independence of their own religion, on condition of -finding an army of forty thousand men for the restoration of the king. - -Charles was not left long in ignorance of the effect of his refusal of -the Parliamentary proposals, and of the discovery of his secret treaty -with the Scots. Colonel Hammond received orders to take every measure -for the safe keeping of the king, and for preventing the lurking of -suspicious vessels in Southampton Water, as it was known that a ship -had been engaged by the queen to carry off Charles and land him at -Berwick, in readiness to co-operate with the Scottish movement. Hammond -dismissed Ashburnham, Legge, and Berkeley, with all other Royalists, -from the island; sent away a vessel, supposed to be the very one -engaged by the queen; and put the king under strict surveillance and a -double guard. He was no longer an apparently free guest, but a close -prisoner. - -This treatment only doubled his determination to escape. Ashburnham, -Berkeley, and Legge, though banished from the island, kept -saddle-horses on the coast ready, in case of the king's escaping from -Carisbrooke; and his friends from all quarters corresponded with him, -and their letters were conveyed to him by Henry Firebrace, who was in -some employment in the castle, and was occasionally engaged by one of -the warders to take his place before the king's chamber-door, when he -put the correspondence entrusted to him through a crevice of the door. -The whole island resented the incarceration of the king, and there were -loud threats of rising and liberating him by force. One Captain Burley -was mad enough to make the attempt. At midnight a drum was beaten. -Burley put himself at the head of a rabble in Newport, without, as -reported, having a single musket among them, and was speedily taken and -executed. - -On the 3rd of January, 1648, the two Houses discussed the relations -with the king, and in the Commons the plainest Republican sentiments -were avowed. The refusal of the four Bills by the king was deemed -convincing proof that no possibility was left of ever coming to -agreement with him. Sir Thomas Wroth declared that kings of late had -conducted themselves more like inmates of Bedlam than anything else, -and that he did not care what government was set up if it were not -by kings or devils. Ireton contended that the relation of king and -subjects implied mutual bonds and duties; the king was to protect the -people, and the people to maintain the king in his duty, but that -Charles had abandoned his duty, had ceased to protect his people, -nay, had made war on them, and therefore had annulled the compact; -that, seeing this, the army was resolved to stand by the Parliament -for the establishment of national right. Cromwell, after many had -proceeded in a like strain, asserted that it was time to fulfil the -wearied expectation of the people, and to show that they could govern -and defend the kingdom by their own power, and to decide that there -was nothing to be hoped from a man whose heart God had hardened in -obstinacy. In fact, in Parliament, almost as much as in the army, a -large party had come to the conclusion that it was odious in the sight -of God to be governed by a king. - -The result was a vote that Parliament would make no further -applications or addresses to the king, nor receive any message from -him, except by full consent of both Houses, under penalty of high -treason. The Lords concurred in the vote, and a public declaration was -circulated to that effect; and it was also agreed that the Committee of -Public Safety should again sit and act alone, without the aid of any -foreign coadjutors. This was a plain hint to the Scots that Parliament -knew of their late treaty. Hitherto they had formed part of the -Committee of both kingdoms, so that they had shared the government of -England. This was withdrawn; the Scots therefore demanded the payment -of the last one hundred thousand pounds due to them by the treaty of -evacuation, and announced their intention to retire on receiving it. - -This decided step of Parliament, and the rigour with which Charles -was guarded, put the Scots, the Presbyterians, the Royalists all on -the alert. They stirred up everywhere a feeling of commiseration for -him, as harshly and arbitrarily used; it was represented that the -vote of non-address amounted to a declaration that all attempts at -reconciliation were at an end, and that the Independents meant to give -effect to the doctrines of the army and put the king to death. These -efforts were productive of a rapidly and widely spreading sentiment in -the king's favour, and soon formidable insurrections were on foot. The -king himself omitted no means of attempting his escape. By his plans -his second son, the Duke of York, had made his escape from the care -of the Earl of Northumberland in female attire, and got to Holland. -Towards the end of March Charles tried to escape out of the window -of his chamber. A silken cord was prepared to let him down; and, to -prove the safety of the descent, Firebrace forced himself between the -iron stanchions of the window and let himself down; but the king, in -essaying to follow, stuck fast, and, after violent efforts, found it -impossible to get through. Cromwell announced to Hammond, in a letter -still extant, that Parliament was informed that aquafortis had been -sent down to corrode this obstructing bar; that the attempt was to be -renewed during the coming dark nights, and that Captain Titus and some -others about the king were not to be trusted. At the same time he -informed him that the Commons, in reward of his vigilance and services -in securing and keeping the king, had raised his pay from ten to twenty -pounds a week, had voted him one thousand pounds, and settled upon him -and his heirs five hundred pounds per annum. - -The reaction in favour of the king now began to discover itself on -all sides. Charles published an appeal to the nation against the -proceedings of Parliament, which seemed to cut off all further hope -of accommodation. Parliament issued a counter-statement, and numerous -rejoinders were the consequence--the most able from the pen of Hyde, -the Chancellor, and Dr. Bates, the king's physician. Whilst these -elements of strife were brewing in England, the Duke of Hamilton, -released from Pendennis Castle and restored to the favour of the king, -returned to Scotland, and the Marquis of Ormond to Ireland, to muster -forces to operate with a simultaneous rising in England. The Scottish -muster proceeded with vigour, though stoutly opposed by the Duke of -Argyll, and the work of revolt commenced in March, in Wales. Poyer, the -Mayor of Pembroke, and governor of the castle, declared for the king, -and at the summons of Fairfax refused to yield up his command. Powell -and Langherne, two officers of disbanded regiments, joined him, and -many of their old soldiers followed them. The Royalists ran to arms, -eight thousand men were soon afoot in the Principality, Chepstow and -Carnarvon were surprised, and Colonel Fleming was killed. Cromwell -was despatched to reduce these forces at the head of five regiments. -He quickly recovered Carnarvon and Chepstow, defeated Langherne, and -summoned Poyer to surrender. But Pembroke stood out, and was not -reduced till July, though Colonel Horton encountered Langherne at St. -Fagan's, near Cardiff, and completely routed him. - -Meanwhile, in other quarters insurrections broke out. On the 9th -of April a mob of apprentices and other young fellows attacked the -train-bands in Moorfields, struck the captain, took his colours, and -marched with them to Westminster, crying, "King Charles! King Charles!" -There they were attacked and dispersed, but they rallied again in the -City, broke open houses to obtain arms, and frightened the mayor so -that he took refuge in the Tower. The next day Fairfax dispersed them, -but not without bloodshed. Soon after three hundred men from Surrey -surrounded the Parliament houses, cursing the Parliament, insulting -the soldiers, and demanding the restoration of the king. They were not -repulsed without some of them being killed. Similar outbreaks took -place in Norwich, Thetford, Canterbury, and other places. Pontefract -Castle was surprised by eighty cavaliers, each with a soldier mounted -behind him. - -[Illustration: RISING OF THE LONDON APPRENTICES ON BEHALF OF CHARLES. -(_See p._ 75.)] - -Parliament, at the same time, was besieged with petitions for -disbanding the army and restoring the king. To allay the ferment in -the capital, whilst the army was engaged in the provinces, Parliament -passed a resolution that no change should be made in the government by -kings, Lords, and Commons. Fairfax withdrew his troops from the Mews -and Whitehall, and Major-General Skippon was made commander of the -City militia, to act in concert with the Lord Mayor and Corporation. -The men of Kent and Essex rose in great numbers for the king. At Deal, -off which Colonel Rainsborough, now acting as admiral, was lying, the -people rose. The fleet, consisting of six men-of-war, revolted, hoisted -the royal colours, and sailed to Helvoetsluys, where they called for -the Duke of York to take the command. The effect of this event was -neutralised, however, by a victory, which Fairfax obtained on the 1st -of June over the Royalists at Maidstone, where, after a hard fight of -six hours, he slew two hundred in the streets, and took four hundred -prisoners. This defeat prevented the junction of this body with another -under Colonel Goring, now Earl of Newport, who marched to Blackheath, -and demanded entrance into the City. The Independent party were in a -perilous position there. There was, as we have seen, a numerous body -in London in favour of the king, who had no reliance on the militia. -To conciliate public opinion, the Parliament ordered the release of -the aldermen imprisoned at the desire of the army, and revoked the -impeachment against the six Lords and eleven Commoners. Holles and his -associates resumed their seats and their old measures, voted for a -renewed negotiation with Charles on condition that he should restore -Presbyterianism, and give the command of the army to Parliament for -ten years. Luckily for the Independents, the Lords rejected these -propositions, and voted a treaty without any conditions. At the same -time the Common Council, showing a decided leaning towards the king, -offered to protect him from danger and insult if he would come to the -capital. The danger to the Independent interest was only repelled by -the obstinacy of their old enemy Holles, who would consent to nothing -which did not establish Presbyterianism. - -[Illustration: EXECUTION OF SIR CHARLES LUCAS AND SIR GEORGE LISLE. -(_See p._ 78.)] - -Whilst these discussions agitated the City, Fairfax marched on Goring, -who quitted Blackheath, crossed the Thames into Essex with five -thousand horse, where he was joined by Lord Capel, with Royalists -from Hertfordshire, and Sir Charles Lucas, with a body of horse from -Chelmsford. They concentrated their united force at Colchester, where -they determined to hold out till the advance of the Scots, and thus -detain the commander-in-chief in the south. The Scots were now in -reality on the march. The Duke of Hamilton had not been able to muster -more than a fourth of his promised forty thousand. Though he proclaimed -everywhere that Charles had promised to take the Covenant and uphold -the Presbyterian religion, Argyll and the old covenanting body wholly -distrusted these assurances; the Assembly of the Kirk demanded proofs -of the king's engagement; the ministers from the pulpits denounced the -curse of Meroz on all who engaged in this unholy war, and the women -cursed the duke as he passed, and pelted him with stones from their -windows. - -The English Royalists under Langdale, about four thousand brave -Cavaliers, had surprised Berwick and Carlisle, and awaited with -impatience Hamilton's arrival. Lambert, the Parliamentary general, -advanced and besieged Carlisle, and Hamilton was urged to advance -and relieve it. He sent forward a detachment, and on the 8th of July -arrived himself, being already supported by three thousand veterans -from the Scottish army in Ireland, and, now uniting with Sir Marmaduke -Langdale, he presented a formidable force. Lambert retired at his -approach, and had Hamilton been a man of any military talent, he -might have struck an effective blow. But from the moment that he -crossed the Border, he appeared to have lost all energy. His army was -paralysed by internal dissensions. The Scottish Presbyterian soldiers -were scandalised at having to fight side by side with Langdale's -Prelatists and Papists, whom they had been accustomed to see ranged -against them as the enemies of the Covenant. In forty days he had -advanced only eighty miles, and when he reached the left bank of the -Ribble, near Preston, Cromwell had reduced Pembroke, marched rapidly -northward through Gloucester, Warwick, Leicester, to Nottingham, where -he left his prisoners with Colonel Hutchinson, governor of the castle, -and soon joined Lambert at Otley Park, and forced back Langdale from -Clitheroe on the main body at Preston. Hamilton at the last moment -was all unprepared. Monroe, with his veterans, lay still at Kirkby -Lonsdale. Yet Hamilton, with his fourteen thousand, should have been -a match for Cromwell, Lambert, and Lilburne's nine thousand. But -Cromwell attacked them with such vigour that, after a hard battle -of six hours, he routed the whole force. The Cavaliers fought like -lions, and only retreated from hedge to hedge before the foe; they -called repeatedly on the Scots for reinforcements and ammunition, but -not being able to get either, retreated into the town. There they -discovered that their allies were engaged in a fierce contest with the -enemy for possession of the bridge. Cromwell won the bridge, and the -Scots fled in the night towards Wigan. Hamilton retreated with some -of the English towards Warrington. Lieutenant-general Baillie, with -a great party of the Scottish army, surrendered on quarter in that -town. Monroe, who was lying at Kirkby, ignorant of the battle or of -the coming up of the fugitives, retreated to Scotland--the only body -of Scots who regained their country. Hamilton, on the 20th of August, -three days after the battle, was overtaken by Lambert and Lord Grey of -Groby, and surrendered at Uttoxeter. Langdale's Cavaliers dispersed -in Derbyshire, and he himself, in woman's apparel, was discovered at -Widmerpool, in Nottinghamshire; but by the contrivance of Lady Saville, -escaped dressed as a clergyman to London, where he remained with Dr. -Barwick in the character of an Irish minister driven from his parish by -the Papists. So ended Hamilton's boasted invasion. This blow totally -annihilated his party in Scotland; Argyll and the Covenanters rose into -the ascendant. Argyll soon after this seized a ship containing ten -thousand stand of arms, which had been sent from Denmark for Hamilton's -expedition. He invited Cromwell to Edinburgh, where he was received -with great distinction, and was honoured by the thanks of the Scottish -ministers as the preserver of Scotland under God. The members of the -faction of Hamilton were declared enemies to religion and the kingdom, -and incapable of serving in Parliament or the Assembly of the Kirk. On -the 16th of August Cromwell left Edinburgh, Argyll and the nobles of -that party accompanying him some miles on his way, and taking leave of -him with many demonstrations of respect. - -At the same time that the Scots began their march, a rising which had -been made in concert with Hamilton, took place in London. The Earl of -Holland, who had become contemptible to all parties by twice going -over to the Parliament and twice returning to the king, entered London -with five hundred horse, and called on the citizens to join him for -Charles. The inhabitants had been too recently punished for their -apprentice rising to make a second experiment. Holland fell back, -therefore, on Kingston-on-Thames, where he was attacked and defeated by -Sir Michael Levesey, and Lord Francis Villiers, brother to the young -Duke of Buckingham, was slain. Holland himself had induced the brother -of Buckingham to follow him; the latter escaped to the Continent, and -returned at the Restoration, like most of his party, no better for his -experience. Holland and Colonel Dalbier retreated to St. Neot's, where -a party of soldiers sent by Fairfax from Colchester met them, and took -Holland and killed Dalbier, who was cut to pieces by the soldiers on -account of his having been a renegade from the Parliamentary army. - -The fate of the Scottish army decided that of Goring at Colchester. -There was nothing further to stand out for; he surrendered at -discretion, and was sent to prison to await the award of Parliament, -with Lord Capel, and Hastings, the brother of the Earl of Huntingdon. -But two of his officers, Sir George Lisle and Sir Charles Lucas--the -brother of Lord Lucas, and heir to his title and estates--were shot. -All sides were growing savage. These two officers fell bravely and -deserved a better fate. Lucas, tearing open his doublet, cried, "Fire, -rebels!" and instantly fell. Lisle ran to him, kissed his dead body, -and then turning to the soldiers, told them to come nearer. One of them -said, "I'll warrant you we shall hit you." He replied, "Friends, I have -been nearer, when you have missed me." The death of these noble fellows -sullied the fair reputation of Fairfax, who afterwards deeply regretted -it. - -On the revolt of the ships at Deal, under the command of Rainsborough, -whom they left ashore, the Parliament appointed the Earl of Warwick, -the brother of the Earl of Holland, but more in the confidence of -the Reformers, Lord Admiral of the Fleet, and sent him to oppose the -insurgent fleet. No sooner was it heard in Paris that the English ships -had sailed for Holland, and called on the Duke of York to command them, -than it was thought highly expedient that the Prince of Wales should -hasten thither himself and take the command. Accordingly, he travelled -in all haste to the Hague, accompanied by Prince Rupert, and the Lords -Hopton and Colepepper. The prince was received with acclamations by -the fleet at Helvoetsluys, and with other vessels, making altogether -nineteen, he sailed to the coast of England. It was thought by that -party that it was best to sail along the English coast, showing their -strength for some time, and then to proceed to the mouth of the Thames. -At that time the insurrection in Kent was proceeding under Hales, -L'Estrange, and the Earl of Norwich, which Fairfax soon dealt with -at Maidstone; but whilst it was in force the prince might have made -a safe descent on the Isle of Wight, and attempted the rescue of his -father. The castle of Carisbrooke was not strong, and there were few -forces besides its garrison in the island; but though Charles anxiously -expected the fleet, and sent repeated messages, no attention was paid -to them. For nearly a month the prince had the full command of the -coast. Fairfax was engaged with the insurgents at Colchester, and the -rest of the army was occupied in Wales, and in waiting for the approach -of the invasion from Scotland; yet the heir-apparent made no movement -for the rescue of his father, which everyone would have thought would -have been the first thing with him. - -Warwick posted himself at the mouth of the Thames, to prevent any -advance towards London, or any relief to Colchester; but he did not -deem himself strong enough till he should be joined by another fleet -under Sir George Ayscough, from Portsmouth. With this arrival Warwick -was in a condition to attack the prince's fleet, but he lay still, nor -did the prince appear more inclined to assail him. He was satisfied to -intercept merchantmen coming into port, and then demand their ransom -from the City. This occasioned a brisk correspondence between London -and the prince, under cover of which proposals were made by the prince -and his counsellors for the City opening its gates and declaring for -the king. But the demand of the prince for ten thousand pounds as -ransom of the merchant ships disgusted the City, and presently after -came the news of the total defeat of the Scottish army at Preston. On -this the prince sailed away again to Helvoetsluys, without attempting -anything more. His fleet, according to Clarendon, like the Court and -army of his father, was rusted with factions, and so incapable of any -decided course of action. But the Earl of Warwick did not present -a more flattering aspect. Though it is confessed that he was amply -strong enough after Ayscough's junction to have beaten the prince, -he satisfied himself with watching him off, and followed him at a -respectful distance to the Dutch coast. He is said there to have -persuaded the disappointed sailors to return to the service of the -Parliament, and thus recovered most of the ships. But the public was -greatly dissatisfied with his conduct, and the Independents did not -hesitate to declare that they were always betrayed by the cowardice -or disaffection of noble commanders. The whole war bore striking -evidences of this fact; and Clarendon asserts that Warwick had an -understanding with his brother Holland, and would almost certainly have -gone over had the Scottish invasion succeeded. Clarendon declares that -the Parliament of Scotland had sent Lord Lauderdale to the Hague, to -invite Prince Charles to go to Scotland and put himself at the head of -affairs there for his father, in order to encourage the endeavour to -put down the Independents, who were at once hostile to the king and the -Solemn League and Covenant; but that the news of the defeat of Hamilton -defeated that object. By the end of August all the attempts of the -Royalists were crushed. - -The Presbyterians took the opportunity while Fairfax, Cromwell, and -the leading Independents were absent with the army, to propose a fresh -treaty with Charles. On hearing of this movement, Cromwell wrote to -the Parliament, to remind it of its vote of non-addresses, and that -to break it and make fresh overtures to the king, who would still -adhere to his inadmissible demands, would be an eternal disgrace to -them. But the immediate defeat of Hamilton so much raised the terror -of the Presbyterians at the overwhelming weight which this would -give to the army and the Independent party, that they hastened the -business. Charles readily acceded to it, and would fain have obtained -his wish of carrying on the negotiation in London, especially as a -large party there were urgent for accommodation with him. But the -Parliament dare not thus far run counter to the victorious army, and -a compromise was effected. Charles was permitted to choose any place -in the Isle of Wight where the conference should take place, and -he decided on the town of Newport. From the Parliament five Lords, -including Northumberland and Pembroke, and ten Commoners, including -Vane the younger, Grimstone, Holles, and Pierpoint, were appointed -Commissioners, and on Charles's part appeared the Duke of Richmond, -the Marquis of Hertford, the Earls of Southampton and Lindsay, with -other gentlemen, and a number of his chaplains and lawyers. These were -not admitted to sit with the Parliamentary Commissioners and the king, -and were not to interpose opinions or arguments during the discussion, -which were to be direct from Charles; but they were suffered to be -in the room behind a curtain, where they could hear all, and to whom -Charles was at liberty to retire to consult them. The conditions -were the same as were submitted at Hampton Court, and the king again -consented to the surrender of the command of the army for ten years; -but he would not accede to the abolition of Episcopacy, but merely to -its suspension for three years; moreover, the episcopal lands were not -to be forfeited, but granted on long leases, and he would not bind -himself to accept the Covenant. In fact, he stood just as rooted to his -own notions as if he had as great a chance as ever of obtaining them. -In vain the Presbyterians prayed him with tears to yield, to prevent -the utter ruin of himself and them. The Commission met on the 18th of -September, and it was limited to the 4th of November; but that time -arrived and nothing further was concluded. The Commissioners took their -leave and proceeded to Cowes, but they were met by a resolution of the -Commons to prolong the Conference to the 21st, which was afterwards -extended to the 25th of November. - -There were signs and circumstances enough abroad to have brought any -other man to make the best terms he could. On the 11th of September, -before the meeting of the Commission, a petition of many thousands -of well-affected men in the cities of London and Westminster, in -the borough of Southwark, and the neighbouring villages, "had been -presented, praying that justice might be done on the chief author of -the great bloodshed which had been perpetrated in the war." They called -for the execution of Holland, Hamilton, Capel, Goring, and the rest -of the Royalist officers now confined at Windsor. Clarendon says that -Capel, at the execution of Lisle and Lucas at Colchester, had spoken -so fiercely about it, saying they had better shoot all the rest of -the prisoners, and had so upbraided Ireton in particular, to whose -vindictive disposition he attributed the bloody deed, that the army was -vehement for the death of these men. Numbers of other petitions to the -same effect came up from the country and from the regiments, declaring -that after so many miraculous deliverances from their treacherous and -implacable enemies by the Almighty, it was sinful to delay any longer -the punishment of these instruments of cruelty, and especially of the -king, the chief offender, the raiser of the war, and the stubborn -rejecter of all offers. The army was the more vehement, because one of -their most gallant and long-tried leaders, Colonel Rainsborough, had -been foully murdered by a number of Royalists. - -No wonder that the army was become impatient of further tolerance of -such an enemy. Colonel Ludlow, who was also a member of Parliament, -protested that it was time that the country laid to heart the blood -spilt, and the rapine perpetrated by commission from the king, and to -consider whether the justice of God could be satisfied, or His wrath -appeased, if they granted an act of oblivion as the king demanded. -No; the blood of murdered thousands cried from the ground; as the -Book of Numbers declared, "blood defiled the land, and the land could -not be cleansed except by the blood of him who shed it." He failed in -converting Fairfax to his creed on this head; but Ireton was a more -willing listener, and he joined his regiment in petitioning, on the -18th of October, that crime might be impartially punished, without any -distinction of high or low, and that whoever should speak or act in -favour of the king, before he had been tried and acquitted of shedding -innocent blood, should be adjudged guilty of high treason. The example -was followed by several other regiments; on the 21st Ingoldsby's -regiment petitioned in direct terms for the trial of the king, and -declared the treaty at Newport a trap; and on the 16th of November a -long and stern remonstrance was addressed by the assembled officers of -the army to the House of Commons, demanding that "the capital and grand -author of all the troubles and woes which the nation had endured should -be speedily brought to justice for the treason, blood, and mischief -of which he had been guilty; that the Lords should be abolished, and -the supreme power vested in the Commons; that if the country desired -any more kings, they should be elected by the Commons; that a period -should be fixed for the close of this Parliament; and that any future -king should be sworn to govern by the aid of Parliament alone." -This startling remonstrance was signed by Rushworth, the historian, -secretary to Fairfax, the general himself accompanying the remonstrance -by a letter. A violent debate upon this remonstrance took place in the -House; but Cromwell was now fast advancing to the capital, and the -House adjourned. - -[Illustration: ARRIVAL OF CHARLES UNDER GUARD AT HURST CASTLE. (_see -p._ 82.)] - -All these ominous proceedings were lost on Charles; whilst he was -negotiating, he was, in his usual manner, secretly corresponding -with his party in various quarters, apologising for the smallest -concessions, on the principle that he did not mean to abide by them. -On the 24th of October, after conceding the command of the army, he -wrote to Sir William Hopkins, "To deal freely with you, the great -concession I made to-day was merely in order to my escape, of which if -I had not hope, I would not have done it." He had written on the 10th -of October to Ormond in Ireland, with which country he had agreed to -have no further intercourse, telling him that the treaty would come to -nothing, and encouraging him privately to prosecute the scheme for a -rising there with all his vigour, and to let his friends know that it -was by his command, but not openly, or this would, of course, knock the -treaty on the head. But a letter of Ormond's fell into the hands of the -Independents, by which they discovered for what he had been sent over -from France to Ireland, and the Commissioners would not proceed till -Charles had publicly written to deny any authority from him to Ormond. -All the while that the negotiations were proceeding, he was expecting -the execution of a plan for his escape; and he told Sir Philip Warwick -that if his friends could not rescue him by the time he had requested -relief, yet he would still hold on, till he had made some stone in that -building his tombstone. - -With such a man all treaty had long been hopeless; he would never -consent to the demands upon him, and without his consent the whole war -had been in vain; nay, did he consent, it was equally certain that, -once at liberty, he would break every engagement. What was to be done? -The Independents and the army had come to a solemn conviction that -there was but one way out of it. The king must be tried for his treason -to the nation, and dealt with as any other incorrigible malefactor. - -Cromwell, on his way back from Scotland, had called at Pontefract, to -take vengeance on the assassins of Colonel Rainsborough, but finding -affairs pressing in London, left Lambert to reduce the place and secure -the murderers, and hastened towards the capital. He had relied much on -Colonel Hammond to keep the king safe, and not to give him up into the -hands of Parliament, till full justice had been obtained. But no result -accruing from the treaty, the Commissioners prepared to take their -leave of the king on the 28th of November. On the 25th Hammond had -received an order from Fairfax to proceed to headquarters at Windsor, -and on the 26th Colonel Ewer, a zealous Republican, arrived at Newport -to take charge of the king, and confine him in Carisbrooke Castle, or -elsewhere. - -Hammond, who knew well what was the meaning of this, refused to give up -his charge, declaring that in all military matters he would obey his -general, but that this charge was committed to him by the Parliament, -and that he would yield it to no order but theirs. Ewer returned, but -the next day was the last day of the Commissioners. Charles, seeing -the desperate pass at which matters had arrived, suddenly gave way, -and agreed that the seven individuals excepted from pardon should take -their trials--namely, the Marquis of Newcastle, Sir Marmaduke Langdale, -who had been confined in Nottingham Castle, but had escaped, Lord -Digby, Sir Richard Grenville, Sir Francis Doddrington, Lord Byron, and -Mr. Justice Jenkins; that the bishops should be abolished, and their -lands vested in the Crown till a final settlement of religion. - -When the Commissioners took their leave, Charles warned the lords of -the party that in his ruin they saw their own. Though he had given up -everything at the last moment, he could not flatter himself that this -would be accepted, because he knew that the army, which held the real -power, had protested against this treaty altogether, as a violation -of the vote of non-addresses, and had no faith in his observance of -any conditions whatever. With the Commissioners Hammond also departed, -and Charles was left in the hands of Major Rolfe, a man who had been -charged with a design to take away the king's life six months before. -But Charles was not intended to remain in this man's custody; a body -of troops under Lieutenant-colonel Cobbet was already on its way to -receive the charge. The friends of the king, on learning this, once -more implored him to endeavour to escape. The Duke of Richmond, the -Earl of Lindsay, and Colonel Coke, urged him to instant flight; they -acquainted him with the watchword, and Coke told him he had a boat and -horses ready. But all their persuasions were vain; Charles would not -move. He pleaded that he had given his parole to the Parliament for -twenty days after the treaty. And this was the same man who had been -writing North and South during the whole treaty, to assure his friends -that he meant to break his word on every point of the treaty, the first -moment that he was at liberty. The real reason, we may believe, why -Charles did not attempt to escape, was, that he had no hope of it. -In all his attempts he never had escaped, and must have had a full -conviction that he never could. At five in the morning Cobbet and -his troop arrived, and the king was informed that he must arise and -accompany it. - -The king, greatly agitated, demanded to see the order for his removal, -and to know whither they designed to convey him. Cobbet told him they -should take him out of the island, but would not show his order. His -nobles, bishops, and officers of his household crowded round in alarm -and confusion, but there was no alternative; the king was obliged to -take his leave of them, with much sorrow, and was conducted to Hurst -Castle, on the opposite coast of Hampshire. "The place," says Warwick, -"stood in the sea, for every tide the water surrounded it, and it -contained only a few dog-lodgings for soldiers, being chiefly designed -for a platform to command the ships." The sight of this dreary place -struck a serious terror of assassination into his heart, for he never -would believe that, though the Levellers talked of it, they would ever -dare to bring an anointed king to public trial. Unfortunately, his own -officers had lately been rendering assassination familiar to the public -mind, for besides the gallant Colonel Rainsborough, they had murdered -several other officers of less note, and there was a rumour that they -had made a compact to get rid of the king's enemies in this manner. -Charles, however, was to learn that the officers of the Parliamentary -army disdained murder, and dared arraign a king. - -The same day that Charles was transferred to Hurst Castle, the -Parliament negatived the motion that the Parliamentary remonstrance -should be taken into consideration, and it voted a letter of Fairfax's, -demanding pay for the army, or threatening to take it where it could be -found, a high and unbeseeming letter. The same day, too, the council -of officers addressed a declaration to Parliament, assuring it that, -seeing that their remonstrance was rejected, they were come to the -conclusion that the Parliament had betrayed its trust to the people, -and that the army would, therefore, appeal from their authority "to the -extraordinary judgment of God, and all good people." They called on all -faithful members to put their confidence in the army, and protest with -them against the conduct of their colleagues. Parliament, on its part, -sent to Fairfax an order that the army should not advance any nearer -to the capital. But the army was advancing--several regiments from the -neighbourhood of York--with the avowal that they were following the -directions of Providence. - -On the 1st of December the Commons met, and as if indifferent to the -advance of the army, voted thanks to Holles, Pierpoint, and Lord -Wenman, for their care and pains in the good treaty at Newport, and -proceeded to read twice the report of the Commissioners. Holles, who, -with his accused colleagues, was again in the House, moved that the -king's answer should be voted satisfactory; but that question was -postponed till the next day, when the House adjourned again till the -4th of December--Fairfax, in defiance of their prohibition, having that -day marched into the City, and quartered his troops around Whitehall, -York House, St. James's, the Mews, and other places. On the 4th they -went into the question of the treaty again, having debated all Friday -and Saturday; and on Monday they continued the debate all day until -five o'clock the next morning, Tuesday. Such a debate of three days and -a night had not hitherto been known, for no subject of such supreme -importance had ever yet come before Parliament. Oliver Cromwell arrived -in the midst of this memorable debate. - -Sir Harry Vane the younger said that the treaty had been carried on -for months, and that although the king had appeared to concede much -at the last moment, yet they had his own declaration that he did not -hold himself bound by promises which he might make, and that it was the -conviction of himself, and thousands of others, that the king was not -to be trusted; that he, therefore, moved that the House should return -at once to its vote of non-addresses, which it ought never to have -violated, should cease all negotiations, and settle the commonwealth -on another model. Sir Henry Mildmay said the king was no more to be -trusted than a caged lion set at liberty. This was the conviction of -the whole body of the Independents, and no doubt a solid and rational -conviction. But the king did not lack defenders: Fiennes, to the -astonishment of his party, advocated the adoption of the report, and -even Prynne, who had suffered so severely under it, became a pleader -for royalty, that he might chastise Independency and the army. On a -division it was found that a majority of thirty-six, being one hundred -and forty against one hundred and four, had voted the concessions of -Charles at Newport satisfactory, and offering sufficient grounds for -settling the peace of the kingdom. But the army--or, in other words, -the Independent and Republican cause--was not going thus to be defeated. - -On the morning of the 6th of December, Major-general Skippon discharged -the train-bands which had guarded the two Houses of Parliament, and -Colonel Rich's cavalry and Colonel Pride's regiment of foot took their -places. Colonel Pride took the lead in the proceeding, which has thence -acquired the name of Pride's Purge. The army determined to purge the -Parliament of all those who were weak enough or mischievous enough to -consent to the return of the king on his own promises, which had long -ceased to mean anything but deceit. Fairfax was engaged in conversation -with some of the members, and Colonel Pride, placing some of his -soldiers in the Court of Requests, and others in the lobby of the -Commons, stood in the latter place with a list of its members in his -hand, and as they approached--Lord Grey of Groby, who stood by him as -one of the doorkeepers, informing him who the members were--he stopped -such as were on his list, and sent them to the Queen's Court, the Court -of Wards, and other places appointed for their detention by the general -and council of the army. Fifty-two of the leading Presbyterians were -thus secured, and the next day, others who had passed the first ordeal -were also removed, so that Pride's Purge had left only about fifty -members for a House, who were Independents, for others had fled into -the country, or hidden themselves in the City to escape arrest. On the -whole, forty-seven members were imprisoned, and ninety-six excluded. -The purged remainder acquired the well-known name of the Rump. - -The Independents were now uncontrolled; the royal party in Scotland, -weakened by the defeat of Hamilton's army, were opposed by the -Covenanters, who again denounced the curse of Meroz from the pulpit -against all who did not rise in defence of the Solemn League and -Covenant. Loudon and Eglinton were appointed commanders, and the Earl -of Argyll, with his Highlanders, joining them, they, with the forces -of Cassilis from Carrick and Galloway, marched to Edinburgh. This wild -army advancing from the west were called the "Whiggamores," either from -_whiggam_, a phrase used in driving their horses, or _whig_ (whey), -a beverage of sour milk, which was one of their articles of food. -Whichever it was, the term was soon used to designate an enemy of the -king, and in the next reign was adopted as a nickname for the opponents -of the Court, whence the political term "Whig." Lord Lanark and Monroe -were glad to treat with the Whiggamores, and disbanded their troops, so -that Argyll being a great partisan of Cromwell's, nothing more was to -be feared in the North. On Cromwell's visit Berwick and Carlisle had -been surrendered to him. - -On the sitting of the purged Parliament on the 6th, the first day of -Pride's weeding out the suspected members, Cromwell appeared in his -place, and was received with acclamations for his services in the -North. The 8th was kept as a solemn fast, and a collection was made -for the wives and widows of the poor soldiers. They then adjourned -to the 11th, and on Sunday, Hugh Peters, the great enthusiast of -Republicanism, preached a sermon in St. Margaret's, Westminster, from -the text, "Bind your king with chains, and your nobles with fetters of -iron;" and he did not hesitate in the sermon to characterise the king -as Barabbas, the great murderer, tyrant, and traitor. It was remarkable -that not only four earls and twenty commoners of note sat out this -sermon, but the Prince Palatine himself, Charles's nephew. The king's -own family, whatever their pretences, had clearly given him up to his -fate, or the prince, with his powerful fleet, would never have scoured -the coasts of the south of England for several weeks without a single -attempt to save his father, the impetuous Prince Rupert being on board, -and one of his chief counsellors. - -Instead of the House of Commons sitting according to adjournment, -on the 11th, the Military Councils, the Select Committee, and the -General sat, and framed a new scheme of government. It was called "A -new Representative, or an Agreement of the People." The composition -was said to be Ireton's, but had probably been framed by Cromwell, -Ireton, Peters, Vane, Pride, and the leading Republicans. It was but an -amplification of the late remonstrance; it proposed that the present -Parliament, which had now sat eight years, should be finally dissolved -in April next, and a new one elected according to this formula. It -declared that officers and malignants should be incapable of electing -or being elected; that the House of Commons should consist of three -hundred members, and the representation of the country should be more -equal. These propositions, having been sanctioned by the general -council of soldiers and inferior officers, were carried to Parliament. -The Commons the next day readily voted these measures, as well as that -both the Commons and Lords, by violating the vote of non-addresses, had -committed an act most unparliamentary and detrimental to the kingdom, -and that the treaty at Newport was a monstrous error, disgrace, and -peril to the country. They again restored the order expelling the -eleven Presbyterian members from the House. - -On the 16th a strong party of horse was despatched under Colonel -Harrison to remove the king to Windsor Castle. On the very day that -he reached Windsor, the House of Commons, or the Rump fragment of it, -appointed a committee of thirty-eight "to consider of drawing up a -charge against the king, and all other delinquents that may be thought -fit to bring to condign punishment." On the 1st of January, 1649, the -committee made the following report:--"That the said Charles Stuart, -being admitted King of England, and therein trusted with a limited -power to govern by and according to the laws of the land, and not -otherwise; and by his trust, oath, and office, being obliged to use -the power committed to him for the good and benefit of the people, and -for the preservation of their rights and liberties; yet, nevertheless, -out of a wicked design to erect and uphold in himself an unlimited and -tyrannical power, to rule according to his will, and to overthrow the -rights and liberties of the people; yea, to take away and make void the -foundations thereof, and of all redress and remedy of misgovernment, -which by the fundamental constitutions of this kingdom were reserved on -the people's behalf, in the right and power of frequent and successive -Parliaments, or national meetings in council; he, the said Charles -Stuart, for accomplishing of such his designs, and for the protecting -of himself and his adherents in his and their wicked practices, to the -same ends hath traitorously and maliciously levied war against the -present Parliament, and the people therein represented." The report, -therefore, declared that he should be brought to judgment for his -treason to the nation. - -[Illustration: TRIAL OF CHARLES I. (_See p._ 86.)] - -The next day the ordinance of the Commons confirming the report was -sent up to the Lords, or at least to the few of them remaining, only -amounting to about a dozen, who rejected it without a dissenting voice, -and then adjourned. The Commons immediately closed their doors, and -passed a resolution that the Commons of England in Parliament assembled -were, under God, the origin of all just power as the representatives of -the people; that whatsoever they decreed was law, and did not require -any concurrence from the Lords. - -On the 6th of January the Commons passed the ordinance for the trial of -the king. By it they erected a High Court of Justice for trying him, -and proceeding to judgment against him. It consisted of no less than a -hundred and thirty-five Commissioners, of whom twenty were to form a -quorum. Of these Commissioners no more than eighty assembled. On the -8th, fifty assembled in the Painted Chamber, Fairfax at their head, and -ordered that on the morrow the herald should proclaim the approaching -trial, and invite all people to bring in what matters of fact they had -against Charles Stuart. Accordingly that was done both at Westminster -and in the City the same day, the 9th. The Commons ordered the Great -Seal in use to be broken up, and a new seal introduced, bearing the -inscription, "The Great Seal of England," and on the reverse, "In the -first year of Freedom, by God's blessing restored, 1648" (_i.e._, 1649, -new style). The Commissioners then appointed John Bradshaw, a native -of Cheshire, and a barrister of Gray's Inn, who had practised much in -Guildhall, and had lately been made a serjeant, Lord President of the -High Court; Mr. Steel, Attorney-General; Mr. Coke, Solicitor-General; -Mr. Dorislaus and Mr. Aske, as Counsel for the Commonwealth; and, -appointing the old Courts of Chancery and King's Bench, at the upper -end of Westminster Hall, as the place of trial, they fixed the day for -the 19th of January. On the 20th of January the Commissioners assembled -in the Painted Chamber to the number of sixty-six, and proceeded in -state to Westminster Hall. - -It may be imagined that such a spectacle drew immense throngs. Every -avenue to the hall was guarded by soldiers, and others stood armed -within it. The open space below the bar was densely crowded, and -equally packed throngs of nobles, gentlemen, and ladies, looked down -from the galleries right and left. A chair of crimson velvet for -the President stood elevated on three steps towards the upper end -of the hall, and behind and in a line with him right and left the -Commissioners took the seats placed for them, which were covered with -scarlet. Before the President stood a long table on which lay the mace -and sword, and just below him, at its head, sat two clerks. At the -bottom of the table, directly opposite to the President, was placed a -chair for the king. - -After the commission had been read, Bradshaw ordered the prisoner to -be brought to the bar. He had been brought from Whitehall, to which -he had been removed from St. James's, in a sedan chair, and the -serjeant-at-arms conducted him to the bar. His step was firm, and -his countenance, though serious, unmoved. He seated himself covered, -according to the wont, not of a prisoner, but of a king; then rose and -surveyed the court and crowds around him. The Commissioners all sat -with their hats on, and Charles eyed them sternly. He then glanced -round on the people in the galleries and those around him with an air -of superiority, and reseated himself. Bradshaw then addressed him -to this effect:--"Charles Stuart, King of England,--The Commons of -England, being deeply sensible of the calamities that have been brought -upon this nation, which are fixed upon you as the principal author -of them, have resolved to make inquisition for blood; and, according -to that debt and due they owe to justice, to God, the kingdom, and -themselves, they have resolved to bring you to trial and judgment, and -for that purpose have constituted this High Court of Justice before -which you are brought." Coke, the Solicitor-General, then rose to -make the charge against him, but Charles, rising and crying, "Hold! -hold!" tapped him on the shoulder with his cane. In doing this the gold -head dropped from his cane, and though he took it up with an air of -indifference, it was an incident that made a deep impression both on -him and the spectators. He mentioned the circumstance to the Bishop of -London, who attended him in private, with much concern, and those who -saw it regarded it as an especial omen. - -Coke, however, went on, and desired the clerk to read the charge, -and whilst it was reading, Charles again cried, "Hold!" but as the -clerk continued, he sat down, looking very stern; but when the words -of the charge declaring him to be a tyrant and a traitor were read, -he is said to have laughed outright. When the charge was finished, -Bradshaw demanded what he had to say in reply to it; but he in his turn -demanded by what authority he had been brought there? And he asserted -very forcibly that he was king; acknowledged no authority superior to -his own, and would not by any act of his diminish or yield up that -authority, but leave it to his posterity as he had derived it from his -ancestors. He reminded them that he had lately, in the Isle of Wight, -treated with a number of lords and gentlemen; that they were upon the -conclusion of that treaty, and he wanted to know by what authority he -had, under such circumstances, been brought thence. - -This was very true, and would have been unanswerable, had he, as he -asserted, treated with them honestly and uprightly; but we know that -at the very time that he was carrying on that treaty, and to the very -last, he was also carrying on a secret correspondence with Ormond in -Ireland, his wife in France, and with other parties, informing them -that he was only doing this because there was no help for it; but -that he had games to play which would still defeat the whole affair. -He was meaning nothing less, and privately declaring nothing less, -than that he would, on the first opportunity, be as despotic as ever. -He continued, however, to demand, "By what authority am I here? I -mean lawful authority, for there are many unlawful authorities in the -world--thieves and robbers by the highways. Remember, I am your lawful -king: let me know by what lawful authority I am seated here; resolve -me that, and you shall hear more from me." Bradshaw told him that he -might have observed that he was there by the authority of the people -of England, whose elected king he was. That afforded Charles another -answer. "England," he said, "never was an elective but an hereditary -kingdom for nearly these thousand years. I stand more for the liberty -of my people than any here that are come to be my pretended judges." -Bradshaw might have told him that the people thought it time to put -an end to the hereditary form, and adopt a new one; but he replied, -"Sir, how well you have managed your trust is known. If you do not -acknowledge the authority of the court I must proceed." Charles, -however, turned to another weak place in his adversary's answer, and -exclaimed, "I see no House of Lords that may constitute a Parliament, -and the king, too, must be in and part of a Parliament." It was -unquestionable that Charles could not be answered on the constitutional -ground, but only on the revolutionary one, on that principle of the -power and right of the people to revolutionise, and shape anew their -constitution (which in 1688 was acknowledged and established as a great -fact of the rights of nations), and Bradshaw brought forward that -plea--"If you are not satisfied with our authority, we are satisfied -with it, which we have from God and the people." He informed Charles -that he would be expected to answer, and adjourned the court till -Monday. - -The two following days were spent in receiving evidence of the king's -having not only commenced the war on his subjects, but of his having -commanded personally in it, and in settling the form of judgment to be -pronounced. On the third day, when Charles was again brought forward, -the same painful scene was renewed of the king's denying the court, -refusing to plead, and yet insisting on being heard. Bradshaw told -him in vain that if he pleaded, admitting the authority of the court, -he would be at liberty to make any observation in his defence that he -pleased; but that in no court could it be otherwise. He then demanded -a hearing before a committee of both Houses, but he was reminded that -the authority of the Lords was no longer admitted. He assured him that -though he contended that he had no superior in the State, the law was -his superior, and that there was a power superior to the law--the -people, the parent or author of the law--which was not of yesterday, -but the law of old; that there were such things as parliaments, which -the people had constructed for their protection, and these Parliaments -he had endeavoured to put down and destroy; and that what his -endeavours had been all along for the crushing of Parliament, had been -notorious to the whole kingdom. "And truly, sir," he continued, "in -_that_ you did strike at all, for the great bulwark of the liberties of -the people is the Parliament of England. Could you but have confounded -that, you had at one blow cut off the neck of England. But God hath -been pleased to confound your design, to break your forces, to bring -your person into custody, that you might be responsible to justice." - -He then combated Charles's argument, that there was no law or example -of people deposing or destroying their kings. He quoted many instances -from foreign nations, in which they had resisted, fought against, and -destroyed their kings. Charles's own country of Scotland, before all -others, abounded with instances of the deposition and putting to death -of their sovereigns. His grandmother had been so set aside, and his -own father, a mere infant, put in her place. The Lord President then -referred to the depositions of Edward II. and Richard II., which he -contended were effected by Parliament, and said that their crimes were -not a tenth part so capital against the nation as those in this charge. -As Charles again continued to reply and argue without submitting to -plead, Bradshaw told him the court had given him too much liberty -already, and ordered the sentence to be read. But here John Downes, -one of the Commissioners, a citizen of London, said to those near him, -"Have we hearts of stone? Are we men?" and then rising and trembling -violently, exclaimed, "My lord, I am not satisfied to give my consent -to the sentence. I desire the court may adjourn to hear me." They -therefore adjourned, but in half an hour returned with a unanimous -verdict of guilty. - -Bradshaw then proceeded to pronounce the sentence. When the names of -the Commissioners were read that morning, on that of Fairfax being -called, a female voice from one of the galleries cried out, "He has -more wit than be here." When the name of Cromwell was read, the same -voice exclaimed, "A rogue and a traitor." As Bradshaw now went on to -say, the king had been called to answer by the people, before the -Commons of England assembled in Parliament, the same female voice -shouted, "It is false! not one half-quarter of them!" There was a great -excitement; all turned towards the gallery whence the voice came, -from amid a group of masked ladies. Axtell, the officer commanding -the soldiers, brutally ordered them to fire into the group; but the -soldiers hesitated, and a lady rose and walked out of the gallery. It -was seen to be Lady Fairfax, the wife of the commander-in-chief, a -woman of very ancient and noble family, the Veres of Tilbury, who had -come to object most decidedly to the extreme measures of the army, and -had prevailed on her husband to keep away from the court. - -After order had been restored, Bradshaw ordered the charge to be read, -the king still interfering; and then Bradshaw passed the sentence, -"That the court being satisfied in conscience that he, Charles Stuart, -was guilty of the crimes of which he had been accused, did adjudge him -as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy to the good people of -the nation, to be put to death by severing his head from his body." - -After the sentence was pronounced, Charles again requested to be -heard; but Bradshaw told him that after the sentence it could not be -allowed, and ordered the guards to take him away. The Royalist writers -state that during the trial the people had cried, "Justice! justice!" -whilst others cried, "God save the king!" but that after the king was -condemned, the soldiers, as he passed, insulted him in the grossest -manner, spitting on him, blowing their tobacco in his face, throwing -their pipes at him, and yelling in his ears, "Justice! justice! -execution! execution!" But the popular party utterly denied the truth -of these assertions; declaring that they were got up to make the case -of Charles resemble that of the Saviour, to render his judges odious, -and himself a sacred martyr. One soldier, Herbert says, as the king was -proceeding to his sedan chair, said, "God help and save your majesty!" -and that Axtell struck him down with his cane, on which the king said, -"Poor fellow! it is a heavy blow for a small offence." To the hired -hootings of the military, Herbert says that he merely remarked, "Poor -souls! they would say the same to their generals for sixpence." - -Charles went back to St. James's Palace, where he spent the remainder -of the day, Sunday, the 28th of January, and Monday, the 29th, the -execution being fixed for Tuesday, the 30th. He had the attendance of -Juxon, the late Bishop of London, and the next morning he received the -last visit of his only two remaining children in England, the Duke of -Gloucester and the Princess Elizabeth. The princess was not twelve, -and the king, setting her on his knee, began speaking to her--"But, -sweetheart," he said, "thou wilt forget what I tell thee." The little -girl, bursting into tears, promised to write down all that passed, and -she did so. In her account, preserved in the "_Reliquiæ Sacræ_," she -says, amongst other things, that he commanded her to tell her mother -that his thoughts had never strayed from her, that his love would be -the same for her to the last; and that he died a glorious death for -the laws and religion of the land. To the Duke of Gloucester he said, -"Sweetheart, now they will cut off thy father's head. Heed what I say, -they will cut off my head, and perhaps make thee a king. But mark -what I say; you must not be a king as long as your brothers Charles -and James live; therefore, I charge you, do not be made a king by -them." At which the child, sighing deeply, replied, "I will be torn in -pieces first." "And these words coming unexpectedly from so young a -child," says the princess, "rejoiced my father exceedingly." The whole -interview was extremely affecting. - -Charles slept well, but woke early, and bade his man Herbert rise and -dress him with care, for it was his second marriage day, and he would -be as trim as possible. Whilst Herbert dressed him, he told him he had -dreamt of Archbishop Laud, who, on the king speaking seriously to him, -had sighed and fallen prostrate. Charles said, had he not been dead, -he might possibly have said something to Laud to cause him to sigh; -so that it is possible he felt that Laud's proceedings and advice had -brought things to this pass. He desired to have two shirts on, as the -weather was very cold; for if he shook, the rogues would think it was -through fear. He observed that he was glad he had slept at St. James's, -as the walk through the park would warm him. At ten o'clock the summons -came--Colonel Hacker knocked at the door to say they were ready. Hacker -turned pale on seeing the king come out, and was much affected. Ten -companies of infantry formed a double line on each side of his path, -and a detachment preceded him with banners flying and drums beating. - -[Illustration: CHARLES'S FAREWELL INTERVIEW WITH THE DUKE OF GLOUCESTER -AND THE PRINCESS ELIZABETH. (_See p._ 88.)] - -On the king's right walked Juxon, on his left the Parliamentary Colonel -Tomlinson, bareheaded. The king walked through the park at a brisk -rate, and said to the guard, "Come, my good fellows, step on apace." -He pointed out a tree planted by his brother Henry, and on arriving at -Whitehall, he ascended the stairs with a light step, passed through the -long gallery, and went to his chamber, where he remained with Juxon in -religious exercise. It was past one o'clock before he was summoned to -the scaffold, where the executioner, Brandon, and Hulet, a sergeant -appointed to assist him, disguised in black masks, awaited him. The -scaffold was raised in the street, in front of the Banqueting House -at Whitehall, and he passed through a window which had been taken -out, upon it. All was hung with black cloth, and in the middle of the -scaffold stood the block, with the axe enveloped in black crape lying -on it. - -Charles made a speech, in which he denied making war on the Parliament, -but the Parliament on him, by claiming the militia. Church, Lords, and -Commons had, he said, been subverted with the sovereign power; if he -would have consented to reign by the mere despotism of the sword, he -asserted that he might have lived and remained king. He declared that -he forgave all his enemies; and yet when the executioner knelt and -begged his forgiveness, he said, "No, I forgive no subject of mine, who -comes deliberately to shed my blood." He said that the nation would -never prosper till they placed his son on the throne; and to the last -moment, rooted in his theory of divine right, he denied that the people -ought to have any share in the government--that being a thing "nothing -pertaining to them"--and yet that "he died the martyr of the people." - -Whilst he spoke some one disturbed the axe, on which he turned and -said, "Have a care of the axe; if the edge be spoiled, it will be the -worse for me." After concluding his speech, he put up his hair under -a cap, and the bishop observed, "There is but one stage more, which, -though turbulent and troublesome, is yet a very short one. Consider -it will carry you a great way--even from earth to heaven." "I go," -said the king, "from a corruptible crown to an incorruptible, where no -disturbance can take place." "You are exchanged from a temporal to an -eternal crown--a good exchange," replied the bishop. The king then took -off his cloak, and gave his _George_ to Juxon, saying impressively, -"Remember!" The warning is supposed, as the medallion of the George -concealed a portrait of Henrietta, to have regarded a message to his -wife. Having laid his head on the block, the executioner severed it at -a single stroke, and Hulet, the sergeant, holding it up, cried, "Here -is the head of a traitor." At that sight a universal groan seemed to go -through the crowd. - -The body lay at Whitehall, to be embalmed, till the 7th of February, -when it was conveyed to Windsor, and laid in the vault of St. George's -Chapel, near the coffins of Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour. The day was -very snowy, and the coffin being deposited without any service, was -left without any inscription except the words, "Carolus Rex, 1648," -the letters of which were cut out of a band of lead by the gentlemen -present, with their penknives, and the lead folded round the coffin. -In this condition it was discovered in 1813, when George IV., attended -by Sir Henry Halford, had it opened, and found proof that the head had -been separated from the body. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE COMMONWEALTH. - - Proclamation of the Prince of Wales Forbidden--Decline - of the Peerage--_Ultimus Regum_--Establishment of a - Republican Government--Abolition of the House of Lords and - the Monarchy--Council of State--The Oath Difficulty--The - Engagement--Religious Toleration--Trials of Royalists--Discontent - among the People--The Levellers--Activity of John - Lilburne--Quelling the Mutiny in Whalley's Regiment--Lockyer's - Funeral--Arrest of Lilburne--Spread of the Disaffection to - other Regiments--Suppression of the Insurrection--Cromwell - appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland--Royalist Movement - in Scotland--Charles's Son proclaimed King--The Scottish - Deputation at the Hague--Charles's Court--Assassination of Dr. - Dorislaus--Affairs in Ireland--Cromwell's Campaign--Defeat - and Death of Montrose--Cromwell in Scotland--Battle of - Dunbar--Movements of Charles--His March into England--Battle of - Worcester--Charles Escapes to France--Vigorous Government--Foreign - Difficulties--Navigation Act--War with Holland--Contest between - Parliament and the Army--Expulsion of the Rump--The Little - Parliament--Cromwell made Protector. - - -The king being put to death, it was necessary that the Parliament -should immediately determine what sort of government should succeed. -Had they been disposed to continue the monarchy, and receive the eldest -son of Charles, it was still necessary to take efficient means for -obtaining from him, before admitting him to the throne, a recognition -of all the rights for which they had striven with his father. The very -day, therefore, of the king's execution, the House of Commons passed -an Act, making it high treason for any one to proclaim the Prince -of Wales, or any other person, king or chief magistrate of England -or Ireland, without consent of Parliament; and copies of this were -immediately despatched to all the sheriffs, to be proclaimed in the -counties. That done, they proceeded gradually, but promptly, to develop -and complete their design of adopting a Republican form of government. - -The first step was to deal with the Lords. That body, or the miserable -remnant thereof, still sat in the Upper House, and sent repeated -messages to the Commons, to which they deigned no reply. The Lords, in -fact, had become contemptible in the eyes of the whole community. They -had sunk and trembled before the genius of the Commons. Though strongly -inclined to stand by royalty, and though all their interests were -bound up with it, though they had been created by royal fiat, and made -all that they were by it, in honour, power, and estate, and though -it required no great sagacity to perceive that they must fall with -it, the king himself having repeatedly assured them that such would -be the case, they had neither the policy nor the gratitude to hold -together and maintain the fountain of their honour, nor the prescience -to perceive their case when the Crown must fall, and make a merit of -going over bodily to the conquering power. They had gone to pieces, -some holding with one side, some with the other, some vacillating -between both, changing and rechanging as the balance turned one way -or the other. What was still worse, they had discovered no talent -whatever on either side, with most rare exceptions, and these not -remarkable, even where they had adopted a side and become partisans. -Essex, Warwick, Holland, Hamilton, Newcastle, Northumberland, Ormond, -and the rest, what had they done? Fairfax and Montrose, out of the -whole body--and Montrose had personally been raised to it--had alone -won great names. Fairfax, indeed, independent of Cromwell's hand and -head, was respectable, but nothing more. The whole peerage had sunk -into contemptible eclipse before the bold and vigorous genius of the -Commoners. Without, therefore, deigning to answer their messages, on -the 5th of February they began to discuss the question as to their -retention or abolition, and the next day they voted, by a majority of -forty-four to twenty-nine, that "the House of Peers in Parliament was -useless and dangerous, and ought to be abolished; that the privilege of -peers, of being freed from arrest, should be declared null and void, -but that they might be elected knights or burgesses for the Commons." -Henry Marten moved that the word "dangerous" should be omitted, and -the word "useless" only be retained; or if the word "dangerous" were -retained, it should be only with "not" before it, for the peers were -certainly not dangerous, but pitiably useless, and they had now come to -see verified what Holles had told them, that if they would not heartily -join in saving the nation, it would be saved without them. An Act to -this effect was soon after brought in and passed. - -On the day following (the 7th), the Commons proceeded to a more -important question, and voted that it had been found by experience that -the office of a king in this nation, and that to have the power thereof -in any single person, was unnecessary, burdensome, and dangerous to the -liberty, safety, and public interest of the nation, and therefore that -it should be utterly abolished; and to that purpose an Act should be -forthwith prepared. This was speedily followed by a vote, on the motion -of Henry Marten, that the king's statues at the Royal Exchange and -other places should be taken down, and on the places where they stood -should be inscribed, "_Exit Tyrannus, Regum ultimus, Anno Libertatis -Angliæ restitutæ primo_, A.D. 1648, January 30" (old style). There was, -moreover, an elaborate declaration drawn up, to justify the changing -of England into a Republic, translated into Latin, French, and Dutch, -and addressed to foreign States. The custody of the new Great Seal was -entrusted to three lawyers--namely, Whitelock, Keble, and Lisle; they -were to hold it during good behaviour, and to be called Keepers of the -Liberties of England, by authority of Parliament. The King's Bench was -henceforth named the Upper Bench, and came to be called the Commons -Bench, and Oliver St. John, who had done so much to bring about this -revolution, was made Chief Justice. - -The next great measure was to dissolve the Executive Council, which -had sat at Derby House, and revive it in a more extended form as -the Executive Council of State, to consist of forty-one members. -Three-fourths of these had seats in the House, and several of the -late peers--Mulgrave, Pembroke, Denbigh, Fairfax, Lisle, Grey of -Groby, Salisbury, and Grey of Werke. The chief heads of the law and -officers of the army were included. The principal names were, the -late peers already mentioned, and Whitelock, St. John, Cromwell, -Skippon, Hazelrig, Midmay, Vane, Marten, Bradshaw, Ludlow, and Colonel -Hutchinson, Governor of Nottingham. Milton, the great national poet, -was appointed its secretary, and henceforth prepared its public acts, -and employed his mighty talents in the defence of the measures of the -Republican Government. - -It was necessary to have an oath, and one was constructed which -approved of the king's trial, of the vote against the Scots and -their English associates, and of the abolition of monarchy and the -House of Lords. But as this would not only exclude all conscientious -Presbyterians, but called on the Lords to pass an act of censure on -themselves, as well as on all to approve of Acts of Parliament in -which they had no concern, Fairfax and some others refused to take -it, and it had to be reduced to the undertaking "to be true and -faithful to the Government established without king or House of Peers, -and never to consent to their re-admission." This was called the -"Engagement," and still was effective in excluding all Royalists, and -such of the Presbyterian party as would not consent to violate their -favourite Covenant. Of the twelve judges, ten had been appointed by -the revolutionary party, and the whole of them had quietly continued -their functions through the war against the king; yet six of these now -resigned, probably having hoped to the last for an accommodation with -the king, and not going in their minds the length of a commonwealth. -The other six consented to hold their offices only on the condition -that an Act of the Commons should guarantee the non-abolition of the -fundamental laws of the kingdom. - -With regard to the Church, as the present Government was decidedly in -favour of ample toleration, it satisfied itself with making a slight -modification of the existing Presbyterian power, and allowing it to -remain, at the same time that it deprived its intolerant clergy of all -temporal power whatever. No holders of religious opinions were to be -molested, provided that they did not attack the fundamental principles -of Christianity, and thus the Roman Catholics acquired more civil as -well as religious liberty than they had enjoyed since the days of Queen -Mary. - -The army remained in the same able hands which had made it the finest -army in Europe, and had won with it such wonderful victories. Fairfax -still continued commander-in-chief, though he had held aloof from -the king's trial, and the navy was put on a more efficient footing -by removing the Earl of Warwick and appointing Blake, who had shown -remarkable skill and courage on land, with Popham and Dean as admirals. -These great changes were chiefly effected by the influence of Cromwell, -Ireton, Marten, and Bradshaw, assisted by the talents of Vane, and -the legal ability of St. John and Whitelock. They also introduced a -Parliamentary measure, which essentially modified the character of the -House. On the 1st of February they carried a vote that those who, on -the 5th of December, assented to the vote that "the king's concessions -were a sufficient ground to proceed to a settlement," should be -incapable of sitting, but all others who should previously enter on the -journal their dissent from that motion should be admissible. By this -means they found the number of members raised to one hundred and fifty, -and at the same time they were protected from a wearying opposition -from the Presbyterian section. - -They now proceeded to bring to trial such of the Royalist prisoners -as had engaged in the last insurrection, whom they regarded as -disturbers of the kingdom after it had once conquered the king, and -might have proceeded to a settlement. They looked on them, in fact, as -a species of rebels to the party in power. And yet that party was not -constituted, even by its own formal enactments, as a fully recognised -Government, till these trials were over. They terminated on the 6th of -March, and the Republic was not formally passed till the 19th of that -month, in these words: "Be it declared and enacted by this present -Parliament, and by the authority of the same, that the people of -England, and of all the dominions and territories thereunto belonging, -are and shall be, and are hereby constituted, made, established, -and confirmed to be, a Commonwealth or Free State; and shall from -henceforth be governed as a commonwealth and free state, by the -supreme authority of this nation, the representatives of the people in -Parliament, and by such as they shall appoint and constitute officers -and ministers under them for the good of the people, and without any -king or House of Lords." - -Whilst this Act was preparing, the trials were going on: the votes for -the sitting of the Council and the Commons were considered sufficient -authority. The trials were probably hastened by the news that Charles -II. had been proclaimed in Scotland, and that the Scots were raising -an army to avenge the king's death, and "to punish the sectaries of -England for the breach of the Covenant." The persons whom it was -resolved to try, were the Duke of Hamilton, the Earl of Holland, Lord -Goring, lately created Earl of Norwich, Lord Capel, and Sir John Owen. -The High Court appointed to try these prisoners consisted of fifty -persons of both ex-Peers and Commons. The Duke of Hamilton pleaded -that he was not within the jurisdiction of an English court, that he -was a subject of Scotland, and a prisoner of war; but it was replied -that he was also an English peer, as Earl of Cambridge, and it was -proved that not only was his father naturalised as an English peer, -but he himself had been called to sit as such, and had sat. The Earl -of Holland was ill, and therefore made little defence, except pleading -that he had free quarter given him when he was taken at St. Neots; but -this was fully disproved. Lord Goring, or, as now called, the Earl of -Norwich, had been a steady partisan of the king's, and had shown little -lenity to the Parliamentarians; but he now conducted himself with great -respect to the court, and seemed to leave himself in their hands. Lord -Capel was one of the bravest and proudest of the Royalist generals. -During his imprisonment he escaped from the Tower, but was betrayed -by the boatmen with whom he crossed the Thames. He had expressed -great indignation at the deaths of Lisle and Lucas, and had excited -the resentment of Ireton by it. He now demanded to be tried by court -martial, and declared that when Lisle and Lucas were adjudged to die, -Fairfax had declared that all other lives should be spared, and had -evidence to prove it, if he were allowed. Ireton, who really seems to -have felt a stern resentment against the free-speaking general, denied -that Fairfax had given any such promise, and that if he had, he had -no right to supersede the authority of Parliament. He demanded that -Fairfax should be sent for; but the court satisfied itself with sending -to the general, who returned by letter a rather equivocating answer, -saying that his promise only applied to a court martial, and not to any -such court as Parliament might see fit to appoint. Bradshaw told Capel, -who was not satisfied with this, that he was tried by such judges as -Parliament thought proper to give him, and who had judged a better man -than himself. - -[Illustration: OLIVER CROMWELL.] - -Sir John Owen, who was a gentleman of Wales, in the late outbreak -had killed a sheriff. He pleaded quarter, and that he had only done -what he thought his duty, in support of the king. As to killing the -sheriff, the sheriff had risen against him with force, and was killed -in the accident of war, which he might have avoided if he had stayed -quietly at home. All five were condemned to lose their heads, the -Earl of Holland as a double turncoat, and his conduct had certainly -been anything but consistent and noble. Sir John Owen, on hearing the -sentence, made a low bow and thanked the judges; and being asked why, -he replied, that it was a very great honour for a poor gentleman of -Wales to die like a lord, and he had not expected anything better -than hanging. No sooner was the sentence passed, than the friends -of Hamilton, Holland, and Capel, made great exertions to save their -lives. The wives of Holland and Capel appeared at the bar, attended by -long trains of females in mourning, to beg for their lives. Two days' -respite was granted, and every effort, persuasion, and bribery was put -in force. Hamilton had fewer friends than the rest, but it was urged -that his death might occasion trouble with Scotland; but Cromwell knew -that they had the interest of Argyll, and that Hamilton's being out of -the way would strengthen that interest. The case of Holland occasioned -a great debate. The Earl of Warwick, his brother, on one side urged his -services to the Parliament for a long period--his enemies, his revolt -from it on the other. Cromwell and Ireton were firmly against them, and -the sentences of these three were confirmed. The votes regarding Goring -were equal, and Lenthall, the Speaker, gave the casting vote in his -favour, alleging that he formerly had done him an essential service. -Sir John Owen, to the satisfaction of those who admired his frank and -quaint humour, was also reprieved, and ultimately liberated. He had -softened even the heart of Ireton, and greatly moved the good Colonel -Hutchinson, and both spoke in his favour. Hamilton, Capel, and Holland, -were beheaded in the Palace Yard on the 9th of March. - -The Parliament was soon called on to defend itself against more -dangerous enemies. The country was groaning under the exhaustion of -the civil war. For seven years it had been bleeding at every pore; -and now that the war had ceased, the people began to utter aloud -their complaints, which, if uttered before, had been drowned in the -din of conflict. There was everywhere a terrible outcry against the -burden of taxation; and famine and pestilence--the sure successors -of carnage and spoliation--were decimating the people. In Lancashire -and Westmoreland numbers were daily perishing, and the magistrates of -Cumberland deposed that thirty thousand families in that county had -neither seed- nor bread-corn, nor the means of procuring either. What -rendered this state of things the more dangerous, was the turbulence -of the Levellers. The principles of Republicanism which had borne -on the heads of the army, threatened in turn to overwhelm them in -their progress amongst the soldiers. It is easier to set in motion -revolutionary ideas, than to say to them, "Thus far shall ye go and -no farther." In all revolutions, the class which initiates them wishes -to stop at the point that is most convenient to itself; but other -classes beyond this line are equally anxious, and have an equal claim -to the benefit of levelling principles. It is only power which limits -their diffusion. The power now had passed from the king and the lords, -and had centred in the leaders of the army. It was not convenient or -desirable for them that it should go farther. But the soldiers and the -lower officers, with John Lilburne at their head, claimed a Republic in -its more popular sense. They read in the Bible, and preached from it -in the field, that God was no respecter of persons; that human rights -were as universal as the human race. They saw that Cromwell, Ireton, -Harrison, and a few others were the men who ruled in the Parliament, -the Council, and the Army; and they conceived that they were no longer -seeking the common rights of the community, but the aggrandisement -of themselves. Colonel John Lilburne was pouring out pamphlet upon -pamphlet, and disseminating them through the ranks and through the -people--"England's New Chains Discovered," "The Hunting of the Foxes -from Triploe Heath to Whitehall by Five Small Beagles." These foxes -were Cromwell, Ireton, Fairfax, etc., who had suppressed the mutiny at -Triploe Heath--and the five beagles those who had been made to ride -the wooden horse for their insubordination, that is, set upon a sharp -three-cornered wooden machine, with weights or muskets tied to their -feet. News came to Parliament that one Everard, a soldier passing for a -prophet, and Winstanley, another, with thirty more, were assembled on -St. George's Hill, near Cobham, in Surrey, and were digging the ground -and planting it with roots and beans. They said they should shortly be -four thousand, and invited all to come and help them, promising them -meat, drink, and clothes. Two troops of horse were sent to disperse -them, of which they loudly complained, and Everard and Winstanley went -to the general, and declared "that the liberties of the people were -lost by the coming in of William the Conqueror, and that ever since, -the people of God had lived under tyranny and oppression worse than our -forefathers under the Egyptians. But now the time of deliverance was at -hand, and God would bring His people out of this slavery, and restore -them to their freedom in enjoying the fruits and benefits of the earth. -There had lately appeared to him [Everard] a vision, which bade him -arise and dig and plough the earth, and receive the fruits thereof. -He said that their intent was to restore the earth to its former -condition; that, as God had promised to make the barren fruitful, so -now what they did was to restore the ancient community of enjoying the -fruits of the earth, to distribute them to the poor and needy; that -they did not intend to break down pales and destroy enclosures, as was -reported, but only to till the waste land, and make it fruitful for -man; and that the time was coming when all men would willingly come in -and give up their lands and estates, and submit to this community of -goods." - -Lilburne had been engaged in the county of Durham, and to win him over, -three thousand pounds were voted to him; but this did not move him for -a moment. On his return, he appeared at the bar of the House with a -petition against the form of the newly adopted constitution, which the -officers had named, "The Agreement of the People," but which the people -did not accept as their agreement. Lilburne protested against the -provision that Parliament should only sit six months every two years, -and that the Council should rule the other eighteen. This example was -extensively followed, and the table of the House was quickly loaded -with petitions demanding a new Parliament every year; a committee of -the House to govern during the recess; no member of one Parliament to -be a member of the next; the Self-denying Ordinance to be enforced; the -term of every officer's commission in the army to be limited; the High -Court of Justice and Council of State to be abolished as instruments of -tyranny; all proceedings in the courts of law to be in English; lawyers -reduced, and their fees too. Excise and customs they required to be -abolished, and the lands of delinquents sold to remunerate the well -affected. Religion was to be "reformed according to the mind of God;" -tithes were to be abolished, conscience made free, and the incomes -of ministers of the Gospel were to be fixed at one hundred and fifty -pounds each, and raised by a rate on the parishioners. - -There was much sound sense and gospel truth in these demands, but the -day of their adoption was much nearer to the millennium than to 1649. -It was resolved to send Cromwell to settle the disturbances in Ireland, -but it was necessary to quash this communist insurrection first. -Money was borrowed of the City, and after "a solemn seeking of God by -prayer," lots were cast to see what regiments should go to Ireland. -Fourteen of foot and fourteen of horse were selected by this mode. The -officers expressed much readiness to go; the men refused. On the 26th -of April there broke out a terrible mutiny in Whalley's regiment, at -the Bull, in Bishopsgate. The men seized their colours from the cornet, -and refused to march without many of the communist concessions. Fairfax -and Cromwell hastened thither, seized fifteen of the mutineers, tried -them on the spot by court martial, condemned five, and shot one in St. -Paul's churchyard on the morrow. This was Lockyer, a trooper, a brave -young fellow, who had served throughout the whole war, and was only yet -three-and-twenty. - -The death of this young man who was greatly beloved, roused all the -soldiers and the working men and women of the City to a fearful degree. -He was shot on Friday, amid the tears and execrations of thousands. On -Monday his troop proceeded to bury him with military honours. Whitelock -says, "About a hundred went before the corpse, five or six in a file, -the corpse was then brought, with six trumpets sounding a soldier's -knell. Then the trooper's horse came, clothed all over in mourning, and -led by a footman. The corpse was adorned with bundles of rosemary, one -half-stained in blood, and the sword of the deceased along with them. -Some thousands followed in rank and file; all had sea-green and black -ribbon tied on their hats and to their breasts, and the women brought -up the rear. At the new church in Westminster, some thousands more, of -the better sort, met them, who thought not fit to march through the -City." - -This was not a promising beginning for the generals, but they were not -men to be put down. They arrested Lilburne and his five small beagles, -who published, on the 1st of May, their "Agreement of the People," and -clapped them in the Tower, and hastened down to Salisbury to quell the -insurrection which had broken out in Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, -and Wilts in the army. The regiments of Scrope, Ireton, Harrison, -Ingoldsby, Skippon, Reynolds, and Horton, all declared for the -Lilburne "Agreement," and swore to stand by each other. At Banbury, a -Captain Thompson, at the head of two hundred men, issued a manifesto -called "England's Standard Advanced," demanding the completion of -public freedom, vowing justice on the murderers of Lockyer, and -threatening, if a hair of Lilburne's was touched, they would avenge -it seventy-and-seven fold. Reynolds, the colonel of the regiment, -attacked Thompson, put him to flight, and prevailed on the soldiers -to lay down their arms; but another party of ten troops of horse, a -thousand strong, under cornet Thompson, brother of the captain, marched -out of Salisbury for Burford, increasing their numbers as they went. -But Fairfax and Cromwell were marching rapidly after them. They came -upon them in the night at Burford, took them all prisoners, and the -next day, Thursday, the 17th of May, shot Cornet Thompson and two -corporals in Burford churchyard. The rest were pardoned, and agreed to -go to Ireland. A few days afterwards Captain Thompson was overtaken in -a wood in Northamptonshire, and killed. The mutiny was at an end, if -we except some local disturbances in Devon, Hants, and Somersetshire. -Fairfax and Cromwell were received at Oxford in triumph, and feasted -and complimented, being made doctors; and on the 7th of June a day of -thanksgiving was held in London, with a great dinner at Grocers' Hall, -given to the officers of the army and the leaders of Parliament, and -another appointed for the whole kingdom on the 21st. - -Cromwell had already been made Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, and on the -10th of July he set forth at five in the evening from London, by way -of Windsor to Bristol. He set out in state approaching to royalty. He -rode in a coach drawn by six Flanders mares, whitish greys, a number of -carriages containing other officers following, attended by a life-guard -of eighty men, the meanest of whom was a commander or esquire; many -of them were colonels in rich uniforms, and the whole procession was -attended by a resounding flourish of trumpets. But before following -the farmer of Huntingdon, now risen to all but royal grandeur, we must -notice the affairs of Scotland. - -Though Argyll held the chief power in Scotland, and was on friendly -terms with Cromwell, he could not prevent a strong public feeling -showing itself on the approaching trial of the king. The Scots -reproached themselves for giving up Charles to the English army, and -considered that heavy disgrace would fall upon the country if the -king should be put to death. They demanded, therefore, that a strong -remonstrance should be sent to the Parliament of England, and Argyll -was too timid or too cautious to oppose this. The Commissioners in -London received and presented the remonstrance, but obtained no answer -till after the execution of the king, and that which they did then -receive was in most unceremonious terms. Forthwith the authorities in -Edinburgh proclaimed Charles as king, and the Scottish Commissioners -in London, protesting against the alteration of the Government into -a Republic, and declaring themselves guiltless of the blood of the -king, hastened to Gravesend, to quit the kingdom. But the Parliament, -resenting this language as grossly libellous, and calculated to excite -sedition, sent an officer to conduct them under guard to the frontiers -of the kingdom. - -Passing over this insult, the Scots in March despatched the Earl of -Cassilis to the Hague, attended by four commissioners, to wait on -Charles and invite him to Scotland. They found there the Earl of -Lanark, now Duke of Hamilton by the execution of his brother, the -Earls of Lauderdale, Callander, Montrose, Kinnoul, and Seaforth. Some -of these were old Royalists, some of whom were called "Engagers," or -of the party of Hamilton. The Court of Charles, small as it was, was -rent by dissensions, and both the Engagers and the Commissioners under -Cassilis joined in protesting against any junction with Montrose, whose -cruelties to the Covenanters, they said, had been so great, that to -unite with him would turn all Scotland against the king. They insisted -on Charles taking the Covenant, but this Montrose and the old Royalists -vehemently opposed, declaring that to do that would alienate both -Catholics and Episcopalians, and exasperate the Independents to tenfold -bitterness. - -Whilst matters were in this unsatisfactory state, Dr. Dorislaus arrived -as Ambassador from the English Parliament to the States of Holland. -He was a native of that country, but had lived some time in England, -had been a professor of Gresham College, and drew up the charge for -Parliament against the king. That very evening, six gentlemen with -drawn swords entered the inn where he was at supper, and desiring -those present not to alarm themselves, as they had no intention of -hurting any one but the agent of the English rebels who had lately -murdered their king, they dragged Dorislaus from the table, and one of -them stabbed him with a dagger. Seeing him dead, they sheathed their -swords, and walked quietly out of the house. They were known to be all -Scotsmen and followers of Montrose; and Charles, seeing the mischief -this base assassination would do his cause, and especially in Holland, -prepared to quit the country. It was first proposed that he should -go to Ireland, where Ormond was labouring in his favour, and where -Rupert was off the coast with a fleet; but he changed his mind and -went to Paris, to the queen, his mother. Before doing that, he sent -Chancellor Hyde and Lord Cottington as envoys to Spain, to endeavour -to move the king in his favour, and he returned an answer to the -Scottish Commissioners, that though he was and always had been ready -to grant them the freedom of their religion, he could not consent to -bind himself to the Covenant. They admitted that he was their king, and -therefore they ought to obey him, and not he them, and this obedience -he must expect from the Committee of Estates, the Assembly of the -Kirk, and the whole nation of Scotland. With this resolute reply they -departed in no very satisfied mood. - -[Illustration: ASSASSINATION OF DR. DORISLAUS. (_See p._ 96.)] - -The war in Ireland being now undertaken by Cromwell, we must give a -brief retrospective glance at what had been passing there. Perhaps no -country was ever so torn to pieces by different factions. The Catholics -were divided amongst themselves: there were the Catholics of the Pale, -and the Old Irish Catholics, part of whom followed the faction of -Rinuccini, the Pope's Nuncio, who was at the head of the Council of -Kilkenny, while others followed General Preston and Viscount Taaffe. -The Irish Royalists--who consisted chiefly of Episcopalians--ranged -themselves under the banner of Ormond. The approach of Cromwell warned -them to suppress their various feuds and unite against the Parliament. -To strengthen the Parliament force, Jones, the Governor of Dublin, -and Monk, who commanded in Ulster, made overtures to Owen Roe O'Neil, -the head of the Old Irish in Ulster. Ormond had arrived in Ireland, -and Inchiquin and Preston, the leaders of the forces of the Irish -Council, which had now repudiated the Pope's Nuncio, joined him; but -O'Neil held back, not trusting Ormond, and he sent a messenger to -Charles in France, offering to treat directly with him. But Ormond -ordered the Earl of Castlehaven to attack O'Neil, which he did, and -speedily reduced his garrisons of Maryborough and Athy. Enraged at -this whilst he was offering his services to the king, O'Neil listened -to the proposals of Monk, who was himself hard pressed by the Scottish -Royalists, and had been compelled to retire from Belfast to Dundalk. -Monk supplied O'Neil with ammunition, and O'Neil undertook to cut off -the communication between the Royalists in the north and Ormond in the -south. Monk sent word of this arrangement, and the "grandees," as they -were called, or members of the Great Council, entertained the plan -in secret--publicly they dared not, for the followers of O'Neil were -those Ulster Irish who had committed the horrible massacres of 1641. No -sooner, however, did the rumour of this coalition become known, than -the greatest excitement prevailed. The army and the people were filled -with horror and indignation. They appealed to the solemn engagement of -the army to avenge the blood of their fellow Protestants slaughtered -by these savages; they reminded the Council and the Parliament of the -invectives heaped by them on the late king for making peace with these -blood-stained natives; and now _they_ were expected to become the -allies and associates of these very men. The Parliament saw how vain -it was to strive against the feeling, and annulled the agreement. Hugh -Peters harangued the public from the pulpit, excusing the Council on -account of the real facts of the case having been concealed from them, -and the whole weight of the transaction fell on Monk, who was just then -in London, and who was assured that nothing but his past services saved -him from the punishment of his indiscretion. - -Whilst matters were in this position, and the Parliament was -compelled to reject a very useful ally, Ormond marched to besiege -Jones in Dublin. He advanced on both sides of the Liffey, and cast -up works at Bogotrath, to cut off the pasturage of the horses of the -Parliamentary force in Dublin. Jones, however, made a sally an hour -before sunrise, and threw the enemy into such confusion that the -whole army on the right bank of the river fled in headlong panic, -leaving their artillery, ammunition, tents, and baggage. In vain did -Ormond hasten to check the rout; his men followed the example. Two -thousand prisoners were taken by Jones, of whom three hundred are -said to have been slaughtered in cold blood. Such was the defeat, -and such the inequality of the forces, that it cast great disgrace -on the generalship of Ormond, and the Royalists made much talk about -treason; but Charles himself would not listen to any such surmises: he -hastened to send Ormond the Order of the Garter, and to assure him of -his unshaken favour. The most exaggerated assertions were made of the -forces of Ormond, and of the number of his men killed and taken. Ormond -says that he had only eight thousand men; but Cromwell, no doubt from -the assertions of Jones, states that the number was nineteen thousand -against five thousand two hundred of Jones's, and that Jones killed -four thousand on the spot, and took two thousand five hundred and -seventeen prisoners, of whom three hundred were officers. The battle -was fought at Rathmines on the 2nd of August, 1649, and contributed to -quicken the movements of Cromwell, who was collecting forces for the -passage at Milford Haven. - -Cromwell, with twelve thousand veterans, sailed on the 13th of August, -and arrived in Dublin with the first division on the 15th, Ireton -following with the main body. He was received with acclamations by -the people of Dublin, and made them a speech in the streets, which -greatly pleased them. He then allowed his army a fortnight to refresh -themselves after the voyage, before leading them to action. At this -period, the only places left to the Parliament in Ireland were Dublin -and Derry. On the 9th of September he bombarded Drogheda, and summoned -it to surrender. The governor of the place was Sir Arthur Aston, who -had about three thousand troops, foot and horse, commanded by Sir -Edmund Varney, whose father was killed at Edge Hill. Aston, who had -acquired the reputation of a brave and experienced officer, refused -to surrender, and the storm commenced, and on the second day a breach -was made. A thousand men entered by the breach, but were driven back -by the garrison. On this Cromwell placed himself at the head of his -men, and made a second assault. This time, after some hard fighting, -they succeeded in getting possession of the entrenchments and of a -church. According to Ormond, Carte, and others, Cromwell's officers -then promised quarter to all who would surrender. "All his officers and -soldiers," says Carte, "promising quarter to such as would lay down -their arms, and performing it as long as any place held out, which -encouraged others to yield. But when they had done all in their power, -and feared no hurt that could be done them, then the word 'No quarter' -went round, and the soldiers were, many of them, forced against their -wills to kill their prisoners." - -This has always been regarded as a great reproach to Cromwell. He -himself, of course, does not confess that he broke his word, or forced -his officers to break theirs; but he does something very like it. He -asserts plainly, in his letter to Lenthall, the Speaker, that "our men, -getting up to them, were ordered by me to put them all to the sword. -And indeed, being in the heat of the action, I forbade them to spare -any that were in arms in the town; and I think that night they put to -the sword about two thousand men." Some of them escaping to the church, -he had it set fire to, and so burnt them in it; and he records the -exclamations of one of them in the fire. The rest of the fugitives, -as they were compelled to surrender, were either slaughtered, or, to -use his own words, "their officers were knocked on the head, and every -tenth man of the soldiers killed, and the rest shipped for Barbadoes." -He says that one thousand people were destroyed in the church that he -fired. He adds that they "put to the sword the whole of the defendants. -I do not think thirty of the whole number escaped with their lives; -those that did are in safe custody for Barbadoes." This is, perhaps, -the most awful confession that ever was made in cool blood, for these -letters were written about a week after the assault, and by a man of -such a thoroughly religious mind that he attributes the whole "to the -Spirit of God;" says "this hath been a marvellous great mercy;" and -prays that "all honest hearts may give the glory to God alone, to -Whom, indeed, the praise of this mercy belongs." Cromwell endeavoured -to justify this horrible massacre by the plea "that it will tend to -prevent the effusion of blood for the future." - -The butchery of Cromwell had not frightened men into surrendering -their towns at his summons, and thereby preventing shedding of -blood. In fact, great as were the merits of Cromwell, his barbarous -mode of warfare in Ireland cannot be defended on any principles of -reason, much less of Christianity or humanity. In England he had been -noted for his merciful conduct in war, but in Ireland a deplorable -fanaticism carried away both him and his army. They were now fighting -against a Papist population, and deemed it a merit to destroy them. -They confounded all Irishmen with the wild savages of Ulster, who had -massacred the Protestants in 1641; and Cromwell, in his letters from -Drogheda, plainly expresses this idea, calling the wholesale slaughter -"a righteous judgment of God upon those barbarous wretches, who have -imbrued their hands in so much innocent blood." - -From Drogheda Cromwell returned to Dublin, and then marched on Wexford, -taking and burning minor places by the way. On the 1st of October he -summoned Wexford to surrender, and though the governor refused, the -officer who commanded the castle traitorously yielded it. The soldiers -then perceiving the enemy quit the walls of the town, scaled them with -their ladders, and encountering the forces in the market-place, they -made a stout resistance; but Cromwell informs the Parliament that -they were eventually all put to the sword, "not many less than two -thousand, and I believe not twenty of yours from first to last of the -siege. The soldiers got a very good booty; and the inhabitants," he -says, "were either so completely killed, or had run away, that it was a -fine opportunity for honest people to go and plant themselves there." -According to various historians, no distinction was made between the -soldiers and the innocent inhabitants; three hundred women, who had -crowded around the great cross, and were shrieking for protection to -Heaven, were put to death with the same ruthless ferocity. Some authors -do not restrict the numbers of the slain like Cromwell to two thousand, -but reckon them at five thousand. - -Ormond now calculated greatly on the aid of O'Neil to create a -diversion in the north, and divide the attention and the forces of -Cromwell, for that chieftain had begun to justify the treaty made -with him through Monk, by compelling Montgomery to raise the siege of -Londonderry, and rescuing Coote and his small army, the only force -which the Parliament had in Ulster. But the cry in London against -this alliance with the Irish Papist had done its work, and, after the -victory of Rathmines, the Parliament refused to ratify the treaty made -with O'Neil. Indignant at this breach of faith, he had listened to the -offers of Ormond, and was on his march to join him at Kilkenny. O'Neil -died at Clonacter, in Cavan, but his son took the command. By his -assistance, the operations of Cromwell's generals were greatly retarded -at that place, and at Duncannon and Waterford. - -On the 17th of October, Cromwell sat down before Ross, and sent -in a trumpeter, calling on the commander to surrender, with this -extraordinary statement, "Since my coming into Ireland, I have this -witness for myself, that I have endeavoured to avoid effusion of -blood;" which must have been read with wonder, after the recent news -from Drogheda and Wexford. General Taaffe refused. There were one -thousand soldiers in the place, and Ormond, Ardes, and Castlehaven, -who were on the other side of the river, sent in fifteen hundred more. -Yet on the 19th the town surrendered, the soldiers being allowed to -march away. O'Neil had now joined Ormond at Kilkenny with two thousand -horse and foot, and Inchiquin was in Munster. Soon after Cork and -Youghal opened their gates, Admiral Blake co-operating by water. In the -north, Sir Charles Coote, Lord President of Connaught, took Coleraine -by storm, and forming a junction with Colonel Venables, marched on -Carrickfergus, which they soon after reduced. Cromwell marched from -Ross to Waterford, his army having taken Inistioge, Thomastown, and -Carrick. He appeared before Waterford on the 24th of November. Here, -too, he received the news of the surrender of Kinsale and Bandon -Bridge, but Waterford refused to surrender, and Cromwell was compelled -to march away to Cork for winter quarters. His troops, however, took -the fort of Passage near Waterford; but they lost Lieutenant-General -Jones, the conqueror of Rathmines, by sickness at Dungarvan. - -Cromwell did not rest long in winter quarters. By the 29th of January, -1650, he was in the field again, at the head of thirty thousand men. -Whilst Major-General Ireton and Colonel Reynolds marched by Carrick -into Kilkenny, Cromwell proceeded from Youghal over the Blackwater -into Tipperary, various castles being taken by the way; they quartered -themselves in Fethard and Cashel. On March 28th Cromwell succeeded -in taking Kilkenny, whence he proceeded to Clonmel. In this campaign -the Royalist generals accuse him of still perpetrating unnecessary -cruelties, though they endeavoured to set him a different example. "I -took," says Lord Castlehaven, "Athy by storm, with all the garrison -(seven hundred) prisoners. I made a present of them to Cromwell, -desiring him by letter that he would do the same to me, if any of mine -should fall into his power. But he little valued my civility, for in -a few days after he besieged Gouvan, and the soldiers mutinying and -giving up the place with their officers, he caused the Governor Hammond -and some other officers to be put to death." Cromwell avows this in one -of his letters. "The next day the colonel, the major, and the rest of -the commissioned officers were shot to death; all but one, who, being -very earnest to have the castle delivered, was pardoned." And this, he -admits, was because they refused to surrender at his first summons. He -seemed to consider a refusal to surrender at once and unconditionally, -a deadly crime, and avenged it bloodily. On the other hand, Ormond, -in one of his letters, says, "Rathfarnham was taken by our troops by -storm, and all that were in it made prisoners; and though five hundred -soldiers entered the castle before any officer of note, yet not one -creature was killed; which I tell you by the way, to observe the -difference betwixt our and the rebels' making use of a victory." - -The Parliament, seeing the necessity of having their best general -for the impending Scottish war, sent towards the end of April the -_President Bradshaw_ frigate, to bring over Cromwell from Ireland, -and to leave Ireton, Lord Broghill, and the other generals to finish -the war by the reduction of Clonmel, Waterford, Limerick, and a few -lesser places. But Cromwell would not go till he had witnessed the -fall of Clonmel. There Hugh O'Neil, the son of old Owen Roe O'Neil -of Ulster, defended the place gallantly with twelve hundred men. The -siege lasted from the 28th of March to the 8th of May. Whitelock says, -"They found in Clonmel the stoutest enemy this army had met in Ireland, -and there never was seen so hot a storm, of so long a continuance, -and so gallantly defended, either in Ireland or England." The English -troops had made a breach, and endeavoured to carry the town by storm -in vain. On the 9th they stormed the breach a second time. "The fierce -death-wrestle," says a letter from one of the besiegers, "lasted four -hours," and Cromwell's men were driven back with great loss. But the -ammunition of the besieged was exhausted, and they stole away in the -night. The inhabitants, before this was discovered, sent out and made -terms of surrender. On discovering the retreat of the enemy, pursuit -was made, and two hundred men killed on the road. Oliver, however, kept -his agreement with the inhabitants. - -The siege of Clonmel finished, Cromwell set sail in the _President -Bradshaw_, and landed at Bristol towards the end of May, where he was -received with firing of guns and great acclamations for his exploits -in Ireland. On the 31st of the month he approached Hounslow Heath, -where he was met by the Lord-General Fairfax, and numbers of other -officers and members of Parliament, besides crowds of other people. -They conducted him to London, and on reaching Hyde Park Corner he -was received by the discharge of artillery from Colonel Barkstead's -regiment, there drawn up; and thus, with increasing crowds and -acclamations, he was attended to the Cockpit near St. James's, a -house which had been assigned to him, and where his family had been -residing for some time. There the Lord Mayor and aldermen waited on -him, to thank him for his services in Ireland. Thence, after rest and -refreshment, he appeared in his place in Parliament, where he also -received the thanks of the House. Some one remarking what crowds went -out to see his triumph, Cromwell replied, "But if they had gone to see -me hanged, how many more there would have been!" - -Prince Charles, though invited to assume the crown of Scotland, -was invited on such terms as would have afforded little hope to a -man of much foresight. Those who were to support him were divided -into two factions, which could no more mix than fire and water. The -Covenanters, and the Royalists under Montrose, hated each other with -an inextinguishable hatred. So far from mixing, they were sure to -come to strife and bloodshed amongst themselves. If the Covenanters -got the upper hand, as was pretty certain, he must abandon his most -devoted followers, the Old Royalists and Engagers, and take the -Covenant himself, thus giving up every party and principle that his -father had fought for. He must take upon him a harsh and gloomy yoke, -which must keep him not only apart from his Royalist and Episcopalian -followers, but from his far more valuable kingdom of England, where the -Independents and sectaries reigned, and which the Scottish Covenanters -could not hope to conquer. But Charles was but a poor outcast and -wanderer in a world the princes of which were tired of both him and -his cause, and he was, therefore, compelled to make an effort, however -hopeless, to recover his dominions by such means as offered. He -therefore sent off Montrose to raise troops and material amongst the -Northern Courts, and then to pass over and raise the Highlands, whilst -he went to treat with the Covenanters at Breda. - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH.] - -Montrose was strongly suspected of having headed the party who -assassinated Dorislaus, a very bad beginning, assassination being the -fitting business of thieves, and not of heroes. The fame of Montrose, -nevertheless, gave him a good reception in Denmark and other Courts, -and he is said to have raised an army of twelve thousand men, and -embarked these, and much ammunition and artillery, at Gottenburg, -under Lord Kinnoul, in the autumn. The equinoctial gales appeared to -have scattered this force in all directions, dashing several of the -ships on the rocks, so that Kinnoul landed in October at Kirkwall, in -the Orkneys, with only eighty officers, and about one hundred common -men. Montrose followed with five hundred more, and having received the -Order of the Garter from Charles as a token of his favour, he once -more raised his banner in the Highlands, bearing on it a painting of -the late king decapitated, and the words, "Judge and avenge my cause, -O Lord!" But the Highlanders had been taught caution by the repeated -failures of the Royalists, and the chastisements they had received from -the stern Covenanters; they stood aloof, and in vain did Montrose march -through Caithness and Sutherland, calling on the natives to rise and -defend the king before the Covenanters could sell him to the English, -as they had done his father. This was a fatal proclamation, for -whilst it failed to raise the Highlands, it added to the already deep -detestation of him in the Lowlands, where his proclamation was burnt by -the common hangman. - -The Covenanters did not merely burn his proclamation, they despatched a -force of four thousand men against him. Colonel Strachan came almost -upon him in Corbiesdale, in Ross-shire, and calling his men around -him under the shelter of the high moorland broom, he informed them -that God had given "the rebel and apostate Montrose, and the viperous -brood of Satan, the accursed of God and the Kirk," into their hands. -He gave out a psalm, which they sang, and then he dispersed them in -successive companies, the whole not amounting to four hundred men, the -main army being with David Leslie at Brechin. As soon as Strachan's -handful of men came in sight of Montrose's levies, they were attacked -by his cavalry, but scarcely were they engaged, when a second, and then -a third detachment appeared. On perceiving this, Montrose believed the -whole army of Leslie was marching up, and he ordered his infantry to -fall back and screen themselves amongst the brushwood. But first his -horse and then the whole of his men were thrown into confusion. His -standard-bearer and several of his officers were slain. The foreign -mercenaries demanded quarter and received it, the rest made their -escape as well as they could. Montrose had his horse killed under him, -and though he got another horse, and swam across a rapid river, he was -compelled to fly in such haste, that he left behind him the Star and -Garter with which he had been so newly invested, his sword, and his -cloak. He again made for the mountains of Sutherland with Kinnoul, both -disguised as peasants. Kinnoul soon sank with fatigue, and was left -behind and perished. Montrose at length reached the house of Macleod -of Assynt, who had formerly served under him; but this base man sold -him to the Covenanters for four hundred bolls of meal. This treason was -soon avenged by the neighbouring Highlanders, who ravaged the lands of -Assynt; but the Scottish Parliament recompensed the traitor with twenty -thousand pounds Scots, to be raised on the Royalists of Caithness and -Orkney. The Orkneys, as well as the Isles of Man, Scilly, Jersey, the -colony of Virginia, and the islands of the Caribbean Sea, long held out -for the royal cause. - -Montrose was at once conveyed to Edinburgh, where he arrived on the -18th of May; and having been carried bareheaded through the city in an -open cart, and exposed to the insults and execrations of the mob, he -was condemned as a traitor, and hanged on the 21st of May on a gibbet -thirty feet high, his head being fixed on a spike in the capital, -and his limbs sent for exposure in different towns. Such was the -ignominious end of the gallant but sanguinary Montrose. But if the -conduct of his enemies was ungenerous, what was that of his prince? No -sooner did Charles hear of his defeat, than fearing that his rising -might injure him with the Covenanters, he sent to the Parliament, -protesting that he had never authorised him to draw the sword; nay, -that he had done it contrary to the royal commands. Thus early did this -worthless man display the meanness of his character, and practise the -wretched maxims of the Stuart doctrine of kingcraft. - -Charles had now complied with the demands of the Scottish Parliament, -agreeing to take the Covenant, never to tolerate the Catholic religion -in any part of his dominions, not even in Ireland, where the Catholics -were a majority; to govern entirely by the authority of Parliament, -and in religious matters by that of the Kirk. Thus did this man, for -the sake of regaining the throne of one of his kingdoms, bind himself -to destroy the religion of which he was at heart a believer, and to -maintain a creed that he abhorred and despised. He landed in June in -the Frith of Cromarty, and a court was established for him at Falkland, -and nine thousand pounds sterling were allowed for its expenditure -monthly. - -But the pious Scots were speedily scandalised at the debauched habits -of their royal puppet. He had delayed the expedition for some weeks, -because he could not tear himself from his mistress, Mrs. Barlow, and -now he came surrounded by a very dissipated crew--Buckingham, Wilmot, -and others, whom nothing could induce him to part with, though many -others were forbidden the Court. - -Whilst these things were taking place in Scotland, in London as -active measures were on foot for putting to flight this Covenanting -king. On the 14th of June the Commons again appointed Fairfax -Commander-in-Chief, and Cromwell Lieutenant-General. Fairfax, so far -from favouring the invasion of Scotland, strongly argued against it, -as a breach of the Solemn League and Covenant. Fairfax's wife is -said to have been resolute against his taking up arms against the -second Charles. She had sufficiently shown her spirit--that of a -Vere, of the martial house of Vere--on his father's trial; and now -Fairfax, not only strongly influenced by his wife, but belonging to -the Presbyterian party, resigned his command, and retired to his -estates in Yorkshire. It was in vain that a deputation, consisting -of Cromwell, Lambert, Harrison, Whitelock, and St. John, waited on -him at Whitehall, opening their meeting with prayer. Fairfax stood -firm, and on the 26th, two days afterwards, the Parliament appointed -Cromwell Commander-in-Chief, in his place. On the 29th, only three -days subsequently, Cromwell set out for the north. He had Lambert as -Major-General, Whalley as Commissary-General, Pride, Overton, Monk, -and Hodgson, as colonels of regiments. The Scottish Parliament had -appointed the Earl of Leven generalissimo, but only nominally so out -of honour, for he was now old and infirm. David Leslie was the real -commander. The Scottish army was ordered to amount to sixty thousand -men, and it was to lay waste all the country between Berwick and -Edinburgh, to prevent the English from obtaining supplies. To frighten -the country people away from the English army, it was rumoured that -every male between sixteen and sixty would have their right hands cut -off, and the women's breasts be bored through with red-hot irons. - -[Illustration: DEATH OF THE PRINCESS ELIZABETH. - -Carisbrooke Castle, Sept. 8th, 1650. - -AFTER THE PAINTING BY C. W. COPE, R.A.] - -Cromwell passed the Tweed at Berwick on the 22nd of July, with a force -of sixteen thousand men. They found the country desolate and deserted, -except by a number of women, who on their knees implored mercy, and -were set by the officers to bake and brew for the soldiers. That -night the beacon fires of Scotland were lighted, and the English army -encamped at Mordington, where they lay three days, and then marched -to Dunbar, and thence to Musselburgh. They found the Scottish army -under Leslie posted between Edinburgh and Leith, and well defended by -batteries and entrenchments. Nothing could induce the wary Scottish -commander to quit his vantage ground, and the country afforded no -supplies to the English army; but their fleet followed them along the -coast, and furnished them with provisions. - -For a month Cromwell found it impossible to draw the Scottish general -out of his strong position. He sometimes marched up close to his lines -to tempt him to come to action, but it was in vain, and he did not -think it prudent to attack him in his formidable position, which must -have cost him an awful number of men even if he carried it. - -The weather being very wet he fell back upon Musselburgh, the enemy -then making a sally, and harassing his rear, and wounding General -Lambert. Cromwell and the Scottish Assembly, as well as Cromwell and -General Leslie, who lay in the ground now occupied by the New Town -of Edinburgh, had a voluminous correspondence, in which they quoted -much Scripture, and each declared himself the favoured or justified of -heaven. The Scots reproached Cromwell and his party with breaking the -League and Covenant, and Cromwell retorted on them, that though they -pretended to covenant and fight against Malignants, they had entered -into agreement with the head and centre of the Malignants himself, -which he said he could not understand. Cromwell, leaving a force to -invest Dunbar, which was said to suffer extreme famine, being cooped by -the English both on land and sea, about the 13th of August shifted his -camp to the Pentland Hills to the west of Edinburgh, in order to cut -off Leslie's supplies. - -Whilst lying there the young king himself made a visit to the army at -Leith, where he was received by the soldiers with acclamations; but -the Assembly of the Kirk was soon scandalised by the drunkenness and -profanity which his presence brought into the camp, and set on foot -an inquiry, the result of which was that eighty officers, with many -of their men, were dismissed that they might not contaminate the rest -of the army. They also required Charles to sign a declaration to his -subjects in his three kingdoms, informing them that he lamented the -troubles which had been brought on the realm by the resistance of his -father to the Solemn League and Covenant, and by the idolatry of his -mother; that for himself he had subscribed the Covenant with all his -heart, and would have no friends or enemies but the friends or enemies -of the Covenant; that he repented making a peace with the Papists -of Ireland, and now declared it null and void; that he detested all -popery, prelacy, idolatry, and heresy; and finally, that he would -accord to a free Parliament of England the propositions agreed upon by -the Commissioners of the two kingdoms, and would settle the English -Church according to the plan organised by the Westminster Assembly of -divines. - -Never was so flagrant a set of falsehoods forced on a reluctant soul! -Charles read the declaration with indignation, and declared that he -would sacrifice everything rather than thus cast reproach on his -parents and their supporters, who had suffered so much on their behalf, -or belie his own sentiments. But he was soon convinced that he must -see his cause totally abandoned if he did not comply, and at the end -of three days he signed with tears and shame the humiliating document. -The exulting Kirk then proclaimed a certain victory from heaven over "a -blaspheming general and a sectarian army." - -And truly, affairs appeared very likely to come to such a conclusion. -Cromwell found it difficult to feed his army; the weather continued -stormy and wet, and his soldiers suffered extremely from fevers and -other illness from exposure to the weather. Cromwell made a sudden -march in the direction of Stirling, as though he intended to cut off -that town from communication with the capital. This set Leslie in -motion; he hastily sent forward his forces, and the vanguards came -to skirmishing, but could not engage in complete battle on account -of the boggy ground between them. Cromwell as suddenly retreated, -and firing his huts on the Pentlands, withdrew towards Dunbar. This -effectually roused the Scots; they knew his distress from sickness -and lack of supplies, and they thought he meant now to escape into -England. To prevent that, and to make themselves masters of the whole -English army, as they now confidently expected, they marched rapidly -along the feet of the Lammermuir Hills, and Leslie managed to outstrip -him, and hem him in between Dunbar and Doon Hill. A deep ravine called -Cockburnspath, or, as Oliver pronounced it, Copper's Path, about forty -feet deep and as many wide, with a rivulet running through it, lay -between Oliver and the Scottish army, which was posted on Doon Hill. -On Oliver's right lay Belhaven Bay, on his left Broxmouth House, at -the mouth of a brook, and where there is a path southward. Leslie had -secured the passes of Cockburnspath, and imagined that he had Cromwell -and his army secure from Sunday night to Tuesday morning, the 3rd of -September. But on Monday afternoon, Cromwell observed Leslie moving -his right wing down into the plain towards Broxmouth House, evidently -intending to secure that pass also; but Cromwell at once espied his -advantage. He could attack and cut off this right wing, whilst the -main body of Leslie's army, penned between the brook and the hills, -could not manœuvre to help it. On observing this, Cromwell exclaimed -to Lambert, "The Lord hath delivered us!" and arrangements were made -to attack the right wing of Leslie at three o'clock in the morning. -Leslie had twenty-three thousand men--Cromwell about half as many; -but by a vigorous, unexpected attack on this right wing, after three -hours of hard fighting, the Scots were thrown into confusion, and -Cromwell exclaimed, "They run! I profess they run!" In fact, the horse -of the Scots dashed frantically away over and through their own foot, -and there was a wild flight in all directions. Three thousand slain -lay on the spot, the Scots army was in wild rout, and as the sun just -then rose over St. Abb's Head and the sea, Oliver exclaimed to his -soldiers, "Let God arise, and let His enemies be scattered!" "The -Lord-General," says Hodgson, "made a halt till the horse could gather -for the chase, and sang the 117th Psalm." Then the pursuit was made -as far as Haddington. Ten thousand prisoners were taken, with all the -baggage, artillery, and ammunition of the enemy. A thousand men were -slain in the pursuit. By nine o'clock in the morning, David Leslie, -the general, was in Edinburgh, old Lord Leven reached it by two, and -what a city! The general complained that the preachers had occasioned -the disaster; they would not let him rest till he descended from his -height to attack the enemy on a disadvantageous ground. The ministers, -though all their prophecies of victory were falsified, had yet plenty -of other reasons for it. They published a "Short Declaration and -Warning," in which they enumerated no less than thirteen causes for -this terrible overthrow--the general wickedness of the country, the -especial wickedness of the king's house, and the number of Malignants -amongst the king's followers, and so forth. Cromwell told them plainly -in letters addressed to them, that they had been punished for taking up -a family that the Lord had so eminently lifted up His hand against, and -for pretending to cry down Malignants, and yet receiving and setting -up the head of them all. He advanced to Edinburgh, where he closely -blockaded the castle, which was soon compelled to surrender. - -As for Charles II., he was rather delighted than otherwise with the -defeat of his fanatic friends at Dunbar. He was grown most thoroughly -tired of imperious dictation and morose religion, and he took the -opportunity to steal away to join Murray, Huntly, Atholl, and the -Royalists in the Highlands. On the afternoon of the 4th of October, -on pretence of hawking, he rode out of Perth, and dashed away for the -braes of Angus. After galloping forty miles he came to a wretched hovel -at a place called Clova, where he had nothing but a turf pillow to -sleep on. There he was overtaken by Colonel Montgomery--for Argyll had -been speedily apprised of his flight--and finding that two regiments of -horse were at hand, Charles knew that escape was hopeless, and so he -returned. But "the Start," which Charles's elopement was called, had -opened the eyes of the Covenanters to the danger of pressing him too -far. They now considerably relaxed their vigour towards him, admitted -him to their deliberations in Council, and they thus induced him to -prevail on Atholl, Middleton, and the Highland forces to disband. - -[Illustration: DUNBAR.] - -Cromwell's attention was soon attracted towards the West, where an -army of five thousand men was raised, by order of the Committee of -Estates, by Colonels Kerr and Strachan, in the associated counties -of Renfrew, Ayr, Galloway, Wigtown, and Dumfries. These people were -of strict whiggamore notions, and were directly in correspondence -with John Warriston, the Clerk Register of Parliament, and Gillespie -and Guthrie, two ministers of the Kirk, who protested against having -anything to do with the son of the beheaded Charles Stuart, who was an -enemy to the Kirk, and whose son himself was a thorough Malignant. They -drew up a Remonstrance of the Western army, in which they termed the -king an incarnate solecism, and refused to fight under either him or -Leslie. Cromwell, who saw little to prevent a union with this party, -professing his old veneration for the Covenant, opened a communication -with them, arguing that Charles ought to be banished, and thus remove -the need of an English interference. In order to effect a coalition -with these commanders, Cromwell marched to Glasgow, where he arrived -on Friday, October 18th; and on Sunday, in the cathedral, listened to -a violent sermon against him and his army from the Reverend Zachary -Boyd. Coming to no agreement with Kerr and Strachan, he returned on -Monday towards Edinburgh, and found many men advising that they shall -give up the "hypocrite," meaning Charles, and make peace with England; -but Kerr and Strachan, though their Remonstrance was voted a scandalous -libel by Parliament, could not agree to this. They, in fact, differed -in opinion. Strachan resigned his commission, and soon after came -over with eighty troopers to Cromwell. Kerr showed a hostile aspect, -agreeing with neither one party nor another, and soon came to nothing. -Cromwell sent Lambert to look after him with three thousand horse, and -Lambert, whilst lying at Hamilton, found himself suddenly attacked by -Kerr. He, however, repulsed him, took him prisoner, killed a hundred -of his men, losing himself only six, and took two hundred prisoners, -horse and foot. The Western army was wholly dispersed. The condition -of the Covenanting Scots was now deplorable; the Remonstrants, though -they had lost their army, still continued to quarrel with the official -or Argyll's party, and the country was thus torn by the two factions, -under the name of Remonstrants and Resolutionists, when it should -have been united against the enemy. Cromwell was now master of all the -Lowlands, casting longing glances towards Stirling and Perth, which -were in the hands of the royal party, and thus ended the year 1650. - -On the first day of the new year, 1651, Charles rode, or rather was -led, in procession, by his partisans to the church at Scone, and -there solemnly crowned. There, on his knees, he swore to maintain -the Covenant, to establish Presbyterianism, and embrace it himself, -to establish it in his other dominions as soon as he recovered them. -Argyll then placed the crown on his head, and Douglas, the minister, -read him a severe lecture on the calamities which had followed the -apostacy of his grandfather and father, and on his being a king only by -compact with his people. But the fall of the Western army had weakened -the rigid Presbyterian party. Argyll saw his influence decline, that -of the Hamiltons in the ascendant, and numbers of the old Royalists -pouring in to join the army. Charles's force soon displayed the -singular spectacle of Leslie and Middleton in united command, and the -army, swelled by the Royalists, was increased to twenty thousand men. -Having fortified the passes of the Forth, the king thus awaited the -movements of Cromwell. But the lord-general, during the spring, was -suffering so much from the ague, that he contemplated returning home. -In May, however, he grew better, and advanced towards Stirling. Whilst -he occupied the attention of Charles and his army by his manœuvres in -that quarter, he directed Lambert to make an attempt upon Fife, which -succeeded, and Cromwell, crossing the Forth, advanced to support him. -The royal army quickly evacuated Perth, after a sharp action, in which -about eight hundred men on each side fell, and the Parliament colours -were hoisted on the walls of that city. - -If Cromwell's movement had been rapid and successful, he was now in -his turn astonished by one as extraordinary on the part of the Prince. -Charles saw that all the south of Scotland and a great part of England -was clear of the enemy, and he at once announced his determination to -march towards London. On the 31st of July his army was actually in -motion, and Argyll, denouncing the enterprise as inevitably ruinous, -resigned his commission and retired to Inverary. - -On discovering Charles's object, Cromwell put the forces to remain in -Scotland under the command of General Monk, sent Lambert from Fife -to follow the royal army with three thousand cavalry, and wrote to -Harrison in Newcastle to advance and harass the flank of Charles's -army. He himself, on the 7th of August, commenced his march after it -with ten thousand men. - -Charles advanced at a rapid rate, and he had crossed the Mersey before -Lambert and Harrison had formed a junction near Warrington, and -attempted to draw him into a battle on Knutsford Heath. But Charles -continued his hasty march till he reached Worcester, where he was -received with loud acclamations by the mayor and corporation, and by a -number of county gentlemen, who had been confined there on suspicion -of their disaffection, but were now liberated. But such had been the -sudden appearance of Charles, that no expectation of it, and therefore -no preparation for it, had been made by the Royalists; and the bigoted -ministers attending his army sternly refused all who offered to join -them, whether Presbyterians, Episcopalians, or Catholics, because -they had not taken the Covenant. It was in vain that Charles gave -orders to the contrary, and sent forward General Massey to receive -and bring into order these volunteers; the Committee of the Kirk -rejected them, whilst Cromwell's forces on their march were growing by -continual reinforcements, especially of the county militias. Colonel -Robert Lilburne met with a party of Charles's forces under the Earl of -Derby, between Chorley and Wigan, and defeated them, killing the Lord -Widdrington, Sir Thomas Tildesley, and Colonels Boynton, Trollope, and -Throgmorton. Derby himself was wounded, but escaped. - -Charles issued a proclamation for all his male subjects between the -ages of sixteen and sixty to join his standard on the 26th of August; -but on that day he found that the whole of his forces amounted to only -twelve thousand men, whilst Cromwell, who arrived two days after, was -at the head of at least thirty thousand. On the 3rd of September, the -anniversary of the battle of Dunbar, Cromwell determined to attack the -royal army. Lambert, overnight, crossed the Severn at Upton, with ten -thousand men, and the next morning Cromwell and Fleetwood, with the -two other divisions of the army, crossed, Cromwell the Severn, and -Fleetwood the Teme. Charles, who had been watching their progress from -the tower of the cathedral, descended and attacked Fleetwood before he -had effected his passage; but Cromwell was soon up to the assistance -of his general, and after a stout battle, first in the meadows, and -then in the streets of the city, the forces of Charles were completely -beaten. Charles fought with undaunted bravery, and endeavoured to rally -his soldiers for a last effort, but they flung down their weapons and -surrendered. It was with difficulty that he was prevailed upon to fly, -and save his life. Three thousand of the Royalists were slain, and -six or seven thousand made prisoners, including a considerable number -of noblemen--the Duke of Hamilton, but mortally wounded, the Earls -of Rothes, Derby, Cleveland, Kelly, and Lauderdale, Lords Sinclair, -Kenmure, and Grandison, and the Generals Leslie, Massey, Middleton, and -Montgomery. The Duke of Buckingham, Lord Talbot, and others, escaped -with many adventures. - -It was an overthrow complete, and most astonishing to both conquered -and conquerors. Cromwell, in his letter to the Parliament, styled -it "a crowning mercy." The Earl of Derby and seven others of the -prisoners suffered death as traitors and rebels to the Commonwealth. -Derby offered the Isle of Man for his ransom, but his letter was read -by Lenthall to the House too late, and he was executed at Bolton, in -Lancashire. - -As for Charles himself, the romance of his escape has been celebrated -in many narratives. After being concealed for some days at White-ladies -and Boscobel, two solitary houses in Shropshire, and passing a day in -the boughs of an oak, he made his way in various disguises, and by the -assistance of different loyal friends, to Brighton, whence he passed in -a collier over to Fécamp in Normandy, but this was not till the 17th of -October, forty-four days after the battle of Worcester. - -On the 12th of September Cromwell arrived in town; Bulstrode, -Whitelock, and three other gentlemen had been sent down to meet him and -conduct him to London. They met him near Aylesbury, and they all joined -a hawking party by the way. At Aylesbury they passed the night. Oliver -was very affable, and presented to each of the commissioners a horse -taken in the battle and a couple of Scottish prisoners. At Acton, the -Speaker of the Commons, the Lord President, and many other members of -Parliament and of the Council, the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Sheriffs, -and crowds of other people, met him, and congratulated him on his -splendid victory and his successes in Scotland. The Recorder, in his -address, said he was destined to "bind kings in chains and their nobles -in fetters of iron." In London he was received with immense shoutings -and acclamations. Parliament voted that the 3rd of September should -be kept ever after as a holiday, in memory of his victory; and, in -addition to twenty-five thousand pounds a year already granted in land, -they settled on him another forty thousand pounds a year in land. - -Thus the royal party was for a time broken and put down. In Ireland -Cromwell had left his son-in-law Ireton as his deputy, who went on -with a strong hand crushing all opposition. The Roman Catholic party -growing weary of Ormond, he had resigned his lord-deputyship, and -Clanricarde had succeeded him. Still the Catholic party was divided in -itself, and Ormond, and after him Clanricarde, entered into a treaty -with the Duke of Lorraine, who agreed to send an army to Ireland to -put down the Parliament, on condition that he should be declared -Protector-royal of Ireland, with all the rights pertaining to the -office; an office, in fact, never before heard of. The Irish Royalists -obtained, however, at different times, twenty thousand pounds from -Lorraine, and his agents were still negotiating for his protectorship, -when the defeat of Charles at Worcester showed Lorraine the folly of -his hopes. Disappointed in this expectation of assistance from abroad, -the Irish Royalists found themselves vigorously attacked by Ireton. In -June he invested Limerick, and on the 27th of October it surrendered. -Ireton tried and put to death seven of the leaders of the party. The -court-martial refused to condemn the brave O'Neil, though Ireton urged -his death for his stubborn defence of Clonmel. When Terence O'Brien, -Bishop of Emly, was condemned, he exclaimed to Ireton, "I appeal to the -tribunal of God, and summon thee to meet me at that bar." These words -were deemed prophetic, and were remembered with wonder when, about a -month afterwards, Ireton fell ill of fever and died (Nov. 15, 1651). - -Cromwell appointed General Lambert his deputy in Ireland. The -appointment was cancelled before Lambert could pass over to that -country, as it is said, through the management of Ireton's widow, -Cromwell's daughter Bridget. The handsome wife of Lambert had -refused--her husband being now Lord-Deputy--to give precedence to -Mrs. Ireton in St. James's Park, where they met one day. Mrs. Ireton -took offence, and prevailed on her father to revoke the appointment, -and give it to Fleetwood, whom she soon after married, and so Lambert -returned to Ireland in his former position. It is believed that Lambert -never forgave the affront, though Cromwell endeavoured to soothe him, -and made him compensation in money; for he was found to be one of the -first to oppose Richard Cromwell after his father's death, and depose -him from the protectorate. Ludlow and three others were joined with -Fleetwood, so far as the civil administration of Ireland was concerned, -and they were ordered to levy sufficient money for the payment of the -forces, not exceeding forty thousand pounds a month; and to exclude -Papists from all places of trust, from practising as barristers, or -teaching in any kind of school. Thus the bulk of the natives were -deprived of all participation in the affairs of their own country, and, -what was worse, might be imprisoned or removed from one part of the -country at the will of these dictators. - -[Illustration: CROMWELL ON HIS WAY TO LONDON AFTER THE BATTLE OF -WORCESTER. (_See p._ 107.)] - -In Scotland Monk carried matters with the same high hand. On the 14th -of August he compelled Stirling to surrender, and sent off the royal -robes, part of the regalia, and the National Records to London. He then -commenced the siege of Dundee, and whilst it was progressing he sent -Colonels Alured and Morgan to Alyth in Angus, where he surprised the -two Committees of the Estates and the Kirk, with many other noblemen -and gentlemen, to the number of three hundred, amongst them poor old -Leslie, Earl of Leven, met on Royalist affairs, and sent them after the -regalia to England. On the 1st of September Monk stormed Dundee, and -gave up the town to the plunder and violence of the soldiery. There -were said to be eight hundred soldiers and inhabitants killed, of whom -three hundred were women and children. The place had been considered -so safe that many people had sent their property there for security, -and this and the ships in the harbour all fell into the hands of the -conquerors. They are said to have got two hundred thousand pounds in -booty, and perpetrated the most unheard-of atrocities. The fate of -Dundee induced Montrose, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews to open their gates. -The Earl of Huntly and Lord Balcarres submitted, and scarcely any -noblemen of note, except Argyll, held out; and he did so merely for the -purpose of making good terms with the Parliament. - -The most vigorous means were adopted to keep the country in check. -Military stations were appointed throughout the Highlands, and sites -fixed upon for the erection of strong forts at Ayr, Leith, Perth, -and Inverness. The property and estates of the Crown were declared -forfeited to Parliament, as well as the lands of all who had taken -arms under the Duke of Hamilton or the king against England. English -judges were sent to go the circuits, assisted by Scottish ones, and -one hundred and thirty thousand pounds a year were voted for the -maintenance of the army in Scotland, which was raised to twenty -thousand men. These were galling measures for the Scots, who had hoped -to subject England again to the king, but they were far from the most -humiliating. Vane, St. John, and six other commissioners were appointed -to settle a plan for the incorporation of Scotland with England. They -met at Dalkeith, and summoned the representatives of the counties -and the burghs to assemble and consult with them on the matter. The -ministers thundered from their pulpits against a union, and especially -against putting the Kirk under the power of the State; but twenty-eight -out of thirty shires, and forty-four out of fifty-eight burghs -complied, and sent up twenty-one deputies to sit with the Parliamentary -commissioners at Westminster, to settle the terms of the union. The -power of the English Parliament, or rather of the army, was now so -supreme, that both in Scotland and Ireland resistance was vain. - -[Illustration: HENRY IRETON. (_After the Portrait by Cooper._)] - -The all-absorbing interest of the events of the last several unexampled -years within the kingdom, has prevented our noticing the transactions -of the Commonwealth with the other kingdoms of Europe. We must now -recount these. Prince Rupert, by his cruising on the coasts of England -and Ireland, had not only kept the nation in alarm, but had inflicted -great injury on the coasts and commerce of the realm. In the spring -of 1649 he lay in the harbour of Kinsale, keeping the way open for -the landing of the foreign troops expected to accompany Charles -II. to Ireland. But Vane, to whom was entrusted the naval affairs, -commissioned Blake, Dean, and Monk, three army officers, who showed -themselves as able at sea as on land, to look after him, and the -victories of Cromwell in Ireland warned him in the autumn to remove. -He found himself blockaded by the English fleet, but in his impetuous -way he burst through the enclosing squadron with the loss of only three -ships, and took refuge in the Tagus. In the following March Blake -presented himself at that river, and demanded of the King of Portugal -permission to attack the pirate, as he termed him, at his anchorage. -The king refused; Blake attempted, notwithstanding, to force his way -up the river to Rupert's fleet, but he was assailed by the batteries -from both shores, and was compelled to retire. This was deemed a -declaration of war by the Republic, and Blake was ordered to seize -any Portuguese ships that fell in his way. Don John thereupon seized -the English merchants in his dominions, and confiscated their goods. -But the ravages committed by Blake on his subjects soon induced him -to order Rupert to retire from the Tagus, who sailed thence into the -Mediterranean, where he continued to practise open piracy, capturing -ships of almost all nations. He afterwards sailed to the West Indies to -escape the English admirals, and inflicted there great injuries both -on the English and Spanish. His brother Maurice was there lost in a -storm, and in 1652 Rupert, beset by the English captains, made his way -again to Europe, and sold his two men-of-war to Cardinal Mazarin. The -Portuguese, freed from the presence of Rupert, soon sent Don Guimaraes -to London to treat for a pacification, but the treaty was not finally -concluded till after Cromwell had attained to supreme power. - -The King of Spain, who never forgave Charles I. the insult put upon his -sister and the whole kingdom, acknowledged the Republic from the first -moment of its establishment by continuing the presence of Cardenas, his -ambassador. The King of Spain made use of his ambassador in London to -excite the Commonwealth against Portugal and the United Provinces, but -an unlucky accident threatened to disturb even this alliance, the only -one between the Commonwealth and the Courts of the Continent. As Spain -kept an ambassador in London, the Parliament resolved to send one to -Madrid, and for this purpose they selected a gentleman of the name of -Ascham. He did not understand Spanish, and therefore he employed three -friars, who accompanied him and informed him of all that he wanted to -know regarding Spain. But he was no sooner arrived than half a dozen -Royalist English officers, who had served in the Spanish army against -Portugal, and in Calabria, went to his inn, and finding him at dinner, -exclaimed, "Welcome, gallants, welcome!" and ran him and Riba, one of -the friars, through with their swords. This was precisely what some -Royalists had done to Dorislaus, the Parliamentary ambassador to the -Hague, in 1649; for these Cavaliers, with all their talk of honour, -had no objection to an occasional piece of assassination. One of the -servants of Charles II.'s ambassadors, Hyde and Cottington, was one of -the assassins, which brought the ambassadors into suspicion; but they -protested firmly against any participation in so base a business. The -assassins fled to a church for sanctuary, except one who got to the -Venetian ambassador's, and so escaped. The other five were brought -from their asylum, tried, and condemned to die, but the courtiers -sympathised so much with the Royalists, that they were returned again -to their asylum, except a Protestant of the name of Sparkes, who, -being taken a few miles from the city, was put to death. This matter -blowing over, the peace with Spain continued. With Holland the case was -different. - -Holland, being itself a Republic, might have been expected to -sympathise and fraternise with the English Commonwealth, but the -circumstances of the Court prevented the spread of this feeling. The -Stadtholder, William II., had married the Princess Royal of England, -the daughter of Charles I., and sister of Charles II. From the first -of the contest, therefore, Holland had supported the claims of both -the Charleses. The second Charles had spent much of his exile at the -Hague, not being at all cordially received in France, where his mother -resided. His brother, the Duke of York, had long resided there, as -Rupert and Maurice had done before. There was thus a great league -between the family of the Stadtholder and the Stuart faction, and the -Stadtholders themselves were gradually making themselves as despotic -as any princes of Europe. All the money which enabled the Stuarts in -England to make head and invade it from Scotland came from the Hague. -On the other hand, the large Republican party in Holland, which was -at strife with the Stadtholder on account of his regal and despotic -doctrines, looked with favour on the proceedings of the English -Parliament, and thus awoke a deep jealousy in the Stadtholder's Court -of the English Parliament, which entertained ideas of coalescing with -Holland into one great Republic. - -From these causes no satisfaction could ever be obtained from the -Stadtholder for the murder of Dr. Dorislaus, nor would he admit -Strickland, the ambassador of the Parliament, to an audience. But on -the 6th of November, 1650, William died of small-pox, and on the 14th -of that month his widow gave birth to William III., who afterwards -became King of England. The infancy of the Stadtholder now encouraged -the Republican party to abolish that office, and to restore the more -democratic form of government. On this, the Parliament of England, -in the commencement of 1651, determined to send ambassadors to the -States, and in addition to Strickland sent St. John, the Chief Justice -of the Common Pleas. But no good was done. There were numbers of -English Royalists still hanging about at the Hague, and the Dutch, -through the internal wars of England, France, and Spain, had grown so -prosperous that they were become proud and insolent, and had come to -regard the English Parliament, through the misrepresentation of their -enemies, as a power that they might treat with contempt. St. John found -insurmountable difficulties in negotiating with the rude, haughty -States-General. He was openly insulted in the streets of the Hague; -the ignorant populace hooted and hissed him and his colleague, and the -Royalists were suffered to annoy them with impunity. - -The Parliament of England had in good faith proposed their scheme -of confederacy against their common enemies both by sea and land, -but the States-General made so many objections and delays that the -term fixed for the negotiation expired, and the English ambassadors -took their leave in disgust. The battle of Worcester awoke the Dutch -to their mistake, and they then sent in haste to propose terms of -alliance on their part, but it was too late. St. John, strong in -his feelings as he was deep in his intellect, had represented their -conduct in such terms that the English Parliament received them with -a cool haughtiness the counterpart of their own in the late attempt -at treaty. St. John had also employed himself in a measure of revenge -on the Dutch which was in its effects most disastrous to them. Owing -to the embarrassments of the other European States, the Dutch had -grown not only to be the chief merchants of the nations, but the great -carriers of all mercantile goods. Parliament passed a Navigation Act, -by which it was forbidden to introduce any of the products of Asia, -Africa, or America into England, except in English vessels, or any of -the manufactures of Europe, except in English ships or the ships of the -countries which produced them. This at one blow lopped off the greater -part of the commerce of Holland, and the demands of the ambassador -that this terrible Act should be repealed, or at least suspended till -the conclusion of a treaty, were totally disregarded. But this was -not the only offensive weapon which St. John's resentment had found. -Letters of marque had been issued against French vessels, and they -were permitted to be used against Dutch ones, on pretence that they -had French property on board. Still more, the massacre of the English -at Amboyna, which had been lightly passed over, owing to the desire of -the English Court to maintain the alliance of Holland against Spain, -had never been forgotten by the English people, and there were now loud -demands, especially from the sailors, that all survivors of the Dutch -concerned in that murder should be given up. In fact, a determined -spirit of hostility had sprung up between the two maritime nations. -The Dutch, at the call of their merchants for protection, prepared a -fleet, and placed at the head of it the three greatest admirals that -their nation ever produced--Van Tromp, De Ruyter, and De Witt. The -English Parliament, on their part, ordered their admirals to insist on -the same homage being paid to their flag in the narrow seas as had been -paid to that of the king. They also demanded indemnification for the -losses sustained in the East Indies from the Dutch, and insisted on the -stipulated contribution of the tenth herring from the Dutch fishermen -in the British seas. - -It was impossible, under such circumstances, that hostilities should be -long deferred. Commodore Young was the first to call on the convoy of -a fleet of Dutch merchantmen to salute the British flag. They refused, -and Young attacked them so smartly that in the end they complied. In a -few days Van Tromp, who was a zealous partisan of Orange, and therefore -of the house of Stuart, appeared in the Downs with two-and-forty sail. -To Commodore Bourne, whom he found there, he disclaimed any hostile -intentions, but pleaded the loss of several anchors and cables for -putting in; but the next day, being the 19th of May, he encountered -Blake off Dover, and that commander, though he had only twenty ships, -demanded that Van Tromp should do homage to his flag. Van Tromp -refused, and sailed right on till he came nearly opposite Blake, when -the English admiral fired a gun three successive times at the Dutch -admiral's flag. Van Tromp returned the compliment by firing a broadside -into Blake's ship; and the two fleets were instantly engaged, and a -desperate battle was fought from three in the afternoon till darkness -separated them. The English had taken two ships, one of which, on -account of the damage done it, was allowed to sink. - -There was much dispute between the two countries which was the -aggressor; but it appears the most probable fact that Van Tromp -sought an occasion to resist the demand of lowering the Dutch flag -to the English one, and found an admiral as prepared to assert that -superiority as he was to dispute it. - -The English Parliament immediately issued strict orders to all its -commodores to pursue and destroy all the ships of the Dutch fleet that -they could find on the seas; and in the space of a month they took -or burnt seventy sail of merchantmen, besides several men-of-war. -The Dutch protested that the battle had not been sought by them, and -proposed inquiry, and the punishment of whichever of the commanders -should be proved the aggressor; but the Parliament replied that it was -satisfied that the States were bent on usurping the rights of England -on the seas, and on destroying the fleets, which were the walls and -bulwarks of the nation, and therefore that it was necessary to stand -on the defensive. The States sent De Pauw to reiterate the assurances -of their peaceful intentions, and to urge the court of inquiry; but -the Parliament was now as high as the States had been before, and -insisted on reparation and security. De Pauw demanded what these terms -meant, and was answered, full compensation for all the expense that the -Commonwealth had been put to by the hostile preparations of the States, -and a confederation for the mutual protection of the two nations. De -Pauw knew that the first of these terms would be declined, and took his -leave. On the 19th of July the Parliament proclaimed war against the -States. - -The Dutch were by no means afraid of the war, though they dreaded the -destruction of their trade which it would occasion. They had acquired -a great reputation as a naval people, and the sailors were eager to -encounter the English, and revenge their defeat upon them. Van Tromp -once more appeared with seventy sail of the line, and boasted that he -would sweep the English from the face of the ocean. The Vice-Admiral -Sir George Ayscough (or Ayscue), had just returned victorious from the -reduction of Barbadoes, and was left in charge of the Channel whilst -Blake went northward, in quest of the squadron which protected the -Dutch fishermen. Van Tromp could not come up with Ayscough, owing to -a change of wind; he, therefore, went northward after Blake, who had -captured the Dutch squadron, and made the fishermen pay the tenth -herring, but a storm dispersed Van Tromp's fleet, several of his ships -falling into the hands of the English. When he again returned to port, -he was received with great indignation by the people, who had expected -wonders from him, and in his mortification he resigned. - -De Ruyter was advanced into his post, and put to sea in charge of a -merchant fleet, and in return fell in with Ayscough off Plymouth, who -broke through his line, but was not followed up vigorously by the -captains of the other vessels, and the Dutch ships escaped. Ayscough -was superseded, the Parliament suspecting him of a royal tendency. - -De Ruyter joined De Witt, and attacked Blake, who had under him -Admirals Bourne and Penn, and a fierce engagement took place, which -lasted the whole of the 28th of September. The next morning the Dutch -were seen bearing away for their own coasts, several of their vessels -having gone down, and one of them being taken. Blake gave chase as far -as Goree, but could not pursue them amongst the shoals and sandbanks, -where the small vessels of the Dutch had taken refuge. Wherever English -and Dutch ships now met, there was battle. There was an affray between -them in the Mediterranean, where Van Galen, with a greatly superior -force, attacked and defeated Captain Baily, but was himself slain; the -King of Denmark also joined the Dutch with five ships, laid an embargo -on English merchandise in the Baltic, and closed the Sound against -them. There were, moreover, numerous vessels under the French flag -cruising about in quest of merchantmen. - -As winter, however, approached, Blake, supposing the campaign would -cease till spring, dispersed a number of his vessels to different -ports, and was lying in the Downs with only thirty-seven sail, when -he was surprised by a fleet of eighty men-of-war, and ten fire-ships. -It was Van Tromp, whom the States had again prevailed on to take -the command, and who came vehement for the recovery of his tarnished -reputation. Blake's stout heart refused to shrink from even so unequal -a contest; and he fought the whole Dutch fleet with true English -bulldogism, from ten in the morning till six in the evening, when the -increasing darkness led to a cessation of hostilities on both sides. -Blake took advantage of the night to get up the Thames as far as the -quaint fishing village of Leigh. He had managed to blow up a Dutch -ship, disable two others, and to do much damage generally to the Dutch -fleet; but he had lost five ships himself. Van Tromp and De Ruyter -sailed to and fro at the mouth of the river, and along the coast -from the North Foreland to the Isle of Wight, in triumph, and then -convoyed home the Dutch and French fleets. There was huge rejoicing in -Holland over the great English admiral, which, considering the immense -inequality of the fleets, was really an honour to Blake, for it showed -how they esteemed his genius and courage. The whole of Holland was full -of bravado at blocking up the Thames, and forcing the English to an -ignominious peace. Van Tromp was so elated, that he stuck a besom at -his masthead, intimating that he would sweep the English from off the -seas. - -[Illustration: ROYAL MUSEUM AND PICTURE GALLERY, THE HAGUE.] - -The English Parliament, during the winter, made strenuous efforts to -wipe out this reverse. They refitted and put in order all their ships, -ordered two regiments of infantry to be ready to embark as marines, -raised the wages of the seamen, ordered their families to be maintained -during their absence on service, and increased the rate of prize money. -They sent for Monk from Scotland, and joined him and Dean in command -with Blake. - -The Dutch navy was estimated at this period at a hundred and fifty -sail, and was flushed with success; but Blake was resolved to take down -their pride, and lay ready for the first opportunity. This occurred on -the 18th of February, 1653. Van Tromp appeared sailing up the Channel -with seventy-two ships of war and thirty armed traders, convoying a -homeward-bound merchant fleet of three hundred sail. His orders were, -having seen the merchantmen safe home, to return and blockade the -Thames. Blake saved him the trouble, by issuing from port with eighty -men-of-war, and posting himself across the Channel. Van Tromp signalled -the merchant fleet under his convoy to take care of themselves, and the -battle between him and Blake commenced with fury. The action took place -not far from Cape La Hogue, on the coast of France. Blake and Dean, who -were both on board the _Triumph_, led the way, and their ship received -seven hundred shots in her hull. The battle lasted the whole day, in -which the Dutch had six ships taken or sunk, the English losing none, -but Blake was severely wounded. - -The next day the fight was renewed off Weymouth as fiercely as before, -and was continued all day, and at intervals through the night; and -on the third day the conflict still raged till four o'clock in the -afternoon, when the wind carrying the contending fleets towards the -shallow waters between Boulogne and Calais, Van Tromp, with his lesser -ships, escaped from the English, and pursued his course homewards, -carrying the merchant fleet safely there. In the three days' fight -the Dutch, according to their own account, had lost nine men-of-war -and twenty-four merchantmen; according to the English account, eleven -men-of-war and thirty merchantmen. They had two thousand men killed, -and fifteen hundred taken prisoners. The English had only one ship -sunk, though many of their vessels were greatly damaged, and their -loss of killed and wounded was very severe. But they had decidedly -beaten the enemy, and the excitement in Holland, on the return of the -crest-fallen though valiant boaster Van Tromp, was universal. It was -now the turn of the English sailors to boast, who declared that they -had paid off the Dutch for Amboyna. But the defeat of their navy was -nothing in comparison to the general mischief done to their trade -and merchant shipping. Their fisheries employed one hundred thousand -persons: these were entirely stopped; the Channel was now closed to -their fleet, and in the Baltic the English committed continual ravages -on their traders. Altogether, they had now lost sixteen hundred -ships, and they once more condescended to seek for accommodation with -the English Parliament, which, however, treated them with haughty -indifference; and it was, therefore, with great satisfaction that they -now beheld the change which took place in England. - -The Reformers of various shades and creeds had at first been combined -by the one great feeling of rescuing the country from the absolute -principles of the Stuarts. They had fought bravely side by side for -this great object; but in proportion as they succeeded, the differences -between themselves became more apparent. The Presbyterians, Scots and -English, were bent on fixing their religious opinions on the country -as despotically as the Catholics and Episcopalians had done before -them. But here they found themselves opposed by the Independents, -who had notions of religious freedom far beyond the Presbyterians, -and were not inclined to yield their freedom to any other party -whatever. Their religious notions naturally disposed them towards the -same equalising system in the State, and as the chiefs of the army -were of this denomination, they soon found themselves in a condition -to dictate to the parliament. Pride's Purge left Parliament almost -purely independent, and it and the army worked harmoniously till the -sweeping victories of Cromwell created a jealousy of his power. This -power was the more supreme because circumstances had dispersed the -other leading generals into distant scenes of action. Monk and Lambert -were in Scotland till Monk was called to the fleet, Fleetwood was in -Ireland, Ireton was dead. The Long Parliament, or the remnant of it, -called the Rump, ably as it had conducted affairs, was daily decreasing -in numbers, and dreaded to renew itself by election, because it felt -certain that anything like a free election would return an overwhelming -number of Presbyterians, and that they would thus commit an act of -_felo de se_. - -At no period did what is called the Commonwealth of England present -any of the elements of what we conceive by a republic, that is, by -a government of the free representatives of the people. Had the -people been allowed to send their representatives, there would have -been a considerable number of Catholics, a much greater number of -Episcopalians, and both of these sections Royalists. There would have -been an overwhelming number of Presbyterians, and a very moderate one -of Independents. The Government was, therefore, speedily converted -into an oligarchy, at the head of which were the generals of the army, -and some few of the leaders of Parliament. The army, by Pride's Purge, -reduced the Parliament to a junto, by turning out forcibly the majority -of the representatives of the people, and the time was now fast -approaching when it must resolve itself into a military dictatorship. - -Cromwell had long been accused by his own party of aiming at the -possession of the supreme power. At what time such ideas began to -dawn in his mind is uncertain; but as he felt himself rising above all -his contemporaries by the energy and the comprehensive character of -his mind, there is no doubt that he secretly indulged them. Ludlow, -Whitelock, Hutchinson, and others, felt that such was the spirit -growing in him; and many of those who had most admired his genius fell -away from him, and openly denounced his ambitious intentions as they -became more obvious. The excellent Colonel Hutchinson and Sir Henry -Vane charged him with the ruin of the Commonwealth. But Cromwell must -have long felt that nothing but a military power could maintain the -ascendency of those principles which he and his fellow Independents -entertained and held sacred. The world was not prepared for them. The -roots of royalty were too deeply struck into the heart of the nation by -centuries of its existence, to be torn out by the follies and tyrannies -of one family. But if a free Parliament, which it had been the proud -boast of the Reformers to be the sole seat of the national power, could -not exist; if the sitting body calling itself a Parliament could not -even add to its members without endangering its own existence either -from itself or from the jealousy of the army--what could exist? Clearly -nothing but a dictatorship, and the strongest man must come uppermost. -That strongest man was without a question Cromwell. - -As early as 1649 two Bills had been brought in to settle questions -urgently demanded by the people, an act for a general amnesty, and -for the termination of the present Parliament. On his return from the -battle of Worcester, Cromwell reminded Parliament that these essential -measures had not been completed. He carried the amnesty, so that all -acts of hostility against the present Government previous to the battle -of Worcester were pardoned, and the Royalists relieved from the fear of -fresh forfeitures. The termination of Parliament was fixed for the 3rd -of November, 1654, and the interval of three years was to be zealously -employed in framing a scheme for the election of a new Parliament -on the safest principles. At the same time Cromwell was living at -Whitehall, in the house of the beheaded king, and with almost the state -and power of a sovereign. He summoned, therefore, the council of the -army, and discussed amongst them what they deemed necessary to be done. - -In this council it was agitated as to the best form of government for -England, whether a pure republic, or a government with something of -monarchy in it. The officers were for a republic, the lawyers for -a limited monarchy. Cromwell agreed that the government must have -something of monarchy in it, and asked who they would choose if that -were decided? The lawyers said Charles Stuart, or if they found him -too much bent on power, his brother the Duke of Gloucester. There can -be little doubt but that this was a feeler on the part of Cromwell, -and as he was never likely to acquiesce in the restoration of a family -which they had put down at so much cost, it would have the effect of -causing him to proceed with caution. He had ascertained that the army -was opposed to a king; the lawyers thought of no king but one from the -old royal line. These were facts to be pondered. - -Meanwhile the Parliament, without proceeding to lay a platform for its -successor, evidenced a jealousy of the ascendency of the army; it voted -a reduction of one-fourth of the army, and of the monthly assessment -for its support from one hundred and twenty thousand pounds to ninety -thousand pounds. In June, 1652, it proposed a fresh reduction, but -this was opposed by the military council, and in August the officers -appeared at the bar of the House with a petition, calling the attention -of the Parliament to the great question of the qualifications of -future parliaments, to reform of the law and religious abuses, to the -dismissal of disaffected and scandalous persons from office, to the -arrears due to the army, and to reform of malpractices in the Excise -and the Treasury. - -The contest between the army and the Parliament was evidently growing -every day more active. The Commons had no desire to lay down their -authority and, to retain their existence, even showed a leaning towards -introducing a number of Presbyterians under the name of "Neuters." -To such a project the army was never likely to assent, and Cromwell -proposed, in the council at Whitehall, that Parliament should be at -once dissolved, and a national council of forty persons, with himself -at their head, should conduct affairs till a new Parliament could be -called on established principles. The opinion, however, was that such -a proceeding would be dangerous, and the authority of the council be -looked upon as unwarrantable. - -Whilst these matters were in agitation, Whitelock says that Cromwell, -on the 8th of November, 1652, desired a private interview with him, and -in this urged the necessity of taking prompt and efficient measures for -securing the great objects for which they had fought, and which he -termed the mercies and successes which God had conferred on the nation. -He inveighed warmly against the Parliament, and declared that the army -began to entertain a strange distaste to it; adding that he wished -there were not too much reason for it. "And really," he continued, -"their pride, their self-seeking, their engrossing all places of honour -and profit to themselves and their friends; their daily breaking -forth into new and violent parties and factions; their delays of -business, and designs to perpetuate themselves, and to continue the -power in their own hands; their meddling in private matters between -party and party, contrary to the institution of Parliament; their -injustice and partiality in these matters, and the scandalous lives -of some of the chief of them, do give much ground for people to open -their mouths against them, and to dislike them." He concluded by -insisting on the necessity of some controlling power over them to check -these extravagances, or else nothing could prevent the ruin of the -Commonwealth. - -Whitelock admitted the truth of most of this, but defended the -Parliament generally, and reminded Cromwell that it was the -Parliament which had granted them their authority, and to Cromwell -even his commission, and that it would be hard for them, under those -circumstances, to curb their power. - -But Cromwell broke out--"We all forget God, and God will forget us. God -will give us up to confusion, and these men will help it on if they -be suffered to proceed in their ways." And then, after some further -talk, he suddenly observed, "What if a man should take upon him to -be king?" Whitelock saw plainly enough what Oliver was thinking of, -and replied as if he had directly asked whether he should assume that -office himself. He told him that it would not do, and that he was much -better off, and more influential as he was. "As to your person," he -observed, "the title of king would be of no advantage, because you have -the full kingly power already concerning the militia." He reminded -him that in the appointment of civil offices, though he had no formal -veto, his will was as much consulted as if he had, and so in all other -departments, domestic and foreign. Moreover, he now had the power -without the envy and danger which the pomp and circumstance of a king -would bring. - -Cromwell still argued the point; contending that though a man usurped -the title without royal descent, yet the possession of the crown was -declared by an Act of Henry VII. to make a good title, and to indemnify -the reigning king and all his ministers for their acts. Whitelock -replied that, let their enemies once get the better of them, all such -bills and indemnifications would be little regarded; and that to assume -the crown would at once convert the quarrel into one not between the -king and the nation, but between Charles Stuart and Oliver Cromwell. -Cromwell admitted this, but asked what other course he could propose. -Whitelock said that of making a good bargain with Charles, who was now -down, and might be treated with just on what terms they pleased; or if -they thought him too confirmed in his opinions, there was the Duke of -York or the Duke of Gloucester. Cromwell did not appear pleased with -this suggestion; in fact, he had resolved to seize the chief power -in some shape himself--and even had he not, he had too much common -sense to agree to admit any one of the deposed family again to the -throne, which would be to put their necks in the certain noose of royal -vengeance. The death of Charles I. could never be forgiven. From this -time, Whitelock says, though he made no accusation against Cromwell, -yet "his carriage towards me from that time was altered, and his -advising with me not so frequent and intimate as before." - -Cromwell again, however, broached the subject amongst the officers and -members of the Council--St. John, Lenthall the Speaker, Desborough, -Harrison, Fleetwood, and Whalley, not in so direct a manner, but -as that "a settlement, with something of the monarchical in it, -would be very effectual." It does not appear that the project was -very unanimously received by them, but they were agreed that a new -representation must take place, and no "Neuters" should be admitted. -Cromwell said emphatically, "Never shall any of that judgment who -have deserted the cause be admitted to power." On the 19th of April -the debate on this subject was continued very warmly till midnight, -and they separated, to continue the discussion on the next day. Most -of the officers had argued that the Parliament must be dissolved "one -way or another;" but the Parliament men and lawyers, amongst them -Whitelock and Widdrington, contended that a hasty dissolution would be -dangerous, and Cromwell appeared to lean towards the moderate view. But -scarcely had they met the next morning, and found a strange absence of -the members of Parliament, and an almost equal absence of officers, -when Colonel Ingoldsby hastened in and informed them that the Commons -were hard at work pushing forward their Bill for increasing their own -numbers by the introduction of Neuters; and that it was evident that -they meant to hurry it through the House before the Council could be -informed of their attempt. Vane and others, well aware of Cromwell's -design, were thus exerting themselves to defeat it. - -[Illustration: CROMWELL ADDRESSING THE LONG PARLIAMENT FOR THE LAST -TIME. (_See p._ 118.)] - -At this news Cromwell instantly ordered a file of musketeers to attend -him, and hastened to the House of Commons, attended by Lambert, -Harrison, and some other officers. He left the soldiers in the lobby of -the House, and entering, went straight to his seat, where he sat for -some time listening to the debate. He first spoke to St. John, telling -him that he was come for a purpose which grieved him to the very soul, -and that he had sought the Lord with tears not to impose it upon him; -but there was a necessity, and that the glory of God and the good of -the nation required it. He then beckoned Harrison to him, and said -that he judged that the Parliament was ripe for dissolution. Harrison, -who was a Fifth-Monarchy man, and had been only with much persuasion -brought over to this design, replied, "Sir, the work is very great and -dangerous; I desire you seriously to consider before you engage in it." -"You say well," answered the general, and sat yet about a quarter of -an hour longer. But when the question was about to be put, he said to -Harrison, "This is the time; I must do it;" and starting up, he took -off his hat, and began speaking. At first he spoke of the question -before the House, and commended the Parliament for much that it had -done, and well he might; for whatever its present corruption, it had -nobly supported him and the fleet and army in putting down all their -enemies, and raising the nation in the eyes of foreigners far beyond -its reputation for the last century. But soon he came round to the -corruption and self-seeking of the members, accusing them of being at -that moment engaged in the very work of bringing in the Presbyterians -to destroy all that they had suffered so much to accomplish. Sir Harry -Vane and Peter Wentworth ventured to call him to order, declaring that -that was strange and unparliamentary language from a servant of the -House, and one that they had so much honoured. "I know it," replied -Cromwell; then stepping forward into the middle of the floor, and -putting on his hat, and walking to and fro, casting angry glances at -different members, he exclaimed, "I tell you, you are no Parliament. I -will put an end to your prating. For shame! get you gone! Give place to -honest men; to men who will more faithfully discharge their trust. You -are no longer a Parliament. The Lord has done with you. He has chosen -other instruments for carrying on His work." - -With that he stamped upon the floor, and the soldiers appearing at -the door, he bade Harrison bring them in. The musketeers instantly -surrounded him, and laying his hand on the mace, he said, "What shall -we do with this bauble? Take it away," and he handed it to a soldier. -Then looking at Lenthall the Speaker, he said to Harrison, "Fetch him -down!" Lenthall declared that he would not move from his proper post -unless he was forced out of it. "Sir," said Harrison, "I will lend you -a hand," and taking hold of him, he brought him down, and he walked out -of the House. Algernon Sydney, then but a young member, happened to -sit next to the Speaker, and Cromwell said, "Put _him_ out!" Sydney, -like the Speaker, refused to move, but Cromwell reiterated the command, -"Put him out!" and Harrison and Worsley, the lieutenant-colonel of -Cromwell's regiment of Ironsides, laying each a hand on his shoulder, -the young patriot did not wait for the ignominy of being dragged from -his seat, but rose and followed the Speaker. Cromwell then went on -weeding out the members, with epithets of high reproach to each of -them. Alderman Allen bade him pause and send out the soldiers, and -that all might yet be well; but Cromwell only replied, "It is you that -have forced me upon this. I have sought the Lord day and night that -He would rather slay me than put me upon this work." He then charged -the alderman with embezzlement, as treasurer to the army; and taking -first one and then another by the cloak, he said to Challoner, "Thou -art a drunkard!" To Wentworth, "Thou art an adulterer!" To Martin, -"Thou art a still more lewd character!" Vane, as he was forced past -him, exclaimed, "This is not honest; yea, it is against morality -and common honesty." "O, Sir Harry Vane, Sir Harry Vane!" exclaimed -Cromwell, "the Lord deliver me from Sir Harry Vane!" Thus he saw the -House cleared, no one daring to raise a hand against him, though, says -Whitelock, "many wore swords, and would sometimes brag high." When all -were gone, Cromwell locked the door, and put the key in his pocket. -He then returned to Whitehall, and told the Council of officers, who -yet remained sitting, what he had done. "When I went to the House," -he said, "I did not think to do this, but perceiving the spirit of the -Lord strong upon me, I resolved no longer to consult flesh and blood." - -Such was the manner in which the last vestige of representative -government was swept away by Cromwell. Charles I. roused the fiery -indignation of Parliament, and of all England, as a violater of the -privileges of Parliament, by entering the House to seize five members -who had offended him. Cromwell, who had been one of the first to resist -and to avenge this deed, now marched in his soldiers and turned out the -whole Parliament, about fifty members, with impunity. "They went away -so quietly," said Cromwell, "that not a dog barked at their going." -Such is the difference between a private man with a victorious army -at his back, and one who, though with the name of a king, has lost a -nation's confidence by his want of moral honesty. The act of Cromwell -was the death of all constitutional life whatever, it was in opposition -to all parties but the army; yet no man dared assume the attitude of a -patriot; the military Dictatorship was accomplished (April 20, 1653). - -Cromwell's whole excuse was necessity; that without his seizure of -the supreme power, the Commonwealth could not exist. It ceased to -exist by his very deed, and if he saved the faint form of a republic, -it was only for five years. As we have seen the great example to the -nations of the responsibility of kings, we have now to see an equally -significant one of the impossibility of maintaining long any form of -government that is not based on the mature opinion and attachment -of the people. Republicanism was not the faith of England in the -seventeenth century, and therefore neither the despotism of Charles -could create a republic with any permanence in it, nor the strenuous -grasp of Cromwell maintain it beyond the term of his own existence. - -On the afternoon of this celebrated _coup d'état_, Cromwell proceeded -to Derby House, accompanied by Harrison and Lambert, where the Council -was still sitting, and thus addressed the members:--"Gentlemen, if you -are here met as private persons, you shall not be disturbed; but if as -a Council of State, this is no place for you; and since you cannot but -know what was done at the House this morning, so take notice that the -Parliament is dissolved." Bradshaw, who was presiding, said that they -knew, and that all England would soon know; but that if he thought -that the Parliament was dissolved, he was mistaken, "for that no power -under Heaven could dissolve them, except themselves. Therefore take you -notice of that." Sir Arthur Haselrig and others supported this protest, -and then the Council withdrew. - -Cromwell and his party immediately held a council as to what steps were -to be taken, and on the 22nd they issued a declaration in the name of -the Lord-General and his council of officers, ordering all authorities -to continue their functions as before; and in return, addresses of -confidence arrived from generals and admirals. On the 6th of June -Oliver, in his own name as Captain-General and Commander-in-Chief of -all the armies and forces, issued a summons to one hundred and forty -persons to meet and constitute a Parliament. Six were also summoned -from Wales, six from Ireland, and five from Scotland. On the 4th of -July about one hundred and twenty of these persons, of Cromwell's -own selection--persons, according to his summons, "fearing God, -and of approved fidelity and honesty"--met in the Council-chamber -at Whitehall. Many of these were gentlemen of good repute and -abilities--some of them were nobles, others of noble families--as -Colonel Montague, Colonel Howard, and Anthony Ashley Cooper. Others, -however, were of little worldly standing, but had been selected on -account of their religious zeal and character. Amongst them was one -Barbon, a leatherseller in Fleet Street, who had acquired the cognomen -of Praise-God, and whose name being purposely misspelled became -Praise-God Barebone, and the Royalist wits of the time, therefore, -dubbed the Parliament Barebone's Parliament. - -The more common appellation of this singular Parliament was "The -Little Parliament." Cromwell opened their session with a very long and -extraordinary speech, in which he gave a history of the past contest -with the monarchy, and the mercies with which they had been crowned -at Naseby, Dunbar, Worcester, and other places; of the backslidings -of the Long Parliament, and the "necessity" to remove it and call -this assembly. He quoted a vast quantity of Scripture, and told them -that they were called of God to introduce practical religion into -State affairs; and he then delivered into their hands an instrument, -consigning to them the supreme power in the State till the 3rd of -September, 1654, three months previous to which date they were to elect -their successors, who were to sit only for a year, and in turn elect -their successors. - -This resignation of the supreme power once in his hands, has been -described by historians as a gross piece of hypocrisy, used to avoid -the odium of seizing for himself the power of the Parliament, which -he had forcibly dissolved. Whether that were the case or not, it -certainly was a prudent policy, and a safe one, for he knew very well -that he possessed supreme power as head of the army, and could, if -necessary, dismiss this Parliament as he had done the former one. -In their character of pietists or saints, as they were called, this -Parliament opened its session by electing Francis Rouse their Speaker, -and by exercises of devotion, which continued from eight in the morning -till six at night. Thirteen of the most gifted members preached and -prayed in succession, and they adjourned, declaring that they had never -enjoyed so much of the spirit and presence of Christ in any meetings -for worship as they had done that day. It was moved the next morning -that they "should go on seeking the Lord" that day too, but this was -overruled, and Monday, the 11th, was fixed for that purpose. They then -voted themselves the Parliament of the Commonwealth of England, invited -Cromwell and four of his staff to sit as members amongst them, and on -the 9th of July re-appointed the Council of State, amongst whom we -find the names of Colonel Montague, afterwards Earl of Sandwich, the -uncle of the poet Dryden, Sir Gilbert Pickering, Lord Viscount Lisle, -brother of Algernon Sydney, Sir Ashley Cooper, and other names of equal -note; and however they might be ridiculed on account of their religion, -they soon showed that they were conscientious and independent men. The -strongest proof of this was that they did not shrink from opposing the -power and interests of Cromwell, who had selected them. Scarcely were -they met, when they were appealed to to decide upon the case of John -Lilburne, who, on the dissolution of the Long Parliament, petitioned -Cromwell to allow him to return from his banishment. Cromwell gave no -reply, but independent John took the liberty of appearing in London. -He was at once seized and committed to Newgate. Lilburne, supported by -his friends, petitioned the House to hear and decide the case, though -it was the proper business of a jury. They might now have gratified -their patron, whom Lilburne had continually assailed as a "robber," a -"usurper," and a "murderer;" but they declined to interfere, and left -him to the ordinary criminal court. There Lilburne so ably defended -himself that he was acquitted; but he was again seized on the plea of -libellous and seditious language used on his trial, and the House could -then no longer refuse, at the instigation of the Council, to imprison -him. Being removed from the Tower to Elizabeth Castle, in Jersey, and -thence to Dover Castle, he there became a convert to the principles of -George Fox, a remarkable end for so fiery and democratic a character. -The Parliament lost no time in proceeding to assert that divine -commission, which Cromwell, in his opening speech, had attributed to -their call through him. They declared that they were appointed by the -Lord, and would have greatly alarmed Cromwell had he not taken care to -include amongst them a sufficient number of his staunch adherents. But -they excited the same alarm in a variety of other classes. They set to -work resolutely in cutting down the expenditure of the Government; they -abolished all unnecessary offices; they revised the regulations of the -Excise; reformed the constitution of the Treasury; reduced exorbitant -salaries, and examined thoroughly the public accounts; they adopted -measures for the sale of the confiscated lands, and enacted rules for -the better registration of births, deaths, and marriages. They went -further; they made marriage by a civil magistrate valid, and, indeed, -necessary for the enjoyment of the civil effects of marriage. Marriage -by a clergyman was left optional still. - -They next attacked the unequal and oppressive modes of raising the -one hundred and twenty thousand pounds a month for the maintenance of -the army; the assessments in some cases amounting to two, in others, -to ten shillings in the pound. From taxation they proceeded to law, -and prepared a Bill to abolish the Court of Chancery, in which the -abuses and delays had been a constant source of complaint in petitions -to Parliament for years. But they were not content with destroying -the Court of Chancery, they set about a general reform of the laws. -They contended that every Englishman should understand the laws of -his country, and that by a proper digest they might be reduced to the -compass of a pocket volume. They, in fact, anticipated Napoleon in -his Code, and appointed a committee to make the necessary revision, -and to weed the real and useful statutes out of the chaotic mass of -contradictory, obsolete, and unjust laws which overlaid them; the -dicta of judges in many cases superseded and prevented the original -enactments, so that men's lives and properties were at the mercy, not -of the decrees of Parliament, but the opinions of individuals. It -may be imagined what a consternation this daring innovation excited -throughout Westminster Hall, and all the dusky, cobwebby cells of the -lawyers. A terrible cry was raised that a set of ignorant men were -about to destroy the whole noble system of British jurisprudence, and -to introduce instead the law of Moses! - -But the projects of these radical Reformers were cut short by the -universal outcry from lawyers, churchmen, officials, and a host of -interested classes. They were represented as a set of mad fanatics, who -in Parliament were endeavouring to carry out the wild doctrines which -the Anabaptists and Fifth-Monarchy men were preaching out of doors. -Borne down by public opinion, Cromwell was compelled to dissolve them, -in fact to resume the supreme power which he had committed to them. -Accordingly, on the 12th of December, Cromwell's friends mustered in -full strength, and Colonel Sydenham moved that, as the proceedings -of Parliament were regarded as calculated to overturn almost every -interest in the country, they could not proceed, and that they should -restore their authority to the hands whence they had received it. -The motion was vehemently opposed, but the Independents had adopted -their plan. The mover declared that he would no longer sit in an -assembly which must be rendered abortive by general opposition. He -therefore rose: the Speaker, who was one of the party, rose too, and -the Independents, forming a procession, proceeded to Whitehall, and -resigned their commission into the hands of Cromwell. The staunch -dissentients remained and engaged in prayer, in which act two officers, -Goffe and White, sent to close the House, found them. White asked -them what they did there. They replied, "We are seeking the Lord." -"Then," said he, rudely, "you may go somewhere else, for to my certain -knowledge, the Lord has not been here these many years." - -[Illustration: TOKEN OF THE COMMONWEALTH (COPPER).] - -[Illustration: BROAD OF THE COMMONWEALTH (GOLD).] - -[Illustration: CROWN OF THE COMMONWEALTH (SILVER).] - -Cromwell affected to receive with reluctance the onerous charge of the -supreme power and responsibility; but the officers urged its necessity, -and the document being soon signed by eighty members, he acceded to it. -The council of officers and ministers decided that it was necessary to -have "a commonwealth in a single person;" and a new constitution was -drawn up; and on the 16th of December Cromwell, dressed in a suit and -cloak of black velvet, with long boots and a broad gold band round his -hat, proceeded in his carriage from Whitehall to the Court of Chancery. -The way was lined by files of soldiers, consisting of five regiments -of foot and three of horse. A long procession followed, including the -Lord Mayor, aldermen, and City officers, the two Commissioners of the -Great Seal, the judges, the councillors of State and of the army. On -reaching the Court of Chancery, Cromwell took his place before a chair -of State, which had been placed on a rich carpet, the Commissioners -of the Great Seal standing on his right and left, the judges ranging -themselves behind, and the civil and military officers disposing of -themselves on each hand. Lambert then stepped forward and addressed -the Lord-General. He spoke of the dissolution of Parliament, and of -the necessity of a strong Government, not liable to be paralysed by -contending opinions; and he prayed the Lord-General, in the name of the -army and of the official authorities of the three kingdoms, to accept -the office of Lord-Protector of the Commonwealth, and to govern it for -the public good by a constitution already drawn up. Cromwell assented, -and thereupon Jessop, a clerk of the council, read what was called "The -Instrument of Government," consisting of forty-two articles. The chief -of these were, that the legislative power should be invested in the -Lord-Protector and the Parliament; but chiefly in the Parliament, for -every Act passed by them was to become law at the end of twenty days, -though the Protector should refuse it his consent. Parliament should -not be adjourned, prorogued, or dissolved without its own consent, for -five months; and there was to be a new Parliament called within three -years of the dissolution of the last. The members of the Parliament -were adopted from a plan by Vane, brought forward during the Long -Parliament--namely, three hundred and forty members for England and -Wales, thirty for Scotland, and thirty for Ireland. The members were to -be chosen chiefly from the counties, and no papist, Malignant, or any -one who had borne arms against the Parliament, was admissible. In the -Protector resided the power of making war or peace with the consent of -the Council; he held the disposal of the militia, and of the regular -forces and the navy, the appointment of all public offices with the -approbation of Parliament, or during the recess of Parliament with that -of the Council, subject to the after-approval of Parliament; but he -could make no law, nor impose taxes without consent of Parliament. The -civil list was fixed at two hundred thousand pounds, and a revenue for -the army capable of maintaining thirty thousand men, with such a navy -as the Lord-Protector should deem necessary. The elective franchise -extended to persons possessed of property worth two hundred pounds, and -sixty members of Parliament should constitute a quorum. All persons -professing faith in Jesus Christ were to enjoy the exercise of their -religion except papists, prelatists, or such as taught doctrines -subversive of morality. Cromwell was named Lord-Protector for life, -and his successor was to be elected by the Council, and no member of -the family of the late king, or any of his line, should be capable of -election. A Council was specially named by the Instrument, to consist -of Philip, Lord Viscount Lisle, brother of Algernon Sydney; Fleetwood; -Lambert; Sir Gilbert Pickering; Sir Charles Wolseley; Sir Anthony -Ashley Cooper; Edward Montague; John Desborough, brother-in-law of -Cromwell; Walter Strickland; Henry Lawrence; William Sydenham; Philip -Jones; Richard Mayor, father-in-law of Richard Cromwell; Francis Rouse; -Philip Skipton, or any seven of them, with power in the Protector, -and a majority of the Council, to add to their number. Thurloe, the -historian, was secretary of the Council, and Milton Latin secretary. - -This Instrument being ready, Cromwell swore solemnly to observe it, and -to cause it to be observed; and then Lambert, kneeling, offered the -Protector a civic sword in the scabbard, which he took, laying aside -his own, as indicating that he thenceforward would govern by the new -constitution, and not by military authority. He then seated himself, -covered, in the chair of State, all besides standing uncovered; he -then received from the Commissioners the Great Seal, and from the Lord -Mayor the sword and cap of maintenance, which he immediately returned -to them. On this the court rose, and the Lord-Protector returned in -state to Whitehall, the Lord Mayor bearing the sword before him, amid -the shouting of the soldiers and the firing of cannon. The next day, -the 17th of December, the Lord-Protector was proclaimed by sound of -trumpet in Westminster and in the City, and thus had the successful -general, the quondam farmer of Huntingdon, arrived at the seat of -supreme power, at the seat of a long line of famous kings, though not -with the name of king, to which many suspected him of aspiring. Yet -even without the royal dignity, he soon found the position anything but -an enviable one, for he was surrounded by hosts of men still vowed to -his destruction and the restoration of the monarchy; and amongst those -who had fought side by side with him towards this august eminence, were -many who regarded his assumption of it as a crime, to be expiated only -by his death. Though there is no reason to believe that the bulk of the -nation was otherwise than satisfied with the change, his supporters -were lukewarm while his enemies were ardent. There was no disguising -the fact that until Parliament met his government was one of naked -absolutism. The Protector forthwith established a body of "Triers" who -proceeded to examine the religious beliefs of candidates for vacant -benefices, and promptly presented them if the result of the examination -was satisfactory. Before we proceed, however, to notice his struggles -with his secret or avowed enemies, and with his new Parliament, we must -notice what had been doing meanwhile in the war with Holland, which had -still been raging. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE COMMONWEALTH (_concluded_). - - Naval Victory over the Dutch--Death of Van Tromp--_Quasi_-Royal - State of the Lord-Protector--Disaffection against Cromwell--His - Vigorous Rule--Charles II. offers a Reward for his - Assassination--Rebellions in Scotland--Cromwell's Dealings with the - Portuguese Ambassador--Reform of the Court of Chancery--Commission - for Purgation of the Church--The Reformed Parliament--Exclusion of - the Ultras--Dissolution of Parliament--Danger from Plots--Accident - to the Protector--Death of Cromwell's Mother--Royalist - Outbreaks--Cromwell's Major-Generals--Foreign Policy--War with - Spain--Massacre of the Piedmontese--Capture of Jamaica--The - Jews Appeal for Toleration--Cromwell's Third Parliament--Plots - against his Life--The Petition and Advice--Cromwell Refuses the - Royal Title--Blake's Brilliant Victory at Santa Cruz--Death of - Blake--Successes against Spain--Failure of the Reconstructed - Parliament--Punishment of Conspirators--Victory in the - Netherlands--Absolutism of Cromwell--His Anxieties, Illness, and - Death--Proclamation of Richard Cromwell--He calls a Parliament--It - is Dissolved--Reappearance of the Rump--Richard Retires--Royalist - Risings--Quarrels of the Army and the Rump--General Monk--He - Marches upon London--Demands a Free Parliament--Royalist - Reaction--Declaration of Breda--Joyful Reception of Charles. - - -In May, 1653, the fleets of England and Holland, each amounting to -one hundred sail, put to sea. That of England was under the command -of Monk, Dean, Penn, and Lawson; that of Holland under Van Tromp, De -Ruyter, De Witt, and Evertsens. At first they passed each other, and -whilst Monk ravaged the coast of Holland, Van Tromp was cannonading -Dover. At length, on the 2nd of June, they met off the North Foreland, -and a desperate conflict took place, in which Dean was killed at the -side of Monk. Monk immediately threw his cloak over the body, to avoid -discouraging the men, and fought on through the day. In the night Blake -arrived with eighteen additional sail, and at dawn the battle was -renewed. The result was that the Dutch were beaten, lost one-and-twenty -sail, and had thirteen hundred men taken prisoners, besides great -numbers killed and wounded. The English pursued the flying vessels -to the coast of Holland, and committed many ravages amongst their -merchantmen. But the undaunted Van Tromp, on the 29th of July, appeared -again at sea, with above a hundred sail. Monk stood out to sea for -more battle-room, and one of the Dutch captains, seeing this, said to -Van Tromp that they were running; but Van Tromp, who knew the English -better, replied curtly, "Sir, look to your own charge, for were there -but twenty sail, they would never refuse to fight us." Monk, on his -part, ordered his captains to attempt making no prizes, but to sink -and destroy all the ships they could. The battle, therefore, raged -furiously, from five in the morning till ten; but at length the gallant -Van Tromp fell dead by a musket-shot, and the courage of the Dutch gave -way. In this fight the Dutch lost thirty ships, about one thousand -prisoners, besides great numbers of slain, the English losing only two -vessels. - -These splendid victories enabled Cromwell to conclude advantageous -treaties with Holland, France, Denmark, Portugal, and Sweden. Most -of these Powers sent over ambassadors to congratulate him on his -elevation, and these were received at Whitehall with much state. The -royal apartments were furnished anew in very magnificent style, and in -the banqueting-room was placed a chair of State raised on a platform -with three steps, and the Lord-Protector gave audience seated in it. -The ambassadors were instructed to make three obeisances, one at the -entrance, one in the middle of the room, and the third in front of the -chair, which the Protector acknowledged with a grave inclination of the -head. The same ceremony was repeated on retiring. Cromwell received -the ambassadors of Holland to dinner, sitting on one side of the table -alone, and the ambassadors with a few of the lords of the Council on -the other. The Lady-Protectress at the same time entertained their -ladies. In his appearances abroad the Protector assumed very much the -state of a king with State coaches, Life Guards, pages, and lacqueys -richly clothed. He took up his abode instantly in the royal palaces, -quitting the Cockpit altogether, Whitehall being his town house, and -Hampton Court his country one, where he generally went on Saturday -afternoon, and spent the Sunday. - -It was not, however, without many heartburnings and some plots for his -destruction that his wonderful elevation was witnessed by many of his -old comrades, as well as his natural enemies. - -The Anabaptists and Fifth-Monarchy men, who carried their notions of -political liberty as far beyond Cromwell as the Chartists of more -modern times carried theirs beyond the Whigs, were exceedingly -violent, and denounced him as an apostate and deceiver. Feak and -Powell, two Anabaptist preachers in Blackfriars, thundered from their -pulpits against him as the "beast in the Apocalypse," the "old dragon," -and the "man of sin." "Go, tell your Protector," they cried, "that -he has deceived the Lord's people, and is a perjured villain." They -declared that he was worse than the last tyrant usurper, the crookback -Richard, and would not reign long. - -Having borne the violent abuse of these men for some time, he at -length sent them to the Tower. But amongst his own generals and former -colleagues were men not less exasperated. Harrison and Ludlow were -Fifth-Monarchy men, who believed that none but Christ ought to reign, -and they joined the most disaffected. Harrison being asked if he would -own the new protectoral government, answered fiercely, "No!" and -Cromwell was obliged to send him to his own house in the country, and -afterwards to commit him also to the Tower. Vane and others were not -less angered, though less openly violent. - -Cromwell expressed much sorrow at these symptoms of resentment -amongst his old friends, and declared that he would much rather, so -far as his own inclinations were concerned, have taken a shepherd's -staff than that of the Protector. In Scotland and Ireland there was -much dissatisfaction at the new revolution, as it was called. Even -Fleetwood, his son-in-law, scarcely knew how to receive it, and Ludlow -and Jones expressed no unequivocal discontent. Colonel Alured had been -sent to Ireland to conduct certain forces to Monk in the Scottish -Highlands, but he was an Anabaptist, and became so insubordinate that -Cromwell dismissed him both from his commission and from the army. -Ludlow refused to continue on the Irish Civil Commission. Cromwell, -however, sent over his son Henry on a visit to Fleetwood, so that -he might learn the true state of the army, and the most active or -formidable of the malcontent officers were removed to England, or by -degrees dismissed from the service. - -In Scotland similar disaffection was apparent, but there active service -against the Royalists, who were also astir with fresh vigour on this -occasion, tended to divert their attention from their discontents. -Charles II., from Paris, about Easter, issued a proclamation, supposed -to be drawn up by Clarendon, offering five hundred pounds a year -and a colonelcy in the army to any one who would take off by sword, -pistol, or poison, "a certain base, mechanic fellow, by name Oliver -Cromwell," who had usurped his throne. His partisans in Scotland -seized the opportunity to renew the war. The Earls of Glencairn and -Balcarres, Angus, Montrose, Seaforth, Atholl, Kenmure, and Lorne, the -son of Argyll, were up in arms. Charles sent over General Middleton -to take the chief command, and Cromwell ordered Monk again from the -victorious fleet to hasten to the Highlands to oppose him, Colonel -Robert Lilburne having in the meantime made a successful assault upon -them. Monk speedily defeated Middleton and his associates, and the -Scots lords lost no time in making their submission. Cromwell had -subdued the rebellion completely by August, but still earlier he had -abolished all separate rule in Scotland. In April he published three -ordinances, by which he incorporated England with Scotland, abolished -the Monarchy and Parliament in that country, and absolved the people -from their allegiance to Charles Stuart, erecting courts baron instead -of those suppressed. The people who contended through so many bloody -wars against English monarchs who had attempted the same thing, now -quietly submitted to this plebeian but energetic conqueror, and the -Kirk only defied his authority by meeting in assembly in Edinburgh on -the 20th of July. But there presently appeared amongst them Colonel -Cotterel, who bade them depart, and marched them a mile out of the city -between two files of soldiers, to the astonishment and terror of the -inhabitants, where he informed them that if any of them were found in -the capital after eight o'clock the next morning, or attempted to sit -or meet more than three together, he would imprison them as disturbers -of the public peace. Our old acquaintance, Baillie, beheld this amazing -spectacle with consternation. "Thus," he exclaimed, "our General -Assembly, the glory and strength of our Church upon earth, is by your -soldiery crushed and trodden under foot. For this our hearts are sad -and our eyes run down with water." Yet it does not appear that real -religion suffered at all by Cromwell's innovations, either in Scotland -or in England, for Kirkton says of the Kirk, "I verily believe there -were more souls converted unto Christ in that short period of time than -in any season since the Reformation. Ministers were painsful, people -were diligent. At their solemn communions many congregations met in -great multitudes, some dozens of ministers used to preach, and the -people continued, as it were, in a sort of trance, so serious were they -in spiritual exercises, for three days at least." Baxter, in England, -though a decided enemy of Cromwell, confessed that, by his weeding out -scandalous ministers, and putting in "able, serious preachers, who -lived a godly life," though of various opinions, "many thousands of -souls blessed God" for what was done. - -The proclamation of Charles, rendered abortive in the Highlands, was -not without its effects in England. One Major Henshaw came over from -Paris, and proposed to assassinate Cromwell as he went to Hampton -Court. His plan was to get thirty stout men for the purpose. A young -enthusiastic gentleman named Gerard undertook to procure twenty-five -of them, and Colonel Finch and Henshaw were to bring the other five. -Vowel, a schoolmaster of Islington, was very zealous in the plot, -and aided in procuring arms; Billingsley, a butcher of Smithfield, -engaging to seize the troopers' horses grazing in Islington fields. -The soldiers were then to be fallen upon at the Mews, Charles II. -was to be proclaimed, Rupert was to appear with a large force of -Royalists, English, Irish, and Scots, and there was to be a general -rising. Saturday, the 20th of May, was the day fixed for Cromwell's -assassination; but before this wild scheme could be commenced, forty -of the conspirators were seized, some of them in their beds. Vowel was -hanged, and Gerard was beheaded on the 10th of July--the manner of the -latter's punishment being thus changed at his own request, as being a -gentleman and a soldier. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT HALL, HAMPTON COURT PALACE.] - -The same day, and on the same scaffold as Gerard, was executed Don -Pantaleone Sa, the brother of the Portuguese Ambassador. Sa had a -quarrel with this same Gerard, who was called "Generous Gerard," an -enthusiastic Royalist. They came to fighting at the Royal Exchange, -where Gerard, drawing his rapier, forced the Don to fly, whereupon the -next day he returned to the Exchange in search of Gerard, with a body -of armed followers, and mistaking a man of the name of Greenway for -Gerard, they killed him, wounded Colonel Mayo, and were not subdued -without much riot. Sa was seized, tried, and condemned for this -deliberate murder. He pleaded that he belonged to the embassy, and -was therefore exempt from the tribunals of this country, but neither -this nor the zealous exertions of his brother, the ambassador, could -save him; he was condemned to die. Cromwell, though on the verge of -concluding a treaty with Portugal, would not concede a pardon to -the bloodthirsty Portuguese, who had been found guilty by a jury -of half Englishmen and half foreigners. He went to Tower Hill in a -coach and six, attended by numbers of the attachés of the embassy in -mourning, and his brother signed the treaty and left the country. -Such an exhibition of firmness and impartiality, refusing to make any -distinction in a murderer, whether noble or commoner, evinced great -moral courage in Cromwell; but another execution, which took place a -short time before--namely, on the 23rd of June--was not so creditable -to him. This was the hanging of an old Catholic priest, named -Southworth, who had been convicted thirty-seven years before, under the -bloody laws of James against Popish priests, and had been banished. -Being now discovered in the country, he was tried for that offence -and put to death. On the scaffold he justly upbraided the Government -with having taken arms for liberty, yet shedding the blood of those -who differed from them on religious grounds. The stern persecution of -Popery was, in fact, a blot on Cromwell's character; he had not in that -respect outgrown his age. - -Whilst these and other plots were exacting from the Protector a severe -compensation for his high position, he was yet steadily prosecuting -measures for the better administration of the national government. -Being empowered by the Instrument of government, with his Council, not -only to raise sufficient money for the necessary demands of government, -but also "to make laws and ordinances for the peace and welfare of -these nations," he actually made no less than sixty ordinances, -many of them of singular wisdom and excellence. He and his Council, -in fact, showed that they were in earnest to make the execution of -justice cheap and prompt, and to revive a pure and zealous ministry -of the gospel. In one of these ordinances they effected the Herculean -labour which Barebone's Parliament had aimed at--the reformation of -the Court of Chancery, the ordinance for this purpose consisting of no -less than sixty-seven articles. Well might Cromwell, on the opening of -Parliament, refer with pride to this great event, an event which would -have taken our modern law-makers twenty years to accomplish, which, -in fact, they have not accomplished yet. "The Chancery," he said in -his speech, "is reformed." What a speech in four words, sufficient to -have made the reign of any king famous! "The Chancery is reformed--I -hope to the satisfaction of all good men." This had partly been -done by distributing the causes through the other "courts of law at -Westminster, where Englishmen love to have their rights tried." In -order, too, to effect a most just and speedy discharge of the laws, -he put better judges on the Bench, amongst them the pious Sir Matthew -Hale, and made Thurloe, the friend of Milton, Secretary of State. - -Two others of his ordinances were intended to purify the Church of -unfit ministers, and to introduce fit and pious ones. This established -two commissions, one for the examination of all clergymen offering -themselves for the incumbency of any church living, and the other -for inquiring after and expelling any "scandalous, ignorant, or -insufficient ministers who already occupied such." These commissioners -were to be permanent, so that the Church in all parts of the country -should be purged of improper preachers, and supplied with able and -good ones. The supreme commission for the trial of public preachers -consisted of thirty-eight members--twenty-nine clergymen, nine -laymen--and these were both Presbyterians and Independents, some even -Anabaptists, for the Protector was less interested in what sect they -belonged to, than in the fact that they were pious and able men. The -commission for purging the Church consisted of from fifteen to thirty -Puritan gentlemen and Puritan clergymen for each county; and when -they dismissed a minister for unfitness, his family had some income -allowed them. Many of the members of these last boards were chosen -indiscriminately from the friends or enemies of the Protectorate, -provided they were known men of real piety and judgment. Amongst these -were Lord Fairfax, Thomas Scott, a zealous Republican, Admiral Blake, -Sir Arthur Haselrig, Richard Mayor, the father-in-law of Richard -Cromwell, for whom Cromwell entertained a high regard and respect, and -had him in both Parliament, Council, and various commissions. Baxter -was one of them, and, as we have said, spoke well of the operation of -the system. - -But the 3rd of September arrived, Oliver's fortunate day, on which -he had appointed the meeting of Parliament. As the day fell on a -Sunday, the members met in the afternoon for worship in Westminster -Abbey, where they waited on the Protector in the Painted Chamber, -who addressed them in a speech, and they then went to the House and -adjourned to the next morning. Cromwell went that day to the House -in great State, in his carriage, with his Life Guards, a captain of -the guard walking on each side, and the Commissioners of the Great -Seal and other State officers following in coaches. After a sermon -in the Abbey Church they proceeded to the Painted Chamber, where the -Protector made a speech of three hours in the delivery. A chair of -State, marvellously resembling a throne, raised on steps, and with a -canopy, was placed for the Protector, who sat with his hat on, whilst -the members sat bareheaded. On rising to speak he took off his hat, -and made what Whitelock styles "a large and subtle speech." It was -largely illustrated by Scripture quotations, it is true, for that was -inseparable from the religious temperament of Cromwell; but it gave -a clear review of the causes which had led to the overthrow of the -monarchy, the rise of the Commonwealth, and particularly of its then -form, as well as of the measures which he had adopted in Council, in -the interim between his appointment and the meeting of Parliament. He -told them that he regarded their greatest functions to be at that time -"healing and settling;" a profound truth--for the nation, and in it -every class of men, had been so torn and rent in every fibre, that to -soothe and heal was the highest art and policy. Every man's hand, and -every man's head, he justly observed, had been against his brother, -and no sooner had they put down despotism, than liberty itself began -to grow wild, and threaten them with equal danger. The Levellers, the -Fifth-Monarchy men, the Communists of St. George's Hill, had compelled -them to put the drag on the chariot wheels of freedom, or it would -soon have taken fire. In all such revolutions, the principles of human -right are pushed on by sanguine men, beyond all chance of support from -a settled public opinion; and Oliver truly told them that had they -gained their object for a moment, it could not have lasted long, but -would have in the meantime served the turn of selfish men, who, having -obtained public property, would have "cried up property and interest -fast enough." - -He referred with satisfaction to the means taken to insure a pure -ministry, and argued for the necessity of State interference in -religion, but such interference should only be for promoting a good and -virtuous ministry, and by no means infringe on "liberty of conscience -and liberty of the subject, two as glorious things as any that God -hath given us." His fears of religious license were chiefly excited by -Fifth-Monarchists; yet he did not deny that such a monarchy must come -in process of time. "It is a notion," he said, "that I hope we all -honour, and wait and hope for the fulfilment of, that Jesus Christ -_will_ have a time to set up a reign in our hearts, by subduing those -lusts, and corruptions, and evils that are there, which now reign more -in the world that I hope in due time they shall do. And when more -fulness of the Spirit is poured forth to subdue iniquity, and bring in -everlasting righteousness, then will the approach of that glory be. -The cardinal divisions and contentions, among Christians so common, -are not the symptoms of that kingdom. But for men on this principle -to betitle themselves, that they are the only men to rule kingdoms, -govern nations, and give laws to people, and determine of property and -liberty, and everything else, upon such a pretension as this is, truly -they had need to give clear manifestations of God's presence with them, -before wise men will receive or submit to their conclusions." Still he -recommended tenderness towards them, and that if their extravagances -necessitated punishment, this should "evidence love, and not hatred." - -He next referred to the treaties with foreign nations, amongst which, -he said, that with Portugal had obtained "a thing which never before -was since the Inquisition was set up there--that our people who trade -thither have liberty of conscience, liberty to worship God in chapels -of their own." - -He finally inculcated on them the necessity for maintaining as much -peace as possible, not only that they might restore the internal -condition of the nation, and reduce the excessive taxation occasioned -by the war on land and sea, but also to prevent foreign nations from -depriving us of our manufacturing status, as they had been busily doing -during our internal dissensions. - -To one of his assertions we are bound to demur. "One thing more -this Government hath done--it had been instrumental to call a free -Parliament, which, blessed be God, we see here this day. I say a free -Parliament, and that it may continue so, I hope is in the heart and -spirit of every good man in England, save such discontented persons -as I have formerly mentioned. It is that which, as I have desired -above my life, so I shall desire to keep it above my life." The truth -was that it was as free a Parliament as the circumstances of the -times would admit; indeed, as was soon seen, it was much too free. -A free Parliament would have brought back royalty in the State, or -Presbyterian absolutism in religion. Republicanism and Independency, -though in the ascendant through the genius of Cromwell and the -power of the army, was in a minority. Republicanism even was divided -against itself, divided into moderate Republicanism and Levelling, -Fifth-Monarchy and Communism in alliance. From this so-called free -Parliament, Episcopalians and Catholics were excluded; this so-called -free Parliament had been carefully watched during the elections, the -lists of the returned had been sent up to the Council, and such as -were deemed too dangerous were disallowed, amongst others Lord Grey of -Groby. But even then it was found too free, and the very first thing -that it set about was to call in question the Government which had -authorised it. - -There was a stiff contest for the Speakership, but Lenthall was chosen -instead of Bradshaw, who was also nominated, because Lenthall had -been Speaker of the Long Parliament, and its old members had still -hope of restoring it. Amongst the members were old Sir Francis Rouse, -Lord Herbert, the son of the Earl of Worcester, Fleetwood, Lambert, -the Claypoles, one of whom had married a daughter of the Protector's, -Cromwell's two sons, his friends the Dunches, Sir Ashley Cooper, and -Lord Fairfax. Amongst the Republicans there were Bradshaw, Haselrig, -Scott, Wallop, and Wildman, old Sir Henry Vane, but not the younger; -and amongst the Irish members were Lord Broghill, who had fought so -stoutly against Charles, and Commissary-General Reynolds. No sooner -did they begin business than they opened a debate on the question of -sanctioning the present form of government, a question from which they -were precluded by the very Instrument which had made them a Parliament. -The debate was carried on for no less than eight days, during which -Bradshaw, Scott, Haselrig, and other Republicans contended that the -members of the Long Parliament had been illegally deprived of their -right, and that the Government in one person and a Parliament was but -another form of tyranny. One speaker declared that he had fought to -put down one tyrant, and was ready to fight to put down another. What -right but the sword, it was asked, had one man to put down a legal -Parliament, to command his commanders? They moved to go into committee -on the subject, and carried it. - -Cromwell was not the man to suffer this. He sent to the Lord Mayor, -and ordered him to take measures to preserve the peace of the City, -marched three regiments into it, and then summoned Lenthall, and bade -him meet him in the Painted Chamber, on Tuesday, the 12th of September, -with the Commons. Harrison, who was zealously getting up petitions for -the support of the inquiry into the constitution, was clapped into the -Tower. When Cromwell met the Commons, he expressed his surprise that -a set of men from whom so much healing management had been expected, -should immediately attempt to overturn the Government which called them -together. The Instrument consisted of incidentals and fundamentals. The -incidentals they were at liberty to discuss, but the fundamentals--of -which the article that the power resided in one person and a Parliament -was one--were out of their range. He very zealously asserted that he -had been called to the head of the nation by God and the people, and -that none but God and the people should take his office from him. -His own wish had been to lead the life of a country gentleman, but -necessity had forced him thence, and three several times he had found -himself placed by the course of events at the head of the army, and -by them at the head of the Government. As to the dismissal of the -Long Parliament, he had been forced to that by its endeavouring to -perpetuate itself, and by its tyranny and corruption. He said "that -poor men, under its arbitrary power, were driven like flocks of sheep, -by forty on a morning, to the confiscation of goods and estates, -without any man being able to give a reason why two of them had -deserved to forfeit a shilling." He had twice resigned the arbitrary -power left in his hands, and having established a Government capable of -saving the nation, he would sooner lie rotting in his grave and buried -with infamy than suffer it to be broken up. They had now peace at home -and abroad, and it would be a miserable answer to give to the people, -"Oh, we quarrelled for the liberty of England; we contested and went to -confusion for that." - -To prevent any such evil consequences, he informed them that he had -caused a stop to be put to their entrance into the Parliament House; he -did not turn them out this time, he shut them out--and that none would -be readmitted that did not first sign an Engagement to be true and -faithful to the Protector and Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and -Ireland, not to propose or consent to alter the Government, as settled -in a single person and Parliament. - -On hearing this, the honourable members looked at one another in -amazement, but one hundred and forty thought well to sign the -Engagement, which lay in the lobby of the House that day, and within a -month three out of the four hundred had signed. Of course all the ultra -Republicans refused to sign, and were excluded--Bradshaw, Haselrig, -Scott, Wildman, and the rest. - -[Illustration: JOHN MILTON. (_After the Miniature by Samuel Cooper._)] - -This summary dealing did not cure the Parliament of considering the -question for touching which they had thus been purged of a hundred -members. On the 19th of September, only a week after the check they -had received, they went into committee to discuss the "Instrument of -Government." They took care not to touch the grand point which they -had now pledged themselves not to meddle with--the government by a -Protector and Parliament; but they affected to consider all the other -articles as merely provisional, decreed by the Protector and the -Council, but to be confirmed or rejected by Parliament. They discussed -these one by one, and on the 16th of October proceeded to the question, -whether the office of Protector should be elective or hereditary. -Lambert advocated the office being hereditary, and pointed out the -many disadvantages of the elective form. He strongly recommended the -office being confined to the Cromwell family, and this, of course, -was attributed to the instigation of Cromwell himself. They decided -for the elective form. On the 11th of December they voted that the -Protector should have a veto on Bills touching liberty of conscience, -but not such as suppressed heresies, as if what they called suppressing -heresies were not direct attacks on liberty of conscience. Thus they -crept round the very roots of the Protectoral authority, nibbling at -the powers he had forbidden them to discuss, and they proceeded to give -proof of their intention to launch into all the old persecutions for -religion, if they possibly could, by summoning before them John Biddle, -who may be regarded as the father of the Unitarians. He had been -thrice imprisoned by the Long Parliament, for holding that he could not -find in Scripture that Christ or the Holy Ghost was styled God. The -Parliament committed him to the Gatehouse, and ordered a Bill to be -prepared for his punishment. - -It was high time that they were stopped in their incorrigible spirit of -persecution; and by now proceeding to frame a Bill to include all their -votes on the articles of the Instrument they were suddenly arrested -in their progress. The Instrument provided that Parliament should not -be adjourned under five months. On the 22nd of January, 1655, the -Protector chose to consider that the months were not calendar but lunar -months, which then expired. The Parliament, counting the other way, -deemed themselves safe till the 3rd of February, but on the 22nd of -January Oliver summoned them to the Painted Chamber, and observed to -them, that though he had met them at first with the hope that their -hearts were in the great work to which they had been called, he was -quite disappointed in them. He complained that they had sent no message -to him, taken no more notice of his presence in the Republic than if -he had not existed, and that with all patience he had forborne teasing -them with messages, hoping that they would at length proceed to some -real business. "But," added he, "as I may not take notice of what you -have been doing, so I think I have a very great liberty to tell you -that I do not know what you have been doing; that I do not know whether -you have been dead or alive. I have not once heard from you all this -time. I have not, and that you all know." - -He then reminded them that various discontented parties--the Royalists, -the Levellers, and others--had been encouraged by their evident -disposition to call in question the Government, to raise plots, and -that if they were permitted to sit making quibbles about the Government -itself, the nation would soon be plunged again into bloodshed and -confusion. He, therefore, did then and there dissolve them as a -Parliament. - -The plots to which the Protector alluded had been going on for some -time, and even yet were in full activity. We shall trace their main -features, but we may first notice an incident which showed that -Cromwell was prepared for them, resolved to sell his life manfully if -attacked. On the 24th of September, 1654, immediately after compelling -the Parliament to subscribe the Engagement, the Protector was out in -Hyde Park, taking dinner under the shade of the trees, with Thurloe, -the secretary, a man whom he constantly consulted on the affairs of -the nation. After this little rural dinner, which gives us a very -interesting idea of the simplicity of the great general's habits and -tastes, he tried a team of six fine Friesland coach horses, presented -to him by the Duke of Oldenburg. Thurloe was put into the carriage, -Cromwell mounted the coachman's seat, and a postillion rode one of -the fore horses. The horses soon became unruly, plunged, and threw -the postillion, and then, nearly upsetting the carriage, threw the -Protector from his seat, who fell upon the pole and had his legs -entangled in the harness. On went the mad horses at full gallop, and -one of Cromwell's shoes coming off, which had been held by the harness, -he fell under the carriage, which went on without hurting him, except -by some bruises. In the fall, however, a loaded pistol went off in his -pocket, thus revealing the fact that he went armed. - -And indeed he had great need. His mother, who died just now, on the -16th of November, and who was ninety-four years old, used, at the sound -of a musket, says Ludlow, to imagine that her son was shot, and could -not be satisfied unless she saw him once a day at least. Her last words -to him do not give us any idea of hypocrisy in mother or son--"The Lord -cause His face to shine upon you, and enable you to do great things for -the glory of the Most High God, and to be a relief unto His people. My -dear son, I leave my heart with thee. A good night!" - -Amongst the plotters were both Royalists and Republicans. The ejected -members of Parliament, in their different quarters, were stirring up -discontent against Cromwell, and even declaring that it were better -to have Charles Stuart back again. Colonel Overton, who had been -questioned at the time of Colonel Alured's dismissal, was once more -called up and questioned. In Scotland, where he lay, the Protector -discovered an agitation to supersede Monk, and make the Republican -Overton Commander-in-chief, and leaving only the garrisons, to -march the rest of the army into England on the demand of pay and -constitutional reform. Overton was committed to the Tower. - -Allen--who, with Sexby and another agitator, in 1647 presented a -remarkable petition from the army to the Long Parliament, and had -become adjutant-general--was arrested at his father-in-law's house, -in Devonshire, at the end of January, 1655, on a charge of plotting -disturbances in Ireland, and exciting discontent in Bristol and Devon. -Allen was a zealous Anabaptist, and the excitement amongst them -and other army republicans was great and extensive. Pamphlets were -published, letters and agitators passed from one regiment to another, -and a general rising was planned, with the seizure of Edinburgh Castle, -Hull, Portsmouth, and other strong places. Cromwell was to be surprised -and put to death. Colonel Wildman, one of these fanatics, who had been -ejected from Parliament by refusing to sign the Recognition, was taken -on the 12th of February at Exton, near Marlborough, in Wilts, by a -party of horse, as he was in his furnished lodgings upstairs, leaning -on his elbows, and in the act, with the door open, of dictating to his -clerk, "A Declaration of the free and well-affected people of England, -now in arms against the tyrant Oliver Cromwell." He was secured in -Chepstow Castle, and his correspondents, Harrison, Lord Grey of Groby, -and others, were secured in the Tower. Colonel Sexby for the time -escaped. - -About the same time a Royalist plot was also in progress. Charles -Stuart, who had removed from Paris to Cologne--the French Government -not wishing to give offence to Cromwell--had concocted a plot with -Hyde, his Chancellor, to raise the Royalists in various quarters at -once, fancying that as Cromwell had given so much offence to both -people and Parliament, there was great hope of success. Charles -went to Middelburg, on the coast of Holland, to be ready at a call, -and Hyde was extremely confident. In Yorkshire there was a partial -outbreak under Lord Mauleverer and Sir Henry Kingsby, which was -speedily quelled, Kingsby being seized and imprisoned in Hull. This -abortive attempt was under the management of Lord Wilmot, now Earl -of Rochester, who was glad to make his escape. Another branch of the -plot, under the management of Sir Joseph Wagstaff, who came over with -Rochester, fared no better. Wagstaff attempted to surprise Winchester -on the 7th of March, during the assizes. Penruddock, Grove, and Jones, -Royalist officers, were associated with him, and about two hundred -others entered Salisbury about five o'clock on the morning of the 11th, -posted themselves in the market-place, liberated the prisoners from the -gaol, and surprised the sheriff and two judges in their beds. Wagstaff -proposed to hang the judges, but Penruddock and the rest refused to -allow it; he then ordered the high sheriff to proclaim Charles Stuart, -but neither he nor the crier would do it, though menaced with the -gallows. Hearing that Captain Unton Crook was after them with a troop -of horse, and seeing no chance of a rising, they quitted the town -about three o'clock, and marched through Dorsetshire into Devonshire. -At South Molton Captain Crook came up with them, and speedily made -himself master of fifty of the insurgents, including Penruddock, -Grove, and Jones, but Wagstaff escaped. They had expected a body of -conspirators from Hampshire to join them at Salisbury, and these were -actually on their way when they heard of the retreat of Wagstaff's -band, and immediately dispersed. Similarly feeble outbreaks took -place in the counties of Northumberland, Nottingham, Shropshire, and -Montgomery. Penruddock, Grove, and Jones were beheaded at Exeter, and -about fifteen others suffered there and at Salisbury; the rest of the -deluded prisoners were sold to Barbadoes. Charles returned crest-fallen -to Cologne, and Hyde, convinced that his plans had been betrayed, -attributed the treason to Manning, whom, having secured, they had shot -in the following winter, in the territory of the Duke of Neuburg. - -To prevent more of these outbreaks, Cromwell planned to divide the -whole country into military districts, over each of which he placed -an officer, who was to act chiefly with the militia, and not with -the Levelling regulars. These officers he created major-generals, -beginning first with Desborough in the south-west, and, before the -year was out, he had despatched, each to his district, the other -major-generals--Fleetwood, Skippon, Whalley, Kelsey, Goffe, Berry, -Butler, Wortley, and Barkstead, who effectually preserved the peace of -the nation. During the spring also, undaunted by these disturbances, -Cromwell progressed with his internal reforms, and with the greatest of -all, the reform of Chancery. This was no easy matter. The lawyers were -as turbulent as the Anabaptists in the army. Two of the Commissioners -of the Great Seal, Whitelock and Widdrington, refused to enforce the -reform, and were obliged to resign. Lisle and Fiennes, the other -Commissioners, dared to carry out the change. Lenthall, the Speaker, -now Master of the Rolls, protested that he would be hanged at the Rolls -gate before he would obey; but he saw fit to alter his mind, and the -Protector, so far from bearing any ill-will to the two conscientious -Commissioners, Whitelock and Widdrington, soon after made them -Commissioners of the Treasury. - -We may now look back a little, to observe what Cromwell had been doing -beyond the shores of the kingdom. We have seen that almost all the -nations of Europe sent embassies to congratulate him on his elevation -to the Protectorate. The vigour of his rule speedily made them more -anxious to stand on good terms with him. He soon made peace with Sweden -as a Protestant country, and from natural sympathy with the Protestant -fame of the great Gustavus. He concluded peace also with Holland, but -with France and Spain there were more difficulties. - -France had, both under Richelieu and Mazarin, lent continual aid and -refuge to the Royalist cause against the Reformers. The queen, whom the -Republicans had chased from the throne, was a princess of France, and -was living there with numbers of the Royalists about her. Charles, the -heir to the throne of England, was pensioned by France, and maintained -a sort of court in Paris, whence continual disturbances and alarms were -coming. It is true, the French Court had never been very munificent -to the exiled Queen of England and her family. Henrietta was found by -Cardinal Retz without fire, and almost without food, and Charles and -his countrymen were so poor, that Clarendon, in June, 1653, wrote, "I -do not know that any man is yet dead for want of bread, which I really -wonder at. I am sure the king owes all that he has eaten since April, -and I am not acquainted with one servant who hath a pistole in his -pocket. Five or six of us eat together one meal a day for a pistole -a week; but all of us owe, for God knows how many weeks, to the poor -woman that feeds us." He adds that he wanted shoes and shirts, and that -the Marquis of Ormond was in no better condition. The Court of Charles -was as much rent with divisions and jealousies as it was poor. His -brave conduct in England raised great hopes of him, but on his return -to France he relapsed into all sorts of dissipations and intrigues, -which made him contemptible. Amongst a troop of mistresses, Lucy -Walters, or Barlow, as she was called, the mother of the afterwards -celebrated Duke of Monmouth, was the most notorious. - -[Illustration: THE ROYALIST PLOTTERS AT SALISBURY INSULTING THE -SHERIFF. (_See p._ 131.)] - -As Mazarin saw the growing power of Cromwell, he was glad to get -Charles removed from Paris, and his abode transferred to Cologne; but, -being still the pensioner of France, Charles was equally capable of -annoying England from that place, as the late outbreaks showed. These -circumstances no doubt rendered it very difficult for the conclusion -of a peace between Cromwell and France, for Cromwell insisted on the -withdrawal of the French support from the exiled family, and though -France was fully disposed to abate the evil as far as possible, it -could not in honour entirely abandon them. Mazarin made every possible -concession on other points, and the French ambassador, Bordeaux, -urged the progress of the treaty with all earnestness. But besides -the grand obstacle, there were others raised by Spain. France and -Spain were at war: Spain was supporting the Prince of Condé and the -French insurgents, and the Spanish ambassador was indefatigable in -representing that whilst Spain had been the very first to acknowledge -the English Commonwealth, France had been constantly supporting the -Royalist power, and in 1653 he offered to seize Calais and make it over -to England as the price of the Commonwealth making peace with Spain, -and common cause against France. - -[Illustration: THE PAINTED CHAMBER, WESTMINSTER.] - -But there were motives which always weighed heavily with -Cromwell--religion and the honour of the English flag. He had an -enduring repugnance to the Catholic faith, and Spain was essentially -Catholic, and at the same time was maintaining an insolent domination -in the waters of the West Indies. The fame of her exclusion thence -of the flags of all other nations from her colonies, and of her many -atrocities committed on English colonies--as at St. Kitts in 1629, -at Tortuga in 1637, and Santa Cruz in 1650--was an irresistible -provocative to the combative spirit of the Protector. He demanded of -the Spanish ambassador that Spain should abolish the Inquisition, and -admit the English flag to the West Indian seas. De Leyda replied that -he was asking from his king his two eyes, and as Cromwell would not -concede either point, he demanded his passports in June, 1654, and took -his leave. - -Cromwell lost no time in enforcing his views on Spain--as no doubt he -felt bound conscientiously to do on the great principle of suppressing -Popish cruelties, and spreading the triumph of Protestantism. He -sent Blake with a powerful fleet in October of that year into the -Mediterranean, and another powerful armament under Admirals Penn -and Venables, with secret orders which were not to be opened till -they arrived in certain latitudes. This fleet, whose preparation and -destination kept all Europe in wonder and anxiety, sailed west, and -was, in fact, destined for the West Indies. Blake, with his fleet, -passed the Straits of Gibraltar, and presented to the inhabitants -of the shores of the Mediterranean a spectacle such as they had -not seen since the days of the Crusades--a powerful English fleet. -It consisted of thirty sail, and its commission was to seize the -French vessels wherever it could find them, especially to seek out -and attack the fleet under the Duke of Guise. It was besides this to -demand satisfaction from various offending Powers. The Grand Duke of -Tuscany had, whilst Parliament was struggling with Charles, allowed -Prince Rupert to sell English prizes in his ports. The Pope was, as -the Antichrist, an object to be humbled, or at all events impressed -sensibly with the fact that England could at any moment visit him in -his capital, and that the British power was in hands both able and -ready to do it. There were many injuries to our merchantmen to be -avenged on the pirates of Tunis and Algiers. Cromwell's favourite -maxim was, that a ship of the line was the most effective ambassador. -Blake sailed along the Papal shores, exciting a deep terror, but he -passed on and cast anchor before Leghorn, and demanded compensation for -the offence against English honour and shipping, which was speedily -granted. Not being able to discover the Duke of Guise, he proceeded -to Algiers, and compelled the Dey to sign an engagement not to permit -further violences by his subjects on English vessels. Thence he sailed -to Tunis, and sent in the same demand, but the haughty barbarian of -that place sent him word to give a look at his ports of Porto Farina -and Goletta, with their fleets, and take them if he could. Blake sailed -away as if in despair, but suddenly returning, he entered the harbour -of Porto Farina, silencing the castle and batteries as he advanced, -and set fire to the whole fleet. Both Tunis and Tripoli now found it -the best policy to give the required engagement, and Blake left the -Mediterranean, having given those lawless pirates a specimen of the -power of England, which was not likely to be soon forgotten. - -Blake had orders to look out for the next Spanish Plate fleet coming -home, and he lay for some time off Cadiz; but there was now at the -Court of Madrid Colonel Sexby, the Leveller, who had long been engaged -with Allen, Wildman, and the Anabaptists. He had gone over to the -Continent to raise some force either in conjunction with Charles or -with Spain, to invade England and kill Cromwell. Sexby revealed to the -Spaniards not only the object of Blake, but the real design of the -fleet under Venables and Penn. More than thirty sail were mustered by -the Spanish under Don Pablos de Contretras, which kept close watch on -Blake. Blake longed to attack them, but his orders did not sanction it; -and after hearing that the Plate fleet was detained at Carthagena, he -returned to England to refit, his ships being in a sorry plight, and -his men suffering from bad provisions. - -During the absence of Blake, great excitement had been occasioned in -England by the news of dreadful atrocities committed on the Protestants -of the mountains of Piedmont. The Protestants called the Vaudois were -a race who, through all ages, had, in the obscurity of their Alpine -valleys, retained the doctrines of the Primitive Church, and had -set at defiance both the persuasions and the persecutions of Rome. -They were said to be descended from the ancient Waldenses, and were -a bold, independent race of mountaineers. It was pretended that the -Duke of Savoy, whose subjects they chiefly were, had granted them the -free exercise of their religion so long as they remained in their -ancient places of abode, the valleys of the sources of the Po, in the -Savoy Alps; but that being found in Lucerna and other places, these -were decided to be beyond their bounds, and they were ordered to be -conformed to the Church of Rome, or sell their lands and retire from -these territories. They refused to be driven from their homes on -account of their religion, and being always an eyesore to the Court -of Rome, the fury of persecution was let loose upon them. Friars were -sent amongst them to convert them, or to denounce their destruction; -they disregarded the friars, and then six regiments of soldiers were -sent to drive them into the mountains. Amongst these were two regiments -of refugee Irish. These fellows, ardent Catholics, smarting under the -Protestant scourge which had driven them from _their_ native land, did -their work _con amore_. From the district of Lucerna they were driven -into the higher Alpine fastnesses and pursued with the most terrible -ferocities of fanatic savagery, with fire and sword and extermination. -These horrors were aggravated by winter and famine, and the news of -this fearful butchery rang through Protestant England with a sensation -which revived all the memory of the Popish horrors in the Marian time. -There was one loud outcry for interference on their behalf. Press and -pulpit resounded with demands of sympathy and redress: the ministers of -all classes waited on Cromwell in a body to solicit his protection of -the Vaudois: the army in Scotland and Ireland sent up addresses. No one -appeared, however, more excited than Cromwell himself. He immediately -gave two thousand pounds, and appointed a day of general humiliation, -and a collection on their behalf, which was observed, and thirty-eight -thousand two hundred and twenty-eight pounds were speedily raised, and -sent by envoys to Geneva, to be conveyed to the sufferers. Nor did -Cromwell satisfy himself with having done this. The day of the arrival -of the news, June 3rd, 1655, he was about to sign a treaty of peace -with France; but he refused to sign it till he had seen whether the -French king and Mazarin would heartily unite with him in extorting -protection from the Duke of Savoy for the sufferers. Mazarin was loth -to stir in such a business, but Cromwell soon let him see that there -would be no peace for France unless he did, and he consented. Three -Latin letters were written by Milton at the order of the Protector to -different States of Europe, calling on them to co-operate for this -great end, and the mighty poet sent forth also his glorious sonnet, -commencing-- - - "Avenge, O Lord, Thy slaughtered saints, whose bones - Lie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold!" - -which shall remain like a perpetual trumpet-blast through all time. The -astonished Duke of Savoy was soon compelled to give ample guarantee for -the religious liberty and security of his Protestant subjects. - -The expedition to the West Indies, in its commencement, did not -meet with that success which the Protector generally experienced. -The fleet, consisting of sixty sail, was bound for Hispaniola, and -carried four thousand troops; and in Barbadoes and other English -settlements the force was augmented by volunteers, incited by promise -of plunder, to ten thousand. But these fresh forces were of the worst -possible description, being prisoners of a loose description shipped -thither; the commanders were divided in opinion, and the attack was so -wretchedly managed, that it failed with great loss. St. Domingo, which -they intended to take, was deserted on their approach, but instead of -entering it at once, they landed their forces forty miles off, and -marched them through woods towards the town. The heat of the weather, -the want of water, and the consequent disorder of the troops, prepared -them for what ensued. They were suddenly attacked in a thick wood, and -repulsed with great slaughter. Nothing could bring these ragamuffin -forces to renew the attempt, and the commanders sailed away, but -afterwards fell on Jamaica and took it. That island was then, however, -considered of so little value, that it did not satisfy the Government -for the loss of Hispaniola, and on their return Venables and Penn -were committed to the Tower. Notwithstanding this, however, Cromwell -determined to make secure the conquest of Jamaica, and extend, if -possible, the West Indian possessions. Vice-admiral Goodson was ordered -to take the command at Jamaica, and with him General Fortescue, Serle, -Governor of Barbadoes, and General Sedgwick, from New England, were -appointed Commissioners for the management of the island. - -Cromwell's letters to these officers that autumn inform us that -there were twenty-eight men-of-war on that station, and people from -Barbadoes, from New England, and from England and Scotland, were being -sent to occupy and settle the island. A thousand Irish girls were sent -out. Cromwell pointed out to the Commissioners how advantageously the -island lay for keeping in check the Spanish Main, and the trade with -Peru and Carthagena. His comprehensive glance was alive to all the -advantages of the conquest, and his resolution engaged to make the -most of it. Whatever is the value of Jamaica now, we owe it to him. -He believed that he was not only serving the nation but religion by -humbling Spain. He wrote to the Commissioners, "The Lord Himself hath -a controversy with your enemies, even with that Roman Babylon of which -the Spaniard is the great underpropper. In that respect we fought the -Lord's battles, and in that respect the Scriptures are most plain." -Spain, of course, proclaimed war against England, to her further loss, -and the glory of Cromwell and his invincible Puritan admiral, Blake. -Penn and Venables resigned their commissions, and were set at liberty. -On October 24th, the day after the Spanish ambassador quitted London, -Cromwell signed the treaty of peace with France, by which Condé and the -French malcontents were to be excluded from the British dominions, and -Charles Stuart, his brother the Duke of York, Ormond, Hyde, and fifteen -others of the prince's adherents, were to be excluded from France. - -Cromwell opened the year 1656 amid a multitude of plots and -discontents. The enemies of the Republic--Royalists, Anabaptists, -Levellers--were all busy in one quarter or another. Cleveland, the -poet, who had been taken prisoner nine years before by David Leslie, at -Newcastle, and expected to be hanged for his tirades against the Scots, -but had been dismissed by Leslie with the contemptuous words, "Let the -poor knave go and sell his ballads," was now seized by Colonel Haynes -for seditious writings at Norwich; but Cromwell also dismissed him with -like indifference. - -At the close of the year the Jews, who had been forbidden England, -hopeful from the more liberal mercantile notions of Cromwell, -petitioned to be allowed to reside in this country, under certain -conditions. Cromwell was favourable to the petition, which was -presented by Manasseh Ben Israel, a leading Portuguese Jew, of -Amsterdam, though his Council was against it on Scriptural grounds; -but Cromwell silently took them under his protection. There was also -a Committee of Trade in the House, under the earnest advocacy of the -Protector, for promoting commerce. Meanwhile, Cromwell vigorously -prosecuted the war against Spain. Blake and Montague were ordered to -the coast of Spain, to destroy the shipping in the harbour of Cadiz, -and to see whether Gibraltar could not be seized, which Cromwell, -in his letters to the admirals, pointed out as admirably adapted -to promote and protect our trade, and keep the Spaniard in check. -Yet even this project was not carried out without trouble from the -Malcontents. Some of the captains of the fleet, tampered with by -Charles's emissaries, declared their disapproval of the enterprise, -contending that we, and not the Spaniards, were in fault. Cromwell -sent down Desborough to them, who weeded them out, and put others -in their places. Blake and Montague then set sail, and reached the -neighbourhood of Cadiz and Gibraltar in April, but found their defences -too strong; they then proceeded to Lisbon, and brought the treaty with -the Portuguese to a termination, and afterwards made an alarming visit -to Malaga, and to Sallee, to curb the Moors. In July they returned to -the Tagus, and in September a part of the fleet, under Captain Stayner, -fell in with and defeated a fleet of eight sail, coming from America. -He destroyed four of the vessels, and captured two, containing treasure -worth from two hundred and fifty thousand pounds to three hundred -thousand pounds. - -Before this treasure reached England, Cromwell, who had exhausted his -finances to fit out the fleet and prosecute the war with Spain, was -compelled to call a Parliament, not only to obtain supplies, but to -take measures for the security of the nation against the designs of the -Royalists and their coadjutors, the Levellers. This met on the 17th of -September, 1656. But Cromwell did not allow all the members elected to -sit in this Parliament, any more than in the former ones. He knew well -that his Government and such a Parliament could not exist together. -The members elected, therefore, were not admitted to sit except they -had a certificate of their approval by the Council from the Chancery -clerk. By the withholding of such certificates nearly one-fourth of -the members were excluded. This created a terrible outcry of invasion -of Parliamentary privileges. Haselrig, Scott, Ashley Cooper, and many -other violent Republicans were excluded. The excluded members signed an -indignant protest, and circulated it in all parts of the country, with -the list of their names appended. - -The Protector opened this purged Parliament with a very long speech, -which was one of the most remarkable speeches ever addressed to -Parliament by any ruler. It displayed a depth and breadth of policy, -an active, earnest spirit of national business, a comprehension of -and desire for the establishment of such principles and prosperous -measures, a recognition of the rights of the whole world as affected by -the conduct of this one great nation, which have no parallel for true -Christian philosophy since the days of Alfred. We have since then had -great and valiant warriors, our Edwards and Henrys, but not a man who -combined with the highest military genius and success a genuine, lofty, -and loving Christian sentiment, and an earnest business-like mind like -Cromwell. He at once laid down the principle that all hostility to -the Commonwealth originated in the hatred of its free and Christian -character; and he showed that all these enemies, of whatever theories, -had united themselves with Spain, which was the grand adversary of -this country, and had been so from the Reformation, because she was -bigotedly wedded to the system of Popery, with all its monks, Jesuits, -and inquisitors. He recapitulated its attempts to destroy Elizabeth and -her religion; the vain attempts of the Long Parliament to make peace -with it, because in any treaty where the Pope could grant absolution, -you were bound and they were loose; the murder of Ascham, the Long -Parliament's ambassador, and no redress obtained: and now he informed -them, and offered to produce the proofs, that Charles Stuart had -put himself in league with Spain, and, still more strange, that the -Levellers, pretending to demand a freer and more Republican Government, -had entered into the unnatural alliance with Charles and Spain to -murder him and destroy the Commonwealth. - -[Illustration: ADMIRAL BLAKE.] - -All this was perfectly true. Sexby, the Leveller, had gone over to -Charles, and thence to Spain, to solicit aid towards a Popish invasion, -offering first to kill Cromwell himself. He obtained forty thousand -crowns for the use of his party, and a promise of six thousand men when -they were ready to land in England, who should wait in Flanders. Some -of this money, when remitted to the accomplices in England, Cromwell -intercepted, as he assured the Parliament. Sexby followed to accomplish -his design of assassinating the Protector, as we shall find anon. -Cromwell proceeded to remind Parliament of the insurrections excited -by Charles's emissaries, Wagstaff and Rochester, and the conspiracy -of Gerard and Vowel, the outbreaks at Salisbury, Rufford Abbey, and -a score of other places; of Wildman taken in the act of penning his -call to rebellion, of the design to destroy Monk in Scotland, and of -similar instigations in the army in Ireland; of the plottings of the -Lord Taaffe with Hyde at Antwerp; and, finally, that there had been an -attempt to blow him up with gunpowder in his own house, and an officer -of the Guard had been engaged to seize him in his bed. These last he -characterised as "little fiddling attempts not worth naming," and which -he regarded no more than he did "a mouse nibbling at his heel." But -he told them that the animus altogether was of that un-English and -un-Christian character, that it became them to fight manfully against -it, and though they were low in funds, they should still put forth all -their energies to crush this malignant power of Spain, whence the other -enemies drew their strength. He informed them that France was well -disposed to them, and that all the rest of the world was at peace with -them. - -He then assured them that the major-generals had done good service -in every quarter, that the improvement of the ministry had become -manifest through the exertions of the Commissioners, and that the -Presbyterians had themselves expressed their approbation of what had -been done in that respect. He strongly recommended to them further -equalisation and improvement of the laws, so that every one should have -cheap and easy justice, and that the purification of the public morals -should be carefully attended to--"the Cavalier interest, the badge and -character of continuing profaneness, disorder, and wickedness in all -places," having worked such deplorable effects. "Nobility and gentry -of this nation!" he exclaimed; "in my conscience it was a shame to be -a Christian, within these fifteen, sixteen, or seventeen years in this -nation; whether 'in Cæsar's house' or elsewhere! It was a shame, it -was a reproach to a man, and the badge of 'Puritan' was put on it." As -they would maintain nobility and gentry, he told them they must not -suffer these classes "to be patronisers or countenancers of debauchery -and disorders! And therefore," he concluded, "I pray and beseech you, -in the name of Christ, show yourselves to be men; quit yourselves -like men! It doth not infer any reproach if you do show yourselves -men--_Christian_ men, which alone will make you quit yourselves." - -In the early days of the sitting of this Parliament--that is, in the -beginning of October--came the news of Stayner's victory over the -Spanish Plate fleet, and the capture of the treasure; and in the -beginning of November the money arrived, and thirty-eight waggon-loads -of silver were sent up from Portsmouth to the Mint to be coined, amid -universal rejoicings. Before the year closed, also, Cromwell, by the -help of Mazarin, effected a temporary separation of interests between -Charles Stuart and the Duke of York; but it did not last long. But by -this time Colonel Sexby was in England, watching his opportunity to -murder Cromwell. He was daring enough to introduce himself amongst the -Protector's escort in Hyde Park, and he and his accomplices had filed -nearly through the hinges of the gates through which the Protector was -accustomed to pass, so that they might create a sudden obstruction and -confusion, during which Sexby might shoot Cromwell. But not being able -to succeed to his mind, Sexby returned to Flanders to consult with the -royal party, and left sixteen hundred pounds in the hands of one Miles -Sindercomb, a cashiered quartermaster, who was to carry out the bloody -design. Sindercomb took a house in Hammersmith, where the road by -which the Protector passed to and from Hampton Court was very narrow, -and there he prepared an "infernal machine," consisting of a battery -of seven blunderbusses, which was to blow Cromwell's coach to atoms -as it passed; but the machine did not answer, or could not be used -from the crowd of Guards; and then Sindercomb resolved to set fire to -Whitehall by night, and kill Cromwell as he came out in the confusion. -He had bribed a great number of accomplices, many of them in the palace -itself, and had probably a considerable number of fellow conspirators, -for he had a hundred swift horses in stables in the neighbourhood, on -which he and his confederates might escape, the deed being done. All -this was with the privity and approbation of Charles, Clarendon, and -the rest of that Court, and shows the state of moral principle in it, -and which, after the Restoration, broke over England like a pestilence. -They were constantly dabbling in attempts at assassination, and in the -Clarendon papers themselves we have Clarendon's own repeated avowals of -his satisfaction in them. He styles these base assassins "brave fellows -and honest gentlemen," and thinks it a pity that any agent of the -Protectorate abroad should not have his throat cut. - -But Sindercomb's wholesale bribery led to the detection of the plot. -Amongst those tampered with was Henry Toope, a Life Guardsman, who -revealed the scheme. On the 8th of January, 1657, Sindercomb attended -public worship in the evening at Whitehall Chapel. Toope, Cecil--who -had been engaged in the construction of the infernal machine--and -Sindercomb were arrested, and having been seen about General Lambert's -seat, it was examined, and there was found a basketful of the most -inflammable materials--strong enough, it was said, to burn through -stones--and a lighted slow-burning match, calculated to reach the -combustibles about midnight. There were found also holes bored in the -wainscot, to facilitate the communication of the fire, and of draughts -to encourage it. Toope and Cecil gave all the information that they -could, but Sindercomb was obstinately silent, and being found guilty by -a jury of high treason, was condemned to die on Saturday, the 13th. But -the evening before, his sister taking leave of him, contrived to carry -some poison to him, and the next morning he was found dead in his bed. - -Parliament adjourned a week for the trial and examination of the plot, -and appointed a day of thanksgiving on Friday, the 23rd. But though -Sindercomb was dead, Sexby was alive, and as murderously inclined as -ever, and to prevent interrupting other affairs, we may now follow him -also to his exit. Though neither fleet nor money was ready to follow -up the blow if successful, the gloomy Anabaptist once more set out for -England with a tract in his possession, called "Killing no Murder," -which was no doubt his own composition, though Colonel Titus, after -the Restoration, claimed the merit of it. This tract, taking it as a -settled fact that it was a noble piece of patriotism and virtue to kill -a tyrant, pronounced Cromwell a tyrant, and therefore declared that it -was a noble deed to kill him. It eulogised Sindercomb as the Brutus -or Cato of the time. Sexby, disguised like a countryman, and with a -large beard, travelled about distributing this pamphlet, but he was -tracked, discovered, and lodged in the Tower. There he either went mad -or pretended it, made a voluntary confession, found to be intended only -to mislead, and, falling ill, died in the following January. - -One of the first things which this second Parliament of the -Protectorate did was to abolish the authority of the major-generals. -Cromwell had assured them that they were doing good service in -suppressing disturbances, and he told them so again; but there were -many complaints of their rigour, especially of levying heavy fines on -the Royalists; and Parliament, on the 29th of January, voted their -withdrawal. The next matter, which occupied them for above three -months, was the case of James Naylor, the mad Quaker, whom they -sentenced to a punishment that was simply diabolical in its inhumanity. -Before this was settled, Parliament entered on a far more momentous -question--no less than whether they should not make Cromwell king. - -Those who take an unfavourable view of the character of Cromwell, who -regard him as a base mixture of hypocrisy and ambition, accuse him of -having planned and manœuvred for this object; but there appears no -evidence of this, but rather that the continual uneasiness created by -the Royalist and Anabaptist assassins led many seriously to consider -the peculiar position of the nation, and the great dangers to which -it was exposed. There was nothing between the nation and all its old -confusions but the life of one clear-headed, and strong-hearted, and -strong-handed man, a life which was environed with perils. They deemed -these dangers would be diminished by altering the form of government, -and returning to a House of Lords and a Monarchy--but not to the -corrupt and murder-seeking Stuarts. Had they their honest and earnest -Protector converted into a king, and the succession settled on his -family, the nation would jealously guard his life, and the hopes of the -exiled family be diminished by the prospect of a successor of his own -blood, even if he fell. - -On the 23rd of February, 1657, suddenly Sir Christopher Pack, late -Lord Mayor of London, craved leave to read a paper, which turned out -to be drawn up in the form of a Remonstrance from Parliament to the -Protector on the state of the country, and proposing a new form of -government, including a House of Lords and himself as king. No sooner -did the officers of the army, who had just lost their pro-consular -dignity, and the other Republicans hear the proposition, than they -rose, seized Pack, and hurried him from his seat to the bar of the -House as a traitor. But those who were friendly to the proposition rose -also in his defence, and after much commotion, the paper was not only -read but debated. From this moment this subject occupied the House, -with little intermission, till the 9th of May, or between two and three -months. The title of the paper was changed from "A humble Address and -Remonstrance," to "The humble Petition and Advice of the Parliament of -England, Scotland, and Ireland." Its clauses were debated and carried -one by one by a majority of a hundred to forty-four, and on the last -day of the debate, March 26th, the blank left for the word king was -filled in by a majority of one hundred and twenty-three to sixty-two. -On the 31st of March an address was carried to the Protector at -Whitehall by the Speaker and the House, praying that his Highness would -be pleased to adopt their resolutions, and take upon him the state and -title of king. - -Unquestionably, this was the greatest temptation which had ever been -thrown in the way of Cromwell. To have made his way by his energy -and talent from the simple condition of a gentleman-farmer to the -Dictatorship of the nation, and now to have the crown and succession -of these great kingdoms offered to him and his family by Parliament, -was a matter which would not have been much opposed by an ordinary man. -But Cromwell was not of a character lightly to accept even a crown. -He showed clearly that he had a strong inclination to place himself -and his posterity in that august position, but he knew too well that -the honour had also its dangers and its black side. His acceptance -would at once darken his fair fame by settling it in the conviction -of three-fourths of the kingdom that he had only fought and put down -the Stuarts to set up himself. There was, moreover, a formidable -party opposed to kingship, and especially decided against it were his -generals and the army. A deputation of a hundred of them had waited -on him on the 27th, with an address on the subject, in which they -assured him that such a thing would be "a scandal to the people, would -prove more than hazardous to his person, and would pave the way for -the return of Charles Stuart." Let the nation but become once more -accustomed to the name of king, and it would recall the ancient race on -the first opportunity. - -Cromwell felt too well the truth of these representations, and -therefore he required of the House time to reflect on their important -offer, though he had watched carefully the progress of the debate. -He desired that a committee might be appointed to confer with him -on all the articles of the new Instrument of Government proposed to -him. A committee of ninety-nine persons was accordingly appointed, -amongst them Whitelock, Glynn, the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Broghill, -Nathaniel Fiennes, one of the Keepers of the Great Seal, etc. They had -many meetings, but Cromwell, instead of giving his opinion upon the -subject, desired to know their reasons for recommending this change. -The chief reasons advanced were, the ancient habits of the nation; that -the people were proud of the honour of their monarchs; that that form -of government had prevailed from the most ancient period, and what no -doubt weighed greatly with them was that, by the 9th of Edward IV. and -the 3rd of Henry VII., it was enacted that all who took up arms for or -obeyed the king _de facto_, were held guiltless; but not so they who -served a protector _de facto_. - -Cromwell admitted that this was a matter of precaution which demanded -serious consideration, and that he regarded the proposal to him as "a -very singular honour and favour," and would return such an answer as -God should give him, or as he should arrive at through discussion -with them; but that his conscience yet was not clear upon the subject, -and they must examine the grounds for it further. Whitelock says the -Protector often advised about this matter of the kingship, and other -great businesses, with a select number of the committee--Lord Broghill, -Mr. Pierpoint, brother of the Earl of Kingston, Thurloe, Whitelock, -and Sir Charles Wolseley,--and would be shut up three or four hours -together, and none else were admitted to him. He sometimes would be -very cheerful with them, and, laying aside his greatness, would be -exceedingly familiar; and, by way of diversion, would make verses and -play at crambo with them, when every one had to try his fancy. He -commonly called for tobacco, pipes, and a caudle, and would now and -then take tobacco himself. Then he would fall again to his serious and -great business of the kingship. - -They were interrupted, however, in their colloquies, by a fresh -outbreak of the Fifth-Monarchy men. These religionists, who admitted -the idea of no king but Christ, were especially exasperated at this -attempt to set up an earthly king, and determined to rise and prevent -it. They fixed Thursday, the 9th of April, for the rising. They issued -a proclamation called "A Standard set up," ordered Mile End as the -place of rendezvous, and, headed by one Venner, a wine merchant, and -other persons of the City, calculated on introducing the reign of -the Millennium. They encouraged each other, says Thurloe, with the -exhortation that though they were but worms, yet they should be made -instrumental to thresh mountains. They spoke, he says, great words of -the reign of the saints, and the beautiful kingdom of holies which they -were to erect, and talked of taking away all taxes, excise, custom, and -tithes. They had banners painted with the device of the lion of the -tribe of Judah, and the motto, "Who shall raise him up?" - -But the wide-awake Thurloe had watched all their motions. That morning -at daybreak he marched a troop of horse down upon the meeting at -Mile End, seized Venner and twenty other ringleaders, with chests of -arms, many copies of the proclamation, and the famous war-flag of -the lion-couchant of Judah. Major-General Harrison, Admiral Lawson, -Colonel Rich, and others of the leaders of the Fifth-Monarchy men were -also seized, and with these men shut up in the Tower, but no further -punished. Venner ended his days for a similar attempt in the reign of -Charles II. - -[Illustration: CROMWELL REFUSING THE CROWN. (_See p._ 142.)] - -The discussions of Cromwell and the committee were resumed, and, -without coming to any conclusion, on Tuesday, the 21st of April, the -Protector suddenly left the consideration of the kingship, and examined -the other articles of the Instrument. The chief of these were, that -men of all classes should be capable of electing and being elected to -Parliament or to offices of State, excepting Papists and Royalists, -styled Malignants, at least such Royalists as had been in arms against -the Parliament since 1642, unless they had since given signal proof -of repentance by bearing arms for the Parliament; all who had been -concerned in the Irish rebellion since 1650, or in any plot in England -or Wales since December, 1653; all in Scotland who had been in arms -against the Parliament of England or Parliament of Scotland, except -such as had lived peaceably since the 1st of March, 1652. Besides those -thus excluded, all freeholders of counties, and all burgesses and -citizens of towns--constituting in fact a household suffrage--could -vote for members of Parliament. - -All who were atheistical, blasphemous, married to Popish wives, or who -trained children, or suffered their children to be trained in Popery, -or consented that their children should marry Papists, who scoffed at -religion or at religious people, who denied the Scriptures to be God's -Word, who denied the Sacraments, ministers, or magistracy to be divine -ordinances (like the Fifth-Monarchy men), who were Sabbath-breakers, -swearers, haunters of taverns and alehouses--in short, all who were -unchristian men--were excluded from electing or being elected. All -public preachers were excluded, as better employed in their own -vocation, but at the recommendation of Cromwell this was restricted to -such preachers as had fixed livings, and did not affect mere voluntary -occasional preachers, like himself and many other officers. - -A second House of Parliament was to be organised, to consist of -not less than forty members, nor more than seventy, who were to be -nominated by the Protector, and approved by the Commons. It was not -to be called the House of Lords, nor the Upper, but the Other House. -The same qualifications and disqualifications applied to it as to the -Commons. All judges and public officers, as well as those of the army -and navy, were to be approved of by the two Houses; or if Parliament -were not sitting, by the Council. Another article settled the revenue, -and all relating to it and--the most important one to the Protector--he -was authorised to name his successor before his death. These matters -being settled, and the Instrument revised by Parliament, on the 8th of -May Cromwell summoned the House to meet him in the Banqueting-house, -Whitehall, where he ratified the rest of the Instrument, but gave them -this answer as to the kingship--that having taken all the circumstances -into consideration, both public and private, he did not feel at liberty -in his conscience to accept the government with the title of king; -that whatever was not of faith was sin; and that not being satisfied -that he could accept it in that form to the real advantage of the -nation, he should not be an honest man if he did not firmly--but -with every acknowledgment of the infinite obligations they had laid -him under--decline it. This was his answer to that great and weighty -business. - -Whitelock assures us that Cromwell at one time had been satisfied in -his private judgment that he might accept the royal title, but that the -formidable opposition of the officers of the army had shown him that it -might lead to dangerous and deplorable results, and that therefore he -believed it better to waive it. Whatever the motives, whether those of -conscience or prudence, or both, inciting the Protector, he surmounted -his temptation, and decided with the firmness characteristic of him. -Major-Generals Whalley, Goffe, and Berry are said to have been for -his acceptance of the crown; Desborough and Fleetwood were strenuous -against it, but Lambert, temporising, appearing to approve whilst he -was secretly opposing, and at length coming out strong against it, was -the only one whom Cromwell visited with his displeasure. He dismissed -him, but with a pension of two thousand pounds a year, and Lambert -retired to Wimbledon, where it had been happy for him had he remained -in quiet. - -On the 26th of June, 1657, the grand ceremony of the inauguration -of the Protector as the head of this new Government took place in -Westminster Hall. The Protector went thither from Whitehall by -water, and entered the hall in the following manner:--First went his -gentlemen, then a herald, next the aldermen, another herald, then -Norroy, the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury, and the Great Seal -carried by Commissioner Fiennes, then Garter, and after him the Earl -of Warwick, with the sword borne before the Protector, bareheaded, -the Lord Mayor carrying the City sword at his left hand. Being seated -in his chair, on the left hand of it stood the Lord Mayor and the -Dutch ambassador; on the right the French ambassador and the Earl of -Warwick; next behind him stood his son Richard and his sons-in-law -Claypole and Fleetwood, and the Privy Council. Upon a lower platform -stood the Lord Viscount Lisle, Lord Montague, and Whitelock, with drawn -swords. As the Protector stood under the cloth of State, the Speaker -presented him with a robe of purple velvet, lined with ermine, which -the Speaker and Whitelock put upon him. Then the Speaker presented him -with a Bible richly gilt and bossed, girt the sword about his Highness, -and delivered into his hand the sceptre of massy gold. Having done -this, he made the Protector an address, and finally administered the -oath. Then Mr. Manton, one of the chaplains, in prayer recommended -his Highness, the Parliament, the Council, the forces by land and -sea, and the whole Government and the people of the three nations to -the blessing and protection of God. On that the trumpets sounded, the -heralds proclaimed his Highness Protector of England, Scotland, and -Ireland; and again the trumpets sounded, and the people shouted, "God -save the Protector!" This closed the ceremony, and the Protector and -his train returned to Whitehall as they came. - -The ceremony, it is clear, fell little short of a royal ceremony, with -the exception of the crown and the anointing. Charles Stuart might have -used the words of James of Scotland to Johnny Armstrong--"What lacks -this knave that a king should have?" With the exception of the name of -king, Cromwell, the farmer, was become the monarch of Great Britain and -Ireland. He had all the power, and inhabited the palaces of kings. He -had the right to place his son in the supreme seat after him; and one -whole House of Parliament was of his own creation, while the other was -purged to his express satisfaction. - -Cromwell had not enjoyed his new dignity more than about six weeks, -when he received the news of the death of his great Admiral Blake. -His health had been for some time decaying. Scurvy and dropsy were -fast destroying him, yet to the last he kept his command at sea, and -finished his career with one of the most brilliant victories which had -ever been achieved. During the winter and spring he maintained the -blockade of Cadiz, but learning that the Plate fleet had taken refuge -in the harbour of Santa Cruz, in the Island of Teneriffe, he made sail -thither. He found the fleet drawn up under the guns of seven batteries -in the harbour, which was shaped like a horseshoe. The merchantmen, -ten in number, were ranged close inshore, and the galleons, in number -and of greater force than any of his own ships, placed in front of -them. It was a sight--seven forts, a castle, and sixteen ships--to have -daunted any man but Blake. Don Diego Darques, the Spanish admiral, was -so confident of the impregnable nature of his position, that he sent -Blake word to come and take his vessels. "But," says Clarendon, "the -illustrious genius of Blake was admired even by the hostile faction of -his countrymen. He was the first man that declined the old track, and -made it manifest that the science might be obtained in less time than -was imagined; and despised those rules which had been long in practice, -to keep his ship and men out of danger, which had been held in former -times a point of great ability and circumspection, as if the principal -art requisite in the captain of a ship had been to be sure to come safe -home again; the first man who brought the ships to contemn castles on -shore, which had been thought ever very formidable; the first that -infused that portion of courage into the seamen, by making them see -what mighty things they could do if they were resolved, and taught them -to fight in fire as well as upon water." - -Blake did not hesitate. The wind was blowing into the harbour on the -20th of April, 1657; and trusting to the omnipotent instincts of -courage, he dashed into the harbour at eight o'clock in the morning. -Stayner, who had so lately defeated the Spanish Plate fleet, and -destroyed in it the viceroy of Peru, now led the way in a frigate, and -Blake followed with the larger ships. His fleet altogether amounted -to twenty-five sail. It was received with a hurricane of fire from -the batteries on both sides the harbour and the fleet in front; but -discharging his artillery right and left, he advanced, silencing the -forts, and soon driving the seamen from the front line of galleons into -the merchant ships. For four hours the terrible encounter continued, -the British exposed to a deadly hail of ball from the shore as well -as the ships, but still pressing on till the Spanish ships were all -in flames, and reduced to ashes, the troops in them having escaped to -land. The question, then, was how to escape out of the harbour, and -from the fury of the exasperated Spaniards on the land around. But -Blake drew his ships out of reach of the forts and, as if Providence -had wrought in his favour--as Blake firmly believed He did--the wind -about sunset veered suddenly round, and the fleet sailed securely out -to sea. - -The fame of this unparalleled exploit rang throughout Europe, and -raised the reputation of England for naval prowess to the greatest -pitch. Unhappily, death was fast claiming the undaunted admiral. He -was suffering at the moment that he won this brilliant triumph, and, -sailing homewards, he expired (August 17, 1657) on board his ship, the -_St. George_, just as it entered the harbour of Plymouth. Besides the -high encomium of Clarendon, he received that of a writer of his own -party and time, in the narrative of the "Perfect Politician"--"He was -a man most wholly devoted to his country's service, resolute in his -undertakings, and most faithful in his performances of them. With him -valour seldom missed its reward, nor cowardice its punishment. When -news was brought him of a metamorphosis in the State at home, he would -then encourage the seamen to be most vigilant abroad; for, said he, it -was not our duty to mind State affairs, but to keep foreigners from -fooling us. In all his expeditions the wind seldom deceived him, but -mostly in the end stood his friend, especially in his last undertaking -in the Canary Islands. To the last he lived a single life, never being -espoused to any but his country's quarrels. As he lived bravely, he -died gloriously, and was buried in Henry VII.'s Chapel, yet enjoying -at this time no other monument but what is raised by his valour, which -time itself can hardly deface." - -During this summer, Oliver had not only been gloriously engaged at -sea, but he had been busy on land. He was in league with Louis XIV. of -France to drive the Spaniards from the Netherlands. The French forces -were conducted by the celebrated Marshal Turenne, and the Spanish by -Don John of Austria, and the French insurgent chief, the Prince of -Condé. Cromwell sent over six thousand men under Sir John Reynolds, who -landed near Boulogne on the 13th and 14th of May. They were supported -by a strong fleet under Admiral Montague, the late colleague of Blake, -which cruised on the coast. The first united operations were to be -the reduction of Gravelines, Mardyke, and Dunkirk, the first of which -places, when taken, was to belong to France, the two latter to England. -If Gravelines were taken first, it was to be put into possession of -England, as a pledge for the conveyance of the two latter. This bold -demand on the part of Cromwell astonished his French allies, and was -violently opposed by the French cabinets, who told Louis that Dunkirk -once in the hands of the English, would prove another Calais to France. -But without Dunkirk, which Cromwell deemed necessary as a check to -the Royalist invasions from the Netherlands, with which he was -continually threatened, no aid was to be had from the Protector, and it -was conceded, whence came the angry declaration from the French, that -"Mazarin feared Cromwell more than the Devil." - -The French Court endeavoured to employ the English forces on other work -than the reduction of these stipulated places. The young French king -went down to the coast to see the British army, and having expressed -much admiration of them recommended them to lay siege to Montmédy, -Cambray, and other towns in the interior. Cromwell was, however, too -much of a man of business and a general to suffer this. He ordered -his ambassador, Sir William Lockhart (who had married the Protector's -niece, Miss Rosina Sewster) to remonstrate, and insist on the attack -of Gravelines, Mardyke, and Dunkirk. He told the ambassador that to -talk of Cambray and interior towns as guarantees was "parcels of words -for children. If they will give us garrisons, let them give us Calais, -Dieppe, and Boulogne." He bade him tell the Cardinal that if he meant -any good from the treaty with him, he must keep it, and go to work on -Dunkirk, when, if necessary, he would send over two thousand more of -his veterans. This had the necessary effect: Mardyke was taken after -a siege of three days only, and put into the hands of the English on -the 23rd of September. The attack was then turned on Gravelines; but -the enemy opened their sluices, and laid all the country round under -water. On this Turenne, probably glad of the delay, put his troops -at that early period into winter quarters. During this time attempts -were made to corrupt the English officers by the Stuart party. The -Duke of York was in the Spanish army with the English Royalist exiles, -and communications were opened as of mere civility with the English -at Mardyke. As the English officers took their rides between Mardyke -and Dunkirk they were frequently met by the duke's officers, and -conversation took place. Sir John Reynolds was imprudent enough to pay -his respects to the duke on these occasions, and he was soon ordered -to London to answer for his conduct; but both he and a Colonel White, -who was evidence against him, were lost on the 5th of December on -the Goodwin Sands. The Duke of York now made a treacherous attack on -Mardyke, but was repulsed, and the affairs of Charles II. appeared so -hopeless, that Burnet asserts, and the same thing is asserted also in -the "Orrery Letters," that he was now mean enough to offer to marry one -of Cromwell's daughters, and thus settle all differences, but that -Cromwell told Lord Orrery that Charles was so debauched that he would -undo them all. Cromwell, indeed, just now married his two remaining -single daughters, Frances and Mary, to the Lords Rich and Falconberg. -Frances married Lord Rich, the son of the Earl of Warwick, and Mary -Lord Falconberg, of the Yorkshire family of Bellasis, formerly so -zealous for the royal party. - -[Illustration: _By permission of the Corporation of Liverpool._ - -CROMWELL REFUSING THE CROWN, 1657. - -FROM THE PICTURE BY J. SCHEX IN THE WALKER ART GALLERY, LIVERPOOL.] - -[Illustration: ARREST OF CONSPIRATORS AT THE "MERMAID." (_See p._ 147.)] - -The year 1658 opened by the meeting of the new Parliament. It was a -critical venture, and not destined to succeed better than the former -ones. To constitute the new House, called the Other House, Cromwell -had been obliged to remove to it most of the best-affected members of -the Commons. To comply with the "Petition and Advice," he had been -forced to admit into the Commons many who had been expelled from -former Parliaments for their violent Republicanism. The consequences -at once appeared. The Other House consisted of sixty-three members. It -included six of the ancient Peers--the Earls of Manchester, Warwick, -Mulgrave, Falconberg, Saye and Sele, and Lord Eure. But none but Eure -and Falconberg took their seats, not even the Earl of Warwick, whose -son and heir, Lord Rich, had just married the Protector's daughter. He -and the others objected to sit in the same House with General Hewson, -who had once been a shoemaker, and Pride, who had been a drayman. -Amongst the members appeared a considerable number of the officers -of the army, and the chief Ministers of State. These included the -Protector's two sons, Richard and Henry Cromwell, Fiennes, Keeper of -the Great Seal, Lisle, Fleetwood, Monk, Whalley, Whitelock, Barkstead, -Pride, Hewson, Goffe, Sir Christopher Pack, alderman of London, General -Claypole, St. John, and other old friends of the Protector, besides -the lords already mentioned. As they had been called by writs, which -were copies of the royal writs used on such occasions, the members -immediately assumed that it made them peers, and gave them a title -to hereditary rank. They were addressed by Cromwell in his opening -speech as "My Lords, and Gentlemen of the House of Commons." His speech -was very short, for he complained of indisposition, the truth being, -that the life of excitement, struggle, and incessant care for twenty -years had undermined his iron frame, and he was breaking down; but -he congratulated them on the internal peace attained, warned them of -danger from without, and exhorted them to unity and earnestness for the -public good. Fiennes, after the Protector's retirement, addressed them -in a much longer speech on the condition of the nation. - -But all hopes of this nondescript Parliament were vain. The Other House -no sooner met apart than they began inquiring into their privileges, -and, assuming that they were not merely the Other House, but the Upper -House, sent a message, after the fashion of the ancient peers by the -judges, to desire a conference with the Commons on the subject of a -fast. The Commons, however, who were by the new Instrument made judges -of the Other House, being authorised to approve or disapprove of it, -showed that they meant the Other House to be not an Upper House, but -a lower House than themselves. They claimed to be the representatives -of the people; but who, they asked, had made the Other House a House -of Peers, who had given them an authority and a negative voice over -_them?_ The first thing which the Commons did was to claim the powers -of the new Instrument, and admit the most violent of the excluded -members, for none were to be shut out except rebels or Papists. -Haselrig, who had been appointed one of the Other House, refused to sit -in it; but having been elected to the Commons, he appeared there, and -demanded his oath. Francis Bacon, the Clerk of the House, replied that -he dared not give it him; but Haselrig insisted, and being supported -by his party, he at length obtained his oath, and took his seat. It -was then soon seen that the efficient Government members were gone to -the Other House, and Haselrig, Scott, Robinson, and the most fiery -members of the Republican section now carried things their own way, and -commenced a course of vehement opposition. Scott ripped up the whole -history of the House of Lords during the struggle of the Commonwealth. -He said--"The Lords would not join in the trial of the king. We called -the king to our bar, and arraigned him. He was for his obstinacy and -guilt condemned and executed, and so let all the enemies of God perish! -The House of Commons had a good conscience in it. Upon this the Lords' -House adjourned, and never met again; and it was hoped the people -of England should never again have a negative upon them." But the -hostility of this party was not to the Other House merely, it was to -the Protectorate itself, which it declaimed against, and not only in -the House, but out of it, setting on foot petitions for the abolition -of the Protectorate by the Commons. Whitelock remarks that this course -boded the speedy dissolution of the House. Cromwell summoned both -Houses to Whitehall January 25th, only five days after their meeting, -and in a long and powerful speech remonstrated with the Commons on -their frantic proceedings. He took a wide view of the condition of -Europe, of the peace and Protestantism of England, and asked them -what were their hopes, if, by their decision, they brought back the -dissolute and bigoted Court which they had dismissed. He declared that -the man who could contemplate the restoration of such a state of things -must have the heart of a Cain; that he would make England the scene of -a bloodier civil war than they had had before. He prayed, therefore, -that whoever should seek to break the peace, God Almighty might root -that man out of the nation; and he believed that the wrath of God would -prosecute such a man to his grave, if not to hell. - -But all argument was lost on that fiery section. Scott and Haselrig -continued their assaults on the whole frame of government more -strenuously than ever; and on the 4th of February, fifteen days from -the meeting of Parliament, amid the confused bickering of Scott and -Haselrig with the wearied House, arrived the Usher of the Black Rod to -summon the members to the Other House, which he called boldly the House -of Lords. Haselrig, in the midst of his harangue, was reminded of the -presence of the Black Rod. "What care I for Black Rod?" he exclaimed, -but he was compelled to obey. - -The Protector expressed the intensity of his disappointment that the -very men who had importuned him to assume the burden of Government, and -even the title of king, should now, instead of attending to the urgent -business of the nation, endeavour violently to destroy that Government, -and throw everything into chaos. "I can say in the presence of God," he -continued, "in comparison with Whom we are but like poor creeping ants -upon the earth, I would have been glad to have lived under a wood-side, -to have kept a flock of sheep rather than have undertaken such a -Government as this. But undertaking it by the advice and petition of -you, I did look that you, who had offered it unto me, should make it -good." He added, "And if this be the end of your sitting, and this be -your carriage, I think it high time to put an end to your sitting; and -I do dissolve this Parliament." And thus closed the last Parliament of -Cromwell, after a session of a fortnight. - -Having dismissed his Parliament, Cromwell had to take summary measures -with the host of conspirators whom his refractory Parliaments had only -tended to encourage. Since the "Killing no Murder" of Sexby, there -were numbers who were by no means careful to conceal that they loved -these doctrines, and persuaded the discontented that to kill Cromwell -was to cure all the evils of the nation. The Royalists, on their -part, who had always been advocates and practisers of assassination, -were more than ever on the alert. In the beginning of the year 1658 -the plan of an invasion was completed. The King of Spain furnished -one hundred and fifty thousand crowns towards fitting it out: arms, -ammunition, and transports were purchased in Holland, and the port of -Ostend was to be the place of embarkation. The greatest drawback to -the hopes of the Royalists were the dissipated and debauched habits of -the king. Ormond, writing to Hyde, observed that he feared Charles's -immoderate delight in empty, effeminate, and vulgar conversation was -become an irresistible part of his nature, and would never suffer him -to animate his own designs and the actions of others with that spirit -which was necessary for his quality, and much more for his fortunes. -Yet this was the man on whom their hopes of the restoration of monarchy -were built. Ormond and O'Neil ventured to England in disguise, in -order to ascertain what were really the resources and the spirit of -the Royalists in the country. Ormond had private communication with -all parties--with the Earls of Manchester and Denbigh, with Rossiter -and Sir William Waller, as Presbyterians opposed to Cromwell and -the Independents; with Saye and Sele and others, who were willing -that Charles should return on his signing the same articles that his -father had offered in the Isle of Wight; and with such of the fanatic -Levellers as held the opinions of Sexby. But he found little that -was encouraging amongst any of them. If we are to believe Clarendon, -he was betrayed by one of those in whom he most trusted, Sir Richard -Willis, who was high in the confidence of Charles, but was at the same -time a paid spy of Cromwell's. It is certain that one day in March the -Protector said to Lord Broghill, "An old friend of yours is in town, -the Duke of Ormond, now lodged in Drury Lane, at the Papist surgeon's -there. You had better tell him to be gone." Broghill found that this -was the case, and gave Ormond the necessary hint, who hurried back -to Bruges, and assured Charles and his Court that Cromwell had many -enemies, but there was at present no chance of a successful invasion. - -But if Cromwell was disposed to allow Ormond to escape, he was -compelled to make an example of some other of the Royalist agitators. -On the 12th of March the Protector sent for the Lord Mayor and aldermen -to Whitehall, informed them that the Duke of Ormond had been lurking in -the City to excite rebellion, and that it was necessary to take strict -measures for putting down the seditious of all sorts. At the same time -he ordered the fleet to sweep the coasts of the Netherlands, which -drove in there two fleets intended for the Royalist expedition, and -blockaded Ostend. He then determined to bring to justice some of the -most incorrigible agitators. Sir Henry Slingsby, who had been confined -in Hull ever since the outbreak of Penruddock, had not even there -ceased his active resistance, employing himself to corrupt the officers -of the garrison, who, being instructed by the governor, appeared to -listen to his views, so that ere long he was emboldened to offer them -commissions from Charles Stuart. Another person arrested was Dr. Hewit, -an Episcopalian clergyman, who preached at St. Gregory's, near St. -Paul's, and was a most indefatigable advocate of a royal invasion. -There were numbers of the Royalist apprentices and others in the City, -who were not patient enough to wait for the invasion; they resolved to -rise on the 15th of May, fire the houses near the Tower, and by sound -of drum proclaim the king. The Protector told Thurloe that "it was not -fit that there should be a plot of this kind every winter," and Thurloe -had made himself thoroughly aware of all their proceedings. As the time -approached, the ringleaders were seized at the "Mermaid," in Cheapside. -A High Court of Justice was appointed according to Act of Parliament, -and Slingsby, Hewit, and the City incendiaries were tried. There was -ample proof of their guilt. Hewit denied the authority of the court and -refused to plead, but he was all the same condemned with Slingsby and -six of the City traitors to death. - -In the Netherlands Sir William Lockhart admirably supplied the place of -Sir John Reynolds, acting both as ambassador and general. The Allied -army opened the campaign of 1658 with the siege of Dunkirk. The Prince -of Condé had in vain assured the Spaniards that this would be the case, -whilst they imagined that the intention of the Allies was to besiege -Cambray. When Don John saw his mistake, he determined to attack the -Allies and raise the siege. But Turenne and Lockhart would not wait -to be attacked; they marched to meet the Spaniards, and surprised -them before they had received their supply of ammunition for the -intended assault. Don John hastily drew up his forces along a ridge of -sandhills, and gave the command of the right wing to the Duke of York, -and the left to Condé, himself commanding the centre. Lockhart was too -ill to take the command, but gave it to Colonel Morgan, who, with his -English forces, found himself opposed to the Duke of York. The English -dashed up the sandhill, and soon drove the infantry of the enemy before -them. They were then charged by the Duke of York at the head of the -Spanish cavalry, and the battle was terrible, but nearly half of the -duke's men fell under the well-directed fire of his countrymen. The -left wing, however, under Condé, had given way, and the duke, leaving -his rallied infantry to contend with the English in front, directed the -charge of his cavalry against their flank. It was in vain; the centre -gave way without fighting, and the brave English defending themselves -against their numerous assailants till relieved by a body of French -horse, the whole line of the Spaniards collapsed. The Duke of York, who -had fought gallantly, was saved in the first charge only by the temper -of his armour, and in the second he was surrounded by the enemy, and, -according to his own account, only extricated himself by assuming the -character of a French officer, and leading on several troopers to the -charge till he saw a chance of riding off. Marshal Turenne gave the -credit of the victory to the gallantry of the English, who had, at the -close of the battle, scarcely a single officer left alive. At Whitehall -the victory was attributed to the prayers of the saints at Court, for -it happened that the Protector had set apart that day for a solemn -fast, and, says Thurloe, "whilst we were praying, they were fighting, -and the Lord gave a signal answer." - -The Lord Falconberg was despatched to carry congratulations to Louis -XIV., who was at Calais, and soon afterwards these were returned by the -Duke of Crequi and M. Mancini, the nephew of Mazarin, who expressed his -regret that, owing to the urgency of affairs, he was unable to come -himself, as he said he had long desired; but he sent a magnificent -sword from the king, and a fine piece of tapestry from himself. Dunkirk -was given up to the English, Gravelines was taken, Ypres surrendered, -and all the towns on the banks of the Lys fell into the hands of the -conquerors. - -Here closed the victorious career of Oliver Cromwell; these were -the last of his triumphs, and nearly the last of his life. Though -he now stood apparently at the summit of fortune, both domestic and -foreign enemies being for the time subdued, yet the grand platform -of life and mortal glory was already giving way beneath him. His -health was undermined by the long conflict with a host of enemies, and -circumstances around him were gloom. Sickness had entered, death was -about to select its victims from his own house. His daughter Frances -was left a young widow by the death of Lord Rich, son of the Earl of -Warwick, twelve days after the dissolution of Parliament; his daughter -Claypole, his favourite daughter, was lying ill, and beyond the reach -of medical art at that period, and his own iron frame was yielding. -Around him, in his outward affairs, the circumstances were full of -anxiety. He knew that he had repulsed, but not destroyed, the domestic -enemies of his Government. They were as alert as ever to the chance of -starting up and again attempting to overturn his power. All his three -Parliaments had proved thoroughly unmanageable, and had reduced him -to the very measures so strongly condemned in Charles I.--continual -interruption of the debates, invasion of privileges, and abrupt -dissolutions to prevent the completion of hostile measures. The only -circumstance in his favour was that Charles's arbitrary acts were for -the formation of despotism; his for that of a rational liberty. Under -no previous Government had the people enjoyed such just laws, such just -judges, and so much liberty, especially religious liberty. - -But, like Charles, Cromwell was now governing without a Parliament, -and, like him, being without a Parliament, he was without funds. The -wars on sea and land had emptied his exchequer, and to raise supplies -by arbitrary means would cover him with the odium which had clung to -the king he had overthrown. He appointed a committee of nine persons -to consider as to the best means of calling a Parliament likely to -work with the existing Government, and also to decide on the successor -to the Protectorate. But on this committee there were secret enemies, -and it came to no conclusion as to the Parliament; but as to the -succession, it determined that since the succession had been left -to the Protector, it was a matter of no consequence. Suspecting -their motives, and deriving no benefit from them, he dismissed the -committee towards the end of July, and was left with no resource but -the ingenuity of Thurloe, his secretary, who borrowed where he could, -but was often refused. This could not, however, last. His army was his -grand prop, and so long as it was duly paid and clothed there was no -danger, but let payment fall into arrears, and it would soon begin to -listen to the suggestions of the Republican and Anabaptist officers. -With these gloomy circumstances, his suspicions seem to have grown -of those about him, or of assassins who might make more successful -attempts than before; as his health failed his fears acquired a decided -mastery. He is said to have worn armour under his clothes: we know that -he had long carried loaded pistols. Clarendon says he had become much -"less easy of access, nor so much seen abroad; and he seemed to be in -some disorder when his eyes found any stranger in the room, upon whom -they still seemed fixed. When he intended to go to Hampton Court, which -was his principal delight and diversion, it was never known till he was -in the coach which way he would go; and he was still hemmed in by his -guards before and behind; and the coach, in which he went was always -thronged as full as it could be with his servants, who were armed, and -he seldom returned the same way he went, and rarely lodged two nights -together in one chamber, but had many furnished and prepared, to which -his own key conducted him." - -[Illustration: JOHN THURLOE.] - -Though this is the statement of an enemy, we can very well believe -it, for Cromwell's life had been for years aimed at by assassins, -both Royalist and Republican, by paid bravoes of Charles II., and by -fanatics. These various fears and anxieties told strongly as his -health failed. He reached his fifty-ninth year in April, and was -therefore pretty advanced towards his sixtieth. For fourteen days -before the death of Mrs. Claypole, the Protector was almost day and -night by her bedside, not being able to attend to any business in his -deep anxiety. Mrs. Claypole died on the 6th of August, and George Fox -going to Hampton Court, to represent to Cromwell the persecutions of -his friends, on the 20th of that month, met him riding in Hampton Court -Park at the head of his Life Guards, and was so struck with his altered -appearance, that he said "he felt a waft of death go forth against -him, and when he came up to him he looked like a dead man." On hearing -George's statement, he desired him to come to the palace to him; but -next day, when Fox went thither, he was told that he was much worse, -and that the physicians were not willing he should speak with anybody. - -Cromwell died on the 3rd of September, the day of Dunbar and Worcester, -the day which he had set down as his fortunate day, and which was in -nothing more so than in this last event. He laid down a burden which he -had often said "was too heavy for man," and with the possession of that -form of government which he sincerely deemed essential to truth and -liberty still in his grasp. It was a form of government which had no -foundation in the convictions of the people, and which sooner or later -was bound to fall; and the old prejudices in favour of royalty bring -back a fresh lesson of martyrdom to its votaries. The Dictatorship was -at an end; it had been maintained by Cromwell's innate vigour, and -could only last as long as he did. The day that he died was a day of -terrible wind, and his enemies declared that the devil came in it to -fetch him away; but his friends said that Nature could not witness the -departure of so great a spirit without marking its strong emotion. Many -are the sayings of his last hours reported by friends and foes, but -it is certain that he expressed his firm belief that he died in the -unbroken covenant with God. - -On his deathbed the Protector had been asked to name his successor. -Empowered by the "Petition and Advice," he had already named him in -a sealed packet, which now, however, could not be found, and though -he was supposed to say Richard, it was so indistinctly, that it was -by no means certain. However, Richard was proclaimed in London and -Westminster, and then in all the large towns at home, and in Dunkirk, -and the colonies abroad. At first all appeared favourable for the -peaceable succession of Richard. All parties hastened to congratulate -him. Foreign ministers sent addresses of condolence and intimations of -their desire to renew their alliances. From all parts of the country, -and from the City, and from one hundred congregational churches, poured -in addresses, conceived in the most fulsome affectation of religion. -Cromwell had been a Moses, but his son was a Joshua. Elijah was gone, -but Elisha remained. - -The Royalists were confounded to find everything pass over so smoothly, -but all who knew the retiring disposition of Richard, and the volcano -of raging materials which lay in the sects, factions, and parties which -at that moment divided and agitated England, could only look on it as -the lull before the tempest. Richard Cromwell had all his life long -displayed a liking only for a quiet country life. He had no ambitions, -either military or political. He had lived in his domestic retirement, -entering neither the field nor the cabinet, and his father, in his -letters, was continually calling him "indolent Dick." It was impossible -that such a man could ever curb the fierce and conflicting factions -with which he was surrounded; it is most probable that he only longed -to be well rid of the whole onerous burden. - -There were various leaders in the army so nearly equal in rank and -influence that there was sure to be strife for the chief command. -Fleetwood had married a sister of the present Protector; Desborough was -his uncle; his brother Henry, who was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, was -a much more resolute and able man than himself; and Monk, in Scotland, -had great power in his hands. The chief command in the army lay, by -the late Instrument, in the Protector himself; but the officers of -the army met and drew up a petition that the chief command should be -conferred on some one of the generals who had shown his attachment to -the cause by his services, and that no officer should be deprived of -his commission except by sentence of a court-martial. Richard, by the -advice of Thurloe, replied that he had appointed General Fleetwood -lieutenant-general of the forces, but that to give up the supreme -command would be to violate the "Petition and Advice," by which he -held his own authority. This did not content the officers; they still -held their meetings, a liberty which Oliver had wisely suppressed, -and there were many suspicions expressed amongst them. They asserted -that Henry Cromwell would soon be placed above Fleetwood, who, though -conscientious, was very weak and vacillating, and they demanded that -Thurloe, St. John and Pierpoint, Richard's ablest counsellors, should -be dismissed, as enemies to the army. It was clear that a collision -must take place between these parties and Thurloe, and his friends -advised Richard to call a Parliament, by which he would not only be -able to curb the power of the officers, but to raise money for the -payment of the soldiers. The nation was keeping a large fleet under -Ayscue, or Ayscough, part of which was cruising in the Baltic, to -protect the English allies, the Swedes, against the Danes and Dutch, -and another, under Montague, was blockading the Dutch coast. Money, -therefore, was absolutely necessary to defray expenses, and Richard -consented to call a Parliament. It was a necessary evil, a formidable -undertaking. For the five months that passed before their meeting, -Richard ruled with all the outward state, and with more than the -quiet of his father. But his father, with all his vigour and tact, -had never been able to manage a Parliament, most of the members of -which immediately set about to overthrow him; what hope, then, that -Richard could contend with such a restless and domineering body? It -was absolutely impossible, and he was speedily made sensible of it. To -introduce as many members of the Commons as he could favourable to his -views, he departed from his father's plan of only calling them from the -larger boroughs and the counties, and restored the franchise to the -lesser and decayed boroughs. Every means was used besides to obtain -the return of men favourable to the Government; and in Scotland and -Ireland, from whence thirty members each were admitted, the elections -were conducted under the eyes of the commander of the forces. But, -notwithstanding, from the very first assembling of the Commons, they -showed that they were likely to be as unmanageable as ever. When -Richard summoned the Commons to meet him in the Lords scarcely half the -members attended, lest they should sanction the existence of a body -which they disclaimed. The Commons were as much divided as the army. -There were the friends of the Government, who were instructed to stand -firm by the "Petition and Advice," and the Government, founded by it, -of one ruling person and two Houses of Parliament. Then there were the -Presbyterians and Republicans, who were for no Lords nor Protector -either, and were led on by Haselrig, Scott, Bradshaw, Lambert, Ludlow, -and others of those united parties, with whom Vane and Fairfax now -co-operated. Fairfax, from the moment when he showed his disapprobation -of the death of Charles I., had retired into private life, but now he -reappeared, and though become a Royalist at heart, his spirited lady no -doubt having roused that feeling in him, he voted with the Republican -party, as most likely to prevail against the Protectorate, and thus -pave the way to monarchy. Besides these, there were many neutrals or -moderates, and a considerable sprinkling of young Royalists, who, by -Charles's advice, had got in under other colours. - -However much these parties differed amongst themselves, there were -sufficient of them adverse to the Protectorate to commence an immediate -attack upon it. They fell at once to debating the legality of the -"Petition and Advice," and of course Government by a single person and -two Houses. They asked what was the "Petition and Advice," and they -declared it to be an instrument of no validity, passed by a very small -majority of a House from which a hundred members had been forcibly -excluded. The debates were long and violent. Though Parliament met on -the 27th of January, 1659, it was the 14th of February before they had -decided that Richard's right to the Protectorate should be settled by -another Bill, but with much restricted prerogative, and it was not -till the 28th of March that they allowed the right of the other House -to sit, but with no superiority to the Commons, and with no authority -to send messages to it except by members of the House. These points -settled, there were high demands for a searching inquiry into the -management of all departments of the State, with heavy charges of -waste, embezzlement, oppression, and tyranny, in the collection of the -excise. Threats of impeachment were held out against Thurloe and the -principal ministers, as well as against Butler and some others of the -officers. - -This aroused the generals, who were themselves divided into two great -factions. One set met at Whitehall under Ingoldsby, Whalley, Goffe, -Lord Charles Howard, and others favourable to the Protector; another, -under Fleetwood and Desborough, met at Wallingford House, who, though -the Protector's own relations, were bent on their own and the army's -ascendency. They were joined by Lambert, who, after being deprived of -his commission, had remained at Wimbledon, cultivating his garden, and -seeming to be forgotten; but now he came forth again and was received -with enthusiasm by the soldiers, who had great confidence in his -ability. Desborough used also to meet with a third party, consisting -chiefly of the inferior officers, at St. James's. - -At this place of meeting a council of officers was organised, which -soon became influential with the Wallingford House, or Fleetwood's, -section. Here they drew up an address to Richard, complaining of the -arrears of their pay being withheld, and of the neglect with which the -army was treated; of the attempts to overthrow the Acts passed by the -Long Parliament, and the encouragement thereby given to the Royalists, -who were flocking over from Flanders, and exciting discontent against -"the good old cause," and against the persons and interests of those -who had shed their blood for the Commonwealth. This address was -presented on the 14th of April by Fleetwood, with no less than six -hundred signatures. Though it did not even mention the name of this -Parliament, that body felt that it was directed entirely against them, -and immediately voted that no meeting or general council of officers -should be held without the consent and order of the Protector, and that -no person should hold any command by sea or land who did not forthwith -sign an engagement that he would not in any way disturb or prevent the -free meeting and debates of Parliament, or the freedom of any member -of Parliament. This was certain to produce a retort from the army--it -was an open declaration of war upon it; and accordingly Fleetwood and -Desborough waited on Richard and assured him that it was absolutely -necessary to dissolve Parliament; and Desborough, who was a bold, rough -soldier, declared that if he did not do it, he felt sure the army would -soon pull him out of Whitehall. - -It may be questioned how far this declaration was warranted by the real -facts of the case. The majority of the army was probably opposed to any -violence being shown to the son of the great Protector, but in critical -times it is the small knot of restless, unscrupulous spirits who rule -the inert mass, and impose their own views upon the sluggish and the -timid; and Desborough well knew the irresolute and impressionable -character of Richard Cromwell. - -On the other hand, many members of Parliament protested that they would -stand by him, that if he allowed the army to suppress Parliament, he -would find it immediately his own master, and would be left without -a friend. Ingoldsby, Goffe, and Whalley supported this view, and one -of them offered to go and kill Lambert, who was the originator of all -the mischief. Richard called a council to consider the proposition. -Whitelock represented the danger of dissolving Parliament, and leaving -himself at the mercy of the army; but Thurloe, Lord Broghill, Fiennes, -and Wolseley declared there was no alternative, for if the army and -Parliament came to strife, the Cavaliers would rise and bring in -Charles. Richard reluctantly gave way, and on the 22nd of April he -signed a commission empowering Fiennes, the Keeper of the Seal, to -dissolve Parliament. Fiennes summoned the Commons to the Upper House by -the Usher of the Black Rod, but they shut the door in the face of that -officer, and refused to obey, adjourning themselves for three days. -Fiennes, however, declared Parliament dissolved, the Commons having -been duly summoned to witness it, and a proclamation was issued to that -effect. - -The warning of Whitelock was at once verified; the moment that the -Parliament ceased, all regard to Richard by the army ceased with -it. From that moment he was deserted except by a small knot of -officers--Goffe, Whalley, and Ingoldsby,--and he was as completely -annihilated as Protector as if all parties had deposed him by assent -and proclamation. The council of officers proceeded to take measures -for the exercise of the supreme power. They placed guards to prevent -the adjourned Commons from re-taking their seats at Westminster as -they proposed, and by their own authority dismissed Ingoldsby, Goffe, -Whalley, and the other officers who had adhered to Richard, from their -commands in the army, and restored Lambert and all the others who had -been cashiered by Oliver. Having thus restored the Republicanism of -the army, they determined to recall the Rump, as a body which they -believed they could command; and they accordingly issued an order -for the reassembling of the House of Commons which Oliver had so -unceremoniously dismissed on the 20th of April, 1653. At this call, -Lenthall, the old Speaker of the Rump, with about forty or fifty -members of the Rump, hastened the next day to Westminster, where -Lambert kept guard with the troops, and after some discussion in the -Painted Chamber, they went in a body to the House through two files -of Lambert's soldiers, and took their places as a real Parliament. -But their claim to this exclusive right was immediately disputed. The -same day, the 7th of May, a large number of the members who had been -excluded by Pride's purge, in 1648, of whom one hundred and ninety-four -were still alive, and eighty of them residing in the capital, -assembled in Westminster Hall, and sent up to the House a deputation -of fourteen, headed by Prynne, Annesley, and Sir George Booth, to -demand equal liberty to sit; but as this would have overwhelmed them -with a Presbyterian majority, the doors were closed against them: -they were kept back by the soldiers who filled the lobby, who were -ironically called "the keepers of the liberties of England," and they -were informed that no member could sit who had not already signed the -engagement. On the 9th, however, Prynne made his way into the House, -and kept his seat, in spite of all efforts to dislodge him, till -dinner-time; but going out to dine, he found himself shut out on his -return. - -[Illustration: THE MANOR HOUSE, WIMBLEDON (1660).] - -The Rump now proceeded to appoint a Committee of Safety, and then -a Council of State, which included Fairfax, Lambert, Desborough, -Bradshaw, Fleetwood, Ashley Cooper, Haselrig, Vane, Ludlow, St. -John, and Whitelock. Letters were received from Monk in Scotland, -congratulating the Rump on their return to power, but hypocritically -begging them to keep in mind the services of Cromwell and his family. -Lockhart sent over from Flanders the tendered services of the regiments -there, and was confirmed in his office of ambassador, and also -commissioned to attend a conference between the ministers of France -and Spain, to be held at Fuentarabia, whither Charles Stuart had also -betaken himself. Montague sent in the adhesion of the fleet, and, what -was still more consoling, Henry Cromwell, whose opposition in Ireland -was much dreaded, resigned his office, and was permitted to retire into -private life. - -The Wallingford House party of officers alone created serious -apprehension. They sent in a list of fifteen demands, which were -immediately taken into consideration, and the Rump successively voted, -in compliance therewith, that a form of government should be passed -calculated to preserve the liberties of the people, and that it should -contain no single person as Protector, nor House of Peers. They also -agreed that liberty of conscience should be allowed to all believers -in the Scriptures who held the doctrine of the Trinity, except Papists -and Prelatists. But one of these demands was for lands of inheritance -to be settled on Richard Cromwell to the value of ten thousand pounds -a year, and a pension on her Highness, his mother, of ten thousand -pounds a year. On this it was remarked that Richard was still occupying -Whitehall as if he were Protector, and they made it conditional that -he should remove thence. They proposed that if he retired from the -Protectorate, they would grant him twenty-nine thousand pounds for the -discharge of his debts, two thousand pounds for present necessities, -and ten thousand pounds to him and his heirs. Richard cheerfully signed -a formal abdication in May, 1659, but his pension was never paid. -After the Restoration he fled to the Continent, where he remained -for twenty years. He returned in 1680, and lived peaceably on his -estate at Cheshunt, or at Mardon, in Hursley, near Winchester, which -he received with Dorothy Mayor, and there spent a jolly life in old -English state, dying in 1712. During his father's life, he is said in -convivial hours to have drunk the health of his father's landlord, -Charles Stuart; and he possessed a chest which contained the addresses -and congratulations, even the protestations of profound fidelity from -corporations, congregations, and almost all the public men, and on this -chest he would seat himself in his jocund hours, amongst his convivial -friends, and boast that he was sitting on the lives and fortunes of -most of the leading men of England. Henry Cromwell also passed his life -as a quiet country gentleman on his estate of Swinney, near Soham, in -Cambridgeshire, till his death in 1673. His government of Ireland was, -on his resigning, put into the hands of five commissioners, and the -command of the army was given to Ludlow. - -Charles and his party abroad, watching the continual bickerings of -their enemies in England, put in motion all their machinery to create -confusion, and to seize the opportunity of taking every possible -means of procuring a revolt amongst them. Charles, to encourage his -partisans, announced his intention of coming to England to head them. -The 1st of August was fixed on for a rising, and Charles hastened into -Boulogne, to be ready to pass over into Wales or Cornwall. The Duke of -York was to lead over six hundred of the Prince of Condé's veterans, -and, crossing from Boulogne, land on the coast of Kent, whilst the Duke -of Gloucester was to proceed from Ostend with four thousand troops -under Marshal Marsin. Unfortunately for them, their plans had been -revealed to Thurloe by Sir Richard Willis, one of the king's sealed -knot of seven trusted confidants. Convinced by this treason that the -enterprise would fail, Charles sent circular letters to stop the -rising. But these in some instances arrived too late. Many appeared -in arms, and were fallen upon and routed or taken prisoners by the -Parliamentarians. Sir John Gore, the Lady Mary Howard, daughter of the -Earl of Berkshire, in addition to many other persons of distinction, -were arrested on charges of high treason. In Cheshire Sir George Booth -raised the royal standard, and took possession of Chester; but on -learning the news of the king's deferring the enterprise, and that -General Lambert was marching against them, he and his associates fled -to Nantwich, where Lambert overtook and totally routed them. Colonel -Morgan, with thirty of his men, fell on the field; the Earl of Derby -was taken disguised as a servant; Sir Thomas Middleton, who was eighty -years old, fled to Chirk Castle, but soon surrendered; and Booth -himself, disguised as a woman, and riding on a pillion, was betrayed -and taken on the road to London, near Newton Pagnell. This unlucky -outbreak and defeat threw the adherents of Charles abroad into despair. -Montague, the admiral, who had been won over, and had brought his fleet -to the mouth of the Thames to facilitate the passage of the king's -troops, pretended that he had come for provisions, and, though he was -suspected, he was allowed to return to his station. Charles himself, -now almost desperate, made a journey to Fuentarabia, where Mazarin and -Don Louis de Haro, the ministers of France and Spain, were engaged in -a treaty, in the hope that, if it were concluded, he might obtain some -support from them. But he was very coldly received; Mazarin would not -even see him. In fact, his fortunes were apparently at the lowest ebb, -but it was in reality only the dark hour before the dawn. The day of -his fortune was at hand. - -Parliament, on Lambert's victory, voted him thanks and one thousand -pounds to purchase a jewel in memory of it; but Lambert distributed -the money amongst his soldiers. Parliament resenting this, regarded it -as intended to win the soldiers to his cause, that he might tread in -Cromwell's steps, and make himself Dictator. It was well known that he -had entertained hopes of being named his successor, and this suspicion -was immediately confirmed by his officers, whilst on their march -at Derby, signing a petition, and sending it up with a demand that -Fleetwood should be made permanently Commander-in-Chief, and Lambert -his lieutenant-general. No sooner did Haselrig see this petition, -than he denounced it as an attempt to overturn Parliament, and moved -the committal of Lambert and its author to the Tower. But Fleetwood -repelled the charge by assuring them that Lambert, who was already -in town when the petition was got up, knew nothing of it. The House, -however, ordered all copies of the paper to be destroyed, and voted -that any addition to the number of officers was needless, chargeable, -and dangerous. At the same time they proceeded to conciliate the -soldiers by advancing their pay, and, to discharge their arrears, on -the 5th of October they raised the monthly assessment from thirty-five -thousand pounds to one hundred thousand pounds. - -Matters were, however, gone too far to be thus settled between -Parliament and the army. Haselrig, Scott, and their associates were -of that class of sanguine Republicans, who in their zeal think only -of the principles they wish to establish, without calculating how far -the country is prepared for them, and thus blindly rush on their own -defeat. The Wallingford House military council prepared another paper -called a petition, but which was a far more hostile communication, -asserting that whoever cast scandalous imputations on the army should -be brought to condign punishment. That was distinct enough, but -Haselrig and his party had got the adhesion of three regiments, and -relied on the promises of Monk in Scotland, and Ludlow in Ireland. -On the 11th of October a vote was passed, declaring it high treason -to levy any money on the people without consent of Parliament, and, -therefore, as the existing taxes expired on the first day of the new -year, Haselrig's following believed that they had thus rendered the -army wholly dependent on them. Next day Haselrig moved and carried a -motion that Desborough, Lambert, six colonels, and a major, should be -deprived of their commissions for signing the late petition. By another -vote Fleetwood was deprived of the office of Commander-in-chief, but -made president of a board of seven members, for the management of the -army. The blind zealots had witnessed to little purpose the history -of late years, and the movements of armies. On the next day Lambert, -with three thousand men, marched into Westminster, where he found the -Houses of Parliament guarded by two regiments of foot, and four troops -of horse. On his way he met Lenthall, the Speaker, attended by a guard. -He ordered that official to dismount, and on refusing, according to -Clarendon, pulled him from his horse, and sent him to his own house. -The soldiers, on the two parties meeting, at once coalesced, and the -Rump was again dismissed. The officers at Wallingford House took -upon themselves to annul Haselrig's votes of the last three days, and -establish a provisional Committee of Safety of twenty-three members. -There was a party amongst them for restoring Richard Cromwell, who came -up from Hampshire escorted by three troops of horse; but this party was -outvoted by a small majority, and he retired. - -Whilst these confused changes were taking place--eddies in the national -affairs, but neither progress nor honour, Parliament having no power -to restrain the army, nor the army any one man of a genius capable -of controlling the rest,--there was at least one commander who was -silently and reservedly watching the course of events, resolved to -go with the strongest side, if such a side could be found. This was -General Monk. He was originally a Royalist, and of a strongly Royalist -family. His elder brother, with the rest of his relations, had always -been zealously devoted to the king, and it is said that his wife was -a most ardent advocate for the king's interest. These circumstances -had caused Charles frequently to sound him by his emissaries; but -though he received them courteously, and listened patiently to their -statements, he gave no outward evidence that he was likely to comply -with their entreaties. He was a man of deep and impenetrable secrecy -and caution, of few words, and a gloomy, unimpassioned manner. -Cromwell, during his life, was quite aware of the overtures and royal -promises made to Monk, but could not discover the slightest thing in -him to warrant a suspicion of his leaning in the smallest degree that -way, and he therefore contented himself with jocularly remarking to him -in a postscript in one of his letters, "'Tis said there is a cunning -fellow in Scotland, called George Monk, who lies in wait there to serve -Charles Stuart; pray use your diligence to take him, and send him up to -me." - -There was not much likelihood of Monk swerving from the Commonwealth -while the strong man Cromwell lived, but now, amid such scenes of -weakness, he no doubt began to feel that the royal party would have to -be recalled. Such a presentiment, however, lay locked in his taciturn -breast. The officers sent Colonel Cobbet to Monk in Scotland, who, -however, expressed his firm adherence to the Commons, and when he heard -of what Lambert and the officers had done, he wrote strong letters to -them, complaining of the violence which they had done to the power and -authority of Parliament. He imprisoned Cobbet, and purging his army -of all who were fanatics or inclined to Lambert and his party, he -sent them under guard to the Border, and dismissed them into England, -under penalty of death if they returned. He immediately placed strong -garrisons in the castle of Edinburgh and in the citadel of Leith, -and, collecting cavalry, marched to Berwick, where he placed a strong -garrison. Letters were written to Lenthall in the name of himself and -his officers, assuring the Parliamentary party that "he called God to -witness that the asserting of the Commonwealth was the only interest -of his heart." Whilst Haselrig, Lenthall, and the rest were gratified -by these protestations, they remarked with wonder, and soon with deep -suspicion, that he had cashiered all those officers whom they had -introduced into his army, and restored those whom they had expelled. -There was no alternative, however, but to act with him and watch him. -In the meantime Monk had called a convention of the Scottish Estates -at Berwick, and informing them that "he had received a call from -heaven and earth to march into England for the better settling of the -Government there," he recommended the peace of the kingdom to their -care, and obtained from them a grant of sixty thousand pounds, from the -arrears of taxes. He then took up his headquarters at Coldstream, and -waited the course of events. - -[Illustration: RICHARD CROMWELL. (_After the Portrait by Walker._)] - -The Committee of Safety, on hearing of the movements of Monk, -despatched Lambert with an army of seven thousand men to meet him -on his march, and if he could not win him to co-operation with the -rest of the army, to resist his advance by force. But having seen -Lambert on his way northward, the committee sent directly to Monk a -deputation to endeavour to bring him over to their views, by offers -of many advantages. Monk received the deputation very courteously, -expressed every desire to unite with the rest of the army, provided -there were some ruling power to whom all parties might be subject, and -sent three commissioners to treat with the Committee of Safety on the -subject. This greatly encouraged the Committee of Safety, who thought -their sending Lambert against Monk had frightened him, and whilst they -prepared to receive Monk's commissioners, they ordered Lambert to -hasten on his march. - -[Illustration: RECEPTION OF MONK IN THE CITY OF LONDON. (_See p._ 160.)] - -But affairs nearer home were every day becoming more disheartening. -Haselrig and Morley had gone down to Portsmouth, where they were well -received by the governor, and were looked up to as representing the -authority of Parliament. Fleetwood sent down troops to oppose them, -but the troops themselves went over to them. This success encouraged -the apprentices and other dissatisfied persons in London to rise, -and demand the restoration of Parliament; and though Colonel Hewson -attacked and killed some of them, the spirit and the disturbance only -grew the stronger. To finish the matter, Admiral Lawson appeared with -the fleet in the Thames, and declared for the Parliament on the 17th -of December, and, as soon as they heard this, Haselrig and Morley -marched with their forces to London. At their approach the troops in -Westminster revolted from the Committee and joined them, declaring -that they would live and die with the Parliament. They received -those officers who had lately been dismissed, and all marched into -Lincoln's Inn Fields, and so to Chancery Lane, where they halted before -Lenthall's house, fired three volleys of musketry, and hailed him not -only Speaker of the Commons, but Lord-General of the army. This was on -Christmas Eve, and Desborough's regiment, which Lambert had sent back -to check these counter-movements, on hearing this news, at St. Albans, -also declared for the Parliament, and sent the Speaker word of the -adhesion. During all this reaction, Fleetwood had still sat with the -Committee of Safety, but exhibiting the strangest want of courage and -decision. When urged to go and use his influence with the soldiers, to -prevent their defection, he fell on his knees and prayed, or declared -that it was useless, that "God had spit in his face, and would not hear -him." - -Whitelock relates that at this juncture he strongly advised Fleetwood -to join him and go away to the king, convinced that Monk was deceiving -the Parliament, and that the return of Charles was inevitable. He -said, therefore, that it was better to get away to him and make terms -for themselves and friends whilst the time allowed. Fleetwood was -convinced, and ordered Whitelock to prepare for the journey; but Vane, -Desborough, and Berry coming in, he quickly altered his mind, and -declared that he had pledged his word to Lambert before he marched -to do nothing of the kind without his consent. Whitelock repeated -that if he did not do it, then all was lost; but Fleetwood, weak but -honourable, replied he could not help it; his word was pledged: and in -the end he submitted himself to the Parliament. - -Lenthall, the Speaker, at the head of a party of soldiers who -made themselves merry on their new Lord-General, went into the -City, informed the Lord Mayor and Aldermen that the Parliament was -assembling, and, on his own authority, ordered from the Tower the -governor and officers put there by the Committee of Safety, and placed -in command Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper, who had brought in Admiral -Lawson, assisted by several members of Parliament. On the 26th of -December the Rump met again in that House from which they had been -twice so ignominiously expelled. Their first proceeding was to annul -their act against the payment of excise and customs, so that they might -not be without money, and their next to dismiss Lambert, Desborough, -Berry, and other officers, and to order them to retire farther from -London; and they ordered Vane, who had adhered to the Committee of -Safety, to confine himself to his house at Raby. Thus they were -throwing down with their own hands the very bulwarks which should -prevent their falling helplessly into the power of Monk and his army. -Still more, they sent an order to Lambert's regiments to quit their -commander, and retire to such quarters as they appointed. The soldiers -having heard of their comrades in the south having gone over to the -Parliament, did not hesitate to obey its orders, and Lambert found -himself left alone with only about a hundred horse. At Northallerton -his officers took their leave of him with tears, and he retired quietly -to a house which he had in the country. Thus the expectation of a -sharp encounter between Monk and Lambert was at an end, and the road -was open to Monk to march to London without opposition. - -He had received assurances from Lord Fairfax, that within twelve days -he would join him or perish in the attempt, and he forthwith called -together his friends, and demanded the surrender of York. On the 1st -of January, 1660, the gates of York were thrown open to Fairfax and -his followers, and the same day Monk commenced his march southward -from Coldstream. Monk remained five days at York in consultation with -Fairfax, who did not hesitate to avow his readiness to assist in the -restoration of the king. Clarendon tells us that Charles had sent Sir -Horatio Townsend to Fairfax, expressing confident hopes of Monk, and -requesting him to co-operate with him; and that Parliament had become -so apprehensive of him that before his arrival at York they wrote to -him, advising him to send back part of his forces, as being needless -now in England, while they might prevent danger in Scotland. Monk paid -no attention, and the Parliament began to wish him back in Scotland -altogether. But it does not appear that Monk in any way committed -himself to Fairfax by his words, whatever his conduct might indicate. -On the contrary, at York he caned an officer who charged him with a -design of bringing in Charles Stuart. On his quitting York Fairfax -disbanded his forces, and Monk pursued his march in the same mysterious -silence. Parliament had appointed a Council of State, and framed the -oath for its members to embrace a most stringent abjuration of royalty -and of the Stuart family. The soldiers sympathising with Parliament, -the officers on reaching Nottingham proposed signing an engagement -to obey Parliament in all things except the bringing in of Charles -Stuart. Monk declared this unnecessary, Parliament having expressed -itself so strongly on that head; and at Leicester he wrote a reply to -certain Royalist petitioners in Devonshire, stating his confidence that -monarchy could not be reintroduced, that the excluded members of 1648 -could not be safely reinstated, and that it was their bounden duty to -obey and support the present Government. - -At Leicester arrived two of the most democratic members of Parliament, -Scott and Robinson, to watch his proceedings, but ostensibly to do him -honour. He received them with all respect, and such was his apparent -devotion to Parliament, that they were thoroughly satisfied and highly -delighted. At every place he was met by addresses from towns and -counties, praying him to restore the excluded members, and procure a -full and free Parliament. He replied on all occasions that he was but -the servant of Parliament in a military capacity, and referred the -applicants to the two deputies for their answers. These gentlemen, -who were vehemently opposed to any such restoration of the excluded -members, gave very free denials, with which Monk did not in any way -interfere. - -This conduct, we are assured by Clarendon, extremely confounded -Charles and his partisans, who had calculated greatly on Monk's secret -inclinations, but the dispersal of Lambert's forces, the retirement -of Fairfax, and the vigorous adherence of Monk to Parliament, puzzled -and depressed them. It might have been supposed that though Monk -had so impenetrably concealed his designs from the adherents of -the Commonwealth, that he had a secret understanding with Charles. -Clarendon, who was fully in the king's confidence, and his great -adviser, solemnly assures us that there was nothing of the kind; that -all attempts to arrive at his purpose had been unavailing. By the -consent of Charles, Monk's brother, a clergyman in Devonshire, had -been induced by Sir Hugh Pollard and Sir John Grenville, the king's -agents, to visit the general in the north, and endeavour to persuade -him to declare for the king. But Monk took him up very shortly, and -advised him to go home and come no more to him with such propositions. -To the last moment this secret and solemn man kept the same immovable, -impenetrable course. There is little doubt but that he felt, from -the miserable weakness and disunion of both the officers and the -Parliamentary leaders, the great all-controlling mind being gone, -that the king must come again, and that he was ready to do the work -at the safe moment. But that till he was positively certain the way -was clear of every obstacle, no power on earth should move him. It is -probable that he was indifferent to the fact whether the king or the -Parliament ruled, but that he would decide for the stronger when it was -unmistakably the stronger, and not till then. - -To prevent alarm to the Parliament, he brought only five thousand -troops with him from York, being much fewer than those which were -quartered in London and Westminster; but from St. Albans on the 28th of -January he wrote to the Speaker, requesting that five of the regiments -there might be removed to other quarters before his arrival, lest there -should arise strife between his soldiers and those so lately engaged -in rebellion against the Parliament. This startled the Parliament, -and dull must those members have been who did not perceive that they -committed a series of gross blunders in destroying the greater part of -the army, and disbanding their best officers, to clear the stage for a -new master. But there was nothing for it but complying. They ordered -the regiments to remove, but they refused. Why, they asked, were they -to quit their quarters to make room for strangers? Was it expected -that they should march away with several weeks' pay in arrear? But -their officers, who should have supported them, were dismissed or under -restraint, and by coaxing and the distribution of some money, they were -induced to go. The greatest difficulty was found with a regiment which -occupied Somerset House, and declared they would hold it as a garrison -and defend it. But at length they, too, were persuaded to retire, and -the next day, the 3rd of February, Monk marched through the City into -the Strand and Westminster, where his soldiers were quartered, and -himself conducted to Whitehall. - -Soon after his arrival Monk, was led to the House of Commons, where -a chair was placed for him within the bar, and Lenthall made him an -address, applauding his wisdom and services to the Commonwealth, -declaring his dispersal of their enemies as a glorious mercy, and -returning him thanks. Monk replied, observing that there were demands -for a full and free Parliament, but that while it was as well not -to impose too many oaths, care must be taken to keep out both the -Cavaliers and the fanatic party. Of course, the section of the fanatic -party already in the House, with Scott and Haselrig at their head, -heard this with resentment; and Monk's sincerity was immediately put -to the test by the oath of abjuration of the Stuarts, as a member of -the Council of State, being put to him. He parried this, by observing -that seven of the councillors already sitting had not taken the oath, -and that as for himself, he had given sufficient proofs of his devotion -to Parliament. This increased the suspicion against him, and a more -explicit proof of his sincerity was put upon him. The Common Council of -London had refused to raise money in the City except at the order of a -full and free Parliament. The House, therefore, commanded Monk to march -into the City to seize ten of the leading opponents in the Council, and -to break down the gates and portcullises of the City. - -On the 9th of February, two hours after midnight, he received this -trying order. If he refused, his commission would be immediately -withdrawn, and his plans cut short; therefore he obeyed, and marching -into the City, began with all coolness and imperturbability to remove -the posts and chains from the streets. The citizens, who expected -different conduct from him, and entreated him to desist, assailed -his men during their labour with groans and hisses. The posts and -chains removed, Monk wrote to the Parliament that he considered that -sufficient had been done to crush the spirit of the citizens, but he -received a peremptory order to complete the business, which he did by -destroying the gates and portcullises, though the soldiers themselves -expressed their indignation. He then returned in no agreeable mood to -Whitehall. There, however, news awaited him of conduct on the part -of Parliament, which seemed to him to show that they now thought -that they had made him their pliant instrument, and destroyed at the -same time his popularity with the people. Whilst he had been doing -this ungracious work in the City, they had been receiving with high -approbation a petition from the so-called fanatic or extreme party, -headed by the celebrated Barebone, praying that no man might sit in -Parliament, or hold any office under Government, who did not take -the oath to abjure Charles Stuart, or any single person. This was so -plainly aimed at Monk, who had excused himself from this oath, that a -council of his officers was at once called, whose resentment of this -ungrateful conduct was expressed in a letter drawn up in his name, -and despatched to the House the next morning, complaining bitterly of -their allowing this attack upon him, and advising that they should take -immediate measures for filling up all the vacancies in Parliament, as -the only measure which would satisfy the people. To show that this was -not a mere admonition but a command, he instantly quitted Whitehall, -marched back into the City, summoned again the Common Council, which he -had dispersed, and assured them that the conduct of Parliament had now -convinced him that they were betraying the interests of the country, -that he was sorry he had obeyed them so far as to do injury to "that -famous city, which in all ages had been the bulwark of Parliament and -of general liberty;" and that therefore he had determined to unite his -lot with theirs, and to obtain through them a full and free Parliament. - -This announcement was received not only with astonishment, but with -enthusiastic expressions of joy. The Lord Mayor and Council plighted -their troth with him and the officers, he was invited to dine at -the Guildhall, and all the bells in the City were set ringing in -exultation. The Corporation attended the general to his lodgings amid -the acclamations and the bonfires of the people, at which they roasted -rumps in ridicule of the Parliament, and heaped on it every infamy -which wit and ribaldry could devise. This _coup d'état_ awoke the -Parliament to their blunder; they had made an enemy of the very man and -army into whose hands they had put a power which could instantly crush -them. There were some zealots, the Haselrigs and Scotts, who advised -restoring Fleetwood to the chief command, and bringing back the exiled -regiments; but Sunday, which intervened, enabled the more sober counsel -to prevail, and they sent a deputation to invite the general to return -to Whitehall, and promised that the writs for the excluded members -should be ready by the day appointed. But these incidents had made an -advance in Monk's proceedings. He had seen, as he came up the country, -the universal demand for the restoration of the Long Parliament, and -the unmitigated contempt for the present one. He had felt the pulse -of the country also as to the return of the king, and his intercourse -with the City had only confirmed the impression that the whole body -of excluded members must come back as a stepping-stone to the recall -of Charles. The Presbyterian interest in the City was as strong as -ever, and its enmity to the Independents unabated. He therefore called -together his officers to discuss with the deputation the points at -issue, and the officers insisted that the excluded members must be -restored. Monk then placed the City in a state of defence, and returned -to Whitehall. There he summoned the excluded members who were in town, -together with the members of the sitting Parliament, and read them a -paper, in which he assured them that the people at large demanded a -full and free Parliament, as the only means of settling these "bleeding -nations." He declared that he would impose no restrictions on them -himself, but that his guards should freely admit all the excluded as -well as the other members, to take measures for a dissolution of the -present Parliament, and the calling of a new one, full and free, on -the 20th of April next. He did not believe, he said, that monarchy -or prelacy would be tolerated by the people, but that a moderate -Presbyterian government, with liberty of conscience, appeared most -likely to be acceptable. And as to the Peers, if it were not proper to -restore to them their House, yet he thought their hereditary marks of -honour should be left them. - -This speech confounded Royalists and Extremists alike. He recommended -a Presbyterian government and the exclusion of monarchy; but he saw -well enough what the effect of his measure would be; the Royalist -excluded members would rush in, and the recall of the king would be -the inevitable consequence. Accordingly the excluded members proceeded -directly to the House with the other members. The guard under Sir -Anthony Ashley Cooper opened and admitted them. At this sight Haselrig, -Scott, and the Republican party thought it high time to consult their -own security, and disappeared from the scene. The House at once set to -work; annulled all the orders by which they had been excluded; elected -a new Council of State, in which the most influential members were -Royalists; appointed Monk Commander-in-Chief, and Commander of the -Fleet in conjunction with Montague; granted him twenty thousand pounds -in lieu of Hampton Court, which the Rump had settled on him; freed from -sequestration Sir George Booth and his associates, who had risen for -the king, together with a great number of Cavaliers and Scottish lords -taken at the Battle of Worcester; borrowed sixty thousand pounds of the -Common Council, established for the present the Presbyterian confession -of faith; ordered copies of the Solemn League and Covenant to be hung -up in all churches; placed the militia and all the chief commands in -the hands of the principal nobility and gentry; and only stipulated -that no person should be capable of office or command who did not -subscribe to the confession--"that the war raised by the two Houses of -Parliament against the late king was just and lawful, until such time -as force and violence were used upon the Parliament in the year 1648." - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE PAINTED CHAMBER, WESTMINSTER, LOOKING -EAST.] - -But at this point it was contended by the Royalists that the House -of Lords was as much a House as themselves, and that they could not -legally summon a new Parliament without them; but Monk would listen to -nothing of this kind. He declared that as much had been conceded as the -country would bear; and the Parliament was compelled to dissolve itself -at the time fixed. - -There could certainly be no longer any uncertainty as to whither things -were tending. The Royalists were again in full power all over the -kingdom, the very insurgents in the cause of Charles were liberated, -freed from all penalties, and in many cases advanced to places of -trust; yet Monk still dissembled. Ludlow, a staunch Republican, on the -re-admission of the excluded members, went to Monk to sound him as to -his intentions, and urged the necessity of supporting the Commonwealth, -which had cost them so much. Monk replied with solemn hypocrisy, "Yea, -we must live and die together for a Commonwealth." Yet Monk had now -made up his mind: he saw that all was prepared, all perfectly safe, -and during the recess he was busy arranging with the king's agents -for his return. Immediately on Monk's joyful reception by the City, a -Mr. Baillie, who had gone through Cheapside amongst the bonfires, and -heard the king's health drunk in various places, and people talking of -sending for the king, had posted off to Brussels, where Charles was. On -this Sir John Grenville and a Mr. Morrice, a Devonshire Royalist, were -instantly sent over to Monk, with propositions for the king's return. -Clarendon assures us that so early as the beginning of April these -gentlemen were in London, and in consultation with Monk, who told them -that if the king would write a letter to Parliament containing the same -statements, he would find a fit time to deliver it, or some other means -to serve his Majesty; but that Charles must quit Flanders to give his -partisans confidence that he was out of the power of the Spaniards, and -would be free to act on their call; that he must go to Breda, and date -his papers thence. - -All this was done, and so little secrecy was observed by the Royalists -on the Continent, that it was immediately known at all the courts -that the king was about to be recalled, and Spaniards, Dutch, French -princes and ministers, who had treated Charles with the utmost neglect -and contempt, now overwhelmed him with compliments, invitations, -flatteries, and offers. The Dutch Court, where was his sister, the -mother of the young Stadtholder, had been as discourteous as the rest, -but they now united in receiving him and doing him honour. Breda -already swarmed with English Royalists, who flocked from every quarter -to pay their respects. - -This was observed in England with a complacency which sufficiently -indicated that men's minds were made up to the restoration of the -monarchy. The ultra-Republican party alone, whose zeal never -condescended to measure the chances against them, endeavoured to -raise the soldiers to oppose the menaced catastrophe. The army had -on former occasions maintained the Commonwealth. The emissaries of -the Republicans, therefore, spread themselves everywhere amongst the -soldiers, warning them of the certainty of all their sacrifices, -their labours, and their victories being in vain if they did not once -more save the State. The old fire revived; the soldiers contemplated -the loss of their arrears if the Royalists came into power, the -officers the loss of their lands and their commands. They began -to express vehement discontent, and the officers flocked into the -capital and called on Monk to take measures for the maintenance of the -Commonwealth. He professed to be bound to that object, though he had -at the time in his pocket a commission from Charles constituting him -Lord-General of all the military in the three kingdoms. He ordered the -officers to return to their posts, and put an oath of obedience to the -Parliament to the privates--all who refused it being discharged. - -Disappointed in this quarter, the Republicans managed to effect the -escape of Lambert, who had been committed to the Tower, and who now -appeared in Warwickshire, where he induced six troops of horse and some -infantry to accept his command. On the approach of General Ingoldsby, -however, who was sent against him, his troops deserted him, he was -captured, and conducted back to the Tower with every indignity. - -On the 25th of April the new Parliament assembled; the Royalists showed -a decided majority, and though the Presbyterian party managed to carry -the election of Sir Harbottle Grimstone as Speaker, the Royalist -tendency was overwhelming as to the main objects. Ten of the Peers -assembled in their House, and elected the Earl of Manchester Speaker, -and on beholding this the rest of the Peers hurried up to town, and -soon there appeared a full House, excepting such Peers as had served in -the king's Parliament at Oxford, or whose patents dated subsequently to -the commencement of the civil war. - -But all the interest was concentrated on the proceedings of the House -of Commons. On the 1st of May Sir John Grenville presented himself at -the door of the House, and requested to speak with the Lord-General. -Monk went to him, and received, as a matter of which he knew nothing, -a letter addressed to the Speaker. Looking at the seal, and affecting -to discover that it bore the royal arms, he ordered the guards to take -care that the bearer did not escape. Grenville was speedily called -in, and asked how he became possessed of this letter, and on replying -that he brought it from the king, he was ordered into custody as a -traitor. But here Monk interfered, saying that this was unnecessary; -he perceived that he was a kinsman of his, and would be security for -him. The letters were now opened, and proved to be really from the -king, one addressed to the Commons, another to the Lords, a third to -the Lord Mayor and Corporation, and the fourth to Monk and Montague, -lord-admirals. In the letter to the Commons Charles informed them that, -in the present unhappy circumstances of the nation, he recommended them -to consider whether the only way to restore peace and prosperity was -not to return to the ancient and time-honoured constitution of king, -Lords, and Commons, under whom the kingdom had flourished so many ages. -He professed that no man had a more profound veneration for Parliament -and its rights than himself, and that to convince them of it, he had -endorsed a declaration of his views, in which he had left everything to -their settlement. - -This paper was the celebrated Declaration of Breda, to which the people -afterwards so often called Charles's attention, and which he took the -earliest opportunity to forget, and falsify by a return to all the -Stuart despotisms, oppressions, and persecutions. In this paper he -granted a free pardon to all who should accept it within forty days; -the confirmation of all estates and titles, and in religion "liberty -to tender consciences, and that no man should be disturbed or called -in question in any way regarding religion." But these promises "on the -word of a king" were rendered perfectly nugatory, by excepting such -persons and such measures as Parliament should in its wisdom see fit to -determine otherwise. This specious declaration, which had been drawn -up by Hyde, Ormond, and Nicholas, in fact secured nothing, for once in -power, a servile Parliament might undo everything, as it eventually -did. Prynne, who was in the House, pointed all this out, and warned -them that Charles had been too long under the counsels of his mother, -and too long in France and in Flanders--"the most Jesuited place in the -world"--to be in religion anything better than a Papist; that at best -he would be found only a Prelatist, and that his word had already been -proved, on various occasions, of no more value than his father's. The -Royalists, he said, would never cease instilling into him that the -Presbyterian religion, now the religion of the nation, had destroyed -his great-grandmother, tormented his grandfather, and put to death his -father; and that as certain as there was a restoration, there would be -a destruction of all the liberties of England, civil and religious. -The pious Sir Matthew Hale urged on them the necessity of some better -guarantee than this declaration of constitutional rights before they -readmitted the king. - -But all warning was lost on the House: the crisis was come, Parliament -and nation seemed smitten with a sudden oblivion of their past miseries -and oppressions under the Stuarts, and every branch of the community -seemed impatient to be the first to put its neck once more under -their yoke, and under the foot of the most debauched, unprincipled, -and scandalous member which the family had ever seen. Instead of -sending Grenville to the Tower, the Commons voted him thanks and a -present of five hundred pounds. The Speaker, in communicating these -votes to Grenville, launched into the most extravagant terms of joy -on the prospect "of having their king again." The Commons drew up -a most glowing letter to his Majesty, in which they declared their -thankfulness to God for putting the thoughts of returning into the -king's mind, "to make him glorious in the eyes of his people;" -protesting that "the persons of their kings had always been dear unto -Parliaments," and that they "could not bear to think of that horrid -act committed against the precious life of their late king," and so -forth. They not only delivered this letter to Sir John Grenville, but -appointed twelve of their members to wait on his Majesty at the Hague. -The London Corporation were as enthusiastic and as profuse of their -proffered devotion; they presented Grenville with three hundred pounds, -also appointed some of their members to wait on the king, made haste to -erect the royal statue in Guildhall, and to pull down the arms of the -Commonwealth. - -[Illustration: LANDING OF CHARLES II. AT DOVER. (_See p._ 165.)] - -Montague had long been prepared to go over to the king on the first -opportunity; and lest he might seem to be sent by the Parliament, and -not by his own voluntary act, he set sail for the coast of Holland, -leaving Lawson to bring over the deputations going to his Majesty. -He lay to at Scheveling, and sent word to the king that his fleet -was at his command. The Duke of York, whom Charles had made admiral, -went on board, and was received with all respect and submission. Soon -after came up the other ships with six members of the Peers, twelve -of the Commons, fourteen from the City of London, and eight or ten -of the most popular ministers in London of the Presbyterian party, -including Reynolds, Calamy, Case, and Marten. These gentlemen entered -zealously on the hopeless task of endeavouring to persuade Charles -to leave their form of worship in the ascendant, and to abstain from -the use of the Common Prayer Book and the surplices; but they got no -further satisfaction than that he would leave all that to the wisdom -of Parliament. On the 24th of May he embarked at Scheveling, in the -_Naseby_, which the day before had been rechristened the _Royal -Charles_, the rest of the ships at the same time having doffed their -republican appellations of unpleasant memory, and assumed right royal -ones. On the 26th he landed at Dover, where, amid the thunder of -cannon, he was received by Monk at the head of a splendid assemblage -of the nobility and gentry. From Dover to Canterbury, and thence to -London, the journey was one triumphant procession. The crowds of gentry -and of shouting people presented only the aspect of a most loyal -nation, amongst whom it was hard to imagine that such a thing as a -Commonwealth had ever existed. On Blackheath Charles was received by -the army with acclamations. The Lord Mayor and Corporation invited him -to a splendid collation in a tent prepared for the purpose. All the way -to Whitehall, attended by the chief nobility and by his Life Guards, -and several regiments of cavalry, the houses being hung with tapestry, -and the windows crowded with applauding men and women, the king riding -between his two brothers, beheld nothing but an enthusiastic people. -When he dismissed the last of his congratulators from the hall where -his father perished, he turned to one of his confidants and said, "It -surely must have been my own fault that I did not come before, for I -have met no one to-day who did not protest that he always wished for my -restoration." - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE PROGRESS OF THE NATION UNDER JAMES I., CHARLES I., AND THE -COMMONWEALTH. - - Manufactures and Commerce--Trade under the Stuarts--English - Commerce and Dutch Competition--The East India - Company--Vicissitudes of its Early History--Rival Companies--The - American Colonies and West Indies--Growth of London--National - Revenue--Extravagance of the Stuarts--Invention of the Title - of Baronet--Illegal Monopolies--Cost of Government--Money - and Coinage--Agriculture and Gardening--Dramatists of the - Period--Shakespeare and his Contemporaries--Poets of the - Occult School--Herbert, Herrick, Quarles--A Wealth of - Poetry--Prose-Writers--Bacon's "Novum Organum"--Milton's - Prose Works--Hales, Chillingworth, Jeremy Taylor, Fuller, and - other Theological Writers--Harrington's "Oceana"--Sir Thomas - Browne--Historians and Chroniclers--First Newspapers--Harvey's - Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood--Napier's - Invention of Logarithms--Music--Painting, Engraving, and - Sculpture--Architecture--Manners and Customs--Sports and - Pastimes--Furniture and Domestic Embellishment--Costumes--Arms and - Armour--Condition of the People. - - -In the reigns of James and Charles England neither maintained the -reputation of her navy acquired under Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, nor -made great progress in foreign commerce. The character of James was too -timid for maritime or any other war, and when he was forced into action -it was only to show his weakness. He put to death the greatest naval -captain of his time, Raleigh, who, if well employed by him, might have -made him as much respected at sea as was Elizabeth. Nevertheless, he -built ten ships of war, and for some years spent thirty-six thousand -pounds annually on the navy. The largest ship which had yet been built -in England was built by him, but it was only of fourteen hundred tons. -As for commerce, he was too much engaged in theological disputations, -in persecution of Papists, in wrangling with his Parliaments, and -in following his hawks and hounds, to think of it, and consequently -grievous complaints of the decay of trade were heard every session. The -Dutch were fast engrossing both the commerce and the carrying trade of -England. During James's reign they traded to England with six hundred -ships, and the English traded to Holland with sixty. - -The naval affairs of Charles were quite as inglorious as those -of his father. As James beheaded the best admiral of England, so -Charles chose for his the very worst in Europe, and the disgrace -of Buckingham's expedition to the Isle of Rhé was the consequence. -Charles's contests with his Parliaments, which terminated only with his -life, destroyed all chance of his promotion of naval ascendency, and -of the cultivation of commerce. All this was wonderfully changed by -the vigorous spirits of the Commonwealth. The victories of Blake, by -which the naval greatness of Holland and Spain was almost annihilated, -raised the reputation of the British arms at sea as well as on land -to the first place in the civilised world. St. John was no sooner -despatched by Parliament to the Hague as ambassador, than, perceiving -the immense advantage which Holland obtained from being the great -carriers of Europe, he drew and got passed the celebrated Navigation -Act, which--providing that no produce of Africa, Asia, or America, nor -of any English colony should be imported into England except in English -ships, and that the manufactures or merchandise of no country in Europe -should be imported except in English ships, or the ships of the nation -where they were produced--at once transferred an enormous maritime -business to England. - -Sir Walter Raleigh, in a treatise on the comparative commerce of -England and Holland, endeavoured to draw the attention of James I. to -the vast benefits that the Dutch were obtaining from our neglect. He -showed that whenever there was a time of scarcity in England, instead -of sending out our ships and supplying ourselves, we allowed the Dutch -to pour in goods, and reap the advantage of the high prices; and -he declared that in a year and a half they had taken from Bristol, -Southampton, and Exeter alone, two hundred thousand pounds, which our -merchants might as well have had. He reminded the king that the most -productive fisheries in the world were on the British coasts, yet that -the Dutch and people of the Hanse Towns came and supplied all Europe -with their fish to the amount of two million pounds annually, whilst -the English could scarcely be said to have any trade at all in it. The -Dutch, he said, sent yearly a thousand ships laden with wine and salt, -obtained in France and Spain, to the north of Europe, whilst we, with -superior advantages, sent none. He pointed out equally striking facts -of their enterprise in the timber trade, having no timber themselves; -that our trade with Russia, which used to employ a large number of -ships, had fallen off to almost nothing, whilst that of the Dutch had -marvellously increased. What, he observed, was still more lamentable, -we allowed them to draw the chief profit and credit even from our own -manufactures, for we sent our woollen goods, to the amount of eighty -thousand pieces, abroad undyed, and the Dutch and others dyed them -and reshipped them to Spain, Portugal, and other countries as Flemish -baizes, besides netting a profit of four hundred thousand pounds -annually at our expense. Had James attended to the wise suggestions -of Raleigh, instead of destroying him, and listening to such minions -as Rochester and Buckingham, our commerce would have shown a very -different aspect. - -It is true that some years afterwards James tried to secure the -profit pointed out by Raleigh from dyed cloths; but instead of -first encouraging the dyeing of such cloths here, so as to enable -the merchants to carry them to the markets in the South on equal or -superior terms to the Dutch, he suddenly passed an Act prohibiting the -export of any undyed cloths. This the Dutch met by an Act prohibiting -the import of any dyed cloths into Holland; and the English not -producing an equal dye to the Dutch, thus lost both markets, to the -great confusion of trade; and this mischief was only gradually overcome -by our merchants beginning to dye their yarn, so as to have no undyed -cloth to export, and by improving their dyes. - -During the reign of James commercial enterprise showed itself in the -exertions of various chartered companies trading to distant parts -of the world. The East India Company was established in the reign -of Elizabeth, the first charter being granted by her in 1600. James -was wise enough to renew it, and it went on with various success, -ultimately so little in his time that at his death it was still a -doubtful speculation; but under such a monarch it could not hope for -real encouragement. In its very commencement he granted a charter to -a rival company to trade to China, Japan, and other countries in the -Indian seas, in direct violation of the East India Company's charter, -which so disgusted that Company, as nearly to have caused them to -relinquish their aim. In 1614 they obtained a charter from the Great -Mogul to establish a factory at Surat, and the same year they obtained -a similar charter from the Emperor of Japan. In 1615 Sir Thomas Roe -went as ambassador from England to the Great Mogul, and resided at -his court for four years. By this time the Company had extensively -spread its settlements. It had factories at Acheen, Zambee, and Tekoa, -in Sumatra; at Surat, Ahmedabad, Agra, Ajmere, and Burampore in the -Mogul's territories; at Firando, in Japan; at Bantam, Batavia, and -Japara, in Java; and others in Borneo, the Banda Isles, Malacca, Siam, -and Celebes; and at Masulipatam and Petapoli, on the Coromandel coast; -and at Calicut, the original settlement of the Portuguese on the -coast of Malabar. Their affairs were, in fact, extremely flourishing, -and their stock sold at 203 per cent.; but this prosperity awoke the -jealousy of the Dutch, who carried on a most profitable trade with Java -and the Spice Islands, and, in spite of a treaty concluded between the -two nations in 1619, the Dutch Governor-General attacked and took from -the Company the island of Pulo Rangoon. This was only the beginning of -their envious malice, for in 1623 they committed the notorious massacre -of the English Company at Amboyna, and drove the English out of all -the Spice Islands. Had this occurred in Cromwell's days, they would -soon have paid a severe retribution; but James was just then anxious to -secure the aid of the Dutch in restoring his son-in-law, the Elector -Palatine, and these atrocities were quietly smoothed over, and left -unavenged. The consequence was, that the affairs of the Company fell -into a most depressed condition, and though in 1616, when their stock -was worth 200 per cent., they had raised a new stock of one million -six hundred and twenty-nine thousand and forty pounds, which was taken -by nine hundred and fifty-four individuals, principally of the higher -aristocracy, at the close of James's reign the stock had fallen to half -its value. - -Charles was not a more far-sighted or a juster patron of the India -Company than his father. In 1631 they managed to raise a new stock -of four hundred and twenty thousand pounds, but whilst they were -struggling with the hostilities of their rivals, the Dutch and -Portuguese, the king perpetrated precisely the same injury on them that -his father had done, by granting a charter to another company, which -embroiled them with the Mogul and the Chinese, causing the English to -be entirely expelled from China, and injuring the India Company to a -vast extent. The Civil War in England then prevented the attention -of the Government from being directed to the affairs of this great -Company. At the end of Charles's reign the Company's affairs were at -the worst, and its trade appeared extinct. In 1649, however, Parliament -encouraged the raising of new stock, which was done with extreme -difficulty, and only amounted to one hundred and ninety-two thousand -pounds. But in 1654, Parliament having humbled the Dutch, compelled -them to pay a balance of damages of eighty-five thousand pounds and -three thousand six hundred pounds to the heirs of the murdered men at -Amboyna. It required years, however, to revive the prosperity of the -Company, and it was only in 1657 that, obtaining a new charter from -the Protector, and raising a new stock of three hundred and seventy -thousand pounds, it sprang again into vigour and traded successfully -till the Restoration. - -During this period, too, the Incorporated Companies--Turkey Merchants, -or the Levant Company; the Company of Merchant Adventurers, trading to -Holland and Germany; the Muscovy Company, trading to Russia and the -North, where they prosecuted also the whale fishery--were in active -operation, besides a great general trade with Spain, Portugal, and -other countries. The Turkey Merchants carried to the Mediterranean -English cloths, lead, tin, spices, indigo, calicoes, and other Indian -produce brought home by the East India Company; and they imported -thence the raw silks of Persia and Syria, galls from Aleppo, cotton and -cotton yarn from Cyprus and Smyrna; drugs, oils, and camlets, grograms, -and mohairs of Angora. In 1652 we find coffee first introduced from -Turkey, and a coffee-house set up in Cornhill. On the breaking out of -the Civil War, the Muscovy Company were deprived of their charter by -the Czar, because they took part with the Parliament against their -king, and the Dutch adroitly came in for the trade. - -These great monopolies of foreign trade were supposed to be necessary -to stimulate and protect commerce; but the system of domestic -monopolies which were most destructive to enterprise at home, and which -had arrived at such a height under Elizabeth, was continued by both -James and Charles to the last, notwithstanding the constant outcries -against them, and their being compelled, ever and anon, by public -spirit to make temporary concessions. - -The commerce of England was now beginning to receive a sensible -increase by the colonies which she had established in America and the -West Indies. One of the earliest measures of James was the founding of -two chartered companies to settle on the coasts of North America. One, -called the London Adventurers, or South Virginia Company, was empowered -to plant the coast from the 34th to the 41st degree of north latitude, -which now includes Maryland, Virginia, and North and South Carolina. -The other, the company of Plymouth Adventurers, was authorised to -plant all from the 41st degree to the 45th, which now includes the -States of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and New England. In 1612 -a settlement was made in Bermuda. The State of New England was founded -by the planting of New Plymouth in 1620, and about the same time the -French were driven out of Nova Scotia, and the island of Barbadoes -was taken possession of; and within a few years various other West -India islands were secured and planted. James granted all the Caribbee -Isles to James Hay, Earl of Carlisle, and the grant was confirmed by -Charles, who also granted to Robert Heath and his heirs the Bahama -Isles and the vast territory of Carolina, including the present North -and South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and the south of Louisiana. In -1632 Charles granted the present Maryland to Lord Baltimore, a Catholic -(the charter being also renewed in favour of Cecil, the second Lord -Baltimore), which became the refuge of the persecuted Catholics in -England, as the New England States did of the Puritans. - -These immense territories were gradually peopled by the victims of -crime. According as the storm of religious persecution raged against -the Catholics, the Puritans, or the Episcopalians and Royalists, they -got away to New England, Maryland, or Virginia. By degrees the Indians -were driven back, and cotton, tobacco, and (in the West Indies) the -sugar cane became objects of cultivation. James abominated tobacco, and -published his "Counterblast" against it, laying various restrictions -upon its growth; but as the high duties imposed upon it proved very -profitable to the revenue, gradually these restrictions were relaxed, -and cultivation of it at home was prohibited in favour of the Colonies. -The Dutch had managed, under James and Charles, to engross the carrying -trade to the English American and West Indian colonies, having a strong -position at New Amsterdam, afterwards known as New York; but of this -Parliament deprived them in 1646, and extended, as we have seen, the -famous Navigation Act of 1651 to all the foreign trade of England. In -1655 Cromwell's conquest of Jamaica completed English power in the West -Indies. - -The growth of English commerce was soon conspicuous by one great -result, the growth of London. It was in vain that both James and -Charles issued repeated proclamations to prohibit fresh building -of houses, and to order the nobility and gentry to live more on -their estates in the country, and not in London, in habits of such -extravagance, and drawing together so much loose company after them. -From the union of the crowns of Scotland and England, this rapid -increase of the metropolis, so alarming to those kings, was more -than ever visible. When James came to the throne in 1603, London and -Westminster were a mile apart, but the Strand was quickly populated -by the crowds of Scots who followed the Court; and though St. -Giles's-in-the-Fields was then a distinct town, standing in the open -country, with a very deep and dirty lane, called Drury Lane, running -from it to the Strand, before the Civil War it had become united to -London and Westminster by new erections in Clare Market, Long Acre, -Bedfordbury, and the adjoining neighbourhood. Anderson in his "History -of Commerce," gives us some curious insight into this part of London -at that period. "The very names of the older streets about Covent -Garden," he observes, "are taken from the Royal family at this time, -or in the reign of Charles II., as Catherine Street, Duke Street, York -Street. Of James and Charles I.'s time, James Street, Charles Street, -Henrietta Street, etc., all laid out by the great architect, Inigo -Jones, as was also the fine piazza there, although that part where -stood the house and gardens of the Duke of Bedford is of much later -date, namely, in the reigns of King William and Queen Anne. Bloomsbury, -and the streets at the Seven Dials, were built up somewhat later, as -also Leicester Fields, since the restoration of Charles II., as also -almost all of St. James's and St. Anne's parishes, and a great part -of St. Martin's and St. Giles's. I have met with several old persons -in my younger days who remembered that there was but a single house, -a cake-house, between the Mews-gate at Charing Cross and St. James's -Palace Gate, where now stand the stately piles of St. James's Square, -Pall Mall, and other fine streets. They also remembered the west side -of St. Martin's Lane to have been a quickset hedge; yet High Holborn -and Drury Lane were filled with noblemen's and gentlemen's houses and -gardens almost a hundred and fifty years ago. Those five streets of the -south side of the Strand, running down to the river Thames, have all -been built since the beginning of the seventeenth century, upon the -sites of noblemen's houses and gardens, who removed farther westward, -as their names denote. Even some parts within the bars of the City of -London remained unbuilt within about a hundred and fifty years past, -particularly all the ground between Shoe Lane and Fewters, now Fetter, -Lane, so called, says Howell in his 'Londonopolis,' from Fewters, an -old appellation of idle people, loitering there, as in a way leading -to gardens; which, in Charles I.'s reign, and even some of them since, -have been built up into streets, lanes, etc. Several other parts of the -City have been rendered more populous by the removal of the nobility to -Westminster, on the sites of whose former spacious houses and gardens, -whole streets, lanes, and courts have been added to the City since the -death of Queen Elizabeth." - -[Illustration: CECIL, SECOND LORD BALTIMORE.] - -The extension of the metropolis necessitated the introduction of -hackney coaches, which first began to ply, but only twelve in number, -in 1625. In 1634 sedan-chairs were introduced to relieve the streets of -the rapidly increased number of hackney-coaches, and other carriages; -and in 1635 a post-office for the kingdom was established, a foreign -post having been for some years in existence. In 1653 the post was -farmed for ten thousand pounds a year. - -The annual revenue of James I. has been calculated at about six -hundred thousand pounds, yet he was always poor, and died leaving -debts to the amount of three hundred thousand pounds. He was prodigal -to his favourites, and wasteful in his habits. He left the estates of -the Crown, however, better than he found them, having raised their -annual income from thirty-two thousand pounds to eighty thousand -pounds, besides having sold lands to the amount of seven hundred and -seventy-five thousand pounds. He still prosecuted the exactions of -purveyance, wardship, etc., to the great annoyance of his subjects. On -the occasion of his son being made a knight, he raised a tax on every -knight's fee of twenty shillings, and on every twenty pounds of annual -rent from lands held directly of the Crown, thus raising twenty-one -thousand eight hundred pounds. On the marriage of his daughter -Elizabeth to the Elector Palatine, he levied an aid of twenty thousand -five hundred pounds, the last of these odious impositions which were -demanded. The Customs on his coming to the throne brought in one -hundred and twenty-seven thousand pounds a year; but towards the end -of his reign, showing the great increase of commerce, they amounted to -one hundred and ninety thousand pounds a year. But this was the tonnage -and poundage which was so hateful to the nation, and which James had -greatly augmented by his own act and deed; an encroachment which caused -Parliament to refuse to his son Charles the usual grant of those duties -for life; and his persistence in levying them, in spite of Parliament, -was one of the chief causes of his quarrel with that body, and the loss -of his crown. - -James was also a great trader in titles of nobility. His price for a -_barony_ was ten thousand pounds, for the title of _viscount_, twenty -thousand pounds, and for that of _earl_, thirty thousand pounds. He -also invented the new title of _baronet_, and raised two hundred and -twenty-five thousand pounds by it, at the rate of one thousand and -ninety-five pounds each baronetcy. From so dignified a source do many -of our aristocracy derive their honours. - -Charles, though he was driven to such fatal extremities to extort -money from his subjects, is calculated to have realised the enormous -revenue from 1637 to 1641 inclusive, of eight hundred and ninety-five -thousand pounds, of which two hundred and ten thousand pounds arose -from Ship-money and other illegal sources. Both he and his father dealt -in wholesale monopolies to their courtiers and others, the profits of -which were so embezzled by those greedy and unprincipled men, that -Clarendon says that of two hundred thousand pounds of such income in -Charles's time, only one thousand five hundred pounds reached the -royal treasury. Charles raised two hundred thousand pounds in 1626 by -a forced loan, and another hundred thousand by exacting the fees or -compensation for exemption from the assumption of knighthood by every -person worth forty pounds a year. - -The income and expenditure of the Commonwealth are stated to have -far exceeded those of any monarch who ever sat before on the throne -of England, and to have been not less than four million four hundred -thousand pounds per annum. The post office, as already stated, brought -in ten thousand pounds per annum. A singular tax, called the Weekly -Meal, or the price of a meal a week from each person, produced -upwards of one hundred thousand pounds a year, or six hundred and -eight thousand four hundred pounds in the six years during which it -was levied. There was a weekly assessment for the support of the war, -which rose from thirty-eight thousand pounds to one hundred and twenty -thousand pounds per week, which was continued as a land tax under the -Protectorate, producing from 1640 to 1659 no less than thirty-two -million one hundred and seventy-two thousand three hundred and -twenty-one pounds. The Excise also owes its origin to this period, and -produced, it is said, five hundred thousand pounds a year. Large sums -were realised by the sales of Crown and Church lands,--from the sale -of Crown lands, parks, etc., one million eight hundred and fifty-eight -thousand pounds; from the sale of Church lands, ten million pounds; -from sequestration of the revenue of the clergy for four years, three -million five hundred thousand pounds; eight hundred and fifty thousand -pounds from incomes of offices sequestered for the public service; four -million five hundred thousand pounds from the sequestration of private -estates or compositions for them; one million pounds from compositions -with delinquents in Ireland; three million five hundred thousand -pounds from the sale of forfeited estates in England and Ireland, etc. -The ministers and commanders are asserted to have taken good care of -themselves. Cromwell's own income is stated at nearly two million -pounds, or one million nine hundred thousand pounds; namely, one -million five hundred thousand pounds from England, forty-three thousand -pounds from Scotland, and two hundred and eight thousand pounds from -Ireland. The members of Parliament were paid at the rate of four pounds -a week each, or about three hundred thousand pounds a year altogether; -and Walker, in his "History of Independency," says that Lenthall, the -Speaker, held offices to the amount of nearly eight thousand pounds a -year; that Bradshaw had Eltham Palace, and an estate of one thousand -pounds a year, as bestowed for presiding at the king's trial; and -that nearly eight hundred thousand pounds were spent on gifts to -adherents of the party. As these statements, however, are those of -their adversaries, they no doubt admit of ample abatement; but after -all deduction, the demands of king and Parliament on the country during -the contest, and of the Protectorate in keeping down its enemies, must -have been enormous. Notwithstanding this, the rate of interest on money -continued through this period to decline. During James's reign it was -ten per cent.; in 1625, the last year of his reign, it was reduced to -eight per cent., and in 1651 it was fixed by the Parliament at six per -cent., at which rate it remained. - -James issued various coinages. Soon after his accession he issued a -coinage of gold and one of silver. The gold was of two qualities. -The first of twenty-three carats three and a half grains, consisting -of angels, half-angels, and quarter-angels; value ten shillings, -five shillings, and two-and-sixpence. The inferior quality, of only -twenty-two carats, consisted of sovereigns, half-sovereigns, crowns, -and half-crowns. His silver coinage (_see_ Vol. II., p. 436) consisted -of crowns, half-crowns, shillings, sixpences, twopences, pence, and -halfpence. The gold coins, being of more value than that amount of -gold on the Continent, were rapidly exported, and the value of the -finest gold was then raised from thirty-three pounds ten shillings -to thirty-seven pounds four shillings and sixpence. The next coinage -at this value consisted of a twenty-shilling piece called the unit, -ten shillings called the double crown, five shillings or the Britain -crown, four shillings or the thistle crown, and two-and-sixpence, -or half-crown. (_See_ Vol. II., p. 432.) This value of the gold was -not found high enough, and the next year, in a fresh coinage, it was -valued at forty pounds ten shillings, and consisted of rose rials -of thirty shillings each, spur rials fifteen shillings, and angels -at ten shillings each. But gold still rising in value, in 1611 the -unit was raised to twenty-two shillings, and the other coins in -proportion. In 1612 there was a great rise in gold, and James issued -fresh twenty-shilling, ten-shilling, and five-shilling pieces, known -as laurels, from the king's head being wreathed with laurel. The unit -and twenty-shilling pieces were termed hood pieces. Besides the royal -coinage, shopkeepers and other retailers put out tokens of brass and -lead, which in 1613 were prohibited, and the first copper coinage in -England, being of farthings, was issued. - -The coins of Charles were, for the most part, of the same nature as -those of his father. During his reign silver rose so much in value that -it was melted down and exported to a vast extent. Though between 1630 -and 1643 some ten million pounds of silver were coined, it became so -scarce that the people had to give a premium for change in silver. In -1637 Charles established a mint at Aberystwith, for coining the Welsh -silver, which was of great value to him during the war. From 1628 to -1640 Nicholas Briot, a Frenchman, superintended the cutting of the -dies, instituted machinery for the hammer in coining and his coins were -of remarkable beauty. (_See_ Vol. II., p. 540.) Charles erected mints -at most of his headquarters during the war, as Oxford, Shrewsbury, -York, and other places, the coiners and dies of Aberystwith being used, -and these coins are distinguished by the Prince of Wales's feathers. -Many of these coins are of the rudest character; and besides these -there were issued siege pieces, so called from the besieged castles -where they were made, as Newark, Scarborough, Carlisle, and Pontefract. -Some of these are mere bits of silver plate with the rude stamp of the -castle on one side and the name of the town on the other. Others are -octagonal, others lozenge-shaped, others of scarcely any regular shape. -(_See p._ 29.) - -The Commonwealth at first coined the same coins as the king, only -distinguishing them by a P for Parliament. They afterwards adopted dies -of their own, having on one side a St. George's cross on an antique -shield encircled with a palm and laurel, and on the other two antique -shields, one bearing the cross and the other the harp, surrounded by -the words GOD WITH US. Their small silver coins had the arms only -without any legend. - -The coins of the Protectorate have on the obverse a bust of Cromwell, -round which is this inscription: "_Oliver D.G. R.P. Ang. Sco. -Hib. &c. Pro._" On the reverse they bear a shield, having in the -first and fourth quarters St. George's cross, in the second St. -Andrew's, in the third a harp, and in the centre a lion rampant on an -escutcheon--Cromwell's own arms--surmounted by an imperial crown. The -legend on this side is "_Pax quæritur bello_" (Peace is sought by war). -The larger silver pieces have this motto round the edge: "_Has nisi -periturus mihi adimat nemo_" (_i.e._ "Let no one take from me these -letters unless about to die"). In those days the penalty for clipping -and filing money was death. (_See p._ 121.) - -The coins of the Commonwealth were the same for Ireland and Scotland -as for England. This was not the case in the reigns of James and -Charles, and the coins, though bearing the same arms, had generally a -very different value. For Ireland James coined silver and copper money -of about three-quarters the value of English, and called in the base -coinage used by Elizabeth in the time of the rebellion. Charles only -coined some silver in 1641, during the government of Lord Ormond, and -therefore called Ormonds. Copper halfpence and farthings of that period -are supposed to have been coined by the rebel Papists of 1642. - -In agriculture and gardening the English were excelled by their -neighbours the Dutch and Flemings. Towards the latter part of this -period, however, they began to imitate those nations, and to introduce -their modes of drainage, their roots and seeds. In 1652 the advantage -of growing clover was pointed out by Bligh, in his "Improver Improved," -and Sir Richard Weston recommended soon afterwards the Flemish mode -of cultivating the turnip for winter fodder for cattle and sheep. -Gardening was more attended to, and both vegetables and flowers were -introduced. Samuel Hartlib, a Pole, who was patronised by Cromwell, -wrote various treatises on agriculture, and relates that in his time -old men recollected the first gardener who went into Surrey to plant -cabbages, cauliflowers, and artichokes, and to sow early peas, turnips, -carrots, and parsnips. Till then almost all the supply of these -things in London was imported from Holland and Flanders. About that -time (1650), however, cherries, apples, pears, hops, cabbages, and -liquorice were rapidly cultivated, and soon superseded the necessity of -importation; but onions were still scarce, and the supply of stocks of -apple, pear, cherry, vine, and chestnut trees was difficult for want -of sufficient nurseries for them. There was a zealous endeavour to -promote the production of raw silk, and mulberry trees and silkworms -were introduced, but the abundant supply of silk from India, and the -perfection of the silk manufactured in France, rendered this scheme -abortive. - -[Illustration: CHEAPSIDE AND THE CROSS IN 1660.] - -Whilst James was hunting and levying taxes without a Parliament, and -Charles was in continual strife with his people for unconstitutional -power and revenue, literature and art were still at work, and producing -or preparing some of the noblest and choicest creations of genius. -Shakespeare and Milton were the great lights of the age; but around and -beside them burned a whole galaxy of lesser, but not less exquisite, -luminaries, whose selected beauties are just as delightful now as -they were to their contemporaries. The names of this period, to which -we still turn with admiration, reverence, and affection, are chiefly -Shakespeare, Milton, Bacon, Marlowe, Massinger, Webster, Selden, -Herrick, Herbert, Quarles, Bunyan, Bishop Hall, Hales, Chillingworth, -Jeremy Taylor, Raleigh, Sir Thomas Browne, Burton (of the "Anatomy -of Melancholy"), and Drummond of Hawthornden. But there are numbers -of others, more unequal or more scholastic, to whose works we can -occasionally turn, and find passages of wonderful beauty and power. - -[Illustration: THE "GLOBE" THEATRE, SOUTHWARK (WITH THE "ROSE" THEATRE -IN THE DISTANCE), IN 1613. - -(_From a Contemporary Print._)] - -As we come first to Shakespeare, who figured largely on the scene in -the days of Queen Bess, and whose poetry we have already reviewed -(Vol. II., pp. 373-5), we may take the drama of this period also -in connection with him. A formal criticism on Shakespeare would be -superfluous. There are whole volumes of comment on this greatest of our -great writers, both in this language and others. The Germans, indeed, -pride themselves on understanding him better than ourselves. The -Scandinavians equally venerate him, and have an admirable translation -of his dramas. Even the French, the tone and spirit of whose literature -are so different from ours, have, of late years, begun to comprehend -and receive him. The fact is, Shakespeare's genius is what the -Germans term spherical, or many-sided. He had not a brilliancy in one -direction only, but he seemed like a grand mirror, in which is truly -reflected every image that falls on it. Outward nature, inner life -and passion, town and country, all the features of human nature, as -exhibited in every grade of life--from the cottage to the throne--are -in him expressed with a truth and a natural strength, that awake in -us precisely the same sensations as nature itself. The receptivity of -his mind was as quick, as vast, as perfect, as his power of expression -was unlimited. Every object once seen appeared photographed on his -spirit, and he reproduced these lifelike images in new combinations, -and mingled with such an exuberance of wit, of humour, of delicious -melodies, and of exquisite poetry, as has no parallel in the whole -range of literature. - -It has been said that his dramas cast into the shade and made -obsolete all that went before him; but, indeed, his great light -equally overwhelms also all that has come after him. Where is the -second Shakespeare of the stage? He still stands alone as the type of -dramatic greatness and perfection, and is likely to continue so. When -we recollect his marvellous characters--his Hamlet, his Macbeth, his -Lady Macbeth, his Othello, his Shylock, his Lear, his Ophelia, his -Beatrice, his Juliet, his Rosalind--the humours and follies of Shallow, -Slender, Dogberry, Touchstone, Bottom, Launce, Falstaff--or his ideal -creations, Ariel, Caliban, Puck, Queen Mab--we cannot hope for the -appearance of any single genius who shall at once enrich our literature -with such living and speaking characters, such a profound insight into -the depths and eccentricities of human nature, and such a fervent and -varied expression of all the sentiments that are dearest to our hearts. -But when we survey in addition the vast extent of history and country -over which he has roamed, gleaning thence the most kingly personages, -the most tragic incidents, the most moving and thrilling as well as the -most amusing sensations and fancies, our wonder is the greater. Greece -has lent him its Pericles, its Timon, its Troilus and Cressida--Rome -its Cæsar, Brutus, Antony, Coriolanus--Egypt its Cleopatra. -Ancient Britain, Scotland, and Denmark; all the fairest cities of -Italy--Venice, Verona, Mantua; the forests of Illyria and Belgium, and -the isles of the Grecian seas, are made the perpetually shifting arena -of his triumphs. Through all these he ranged with a free hand, and, -with a power mightier than ever was wielded by any magician, recalled -to life all that was most illustrious there, giving them new and more -piquant effect from the sympathetic nearness into which he brought -them with the spectator, and from the enchanting scenery with which -he surrounded them. All this was done by the son of the woolcomber of -Stratford--the youthful ranger of the woods of Charlecote, and the -uplands of Clopton,--the merry frequenter of country wakes, and then -the player of London, who, so far as we know, was never out of his -native land in his life. - -If we are to take it for granted that after the year 1597, when he -bought one of the best houses in his native town for his residence, -Shakespeare spent his life there, except during the theatrical season, -the greater part of his last nineteen years would be passed in the -quiet of his country home. We may then settle his _Two Gentlemen of -Verona_, _The Comedy of Errors_, _Love's Labours Lost_, _All's Well -that Ends Well_, _Richard II._ and _Richard III._, _King John_, _Titus -Andronicus_ (if his), the first part of _Henry IV._, and _Romeo and -Juliet_, as produced in the bustle of his London life. But the far -greater part, and the most magnificent and poetical, of his dramas -were composed in the pleasant retirement of his native scenes; namely, -the second part of _Henry IV._, _Henry V._, _A Midsummer Night's -Dream_, _Much Ado about Nothing_, and _The Merchant of Venice_, in -1598 and 1600; the second and third parts of _Henry VI._, _Merry -Wives of Windsor_, 1601; _Hamlet_, 1602; _Lear_, 1608; _Troilus and -Cressida_ and _Pericles_, 1609; _Othello_ (not published till after -the author's death, which was the case, too, with all his other -plays, though brought on the stage in his lifetime), _The Winter's -Tale_, _As You Like It_, _King Henry VIII._, _Measure for Measure_, -_Cymbeline_, _Macbeth_, _The Taming of the Shrew_, _Julius Cæsar_, -_Antony and Cleopatra_, _Coriolanus_, _Timon of Athens_, _The Tempest_, -and _Twelfth Night_. Shakespeare died in 1616. Of the envy which the -unexampled splendour of Shakespeare's genius produced amongst inferior -dramatic writers, we have an amusing specimen in the words of Robert -Greene: "There is an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that, -with his tiger's heart wrapped in a player's hide, supposes he is -as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you, and, -being an absolute Johannes Factotum, is, in his own conceit, the only -_Shakscene_ in a country." - -Amongst the most remarkable dramatic contemporaries of Shakespeare, or -those who immediately followed him, were Chapman, Ben Jonson, Webster, -Middleton, Dekker, Marston, Taylor, Tourneur, Rowley, Ford, Heywood, -Shirley, and Beaumont and Fletcher. George Chapman (_born_, 1557; -_died_, 1634) wrote sixteen plays, and, conjointly with Ben Jonson -and Marston, one more, as well as three in conjunction with Shirley. -The tragedies of Chapman are written in a grave and eloquent diction, -and abound with fine passages, but you feel at once that they are not -calculated, like Shakespeare's, for acting. They want the inimitable -life, ease, and beauty of the great dramatist. Perhaps his tragedy -of _Bussy D'Ambois_ is his best, and next to that his _Conspiracy -and Tragedy of Charles, Duke of Byron_. Of his comedies, the best -are, _Eastward Ho!_ partly composed by Jonson and Marston, _Monsieur -d'Olive_, and his _All Fools_. But Chapman's fame now rests on his -translation of Homer, which, with all its rudeness of style and extreme -quaintness, has always seized on the imagination of poets, and has been -declared to be the best translation of the "Iliad" and "Odyssey" that -we possess. Pope was greatly indebted to it, having borrowed from it -almost all the felicitous double epithets which are found in him. - -The most celebrated of Webster's tragedies, _The Duchess of Malfi_, -was revived by Richard Hengist Horne, and put on the stage at Sadler's -Wells by Phelps with considerable success. He was the author of -three tragedies, _Appius and Virginia_, _Duchess of Malfi_, and _The -White Devil, or, Vittoria Corombona_; a tragic comedy, _The Devil's -Law Case, or, When Women Go to Law, the Devil is full of Business_, -besides two comedies in conjunction with Rowley, and two others -in conjunction with Dekker. Webster exhibits remarkable power of -language, and an imagination of wonderful vigour, but rather too fond -of horrors. Undoubtedly he was one of the best dramatists of his age, -and seemed fully conscious of it. That he had a true poetic vein in -him is evidenced by such passages as the "Dirge of Marcello," sung by -his mother, which reminds one of the like simple homely ditties in -Shakespeare:-- - - "Call for the robin red-breast and the wren, - Since o'er shady groves they hover, - And with leaves and flowers do cover - The friendless bodies of unburied men. - Call unto his funeral dole - The ant, the field-mouse, and the mole, - To raise him hillocks that shall keep him warm, - And when grey tombs are robbed, sustain no harm." - -There are fine truths also scattered through his dramas as:--"To see -what solitariness is about dying princes! As heretofore they have -unpeopled towns, divided friends, and made great houses inhospitable, -so now, O justice, where are their flatterers? Flatterers are but the -shadows of princes' bodies; the least thick cloud makes them invisible." - -Of Middleton, who wrote from twenty to thirty plays, in some of which, -according to a very prevalent fashion of that age, he called in the aid -of Rowley, Dekker, Fletcher, and Massinger; of Dekker, who wrote the -whole or part of about thirty plays; of John Marston, who wrote eight -plays; of Taylor, Tourneur, Heywood, and Ford, we can only say that -their dramas abound with fine things, and would well repay a perusal. -John Fletcher (_born_, 1576; _died_, 1625) and Francis Beaumont -(_born_, 1586; _died_, 1616) require a more specific notice. They -worked together on the same plays to the number of upwards of thirty, -whilst John Fletcher wrote fourteen or fifteen himself. In fact, -Fletcher, so far as can be known, was the more voluminous writer of the -two, Beaumont having written little in his own name, except a masque, -a few farces, dramatic pieces, and translations. The style of the -two, however, was so much alike, that there is little to distinguish -their productions from those of an individual mind. Beaumont and -Fletcher were, as stated by Dryden, far more popular in their time than -Shakespeare himself. The truth is, that they had less originality and -were more compliant with the spirit of their age. They sought their -characters more in the range of ordinary life, and therefore hit the -tastes of a large and commoner class. They were extremely lively and -forcible in dialogue, and had a flowery and dignified style which -oftener approached the poetical than became it. We are everywhere met -by admirable writing, and a finely-sustained tone, but we travel on -without encountering those original characters that can never again be -forgotten, and become a part of our world, or those exquisite gushes of -poetry and poetic scenery which, like the music of Ariel, ring in the -memory long afterwards. At the same time we are continually offended by -extreme grossness and jarred by slovenliness and incongruity. They are -of the class of great and able playwrights who command the popularity -of their age, but whom future ages praise and neglect; and who are only -read by the curious for the fragments of good things that they contain. - -The fate of Ben Jonson (_b._, 1574; _d._, 1637) has been nearly the -same. Excepting his comedies of _Every Man in his Humour_, _Volpone_, -_The Silent Woman_, and _The Alchemist_, we are content to read the -bulk of his dramas, and wonder at his erudition and his wit. His -genius is most conspicuous in his masques and Court pageants, which -were the delight of James's queen, Anne of Denmark, and the whole -Court. In them the spirits of the woods seem to mingle with those -of courts and cities; and fancy and a hue of romance give to royal -festivities the impressions of Arcadian life. But the living poetry of -the _Midsummer Night's Dream_ or of _Comus_ is yet wanting to touch -them with perfection. Hence their chief charm died with the age which -patronised them, and having once perused them, we are not drawn to them -again by a loving memory, as we are to the Shakespearean woodlands and -lyrical harmonies. In Jonson's graver dramas there is a cold classical -tone which leaves the affections untouched and the feelings unmoved, -while we respect the artistic skill and the learned dignity of the -composition. - -Philip Massinger (_b._, 1584; _d._, 1640), who wrote nearly forty -dramatic pieces, is a vigorous writer, eloquent and effective. He is -trenchant in his satire, and delights in displaying pride and meanness -exposed and punished. Still he is greater as a dramatist than a poet. -His _New Way to Pay Old Debts_ and _The Fatal Dowry_ are best known to -lovers of the drama. The _City Madam_ is a play which is full of strong -features of the times. Dekker assisted him in _The Virgin Martyr_, and -is supposed to have introduced a higher and richer vein of feeling than -belonged to Massinger himself. - -Altogether the dramatic writing of this period has never been -surpassed, and in Shakespeare has never been equalled. There is -mingled with much licentiousness and coarseness a manly and healthy -strength in the writers of this department; and though the bulk of -these compositions have vanished from the stage, they will be long -studied with enjoyment by those who delight in living portraiture of -past ages, and the strong current of genuine English sense and feeling. -The arrival of the Commonwealth put down all theatres and scenic -amusements. The solemn religion of the Puritans was death to what -they called "the lascivious mirth and levity of players." After their -suppression for six years, it was found that the ordinance of the Long -Parliament was clandestinely and extensively evaded; and in 1648 an -Act was passed ordering all theatres to be pulled down and demolished, -and the players to be punished "as rogues according to law." Towards -the end of the Protectorate, however, dramatic representations again -crept in cautiously, and Sir William Davenant at first giving musical -entertainments and declamations at Rutland House, Charterhouse Square, -and afterwards in Drury Lane, calling his entertainments "operas," at -length gave regular plays. The Restoration at last set the imprisoned -drama altogether free. - -Besides dramatic writers, poets abounded. It has been calculated that -from the reign of Elizabeth to the Restoration, no less than four -hundred writers of verse appeared. Some of these, who attained a great -reputation in their day, and whose works are still retained in our -collections, were rather verse-wrights than poets, and would now tax -the patience of poetical readers beyond endurance. Such were William -Warner, the author of "Albion's England," a history of England in -metre extending from Noah's flood to the reign of Elizabeth; Samuel -Daniel, the author of the "Civil Wars of Lancaster and York," in eight -books; and Michael Drayton, who also wrote the "Barons' Wars" in verse, -"England's Heroical Epistles," and, above all, the "Polyolbion," a -topography in Alexandrine verse, in thirty books, and thirty thousand -lines. Next came Giles and Phineas Fletcher, who employed their -strength in composing allegoric poems. Phineas, under the delusive -appellation of "The Purple Island," wrote an anatomical description of -the human body, with all its veins, arteries, sinews, and so forth. -This was extended to twelve books, on which an abundance of very -excellent language was wasted. Besides this, he composed "Piscatory -Eclogues," and other poems; and Giles, choosing a worthier subject, -wrote "Christ's Victory," in the Italian _ottava rima_, or eight-lined -stanzas. To such perversion of the name of poetry had men arrived in -the age of Shakespeare. - -There were sundry poets who were also translators. Of these, -Edward Fairfax, of the same family as Lord Fairfax, was the most -distinguished. He translated with singular vigour and poetic feeling -Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered." It is still referred to with intense -pleasure by the lovers of our old poetry. Joshua Sylvester--who -wrote like King James against tobacco, but in verse, "Tobacco -Battered"--translated, amongst other things, "The Divine Weeks and -Works" of the French poet Du Bartas. Sir Richard Fanshawe translated -the "Lusiad," by the Portuguese poet Camoens. Fanshawe, moreover, -translated the "Pastor Fido" of Guarini, from the Italian, the "Odes" -of Horace, the fourth book of the "Æneid," and the "Love for Love's -Sake," of the Spaniard Mendoza. Fanshawe seemed to have a peculiar -taste for the European languages derived from the Latin as for the -Latin itself; thus he translated from Roman, Spanish, Portuguese, and -Italian poets, and from all with much taste and elegance. - -Sir John Denham was a popular poet of the time, and his "Cooper's -Hill" is still retained in our collections, and finds readers amongst -admirers of descriptive poetry. Writers of much more sterling poetry -were Sir John Davies, Drummond of Hawthornden, Bishop Hall, and Donne. -Sir John Davies was long Attorney-General, and Chief-Justice of the -King's Bench at the time of his death (_b._, 1570; _d._, 1626). -He is author of a poem on dancing called the "Orchestra," but his -great work is his "_Nosce Teipsum_," or "Know Thyself," a work which -treats on human knowledge and the immortality of the soul. It is -written in quatrains, or four-lined stanzas, and is one of the finest -philosophical poems in the language as it was one of the first. There -are a life and feeling in the poem which make it always fresh, like -the waters of a pure and deep fountain. Speaking of the soul, he -says:-- - - "Yet under heaven she cannot light on aught, - That with her heavenly nature doth agree; - She cannot rest, she cannot fix her thought, - She cannot in this world contented be. - - "For who did ever yet in honour, wealth, - Or pleasure of the sense, contentment find? - Who ever ceased to wish when he had wealth, - Or, having wisdom, was not vexed in mind? - - "Then as a bee which among weeds doth fall, - Which seem sweet flowers with lustre fresh and gay, - She lights on that and this and tasteth all, - But pleased with none, doth rise and soar away." - -[Illustration: HAWTHORNDEN IN 1773. (_After an Etching by John Clerk of -Eldin._)] - -Drummond of Hawthornden, near Edinburgh, wrote, besides considerable -prose, some exquisite poems and sonnets formed on the Italian model; -and Bishop Hall, in his satires, presents some of the most graphic -sketches of English life, manners, and scenery. Dr. Donne, who was -Dean of St. Paul's, and the most fashionable preacher of his day, -was also the most fashionable poet--we do not except Shakespeare. He -was the rage, in fact, of all admirers of poetry, and was the head -of a school of which Cowley was the most extravagant disciple, and -of which Crashaw, Wither, Herrick, Herbert, and Quarles had more -or less of the characteristics. In all these poets there was deep -feeling of spirituality, religion, and wit, and, in some of them, of -nature, dashed and marred by a fantastic style, full of quaintnesses -and conceits. In some of them these were so tempered as to give them -an original and piquant air, as in Herrick, Herbert, and Quarles; in -others, as in Donne and Cowley, they degenerated into disfigurement and -absurdity. But Donne (_b._, 1573; _d._, 1631) had great and shining -qualities, keen, bold satire, profound and intellectual thoughts, and -a most sparkling fancy, embedding rich touches of passion and pathos, -yet so marred by uncouth and strange conceits, that one scarcely -knows how to estimate his compositions. In a word, they are the exact -antipodes of the natural style, and this fashion was carried to its -utmost extravagance by Cowley. A stanza or two from a parting address -of a lover to his mistress may show something of Donne's quality and -manner:-- - - "As virtuous men pass mildly away, - And whisper to their souls to go; - Whilst some of their sad friends do say - The breath goes now, and some say, no; - - "So let us melt and make no noise, - No tear-floods nor sigh-tempests move; - 'Twere profanation of our joys, - To tell the laity of our love. - - "Moving of th' earth brings harms and fears, - Men reckon what it did and meant; - But trepidation of the spheres, - Though greater far, is innocent." - -George Wither (_b._, 1588; _d._, 1667) has much less of what a -contemporary happily styled the "Occult School." He says himself that -he took "little pleasure in rhymes, fictions, or conceited compositions -for their own sakes," but preferred "such as flowed forth without -study;" and indeed, he has far more nature. He was confined for years -in the Marshalsea prison, for publishing a biting satire, called -"Abuses Stripped and Whipped," and there he wrote a long allegorical -poem, called "The Shepherds' Hunting," in which his description of -Poetry is a perfect gem of fancy and natural feeling:-- - - "By the murmur of a spring, - Or the least boughs rustling, - By a daisy, whose leaves spread, - Shut when Titan goes to bed; - Or a shady bush or tree, - She could more infuse in me - Than all Nature's beauties can - In some other wiser man." - -Two songs of Wither's, quoted in Percy's "Reliques"--"The Steadfast -Shepherd," and the one beginning - - "Shall I, wasting in despair, - Die because a woman's fair? - Or make pale my cheeks with care - 'Cause another's rosy are? - Be she fairer than the day, - Or the flowery meads in May; - If she be not so to me, - What care I how fair she be?"-- - -are exquisite lines, that no reader ever forgets. - -Crashaw (_b._, 1616; _d._, 1650) was of a deeply religious tone of -mind, and became a Catholic. His finest poems are his religious ones, -and they are full of music and passionate reveries, yet disfigured by -the Donne fashion, which Dryden, and after him Johnson, inaccurately -termed the Metaphysical School, instead of the Fantastic or Singularity -School. His very first poem, called "The Weeper," shows how he treated -even sacred subjects:-- - - "Hail, sister springs! - Parents of silver-forded rills, - Ever-bubbling things! - Thawing crystal, snowy hills, - Still spending, never spent, I mean - Thy fair eyes, sweet Magdalene. - - "Heavens thy fair eyes be, - Heavens of ever-falling stars; - 'Tis seed-time still with thee, - And stars thou sow'st, whose harvest dares - Promise the earth to countershine, - Whatever makes heaven's forehead shine." - -Carew, Suckling, Lovelace are poets whose merits, in their various -styles, would deserve a separate examination, but we must pass on -to three other poets, who have been more known to modern readers, -and who would of themselves have stamped their age as one of genuine -inspiration--Herbert, Herrick, and Quarles. Herbert and Herrick, -like Donne, were clergymen, and in their quiet country parsonages -poured forth some of the most exquisite lyrics which enrich any -language. Herrick may be said to be the born poet of nature--Herbert -of devotion. Robert Herrick (_b._, 1591; _d._, 1674) was of an old -family of Leicestershire. His lyrics, so full of grace, are the very -soul of Nature's melody and rapture. He revels in all the charms of the -country--flowers, buds, fairies, bees, the gorgeous blossoming May, -the pathos and antique simplicity of rural life; its marriages, its -churchyard histories, its imagery of awaking and fading existence. The -free, joyous, quaint, and musical flow and rhythm of his verse have -all that felicity and that ring of woodland cadences which mark the -snatches of rustic verse which Shakespeare scatters through his dramas. -His "Night Piece to Juliet," beginning-- - - "Her eyes the glow-worm lend thee, - The shooting stars attend thee, - And the elves also - Whose little eyes glow - Like sparks of fire, befriend thee!" - -is precisely of that character. His "Daffodils" express the beautiful -but melancholy sentiment which he so frequently found in nature:-- - - "Fair daffodils, we weep to see - You haste away so soon; - As yet the early rising sun - Has not attained his noon. - Stay, stay, - Until the hastening day - Has run - But to the evensong, - And having prayed together, we - Will go with you along. - - "We have short time to stay as you, - We have as short a spring, - As quick a growth to meet decay - As you, or anything. - We die, - As your hours do; and dry - Away - Like to the summer rain, - Or as the pearls of morning dew, - Ne'er to be found again." - -Herrick's works are his "Hesperides" and his "Noble Numbers," the -latter being religious, and not equal to the former. - -In religious tone, intensity, and grandeur, George Herbert (_b._, 1593; -_d._, 1633) is his superior. Herbert was in early life a courtier; his -eldest brother being the celebrated sceptical writer, Lord Herbert of -Cherbury. Herbert's hopes of Court preferment fortunately ceasing with -the death of King James, he took orders, grew extremely religious, -married an admirable wife, and retired to Bemerton parsonage, about a -mile from Salisbury, where he died of consumption at the age of forty. -Herbert was the very personification of Chaucer's "Good Parson." His -life was one constant scene of piety and benevolence. Beloved by his -parishioners, happy in his congenial wife, and passionately fond of -music and his poetry, his days glided away as already in heaven. The -music which he loved was poured into his poetry, which overflows with -tender and profound feeling, the most chaste and seraphic imagination, -and the most fervent devotion. James Montgomery, of later times, not a -little resembled him in his pure and beautiful piety; but there is in -Herbert a greater vigour, more dignity of style, and finer felicity of -imagery. There is a gravity, a sublimity, and a sweetness which mingle -in his devotional lyrics, and endear them for ever to the heart. His -"Temple" is a poetic fabric worthy of a Christian minstrel, and stands -as an immortal refutation of the oft-repeated theory, that religious -poetry cannot be at once original and attractive. What can be more -noble than the following stanzas from his poem entitled "Man"?-- - - "For us the winds do blow; - The earth doth rest, heavens move, and fountains flow. - Nothing we see but means our good, - As our delight, or as our treasure: - The whole is either our cupboard of food - Or cabinet of pleasure. - - "The stars have us to bed; - Night draws the curtain which the sun withdraws, - Music and light attend our head. - All things to our _flesh_ are kind - In their _descent_ and _being_; to our _mind_ - In their _ascent_ and _cause_. - - "Each thing is full of duty: - Waters united are our navigation; - Distinguished, our habitation; - Below, our drink--above, our meat: - Both are our cleanliness. Hath one such beauty? - Then how are all things neat! - - "More servants wait on man - Than he'll take notice of: in every path - He treads down that which doth befriend him - When sickness makes him pale and wan. - Oh! mighty love! man is one world, and hath - Another to attend him." - -Besides his "Temple," Herbert wrote a prose work, "The Priest to the -Temple; or, the Country Parson," which is charmingly full of the -simple, child-like piety of the author. He also collected a great -number of proverbs, under the title of "Jacula Prudentum." - -The third of the trio of poets who seem to class themselves together -by their quaintness, their fancy, and their piety, is Francis Quarles, -(_b._, 1592; _d._, 1644) a man who has been treated by many critics -as a mere poetaster, but who is one of the most sterling poets which -English genius has produced. Quarles was a gentleman and a scholar; in -his youth he was cup-bearer to Elizabeth of Bohemia, and was finally -ruined by taking the Royal side in the Civil Wars. He wrote various -poetical works; "Argalus and Parthenia," "A Feast for Worms," "Zion's -Elegies," and a series of elegies on the death of a friend, the son -of Bishop Aylmer. But the great work of Quarles is his "Emblems," -which originated in a Latin poem by Herman Hugo, a Jesuit, called "Pia -Desideria." This book, condemned and overlooked by the great critics, -like Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress," has, from generation to generation, -adorned with curious woodcuts, circulated amongst the people in town -and country, till it has won an extraordinary popularity: and that -it has well deserved it, we need only read such verses as these to -convince ourselves:-- - - "I love, and have some cause to love, the earth: - She is my Maker's creature--therefore good; - She is my mother--for she gave me birth; - She is my tender nurse--she gives me food. - But what's a creature, Lord, compared with Thee? - Or what's my mother, or my nurse, to me? - - "I love the air: her dainty sweets refresh - My drooping soul, and to new sweets invite me; - Her shrill-mouthed quires sustain me with their flesh - And with their Polyphonian notes delight me. - But what's the air, or all the sweets that she - Can bless my soul withal, compared to Thee? - - "I love the sea: she is my fellow-creature-- - My careful purveyor; she provides me store; - She walls me round, she makes my diet greater; - She wafts my treasure from a foreign shore. - But, Lord of oceans, when compared to Thee, - What is the ocean, or her health to me? - - "To heaven's high city I direct my journey, - Whose spangled suburbs entertain mine eye; - Mine eye, by contemplation's great attorney, - Transcends the crystal pavement of the sky. - But what is heaven, great God, compared to Thee? - Without Thy presence, heaven's no heaven to me. - - "Without Thy presence, earth gives no refection; - Without Thy presence, sea affords no treasure; - Without Thy presence, air's a rank infection; - Without Thy presence, heaven itself's no pleasure. - If not possessed, if not enjoyed in Thee, - What's earth, or sea, or air, or heaven to me?" - -William Browne's "Britannia's Pastorals," written at this period, -have been much and justly celebrated for their faithful transcripts -of nature and country life. There are others, besides, that sue for -recognition as among the genuine poets of those times--Raleigh, as a -lyrical poet; Sir Henry Wotton; Henry Vaughan, the author of "Silex -Scintillans" and "Olor Iscanus," a disciple of Herbert's, who would -demand a notice were it only to show how freely Campbell borrowed the -poem of "The Rainbow" from him:-- - - "How bright wert thou when Shem's admiring eye - Thy burning, flaming arch did first descry! - When Zerah, Nahor, Haran, Abram, Lot, - _The youthful world's grey fathers_ in one knot, - Did with attentive looks _watch every hour - For thy new light_." - -And so Campbell:-- - - "When on the green, undeluged earth, - Heaven's covenant, thou didst shine; - How came _the world's grey fathers_ forth - _To watch thy sacred sign_." - -Altogether, no age--not even our own--has produced such a constellation -of poets, nor such a mass of exquisite, superb, and imperishable -poetry. Whilst Shakespeare was fast departing, Milton was rising, -and during this period wrote many of his inimitable smaller poems. -Even honest Andrew Marvell, when freed from his labours in the great -struggle for the Commonwealth, solaced himself with writing poetry, -English and Latin, and some of it of no contemptible order, as in his -boat-song of the exiles of the Bermudas:-- - - "Thus they sang in the English boat - A holy and a cheerful note, - And all the way, to guide the chime, - They with the falling oars kept time." - -So he forgot occasionally polemics and politics in "a holy and a -cheerful note" of his own. Even the saturnine Sir Thomas Overbury, whom -Somerset and his wife had murdered in the Tower, could brighten up in -poetry as in his "Choice of a Wife:"-- - - "If I were to choose a woman, - As who knows but I may marry, - I would trust the eye of no man, - Nor a tongue that may miscarry; - For in way of love and glory - Each tongue best tells his own story." - -The prose of the age was equally remarkable. First and foremost stands -Francis Bacon (_b._, 1561; _d._, 1626) with his "Novum Organum," a new -instrument of discovery in philosophy, and other works of a kindred -character. He tells us that in his youth he took a great aversion -to the philosophy of Aristotle; being, he said, a philosophy only -strong for disputations and contentions, but barren of the production -of works for the life of man; and in this mind he continued through -life. Besides other works of less note, in 1605 he published one of -great importance on "The Advancement of Learning;" soon after he -published the outline or groundwork of his "Organum," under the title -of "Cogitata et Visa; or, Things Thought Out and Seen," and proudly -boasted of it as the greatest birth of time. He afterwards published -the "Wisdom of the Ancients," and it was not till 1621, and when he -had reached the summit of his profession, and been made Viscount of -St. Albans, that he brought out his great work, "The Instauration of -the Sciences," of which the "Novum Organum" is the second part. No -work was so little understood at the time or has occasioned such a -variety of opinions since. Bacon was well aware that such would be -the case, for in his will he says that he leaves his name and memory -to foreign nations, and to his own countrymen after some time be -passed over. Bacon asserted that he had superseded the Aristotelian -philosophy, and introduced a new and accurate method of inquiry, both -into mind and matter, by experiment and induction. By one party he is -declared to be the great renovator of true knowledge, and the father -of the modern sciences by this method; by another, that he is nothing -of the kind, and that modern discovery would have progressed as well -without his New Instrument; that Aristotle pursued this method of -induction himself, and that Galileo discovered the motion of the earth -by the same means that Bacon taught at the same time. But whoever has -acquainted himself with the system of Aristotle, and, still more, with -the loose and absurd method by which it was taught in the schools -before Bacon's time, must see that Bacon, if he did not altogether -introduce the system, reduced it to precision and accuracy, and thus -put an end to the windy logic and abortive practice of the schools. -They were accustomed to assume false and visionary premises, and reason -from them by syllogisms which, of course, proved nothing. Bacon, by -proceeding by analysis and synthesis--by first extracting from a -substance, or a topic, everything that did not really belong to it, -and then bringing these expurgated matters into contrast--drew sure -conclusions, and advanced towards positive discovery. True, Galileo -worked by the same method; but Bacon taught it, and made it clear to -all understandings. To say, therefore, that modern science owes nothing -to Bacon is to utter a self-evident falsity. Both in experimental -philosophy and in metaphysical inquiry, it is Bacon's light, and not -Aristotle's, which is followed. That Bacon himself made no great -discoveries in prosecuting his own method proves nothing; because, -though he was not sufficiently advanced in the actual knowledge of the -properties of Matter, he saw and taught clearly how such knowledge was -to be acquired, and applied to the legitimate development of Science. -How completely ignorant was the age of real experimental philosophy, -is shown by the ridicule and contempt which was cast on the "Novum -Organum." Such men as Ben Jonson and Sir Henry Wotton expressed their -profound admiration of it, but by the wits of the time Bacon was -laughed at as little better than a maniac. King James said, in his -almost blasphemous way, that it was like the peace of God--passing all -understanding; and Lord Coke said-- - - "It deserveth not to be read in schools, - But to be freighted in the ship of fools." - -[Illustration: SCENE AT THE FUNERAL OF CHILLINGWORTH. (_See p._ 182.)] - -He was represented by men eminent in the world's opinion as "no great -philosopher--a man rather of show than of depth, who wrote philosophy -like a lord chancellor." Abroad, as Bacon had foreseen, his work was -received in a different manner, and pronounced by the learned one of -the most important accessions ever made to philosophy. Whoever will -carefully study it, will find not merely the exposition of his method, -but views stretching into the heights and depths, not only of our own -nature but of the nature and life of the Universe in which we move, -thoughts which stamp the mind of Bacon as one of the most capacious, -many-sided, and profound that ever appeared. - -Next to Bacon's we should place the prose writings of John Milton -(_b._, 1608; _d._, 1674) in general importance and intellectual -greatness. As Bacon's were directed to the advancement of true liberty -in philosophy, Milton's were directed to the liberation of the Church -and State from the tyranny of king and custom. His "Areopagitica," a -speech for the liberty of unlicensed printing, is a grand plea for the -freedom of the press; his "Civil Power in Ecclesiastical Causes," and -the "Best Means of Removing Hirelings out of the Church," go to the -root of all hierarchical corruption. Besides these, his "Defence of -the People of England" in reply to Salmasius, his "Second Defence," -in reply to Peter du Moulin, and his "Eikonoklastes" in refutation of -the "Eikon Basiliké," attributed to Charles I., but written by Dr. -Gauden, and others of his prose works, are written in a somewhat stiff -but lofty and massive style. They foreshow the great national poet of -"Paradise Lost;" and cannot be read without a deep veneration for the -great Puritan champion of the liberties and fame of England. - -Next to these we should name the great advocates of Protestantism, -Hales and Chillingworth. The "Discourse on Schism" is the writing of -Hales which brought him into notice, and led to the most important -consequences. It struck at the very root of tradition and submission -to the authority of the Fathers, which Laud and his party had exerted -themselves to establish; and it was followed out by Chillingworth -(_b._, 1602; _d._, 1644) in his "The Religion of Protestants, a Safe -Way to Salvation." In this work, which has since been styled the -"bulwark of Protestantism," Chillingworth endeavoured to prove the -Divine authority of the Bible on the basis of historic evidence, and -having done that to his satisfaction, he declared that the religion -of Protestants was the Bible, and nothing but the Bible. By this rule -alone they are, in his opinion, to be judged; the Scriptures alone -are to be the standard of their doctrines. He thus cut off all the -claims of Popery built on tradition, and established the right of -private judgment. In this he served not only the Established Church, -to which he belonged, but every body of Christians whatever; for they -had, according to his reasoning, the same right to interpret the -Bible for themselves. This gave great scandal to the bigoted party in -the Church. They declared that he had destroyed faith by reducing it -to simple reason. He was violently attacked by both Catholics and -Puritans. Knott, a Jesuit, and Dr. Cheynell, one of the Assembly of -Divines, were his most determined opponents. Cheynell wrote against -him, "Chillingworthi Novissima; or, the Sickness, Heresy, Death, and -Burial of W. C., with a Profane Catechism selected out of his Works." -Not satisfied with this, he attended his funeral, made a violent -harangue against him, and flung the "Religion of Protestants" into his -grave, crying, "Get thee gone, thou cursed book, which has seduced so -many precious souls--get thee gone, thou corrupt, rotten book, earth -to earth, dust to dust, go and rot with thy author." The Protestant -Church has fully acknowledged the services of Chillingworth. Even -those who deem that there are other evidences of Christianity than the -historic evidences, or even the deductions of criticism, admit that his -arguments go far to demonstrate the genuineness of the Bible records, -and therefore of the Christian religion. The highest encomiums have -been paid to the reasoning and eloquence of Chillingworth, by Locke, -Clarendon, Gibbon, Dugald Stewart, and all our theological writers. - -What Chillingworth did for Protestantism, Cudworth, in his great work, -"The True Intellectual System of the Universe," did for religion in -general, demolishing most completely the philosophy of atheism and -infidelity. Barrow, Henry More, and Jeremy Taylor, added much wealth -to the theological literature of the age. More and Barrow belong more -properly to the next period. Taylor (_b._, 1613; _d._, 1677), who was -the son of a barber, became one of the most celebrated preachers of -that time, and both his sermons and his other works have received from -many of our chief critics and historians the most encomiastic praises. -He has been represented as a modern Chrysostom. Much of this praise he -undoubtedly deserves, but readers coming to him after such extravagant -laudation, experience a sensible disappointment. His "Holy Living and -Dying" may be taken as the most favourable specimen of his writings; -and though grave, pleasing, and consolatory, it does not strike us by -any means as highly or brilliantly eloquent. His sermons, especially -on the "Marriage Ring" and on the "House of Feasting," are of the same -character. They are full of piety, sweetness, and grace, but they are -not eloquence of the highest class. His sentences are often wearyingly -long, his illustrations do not always appear very pertinent, and his -manner is too much that of the father of the fourth century, whom he -appears to have greatly formed himself upon. - -The writings of Archbishop Ussher and the sermons of Bishop Andrews -deserve mention; but the works of Thomas Fuller, the author of the -"Worthies of England," "The Church History of Great Britain," "The -Holy and Profane States," and other books, are undoubtedly the most -witty and amusing of the whole period. Next to Burton's "Anatomy of -Melancholy," a work, too, of this time, they have furnished to modern -authors more original ideas, more frequent and pregnant sentiments -and allusions than any others in the language. They have been rivers -of thought to men who had very little of their own. Harrington's -"Oceana"--a political romance, written to illustrate the opinion that -the great power of nations consists in their property--has ideas to -repay a reader who has leisure and patience. A writer who has always -taken a high rank for originality is Sir Thomas Browne, the author of -"Religio Medici," "Urn Burial," "The Garden of Cyrus," etc. Browne -ranges freely from the "quincunx" of the gardens of the ancients to the -highest flights of metaphysical speculation. He is quaint, abrupt, and -singular, but at the same time he is extremely suggestive of thought, -and extends the sphere of human inquiry and sympathy far beyond the -physical limits of most writers of his class. There is also a school of -historians of this age of eminent merit, at the head of which stands -Sir Walter Raleigh with his "History of the World;" Knowles with his -able "History of the Turks;" Daniel with his "History of England" to -the reign of Edward III.; and Thomas May, with the "History of the -Long Parliament," and his "Breviary of the History of Parliament," -two invaluable works. Camden's "Britannia" and "Annals" appeared at -this epoch. Various chronicles were also issued at this period--Hall's -"Union of the Families of York and Lancaster," Grafton's "Chronicle," -Holinshed's, and Baker's. The works of Stow and Speed appeared in the -early part of it,--Stow's "Summary of the English Chronicles," in 1565; -his "Annals," 1573; his "Flores Historiarum," an enlarged edition of -his chronicle, 1600; his "Survey of London," 1598. Speed's "Theatre of -the Empire of Great Britain" belongs to 1606; and his "History of Great -Britain" to 1614. Besides these appeared the "Memoirs" of Rushworth. -Thurloe's and Whitelock's were written, but did not appear till a -later period. The commencement of the Long Parliament marked also a -remarkable era, that of the first English newspapers, under the name of -"Diurnals," or daily records of Parliamentary proceedings. The idea -once started, newspapers rapidly spread, so that between the Civil War -and the Restoration, nearly two hundred were published, but none more -frequently than once a week for some time, nor afterwards oftener than -twice or three times a week. It was, moreover, an age of political -tracts and pamphlets. In science the discovery of the circulation of -the blood by Harvey, and the invention of logarithms by Napier, were -the great events of that department. On the whole, the intellectual -development of the age was as great and marvellous as was its political -advance. To no other modern nation can we point, which in one and -the same period has produced three such men as Shakespeare, Milton, -and Bacon, amid a host of lesser, but scarcely less precious lights, -at the same time that it was working out one of the most stupendous -revolutions in human government, and the imperishable principles of -it, that the world has seen. On reviewing this period, well might -Wordsworth exclaim:-- - - "Great men have been amongst us; hands that penned, - And tongues that uttered wisdom, better none; - The later Sydney, Marvell, Harrington, - Young Vane, and others who called Milton friend. - These moralists could act and comprehend; - They knew how genuine glory is put on; - Taught us how rightfully a nation shone - In splendour." - -And well did he add:-- - - "We must be free, or die, who speak the tongue - That Shakespeare spoke: the faith and morals hold - That Milton held. In everything we are sprung - Of earth's best blood--have titles manifold." - -Some of the eminent musical composers already mentioned (_See_ Vol. -II., pp. 378-9) continued to embellish the reign of James. Amongst -these were Ford, Ward, Weelkes, and Orlando Gibbons. The first three -are distinguished for their madrigals, and Weelkes for ballads, which -are unrivalled. Ward's "Die not, Fond Man," is still as popular as -ever. Gibbons composed both madrigals and cathedral music. He was -organist of the Royal Chapel, and was made Doctor of Music by the -University of Oxford. The sacred music of Gibbons is enough of itself -to exempt England from the often advanced charge of being unmusical. -In 1622, Dr. Heyther, a friend of Camden, the antiquary, established -a professorship of music at Oxford. Charles I. was not only fond -of music, but played himself with considerable skill on the _viol -da gamba_. Dr. William Child, himself an excellent composer, was -the organist of his chapel, and Lawes, the friend of Milton, who is -referred to in his sonnets and in "Comus," was patronised by him. -Lawes was greatly admired, and justly, by other poets, especially -Herrick and Waller. Charles I., however, set a bad example, by -encouraging foreign musicians instead of his own subjects. He made -Lanieri, an Italian, a man in real musical science far inferior to -several Englishmen then living, "Master of our Music," and his example -was only too diligently followed by princes and nobles in after times. - -[Illustration: WILLIAM HARVEY.] - -The rise of the Commonwealth was the fall of music in England. The -stern Puritans, and especially the Scottish Presbyterians, who dubbed -an organ "a kist o' whistles," denounced all music as profane, and -drove organs and orchestras from the churches. Nothing was tolerated -but a simple psalm tune. Cromwell, however, did not partake of -this fanaticism. He was fond of music, and frequently had musical -entertainments at Whitehall and Hampton Court. The great organ which -had been pulled out of Magdalen College, Oxford, he had carefully -conveyed to Hampton Court, where it was one of his greatest solaces. -Under Cromwell the lovers of music brought out their concealed -instruments, and there was once more not only domestic enjoyment of -music, but open musical parties. - -[Illustration: REDUCED FACSIMILE OF FRONT PAGE OF NO. 26 OF "A PERFECT -DIURNALL." (_About three-fourths the size of the original._)] - -If the Civil War in England was auspicious to liberty, it was -disastrous to art. From the time of Henry VIII. the British monarchs -had shown a decided taste for the arts. Henry had munificently -patronised Holbein, and had made various purchases of foreign -_chefs-d'œuvre_. Prince Henry inherited the taste of his mother, -instead of the coarse buffoonery of his father, and showed a strong -attachment to men of genius and to works of genius. He began a -collection of paintings, bronzes, and medals, which fell to his brother -Charles. Charles was an enthusiast in art, and had he not possessed -his fatal passion for despotism, would have introduced a new era in -England as regarded intellectual and artistic pursuits. The study of -Italian models, both in literature and art, by the aristocracy, enabled -the nobles to embrace the tastes of the monarch; and England would -soon have seen the fine arts flourishing to a degree which they had -never enjoyed before, and which would have prevented the dark ages that -succeeded. During Charles's early rule the greatest artists of the -Continent flocked over to England, and found a liberal reception there. -Rubens, Vandyck, Jansen, Vansomer, Mytens, Diepenbeck, Pölemberg, -Gentileschi, and others visited London, and Vandyck, the greatest of -them all, remained permanently. The works of Vandyck, in England, are -numerous, and if we except his famous picture of "The Crucifixion" at -Mechlin, we possess the best of his productions. At Windsor Castle, -Hampton Court, Blenheim, Wilton House, and Wentworth House, the bulk of -his finest pictures are to be seen. His portraits of our princes and -the chief nobility of the time are familiar to all English eyes, and -place him only second to Titian in that department. At Wilton House -alone there are twenty-five of Vandyck's paintings; the portrait of -Philip, Earl of Pembroke, with his family, is declared by Walpole to -be itself a school of this master. His dramatic portrait of Strafford -and his secretary, Mainwaring, at Wentworth House, Walpole asserts to -be his masterpiece. Charles had proposed to him to paint the history -of the Order of the Garter on the walls of the Banqueting House at -Whitehall, but the sum he demanded--said to be eighty thousand pounds, -but more probably a misprint for eight thousand pounds--caused Charles -to delay it, and his political troubles soon put an end to the scheme. -He painted several pictures of Charles on horseback, one of which is at -Windsor, and another at Hampton Court. - -Rubens came to England only as an ambassador, but Charles seized the -opportunity to get him to paint the apotheosis of James, on the ceiling -of the Banqueting House at Whitehall. This he, however, merely sketched -whilst in London and painted it at Antwerp, receiving three thousand -pounds for it. The Duke of Buckingham purchased Rubens's private -collection of pictures, chiefly of the Italian school, but containing -some of his own, for ten thousand pounds. These were sold by the Long -Parliament, and now adorn the palaces of the Escurial at Madrid, and -the Belvedere at Vienna. The large pictures in the latter gallery, -"St. Francis Xavier preaching to the Indians," and "Loyola casting out -Devils," are amongst the very finest of his productions. - -Charles, besides making collections, and drawing round him great -artists, projected the establishment of an academy of arts on a -princely scale. But this remained only an idea, through the breaking -out of the Revolution. Parliament, in 1645, caused all such pictures at -Whitehall as contained any representation of the Saviour or the Virgin -to be burnt, and the rest to be sold. Fortunately there were persons -in power who had more rational notions, and much was saved. Cromwell -himself secured the cartoons of Raphael for three hundred pounds, and -thus preserved them to the nation, and as soon as he had the authority, -he put a stop to the sale of the royal collections, and even detained -many pictures that had been sold. - -The native artists of this period were chiefly pupils of Rubens or -Vandyck. Jamesone, called the Scottish Vandyck, was a pupil of Rubens -at the same time with Vandyck--Charles sat to him. William Dobson, a -pupil of Vandyck, was serjeant-painter to Charles, and Robert Walker, -of the Vandyck school, was Cromwell's favourite painter, to whom we owe -several admirable portraits of the Protector. There were also several -miniature painters of the highest merit--the two Olivers, Hoskins, and -Cooper. - -Up to this period engravings had become by no means prominent in -England. That there had been engravers we know from various books -having been illustrated by them. Geminus and Humphrey Lloyd were -employed by Ortelius, of Antwerp, on his "Theatrum Orbis Terrarum." -Aggas had executed a great plan of London, and Saxon county maps. -Various Flemish and French engravers found employment, as Vostermans, -De Voerst, and Peter Lombard. Hollar, a Bohemian, was employed -extensively till the outbreak of the Civil War, and illustrated Dugdale -and other writers. But the chief English engraver of this period was -John Payne. - -Sculpture was by no means in great advance at this period. There were -several foreign artists employed in England on tombs and monuments, -but as they did not at that date put their names upon them, it is -difficult to attribute to every man his own. Amongst these Le Sœur, who -executed the equestrian statue of Charles I. at Charing Cross, Angier, -and Du Val were the chief. John Stone, master mason to the king, was -by far the most skilful native sculptor. Amongst his best efforts are -the monuments of Sir George Holles at Westminster, and the statue of -Sir Finnes Holles, also at Westminster. Sir Dudley Carleton's tomb at -Westminster, and Sutton's tomb at the Charterhouse are also his. But -the greatest boon to sculpture was the introduction at this period, by -the Earl of Arundel, of the remains of ancient art, hence called the -Arundel Marbles. - -This was the epoch of the commencement of classical architecture. The -grand old Anglo-Gothic had run its course. It fell with the Catholic -Church, or continued only in a mongrel and degraded state, showing -continually the progress of its decline. From Henry VIII. to James -this state of things continued; the miserable tasteless style, which -succeeded the downfall of the picturesque Tudor, being the only -architecture. The change to the classical was destined to be made by -Inigo Jones, whose is the great name of this period. Jones had studied -in Italy, and became aware of the graceful style which Vitruvius had -introduced by modulation of the ancient Greek and Roman, and which -Palladio had raised to perfection. The merit of Jones is that he -imported Palladio's style substantially and completely, ready as it -was to his hands, and wholly unknown in England. By this means Jones -acquired a reputation for genius to which nothing that he has left -justifies his claim. He was first engaged in designing the scenery and -machinery of the masques which Ben Jonson wrote for the queen of James -I. He was appointed architect to the queen and Prince Henry. On the -death of the prince he went back to Italy, but on his return to London -he was appointed Surveyor-General of the Royal Buildings. The first -thing which he planned was the design for an immense palace for James -on the site of Whitehall. There is a simple grandeur in the drawings -of it which are left, which may fairly entitle him to a reputation -for the introduction of an elegant domestic architecture, although -it does not warrant the extravagant terms of eulogy which have been -lavished on him. The only portion of this palace which was built is -the Banqueting House (afterwards the Chapel Royal) at Whitehall, being -the termination of the great façade, and which contains nothing very -remarkable. Jones added a chapel to Somerset House, and a west front -to St. Paul's, neither of which remains. That he was far from having -conceived the true principles of architecture was shown by the fact -that his west front of Old St. Paul's was a classical one engrafted -on a Gothic building, and this solecism he was continually repeating. -One of the most glaring instances of the kind is a classical screen -which he raised in the Norman Cathedral of Durham. Amongst the chief -remaining buildings of Inigo Jones from which an idea of his talent may -be drawn, are the Piazza and St. Paul's Church, Covent Garden, of which -Quatremere de Quincy says that the most remarkable thing about it is -the reputation that it enjoys; Ashburnham House, Westminster; a house -on the west side of Lincoln's Inn Fields originally built for the Earl -of Lindsay; an addition to St. John's College, Oxford; and by far his -finest work,--if his it be, which is doubtful--Heriot's Hospital at -Edinburgh. He also superintended the erection of Old Greenwich Palace. - -The general aspect of the towns and streets remained the same at this -period as in the former. James issued proclamation after proclamation, -ordering the citizens to leave off the half-timbered style, and build -the fronts, at least, entirely of brick or stone; but this was little -attended to, and many a strange old fabric continued to show the -fashions of past ages. - -If we are to believe the memoir writers and dramatists of this period, -the national manners and morals had suffered a decided deterioration. -Licentious as was the court of Queen Elizabeth, there was a certain -dignity and outward decorum preserved, but James introduced such -coarseness and grossness of manner, such low debauch and buffoonery, -that even the salutary restraint which fashion had imposed was -stripped away, and all classes exhibited the most revolting features. -In the reign of Henry, Edward, and Elizabeth, we had such women as -the daughters of Sir Thomas More, Lady Jane Grey, Catherine Parr, and -others, who cultivated literature and philosophy, the Queens Mary and -Elizabeth themselves setting the example in reading and translating -the most illustrious classical authors. But after James came in, -notwithstanding all his learned pedantry, you hear nothing more of such -tastes amongst the Court ladies, and it is very singular that amid -that blaze of genius which distinguished the time under review, we -find no traces of feminine genius there. On the contrary, both English -dramatists and foreign writers describe the morals and manners of women -of rank as almost destitute of delicacy and probity. They are described -as mingling with gentlemen in taverns amid tobacco smoke, songs, and -conversation of the most ribald character. They allowed liberties which -would startle women of the lowest rank in these times, were desperate -gamblers, and those who had the opportunity were wholesale dealers in -political influence. Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, boasts of the -effect of the bribes that he was accustomed to distribute amongst them. -Whilst such women as the infamous and murderous Countess of Essex and -the Dowager Countess Villiers were the leading stars of the Court, the -tone of morals must have been low indeed. Whilst the ladies were of -this stamp, we cannot expect the gentlemen to have been better, and -there is no doubt but that the honours and wealth and royal favour -heaped on such men as Somerset, Hay, Ramsay, and Buckingham, made -debauchery and villainy quite fashionable. The character of Englishmen -on their travels, Howell tells us, was expressed in an Italian -proverb:-- - - "_Inglese Italianato - E Diavolo incarnato._" - -"An Italianised Englishman is a devil incarnate." This was said of the -debauched conduct of our young men on their travels. At home they were -a contemptible mixture of foppery and profanity. Buckingham and the -other favourites led the way. We have recorded the audacious behaviour -of Buckingham at the courts of France and Spain, and the enormous -foppery of his apparel. He had a dress of uncut white velvet, covered -all over with diamonds, valued at eighty thousand pounds, a great -feather of diamonds, another dress of purple satin covered with pearls, -valued at twenty thousand pounds, and his sword, girdle, hatbands, -and spurs were thickly studded with diamonds. He had, besides these, -five-and-twenty other dresses of great richness, and his numerous -attendants imitated him according to their means. They began now to -patch their faces with black plaister, because the officers who had -served in the German wars wore such to cover their scars; and the -ladies did the same. Duelling was now introduced, cheating at play was -carried to an immense extent, and the dandy effeminacy of the Cavaliers -was unexampled. They had the utmost contempt of all below them, and -any attempt to assume the style or courtesies of address which they -appropriated to themselves was resented as actual treason. The term -"Master" or "Mr." was used only to great merchants or commoners of -distinction; and to address such as "gentlemen" or "esquires" would -have roused all the ire of the aristocracy. In proceeding through the -streets at night, courtiers were conducted with torches, merchants with -links, and mechanics with lanthorns. - -We may imagine the feeling with which the sober and religious Puritans -beheld all this, and the proud contempt with which their strictures -were received. When the Civil War broke out, which was a war of -religious reform as much as of political, the Puritans displayed a -grave manner, a sober dress, and chastened style of speech; and the -Cavaliers, in defiance and contempt, swore, drank, and indulged in -debauchery all the more, to mark their superiority to the "sneaking -Roundhead dogs." - -Charles endeavoured to restrain this loose and indecent spirit, but -it was too strong for him; and though the Puritans put it effectually -down during the Commonwealth, it came back in a flood with the lewd and -ribald Charles II. Charles I. also introduced a more tasteful style -of Court pageants and festivities. Under James all the old fantastic -masques and pageantries--in which heathen gods, goddesses, satyrs, -and giants figured--prevailed. Charles gave to his pageantries a -more classical character, but when the Puritans came in they put them -all down, along with Maypoles, and all the wakes, and church-ales, -and the like, which James had encouraged by his "Book of Sports." The -Court festivals, so long as the monarchy remained, were marked by all -the profusion, displays of jewellery, and dresses of cloth of gold -and embroidery, which prevailed in the Tudor times. The old-fashioned -country life, in which the gentlemen hunted and hawked, and the ladies -spent their leisure in giving bread to the poor and making condiments, -preserves, and distilled waters, was rapidly deserted during the gay -days of James and Charles, and the fortune-making of favourites. - -Merchants and shopkeepers were growing rich, and though they still -conducted their businesses in warehouses which would appear mean -and miserable to City men of to-day, and in shops with open fronts, -before which the master or one of his apprentices constantly paraded, -crying, "What d'ye lack?" had stately suburban houses, and vied with -the nobles in their furniture and mode of living. The moral condition -of the people of London at this period, according to all sorts of -writers, was something inconceivably frightful. The apprentices, as -we have seen, were a turbulent and excitable race, who had assumed a -right to settle political matters, or to avenge any imagined attack -on their privileges. At the cry of "Clubs!" they seized their clubs -and swords and rushed into the streets to ascertain what was amiss. -They were easily led by their ringleaders against any body or any -authority that was supposed to be invading popular rights. We have -seen them surrounding the Parliament House, demanding such measures -as they pleased, and executing their notions of suitable chastisement -of offenders by setting fire to Laud's house, and breaking down the -benches of the High Commission Court. They were equally ready to -encounter and disperse the constabulary or the City Guard, and to fight -out their quarrels with the Templars, or others with whom they were at -feud. - -[Illustration: SHOPKEEPER AND APPRENTICE IN THE TIME OF CHARLES I. -(_See p._ 188.)] - -The riots of the apprentices, however, had generally something of a -John-Bullish assertion of right and justice in them; but the streets -and alleys of London were infested with an equally boisterous and -much more villainous crew of thieves and cut-purses. Pocket-picking -was then, as now, taught as a science, and was carried to a wonderful -perfection of dexterity. All kinds of rogueries were practised on -country people, the memory of which remains yet in rural districts, -and is still believed applicable to the metropolis. These vagabonds -had their retreats about the Savoy and the brick-kilns of Islington, -but their headquarters were in a part of Whitefriars called Alsatia, -which possessed the right of sanctuary and swarmed with debtors, -thieves, bullies, and every kind of miscreants, ready on an alarm, -made by the sound of a horn, to turn out in mobs and defend their -purlieus from constables and sheriffs' officers. Walking the streets -in the daytime was dangerous from the affrays often going on between -the apprentices and the students of the Temple, or between the butchers -and weavers, or from the rude jostling and practical jokes of bullies -and swashbucklers; but at night there was no safety except under a -strong guard. Then Alsatia, the Savoy, and the numerous other dens -of vice and violence, poured forth their myrmidons, and after nine -o'clock there was no safety for quiet passengers. If we add to this -description the narrowness of the roads and alleys, the unpaved and -filthy state of the streets, and undrained and ill-ventilated houses, -London was anything at this period but an attractive place. The plague -was a frequent visitant, and we are told that kites and ravens were -much kept to devour the offal and filth of the streets, instead of -scavengers. In the country, things were not much better. The roads -were terrible, and were infested by sturdy bands of robbers. In the -neighbourhood of London, Finchley, Blackheath, Wimbledon, and Shooter's -Hill were places of widespread fame for daring highwaymen. It was -high time for the Puritans to come into power, and to put both town -and country under a more wholesome discipline. Cromwell's soldiers, -quartered in various parts of the metropolis, and his major-generals -administering martial law in different parts of the country, soon -altered the face of things. He shut up Spring Gardens, a place of -nocturnal resort for assignations for traffickers in political -corruption, and for various licentiousness; and instead of fellows -prowling about the streets with sweetmeats in their pockets to kidnap -children, and sell them to the plantations, he sent these scoundrels -freely thither themselves. Amongst the gloomy features of this period -was the relentless persecution of old women, under the belief that -they were witches; a practice commenced by James, but continued by the -Puritans, who sent out Hopkins, the notorious witchfinder, who, in the -years 1645 and 1646, traversed the country, condemning and putting to -death hundreds of them, till he himself was accused of being a wizard, -and was subjected to the same fate. From 1640 to the Restoration, four -thousand persons are said to have perished under charge of witchcraft. -In Scotland this terrible practice was carried on with even aggravated -cruelties, in order to extort confession. - -The sports of the aristocracy, gentry, and merchants were much the -same that they had been hitherto. Hunting was the favourite pastime -of James, and therefore was not likely to be neglected by the country -gentry. He was also fond of hawking, and kept alive that pastime, -which was dying out, some time longer. Ball games had much superseded -the jousts and tournaments of other days. Tennis retained its high -favour, and billiards and pall-mall, or striking a ball through a ring -suspended to a pole, were becoming fashionable. Bowling, cards, dice, -dancing, masques, balls, and musical entertainments varied town life. -The common people stuck to their foot-ball, quoits, pitching the bar, -cricket, shovel-board, bull- and bear-baiting, and cock-fighting. -The Puritans put down May-games, Whitsun-ales, morrice-dances, -and all amusements that savoured of a Catholic origin. They also -humanely suppressed, as far as they could, the savage sports of -bear and bull-baiting. Pride and Hewson killed all the bears at the -bear-garden to put an end to that cruel pastime, and thence originated -Butler's "Hudibras." The bowling-greens of the English were famous, -and horse-racing was much in vogue. In Scotland the Reformation put -to flight all sorts of games, dancing, and merry-makings, as sinful -and unbecoming of Christians, and polemic discussions were the only -excitements which relieved the ascetic gloom. - -The interiors of houses were in this period greatly embellished, and -the splendour of hangings of beds and windows had strikingly increased. -Rich velvets and silks embroidered with cloth of gold and cloth of -silver, and coloured satins of the most gorgeous hues abounded. The -cushions of couches and chairs were equally costly, and instead of the -ancient tapestry, paper and leather hangings, richly stamped and gilt, -covered the walls. The Flemish artists had been called in to paint the -ceilings with historical or mythological scenes, and on the walls hung -the masterpieces of Flemish and Italian art. Carpets were beginning -to supersede rushes on the floors, but were more commonly used as -coverings for tables. In addition to the carved cabinets of oak, ebony, -and ivory, and the richly-covered cushioned and high-backed chairs of -the Tudor dynasty, Flemish and Dutch furniture of somewhat formal but -still elegant design abounded. Superb ornaments of ivory and china had -found their way from the East, and became heirlooms in great mansions. -Altogether, the houses of the wealthy of those times presented a scene -of stately elegance and luxury that has not since been surpassed. - -The costume of the reign of James was but a continuation of that of -Elizabeth. The men still wore the stiff plated ruff, occasionally -varied by a plain horizontal one with lace on its edges. The long -peasecod-bellied doublet continued, and the large stuffed Gallic or -Venetian hose, slashed and quilted, had assumed more preposterous -dimensions from James's timidity; he having both these and the doublets -quilted to resist the stabs of the stiletto. Towards the end of his -reign a change was noticeable. Instead of the long-waisted doublet -there were short jackets, with false hanging sleeves behind; the trunk -hose were covered with embroidered straps, tucked short at the thigh, -and the hose gartered below the knee. We are told how they covered -their cloaks and dresses with jewels on State occasions. They wore -feathers at such times in their hats. Taylor, the Water Poet, says the -gallants of his time - - "Wore a farm in shoestrings edged with gold, - And spangled garters worth a copyhold; - A hose and doublet which a lordship cost, - A gaudy cloak, three mansions' price almost; - A beaver band and feather for the head, - Prized at the church's tithe, the poor man's bread." - -The old cloth stockings were obsolete, and stockings of silk, thread, -or worsted used. - -The ladies of the Court were still in the stiff Elizabethan -farthingale, elevated collar, and hair dressed in the lofty style. Anne -of Denmark was Elizabeth over again. But in domestic life we find the -ladies attired in a far more natural style, without the farthingale, -with falling collars, plain or edged with lace, and the hair with -ringlets falling on each side; and this simple and more elegant fashion -became at length universal in Charles's reign. - -The male costume of Charles's time was extremely elegant. At the -commencement of the Civil War no contrast could be greater than that -of the appearance of the Cavaliers and the Roundheads. The Cavalier -dress consisted of a doublet of silk, satin, or velvet, with large -loose sleeves slashed up the front, the collar covered by a falling -band of the richest point lace, with Vandyck edging. The long breeches, -fringed or pointed met the tops of the wide boots, which were also -commonly ruffled with lace or lawn. A broad Flemish beaver hat, with a -rich hatband and plume of feathers, was set on one side of the head, -and a Spanish rapier hung from a most magnificent baldrick, or sword -belt, worn sash-wise over the right shoulder, and on one shoulder was -worn a short cloak with an air of carelessness. In war this short cloak -was exchanged generally for the buff coat, which was also richly laced, -and sometimes embroidered with gold and silver, and round the waist was -worn a broad silk or satin scarf tied in a large bow behind or over the -hip; or a buff jerkin without sleeves was worn over the doublet, and -the lace or lawn on the boots dispensed with. The beard was worn very -peaked, with small upturned moustaches, and the hair long and flowing -on the shoulders. In contrast to this the Parliamentarians wore their -hair cut short--whence the name of Roundhead--and studied a sober cut -and colour of clothes. The first appearance of Cromwell in Parliament, -described by Sir Philip Warwick, has been taken as a sufficient -specimen of his costume when Protector. But Cromwell was then but a -gentleman-farmer, and appeared in careless rustic habit. "I came one -morning into the House," says Warwick, "well clad, and perceived a -gentleman speaking whom I knew not, very ordinarily apparelled, for -it was a plain cloth suit, which seemed to have been made by an ill -country tailor. His hat was without a hatband." But no one knew better -than Cromwell what was necessary to the decorum of station, and very -different is the account of his appearance when going to be sworn -Protector. "His Highness was in a plain but rich suit, black velvet, -with cloak of the same; about his hat a broad band of gold." - -The ladies' dresses of Charles's time rapidly changed from the stiff -ruffs and farthingales to a more natural and elegant style. With Mrs. -Turner, their introducer, went out in James's time the yellow starch -ruffs and bands, for she appeared, when hanged for her share in Sir -Thomas Overbury's murder, in her own yellow ornaments at the gallows. -But all ruffs grew obsolete in Charles's reign, and a lady of that -day would scarcely be distinguished from a lady of this. The hair was -dressed much as in modern manner, the dress fell naturally without -hoops, and the broad collar lay gracefully on the shoulders. The -citizens' and Puritans' wives, as well as country women, wore the broad -high-crowned hat, and country women appeared still in plaited ruff, and -a muffler over the mouth in cold weather, tied up to the back of the -head. A lady had generally her feather fan in her hand, as the modern -one has her parasol. - -Armour was fast disappearing; it was of little use against cannon and -matchlocks. James thought armour a very good invention, for it hindered -a man as much from hurting his enemy as it defended himself. But in -his time little but a cuirass for the body and a helmet or bonnet was -used. To the rest for the heavy matchlock in this reign was affixed -a long rapier blade, called a "swine's feather," or "bristle," and -used as a soldier now uses the bayonet. In the Civil War most of the -officers wore only a cuirass over a buff coat; and though some of -the infantry were almost fully sheathed in armour, it was soon found -to be too cumbersome for rapid movements, and with the exception -of the cuirassiers, who were clad in armour except the legs, they -were seldom defended by more than a back- and breast-plate, and a -head-piece. During the war the cavalry was divided into cuirassiers, -lancers, arquebusiers, carbineers, and dragoons, according to the -different weapon or armour which they carried,--the cuirass, the -lance, the musket, the heavy arquebus, the carbine, or the dragon, a -sort of blunderbuss. At this period the firelock was introduced by -the poultry-stealers of Holland, and called after them the snaphance, -or hen-stealer. The superiority of the flint-lock over the match- or -cumbrous wheel-lock was soon seen and adopted. - -The moral condition of the people, as we have just seen, was at this -period deplorable. The neglect of education left the bulk of the -working class ignorant and depraved, and the long peace which the -reigns of Elizabeth and James maintained had so greatly augmented the -wealth and prosperity of the nation, that the insolence of illiterate -abundance added to the public exhibition of rudeness and riot. In -one respect, however, the whole people had become enlightened--they -had learned very extensively their political rights. The rise and -opulence of the merchants and middle classes, through commerce and -through the confiscation of Church lands, had impressed them with a -feeling of their importance, and led them no longer to bow and cringe -before the nobles, but to claim their proper authority as the third, -and, indeed, the greatest estate. From the time when Henry VIII. set -agoing discussions regarding religious liberty, and permitted the Bible -to appear in good plain English, the light which sprang up on the -subject of human rights was wonderful, and could never be withdrawn -or extinguished. The mistake, as regarded royal prerogative, was soon -seen, and an endeavour was made to limit the reading of the Bible to -the nobles and the learned only, but it was in vain. Those who had the -Scriptures soon spread abroad knowledge of their great principles, -and as the Stuart government was daily found to be weaker, the sense -of popular right was growing stronger and more general. So soon as -Parliament began to resist the encroachments of the Crown, and even to -do it with arms in their hands, it became necessary to convince the -people at large that their rights were at stake, and to explain what -these rights were. Such knowledge as this could never be taken back -again, and accordingly from this period the principle that all power -proceeds from the people and exists for the people, became the great -fixed sentiment of the nation. - -The physical condition of the kingdom, therefore, during the reign -of James, was evidently much improved, and almost justifies the -glowing description of Clarendon, made to set off the mischiefs of -resistance to royalty. "For twelve years before the meeting of the -Long Parliament," he says, "the kingdom enjoyed the greatest calm and -the fullest measure of felicity that any people, in any age, for so -long a time together, had been blessed with, to the wonder and envy -of all other parts of Christendom." It was inevitable that much of -this prosperity must be overthrown, or rather interrupted by a ten -years' fierce contest, like that which arose between the Crown and the -people. That the people were not only severely pressed by taxation to -support this contest, but that they were harassed, plundered, and had -their agricultural operations impeded, and their crops destroyed by -the combatants is certain. Consequently, during the great struggle, -the price of country produce rose extremely. Wheat, which in the early -part of Charles's reign was as low as 44s. a quarter, rose after 1640 -to 73s.; to 85s. in 1648; and in 1649 it was 80s.; but no sooner was -the Commonwealth established, and peaceful operations were renewed, -than it fell as rapidly, being, in 1650, 76s. 8d., and falling so much -that in 1654 it was down to 26s. This was the lowest, and it averaged -during the remainder of the Protectorate, 45s., as nearly as possible -its price at the commencement of the war. Other articles of life rose -and fell from the same causes in the same proportion; the prices of -the following articles, except during the War, may be regarded as the -average ones for this period:--A fat cygnet, about 8s.; pheasants, -from 5s. to 6s.; turkeys, 3s. to 4s.; fat geese, 2s. each; ducks, 8d.; -best fatted capons, 2s. 4d.; hens, 1s.; pullets, 1s. 6d.; rabbits, -7d.; a dozen pigeons, 6s.; eggs, three for 1d.; fresh butter, 6d. -per pound. Vegetables, being so little cultivated, were very dear: -cauliflowers, 1s. 6d. each; potatoes, 2s. per pound; onions, leeks, -carrots, and potherbs, dear, but not quite so high-priced. Mutton and -beef were about 3-1/2d. per pound. The wages of servants hired by the -year and kept, were, for a farm servant man, from 20s. to 50s. a year, -according to his qualifications; those obtaining more than 40s. were -expected to be able to do all the skilled work, as mowing, threshing, -thatching, making ricks, hedging, and killing cattle and pigs for -daily consumption. Women servants, who could bake, brew, dress meat, -make malt, etc., obtained about 26s. a year, and other women servants, -according to age and ability, from that sum down to 14s. a year. A -bailiff obtained 52s. Labourers, or artisans hired by the day, during -harvest, had, a mower, 5d. a day and his food; a reaper, haymaker, -hedger, or ditcher, 4d.; a woman reaper, 3d.; a woman haymaker, 2d.; -if no food was given these sums were doubled. At other times labourers -received from Easter to Michaelmas, 3d. a day with food, or 7d. -without; and from Michaelmas to Easter, 2d. with food, and 6d. without. -Carpenters and bricklayers received 8d. a day with meat, or 1s. -without; sawyers, 6d. with meat, or 1s. without; and other handicrafts -nearly the same, through the year till Michaelmas, after that much less. - -The great extension of foreign commerce, and the introduction of -coffee, spices, cottons, and other new tropical produce, increased -the comfort of domestic life. Yet, with all this prosperity, there -still abounded much pauperism and vagabondism. The war naturally had -this consequence--great numbers of the dispersed Cavaliers and royal -troopers taking to the highways, and to a loose and predatory life. -Many parishes, too, were not disposed to burden themselves with the -imposition of the poor laws, which had been strengthened by various -enactments since the 43rd of Elizabeth, and they therefore drove out -of their boundaries the unemployed to seek work elsewhere. This but -increased the vagabondism and pilfering, and time alone could enable -the Government to bring the poor-law into general operation. - - - - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF CHARLES II.] - -CHAPTER VII. - -CHARLES II. - - Character of Charles II.--The King's First Privy Council--The - Convention Parliament--Submission of the Presbyterian - Leaders--The Plight of those who took Part in the late King's - Trial--Complaisance of the Commoners--Charles's Income--The Bill - of Sales--The Ministers Bill--Settlement of the Church--Trial - of the Regicides--Their Execution--Marriage of the Duke of - York--Mutilation of the Remains of Cromwell--The Presbyterians - Duped--The Revenue--Fifth-Monarchy Riot--Settlements of Ireland and - Scotland--Execution of Argyll--Re-establishment of Episcopacy--The - new Parliament violently Royalist--The King's Marriage--His - Brutal Behaviour to the Queen--State of the Court--Trial of Vane - and Lambert--Execution of Vane--Assassination of Regicides--Sale - of Dunkirk--The Uniformity Act--Religious Persecution--Strange - Case of the Marquis of Bristol--Repeal of the Triennial Act--The - Conventicle and Five Mile Acts--War with Holland--Appearance of the - Plague--Gross Licentiousness of the Court--Demoralisation of the - Navy--Monk's Fight with the Dutch--The Great Fire. - - -Charles II. did not want sense. He was naturally clever, witty, and -capable of a shrewd insight into the natures and purposes of men. He -gave proof of all these qualities in the observation which we have -recorded, at the close of the day when he was restored to his paternal -mansion, that everybody assured him that they had always ardently -desired his return, and that if they were to be believed, there was -nobody in fault for his not having come back sooner but himself. Yet, -with many qualities, which, if united to a fine moral nature, would -have made him a most popular monarch, he was utterly destitute of -this fine moral nature. He had had much, long, and varied experience -of mankind, and had alternately seen their base adulation of royalty -in power, and their baser treatment of princes in misfortune. But -Charles had not the nobility to benefit by this knowledge. He had -familiarised himself with every species of vice and dissipation. He was -become thoroughly heartless and degraded. His highest ambition was to -live, not for the good and glory of his kingdom, but for mere sensual -indulgence. He was habituated to a life of the lowest debauchery, -and surrounded by those who were essentially of the same debased and -worthless character. To such a man had the nation--after all its -glorious struggles and triumphs for the reduction of the lawless pride -of royalty, and after the decent and rigorous administration of the -Commonwealth--again surrendered its fate and fortunes, and surrendered -them without almost any guarantee. The declaration of Breda was the -only security which it had, and that was rendered perfectly nugatory -by the reservation of all decisions on those questions to a Parliament -which the Court could control and corrupt. - -Monk presented to the king a paper containing a list of names of such -persons as he professed to consider to be the most eligible for the -royal service either in the Council or the Ministry. But Clarendon, -who was the king's great adviser, having adhered to him and his -interests ever since his escape to the Continent, perused the catalogue -with no little surprise. It consisted, he tells us, "of the principal -persons of the Presbyterian party, to which Monk was thought to be -most inclined, at least to satisfy the foolish and unruly inclinations -of his wife. There were likewise the names of some who were most -notorious in all the factions; and of some who, in respect of their -mean qualities and meaner qualifications, nobody could imagine how they -came to be named." They were, in fact, such as had been thrust on Monk -by the Parliamentary leaders, who were all striving to secure their -own interests; not even the Presbyterians foreseeing how severely they -were punishing themselves by the restoration of the monarchy. Monk, -on the Chancellor's remonstrance as to many of these names--amongst -which only those of the Marquis of Hertford and the Earl of Southampton -belonged to men who had at all adhered to the Royal cause--soon let him -into the secret, that they were such as had importuned him to do them -good offices with the king, and that he never intended to do more than -forward the paper, and leave the king to do as he pleased. Clarendon -soon, therefore, made out a very different list of names for the Privy -Council, though he found it politic to insert almost as many names -of Presbyterians as of Royalists, but with the purpose of gradually -changing them. - -The first Privy Council of Charles, therefore, consisted of the king's -brothers, the Dukes of York and Gloucester, the Marquis of Ormond, -the Earls of Lindsay, Southampton, Manchester, St. Albans, Berkshire, -Norwich, Leicester, and Northumberland, the Marquises of Hertford -and Dorchester, Lords Saye and Sele, Seymour, Colepepper, Wentworth, -Roberts, and Berkeley, Sir Frederick Cornwallis, Sir George Carteret, -Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper, Sir Edward Nicholas, General Monk, and -Morrice, his creature, who had assisted in the negotiations with the -king, Colonel Charles Howard, Arthur Annesley, Denzil Holles, and -Montague, general, or rather admiral, for as yet no distinctly naval -officer was known--military commanders fought both on sea and land. - -Amongst these Clarendon was Lord Chancellor and Prime Minister, the -Duke of York was already appointed Lord High Admiral, to which was -now added the Wardenship of the Cinque Ports and other offices. Sir -Edward Nicholas and Morrice were joint Secretaries of State; the -Earl of Southampton was made Lord Treasurer, the Marquis of Ormond -Lord Steward, and the Earl of Manchester Lord Chamberlain. Monk was -appointed Commander-in-Chief of all the forces in the three kingdoms, -according to stipulation, and to this office was now added Master of -the Horse, and he was created Duke of Albemarle, in addition to several -inferior titles. His wife, who was originally a milliner, and after -that had been his mistress, now figured boldly and ambitiously amongst -the ladies of the Court. - -The Parliament, both Lords and Commons, lost no time in seizing all -such of the late king's judges as survived or were within the kingdom. -The Parliament, which had no proper election--having been summoned by -no lawful authority, but at Monk's command, and had obtained the name -of Convention Parliament--passed an Act, which Charles authenticated, -to legalise themselves, notwithstanding which it was still called by -the old name of the Convention. Before the king could arrive, however, -they had seized Clement, one of the king's judges, and ordered the -seizure of the goods and estates of all the other regicides. On the -king's arrival Denzil Holles and the Presbyterians--whose resentment -against the Independents, who had so often put them out of Parliament, -was blinded by desire of vengeance to the fact that the Royalists would -not be long in turning on them who had done their best to dethrone -Charles I., though they had not joined in putting him to death--now -went in a body to Whitehall, and throwing themselves at Charles's feet, -confessed that they were guilty of the horrid crime of rebellion, -and implored the king's grace and pardon. Charles affected the most -magnanimous clemency, and advised them to pass a Bill of Indemnity, -which he had promised from Breda. But this apparent liberality was -only the necessary step to the completion of his vengeance, for the -declaration left to Parliament such exceptions as it thought proper; -and in the present complying mood of Parliament, these exceptions would -be just as numerous as the Court required. Monk had, in negotiating -with Charles and Clarendon, recommended that only four should be -excepted, but Clarendon and the king had long made up their minds that -few of the king's judges should escape; and in this they were boldly -urged on by the Royalists, who, says Clarendon, could not bear to -meet the men on the king's highways, now they were the king's again, -who rode on the very horses they had plundered them of, and had their -houses and estates in possession. - -The Commons were as ready as the Court for vengeance against their -late successful rivals and masters; and though Monk again urged that -not more than seven should be excepted on a capital charge, they -decided that ten should be tried for their lives, namely, Scott, -Holland, Lisle, Barkstead, Harrison, Saye, Jones, Coke, the solicitor, -Broughton, clerk to the High Court of Justice, and Dendy, who had acted -as serjeant-at-arms during the trial. They then requested the king to -order by proclamation all those concerned in his late father's trial to -surrender themselves within fourteen days. About a score felt it much -the safest to escape across the sea, but nineteen surrendered--all, -but the ten doomed to death, imagining they should escape with some -minor punishment. But the thirst for vengeance became every day more -violent. The Commons named twenty more for exception, whose lives -were to be spared, but who were to suffer forfeiture of estate and -perpetual imprisonment. These were Vane, St. John, Haselrig, Ireton, -brother of the deceased major-general, Desborough, Lambert, Fleetwood, -Axtel, Sydenham, Lenthall, Burton, Keeble, Pack, Blackwell, Pyne, -Deane, Creed, Nye, Goodwin, and Cobbett. Moreover, all such as had not -surrendered to the late proclamation were excluded from the benefit of -the Bill of Indemnity. - -This sanguinary list, however, did not satisfy the Lords when the -Bill was sent up to them. They had suffered such indignities from the -Independent leaders, that they could not bring themselves to forgive, -and they altered the Bill, voting that every man who had sat on the -king's trial, or signed the death-warrant, should be tried as a traitor -for his life. They went even further, and excepted six others, who -had neither sat nor voted--namely, Vane, Hacker, Lambert, Haselrig, -Axtel, and Peters; and, as if luxuriating in revenge, they allowed the -relatives of several of their own body who had been put to death under -the Commonwealth, amongst whom were the Earl of Derby and the Duke -of Hamilton, to sit as judges. The Commons accepted the Bill as thus -altered, and would have made it still more atrocious, but Charles, who -was extremely pressed for money, sent desiring them to come to an end -with this Bill, and hasten the money Bill. - -The Commons voted the king seventy thousand pounds a month for present -necessities, and then proceeded to pass not only the Indemnity Bill, -but to vote the king a liberal permanent revenue. In striking contrast -to the early Parliaments of his father, they at once gave him the -tonnage and poundage for life. Although this was one of the chief -causes of the quarrel between Charles I. and his Parliament, and one -of the main causes of the war and of his decapitation, this Parliament -yielded the point at once. They, moreover, ordered that the army, of -which Charles was afraid, should be disbanded, and that the 29th of -May should be kept as a day of perpetual thanks giving to Providence, -for having restored his majesty to the nation. All these favours to -Charles they offered with the humility of men who were seeking favours -for themselves, and being urged by Charles to settle the amount of -his revenue altogether, they appointed a committee of inquiry on the -subject, which decided that, as the income of his father had been about -one million one hundred thousand pounds, his income should, considering -the different value of money, be fixed at the unexampled sum of one -million two hundred thousand pounds per annum. This income was to be -settled by a Bill in the next session. - -The question of religion, and the question of forfeited property, -whether belonging to the Crown, the Church, or individuals, was next -brought on, and led to most stormy discussions. The result was that two -Bills were passed, called the Bill of Sales and the Ministers Bill. -By the Bill of Sales all the Crown lands were ordered to be restored -forthwith; but the Church lands were left in abeyance for the present; -the lands of individuals were also deferred to a future session. The -Ministers Bill was intended to expel from the pulpits of the Church all -such ministers as had been installed there since the Parliament came -into power. It did not, however, give satisfaction to the Church, for -it admitted all such as entered on livings legally vacant at the time -to retain them. A considerable number of Presbyterian clergymen thus -remained in possession, but the Independents were thoroughly excited by -a clause which provided that all ministers who had not been ordained by -an ecclesiastic, who had interfered in the matter of infant baptism, or -had been concerned in the trial of the king, or in its justification -from press or pulpit, should be excluded. Thus the Royalists were -incensed at the Bill of Sales, which they called an indemnity Bill for -the king's enemies, and of oblivion for his friends, and the clergy of -the Church were equally enraged to see a great number of livings still -left to the Presbyterians. - -On the 13th of September Charles prorogued the Parliament till the 6th -of November, and promised during the recess to have what was called -the "healing question of religion," that is, the settlement of the -Church, discussed by competent parties, and to publish a declaration -on the subject. Accordingly the Presbyterians were very soon promised -a meeting with some of the Episcopalian clergy, and they were quite -willing, seeing that they could no longer have matters their own way in -the Church, to accept a platform of compromise laid down by Archbishop -Ussher before his death, in which scheme the Church was to be governed -by a union of suffragan bishops and synods or presbyteries, so as to -unite the two great sects. But the foremost prelates and clergy of the -Episcopalian Church, who were resolved to have the whole State Church -to themselves, would listen to nothing so liberal or unorthodox. They -refused to meet the Presbyterian clergy, and therefore Charles summoned -the leaders of this sect to meet some of his chief privy councillors -and ministers, as well as various bishops, at Whitehall, where Baxter -and Calamy again proposed Ussher's scheme, which was as zealously -rejected by the Episcopalians. The Presbyterians quoted the Eikon -Basilike, to show that Charles I. was favourable to Ussher's plan, but -Charles, who knew very well that the book was Dr. Gauden's, and not -his father's, drily remarked that all in that work was not gospel. -But what proved a complete damper to all parties, was a proposal read -by Clarendon as having the king's approbation, namely, that others, -besides the two parties in question, should have full liberty for -religious worship, and should not be disturbed by magistrate or peace -officer, provided they themselves did not disturb the peace. This -was at once felt to mean toleration to the Catholics as well as the -Nonconformists, and was received with silent repugnance. - -On the 25th of October was issued the promised declaration for healing -the strife. It went to unite the Presbyterian form of government with -the Episcopal. There were to be presbyteries and synods, and no bishop -was to ordain ministers or exercise the censures of the Church without -the advice and assistance of the presbyteries. Presbyters were to be -elected deans and canons; a number of divines of each sect were to be -chosen by the king to revise the Liturgy, and all points of difference -should be left unsettled till this revision was made; and no person -should be molested on account of taking the Sacrament standing or -kneeling, for making or not making the sign of the cross in baptism, -for bowing or not bowing at the name of Jesus, for wearing or not -wearing the surplice. The Presbyterians were delighted at the prospect -thus afforded of free admission to good livings and dignities; but the -Episcopalians intended nothing less than that any such thing should -ever come to pass. - -With more earnest intention the Government proceeded to judge the -Regicides, and soon stepped up to the knees in blood. On the 9th of -October the trials commenced at the Old Bailey, before thirty-four -Commissioners appointed for the purpose. True bills were found against -twenty-nine of the prisoners--namely, Sir Hardress Waller, Harrison, -Carew, Cook, Hugh Peters, Scott, Clement, Scrope, Jones, Hacker, Axtel, -Heveningham, Marten, Millington, Tichbourne, Row, Kilburn, Harvey, -Pennington, Smith, Downes, Potter, Garland, Fleetwood, Meyn, J. Temple, -P. Temple, Hewlet, and Waite. - -The first man tried was Waller, who pleaded guilty, and had his life -spared; the second was Harrison, the late Major-General. Harrison was -a sincere and honest Fifth-Monarchy man. He said, "I humbly conceive -that what was done, was done in the name of the Parliament of England; -that what was done, was done by their power and authority; and I do -humbly conceive it is my duty to offer unto you in the beginning, -that this court, or any court below the High Court of Parliament, -hath no jurisdiction of their actions." But all argument was useless -addressed to such ears. Sir Orlando Bridgeman, Chief Baron of the -Exchequer, who had the management of the trials, told the grand jury -in his charge that no authority whatever, either of a single person -or of Parliament, had any coercive power over the king. This man had -received very different treatment under the Protectorate. He had -submitted to Cromwell, who had not only accepted his submission, but -had allowed him privately to practise the law, and in this capacity he -had acted as spy and agent for Cromwell. He continually interrupted -Scott, Carew, and others, when they justified their conduct on the -same ground of Parliamentary sanction. The people, notwithstanding -their late acclamations, could not help raising loud murmurs at these -arbitrary interruptions. The prisoners defended themselves with calm -intrepidity, and when Bridgeman retorted on Carew that the Parliament -that he talked of was the Commons alone, a thing without precedent, -Carew replied, "there never was such a war, or such a precedent;" and -he boldly upbraided Bridgeman with giving evidence as a witness whilst -sitting as a judge. All these were condemned to death. The clever and -facetious Harry Marten made a most ingenious and persevering defence, -and extremely puzzled the Commissioners. He took exception to the -indictment, declaring that he was not even mentioned in it. When he was -shown the name Henry Marten, he objected that that was not his name, -which was _Harry_ Marten. This was overruled, but he went on to plead -that the statute of Henry VIII. exempted from high treason any one -acting under a king _de facto_, though he should not be king _de jure_; -that the Parliament at that time was the supreme power, including the -functions of both king and Parliament; that it was, in fact, the only -authority there was in the country; and that it had from age to age -been contended and admitted that God indicated the rightful power by -giving it victory. Such was the authority that God at the time had set -over them, and under that they had acted. His arguments were thrown -away, and it was on this occasion that the absurd story--a typical -example of many other silly stories that continued to be circulated -for generations--was first given in evidence by a soldier, of him and -Cromwell, on the signing of the death-warrant of the king, wiping their -pens on each other's faces. - -[Illustration: CHARLES II.] - -After a trial in which every ingenious and valid plea was advanced -by the prisoners to deaf ears, all were condemned to death, but ten -only were at present executed--Harrison, Scott, Carew, Jones, Clement, -Scrope, Coke, Axtel, Hacker, and Hugh Peters, Cromwell's chaplain. -Peters, by his enthusiasm and wild eloquence, had undoubtedly roused -the spirit of the Parliamentarians, and especially of the army, but -he had had no particular concern in the king's death, and had often -exerted himself to obtain mercy and kind treatment not only for the -king, but for suffering Royalists. He declared on the trial that he had -never been influenced by interest or malice in all that he had done; -that he never received a farthing from Cromwell for his services; and -that he had no hand in exciting the war, for he was abroad fourteen -years, and found the war in full action on his return. Peters, whose -character has been greatly maligned by the Cavaliers and their -historians, appears really to have been a sincere and upright patriot; -but his pleas were as useless as those of all the others. - -Harrison was drawn first to Charing Cross on a hurdle. His conduct -was cheerful and even animated, as with triumph he declared that many -a time he had begged the Lord, if He had any hard, any reproachful, -or contemptible service to be done by His people, that he might be -employed in it; and that now his prayers were answered. Several times -he cried out as he was drawn along, that he suffered in the most -glorious cause in the world; and when a low wretch asked him, "Where's -your good old cause now?" he replied, "Here it is!" clapping his hand -on his heart, "and I am going to seal it with my blood." He was put -to death with all the horrors of the most barbarous times, cut down -alive, his bowels torn out whilst he was alive, and then his quivering -heart held up to the people. Charles witnessed this revolting scene -at a little distance, and yet that heartless man let the whole of the -condemned suffer the same bloody barbarities. They all went to their -hideous death with the same heroic spirit, and in order to daunt the -old preacher, Hugh Peters, he was taken to see the hanging, drawing, -and quartering of Coke, but it only seemed to animate him the more. The -effect of this and of the addresses of the undaunted Regicides from -the scaffold was such, that the people began to show evident disgust -of these cruelties; and when Scott's turn came, the executioners -endeavoured to drown his words, so that he said it must be a very bad -cause that could not hear the words of a dying man. But the words and -noble courage of these dying men, Bishop Burnet observes, "their show -of piety, their justifying all they had done, not without a seeming joy -for their suffering on that account, caused the king to be advised not -to proceed further, or at least not to have the scene so near the Court -as Charing Cross." - -About a month before Harrison's execution, the Duke of Gloucester died -of small-pox; and scarcely were the royal shambles closed for awhile -when the Princess of Orange, who had come over to congratulate her -brother, the king, died of small-pox, too. "At Court," says Pepys, -"things are in very ill condition, there being so much emulation, -poverty, and the vices of drinking, swearing, and loose amours, that -I know not what will be the end of it but confusion; and the clergy -are so high that all people that I meet with do protest against their -practice." Sober people must have looked back with a strange feeling -to the earnest and manly times of the Protectorate. But death and -marriage merriments were oddly mingled in this bacchanalian Court. The -daughter of old Clarendon, Ann Hyde, was married to the Duke of York, -and was delivered of a son just six weeks afterwards. The queen-mother -(Henrietta Maria), the Princess of Orange, and the Princess Henrietta, -were violently opposed to so unroyal a marriage, but the old Chancellor -had the influence with Charles to carry it through, and, instead of a -disgrace, to convert it into a triumph. The wily politician pretended -himself to have been not only grossly deceived in the matter, but to -be intensely angry, and told Charles, according to his own account in -his autobiography, on hearing the news, that if the marriage had really -taken place, he would advise that "the king should immediately cause -the woman to be sent to the Tower, and to be cast into a dungeon, under -so strict a guard, that no living person should be permitted to come to -her; and then that an Act of Parliament should be immediately passed -for cutting off her head, to which he would not only give his consent, -but would very willingly be the first to propose it." This picture of -the heroism of a savage, however, ill agrees with the accounts of the -Chancellor's real concern in the matter. Evelyn, in his diary, says, -"The queen would fain have undone it, but it seems that matters were -reconciled on great offers of the Chancellor's to befriend her, who was -so much in debt, and was now to have the settlement of her affairs go -through his hands." Accordingly, about six weeks after the arrival of -Henrietta Maria at Whitehall the marriage was publicly acknowledged. - -Amid all these disgraceful transactions Parliament met on the 6th -of November, 1660. They proceeded to pass into a Bill the king's -"healing declaration" regarding religion. The Presbyterians were in -high spirits, but they were soon made to feel their folly in bringing -back the Episcopalian Church with its Episcopalian head. The clergy -were not so high for nothing. They knew very well what the king would -do when the matter was pressed to an issue, and accordingly the -expectant Presbyterians found the Court party not only voting, but -openly speaking against the Bill. Morrice, the creature of Monk, and -now Secretary of State, and Heneage Finch, the Solicitor-General, -strenuously opposed it, Finch not scrupling to avow that "it was not -the king's desire that the Bill should proceed." It was thrown out, -and the duped Presbyterians, instead of being persecutors, found -persecution let loose upon _them_. The Convention Parliament, having -satisfied the Court in this measure, on the 8th of December voted the -attainder of Oliver Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw, and, having got -this sanction, on the 30th of January, 1661, the Court, under cover -of the clergy's pious zeal, sent a rabble of constables to tear open -the graves of these great Regicides, to drag their decaying corpses -to Tyburn on hurdles, to hang them, to cut them down and behead them, -and then, throwing their putrid bodies into a hole under the gallows, -to stick their heads on poles on the top of Westminster Hall. They -proceeded to perpetrate the same revolting atrocities on the bodies -of innocent and virtuous women, and on some of the most illustrious -men of our annals. The remains of the brave old mother of Cromwell; -of his amiable daughter, Lady Claypole; of Dorislaus, the envoy of -the Parliament who had been murdered by the retainers of this Charles -II. at the Hague; of May, the historian of the Parliament, and the -excellent translator of Lucan's "Pharsalia;" of Pym, the great and -incorruptible champion of English liberty; and of Blake, the most -famous admiral that the country had yet produced, whose name alone gave -it a world-wide renown, were dragged forth out of their resting-places. -These, and every other body which had been buried in the Abbey whilst -the Commonwealth lasted, were flung into a pit in St. Margaret's -churchyard. - -The settlement of the revenue by the Convention Parliament was more -successful than the legislation with regard to the Church. It was -determined at all events to get rid of the vexatious duties of feudal -tenure; for, though they had long ceased to have any real meaning, -fines were still executed on alienation of property, and reliefs -exacted on the accession to his property of each new Crown tenant. -Minors were still wards of the Crown, and were still liable to the -odious necessity of marrying at the will of their guardian. All these -claims of the Crown were now abolished. Their place was supplied, -not as might naturally be supposed by a land-tax, but by an excise -upon beer and other liquors, the landed interests thus finding means -to shift the burden upon the shoulders of the whole nation. The sum -at which the revenue was fixed was one million two hundred thousand -pounds a year. - -This great bargain having been completed at the close of the year, -the Convention Parliament was dissolved. The year 1661 opened with a -Fifth-Monarchy riot. Though Harrison and some others of that faith -were put to death, and others, as Overton, Desborough, Day, and -Courtenay, were in the Tower, there were secret conventicles of these -fanatics in the City, and one of these in Coleman Street was headed -by a wine-cooper of the name of Venner, who, as we have already seen, -gave Cromwell trouble in his time. On the night of the 6th of January, -Venner, with fifty or sixty other enthusiasts, rushed from their -conventicle, where he had been counselling his followers not to preach, -but to act. They marched through the City towards St. Paul's, calling -on the people to come forth and declare themselves for King Jesus. They -drove some of the train-bands before them, broke the heads of opposing -watchmen, but were at length dispersed by the Lord Mayor, supported by -the citizens, and fled to Caen Wood, between Highgate and Hampstead. -On the 9th, however, they returned again, confident that no weapons -or bullets could harm them, and once more they put the train-bands -and the king's life-guards to the rout. At length, however, they were -surrounded, overpowered, and, after a considerable number were killed, -sixteen were taken prisoners, including Venner himself. He and eleven -others were hanged, the rest being acquitted for want of evidence. -Pepys says there were five hundred of the insurgents, and their cry -was, "The King Jesus, and their heads upon the gates!" that is, the -heads of their leaders who had been executed and stuck there. - -Charles at the time was at Portsmouth with his mother, and Clarendon -made the most of the riot, representing it as an attempt to liberate -the Regicides in the Tower, and restore the Commonwealth. Fresh -troops were raised and officered with staunch Royalists, and a large -standing army of that stamp would soon have been formed, had not -strong remonstrances been made by the Earl of Southampton and others, -and equally strong obstacles being existent in the want of money. The -House of Commons, moreover, spoke out plainly before its dissolution, -as to the raising of a new army, saying, they were grown too wise to -be fooled into another army, for they had discovered that the man who -had the command of it could make a king of himself, though he was none -before. The known intention to put the Duke of York at the head of -it was another strong objection. So the design for the present was -abandoned. - -[Illustration: ARREST OF ARGYLL. (_See p._ 201.)] - -In England, Scotland, and Ireland the king was, of course, beset by the -claims of those who had stood by his father, or could set up any plea -of service. There were claims for restoration of estates, and claims -for rewards. Charles was not the man to trouble himself much about -such matters, except to get rid of them. In Ireland the Catholics and -Protestants equally advanced their claims. The Protestants declared -that they had been the first in Ireland to invite him back, and the -Catholics that they had been strongly on the late king's side, had -fought for him both in Scotland and England, and had suffered severely -from the late usurpers. The Protestants, however, were in possession -of the forfeited estates, and Charles dared not rouse a Protestant -opposition by doing justice to the Catholics, who, though the more -numerous, were far the weaker party. Besides, the different interests -of the claiming parties were so conflicting, that to satisfy all sides -was impossible. Some of the Protestants were Episcopalians, some -Presbyterians. The latter had been vehement for the Commonwealth, -but to ward off the royal vengeance they had, on the fall of Richard -Cromwell, been the first to tender their allegiance to Charles, and -propitiate him by an offer of a considerable sum of money. Then there -were Protestant loyalists, whose property under the Commonwealth had -been confiscated, and there were the Catholics, who had suffered from -both parties, even when ready to serve the king. There were officers -who had served in the Royal army before 1649, and had never received -the arrears of their pay; there were also the widows and orphans -of such. To decide these incompatible demands Charles appointed a -Commission. But little good could possibly accrue from this, for -though there were lands sufficient to have pacified all who had just -claims, these had been lavishly bestowed on Monk, the Duke of York, -Ormond, Kingston, and others. Every attempt to take back lands, however -unjustly held by Protestants, threatened to excite a Protestant cry -of a dangerous favouring of Catholics, and of a design to reinstate -the Papists, who, they averred, had massacred a hundred thousand -Protestants during the rebellion. Charles satisfied himself with -restoring the bishops and the property of the Episcopalian Church, -and left the Commission to settle the matter. But appeals from this -impassive tribunal were made to himself, and he at length published -his celebrated declaration for the settlement of Ireland, by which the -adventurers and soldiers who had been planted on the estates of the -Irish by the Commonwealth were to retain them, except they were the -estates of persons who had remained entirely neutral, in which case -adventurers and soldiers were to have an equivalent from the fund for -reprisals. But this settled nothing, for so many charges were advanced -against those who pleaded they were innocent, that few were allowed to -be so. The matter was next brought before the Irish Parliament, and -there again was division. The Commons, who had been appointed through -the influence of the soldiers and adventurers, voted that the king's -declaration should pass into law. The Lords, on the contrary, protested -that it would ruin all the old families, both Catholic and Protestant. -The contending parties once more appealed to the king, who, wearied -with the interminable strife, seized the opportunity of the discovery -of a paper formerly signed by Sir Nicholas Plunket, one of the agents -of the appellants, offering Ireland to the Pope or any Catholic power -who would defend them against the Parliament, to dismiss their appeal, -and the Bill, based on the Royal declaration, was passed. It was soon -found, however, that it was not easy to carry this law into execution. - -Scotland was restored to its condition of an independent kingdom. -The survivors of the Committee of Estates, which had been left in -management on Charles's disastrous march into England, previous to the -battle of Worcester, were ordered to resume their functions. Middleton -was appointed Lord Commissioner; Glencairn Lord Chancellor; the Earl -of Lauderdale Secretary of State; Rothes President of the Council; -and Crawford Lord Treasurer. A Parliament was summoned to meet in -Edinburgh in January, 1661, and its first measure was to restore the -Episcopal hierarchy. To completely destroy every civil right of the -Presbyterian Kirk, Middleton procured the passing of an Act to annul -all the proceedings of the Scottish Parliament since the commencement -of the contest with the late king. Even the Lord Treasurer Crawford -opposed this measure, declaring that as the late king had been present -at one of these Parliaments, and the present one at another, therefore -to repeal the Acts of these Parliaments would be to rescind the Act of -Indemnity and the approval of the Engagement. Middleton carried his -point, and levelled every political right of the Kirk at a blow. The -ministers of the Kirk in astonishment met to consult and to protest; -they sent a deputation to the king with a remonstrance; but they -arrived at a time likely to inspire them with awe, and did not escape -without a painful evidence that they were no longer in the proud -position of their fathers. Charles had shed the blood of vengeance -plentifully in England, and there were those in Scotland whom he -looked on with a menacing eye. The chief of these was the Marquis of -Argyll. Argyll had been the head and leader of the Covenanters. He had -counselled with and encouraged the General Assembly in its resistance -to the late king's measures. He had been his most persevering enemy, -and, finally, he had encouraged the invasion of England by the Scots, -and had been the first to support Cromwell, even sitting in the -Parliament of his son Richard. Argyll was well aware that he was an -object of resentment, and kept himself secure in the Highlands. But his -son, Lord Lorne, had been a steady and zealous opponent of Cromwell and -the Commonwealth, and he was one of the first to congratulate Charles -on his restoration. To lay hold on Argyll in his mountains was no easy -matter, but if he could be beguiled from his fastnesses to Court, he -might be at once punished. No symptoms of the remembrance of the past, -therefore, escaped the king or his ministers, and Argyll deceived by -this, and by the friendly reception of his son, wrote proposing to -pay his respects to his sovereign in the capital. Charles returned -him a friendly answer, and the unwary victim was not long in making -his appearance in London. But he was not admitted to an audience at -Whitehall, but instantly arrested and committed to the Tower. He was -then sent down to Scotland to be tried by the king's ministers there, -some of them, as Lauderdale and Middleton, hideous to their own age and -to posterity for their sanguinary cruelty. Besides, they were eager to -possess themselves of Argyll's splendid patrimony, and they pursued -his impeachment with an unshrinking and unblushing ferocity which -astonished even the king. - -Argyll pleaded that he had only acted as the whole nation had done, and -with the sanction of Parliament; that the late king had passed an Act -of Oblivion for all transactions prior to 1641, and the present king -had given an Act of Indemnity up to 1651; that, up to that period, he -could not, therefore, be called in question; that he had been out of -the country during the time that most of the barbarities alleged had -been committed; and that as to the Marquis of Montrose, he had been -the first to commence a system of burning and extermination, and that -they were compelled to treat him in the same manner. And finally, his -compliance with Cromwell was not a thing peculiar to himself. They had -all been coerced by that successful man; so much so, that his Majesty's -Lord Advocate, then his persecutor, had taken the Engagement to him. -This latter plea was the most unfortunate one that he could have used, -for nothing but augmented malice could be the result of it, and there -was enough of that already in the minds of his judges. Fletcher, the -Lord Advocate, was thrown into a fury by the remark, called the marquis -an impudent villain, and added an additional article to the charges -against him--that of having conspired the late king's death. - -Lord Lorne procured a letter from Charles, ordering the Lord Advocate -to introduce no charge prior to 1651, and directing that on the -conclusion of the trial, the proceedings should be submitted to the -king before judgment was given. This would have defeated Argyll's foes -had the king been honest in the matter; but Middleton represented to -Charles that to stay judgment till the proceedings had been inspected -by the king would look like distrust of the Parliament, and might much -discourage that loyal body. Charles allowed matters, therefore, to take -their course; but Middleton was again disappointed by Gilmore, the -President of the Court of Sessions, declaring that all charges against -the marquis since 1651 were less valid for the purposes of an attainder -than those which had excited so much controversy in the cause of the -Earl of Strafford, and he carried the Parliament with him. Argyll and -his friends now calculated on his escape, but this was not intended. -A number of letters were hunted out, said to have been written to -Monk and other Commonwealth men whilst they were in power, expressing -his attachment to their cause, and his decided disapprobation of the -king's proceedings. These were decisive. Though the time was passed -when fresh evidence could legally be introduced, these letters were -read in Parliament, and the effect was that of a thunderbolt falling in -the midst of Argyll's friends. They at once disappeared, overwhelmed -with confusion, and sentence of death was passed on the marquis. That -no time might be allowed for an appeal to the king, who wished to be -excused refusing the favour of his life to his son, Argyll's execution -was ordered in two days. In vain the unfortunate nobleman pleaded for -ten days, in order that the king's pleasure might be ascertained; it -was denied him, and understanding from that the determination of the -king, he remarked, "I set the crown on his head at Scone, and this is -my reward." He employed the short space left him in earnest prayer, -and in the midst of his devotions, believing that he heard a voice -saying, "Son, be of good cheer, thy sins are forgiven thee!" he was -wonderfully consoled and strengthened, and ascended the scaffold with a -calm intrepidity which astonished and disappointed his enemies. Before -laying his head on the block, he declared his ardent attachment to -the Covenanters in words which flew to every quarter of Scotland, and -raised him to the rank of a martyr in the estimation of the people. His -head was stuck on the same spike that had received that of Montrose. - -Next to Argyll, the malice of the king and Cavaliers was fiercest -against Johnston of Warriston, and Swinton. Warriston was the uncle of -Bishop Burnet, a most eloquent and energetic man, who had certainly -done his utmost for the maintenance of the Covenant, and against the -tyranny of Charles I. He was now an old man, but he fled to France, -where, however, he was not long safe, for the French Government gave -him up, and he was sent back and hanged. Swinton, who had turned -Quaker, escaped, perhaps through Middleton's jealousy of Lauderdale, -who had obtained the gift of Swinton's estate, but more probably by a -substantial benefit from the estate to the Court. - -The wrath of Charles next fell on the deputation of twelve eminent -ministers, who had dared to present a remonstrance against the -suppression of the privileges of the Kirk. They were thrown into -prison, but were ultimately dismissed except Guthrie, one of the -most daring and unbendable of them. He had formerly excommunicated -Middleton, and had been one of the authors of the tract, "The Causes of -God's Wrath." Since the Restoration he had called a public meeting to -remind the king of having taken the Covenant, and to warn him against -employing Malignants. Guthrie was hanged, and along with him a Captain -Govan, who had, whilst the king was in Scotland, deserted to Cromwell; -but why he was selected from among a host of such offenders no one -could tell. This closed the catalogue of Scottish political executions -for the present. - -But in another form Charles and his brutal ministers were preparing -deluges of fresh blood in another direction. Middleton assured Charles -that the restoration of prelacy was now the earnest desire of the -nation, and a proclamation was issued announcing the king's intention. -Only one of the bishops of Laud's making was now alive, Sydserfe, a man -of no estimation, who was sent to the distant see of Orkney, though -he aspired to the archiepiscopal one of St. Andrews. That dignity -was reserved for a very different man, Sharp, a pretended zealot for -the Kirk, who, at the same time that he urged Middleton to restore -episcopacy, persuaded his clerical brethren to send him up to London to -defend the independence of the Kirk. He went, and to the astonishment -and indignation of the ministers and people, returned Archbishop of St. -Andrews. He endeavoured, in a letter to Middleton of May 28th, to prove -that he had served the Kirk faithfully till he saw that it was of no -avail, and that he took the post to keep out violent and dangerous men. -This, after such a change, could be only regarded as the poor excuse -of an unprincipled man. His incensed and abandoned friends heaped -on him execrations, and accused him of incontinency, infanticide, -and other heinous crimes. By this measure, and the co-operation of -Middleton and Lauderdale, all the old bitterness was revived, and the -horrors of a persecution which has scarcely an example in history, -were witnessed. By Sharp's advice three other bishops were appointed, -Fairfowl to the see of Glasgow, Hamilton to Galloway, and Dr. Robert -Leighton to Dunblane. Leighton was the son of that Dr. Leighton whom -Laud had so unmercifully treated and mutilated for his tract against -prelacy. And now his son embraced prelacy, but was a very different man -to Sharp--pious, liberal, learned, and a real ornament to the Church, -though entering it by such a change. The four bishops went up to London -to receive ordination, which was administered to them by Sheldon, -Bishop of London, at Westminster, with a splendour which greatly -offended the Puritan simplicity of Leighton. They were invited to take -their seats in the House of Parliament, where Leighton had very soon an -opportunity of opposing the introduction of the oath of Allegiance and -Supremacy, which, however, all men were required to take. Sharp drove -on this and other irritating measures; all meetings of presbyteries -and synods were prohibited under penalty of treason, and Sharp soon -recommended the enforcement of an oath abjuring the Solemn League and -Covenant; and with these terrible weapons in their hands, Middleton, -Sharp, and Lauderdale drove the Presbyterians from all offices in the -Church, State, or magistracy, and many were compelled to flee from -the country. The most astonishing thing was, that the spirit of the -people had been so subdued by the arms and supremacy of Cromwell, that, -instead of rising as their fathers did, they submitted in passive -surprise. It required fresh indignities and atrocities to raise them -again to the fighting pitch, and they came. In a short time the number -of prelates was augmented to fourteen, and the Kirk appeared to be -extinguished in Scotland. - -Whilst these things were taking place in Ireland and Scotland, in -England the king and his Cavalier courtiers were running a high -career, and the new Parliament proved violently Royalist. The old -great families, the old gentry, the Cavaliers, and the clergy, were -all united to strain every old corrupt practice to pack a Parliament -of their own fashion. Royalists, Cavaliers, and the sons of Cavaliers -predominated in the new Parliament, which met on the 8th of May, -1661. Not more than fifty or sixty of the Presbyterian party were -elected, for the Cavaliers everywhere proclaimed them the enemies -of the monarchy, and they were scared into silence. This Parliament -acquired the name of the Pension Parliament, and, to the disgrace of -the country, continued to sit much longer than the so-called Long -Parliament, of which the constitution was so altered as occasion -demanded that it could not be properly regarded as _one_ Parliament -from 1640 to 1660--it continued eighteen years. The Parliament and the -Church far outran the Court in zeal for the destruction of liberty -and the restoration of a perfect despotism. The Commons commenced -their proceedings by requiring every member, on pain of expulsion, to -take the Sacrament according to the rites of the Church of England. -They ordered, in conjunction with the Lords, the Solemn League and -Covenant to be burnt by the common hangman; they proposed to annul -all the statutes of the Long Parliament, and restore the Star Chamber -and Court of High Commission, but in this they failed. They passed -a Bill declaring that neither House, nor both Houses together, had -any legislative power without the king; that in him resided the sole -command of the militia, and all other forces of land and sea; and that -an oath should be taken, by all members of corporations, magistrates, -and other persons bearing office, to this effect:--"I do declare and -believe that it is not lawful upon any pretence whatever to take -arms against the king, and that I do abhor that traitorous position -of taking arms by his authority against his person, or against those -commissioned by him." This was called the Corporation Oath. They -restored the bishops to their seats in the House of Peers; they made -Episcopalian ordination indispensable to Church preferment; they -revived the old Liturgy without any concession to the prejudices of the -Presbyterians, and thus drove two thousand ministers from the Church -in one day; they reminded the sufferers that the Long Parliament had -done the same, but they did not imitate that Parliament in allowing -the ejected ministers an annuity to prevent them from starving; they -declared it a high misdemeanour to call the king a Papist, that is, to -speak the truth, for he was notoriously one; increased the rigour of -the law of treason, and knocked on the head the last chance of popular -liberty by abolishing the right of sending petitions to Parliament with -more than twenty names attached, except by permission of three justices -of the peace, or the majority of the grand jury. When this Parliament -had done these notable feats, and passed a Bill of Supply, Charles -prorogued it till the 28th of November. - -On assembling at this date Parliament was alarmed by Clarendon with -rumours of fresh conspiracies in the country. The object was to obtain -the death of more of the Regicides. The Commons fell readily into the -snare. To make a spectacle of disaffected men, they ordered three -eminent Commonwealth men--Lord Monson, Sir Henry Mildmay, and Sir -Robert Wallop, to be drawn with ropes round their necks from the Tower -to Tyburn and back again, to remain perpetual prisoners. But this -did not satisfy them; they must have more blood, and though Charles -had promised their lives to Sir Harry Vane and General Lambert, they -demanded their trial and execution; and Charles, who had no more regard -for his word than his father, complied. They were to be tried the -next session. Parliament then proceeded to draw up a more stringent -Conformity Bill, which passed both Houses. This Bill enacted that -every clergyman should publicly, before his congregation, declare his -assent to everything contained in the Common Prayer Book, and that -every preacher who had not received Episcopal ordination must do so -before the next feast of St. Bartholomew. They added some new collects, -in one of which they styled the lecherous monarch "our most religious -king." They made the 30th of January a holiday for ever, in memory of -"King Charles the martyr;" and voted the king a subsidy of one million -two hundred thousand pounds, and a hearth tax for ever. The king then -prorogued them on the 19th of May, 1662, with many professions of -economy and reformation of manners, one of which he observed as much as -the other. - -Of the improvement of his morals he soon gave a striking example. -The Duke of York, as has been stated, had married Anne Hyde, though -she had been his mistress and was on the point of being delivered -of an illegitimate child, which Charles Berkeley publicly claimed -as his own, and brought forward the Earls of Arran, Talbot, Jermyn, -and others to testify to her loose conduct. Berkeley was afterwards -brought to contradict his own statement; but these circumstances, and -James's gloomy and bigoted temper, rendered it desirable that Charles -should marry. Heirs and heiresses he had in abundance, had they been -legitimate. Besides Lucy Walters or Barlow, by whom he had the Duke of -Monmouth, though the paternity of the child was generally awarded to -the brother of Algernon Sidney--for Mrs. Walters or Barlow was very -liberal of her favours--Charles had, on arriving in London, established -a connection with the wife of a Mr. Palmer, whose maiden name was -Barbara Villiers. The husband's connivance was purchased with the title -of Earl of Castlemaine, and the countess was afterwards advanced to the -rank of the Duchess of Cleveland. - -As it was requisite for Charles, however, to marry, his ministers -looked about for a suitable wife. Nothing could reconcile him to the -idea of a German bride, and the Catholic princesses of the south were -regarded by the nation with suspicion, both from the memory of the -last queen, and the suspected tendency of Charles himself to Popery. -Whilst Charles was in France, in 1659, he made an offer to the niece -of Cardinal Mazarin, which that shrewd politician--who showed himself, -however, a bad prophet--politely declined, for Charles was then a mere -fugitive, and the cardinal did not foresee so sudden a change. - -On the recall of Charles to the throne, both Mazarin and his master, -Louis XIV., saw their mistake, for they had not only treated Charles -with as much indifference as if it were a moral certainty that he could -never again reach the throne of England, but had even sent him out of -the country at the demand of Cromwell. Mazarin now offered his niece, -but the scene was changed, and Charles no longer stooped to the niece -of a cardinal. Louis, who had no suitable princess of France to offer -him, and who wanted to prevent Portugal from falling into the power of -Spain, recommended to him Donna Catarina of Braganza, the Portuguese -monarch's sister. Could he accomplish this match, Louis, who was bound -by treaty with Spain to offer no aid to Portugal, might be able to do -it under cover of the King of England. The king's ministers, after -some apprehension on the score of the lady's religion, were of opinion -that the match was desirable, if it were only for the great dowry -offered--five hundred thousand pounds, the Settlements of Tangier in -Africa, and Bombay in the East Indies, besides a free trade to all the -Portuguese colonies. De Mello, the Portuguese ambassador in London, was -informed that the proposal met the approbation of the king. To link -the interests of France and England closer, the Princess Henrietta, -Charles's youngest sister, was married to the Duke of Orleans, the only -brother of the French king. - -[Illustration: SHILLING OF CHARLES II.] - -[Illustration: CROWN OF CHARLES II.] - -[Illustration: FIVE-GUINEA PIECE OF CHARLES II.] - -On the 13th of May the Portuguese princess arrived at Spithead; Charles -was not there to receive her, pretending pressure of Parliamentary -business, but he sent to request of her that the marriage ceremony -after the Catholic form, which he had promised, might be waived. -Catherine would not consent. On the 20th, Charles having arrived at -Portsmouth, they were, therefore, married in private by Catherine's -almoner, Stuart D'Aubigny, in the presence of Philip, afterwards -Cardinal Howard, and five other witnesses, and subsequently in public -by the Bishop of London. - -[Illustration: HALFPENNY (WITH FIGURE OF BRITANNIA) OF CHARLES II.] - -On the journey to Hampton Court, and for a few days afterwards, Charles -appeared extremely pleased with his wife, who--though she could not -compete in person with the dazzling Lady Castlemaine, and has been -described by some contemporaries as a homely person, as "a little -swarthy body, proud, and ill-favoured"--is stated by others also to -have been "a most pretty woman." According to Lely's portrait of her, -she is a very pleasing brunette beauty, and by all accounts she was -extremely amiable; but the misfortune was, that she had been brought up -as in a convent, completely secluded from society, and therefore was -little calculated, by the amount of her information, or the graces of -her manners, to fascinate a person of Charles's worldly and volatile -character. - -How was such a woman to support her influence with such a man against -the beauty and determined temper of Lady Castlemaine, a woman as -dissolute and unprincipled as she was handsome? In her fits of passion -she often threatened the king to tear their children to pieces, and set -his palace on fire; and when she was in these tempers, a contemporary -says, "she resembled Medusa less than one of her dragons." Charles -was the perfect slave of her charms and her passions. She had wrung -from him a promise that his marriage should not cause him to withdraw -himself from her, and having borne him a son a few days after his -marriage, she only awaited her convalescence to take her place as one -of the queen's own ladies. Catherine had heard of his amour before -coming to England, for it was the talk of Europe, and her mother had -bade her never to allow her name to be mentioned in her presence. -But very soon the king presented her a list of the ladies of her -household, and the first on the list she saw, to her astonishment, -was Lady Castlemaine. She at once struck it out and, notwithstanding -the king's remonstrances, declared that sooner than submit to such -an indignity, she would return to Portugal. But she was not long in -learning that no regard to her feelings was to be expected from this -sensual and unfeeling monster. He brought Lady Castlemaine into the -Queen's chamber, leading her by the hand, and presenting her before -the assembled Court. Such a scandalous offence to public decorum, such -a brutal insult to a young wife in a strange land, was perhaps never -perpetrated before. Catherine, who did not recognise the name uttered -by the king, received her graciously, and permitted her to kiss her -hand; but a whisper from one of the Portuguese ladies made her aware of -the outrage. She burst into tears, the blood gushed from her nostrils -in the violent effort to subdue her feelings, and she fell senseless -into the arms of her attendants. Instead of feeling any compunction -for the pain thus inflicted on his wife, the demoralised reprobate -was enraged at her for thus, as he called it, casting a slur on the -reputation of the fair lady. He abused the queen for her perversity, -and vowed that she should receive Lady Castlemaine as a lady of her -bedchamber, as a due reparation for this public insult. It was in vain, -however, that he stormed at his unhappy wife; she remained firm in -her resolve, either to be freed from the pollution of the mistress's -presence, or to return to Portugal. Clarendon and Ormond ventured to -remonstrate with Charles on his cruelty, but Charles was especially -indignant that they should "level the mistresses of kings and princes -with other lewd women, it being his avowed doctrine that they ought -to be looked upon as above other men's wives." However opposed such a -doctrine may be to the more refined taste and purer morality of the -present age, it was quite in harmony with the habits and feelings which -regulated the social system of Europe at that period. Charles was at -least no worse than Louis XIV., whose mistresses were admitted to the -intimacy of married ladies of approved virtue and chastity. The same, -too, may be said of the English Court under the first two kings of the -House of Brunswick. - -The part which Clarendon played on this occasion is greatly at variance -with that reputation for honour, wisdom, virtue, and true dignity with -which his admirers invest him. It shows that however much he might -recoil at it, however deeply disgraceful and degrading he might feel -it, he was ready to stoop to this disgrace and degradation, rather than -sacrifice his interest at Court. Accordingly Charles let him know that -he expected him not only to cease to object to his unmanly conduct -to his wife, but to make himself the instrument of inducing her to -submit to the ignominy; and the hoary moralist, the great minister and -historian, showed himself humbly pliant, and set to work in earnest -to bend the mind of this virtuous and outraged woman to the shame of -receiving her husband's harlot as her daily companion and attendant. -And this Clarendon did perseveringly, and at length successfully. When -Catherine talked of returning to Portugal, he bade her understand -that she was utterly in the power of her husband; that so far from -going to Portugal, she could not even go out of the palace without -his permission; and, in fact, he so worked upon the poor creature's -terrors, backed by the savage threats of the king, that he broke her -spirit, and taught her to acquiesce in an example of profligacy, which -at once scandalised and corrupted the morals of the age. Charles, -when Catherine repeated her determination to return to Portugal, told -her rudely that she must first see whether her mother would receive -her, and that he would send her Portuguese servants to ascertain that -point; and he discharged all her attendants. Thus abandoned in a -foreign country, the miserable queen told the Chancellor that she had -to struggle with greater difficulties than any woman of her condition -before; but that pattern minister only showed her that it was the more -necessary to submit. And thus Clarendon complacently writes:--"In all -this the king preserved his point; the lady came to Court, was lodged -there, was every day in the queen's presence, and the king in continual -conference with her, whilst the queen sat untaken notice of; and if her -Majesty rose at the indignity, and retired into her chamber, it may be -one or two attended her; but all the company remained in the room she -left, and too often said those things aloud which nobody ought to have -whispered. She alone was left out in all jollities, and not suffered to -have any part of those pleasant applications and caresses which she saw -made abroad to everybody else; a universal mirth in all company but in -hers, and in all places but in her chamber, her own servants showing -more respect and more diligence to the person of the lady than towards -their own mistress, who, they found, could do them less good. All these -mortifications were too heavy to be borne, so that at last, when it was -least expected or suspected, the queen of a sudden let herself fall -first to conversation, and then to familiarity, and even in the same -instant to a confidence with the lady; was merry with her in public, -talked kindly of her, and in private used nobody more friendly." - -Catherine was subdued to her yoke, and this was the treatment of an -English king to a princess who brought him besides a splendid money -dowry, the Settlement of Tangier, which might in any reign of sense -and policy have been made a commanding station in the Mediterranean, -and Bombay, our first Settlement in India, the nucleus of our present -magnificent Indian empire. - -Whilst these scenes had been passing in the palace, the lives of -Cromwell's supporters were brought into question without. Vane and -Lambert were put upon their trial before the Court of King's Bench -on the 2nd of June. The prominent actors in the drama of the late -Rebellion had both in their different ways done immense damage to -Royalty; and though the Convention Parliament had requested Charles -to leave them unpunished--notwithstanding that they were not included -in the Bill of Indemnity--and Charles had assented, the Cavaliers -could not rest satisfied without their blood. Lambert had been one of -Cromwell's chief generals--one of his major-generals--and to the last -he had done his best to maintain the cause of the Commonwealth by his -sword, and had attempted to prevent the march of Monk at the very time -that he was planning the return of the king. Vane had been one of the -very ablest counsellors and diplomatists that the Commonwealth had had. -True, he had not sat on the trial of the king, he had had no hand -whatever in his death; but he had done two things which could never be -forgotten or forgiven by the Royalists. He had furnished the minutes -of the Privy Council from his father's cabinet, which determined the -fate of Strafford, and the Court held him to be the real author of -his death; next, though he did not assist in condemning the king, he -accepted office under what was now termed the rebel Government. Besides -and beyond these, he was a man of the highest diplomatic abilities, and -of a spotless character and high religious temperament, which caused -the vile spirit and lives of the new reigning power and party to look -even viler by the contrast. The prisoners were charged with conspiring -and compassing the death of the present king, and the recent acts in -proof of this were alleged to be consulting with others to bring the -king to destruction, and to keep him out of his kingdom and authority, -and actually assembling in arms. These were vague and general charges, -which might have been applied to all who had been engaged in the late -Government, and on the same pleas all the Commonwealth men might have -been put to death. - -Lambert, who had been most courageous in the field, appeared, before a -court of justice, a thorough coward. His late transactions had shown -that he was a man of no military genius, and now he trembled at the -sight of his judges. He assumed a very humble tone, pretended that when -he opposed General Monk he did not know that he was a favourer of the -house of Stuart, and he threw himself on the royal clemency. As there -was clearly nothing to be feared from such a man, he received judgment -of death, but was then sent to a prison in Guernsey for life, where he -amused himself with painting and gardening. - -But Vane showed by the ability with which he defended himself that -he was a most dangerous man to so corrupt and contemptible a dynasty -as now reigned. The nobility of his sentiments, the dignity of his -conduct, and the acuteness of his reasonings, all marked a man who -kept alive most perilous and disparaging reminiscences. Every plea -that he advanced, and the power with which he advanced it, which -before a fair and independent tribunal would have excited admiration, -and ensured his acquittal, here only inspired terror and rage, and -ensured his destruction. He contended that he was no traitor. By all -principles of civil government, and by the statute of Henry VII., he -had only contended against a man who was no longer king _de facto_. -The Parliament, he said, before his union with it, had entered on -the contest with the late king, and put him, on what they held to be -sufficient grounds, out of his former position and authority. Moreover, -by the law of the land--the statute of the 11th of Henry VII., and -the practice based upon it--the Parliament were become the reigning -and rightful power. Under that power, and by the constitutional, -acknowledged Government he had acted, taking no part in the shedding of -the king's blood; and what he did after he did by the authority of the -only ruling Government. He therefore denied the right of any court but -the High Court of Parliament to call him in question, and he demanded -counsel to assist him in any case in rebutting the charges against him. -But every argument that he advanced only the more militated against -himself. The court was met to condemn him and get rid of him, and the -more he could prove its incompetence, the worse must their arbitrary -injustice appear. The more he could prove the Commonwealth a rightful -Government, the more must the present Government hate and dread him. -The judges declared that Charles had never ceased to be king either -_de facto_ or _de jure_ from the moment of his father's death. That he -was not king _de facto_, but an outcast from England, deprived of all -power and name, was notorious enough, but that mattered little; they -were resolved to have it so. In order to induce Vane to plead, they -promised him counsel, but when he had complied, and pleaded not guilty, -they answered his demand for counsel by telling him _they_ would be his -counsel. - -Before such a tribunal there could be but one result--right or -wrong, the prisoner must be condemned; but Vane made so able and -unanswerable a defence, that the counsel employed against him were -reduced to complete silence: whereupon Chief-Justice Foster said to his -colleagues, "Though we know not what to say to him, we know what to -do with him." And when he adverted to the promise of the king that he -should not be condemned for what was past, and to his repeated demand -for counsel, the Solicitor-General exclaimed, "What counsel does he -think would dare to speak for him in such a manifest case of treason, -unless he could call down the heads of his fellow traitors--Bradshaw or -Coke--from the top of Westminster Hall?" He might have added--in that -vile state of things, that disgraceful relapse of the English public -into moral and political slavery--what jury would dare to acquit him? -The king was so exasperated at the accounts carried to him at Hampton -Court of the bold and unanswerable defence of Vane, that he wrote to -Clarendon, "The relation that hath been made to me of Sir Harry Vane's -carriage yesterday in the hall is the occasion of this letter, which, -if I am rightly informed, was so insolent as to justify all that he had -done, acknowledging no supreme power in England but Parliament, and -many things to that purpose. You have had a true account of all, and if -he has given new occasion to be hanged, certainly he is too dangerous -a man to let live, if we can honestly put him out of the way. Think of -this, and give me some account of it to-morrow." What account Clarendon -gave we may imagine, for he is careful in his own autobiography to -pass over altogether so small a matter as the trial and death of this -eminent man. - -Vane was condemned, and executed on Tower Hill on the 14th of June, -1662, on the very spot where Strafford suffered, thus studiously making -his death an act of retribution for his evidence against that nobleman. -On taking leave of his wife and friends, Sir Harry confidently -predicted--as the former victims, Harrison, Scott, and Peters had -done--that his blood would rise from the ground against the reigning -family in judgment, on earth as well as in heaven. "As a testimony -and seal," he said, "to the justness of that quarrel, I leave now my -life upon it, as a legacy to all the honest interests in these three -nations. Ten thousand deaths rather than defile my conscience, the -chastity and purity of which I value beyond all this world." So alarmed -were the king and courtiers at the impression which this heroic and -virtuous conduct was likely to make on the public, that they took every -means to prevent the prisoner from being heard on the scaffold. They -placed drummers and trumpeters under the scaffold, to drown his voice -when he addressed the people. When he complained of the unfairness of -his trial, Sir John Robinson, the Lieutenant of the Tower, rudely and -furiously contradicted him, saying, "It's a lie; I am here to testify -that it is a lie. Sir, you must not rail at the judges." When he began -again, the drummers and trumpeters made the loudest din that they -could, but he ordered them to be stopped, saying he knew what was meant -by it. Again, as he attempted to proceed, they burst forth louder than -ever; and Robinson, furious, attempted to snatch the paper out of his -hand which contained his notes. Vane, however, held it firmly, and then -Robinson, seeing several persons taking notes of what the prisoner -said, exclaimed in a rage, "He utters rebellion, and you write it;" -and the books were seized, or all that could be discovered. They -next, two or three of them, attempted to wrest his papers from him, -and thrust their hands into his pockets, on pretence of searching for -others. A more indecent scene never was witnessed, and Vane, seeing -that it was useless to attempt being heard, laid his head on the block, -and it was severed at a stroke. - -[Illustration: RESCUED FROM THE PLAGUE, LONDON, 1665. - -FROM THE PAINTING BY F. W. W. TOPHAM, R.I. - -"IT WAS THE CHILD OF A VERY ABLE CITIZEN OF GRACIOUS [GRACECHURCH] -STREET. A SADDLER, WHO HAD BURIED ALL THE REST OF HIS CHILDREN OF THE -PLAGUE, AND HIMSELF AND WIFE NOW BEING SHUT UP IN DESPAIR OF ESCAPING -DID DESIRE ONLY TO SAVE THE LIFE OF THIS LITTLE CHILD; I SO PREVAILED -TO HAVE IT RECEIVED STARK NAKED INTO THE ARMS OF A FRIEND, WHO BROUGHT -IT (HAVING PUT IT INTO FRESH CLOTHES) TO GREENWICH."--_Pepys's Diary._] - -But the effect of Vane's words and conduct died not with him. The -people, degraded as they had become, could not avoid perceiving that -the spirit of evil was abroad; that revenge was being taken for the -virtue and the great principles of the Commonwealth; that the base and -worthless were exterminating the true--those who were the real glory of -the nation. Burnet says, "It was generally thought that the Government -lost more than it gained by the death of Vane;" and even the gossiping -Pepys said that he was told that "Sir Harry Vane was gone to heaven, -for he died as much a saint and martyr as ever man did, and that the -king had lost more by that man's death than he would get again for a -long while." - -[Illustration: SIR HARRY VANE TAKING LEAVE OF HIS WIFE AND FRIENDS. -(_See p._ 208.)] - -But these plain signs could not stop the thirst for blood. Colonels -Okey, Corbet, and Barkstead, three of the Regicides, had got away -to Holland, as Goffe, Whalley, and Dixwell had to the New England -settlements. The last three managed, in various disguises, but in -continual fears, to escape; but Okey, Corbet, and Barkstead were hunted -out by Downing, who, having been Cromwell's ambassador at the Hague, -had made his peace with the new Government, and was ready to earn -favour by making himself its bloodhound in running down his former -friends. He had once been chaplain to Okey's regiment. Having secured -them, the States were mean enough to surrender them, and they suffered -all the horrors of hanging and embowelling at the gallows. General -Ludlow, Mr. Lisle, and others of the Commonwealth men had retired to -Switzerland, which nobly refused to give them up; but the Royalists -determined to assassinate them if they could not have them to hack and -mangle at the gibbet. Murderers were sent after them to dog them, and -though Ludlow escaped, as by a miracle, from several attempts, Lisle -was shot, on Sunday of all days, as he was entering the church at -Lausanne; and the murderers rode away shouting, "God save the king!" -and made their escape into France. - -If the country was discontented at the destruction of its most eminent -and virtuous men, it found that it must prepare to see its foreign -prestige sold to France. The king wanted money; Louis XIV. wanted -Dunkirk back again, which Cromwell had wrested from France, and which -remained a proof of the ascendency of England under that great ruler. -Clarendon, who should have endeavoured to save the nation from that -disgrace, did not know where else to look for the necessary supplies -for Charles's pleasures, and if he did not suggest, actually counselled -the measure. It was contended that Dunkirk was useless to England, and -that the expense of maintaining it was onerous. But not only France, -but Spain and Holland, knew very well its value as a bulwark against -the notorious designs of Louis of adding Belgium, and if possible -Holland, to France. Charles knew this very well, too, and was ready to -sell it to the highest bidder. Spain and Holland were eager to make -the purchase, but Charles was expecting other favours from France, and -could not get them if he sold Dunkirk to either of those nations. He -was in treaty with Louis for ten thousand foot and a body of cavalry, -to enable him to tread down the remaining liberties of the people. He -therefore gave the preference to France--for not a patriotic feeling, -but the most base personal views swayed him in such matters--and -struck a bargain with D'Estrades for five million livres. Charles -struggled for the payment in cash, but Louis would only give bills for -the amount; and then, knowing Charles's necessity, he privately sent -a broker, who discounted the bills at sixteen per cent.; and Louis -himself boasts, in his published works, that he thus saved five hundred -thousand livres out of the bargain, without Charles being aware of -it. The indignation of the public at this transaction was loud and -undisguised; the merchants of London had in vain offered themselves -to advance the king money, so that Dunkirk might not be sacrificed, -and now the people openly said that the place was sold only to satisfy -the rapacity of the king's mistresses, of whom he was getting more -and more--Miss Stewart, Nell Gwynn, and others of less mark. The -reprobation of the affair was so universal and violent, and Clarendon -was so fiercely accused of being a party to it, that from this hour his -favour with the nation was gone for ever. - -Whilst the king was thus spilling the best blood, and selling the -possessions of the country, the Nonconformists were vainly hoping for -his fulfilment of his Declaration of Breda, as it regarded liberty -to tender consciences. The Act of Uniformity came into force on the -24th of August, St. Bartholomew's Day, on which day the deprivation -of two thousand Presbyterian ministers would be enforced. They -therefore petitioned for three months' delay, which Charles promised, -on condition that during that time they should use the Book of Common -Prayer. But no sooner was this promise given than the Royalists, -and especially the bishops, contended that the king was under no -obligation to keep the Declaration of Breda, inasmuch as it had only -been made to the Convention Parliament, which had never called for its -fulfilment. Clarendon did not venture to counsel Charles to break his -word, but he advised the summoning of the bishops to Hampton Court, -where the question was discussed in the presence of Ormond, Monk, and -the chief law-officers and ministers of State. The bishops expressed -much disgust at "those fellows," the Nonconformists, still insisting -on interrupting the king in the exercise of his undoubted prerogative; -they were supported by the Crown lawyers, and the Act was enforced in -all its rigour, despite the royal promise, which had over and over -lost its slightest value. The storm of persecution burst forth on the -Nonconformists with fury. Their meetings were forcibly broken up by -soldiery, and their preachers and many of themselves thrust into prison -on charges of heresy and violation of the laws. Numbers again prepared -for flight to New England, and to prevent this sweeping emigration -of useful artisans, the Earl of Bristol, the former impetuous and -eccentric Lord Digby of the Civil Wars, and Ashley Cooper planned a -scheme which should at once relieve both Dissenters and Catholics. -This was to induce the king, on the plea of fulfilling his Declaration -of Breda, to issue a declaration of indulgence of a broad and -comprehensive character. This was supported in the Council by Robartes, -Lord Privy Seal, and Bennet, the new Secretary of State. Accordingly, -Charles, on the 6th of December, issued his declaration, called "a -Declaration for Refuting Four Scandals cast on the Government"--namely, -that the Act of Indemnity had been merely intended to be temporary; -that there was an intention to keep a large standing army; that the -king was a persecutor; and that he was a favourer of Popery. In answer -to the third scandal, he declared he would submit to Parliament a -Bill for ample indulgence to tender consciences; and though he would -not refuse to make the Catholics, like the rest of his subjects, -a partaker in this privilege, yet to show the fallacy of the fourth -scandal, if they abused his goodness he would pursue them with all the -rigour of the laws already existing against them. - -[Illustration: CHARLES II. AND NELL GWYNN. - - FROM THE PICTURE BY E. M. WARD, R.A. - IN THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, SOUTH KENSINGTON. -] - -This announcement was received with an outburst of indignation by all -parties except the Independents and the other Dissenters who partook -of their ideas of general toleration. But the Presbyterians adhered -to their ancient bigotry so firmly, that rather than Catholics should -enjoy toleration, they were ready to forego it themselves. The Church, -and a vast number of people of no religion at all, joined in the cry -out of their hereditary alarm at Popery. The moment that the session -of 1663 opened, on the 18th of February, both houses attacked the -Declaration, and the Commons, though the Bill was not before them, -sent an address to the king, thanking him for the other parts of the -Declaration, but represented the third clause as pregnant with schism, -endless liberties and importunities of sects, and certain disturbance -of the national tranquillity. In the Lords the Lord-Treasurer led the -opposition, and the bishops supported him with all their energies, and, -to the astonishment of Charles himself, Clarendon, who had been laid -up with gout, on the second day of the debate went to the House, and -attacked it with a vehemence of language which gave great offence to -the king. Probably Clarendon calculated on more serious damage from -the popular feeling, of which his Dunkirk policy had recently given -him a sharp taste, than on any strong resentment of Charles, but he -was mistaken; the Bill was defeated, but the king expressed his wrath -to Southampton, the Treasurer, and Clarendon, in such terms as struck -terror into them, and from that time it was evident that neither of -them possessed his confidence any longer. Nor did he spare the bishops. -He reproached them with bigotry and ingratitude. He told them that it -was owing to his Declaration of Breda that they owed their restoration, -and that now they were driving him to break that promise. The -intolerance of the bishops in his father's time had caused, he said, -the destruction of the hierarchy, and done much to ruin the monarchy -itself; and no sooner were they reinstated, than they were pursuing the -same blind and fatal course. From that day, too, his manner to them -changed, and his courtiers, quick to perceive the change, imitated it, -and, glad to excuse their profligacy, indulged in ridicule of their -persons, and mockery of their sermons. - -But though Charles had boldly spoken much severe truth in the moment -of his resentment, all parties calculated too well on the evanescence -of anything in him like a wise or virtuous perseverance, and they -pursued their object with an obstinacy which compelled the ease-loving -monarch to give way. The Commons passed a Bill to check the growth -of Popery, and another that of Nonconformity, but though strongly -supported in the Lords, they were defeated by the Presbyterian and -Catholic members. They then changed their tack, and presented an -address to the king, praying him to put in force all the penal laws -against the Catholics and sectaries of every description. Having -expressed their wishes, the Commons granted the king four subsidies, -and he was about to prorogue Parliament, when a strange incident -delayed this event for some time. The king, during the discussion -on the Supplies, made a statement which seemed to commit the Earl -of Bristol with Parliament. The earl and the king becoming warm -in mutual explanation before Lord Arlington, Charles used strong -language, and Bristol, losing his temper, reproached the king with -his amours, his indolence, and the sacrifice of his best friends to -the malice of Clarendon, and vowed that unless justice was done him -within twenty-four hours, he would do a thing that would astonish both -the king and the Chancellor. This thing was to impeach Clarendon of -high treason on the ground that he had, both publicly and privately, -endeavoured to fix the character of a papist on the king, and had -represented that he alone protected the Protestant establishment. -Bristol's hasty temper had betrayed him into a charge which he could -not substantiate. He was foiled with disgrace, and he only escaped -being arrested by flight. - -When the next session of Parliament opened, on the 16th of March, -1664, the Commons returned with unabated animus, and circumstances in -the interim had occurred, which, as they favoured both the orthodox -scheme and a scheme of the king's, enabled them to carry their point by -conceding his. In October, a trifling insurrection broke out at Farnley -Wood, in Yorkshire. The people, who were of an obscure class, appeared -to be Fifth-Monarchy men and Republicans, who complained of the -persecutions for religion, and of the violation of the Triennial Act, -and contended that as the present Parliament had sat more than three -years, it was illegal, and the people had nothing to do but to elect -another of their own accord. This was a mistake; the Act did not limit -the duration of Parliament, but the interval between one Parliament and -another. The Triennial Act, passed in the 16th of Charles I., when -his Parliament wrung a number of those guarantees from him, authorised -the sheriffs to issue writs for an election after any Parliament had -ceased to sit three years, if the Government did not summon one, and in -default of the sheriffs issuing such writs, the people might assemble, -and proceed to election without writs. - -The Government wanted to be rid of this Act, and therefore the Duke -of Buckingham set Gere, sheriff of Yorkshire, and others, to send -incendiaries amongst the people to excite them to proceedings of this -sort. They were then arrested to the number of about fifty persons -in Yorkshire and Westmoreland, on the plea that they were assembled -without lawful cause, the Parliament, so far from having ceased to -sit three years, being still sitting. The ignorant people had been -probably purposely misinformed, and some of them were hanged for it. -The end of Charles was gained. He told the Parliament that the Act -thus encouraged seditious meetings, and that though he never wished -to be without a Parliament for three years, he was resolved never to -allow of a Parliament summoned by such means as prescribed by that Act. -The Parliament readily repealed the Act, and passed another, still -requiring a Parliament at farthest after three years' interval, but -sweeping away what Charles called the "wonderful clauses" of the Bill. - -In return for this favour, the Commons now solicited his assent to -the Conventicle Act, which it was hoped would extinguish Dissent -altogether. This was a continuation of those tyrannic Acts which were -passed in this infamous reign, some of which, as the Corporation and -Test Acts, even survived the revolution of 1688. The Test Act, the Act -of Uniformity, by which Bishop Sheldon, the Laud of his time, ejected -two thousand ministers, now the Conventicle, and soon after this the -Five Mile Act, completed the code of despotism. - -Here was the king, who, in the last session of Parliament, published -his declaration for the indulgence of tender consciences, now wheeling -round like a weathercock, and consenting to the Conventicle Act. -And what was this Act? It forbade more than five persons to meet -together for worship, except that worship was according to the Common -Prayer Book. All magistrates were empowered to levy ten pounds on the -ministers, five pounds on every hearer, and twenty pounds on the house -where this conventicle, as it was called, was held. This fine, or -three months' imprisonment, was the punishment for the first offence; -ten pounds a hearer or six months' imprisonment for the second -offence; one hundred pounds a hearer or seven years' transportation -for the third; and death without benefit of clergy in case of return -or escape. This diabolical Act Clarendon applauded, and said that if -rigorously executed, it would have produced entire Conformity. What was -Clarendon's idea of rigour? - -Sheldon, the Bishop of London, let loose all the myrmidons of the law -on the devoted country. The houses of Nonconformists were invaded -by informers, constables, and the vilest and lowest rabble of their -assailants. They broke open the houses of all Nonconformists, in search -of offenders, but still more in search of plunder; they drove them -from their meetings with soldiery, and thrust them into prisons--and -such prisons! No language can describe the horrors and vileness of -the pestiferous prisons of those days. The two thousand Nonconformist -ministers were starving. "Their wives and children," says Baxter, "had -neither house nor home." Such as dared to preach in fields and private -houses were dragged to those horrible prisons; those who ventured to -offer them food or shelter, if discovered, were treated the same. To -prevent the Nonconformist ministers from remaining amongst their old -friends, Sheldon, the very next session, procured the Five Mile Act, -which restrained all dissenting clergy from coming within five miles of -any place where they had exercised their ministry, and from teaching -school, under a penalty of forty pounds for each offence. - -In Scotland it was not against sects, but against the whole -Presbyterian Church that the fury of the persecutors was directed. -The Presbyterians had effectually crushed out all Dissenters, and now -they themselves felt the iron hand of intolerance. No sooner did the -Conventicle Act pass in England than the Royalist Parliament passed one -there in almost the same terms, and another Act offering Charles twenty -thousand foot and two thousand horse to march into England, to assist -in putting down his subjects there, if necessary. Sharp was wonderfully -elated by the Conventicle Act, and, establishing what proved to be -a High Commission Court, he managed to place his creature, Lord -Rothes, at the head of the law department as Chancellor, who brow-beat -magistrates and lawyers, and twisted the laws as Sharp thought fit. The -prisons were soon crammed as full as those in England, and proceedings -of the law courts more resembled those of an inquisition than anything -else, till the peasantry rose and endeavoured to defend themselves. The -names of Lauderdale and Archbishop Sharp are made immortal for the -infliction of infernal tortures; their racks and thumbscrews, their -iron boots and gibbets are riveted fast and firm to their names. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT PLAGUE: SCENES IN THE STREETS OF LONDON. (_See -p._ 216.)] - -[Illustration: THUMBSCREW.] - -And now the king was about to plunge into war to serve the purposes -of his paymaster, the ambitious French king. Whatever could weaken or -embarrass Holland suited exactly the plans of Louis XIV., and to have -England contending with Holland whilst he was contemplating an attack -on Spain was extremely convenient. The immediate cause, however, came -from the complaints of the merchants, or rather of the Duke of York. -The duke was governor of an African company, which imported gold dust -from the coast of Guinea, and was deeply engaged in the slave trade, -supplying West Indian planters with negroes. The Dutch complained of -the encroachments of the English, both there and in the East Indies, -and the English replied by similar complaints. The duke advocated -hostilities against the Dutch, but found Charles unwilling to be -diverted from his pleasures by the anxieties of war. He was worked on, -however, by appeals to his resentment against the Louvestein faction in -Holland, which had treated him with great indignity whilst he was an -exile, and though the differences might have been readily settled by a -little honest negotiation, the duke was desirous of a plea for further -aggression on the Dutch, and his plans were fostered by Downing, the -ambassador at the Hague, a most unprincipled man, who under Cromwell -had held the same post, and traded most profitably on the fears of the -Dutch. - -In the spring of 1664, James's admiral, Sir Robert Holmes, arrived -on the coast of Africa with a few small ships of war, to recover the -castle of Cape Coast, which the Dutch had claimed and seized. He -exceeded his commission as an officer of the African Company, and -not only reduced the castle of Cape Coast, but the forts of Goree, -and then sailed away to America, and cast anchor at the settlement of -New Amsterdam, lately taken from the Dutch by Sir Richard Nicholas, -and named it after his patron, New York. The Dutch ambassador now -presented the strongest remonstrances, and the king, excusing himself -on the plea that Holmes had gone out on a private commission, assured -the ambassador that he would have him recalled and put upon his trial. -Holmes, indeed, was recalled, and sent to the Tower, but was soon -after liberated. The Dutch were not disposed to sit down under this -indignity, and De Ruyter attacked the English settlements on the coast -of Guinea, committed great depredations, and then, sailing to the West -Indies, captured above twenty sail of English merchantmen. There was -now a vehement cry for war, and Charles appealed to Parliament, which -granted the unprecedented supply of two millions and a half. The City -of London also presented several large sums of money, for which they -received the thanks of Parliament. A very remarkable circumstance -attended the Act granting this Parliamentary supply. The ancient mode -of subsidies was abandoned, and a mode of assessment, copied from -the plan of the Commonwealth, was adopted; the first time that the -Royalists practically paid homage to the Republican superiority of -finance. The tax was to be raised by quarterly assessments. Moreover, -the clergy, instead of voting their money separately in Convocation, -were called upon to pay their taxes with the laity, and thus ended the -separate jurisdiction of Convocation: it became a mere form. - -The Duke of York, who, with all his faults, was by no means destitute -of courage, took the command of the fleet as Lord Admiral against the -Dutch, and showed much ability in his command. He divided the fleet -into three squadrons, one of which he commanded himself, the second he -gave to Prince Rupert, who here again appeared in English affairs, and -the third to the Earl of Sandwich, formerly Admiral Montagu. The whole -fleet consisted of ninety-eight sail of the line and four fire-ships. -On the 4th of June, 1665, he came to an engagement near Lowestoft -with the Dutch under Admiral Opdam, a gallant and experienced seaman, -followed by a hundred and thirteen men-of-war, manned by the most -spirited and distinguished youth of Holland. The battle was terrible, -but James, discharging all his guns into Opdam's vessel, caused it to -blow up, and thus destroyed the admiral with five hundred men. The -Dutch having lost their chief commander, drew off towards the Texel, -but Van Tromp collected the scattered vessels, and there was a prospect -of a second fight; but the duke went to bed, and Lord Brounker, a -gentleman of the bedchamber, went on deck and ordered Penn to slacken -sail. The consequence was that the Dutch were allowed to retire in -safety, and much of the honour won by the duke was lost again by this -circumstance. It was said that the duke knew nothing of it, and that -Brounker had given the order of his own accord; but the prevailing -opinion was that the duke thought he had got honour enough, and the -Earl of Montague, who was serving as a volunteer, said the duke had -been much impressed by seeing, in the heat of the action, the Earl of -Falmouth, Lord Muskerry, and Boyle, son of the Earl of Burlington, -killed by his side. Penn, moreover, was said to have told the duke -that if they engaged again, the fight would be more bloody than ever, -for the Dutch would grow desperate with revenge. The fleet, therefore, -made homeward, and, says Pepys, the duke and his officers returned from -sea "all fat and ruddy with being in the sun." It was given out as a -great victory, and the duke received one hundred and twenty thousand -pounds for his services; but the public was far from satisfied, and -Lord Sandwich far less so. He complained to Pepys that he had borne -the brunt of the battle, and that all the honour was given to the -duke in the printed account. That there was much in these statements -was sanctioned by the fact that the duke was removed from the fleet, -and the command restored to the brave but unprincipled Sandwich. In -the battle the Dutch are stated to have lost seven thousand men, and -eighteen sail burnt, sunk, or taken. The English are reported to have -lost only one ship, and six hundred men in killed and wounded. Amongst -the slain were the Earls of Marlborough and Portland, and Admirals -Lawson and Sampson. - -Sandwich was scarcely in independent command when he heard of a most -magnificent chance. Two Dutch merchant fleets, one from the East -Indies and one from the Levant, to avoid the English fleet at the -Texel, united and sailed round the north of Ireland and Scotland, and -took shelter in the neutral harbour of Bergen, in Norway. They were -jointly valued at twenty-five millions of livres. Sandwich sailed -thither after them, and the King of Denmark, the sovereign of Norway, -though at peace with the Dutch, was tempted, by the hope of sharing -the booty, to let Sandwich attack them in port. Sandwich, however, -was not satisfied to give the king half, as demanded, and in spite of -Alefeldt, the governor, who begged him to wait till the terms were -finally settled with the monarch, he ordered Captain Tyddiman to dash -in and cut the ships out and all the Dutch vessels. But Tyddiman found -himself between two fires; the Dutch defended themselves resolutely -and the Danes, resenting this lawless proceeding, fired on them from -the fort and batteries. Five of Sandwich's commanders were killed, -one ship was sunk, much damage was done to the fleet, and it was glad -to escape out of the harbour. Sandwich, however, was lucky enough -soon after to secure eight men-of-war and about thirty other vessels, -including two of the richest Indiamen, which were dispersed by a storm -whilst under the convoy of De Witt. The unscrupulous Sandwich made free -to appropriate two thousand pounds' worth of the booty, and allowed -his officers to do the same, which occasioned his dismissal from the -fleet; but to soften his disgrace, he was sent as ambassador to Spain. -Parliament, to carry on the war, granted the king a fresh supply of one -million two hundred and fifty thousand pounds, and, at the same time, -voted the one hundred and twenty thousand pounds to the duke. - -Whilst these events had been transpiring the plague had been raging -in the City of London, and had thence spread itself to various parts -of the country. It raged with a fury almost unexampled in any age -or nation. It had shown itself during the previous winter in a few -individual cases, and as spring advanced, it terribly extended its -devastations. In May it burst forth with frightful violence in St. -Giles's, and, spreading over the adjoining parishes, soon threatened -both Whitehall and the City. The nobility fled to the country, the -Court retreated to Salisbury, and left Monk to represent the Government -in his own person, and he boldly maintained his ground through the -whole deadly time. As the hot weather advanced the mortality became -terrible, and the people fled in crowds into the country, till the -Lord Mayor refused to grant fresh bills of health, and the people of -the neighbouring towns and villages declined to receive any one from -London into them. Those who escaped out of the metropolis had to camp -in the fields, whichever way they turned the inhabitants being in arms -to drive them away. In June the City authorities put in force an Act -of James I. They divided the City into districts, and allotted to each -a staff of examiners, searchers, nurses, and watchmen. As soon as the -plague was ascertained to be in a house, they made a red cross upon -the door a foot in length, and wrote over, "Lord, have mercy upon -us!" No one was allowed to issue out of the houses bearing that fatal -sign for a month, if they could keep them in. Persons escaping out of -these infected houses, and mingling with others, were liable to suffer -death as felons. But to remain in these houses was to perish of plague -or famine, and numbers broke wildly from them at all hazards, thus -carrying the infection on all sides. Many in their frenzy jumped naked -from the windows, rushed wildly through the streets, and plunged into -the river. - -It was calculated that forty thousand work-people and servants were -left destitute by the flight of their employers, and subscriptions -were made to prevent them from starving, for they were not allowed to -leave the City. The king gave one thousand pounds a week, the City, six -hundred pounds, the Queen Dowager, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and -many noblemen contributed liberally. But the aspect of the place was -terrible. The dead carts were going to and fro continually to collect -the bodies put out into the streets, announced by the tinkling of a -bell, and at night by the glare of links. The corpses were cast into -pits, and covered up as fast as possible. The most populous and lately -busy streets were grass-grown; the people who walked through them kept -along the middle, except they were meeting others, and then they got -as far from each other as possible. Amid all this horror, the sight of -ghastly death, and the ravings of delirium, whilst some brave souls -devoted themselves to the assistance of the suffering and dying, crowds -of others rushed to taverns, theatres, and places of debauch, and a -strange maniacal mirth startled the silence of the night, and added -horror to the work of death. The weekly numbers who perished rose from -one thousand to eight thousand. The wildest rumours of apparitions and -strange omens were afloat. The ghosts of the dead were said to be seen -walking round the pits where their bodies lay; a flaming sword was said -to stretch across the heavens from Westminster to above the Tower, -and men, raised by the awful excitement of the scene into an abnormal -state, went about, as was done at the destruction of Jerusalem, -announcing the judgments of God. One man cried as he passed, "Yet forty -days, and London shall be destroyed;" another stalked nakedly along, -bearing on his head a chafing-dish of burning coal, and declaring that -the Almighty would purge them with fire. Another came suddenly from -side streets and alleys in the darkness of the night, or in open -day, uttering in a deep and fearful tone, the unvarying exclamation, -"Oh, the great and dreadful God!" The confounded people declared that -it was a judgment of God on the nation for its sins, and especially -the sins of the King and Court, and the dreadful persecution of the -religious by the Government and clergy. The Presbyterian ejected -preachers frequently mounted into the pulpits now deserted by their -usual occupants, and preached with a solemn eloquence to audiences who -listened to them from amid the shadows of death, and thus gave great -offence to the incumbents, who had abandoned their own charges. This -was made one plea, after the danger was over, for passing the Five Mile -Act in October of this year (1665). Many other metropolitan clergy -stood by their flocks, and displayed the noblest characters during -the pestilence. This terrible plague swept off upwards of one hundred -thousand people during the year; and though it ceased with the winter, -it raged the following summer in Colchester, Norwich, Cambridge, -Salisbury, and even in the Peak of Derbyshire. - -Whilst the plague had been raging, numbers of the Republicans, -Algernon Sidney among the rest, had gone over to Holland and taken -service in its army, urging the States to invade England, and restore -the Commonwealth, and a conspiracy was detected in London itself for -seizing the Tower and burning the City. Rathbone, Tucker, and six -others, were seized and hanged, but Colonel Danvers, their leader, -escaped. Parliament attainted a number of the conspirators by name, -and also every British subject who should remain in the Dutch service -after a fixed day. But neither plague nor insurrection had any effect -in checking the wild licence and riot of the Court. The same scenes -of drinking, gambling, and debauchery went on faster than ever after -the Court removed from Salisbury to Oxford. The king was in pursuit -of a new flame, Miss Stewart, one of the queen's maids of honour, and -the Duke of York was as violently in love with her. Charles could not -eat his breakfast till he visited both her and Castlemaine; and even -Clarendon complains that "it was a time when all licence in discourse -and in actions was spread over the kingdom, to the heart-breaking of -many good men, who had terrible apprehensions of the consequences of -it." - -[Illustration: THE GREAT PLAGUE: THE MANIAC PRONOUNCING THE DOOM OF -LONDON. (_See p._ 216.)] - -The war, meanwhile, went on, and now assumed a more formidable aspect, -for Louis XIV. made a sudden veer round in his politics, and joined -the Dutch. He was actually under conditions of peace and assistance -with them, and they called upon him to fulfil his engagements; but -they publicly would have called in vain, had not Charles of late become -too independent of his French paymaster, by having received liberal -supplies from Parliament. Louis liked extremely to see Holland and -England exhausting one another whilst he was aiming at the acquisition -of the Netherlands; but it was not his policy to leave Charles free -from his control. Charles, meanwhile, had been neglecting the very -sailors who were to fight his battles against the united power of -France and Holland. The sailors who had fought so gallantly last -summer had lain during the winter in the streets, having received no -pay. Pepys says that, whilst the plague was raging in London, they -were besieging the Navy Office with clamorous demands. "Did business, -though not much, at the Navy Office, because of the horrible crowd and -lamentable moan of the poor seamen that lie starving in the streets for -lack of money, which do trouble and perplex me to the heart; and more -at noon when we were to go through them, for then above a whole hundred -of them followed us, some cursing, some swearing, and some praying to -us." - -Whilst the royal duke had received one hundred and twenty thousand -pounds for fighting one battle and leaving it unfinished, and the poor -men were thus turned adrift to starvation and danger of death from the -plague, the fleet had lost nearly all its experienced officers, who -had been turned off because of their having helped the immortal Blake -to shed glory on the Commonwealth, and their places were supplied by -young, insolent, ignorant sprigs of the aristocracy, who neither knew -their business, nor were disposed to do it if they did. Pepys, who, as -Secretary to the Admiralty, saw all this, says that Admiral Penn spoke -very freely to him on the subject, and lamented the loss which the -fleet had experienced in the cashiered officers. - -Such was the state of our navy when it put to sea to face the enemy. -The command was entrusted to Monk and Prince Rupert. And here were -fresh proofs of the wretched management of this miserable monarch. Monk -had taken desperately to drinking, and to this commander the fortunes -of England were entrusted in conjunction with Rupert, who, with the -courage of a lion, was never in the right place at the right time. -On the 1st of June, 1666, Monk discovered the Dutch fleet under De -Ruyter and De Witt lying at anchor off the North Foreland. They had -eighty-four sail, and Monk would have had an equal number, but Rupert -had received an order to go in quest of the French fleet with thirty -sail. Monk, therefore, having little more than fifty sail, was strongly -advised by Sir John Harman and Sir Thomas Tyddiman not to engage with -such unequal numbers, especially as the wind and sea were such as would -prevent the use of their lower tier of guns. But Monk, who was probably -drunk, would not listen, and was encouraged by the younger and more -inexperienced officers. He bore down rapidly on the Dutch fleet, having -the weather gauge, and the Dutchmen were taken so much by surprise that -they had not time to weigh anchor, but cut their cables, and made for -their own coast. But there they faced about, and Monk, in his turn, was -obliged to tack so abruptly, that his topmast went by the board, and -whilst he was bringing his vessel into order, Sir William Berkeley, who -had not noticed the accident, was amid the thick of the enemy, and, -being unsupported, was soon killed on his quarter-deck, and his ship -and a frigate attending him were taken. Sir Thomas Tyddiman refused to -engage, and Sir John Harman, surrounded by the Dutch, had his masts -shot away, and was severely wounded. The masts and rigging of the -English vessels were cut to pieces by chain shot, a new invention of -Admiral De Witt's, and Monk, with his disabled ships, had to sustain a -desperate and destructive fight till it was dark. He then gave orders -to make for the first English port, but in their haste and the darkness -they ran upon the Galloper Sand, where the _Prince Royal_, the finest -vessel in the fleet, grounded, and was taken by the Dutch. The next day -Monk continued a retreating fight, and would probably have lost the -whole fleet, but just then Rupert, with the White squadron, appeared in -sight. The next morning the battle was renewed with more equal forces -till they were separated by a fog, and when that cleared away the Dutch -were seen in retreat. Both sides claimed the victory, but the English -had certainly suffered most, and lost the most ships. The only wonder -was that they had not lost the whole. Nothing, however, could exceed -the lion-like courage of the seamen. "They may be killed," exclaimed -De Witt, "but they cannot be conquered." They very soon reminded him -of his words, for before the end of June they were at sea again, -fought, and defeated him and De Ruyter, pursued them to their own -coast, entered the channel between Vlie and Schelling, and destroyed -two men-of-war, one hundred and fifty merchantmen, and reduced the town -of Brandaris to ashes. De Witt, enraged at this devastation, vowed to -Almighty God that he would never sheath the sword till he had taken -ample revenge. - -In August a French fleet, under the Duke of Beaufort, arrived from -the Mediterranean to join the Dutch fleet, under De Ruyter, which was -already in the Channel watching for position. Rupert, however, was on -the look-out, and De Ruyter took refuge in the roadstead of Boulogne, -but whilst Rupert was preparing to prevent the advance of Beaufort up -the Channel, a storm obliged him to retreat to St. Helier, by which -Beaufort was enabled to reach Dieppe; and the Dutch, severely damaged -by the tempest, returned home. But this storm had produced a terrible -catastrophe on land. A fire broke out in the night, between the 2nd and -3rd of September, in Pudding Lane, near Fish Street, where the Monument -to commemorate the event now stands. It occurred in a bakehouse, which -was built of wood and had a pitched roof, and the buildings in general -being of timber, it soon spread. The wind was raging furiously from -the east, and the neighbourhood being filled with warehouses of pitch, -tar, resin, and other combustible materials, the conflagration rushed -along with wonderful force and vehemence. The summer had been one of -the hottest and driest ever known, and the timber houses were in a -state to catch and burn amazingly. Clarendon says, "The fire and the -wind continued in the same excess all Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday, -till afternoon, and flung and scattered brands into all quarters; the -nights more terrible than the days, and the light the same, the light -of the fire supplying that of the sun." The timidity of the Lord Mayor -favoured the progress of the flames. He at first refused to admit the -military to prevent the plunder of the houses, and to keep off the -crowds where efforts were attempted to stop the fire; but nothing of -this sort could be done, for the pipes from the New River were found -to be empty, and the machine which raised water from the Thames was -burnt to ashes. It was proposed to blow up some of the houses with -gunpowder, to arrest the progress of the fire; but the aldermen, whose -houses would be the first to be exploded, would not allow it, and thus -permitted the advance of the raging element without saving their own -property. Nearly the whole of the City from the Tower to Temple Bar was -soon one raging mass of fire, the glare of which lit up the country for -ten miles around. - -The terrors of the catastrophe were fearfully aggravated by the wild -rumours and suspicions that flew to and fro. It was declared to be the -doings of the Papists in combination with the French and Dutch, and -the pipes of the New River works at Islington being empty confirmed -it. One Grant, a Catholic and partner in the works, was accused of -having turned off the water on the preceding Saturday, and carried -away the keys; but it was afterwards shown by the books of the company -that Grant was not a partner there till the 25th of September, three -weeks afterwards. There were plenty of people ready to depose that -they had seen men carrying about parcels of combustibles, which, on -being crushed, burst out in inextinguishable flame, and others throwing -fire-balls into houses. There were twenty thousand French resident -in the city, and they were declared to be engaged with the Catholics -to massacre the whole population during the confusion of the fire. -Distraction and terror spread on every side--some were labouring -frantically to extinguish the flames, others were hurrying out their -goods and conveying them away, others flying from the expected -massacre, and others coming out armed to oppose the murderers. Not -a foreigner or Catholic could appear in the streets without danger -of his life. What made it worse, an insane Frenchman, of the name of -Hubert, declared that it was he who set fire to the first house, and -that his countrymen were in the plot to help him. He was examined, -and was so evidently crazed, the judges declared to the king that -they gave no credit whatever to his story, nor was there the smallest -particle of proof produced; but the jury, in their fear and suspicion, -pronounced him guilty, and the poor wretch was hanged. The inscription -on the Monument after the fire, however--and which was not erased till -December, 1830--accused the Catholics of being the incendiaries, for -which reason, Pope, a Catholic, referring to this particular libel, -says:-- - - "Where London's Column, pointing at the skies, - Like a tall bully, lifts the head and _lies_." - -"Let the cause be what it would," says Clarendon, "the effect was -terrible, for above two parts of three of that great city, and those -the most rich and wealthy parts, where the greatest warehouses and -the best shops stood, the Royal Exchange, with all the streets about -it--Lombard Street, Cheapside, Paternoster Row, St. Paul's Church, -and almost all the other churches in the City, with the Old Bailey, -Ludgate, all Paul's Churchyard, even to the Thames, and the greatest -part of Fleet Street, all which were places the best inhabited, -were all burnt without one house remaining. The value or estimate -of what that devouring element consumed over and above the houses, -could never be computed in any degree." The houses were calculated at -thirteen thousand two hundred, covering, more or less, one hundred and -thirty-six acres. Eighty-nine churches were consumed. - -[Illustration: PIE CORNER, SMITHFIELD, WHERE THE GREAT FIRE REACHED ITS -LIMITS.] - -Towards the evening on Wednesday the wind abated, and buildings were -blown up to clear the ground round Westminster Abbey, the Temple -Church, and Whitehall. The next day, the weather being calm, the danger -was thought to be over, but in the night the fire burst out again in -the neighbourhood of the Temple, in Cripplegate, and near the Tower. -The king, the Duke of York, and many noblemen assisted to blow up -houses in those quarters, and thus contributed to save those places, -and finally stop the conflagration. Nothing is said so completely to -have roused Charles as this catastrophe, and both he and the duke were -indefatigable in giving their personal attendance, encouragement, and -assistance. They placed guards to prevent thieving, and distributed -food to the starving inhabitants. In the fields about Islington and -Highgate two hundred thousand people were seen occupying the bare -ground, or under huts and tents hastily constructed, with the remains -of their property lying about them. Charles was indefatigable in -arranging for the accommodation of this unfortunate mass of people -in the neighbouring towns and villages, till their houses could -be rebuilt. But for months afterwards the enormous field of ruins -presented a burning and smoking chaos. Had Charles and his brother -conducted themselves at other times as during this brief but awful -time, they had left very different names and effects behind them. -The great misfortune for the moment even softened down the acrimony -of bigotry and party; but this did not last long. An inquiry was -instituted, both by the Commons and the Privy Council, into the cause -of the calamity, but nothing was elicited to prove it the work of -incendiaries. - -The people at large firmly believed that the plague and the fire were -judgments for the sins of the King and Court. - - - - -[Illustration: GEORGE MONK, DUKE OF ALBEMARLE.] - -CHAPTER VIII. - -REIGN OF CHARLES II. (_continued_). - - Demands of Parliament--A Bogus Commission--Crushing the - Covenanters in Scotland--The Dutch in the Thames--Panic in London - and at Court--Humiliation of England--Peace is Signed--Fall - of Clarendon--The Cabal--Sir William Temple at the Hague--The - Triple Alliance--Scandals at Court--Profligacy of the King - and the Duke of Buckingham--Attempt to Deprive the Duke of - York of the Succession--Persecution of Nonconformists--Trial - of Penn and Mead--The Rights of Juries--Secret Treaty - with France--Suspicious Death of Charles's Sister--"Madam - Carwell"--Attack on Sir John Coventry--National Bankruptcy--War - with Holland--Battle of Southwold Bay--William of Orange - saves his Country--Declaration of Indulgence--Fall of the - Cabal--Affairs in Scotland and Ireland--Progress of the Continental - War--Mary Marries William of Orange--Louis Intrigues with the - Opposition--Peace of Nimeguen--The Popish Plot--Impeachment of - Danby--Temple's Scheme of Government--The Exclusion Bill--Fresh - Persecutions in Scotland--Murder of Archbishop Sharp--Bothwell - Bridge--Anti-Catholic Fury--Charges against James--Execution of - Lord Stafford. - - -The career of vice which Charles had run since his restoration to the -throne of England, the scandalous scenes and ruinous extravagance at -Court, the loose women and debauched courtiers who figured there, and -the great calamities which had latterly fallen on the nation, and, as -it was generally believed, in consequence of the flagrant wickedness of -the ruling persons, had by this time produced a profound impression on -the public mind. Unprecedented sums had been voted for the prosecution -of the Dutch War, and some terrible battles had been fought at sea; -but these, so far from bringing any solid advantage to the nation, had -ruined its finances, and greatly damaged the navy. Besides this, there -was a general and well-founded belief that the money which should have -gone to fit out the navy and pay the brave seamen, had been squandered -on the royal mistresses and minions. The sailors had been left in -destitution, and remained so; their tickets, which had been given them -as tokens of their demands for wages, had to a large extent never been -redeemed, whilst the effeminate courtiers made fortunes. - -When Parliament met on the 21st of September, 1666, more money was -demanded, and the Commons liberally voted one million eight hundred -thousand pounds, but on several conditions, one of which was that the -laws should be put in force against the Catholics, who were suspected -to have fired the capital. Though a Committee appointed to consider -this charge failed to connect the Papists with the Fire, yet the cry -remained, and Charles was compelled to order by proclamation all -priests and Jesuits to quit the kingdom; all recusants to be proceeded -against according to law; all Papists to be disarmed, and officers -and soldiers to be dismissed from the army who should refuse the -oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy. There had been a demand from the -aristocracy and their tenants in England, in 1663, to prevent the -importation of cattle from Ireland. The landlords wanted high rents, -and the tenants cried out that they could not pay them if they were to -be undersold by the Irish; as if Ireland were not a part of the empire -as well as England, and justly entitled to the same privileges. It -was in vain that the more liberal and enlightened members asked how -Ireland was to purchase our manufactured goods, if we would not take -her raw produce. The Bill was passed, and sixty thousand beeves and -a large quantity of sheep were thus refused entrance annually at our -ports. To obviate this difficulty, the Irish slaughtered the cattle, -and sent them over as dead carcasses. This was violently opposed, and -this session a Bill passed, also excluding the meat. But the third -and last demand on Charles was the most alarming. It was no other -than that a Parliamentary Commission should be appointed to examine -and audit the public accounts. It was well known that not only the -king's mistresses, but many other persons about the Court, had made -very free with the public revenue with the connivance of Charles. Lady -Castlemaine was commonly declared to carry on a great trade in selling -favours, and receiving bribes from the subjects, and lavish grants from -the king. - -The alarm which the passing of a Bill for this Commission of Inquiry -through the Commons carried into all the courtly recesses of corruption -was excessive. The whole Court was in a turmoil of consternation; there -was a terrible outcry that if this were allowed, there was an end of -the prerogative. Lord Ashley, the Treasurer of the Prize Money, and -Carteret, the Treasurer of the Navy, were aghast, and implored Charles -to declare openly that he would never consent to it. The grave and -virtuous Lord Clarendon strenuously supported them, telling the king -that he must not "suffer Parliament to extend their jurisdiction to -cases that they had nothing to do with." He desired the king to "be -firm in the resolution he had taken, and not to be put from it." And he -promised when the Bill came into the Lords he would oppose it with all -his power. And this was the advice of a man who himself tells us in his -"Life" of the corruptions practised--of the corruptions of these very -men, Ashley and Carteret; of the good round sums taken from the privy -purse by "the lady," as she was called, and of the extensive grants to -her of lands in Ireland, where they were not so likely to be inquired -about; of the miserable condition of the navy; the dissolute life of -the king; his own remonstrances, and the constant endeavours of the -courtiers to divert the king's attention from anything serious. - -But there was a cause much more influential than public good or public -virtue which forwarded the Bill, in spite of the Court. The Duke of -Buckingham had a quarrel with "the lady," and she prejudiced the -king against him, and the duke was determined to have his revenge by -exposing "the lady's" gross peculations. The Bill, therefore, passed -the Commons, and came into the Lords, where Buckingham and his party -supported it, and Clarendon and the guilty courtiers opposed it. -Buckingham himself was as dissolute and unprincipled a man as any about -Court, not even excepting the king and the licentious Lord Rochester. -The Bill passed, and the king, in his resentment, disgraced Buckingham, -deprived him of all his employments, and ordered his committal to the -Tower, which he avoided only by absconding. Buckingham, however, once -out of the way, the king and his virtuous Chancellor soon managed to -be allowed to appoint the Commission of Inquiry themselves, by which -the whole affair was converted into a mockery, and came to nothing. - -During this session of Parliament, wild work had been going on in the -west of Scotland. The people there had resisted the ejectment of their -ministers from their pulpits by Episcopalian clergy; they received them -with curses, and often with showers of stones. When the Act against -conventicles was passed, they still met with their old pastors in barns -and moorlands, and then the soldiery under Sir James Turner were let -loose upon them. They flew to arms and fought the soldiers, and made a -prisoner of Turner himself. Their ministers, Semple, Maxwell, Welsh, -Guthrie, and others, incited them to wield the sword of the Lord and -of Gideon, and to resist the Malignants to the death. Lauderdale was -in London, and the ministers told the people that the fire of London -had given enough to the Government to do at home. But Sharp was in -Scotland, and he put himself at the head of two troops of horse and a -regiment of foot guards, and assisted by Dalziel, a man of considerable -military reputation, he pursued the Covenanters to Rullion Green, in -the Pentlands. There, on the 28th of November, 1666, they came to a -pitched battle, in which the Covenanters were defeated, fifty being -killed, and a hundred and thirty taken prisoners. The Covenanters had -treated Turner and all others who fell into their hands with great -lenity, but none was shown to them by Sharp. Ten of them, were hanged -on one gallows in Edinburgh, and thirty-five were sent to Galloway, -Ayr, and Dumfries, and there gibbeted in the face of their own friends. -The implacable archbishop, with the fury of a renegade, made keen -search after all who had been concerned in the affair; it was declared -that eternal damnation was incurred by the rebels against the Church, -and the horrors of the rack, thumbscrews, and iron boot were put -vigorously into operation again. A young preacher, Maccail, whom Sir -Walter Scott has represented under the name of Macbriar, was hideously -tortured, but died in a rapture of joy, not a syllable of disclosure -escaping him. Dalziel, a brutal and drunken captain, revelled in -cruelty and outrage amongst the Whigs or Whiggamores, as they were -called; hanged a man because he would not betray his own father; -quartered his soldiers on people to ruin them, and perpetrated such -atrocities that the Earls of Tweeddale and Kincardine went up to Court -to warn the king against driving the people once more to desperation. -Their representations were not without effect, but this leniency was of -short duration. - -The war with the Dutch and French being still continued, it was -necessary for Charles to put his fleet once more in order; but his -Exchequer exhibited its usual emptiness, and the Parliamentary supply -would be some time before it reached the treasury. The customary -resource had been to send for the bankers and capitalists of London, -and make over to them some branches of the public revenue for immediate -advances, these advances to be at the rate of eight per cent., and -to be repaid by the taxes till all were discharged. But the losses -by the fire had incapacitated the money-lenders at this crisis, and -Charles, therefore, unwisely listened to the suggestion of Sir William -Coventry, to lay up the principal ships in ordinary, and send out only -two light squadrons to interrupt the enemy's trade in the Channel and -the German Ocean. The Duke of York at once declared that this was -directly to invite Holland to insult the English coasts, and plunder -the maritime counties; but the want of money overruled the duke, and -the consequences were precisely what he foresaw. - -Charles hoped to evade the danger of this unguarded state by a peace. -Louis XIV., who was anxious to conquer Flanders, made overtures through -Lord Jermyn, now Earl of St. Albans, who lived in Paris, and was -said to be married to the queen-mother, and he also at the same time -opened negotiations with Holland, to enforce an abstinence of aid to -the Flemings from that quarter, and to make peace between Holland and -England. These measures effected, he would be set free from any demands -of Holland to assist them against England, and he would bind Charles to -afford no aid to the Spaniards. Charles was perfectly willing to accede -to these plans, so that he might not be called on for more money, and -after a time it was agreed that Commissioners should meet at Breda -to settle the terms of peace. France was to restore the West Indian -Islands taken from England, and England was to oppose no obstacle to -Louis' designs against Spain. But as hostilities were not suspended, De -Witt, the Dutch minister, still burning for revenge for the injuries -committed by the English on the coast of Holland, declared that he -would "set such a mark upon the English coast as the English had left -upon that of Holland." - -He knew the unprotected state of the Thames, and he ordered the Dutch -fleet, to the amount of seventy sail, to draw together at the Nore. -The command was entrusted to De Ruyter and the brother of De Witt. -The English, roused by the danger, threw a chain across the Medway -at the stakes, mounted the guns on the batteries, and got together a -number of fire-ships: but here the consequence of the heartless conduct -of the Government to the seamen and workmen who had been employed by -them hitherto and defrauded of their pay became apparent. No sense -of patriotism could induce them to work for the Government. The -Commissioners of the Navy were nine hundred thousand pounds in debt, -notwithstanding the liberal supplies of Parliament, and the merchants -would not furnish further stores except for ready money. One portion of -the Dutch fleet sailed up as far as Gravesend, the other was ordered to -destroy the shipping in the Medway (June, 1667). The fort at Sheerness -was in such a miserable condition, that it was soon levelled to the -ground. Monk had been sent down to defend the mouth of the Medway, and -he raised batteries, sank ships in the narrowest part of the channel -before the boom, and placed guard-ships for its protection. But the -Dutch found out another channel accessible at high water, and running -their fire-ships on the boom, broke the chain, silenced the batteries, -and burnt the guard-ships. Monk retreated to Upnor Castle, but the -Dutch soon appeared before it with their squadron; the castle was not -supplied with powder, and few of the ships in the river had any. The -_Royal Charles_ was taken, the finest ship in the English fleet, the -_Royal James_, the _Royal Oak_, and the _London_ were burnt. A still -greater mortification was to find numbers of the incensed English -sailors manning the Dutch vessels, who shouted, "Before we fought -for tickets, now we fight for dollars." Had De Ruyter pushed on for -London, he might have destroyed all the merchant ships in the river; -but Prince Rupert at Woolwich having sunk a number of ships to block up -the channel, and raised batteries to sweep the passage, it was easier -to commit devastations on the southern coast, and this squadron, under -Van Ghent, dropped down to the Nore and joined the main fleet. For six -weeks the Hollanders sailed proudly along our coasts, harassing the -inhabitants, and attempting to burn the ships at Portsmouth, Plymouth, -and Torbay. Twice De Ruyter attempted again to ascend the Thames, but -by this time, in addition to the force of Rupert, Sir Edward Spragge -was posted with eighteen sail of the line to oppose him. - -But the panic on land was inconceivable. "The people of Chatham," -says Clarendon, "which is naturally an array of seamen and officers of -the navy, who might and ought to have secured all those ships, which -they had time enough to have done, were in distraction; their chief -officers have applied all those boats and lighter vessels, which should -have towed up the ships, to carry away their own goods and household -stuff, and given what they left behind for lost." "Nothing," he adds, -"would have been easier than to have destroyed Chatham, and all the -ships which lay higher up the river. But London was still worse. The -noise of this, and the flames of the ships which were burning, made it -easily believed in London that the enemy had done all that they might -have; they thought they were landed in many places, and that their -fleet was come up as far as Greenwich. Nor was the confusion there less -than it was in the Court itself, where they who had most advanced the -war, and reproached all those who had been against it as men who had -no public spirit, and were not solicitous for the honour and glory of -the nation--and who had never spoken of the Dutch but with scorn and -contempt, as a nation rather to be cudgelled than fought with--were -now the most dejected men that can be imagined; railed very bitterly -at those who had advised the king to enter into that war, which had -already sacrificed so many gallant men, and would probably ruin the -kingdom, and wished for a peace on any terms." All the world, he says, -rushed to Whitehall, and entered at pleasure, some advising the Court -to quit the metropolis, and "a lord, who would be thought one of the -greatest soldiers in Europe, to whom the Tower was committed, lodging -there only one night, 'declared that it was not tenable,' and desired -not to be charged with it, whereupon those who had taken their money -there carried it away again." - -[Illustration: _From the Design for the Wall Painting in the Royal -Exchange._ - -THE GREAT FIRE OF LONDON, 1666. - -By STANHOPE A. FORBES A.R.A.] - -This is a melancholy picture of what a weak and profligate Government -can reduce a great country to in less than six years. "It was said," -observes Macaulay, "that the very day of that great humiliation, the -king feasted with the ladies of his seraglio, and amused himself with -hunting a moth about the supper-room. Then, at length, tardy justice -was done to the memory of Oliver. Everywhere men magnified his valour, -genius, and patriotism. Everywhere it was remembered how, when he -ruled, all foreign powers had trembled at the name of England; how the -States-General, now so haughty, had crouched at his feet, and how, -when it was known that he was no more, Amsterdam was lighted up for a -great deliverance, and children ran along the canals, shouting for -joy that the 'Devil' was dead. Even Royalists exclaimed that the State -could be saved only by calling the old soldiers of the Commonwealth to -arms. Soon the capital began to feel the miseries of a blockade. Fuel -was scarcely to be procured. Tilbury Fort, the place where Elizabeth -had, with manly spirit, hurled foul scorn at Parma and Spain, was -insulted by the invaders. The roar of foreign guns was heard for the -first and last time by the citizens of London. In the Council it was -seriously proposed that, if the enemy advanced, the Tower should be -abandoned. Great multitudes of people assembled in the streets, crying -out that England was bought and sold. The houses and carriages of -ministers were attacked by the populace, and it seemed likely that -the Government would have to deal at once with an invasion and an -insurrection." - -[Illustration: TILBURY FORT.] - -However, deliverance came from an unexpected quarter, and the -excitement in the public mind--which had been naturally aroused and -alarmed by the disgraceful condition into which a corrupt and feeble -administration had allowed affairs to drift--gradually subsided, and -seldom has a great crisis been so luckily overcome. For whilst the -Dutch had thus been humiliating England, Louis XIV. had been pushing -his conquests in Flanders. With an army of seventy thousand men he -compelled Binche, Tournay, Oudenarde, Courtrai, and Douai to surrender; -and he was besieging Lille when the States of Holland hastened to come -to terms with France and England to prevent the nearer approach of -Louis to their own territories. On the 21st of July peace was signed -between England and Holland and England and France, by which the Dutch -kept the disputed island of Pulerone, and ceded to the English Albany -and New York. France restored Antigua, Montserrat, and part of St. -Kitts, and received back Nova Scotia. Denmark, which had sided with the -Dutch, also signed a treaty of peace with England. - -The peace was immediately succeeded by the fall of Clarendon. He -had been the companion and adviser of Charles from the very boyhood -of the king, and accordingly the mischief of every measure, and the -disgrace which had now fallen on the nation, were all attributed to -him. With great talents Clarendon had too much virtue to approve, far -less flatter, the vices and follies of the Court in which he lived, -and not enough to make him abandon it, and assume the character of -a noble and disinterested censor. He had the sternness and gravity -of Cato, but he lacked his great and patriotic principles. He began -as a liberal, but went over to the Royalist cause, and was a rigid -advocate of the high prerogatives of the Crown, and of the supremacy of -the Church. The Puritans looked on him as a combination of Strafford -and Laud. He certainly would not have so far violated public right -as to countenance the raising of Ship Money, or the violation of -the privileges of Parliament by the seizure of its members. But -the Puritans hated him for the support that he gave to the Act of -Uniformity, and for so hotly resisting the king's grant of indulgence -to tender consciences. On the other hand, the Royalists hated him -because he maintained the inviolability of the Bill of Indemnity, by -which they were restrained from ousting the purchasers from their -estates lost during the Commonwealth; and they hated him not the less -because he had managed to raise his daughter to the rank of Duchess of -York, and thus to give himself, although a commoner, the appearance of -being not only father-in-law of the next king, but father of a line of -kings. They accused him of having selected the present queen as one not -likely to have children, in order to favour the succession of his own, -and probably one of the real causes of Charles's change towards him -resulted from the courtiers having inspired him with this belief. The -Commons hated him because he had uniformly endeavoured to repress their -authority. He never could be brought to see the enlarged influence -which the progress of wealth and intelligence had given to the Commons; -nor had all that had passed under his eyes of their extraordinary power -under Charles I., awakened him to the knowledge of their real position -in the State. In vain did more clear-sighted men point out to him the -concessions which were necessary to enable the Parliament and the -Government to move on harmoniously together. The nobility disliked him -because he had, by his influence with the king and the marriage of his -daughter with the heir-apparent, placed himself above them, and, from -the haughtiness of his nature, taken no pains to conceal that invidious -position. The people detested him, for they believed that he ruled the -king, and therefore was the author of all their miseries and disgraces. -They accused him of selling Dunkirk, and therefore called his splendid -palace, overlooking and every way outshining the royal one, Dunkirk -House. The Chancellor, undoubtedly, had an incurable passion for money -and acquisition of wealth, and for displaying it in the grandeur of -his house, and the magnificent collection of his pictures. When the -Dutch fleet was riding in the Thames, the enraged people turned all -their fury on him. They broke his windows, destroyed the trees in his -grounds, trod down his garden, and erected a gallows at his door. - -But the intensity of aversion to him was felt at Court. He was from -his youth of grave and decorous character. The lewdness and fooleries -of the courtiers excited his undisguised disgust. We have seen that he -could stoop to persuade the queen to tolerate the most insufferable -indignities, yet he never ceased to speak to Charles of the infamy -and extravagance of his mistresses, and the scandalous lives of the -courtiers who fluttered around them. The only wonder is, that the -malice of Castlemaine and her allies had not long ago driven him from -the Court; and it speaks volumes for the hold which he had on the -regard of the monarch, that he could resist their hatred so long. But -now Buckingham, who had quarrelled with Lady Castlemaine, and had done -his best to expose her, had made up the feud, and they directed their -common enmity against their common foe. Shaftesbury, Monk, Clifford, -Lauderdale, Sir William Coventry, Arlington, and others, joined them in -one determined and concentrated attack. They made their onslaught when -all classes were uttering their execrations upon him. He had advised -the king, when the Dutch fleet was at Chatham, to dissolve Parliament, -and maintain ten thousand men that he had raised by forced contribution -from the neighbouring counties, to be repaid out of the next Supplies; -this caught wind, and was regarded as returning to the idea of the -king ruling by a standing army and without a Parliament. Charles had -grown tired of his preachments about the profligacy of his life and -Court, and allowed the old Chancellor to drift before the storm; he was -suspected more than all of sacrificing him to his resentment for having -brought about the marriage of Miss Stewart with the Duke of Richmond, -though Clarendon, in a letter to Charles, denied it. - -Clarendon, with his characteristic pride, refused at first to resign. -He waited on the king, and reminded him of his long and faithful -services, and told him that he would not consent to appear guilty by -surrendering the seals. The king talked of the power of Parliament. -Clarendon replied he did not fear Parliament, and told the king that -Parliament could do nothing against him without his consent. But -unfortunately the spirit of the censor came over him, and, entreating -the king not to allow the cabal of the courtiers to prevail against -him, he broke out into some severe strictures on "the lady" and her -abettors. The king rose and quitted the room without saying a word, and -"the lady," quickly informed of the Chancellor's disgrace, rushed to -the window to watch, with Arlington and May, the fallen minister retire -in confusion. Charles sent Sir Orlando Bridgeman for the seals, and on -the assembling of Parliament on the 10th of October, Buckingham and -Bristol, who again came out of his hiding-place, urged his impeachment. -Accordingly the Commons presented articles of impeachment at the bar -of the Lords, charging the Chancellor with cruelty and venality in his -office, with unlawful accumulation of wealth, with the sale of Dunkirk, -the disclosure of the king's secrets, and the design of ruling by -military force. Still Clarendon stood his ground; but the king let fall -an expression in the hearing of one of his friends, that he wondered -what Clarendon was still doing in England, and the old man took the -hint and got across the Channel, though the proposal to imprison him -till his trial had been overruled. He did not go, however, without -leaving a written vindication of his public conduct, which so offended -Parliament, that it ordered the paper to be burnt by the common -hangman. In this vindication he declared that he had only retired for -awhile, and should return at a proper time to prove his innocence, -"uncontrolled by the power and malice of men who had sworn his -destruction." This caused the Commons to pass a Bill ordering his trial -on the 1st of February, and declaring him, in default of appearance, -banished for life, incapable of ever after holding office, and liable -to all the penalties of high treason. Clarendon boldly prepared to face -his enemies, but illness stopped him at Calais till it was too late, -and he was thus doomed to exile for life. He lost his wife about the -time of his fall, which was a great blow to him, for they had lived -in great affection. He continued to live chiefly at Montpellier and -Moulins, engaged in writing his history of the Rebellion and of his own -life, as well as a reply to Hobbes' "Leviathan" and other works; but -sighing for recall, and importuning the king to allow him to return to -his native country and the society of his children. Charles, however, -paid no attention to his prayers, and he died at Rouen in 1674. - -Clarendon being removed, the whole of the ministry established at the -Restoration was broken up. Ormond was absent on his government in -Ireland, Southampton was dead, Monk was grown incapacitated from drink -and years, and Nicholas had retired. The new ministry acquired the -notorious and appropriate name of the _cabal_, from the initials of -their names,--Sir Thomas Clifford, First Commissioner of the Treasury, -afterwards Lord Clifford; the Earl of Arlington, Secretary of State; -the Duke of Buckingham, Master of the Horse, which office he purchased -from Monk; Lord Ashley, Chancellor of the Exchequer, afterwards Earl -of Shaftesbury and Lord Chancellor; and the Duke of Lauderdale. Before -this time the word cabal merely meant a cabinet. It is so used by -Whitelock, Pepys, and Evelyn, from the year 1650. The present cabinet -was styled by D'Estrades, "_la cabale d'Espagne_." The word became -infamous from the conduct of these men, who were soon concerned in the -king's sale of himself to Louis XIV., and most of them received large -sums from France for their most treasonable and unpatriotic services. -Clifford was the most honest and honourable, but he had the knack of -quarrelling with his colleagues, being of a hot and overbearing temper. -Bennet, Lord Arlington, was a mere courtier, had spent much time on -the Continent, and picked up its frivolity and vices. He could divert -the king by his lively sallies in conversation, please the ladies, -and assume an imposing gravity in public debate that deceived the -public. He was at heart a Romanist, but took care to conceal it. As -for Buckingham, he was a most thoroughly debauched and unprincipled -character, not without certain talents and literary tastes. He had -written farces, and was a connoisseur in music and architecture. But -he was a jaded man of pleasure, and having been out of favour with the -king, was now all the more bent on complying with his humour to win his -favour. He and Arlington were bitter enemies, but put on an appearance -of friendship now they were in office together. Ashley was a man who -could change sides, but always with an eye to the main chance. He had -been a zealous Republican, and now was as zealous a Royalist; and, as -for Lauderdale, he, too, had been an out-and-out Covenanter, but was -now a coarse, brutal persecutor of those of his old faith, and by his -diabolical cruelties has acquired a name in history amongst the most -odious of inquisitors. - -One of the earliest acts of the cabal gave fairer promise of sound -and good policy than their after proceedings. They sent Sir William -Temple to the Hague to endeavour to heal the difference with Holland, -which had inflicted such incalculable evils on both countries. Not the -least of those ills was the opportunity which was afforded Louis of -pushing his ambitious designs on Flanders, and ultimately on Holland -and Spain. Both England and Holland saw so clearly the gross folly -which they had displayed that Sir William soon came to terms with the -States, and by the 25th of April, 1668, he had got definite treaties -signed between Holland and England, and between these countries and -Sweden, to make common cause for checking the further advance of the -French, and to induce France to make peace with Spain. There was also a -secret treaty, binding each other to make war on France for the defence -of Spain. This league became known as the Triple Alliance. Louis, who -made pretences to the crown of Spain, was hoping, from the infirm -health of its young monarch, Charles II., to obtain that kingdom, -or to partition it between himself and Leopold, the German emperor, -with whom there was a secret treaty for that very purpose. So far, -therefore, from opposing the plans of the new allies, he fell in with -them on certain conditions--namely, that he should retain the bulk of -his conquests in the Netherlands. Holland beheld this arrangement with -alarm, and refused to sanction it, upon which it was concluded without -her approbation, and to punish the States, Castel-Rodrigo, the Spanish -governor of the Netherlands, gave up instead of Franche Comté, Lille, -Tournay, Douai, Charleroi, and other places in Flanders, so that the -French king advanced his frontier into the very face of Holland. This -was settled by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. - -But whilst Charles was thus publicly pursuing a policy much to the -satisfaction of the nation, both on account of the improved prospects -for trade, and because the Triple Alliance was an essentially -Protestant one, he was secretly agitating the question whether he -should not openly avow Popery, and was bargaining with Louis to become -his pensioner, so as to relieve himself from any need to apply to -Parliament, and by this means to assume absolute power. Parliament, -which met on the 10th of February, 1668, made a rigid inquiry into -the proceedings of the late administration. They accused Commissioner -Pett of neglect when the Dutch fleet entered the river, Admiral Penn -of the embezzlement of one hundred and fifteen thousand pounds' worth -of prize goods, and Brounker, who had absconded, of giving orders to -shorten sail after the victory of the 3rd of June. They then voted -three hundred and ten thousand pounds, much less than Buckingham had -demanded; and Charles, having in his opening speech recommended some -plan to be adopted, the better to satisfy the minds of his Protestant -subjects, it immediately awoke a jealousy of indulgence to the Papists -and Dissenters. It was found that Bridgeman, the Lord-Keeper, Sir -Matthew Hale, the Chief Baron, Bishop Wilkins, and Buckingham and -Ashley had been engaged in a scheme to tolerate the Presbyterians and -other sects. All the old bigotry of the House burst forth; there were -violent denunciations of any liberty to Nonconformists, and they again -voted the continuance of the Conventicle Act. They then adjourned from -the 8th of May to the 11th of August. - -Buckingham, who, during the session of Parliament, had not found -himself very popular, now the object of driving out Clarendon was -accomplished, in seeking to strengthen his party by removing such as -were not favourable to him, drove his plans almost too far. He had a -dread of Clarendon returning through the influence of his daughter, -the Duchess of York, and he endeavoured to undermine the duke with the -king. He blamed the conduct of the Admiralty, at the head of which -James was; he displaced James's friends, and put his own dependents -into offices in James's own department, in spite of his remonstrances; -he spread rumours that the duke had lost the royal favour, and was -about to be dismissed from the office of Lord Admiral. He even affected -to go about with armed followers, on the plea of being in danger from -the duke. But Charles soon convinced the minister that these attempts -were vain, and then Buckingham began to pay court to the duke, which -was repelled with contempt. The only mode of maintaining favour with -Charles was to find plenty of money, and as Buckingham had failed in -that, he recommended retrenchment and economy, which suited Charles -still less. For the rest, both Court and minister went on their way -of open profligacy, and it would have been difficult to say which was -the most void of shame or principle, the king or his chief servant. -Charles was surrounded by Sedley, Buckhurst, and other libertines, -who treated all the decencies of life with contempt, and the monarch -laughed and encouraged them. Though Miss Stewart had become Duchess of -Richmond, he continued his attentions to her. He had elevated actresses -to places in his harem, who bore the familiar names of Moll Davies and -Nell Gwynn. Moll Davies was a dancer, Nelly was an actress of much -popularity, and was a gay, merry, and witty girl, who extremely amused -the king by her wild sallies. By Mary Davies he had a daughter, who -afterwards married into the noble family of Radclyffe. Nell was the -mother of the first Duke of St. Albans; and Castlemaine, who had now a -whole troop of little Fitzroys, was during the next year made Duchess -of Cleveland. Another lady was already on the way from France, sent -by the cunning Louis XIV. for his own purposes. As for Buckingham, he -very successfully imitated his royal master. In January of this year -he fought a duel with Lord Shrewsbury, whose wife he had seduced; and -Pepys says that it was reported that Lady Shrewsbury, in the dress of a -page, held the duke's horse whilst he killed her husband. He then took -her to his own house, and on his wife remarking that it was not fit for -herself and his mistress to live together, he replied, "Why, so I have -been thinking, madame, and therefore I have ordered your coach to carry -you to your father's." - -[Illustration: SAMUEL PEPYS. (_After the Portrait by Sir Godfrey -Kneller._)] - -In this precious Court the subject of religion was just now an -interesting topic. The Duke of York told Charles secretly that he could -no longer remain even ostensibly a Protestant, and meant to avow his -Popery. Charles replied that he was thinking of the very same thing, -and they would consult with the Lords Arundel and Arlington, and Sir -Thomas Clifford. They had a private meeting in the duke's closet; but -though their three counsellors were Catholics open or concealed, they -advised Charles to consult with Louis XIV. before taking so important a -step. The French king was apprehensive that his avowal of Popery would -occasion disturbances amongst his subjects, but these might be put -down by the assistance of French money and French troops. That was the -object at which Louis knew that this abandoned king was really driving, -and the price of this assistance was to be England's co-operation in -Louis's schemes of boundless ambition. Instead of Charles inducing -Louis to maintain peace with Holland, it was the object of Louis to -drive Charles to break again the Triple Alliance, and plunge once more -into the horrors of a wicked and mischievous war with that country. -Charles hated the Dutch for the treatment he had received in Holland -whilst an exile, and for the humiliations he had been subjected to in -the last war. Louis wanted not only to swallow up the bulk of that -country in his vast plans of aggrandisement, but also make himself -master of Spain in case of the death of the young Spanish king. The -pretended desire of Charles to adopt open Popery was merely a feint to -secure the French king's money, and the next question which he raised -was, whether he should avow himself before the rupture with Holland or -afterwards. The Duke of York was in earnest, Charles was only playing -with the Catholic scheme as a bait; and he afterwards told his sister, -the Duchess of Orleans, at Dover, that "he was not so well satisfied -with the Catholic religion, or his own condition, as to make it his -faith." Lord Arundel and Sir Richard Billings were sent to Paris to -secure the promised cash, and to keep up the farce of his conversion. - -Whilst these infamous negotiations were going on, Buckingham was -exerting himself to ruin the Duke of York's prospects of the -succession. He observed the king's fondness for his natural son by Lucy -Walters, who had borne the name of Crofts, and he caught at the idea -of Charles legitimating him. Charles had created him Duke of Monmouth, -and married him to the wealthy heiress of Buccleuch. Buckingham asked -the king why not acknowledge a private marriage with his mother, and -suggested that plenty of witnesses might be found to swear to it; -but the answer of Charles destroyed this vision, who declared that -he would see the lad hanged sooner than own him as his legitimate -son. Buckingham, still not disconcerted, proposed an absurd scheme -of carrying the queen privately to the Plantations, where she would -never more be heard of; and next a divorce from her on account of her -barrenness, and a second marriage. Bishop Burnet, afterwards of Sarum, -had decided that such cause was sufficient for divorce, and that it -only wanted an Act of Parliament authorising the divorced parties to -marry again. Charles listened sufficiently to cause them to attempt -such an Act. It was sought for in the case of Lord Ross, whose wife -was living in open adultery; but it was soon rumoured what was the -ultimate object of it. The Duke of York, therefore, opposed the Bill -with all his might, and Charles supported it with equal ardour, even -taking his seat on the throne in the Lords whilst it was discussed, to -encourage his party. The Bill was carried, and the right to marry again -has always since then been recognised in Bills of Divorce; but Charles -again disappointed Buckingham, for he showed no desire to make use of -it in his own case. - -The King obtained from Parliament considerable supplies in the spring -Session of 1670, for his consent to the renewal of the Conventicle Act, -and the fury of persecution was let loose against the Nonconformists. -Spies and informers were everywhere, and many of the Dissenters, to -save their property, and their persons from prison, were fain to forego -their usual assembling for worship in their chapels. The Society -of Friends, however, scorned to concede even in appearance to this -religious intolerance. They persisted in meeting as usual. They were -dragged thence before magistrates, and on refusing to pay the fines -were thrust into prison. No sooner were they liberated, however, than -they returned, as usual, to their meetings, and when the doors were -locked against them, assembled in the street, and held their meetings -there. On one of these occasions, William Penn, son of Admiral Penn, -and afterwards the celebrated founder of Pennsylvania, was taken with -William Mead, another minister of the Society, at an open-air meeting -in Gracechurch Street. They were thrust into Newgate, and brought to -trial in September, 1670, before the Recorder of London, John Howell, -and the Lord Mayor, Samuel Starling. This trial forms one of the most -brilliant facts in the history of the independence of trial by jury, -and has often been reprinted. Both Penn and Mead made noble defences, -and terribly puzzled the Recorder as to the law of the case. They -demanded to know on what law the indictment was based. The Recorder -replied the "common law." They begged to be shown it. On this he flew -into a passion, and asked them if they thought he carried the common -law on his back. It had been founded on hundreds of adjudged cases, -and some of the ablest lawyers could scarcely tell what it was. Penn -replied that if it was so difficult to produce, it could not be common -law. He still pressed for this law, and the Recorder replied, "It is -_lex non scripta_, that which many have studied thirty or forty years -to know, and would you have me tell you in a moment?" "Certainly," -replied Penn; "if the common law be so hard to be understood, it is far -from being common." And he proceeded to tell them what the law was, -and how the rights of prisoners were secured by the Acts of Henry III. -and Edwards I. and III. On this the court became furious, and the Lord -Mayor said, "My lord, if you take not some course with this pestilent -fellow, to stop his mouth, we shall not be able to do anything -to-night." - -This was the style of treatment throughout the trial, but the prisoners -stood firm, and were therefore taken away and thrust into the bail-dock -whilst the Recorder charged the jury. But as the prisoners could catch -what he was saying, which was most grossly false, Penn shouted out -that it was contrary to all law to charge the jury in the absence of -the prisoners. He then told the jury that _they_ were his judges, and -that they could not return a verdict till they were fully heard. The -Recorder shouted, "Pull that fellow down, pull him down." Under such -circumstances of violence, violence only too common in those days, -the jury proceeded to bring in their verdict, which was, "Guilty of -Speaking in Gracechurch Street." "And is that all?" exclaimed the Lord -Mayor. "You mean guilty of speaking to a tumultuous assembly." The -foreman replied, "My lord, that is all that I have in commission." In a -fury, and with much browbeating, the jury were sent back to amend their -verdict, but when again called into court, they brought it in writing, -with all their signatures, only strengthening it by adding, "or -preaching to an assembly." As that was no crime, the court in a rage -ordered the jury to be shut up all night without meat, drink, fire, -candle, tobacco, or any of the most necessary accommodations. Penn -enjoined them to stand firm, and not give away their right, and one of -them, named Edward Bushell, declared they never would. When brought -up the next day, the jury declared they had no other verdict. This -infuriated the Lord Mayor and Recorder beyond patience, and they vowed -they would have a verdict out of them, or they should starve for it. -Bushell replied they had acted according to their conscience, whereupon -the Mayor said, "That conscience of yours would cut my throat, but -I will cut yours as soon as I can." The Recorder added, addressing -Bushell, "You are a factious fellow; I will set a mark upon you, and -whilst I have anything to do in the City, I will have an eye upon you." -The Lord Mayor, addressing the jury, said, "Have you no more wit than -to be led by such a pitiful fellow? I will cut his nose." - -Penn protested against their jury being thus insulted and abused. -"Unhappy," he exclaimed, "are these juries, who are threatened to be -starved, fined, and ruined if they give not in their verdict contrary -to their consciences." "My lord," cried the Recorder, "you must take -a course with this fellow;" and the Mayor shouted, "Stop his mouth! -Gaoler, bring fetters and stake him to the ground!" To which Penn -replied, "Do your pleasure: I matter not your fetters!" On this the -Recorder exclaimed, "Till now I never understood the reason of the -policy and prudence of the Spaniards in suffering the Inquisition among -them; and certainly it will never be well with us till something like -the Spanish Inquisition be in England." The jury was again shut up all -night under the same condition of starvation, darkness, and destitution -of common conveniences; but like brave men, after being thus imprisoned -and starved for two days and two nights, they shortened their verdict -into "Not guilty." - -Defeated by the noble endurance of this truly English jury, the court -fined every member of it forty marks, for not doing as the bench -required, and committed them to prison till it was paid. They also -fined Penn and Mead for contempt of court, and sent them to prison, -too, till it was paid. The parties thus shamefully treated, however, -had shown they were Englishmen, and were not likely to sit down with -this tyranny quietly. They brought the case before the Lord Chief -Justice Vaughan, who pronounced the whole proceedings illegal, and from -the bench delivered a noble defence of the rights of juries. - -This trial is a fair specimen of the spirit and practice of those -times. The greater part of the magistrates and judges took their cue -from the spirit of the Government; and the scenes of violence and -injustice, of persecution for religion, and of robbery by officials of -the outraged people, were of a kind not easily conceivable at this day. - -Parliament being prorogued to October, Charles was now engaged in -completing the secret treaty between himself and Louis, by which -he was to be an annual pensioner on France to an extent releasing -him in a great measure from dependence on his own Parliament. On -his part, he was to employ the naval and military power of England -to promote the wicked designs of Louis against his neighbours on -the Continent. The conditions of the treaty were these:--1st, That -the King of England should profess himself Catholic at such time as -should seem to him most expedient, and after that profession should -join Louis in a war on Holland when the French king thought proper; -2nd, That to prevent or suppress any insurrection in consequence of -this public avowal, Louis should furnish him with two millions of -livres (nearly one hundred thousand pounds) and an armed force of six -thousand troops if necessary; 3rd, That Louis should not violate the -treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and Charles should be allowed to maintain -it; 4th, That if new rights on the Spanish monarchy should accrue to -Louis, Charles should aid him with all his power in obtaining these -rights; 5th, That both monarchs should make war on Holland, and -neither conclude peace without the knowledge and consent of the other; -6th, That the King of France should bear the charge of the war, but -receive from England a force of six thousand men; 7th, That Charles -should furnish fifty, Louis thirty men-of-war, the combined fleet to -be commanded by the Duke of York; and that to support the charge of -the war, the King of England should, during the war, receive annually -three million of livres, about one hundred and fifty thousand pounds. -England was to receive of the Dutch spoil Walcheren, Sluys, and the -Island of Cadsand, and the interests of the Prince of Orange were to be -guaranteed. These were the chief provisions of the Treaty of Dover. - -[Illustration: THE ASSAULT ON SIR JOHN COVENTRY. (_See p._ 233.)] - -Perhaps the whole history of the world does not furnish a more infamous -bargain, not even the partition of Poland in later days. Here was a -King of England selling himself to the French monarch for money, to -enable him to put down Protestantism and Parliament in Britain, to -do all and more than his father lost his head for attempting--for -Charles I. never plotted against the Protestant religion. This was bad -enough, but the bargain went to enable France to put its foot on the -neck of England, and to employ its forces to destroy Protestantism -abroad--Protestantism and liberty; to throw Holland, and eventually all -the Netherlands, and then Spain, into the power of France, making of -it an empire so gigantic that neither freedom, nor Protestantism, nor -any political independence could ever more exist. Had this infamous -scheme come to light in Charles's time, the Stuarts would not have -been driven out in 1688, but then and there. But that this odious -bargain did actually take place, and was acted on, so far as Charles's -domestic vices and extravagance permitted, later times produced -the fullest evidence. The above Treaty was deposited with Sir Thomas -Clifford; and Sir John Dalrymple, seeking in the archives at Paris for -material for his "Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland," published in -1790, unexpectedly stumbled on the damning evidences--under the hands -of Charles and his ministers themselves--of this unholy transaction -and its reward. The Duke of York was at first said to be averse from -this secret treason and slavery, but he fell into it, and received -his share of the money, as well as Buckingham, through whose agency -a second treaty was effected, raising the annual sum to five million -of livres, or nearly two hundred and fifty thousand pounds a year; -the article requiring the king's change of religion being omitted -altogether, Charles, meanwhile, having shown his readiness to engage -in the Dutch war, which was the main question. Ashley and Lauderdale, -Clifford and Arlington were also in the secret, and had their reward. -Many were the suspicions of this diabolical business which oozed out, -and much talk was the consequence at times; the proofs were preserved -with inscrutable secrecy during the lives of the parties concerned, -discovery being utter and inevitable destruction. The French copy of -the Treaty has hitherto escaped all research. - -[Illustration: THE DISGRACE OF LORD CLARENDON AFTER HIS LAST INTERVIEW -WITH THE KING IN WHITEHALL PALACE, 1667. - -FROM THE PAINTING BY E. M. WARD IN THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF BRITISH ART.] - -To induce Charles to declare war without waiting for his confession -of Catholicism, Louis sent over Charles's sister, Henrietta, Duchess -of Orleans. The king met her at Dover, and the point was discussed, -but Charles would not move another step till the Treaty was formally -signed, and the first payment made. The duchess, indeed, was much more -earnest on her own affairs. She was most miserably married to the Duke -of Orleans, the brother and heir-apparent of Louis, who treated her -with cruelty and neglect for other women. She was anxious for a divorce -and to live in England, but Charles would not hear of what was so -hostile to his interests. The unfortunate duchess returned to Paris, -and within three weeks she was a corpse, though only twenty-six years -of age. There was every reason to believe that she was poisoned, though -the doctors, on a _postmortem_ examination, declared there were no -signs of poison; but what was the value of the testimony of medical men -given at the risk of their heads? On her deathbed, when questioned by -Montague, the ambassador, as to her belief on that point, though warned -by her confessor to accuse nobody, the poor woman would not say that -she had no suspicions, but only shrugged her shoulders, a significant -expression of her internal conviction. - -The duchess left behind her in England one of her maids, a Mademoiselle -Querouaille, or, as the English came to call her, Madam Carwell, whom -Louis had selected as a spy and agent, feeling assured that she would -soon captivate this amorous king, which she did at once, and became, -in the usual way, his mistress, and at the same time maid of honour to -the queen. She was soon advanced to the title of Duchess of Portsmouth, -and so well did she serve the purposes of Louis, that in 1673 he gave -her also a French title and estate. It was now thought by Charles and -James that they could venture to put down the liberties, and, as James -earnestly advocated, the religion of the nation. It was proposed to -fortify Portsmouth, Hull, and Plymouth, at which towns French soldiers -might be introduced, and James having the command of the fleet, no -interruption to their transit could take place. When Parliament met in -October, Charles observed that both Holland and France were increasing -their navies--he could have told them really why--and on pretence of -necessary caution, he demanded large supplies to place our own navy on -a proper footing. There were complaints of prodigality and hints of -Popery thrown out, but a sum of no less than two million five hundred -thousand pounds was voted, by taxes on land, stock, law proceedings, -and salaries--in fact, an income and property tax. There was a proposal -to tax theatres, and when it was objected that the theatres contributed -to his Majesty's pleasure, Sir John Coventry asked sarcastically, -"whether his Majesty's pleasure lay amongst the men or the women -players?" - -For this remark Sir John was made to pay severely. The King and the -whole Court were furious at his hard hit against the Moll Davieses -and Nell Gwynns. The king declared that he would send a detachment of -the Guards to watch in the street where Sir John Coventry lived, and -set a mark upon him. The Duke of York in vain endeavoured to dissuade -the king; the Duke of Monmouth, who was living on terms of great -professed friendship with Coventry, yet undertook the execution of -the business. He sent Sandys, his lieutenant, and O'Brien, the son of -Lord Inchiquin, with thirteen soldiers, who waited for Sir John as he -returned from Parliament on the evening of the 21st of December, 1670, -and encountering him in the Haymarket, assaulted him. Sir John placed -his back to the wall, snatched the flambeau from the hands of his -servant, and with that in one hand he so well plied his sword with the -other, that he wounded several of the soldiers, and got more credit by -his gallantry than for any action in his life. But he was overpowered -by numbers in the end, beaten to the ground, and then had his nose cut -to the bone with a penknife, to make a mark for life, to teach him -respect for the king. They then went back to the Duke of Monmouth's, -where O'Brien, who was wounded in the arm, had it dressed. Coventry had -his nose so well sewed up, that the trace of the outrage was scarcely -discernible; but the House of Commons, even such a House, resented this -dastardly attempt on one of its members, and it passed an Act making -it felony without benefit of clergy to cut or maim the person, and -banishing for life the four principal offenders unless they surrendered -before a certain day, as well as rendering the crime incapable of -pardon, even by Act of Parliament. But Monmouth and his assistants got -out of the way, and the Parliament never had the virtue to enforce its -own Act. - -The year 1671 was chiefly employed in preparing for the war with -Holland. Though Charles was under condition to become an avowed Roman -Catholic, he published a proclamation, declaring that, as he had always -adhered to the true religion as established, he would still maintain it -by all the means in his power. De Witt, who was aware of what was going -on, hastened to make a treaty with Spain, and Louis demanded a free -passage through the Netherlands to attack Holland, or declared that he -would force one at the head of sixty thousand men. Whilst war was thus -impending, the Duchess of York, Hyde's daughter, died. She had been for -some time a professed Catholic. Henrietta Maria, the mother of Charles, -had died in August, 1669, at the Castle of Colombe, near Paris. - -Charles and his ministers of the Cabal bribed by Louis (who even -pensioned the mistress of Buckingham, Lady Shrewsbury, with ten -thousand livres a year) prepared to rush into the war against Holland -in the hope of retrieving past disgraces, and securing some valuable -prizes. At the close of the last session, on pretence of maintaining -the Triple Alliance, the very thing they were intending to betray, and -of keeping Louis of France in check, whom they were, in fact, going to -assist in his aggressions, they procured eight hundred thousand pounds -from the Commons, and then immediately prorogued Parliament. But this -most unprincipled trick was nothing to what they were preparing to -perpetrate. - -During the recess of Parliament, it was suddenly announced by -proclamation on the 2nd of January, 1672, that the Exchequer was shut. -To understand what was meant by this most flagitious act, we must -recollect that Charles was in the habit of anticipating the supplies -voted, by borrowing of the London bankers and goldsmiths, and granting -them some branch of revenue to refund themselves with interest. He had -at this time obtained one million three hundred thousand pounds in -this manner, but calculating that the Dutch war could not be carried -on without larger means than the recent Parliamentary grant, it was -therefore announced that Government was not prepared to repay the -principal borrowed, or, in other terms, could not grant the annual -security of the incoming taxes, but the lenders must be content -with the interest. This would enable the Government to receive the -revenue themselves instead of paying their just debts with it. The -consternation was terrible. The Exchequer had hitherto kept its -engagements honourably, and had thus obtained this liberal credit. The -lenders, in their turn, could not meet the demands of their creditors. -The Exchange was in a panic, many of the bankers and mercantile houses -failed, a great shock was given to credit throughout the kingdom, and -many annuitants, widows, and orphans, who had deposited their money -with them, were reduced to ruin. Ashley and Clifford were said to -have been the authors of the scheme, but Ashley was a man of infinite -schemes, and probably was the original inventor. Government declared -that the postponement of payment should only be for one year; but the -greater part of the money was never again repaid, and this sum so -fraudulently obtained became the nucleus of the National Debt. - -The manner in which the Government commenced the war on Holland -was characterised by the same infamous disregard of all honourable -principle. Though Charles had bound himself to make war on the Dutch, -he had no cause of quarrel with them, whatever he pretended to have. -When Louis menaced them with hostilities, Charles offered himself as a -mediator, and the Dutch regarded him as such. Under these circumstances -he sent Sir Robert Holmes with a large fleet to intercept a Dutch -fleet of merchantmen coming from the Levant, and calculated to be -worth a million and a half. Holmes, in going out, saw the squadron of -Sir Edward Spragge at the back of the Isle of Wight, which had lately -returned from destroying the Algerine navy; and though his orders -were to take all the vessels along with him that he could find at -Portsmouth, or should meet at sea, lest Spragge should obtain some of -the glory and benefit, he passed on and gave him no summons. The next -day he descried the expected Dutch fleet; but to his chagrin he found -that it was well convoyed by seven men-of-war, and the merchantmen, -sixty in number, were many of them well armed. The vast preparations -of Louis, and some recent movements of the English, had put them on -their guard. Notwithstanding Charles's hypocritical offers of friendly -mediation, he had withdrawn the honourable Sir William Temple from the -Hague, and sent thither the unprincipled Downing, a man so detested -there, that the mob chased him away. Van Nesse, the Dutch admiral, -successfully resisted the attack of Holmes, who only managed to cut -off one man-of-war and four merchantmen. The chagrin of Charles was -equal to the disgrace with which this base action covered him and his -ministers. Both his own subjects and foreigners denounced the action in -fitting terms, and Holmes was styled "the cursed beginner of the two -Dutch wars." - -There was nothing now for it but to declare war, which was done by both -England and France. Charles mustered up a list of trumpery charges, -which, bad as they were, would have come with a better grace before -attacking his allies without any notice--the detention of English -traders in Surinam; the neglect to strike the Dutch flag to him in the -narrow seas; and refusal to regulate their trade relations according to -treaty. Louis simply complained of insults, and declared his intention -to assert his glory. Under such thin veils did Louis and his bond-slave -Charles attempt to hide their real intentions. - -The Dutch fleet was not long in appearing at sea with seventy-five -sail under De Ruyter. On the 3rd of May the Duke of York, admiral of -the English fleet, consisting of only forty sail of the line, descried -this powerful armament posted between Calais and Dover, to prevent -his junction with the French fleet. He managed, however, to pass -unobserved, and join the French squadron under D'Estrées, La Rabiniere, -and Du Quesne. On the 28th they came to an engagement near Southwold -Bay; the battle was terrible--scarcely any of these sanguinary -conflicts of those times with the Dutch more so. - -Owing to the wind and tide, not more than twenty of the English sail -could engage the enemy. The French squadron under D'Estrées formed -in opposition to the Zeeland squadron of Banker; but they stood away -under easy sail southward and never came to action; in fact, it was the -well-known policy of Louis to allow the Dutch and English to play the -bulldogs with each other, and to spare his own infant navy. The Duke -of York, with a part of the Red squadron, opposed De Ruyter; the Earl -of Sandwich, with part of the blue, Van Ghent and the Amsterdam fleet. -The English were so surrounded by multitudes of the enemy, that they -could afford little aid to each other, and were exposed on all sides -to a most merciless fire. By eleven o'clock the Duke of York's ship -was totally disabled, and had lost one-third of her men. He himself -escaped out of a cabin window, and got on board the _St. Michael_, of -seventy guns. Poor old Admiral Montagu, Earl of Sandwich, in the _Royal -James_, did marvels of valour. Surrounded by the enemy, he boarded a -seventy-gun ship that lay athwart his hawse, and killed Van Ghent, the -Dutch admiral; but assailed by two fire-ships, he destroyed one, and -the other destroyed him. The _Royal James_ was blown up, and thus the -old man, who had so long figured both under the Commonwealth and Crown, -finished his career. He had a foreboding of his fate, and told Evelyn, -when he took leave of him to go on board, that he would see him no -more. Two hundred of his men escaped. - -In the afternoon the _St. Michael_, to which the Duke had fled, was -also sinking, and he had to remove to the _London_. In the evening -the Dutch fleet drew off, and the next morning the two divisions of -the English fleet joined and offered battle, but De Ruyter tacked -about and a chase commenced. Twice the English were on the point of -pouring their broadsides into the enemy, when a fog saved them, and -on the second day the Dutch took refuge within the Wierings. The duke -showed unquestionable courage on this occasion; no real advantage to -the country, however, but much cost and damage, resulted from this -unnatural war to prostrate a Protestant country, in order to pander to -the mad ambition of the French king. Louis all this time was taking -advantage of the Dutch being thus engaged. He marched upon Holland with -one hundred thousand men, assisted by the military talent of Turenne, -Condé, and Luxembourg. He took Orsoi, Burick, Wesel, and Rhinberg on -the Rhine, crossed the river at Schneck in the face of the enemy, and -overran three of the seven united provinces. The city of Amsterdam -itself was in consternation, for the fires of the French camp could be -seen from the top of the Stadt House. Even the great De Witt was in -despair; but at this crisis Holland was saved by a youth whose family -had been jealously thrust from the Stadtholdership. This was William of -Orange, afterwards William III. of England. - -William of Nassau was the nephew of the English King, being the son of -Charles's sister. He was then only twenty-one years of age, of a sickly -constitution, and at that time of no experience in State or military -affairs. The House of Nassau had acquired almost sovereign power in -Holland, from having rescued the country from the cruel yoke of Spain, -and had rendered the office of stadtholder almost synonymous with -king. The municipal body, the aristocracy of the country, jealous of -the powers and aims of the House of Orange, at the death of William's -father had abolished for ever the office of stadtholder, and placed -the government of the country in the hands of the Town Council, -the Provincial States, and the States-General. De Witt, the Grand -Pensionary of the Province of Holland, was made Chief Minister, and -conducted the government with consummate ability. William of Orange was -a posthumous child and a ward of De Witt, who was also at the same time -at the head of the Louvestein faction, which was violently opposed to -the House of Nassau. But William of Orange stood high in the affections -of the people. They regarded with as much jealousy the municipal -oligarchy which ruled the country as that did the House of Nassau. They -felt that the Orange family had achieved the independence of Holland, -and, being themselves shut out from all influence in State affairs, -they sympathised with the young prince. Besides, he had a princely -fortune, the possession of territories entrenched behind the river -Maas, and the dykes of South Holland, not easily invaded, and was not -only a prince of the German Empire, but of the royal blood of England. - -The people, now seeing the critical condition to which the Louvestein -faction had reduced their country, demanded that the command of the -army should be put into the hands of William. De Witt, who could not -prevent it, endeavoured to persuade the people to bind the prince -by an oath never to aspire to the stadtholdership; but the Orange -party now seized their opportunity to rouse the people against the -oligarchy, and they did it to such effect that De Witt and his brother -were torn to pieces by the populace before the gates of the palace of -the States-General at the Hague (July 24, 1672). William, who had no -share in the murder, however, committed the same grave error as he -did afterwards in England, in the case of the massacre of Glencoe--he -rewarded the murderers, and accepted the office of Commander-in-Chief. -Low as the country was reduced, its very danger was its strongest -means of rescue. Germany and Spain, alarmed for the consequences -to Europe, sent promises of speedy assistance, and even Charles II. -seemed to perceive the folly of his proceedings. The war at sea had -brought nothing but expense and bloodshed. If Spain came to a rupture -with France, England would lose the benefit of its lucrative Spanish -trade. Charles had sent six thousand troops, according to treaty, to -assist Louis in Holland, under the command of his son Monmouth, who -displayed no talents as a general, but plenty of courage--a quality -of the family. With him he sent Buckingham, Arlington, and Saville -as plenipotentiaries. These ministers now hastened to the Hague, -and expressed the friendly feeling of England towards Holland. The -Dowager Princess of Holland, who knew what friendliness had been shown -towards his nephew by Charles, who, Buckingham said, did not wish to -use Holland like a mistress, but love like a wife, replied, "Truly, I -believe you would love us as you do your wife!"--a hard hit. From the -Hague they proceeded to the camp of Louis, who, however, before he -would treat with the Dutch, made the English sign a new treaty that -they would not agree to any separate peace. - -The terms then proposed by these allies show how little they were -aware of the power yet lurking in the invalid but stubborn and subtle -young Prince of Orange. Charles required, on his part, the dignity -of stadtholder for the prince, his nephew, the acknowledgment of -England's sovereignty of the narrow seas, ten thousand pounds per annum -for liberty of fishing on the English coasts, and the fortresses of -Goree, Flushing, and some others as a guarantee for the payment. Louis -demanded all the territory lying on the left bank of the Rhine, all -such places as the French had formerly wrested from Spain, seventeen -millions of livres as indemnification of the costs of the war, which he -had himself commenced, and an annual gold medal in acknowledgment of -his surrendering the three provinces he had now taken, but in reality -in retaliation for the medal which the States had cast on the formation -of the Triple Alliance. They were also to grant freedom of worship to -the Catholics. - -William of Orange bade them reject the whole of these conditions. He -told them that even were they beaten to the last, they could transport -themselves with their wealth to the Indian Archipelago, and then erect -in Java and the isles a new and more resplendent Holland, with a new -and vast world around them for their empire. The courage of the people -rose at the dauntless spirit of their young prince, and they resolved -to resist to the last man. William ordered the dykes to be cut; the -invaders were obliged by a precipitate retreat to seek their own -safety. Amsterdam was saved, and the different towns of Holland stood -isolated amid a vast sea, which no enemy could approach without a large -fleet of flat-bottomed boats, and supplies which must be conveyed by -the same mode. Meanwhile William, where he could reach the French, beat -them in several smart actions, and thus further raised the courage of -his countrymen, whilst forces from Germany were fast pouring down the -Rhine to their aid. - -[Illustration: ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER, FIRST EARL OF SHAFTESBURY. -(_After the Portrait by Sir Peter Lely._)] - -Louis XIV., who by no means relished a campaign of this kind, returned -to Paris, and left Turenne to contend with the enemy, who, though he -displayed the highest military talents, and still held many strong -places, saw that the conquest of Holland was little better than -hopeless. At sea the Duke of York arrived off the Dogger Bank, to -intercept the Dutch East India fleet in vain, and De Ruyter lay snug in -port. - -At home Charles had promoted his Cabal Ministry, as if they had done -some great deed, to honours and titles. Clifford was called Lord -Clifford of Chudleigh; Lord Arlington, Earl of Arlington; and Ashley, -Earl of Shaftesbury. Buckingham and Arlington received the honour of -the Garter. In order to protect the bankers whom he had kept out of -their money from the suits commenced against them by their creditors -in Chancery, Charles desired Bridgeman to enter an injunction there, -but Bridgeman doubted the rectitude of the proceeding, and he was -removed, and Shaftesbury put in his place (1672), who at once issued -the injunction, and appointed a distant day for hearing evidence -against it. Ashley, as the new Lord Chancellor, displayed a vanity and -eccentricity which caused him to be greatly ridiculed by the lawyers. -He went to preside on the bench in "an ash-coloured gown silver-laced, -and full-ribboned pantaloons." He at first acted with much -self-sufficiency and conceit, but was soon brought to his senses by -the lawyers, and afterwards became one of the most tame and complying -judges that ever sat on the bench. Violent altercation, however, arose -between Ashley and Arlington, who expected Ashley's place made vacant -in the Treasury, which was given to Clifford. - -On the 5th of February, 1673, Parliament was summoned after a recess -of nearly a year and a half. Ashley undertook to justify the shutting -of the Exchequer and the Dutch war. But the days of the Cabal were -numbered. The king, by their advice, had, during the recess, issued a -Declaration of Indulgence. This was done with the hope of winning the -support of the Nonconformists and the Papists. But of all subjects, -that of indulgence of conscience in religion, at that period, was -the most double-edged. The Nonconformists were ready enough to enjoy -indulgence, but then the eternal suspicion that it was intended only -as a cloak for the indulgence of Popery made them rather satisfied -to be without it than enjoy it at that peril. No sooner, therefore, -had they granted Charles the liberal sum of one million two hundred -thousand pounds, to be collected by eighteen monthly assessments, than -the Commons fell on this Proclamation of Indulgence. The members of -the Church and the Nonconformists united in their denunciation of it. -On the 10th of February they resolved, by a majority of one hundred -and sixty-eight to one hundred and sixteen, that "penal statutes, -in matters ecclesiastical, cannot be suspended except by Act of -Parliament." Charles stood for awhile on his prerogative, but the -effervescence in the House and country was so great that he gave way, -and his declaration, on the 8th of March, that what he had done should -not be drawn into a precedent, was received with acclamations by both -Houses, and by rejoicings and bonfires by the people. Shaftesbury -immediately passed over to the Country party, as the Opposition was -called. - -The Cabal was now forced to submit to another humiliation. The Country -party introduced, at the instance of Shaftesbury, an Act requiring -every person holding any office, civil or military, not only to -take the oath of Allegiance and Supremacy, but also to receive the -Sacrament in the form prescribed by the Church of England, or be -incapable of accepting or holding such office. All such persons were -likewise required to make a declaration against Transubstantiation, -under a penalty of five hundred pounds, of being disabled from suing in -any court of law, and from being a guardian or executor. This Act was -passed by both Houses unanimously, the Nonconformists being promised -that another Bill should be introduced to protect them from the -operation of this. But before it was done Parliament was prorogued on -the 29th of March, and they were caught in their own trap. - -No sooner was this Act passed, which became known as the Test Act, and -continued in force till the reign of George IV., than the Cabal fell to -pieces. Its immediate effect was to compel Lord Clifford and Arlington -to resign: the wedge was thus introduced into the Cabal, and the Duke -of York, who resigned his office of Lord High Admiral, became inimical -to them. The office of Lord Treasurer, resigned by Clifford, was given -by the king to Sir Thomas Osborne, a gentleman of Yorkshire, who was -created Earl of Danby, and became in reality Prime Minister. The rise -of Danby was the certain destruction of the Cabal. His foreign policy -was entirely opposed to theirs: he saw clearly enough the ruinous -course of aggrandising France at the expense of the Protestant States -of Europe; his views of domestic policy were more profound, though not -less unprincipled than theirs. He saw the necessity of combining the -old Royalist and Church interests for the support of the throne, but he -set about this process by buying up the favour of the Cavaliers, the -nobles, the country gentlemen, and the clergy and universities. He was -not the first to bribe--the Cabal had done that so far as Parliament -members were concerned--but Danby, like Walpole, and the ministers -after him, bought up by direct bribes or lucrative appointments any and -every man that could secure his views. - -When Parliament reassembled on the 7th of January, 1674, there appeared -alarming proofs of some whispered disclosures having taken place during -the disruptions in the Cabal, regarding the king's secret treaty -with Louis. Charles solemnly denied his having any secret engagement -whatever with France. Parliament also exhibited its uneasiness -regarding the practices of the Papists. The Duke of York, since the -prorogation of Parliament on the 4th of November last, had married -Maria D'Este, a Catholic princess, sister of the Duke of Modena. This -had roused all the fears of the country regarding the succession, and -the Commons recommended severe measures against the Papists, and that -the militia should be ready at an hour's notice to act against any -disturbances on their part. They also demanded the removal from the -ministry of all persons Popishly affected, and of those who advised the -alliance with France and the rupture with Holland, and the placing a -foreigner at the head of the army. Both army and navy, in fact, were -commanded by foreigners--Prince Rupert had succeeded the Duke of York -as admiral; Schomberg was sent with the army to Holland. - -Charles himself not having been able in the autumn to draw his pension -from Louis, and Parliament now holding fast its purse-strings, he was -ready to listen to terms from Holland, whereby the triumph of the -Country party was completed. On this the States offered, through the -Spanish ambassador, Del Fresno, the terms which they had once already -refused. The conquests on both sides should be restored, the honour of -the flag conceded to England, and eight hundred thousand crowns should -be paid Charles for indemnification for the expenses of the war. Had -the terms been far inferior, the fact of the money would probably have -decided the matter with Charles. As to the dignity of stadtholder for -William, the States themselves settled that, by conferring it on him -and his heirs for ever, before the time of their treaty, and nothing -whatever was said of the ten thousand pounds for liberty to fish. On -the 9th of February the treaty was signed, and on the 11th announced to -Parliament by Charles. - -We may now take a brief glance at proceedings in Scotland and Ireland. - -In Scotland Archbishop Sharp had pursued his persecuting and coercive -system to such an extent, that Charles was obliged to order him not -to overstep his proper duties, but to confine himself to spiritual -concerns alone. Such was the hatred which this renegade Churchman had -excited, that in 1668 a young man of the name of Mitchell, who had -witnessed the horrible cruelties which followed the battle of Rullion -Green, believed himself called upon to put Sharp to death. He therefore -posted himself in front of the archbishop's palace in St. Andrews, and -as the archbishop came out with the Bishop of Orkney to get into his -carriage, he stepped up and fired at Sharp, who was just seated; but -at the same moment the Bishop of Orkney raised his arm to enter the -carriage, and received the ball in his wrist. There was a cry that -a man was killed, but some one exclaimed, "It is only a bishop!" and -Mitchell, coolly crossing the street, mixed with the crowd, walked -away, and changed his coat; and though the Council offered a large -reward for his apprehension, it was six years before he was discovered. - -The Earl of Rothes had been removed from the office of Royal -Commissioner, and the Earl of Tweeddale, who now occupied that post, -endeavoured to soften the spirit of persecution, and granted a certain -indulgence. This was to admit the ejected ministers to such of their -livings as were vacant, or to appoint them to others, provided they -would accept collation from the bishop, and attend the presbyteries -and synods. But this was to concede the question of episcopacy, and -the king's supremacy in the Church. The more complying of the ejected -members, to the number of forty-three, accepted the offer; but they -found that by so doing they had forfeited the respect of their flocks, -who deserted their churches, and crowded to other preachers more stanch -to their principles. Lauderdale soon after returned to Scotland, and -his very first proceeding was to pass an Act to appoint Commissioners -to co-operate with English Commissioners, to endeavour to effect a -union of the two kingdoms. His next was to pass another, converting -the Act of Allegiance into an act of absolute Supremacy. This at -once annihilated the independence of the Kirk; and a third Act was -to give the king a right to maintain an army, and to march it to any -part of the king's dominions. This was so evidently a step towards -despotism, that not only in Scotland, but in the English Parliament, -the indignation was great, and the English Commons presented an -address to the Crown, praying for Lauderdale's removal. The address, -however, produced no effect. Lauderdale proceeded, plausibly offering -indulgence to such easy-principled ministers as would accept livings -subject to the oath of Supremacy and the acknowledgment of bishops, -whilst at the same time he passed an Act in July, 1670, more rigorously -prohibiting conventicles within private houses or in the open air. -Any minister preaching or praying at such meetings was to suffer -forfeiture of both life and property. The Scots did not understand -this kind of indulgence, which allowed their ministers to enter their -churches by the sacrifice of their moral principles, and put them to -death if they took the liberty of following their consciences. The -people took arms and went to their meetings, determined to defend their -preachers and themselves. Lauderdale then, with the aid of Archbishop -Leighton, extended the "indulgence" to all such ministers as would -attend presbyteries, where the bishops should have no negative voice; -but this did not deceive the people. The rigour against their own -chosen ministers and places of worship was kept up, and they declared -that bishops, even without a negative voice in the presbyteries, -were bishops still; that such assemblies had no resemblance to those -previous to 1638; that they had no power of the keys, no ordination, -no jurisdiction; that the whole was but a snare to draw in unwary or -self-interested ministers, and after them their flocks. To assent -to such terms would be apostacy from the principles of the Kirk. -Lauderdale made another step in his "indulgence" in 1673. He named -eighty ejected ministers, and ordered them to repair to their churches -and officiate there, but nowhere else, under severe penalties. This was -to lock up the conventicles in which these preachers ministered. About -one-fourth of the number refused to obey, and were confined by order of -the Council to particular places. But this did not diminish the number -of conventicles: it only excited a schism between the complying and the -non-complying. He next passed an act of grace, pardoning all offences -against the Conventicle Acts committed before the 4th of March, -1674; but this only encouraged the people to fresh freedom in their -attendance on conventicles. They regarded his concessions as certain -proofs of his weakness, and scorning any compliance with episcopacy and -royal supremacy, their independent meetings spread and abounded more -than ever. They assembled in vacant churches, where they would not have -entered to listen to what they called an intrusive minister, or in the -open air in glen or mountain, around a lofty pole erected as a signal. -"The parish churches of the curates," says Kirton, "came to be like -pest-houses, few went into any of them, and none to some; so the doors -were kept locked." No policy, however severe or plausibly insinuating, -could induce the wary Scots to swallow the hated pill of episcopacy. - -In Ireland, the prohibition of importing Irish cattle into England was -followed by a like prohibition from the Scottish Parliament, and the -Irish Parliament retaliated by prohibiting Scottish woollens being -imported into Ireland. These illiberal measures only spread mischief -and misery on all sides. So long as the Duke of Ormond retained the -lord-lieutenancy, he endeavoured to mitigate these evils. He procured -the liberty of free trade between Ireland and all foreign countries, -whether at war or peace with England; and five hundred families of -Walloons were induced to settle in Ireland and to establish the -manufacture of woollen and linen cloths. But the many sufferers from -the Act of Settlement, which confirmed the possession of the Irish -lands in the hands of the English soldiers and adventurers, complained -greatly of Ormond, and his enemies at Court procured his removal in -1669. After him succeeded Lord Robartes, and next Lord Berkeley; but -it mattered little who governed, nothing could induce the natives to -sit down quietly under the loss of their estates, and that, too, whilst -they had been often firm loyalists and the intruders rebels. In 1671 -a Commission was appointed to inquire into all alleged grievances, -consisting of Prince Rupert, Buckingham, Lauderdale, Anglesey, Ashley, -and others. This lasted till March 26th, 1673, but ended in nothing. -The possessors of the Irish lands were too powerful at Court, and no -result followed but fresh severities against the Catholics, who were -expelled from all corporations, and their priests banished the kingdom. - -The war between France and the confederates--Holland, Austria, and -Spain--had now spread all over Europe, both by land and sea. Louis -poured his soldiers in torrents into the Netherlands, and excited -insurrections in the dependencies of Spain. He managed to excite -sedition against her in Sicily, and against Austria in Hungary. De -Ruyter, the famous admiral, was despatched by the Prince of Orange -to assist the Spaniards in Sicily, and was killed at Messina. On the -other hand, Louis's great general, Turenne, was killed at the battle -of Salzbach, on the Rhine. After his death, the Austrian general, -Montecucculi, defeated the French repeatedly, and recovered Alsace. -But Vauban, who introduced a new system of fortification, recovered -the ascendency of Louis, by teaching the French how to defend towns. -Louis maintained this enormous war at a cost which brought an immense -burden on France, and laid the foundation of the great Revolution -which horrified Europe. On the other hand, William of Orange manfully -maintained the conflict under many disadvantages. His authority at -home was often questioned; the governors of the Spanish Netherlands -frequently crossed his plans, and his German allies frequently failed -him. Yet reverse after reverse was not able to damp his spirit, or -overcome his imperturbable tenacity of purpose. Charles, during this -awful struggle of his nephew, was enjoying peace, but a most inglorious -peace, purchased by the money of Louis, to allow him to destroy all -the independent States of Europe. Not even the interests of his own -subjects were protected. In the course of seven months fifty-three sail -of merchantmen were captured by the French cruisers. The sufferers made -loud complaints, and Charles promised to obtain restoration, but very -little was ever obtained. He received his annual pension from Louis; -and though he drew it through Chiffinch, his pander and man of the -back stairs, the transaction was well known to his ministers Danby and -Lauderdale, and his brother the Duke of York. - -[Illustration: VIEW IN THE HAGUE: THE GEVANGENPOORT IN WHICH CORNELIUS -AND JOHN DE WITT WERE IMPRISONED (1672).] - -When he reassembled his Parliament on the 5th of February, 1677, the -Country party, headed by Shaftesbury and Buckingham in the Lords, -contended that the Parliament was legally at an end. That, by two -statutes of Edward III., it was required that Parliaments should -be held once a year, or oftener; and this Parliament having been -prorogued for a period of fifteen months, had ceased to exist. But Lord -Chancellor Finch truly replied, that by the Triennial Act of Charles -I. the vacations were extended to three years. In the Commons there -was also a motion for a dissolution, but it was postponed. The motion -of Buckingham in the Lords to vote the present Parliament effete was -negatived, and he, Salisbury, Shaftesbury, and Wharton, were ordered -by the House to retract their illegal opinions, and beg pardon of the -House and the king. They refused, and were committed to the Tower. The -following day the motion for a dissolution in the Commons was lost by a -minority of one hundred and forty-two to one hundred and ninety-three. -Defeated in the attempt to break up this corrupt Pension Parliament, -the Opposition in the Lords next endeavoured to secure the succession -against a Catholic prince. Charles had no children but illegitimate -ones, and James, therefore, was heir to the Crown. The Bill passed -the Lords, and provided that on the demise of the king, the bishops -should tender a declaration against Transubstantiation to the heir; and -if he refused to take it, they should appoint to all bishoprics and -benefices, and take charge of the education of the king's children; but -the Commons rejected the Bill on the ground of the undue power which -it conferred on the bishops; and they immediately threw out another -Bill of the Peers for abolishing the punishment of death for Popish -recusancy. The two Houses, however, agreed in abolishing the detestable -writ _De hæretico comburendo_. - -This Parliament has been accused of singular inconsistency in calling -upon the king to declare war against France, in order to check that -country in its ominous progress against Holland and the Netherlands, -and yet refusing him money. A very valid plea for anxiously desiring -the declaration of war, and yet shrinking from putting money into -Charles's hands, might have been advanced had it been an honest -Parliament. The nation saw with great discontent and humiliation -the growing ascendency of France, the increase of Louis's navy, the -expansion of his ambitious plans, the danger of Protestant Holland, and -the despicable position into which England had fallen. It had fears of -Popery, fears of absolutism through a standing army. There were dark -rumours, though no direct proofs, of the king's secret league with -France. Whilst they, therefore, would have willingly granted him money -for a war with France, they dreaded to do it, knowing how it would go -in folly, and believing how it would go to strengthen despotism. They -did not leave him destitute; he had the excise, and they now granted -six hundred thousand pounds for the building of new ships; but they -took care to tie it up, by proper securities, to its legitimate -purpose. How well they were justified was shown by the first use which -the king made of the money now received from France. The bulk of it -went to purchase votes in the House of Commons. - -Unfortunately, this Parliament was little more honest than the king -himself; it was receiving bribes on all sides. Dalrymple shows that -Spanish, Dutch, German, and French money was freely distributed amongst -the members. In 1673 three leaders of the Opposition in the Commons -were bribed with six thousand pounds, to induce them to vote unusually -large supplies, and they did it. They were now in the pay of all the -chief contending countries in Europe. When they raised the cry of war -on this occasion, the king expressed his readiness, but demanded six -hundred thousand pounds at the least for the necessary expenditure. -Thereupon Spain bribed the patriots to vote for it with twenty thousand -pounds, and the King of France bribed them against war with a still -larger sum. The proposal was thrown out, Louis having feed not only -the Parliament but the ministers and the king. On receiving about two -hundred thousand pounds from Louis, Charles adjourned Parliament on -the 16th of April, and did not call it together again till the next -January. Never, surely, had everything like principle or patriotism -so thoroughly abandoned the nation. Soon after the adjournment, -Buckingham, Salisbury, and Wharton, made their submission to the king, -and were released; Shaftesbury held out seven months longer, and then -followed their example. - -During the recess the Prince of Orange came to England. Though William -could place little dependence on the alliance of his uncle Charles, -yet he could not be insensible that a marriage with Mary opened up a -prospect towards the throne of England, and that an alliance between -the two Protestant nations must mutually strengthen their position -in Europe. He therefore began to cultivate the friendship of Danby, -the Prime Minister, and then solicited the union which he had before -declined. The overture was received with a coldness that the more -sensibly impressed the prince with the political blunder which he had -committed. He therefore humbled himself, and requested permission to -make a visit to London and apologise for his past conduct and explain -his future views. Charles not only resented William's refusal of his -former offer, but he was jealous of his intrigues with the popular -leaders; and though he did not forbid his coming, he stipulated that -he should return before the meeting of Parliament. On the 9th of -October he joined his uncle at Newmarket, and, having the services -of Danby and Temple, Charles was soon persuaded to his marriage with -the princess. James appeared at first averse from the connection, but -he soon acquiesced; and whilst Charles boasted of having made this -alliance to secure the religion of the nation, James took credit to -himself from his consent, of proving how false were the suspicions -which had been expressed of his intention to make changes in both the -religion and the State. The marriage gave universal satisfaction, -and during the festivities with which it was celebrated at Court, in -November, 1677, William engaged the king in the project of a general -peace. The following were the proposals arrived at by them, to be -submitted to the different Powers: That Holland and France should -mutually restore the conquests that they had made; that the Duchy of -Lorraine should be restored to the duke, its rightful sovereign; and -that France should keep possession of the places won from Spain, except -Ath, Charleroi, Oudenarde, Courtrai, Tournai, Condé, and Valenciennes, -which should be restored, and form a chain of fortresses between the -new frontier of France and the old ones of Holland. Charles despatched -Lord Feversham to lay the proposals before Louis; but the French king -would not listen to them, and tidings reached William which caused him -immediately to hasten home. - -In spite of the season, the end of November, Louis had taken the field, -according to his novel plan of winter campaign, and invested Guislain, -which was expected to fall in a few days. - -This decisive conduct on the part of Louis roused the wrath of Charles; -he had adjourned Parliament from the 16th of April to the 15th of -January. He expressed his surprise to Louis at the unreasonableness of -his conduct, and despatched directions to Hyde, the ambassador at the -Hague, to enter into a separate treaty with the States, on the model of -the Triple Alliance, engaging not only to defend each other against all -aggressors, but to continue to force the other parties to come to fair -terms. Such a treaty was signed at the Hague on the 31st of December. -Louis, on hearing of it, stopped the payment of Charles's pension, but -at the same time he proposed, through Montagu, the English ambassador, -a truce of twelve months, during which all might be arranged, and -then he threw out a bait which he knew would be extremely tempting -to Charles,--that if he could persuade his nephew to consent to the -cession of Condé, Valenciennes, and Tournai, their full value should -be paid to the king in bars of gold, concealed in bales of silk, and -any sum that the Lord Treasurer might name in reward of his services -should be remitted in diamonds and pearls. But both Danby and the Duke -of York set their faces against any such disgraceful compromise; Danby -remaining steady to his views of the danger of the French ascendency, -and the duke being zealous for the interests of his new son-in-law, -and in the hope of receiving the command of any auxiliary force sent -from England to co-operate with Holland. At the duke's suggestion the -English forces were recalled from the army of France, a strong squadron -was sent to the Mediterranean to reinforce the fleet under Sir John -Narborough, and the Port of Ostend was demanded from Spain as a depôt -for the English army in Flanders. - -This unusual vigour induced Louis to set in motion the forces of the -Opposition both in England and Holland. To Barillon, his ambassador -at London, he sent over the younger Ruvigny, who was related to -Lady Vaughan, and intimate with the Russell family. The ambassadors -first tried to bring Charles over again by the most liberal offers -of money; they warned him to beware of the pernicious counsels of -Danby, who was seeking popularity; and to Danby himself they paid the -highest compliments, and begged him to use his influence with the -king. Charles, who never long resisted the temptations of money, was -not, however, yet to be moved, and the ambassadors then tried their -influence with the Opposition. They found Holles and Lord William -Russell extremely hostile to the Court, but suspicious of a secret -engagement between Charles and Louis. This suspicion the ambassadors -did their best to root out, and Holles and Russell engaged to attach -to the supply conditions which should cause the king to reject it. -The ambassadors promised that Louis, on his part, should use all his -influence to cause a dissolution of Parliament, and to ruin Danby, -measures which the Opposition desired. They even offered money to the -Opposition, and asked Lord William Russell to give them the names of -such persons as they should reward for their services in this matter. -Russell repelled the offer with indignation, and replied that he -should be sorry to have anything to do with men who could be bought -with money. They did not, however, find others of the patriots quite -so scrupulous. Louis, at the same time, was at work at the Hague, -insinuating through his agents that William, now connected with -England, was joined with Charles, whom the Dutch most cordially hated, -in a common scheme for ruling Holland and England by a military force, -and that their only safety lay in peace and disbandment of troops. -Their arts were so successful, that the Dutch began to cry for peace on -any terms. - -When Parliament met on the 28th of January, Charles announced that -he had made a league, offensive and defensive, with Holland, for the -protection of Flanders, and that if France would not consent to a -peace on fair terms, they would endeavour to force it; but that he -should require to put ninety ships into commission, and raise thirty -or forty thousand troops, and a liberal supply would be necessary -to defray the cost. This was the very thing that the Country party -had been clamouring for, but they had now been drawn into a false -position by the acts of Louis; and though they could not condemn the -proposals, they declared that no peace ought to be made with France, -except such as should restrain that country to the limits set by the -treaty of the Pyrenees. This, under the present circumstances, it -would be folly to ask of Louis, and Charles reproached the Opposition -with the inconsistency of their conduct, in throwing obstacles in the -way of the very measure they had clamoured for, especially after he -had followed their own advice in making the treaty with Holland. The -Ministry, however, carried a vote for the maintenance of the necessary -fleet and army, and a supply was granted on general taxes to cover the -expenditure. - -Meanwhile Louis had pushed his military operations forward in the -Netherlands with a vigour which confounded his enemies. Towards the -end of January he proceeded from Paris to Metz; Namur and Mons were -invested, and before the end of March he had made himself master of -Ypres and Ghent. By this means he had opened a road into the very -heart of Holland, and exposed Brussels to his attacks; and both on the -Continent and in England the cry was now for more vigorous measures. -Three thousand soldiers were sent by Charles to Ostend, and the levy -of forces was proceeded with briskly. But the more Charles exerted -himself to raise troops and prepare actively for war, the more the -Opposition expressed their suspicions of the use intended for these -troops. Russell talked of Popery, and Sir Gilbert Gerrard declared that -the forces would never be used against any foreign enemy; that their -object was nearer home. They demanded, therefore, that the king should -at once declare war against France, recall his Commissioners from -Nimeguen, and dismiss the French ambassador. This language on the part -of men many of whom had been receiving their money to compel a peace -advantageous to France, surprised not a little Barillon and Ruvigny, -who remonstrated with Holles and Russell, Shaftesbury and Buckingham. -But they were told that the real object was to embarrass the king -in raising these troops; for that, once raised, he would secure the -leaders of the Opposition, and then would obtain from the slavish -Parliament any supplies that he might demand, thus at once making -himself independent of Parliament and of Louis. - -That the Opposition had grounds for their fears there was little -question, and the French envoys were obliged to be satisfied with this -odd-looking sort of friendship. Charles undoubtedly had rather have the -army and the supplies than go to war with Louis; and the consternation -of the confederates now opened up to him a new chance of obtaining -Louis's money, and keeping the peace. Both the Prince of Orange and -Spain, by its ambassadors, informed him that they would now no longer -object to the cession of Tournai and Valenciennes, if France would -restore the other five towns, with Ypres and Ghent. Charles, who now -thought all difficulty removed, hastened to write these conditions -to Louis, and so confident was he that they would be accepted, that -he caused Danby to add, in a private letter, that if the peace were -effected on these terms, he should expect a pension of six millions of -livres for the next three years for his services. In a postscript the -king himself wrote, "This is writ by my order.--C. R." This letter, -afterwards produced against Danby, occasioned his ruin. - -But Louis was not so easily satisfied after his recent victories. He -demanded Ypres and Condé as well as Tournai and Valenciennes. Charles -professed to be disgusted with this grasping disposition, but both -Holland and Spain expressed their willingness to yield. The conquest -of Ghent and French gold produced their effect, and an armistice was -entered into to allow time for preparing the articles of peace. To -satisfy Charles, Louis assented to his demand of a pension of six -million livres, on condition that he bound himself to break with -Holland if it refused to sign the treaty on the conditions now offered, -to recall his troops from Flanders, to reduce his army to six thousand -men, and to prorogue and then dissolve Parliament. - -When Parliament met on the 23rd of May, they demanded that Charles -should immediately declare war or disband the whole of the troops -recently raised. They voted two hundred thousand pounds on condition -that the troops should be at once paid off with it, and two hundred -thousand pounds more for the navy. The king asked for three hundred -thousand pounds a year in addition to his present income, to enable -him to punish the pirates of Algiers, and take that position in the -Continental politics which the rank of England required; but to this -the Commons turned a deaf ear. - -[Illustration: SIR WILLIAM TEMPLE. (_After the Portrait by Sir Peter -Lely._)] - -By the middle of June the plenipotentiaries at Nimeguen had settled -all the preliminaries of peace, and were on the point of signing, -when Louis started another difficulty--that he would continue to hold -the six towns stipulated to be restored to Spain, till the Emperor -of Germany had restored the conquests made from his ally, the King -of Sweden. The confederates refused to admit any such condition, and -preparations were again made for war. Charles sent over four thousand -men under the Earl of Ossory to join the English forces in Flanders, -and Temple hastened to the Hague, to complete a fresh treaty with the -States, binding each other to prosecute the war against Louis unless -he abandoned the claim for Sweden. This might have had effect with -Louis, had he not convincing evidence that Charles was not in earnest. -At the very moment of this apparent spirit, Charles was bargaining for -more money with Barillon, in the chamber of his French mistress, the -Duchess of Portsmouth. At Barillon's instigation, one Ducros, a French -monk, was sent to Temple, at Nimeguen, desiring him to persuade the -Swedish ambassadors to concede their claims and make peace; and Louis, -by giving a hint of this fact to the States General, so alarmed them -at the perfidy of their pretended ally, that they hastened to sign -the treaty with France, without any stipulation in favour of Spain. -The Spanish Netherlands were at the mercy of Louis, and the coalition -against him was completely broken up. - -William of Orange, who was extremely mortified at having to treat for -peace on such terms, and rightly attributing the necessity to the -conduct of Charles, took the opportunity to give a parting chastisement -to the French, though he had not, as has been asserted, knowledge of -the conclusion of the treaty. On the 4th of August, four days after -the signing of the peace by Beverning, the Dutch plenipotentiary at -Nimeguen, he attacked the Duke of Luxembourg before Mons. Luxembourg -had reduced the city to great distress, and had not relaxed his siege -during the armistice; William, therefore, knowing nothing, or affecting -to know nothing of the signing of the peace--though at that time it was -known in London--fell on the duke with all the forces he could muster, -Dutch, English, and Spanish, and a desperate battle took place. William -took the abbey of St. Denis in front of the French camp; Villahermosa, -the Spanish general, took the ruined fortress of Casteau, but was -driven out of it again before night. The English troops under Lord -Ossory did wonders. About five thousand men fell on one side or the -other. At night the two armies resumed their places. It was expected -that William the next day would utterly rout Luxembourg; and had the -continuance of the war permitted, might have made his long-contemplated -march into France. But the next day Luxembourg desired a conference, -and informed William that the peace was concluded, and William retired -towards Nivelles, and the French towards Ath. He had managed to prevent -the important fortress of Mons falling into the hands of France. - -Scarcely had these events taken place, when William was surprised by -an overture from Charles, to unite with him, according to the treaty -between them, to compel Louis to grant the Spaniards the terms formerly -offered at Nimeguen. The motive for this does not appear clear. If -he knew of its conclusion, as he must have done, he could not expect -William immediately to violate the peace just made. Probably he wished -to appear to the Spaniards to be anxious to keep his engagement to -them, for he made the same professions to them, and on the faith of -that the Spaniards demanded better terms; but equally probable is the -idea that he wanted an excuse for not disbanding the army. William is -said, however, to have exclaimed to Hyde, who brought the message, -"Was ever anything so hot and so cold as this Court of yours? Will -the king never learn a word that I shall never forget since my last -passage to England, when, in a great storm, the captain all night -was crying to the man at the helm, 'Steady! steady! steady!' If this -despatch had come twenty days ago, it had changed the face of affairs -in Christendom, and the war might have been carried on till France had -yielded to the treaty of the Pyrenees, and left the world in quiet -for the rest of our lives; as it comes now, it will have no effect at -all." Louis resented the interference of Charles at this moment, and -suspended the payment of his pension. He, however, receded from some -of his terms, and referred the settlement of the differences with the -Spaniards and the Emperor of Germany to the Dutch. Before the end of -October peace was concluded with all parties. Holland had recovered -all she had lost, and obtained an advantageous treaty of commerce -with France. Spain had lost Franche-Comté, and twelve fortresses in -Flanders; Germany had regained Philippsburg in exchange for Freiburg; -Sweden recovered what it had lost to Denmark and the Elector of -Brandenburg; and Louis was left with a power and reputation that made -him the arbitrator of Europe. - -We now come to one of the most extraordinary displays of a succession -of plots, or pretended plots, which ever occurred in the history of -any nation. From a small and most improbable beginning they spread and -ramified themselves in all directions, involving the most distinguished -persons of the State, ascending to the royal house, threatening -the lives of the Duke of York, of the queen, and even of the king. -Though defeated in their highest aims, they yet brought to execution -a considerable number of persons of various ranks, including several -noblemen and commoners of distinction. When they appeared to be -extinguished for a short period, they broke out again with fresh force, -and struck down fresh victims; and whilst much of the machinery of the -agitators remained in the deepest obscurity, the mind of the nation -was wrought up to a condition of the most terrible suspicion, wonder, -and alarm. In the half-absurdity of the charges, the half-development -of ominous truths, the public was thrown into a long fever of terror -and curiosity, and seemed to lose its judgment and discretion, and to -be ready to destroy its noblest citizens on the evidence of the most -despicable of mankind. - -From the moment that some obscure indications of a secret league -between the king and Louis of France had emerged to the light, the -people were haunted by fears and rumours of plots, and designs against -the national liberty. Especially since the Duke of York had avowed -himself a Catholic, and the king had a French Catholic mistress, -and spent much time with the French ambassador, Barillon, in her -apartments, there were continual apprehensions of an attempt to -introduce Popery, and to suppress the public freedom by a standing -army. The country was nearer the mark than it was aware of, and had -it come by any chance to the knowledge of the full truth that their -monarch was the bond-slave of France, to favour its ambitious designs -of averting the balance of power on the Continent, and extending the -French empire, at the expense of its neighbours, to the widest boundary -of the Empire of Charlemagne, the immediate consequence would have been -revolution, and the expulsion of the Stuarts a few years earlier. But -as the real facts were kept in profound secrecy, all manner of vague -rumours rose from the facts themselves, like smoke from a hidden fire. - -There was a party, moreover, in Parliament, called the Country party, -or, in our modern phrase, the Opposition, which now included several -of the displaced statesmen of the Cabal, especially Buckingham -and Shaftesbury. These men had no scruples to restrain them from -embarrassing the Government, and in particular from denouncing their -successful rival, the Lord Treasurer Danby. They knew well the secret -which the public only suspected; but they had been too much mixed up -with it to render it safe to reveal too much of it. But enough might be -employed to destroy the Prime Minister, and to gain another end--the -exclusion of the Duke of York and the prevention of a Papist succession. - -To destroy Danby, who was thoroughly anti-Gallican in his policy; to -exclude James from the throne and secure a Protestant succession; -to compel the king to rule by a Protestant Government, and to have -recourse to Parliament for support; there certainly appeared nothing -more likely than to raise a terror of a Papist conspiracy, and to link -it sufficiently with suspicious connection with France. This was done -with marvellous success amid a wonderful exhibition of strange events, -except that of excluding James from the throne, and even this was all -but accomplished. Probably the conception of the scheme was due to the -fertile mind of Shaftesbury, and its execution to the same master of -chicane, assisted by the unscrupulous Buckingham. - -On the 12th of August, as the king was walking in the park, one Kirby, -a chemist, who had been occasionally employed in the royal laboratory, -and was therefore known to Charles, approached and said, "Sir, keep -within the company. Your enemies have a design upon your life, and you -may be shot in this very walk." Charles stepped aside with him, and -asked him the meaning of his words. He replied that two men, Grove -and Pickering, had engaged to shoot him, and that Sir George Wakeman, -the queen's physician, had agreed to poison him. Charles showed very -little change of manner or countenance, but told Kirby to meet him -that evening at the house of Chiffinch, his well-known procurer, and -pursued his walk. In the evening Kirby repeated what he had said, and -added that he received the information from Dr. Tongue, rector of -St. Michael's, in Wood Street, who was well known to several persons -about the Court. This Dr. Tongue was a singular mixture of cunning and -credulity, who had long been an alarmist, and who had printed yearly -and quarterly pamphlets against the Jesuits, "to alarm and awaken his -Majesty and the two Houses." Tongue was sent for, and brought a mass of -papers, divided into forty-three articles, giving a narrative of the -conspiracy, which he pretended had been thrust under his door. Charles -referred him to Danby, and to him Tongue repeated the story of Grove, -otherwise called Honest William, and Pickering, and said he would find -out their abode, or point them out when walking, according to their -daily custom, in the park. Orders were given to arrest these assassins, -but they did not appear, and Tongue gave various frivolous reasons for -their non-appearance. It was said that they were gone to Windsor, but -they could not be found there. Charles came at once to the conclusion -that the whole was a hoax, and when Danby requested permission to lay -the narrative before the Privy Council, he replied, "No, not even -before my brother! It would only create alarm, and might put the design -of murdering me into somebody's head." - -The contempt which the king showed and expressed for the whole affair -might have caused it to drop, but there was unquestionably a party at -work behind, which would not suffer it to stop. Tongue informed Danby -that he had met with the person whom he suspected of having drawn up -the papers; that he had given him a more particular account of the -conspiracy, but he begged that his name might be concealed, lest the -Papists should murder him. He moreover assured Danby that on a certain -day a packet of treasonable letters would pass through the post-office -at Windsor, addressed to Bedingfield, the confessor of the Duke of -York. Danby hastened to Windsor to intercept the packet, but found it -already in the hands of the king. Bedingfield had delivered them to the -duke, saying that the papers appeared to contain treasonable matter, -and that they certainly were not in the hands of the persons whose -names they bore. The duke carried them at once to the king. - -These papers now underwent a close examination, and the result was that -all were convinced that they were gross forgeries. One was clearly -in the same hand as the papers presented before by Tongue; the rest, -though in a feigned hand, bore sufficient evidence of being the work -of the same person. The king was more than ever convinced that the -whole was a hoax, and desired that no further notice might be taken of -it. Kirby frequently made his appearance at Court, but Charles always -passed him without notice. As there appeared no prospect of proceeding -with the matter at Court, the person who had conveyed the papers to -Dr. Tongue now went to Sir Edmundbury Godfrey, an active justice of -the peace at Westminster, and made affidavit, not only of the truth -of the former papers, but also of thirty-eight more articles, making -altogether eighty-one articles. This mysterious person now appeared as -one Titus Oates, a clergyman, and it was ascertained that he had been -lodging at Kirby's, at Vauxhall, and that Dr. Tongue had also retired -thither, on the plea of concealment from the Papists. Godfrey, on -perceiving that Coleman, secretary to the late Duchess of York, and a -friend of his own, was named in the affidavit as a chief conspirator, -immediately communicated the fact to Coleman, and Coleman communicated -it to the Duke of York. - -James was now more than ever convinced that, whatever were the plot, -its object was to bring the Catholics into odium, and lead to his -exclusion from the throne, and demanded of Charles that it should be -inquired into. Danby now seemed to favour the king's view of keeping -it quiet, but this only led James to suspect that the minister wished -to hold it back till Parliament met, when its disclosure might be -useful in an impeachment with which he was menaced. Charles, at -the duke's renewed entreaty, reluctantly ordered Tongue and Oates -to appear before the Privy Council. Accordingly Titus Oates, soon -to become so notorious, appeared before the Council on the 28th of -September, 1678, in a clerical gown and a new suit of clothes, and with -an astonishing assurance delivered in writing the following strange -story. The Pope, he said, claimed Great Britain and Ireland, on the -ground of the heresy of the prince and people, and had commanded the -Jesuits to take possession of it for him. De Oliva, general of the -Order, had arranged everything for this purpose, and had named under -the seal of the Society, all the persons to fill the offices of the -State. Lord Arundel was created Lord Chancellor; Lord Powis, Treasurer; -Sir William Godolphin, Privy Seal; Coleman, Secretary of State; Lord -Bellasis, General of the Army; Lord Peters, Lieutenant-General; Lord -Stafford, Paymaster. All inferior offices, and all the dignities of -the Church were filled up, many of them with Spaniards and other -foreigners. Moreover, the Jesuits were dispersed throughout Ireland, -organising insurrections and massacres; in Scotland they were acting -under the guise of Covenanters; in Holland they were raising a French -party against the Prince of Orange, and in England preparing for the -murder of the king, and of the duke, too, if he did not consent to the -scheme. They had no lack of money. They had one hundred thousand pounds -in the bank, had sixty thousand pounds in yearly rents, had received -from La Chaise, the confessor of the French king, a donation of ten -thousand pounds, and a promise from De Corduba, the Provincial of New -Castile, of as much more. In March last a man named Honest William, and -Pickering, a lay brother, had been commissioned to shoot the king at -Windsor, and had been severely punished for the failure of the attempt. -On the 24th of April a consultation had been held by Jesuits from all -parts, at the White Horse Tavern in the Strand, to decide on the mode -of killing the king; when three sets of assassins were engaged--the -two already mentioned, two Benedictine monks, Coniers and Anderton, -and four Irishmen. Ten thousand pounds had been offered to Wakeman, -the queen's physician, to poison the king, but he had refused to do it -for less than fifteen thousand pounds, which was agreed to, and five -thousand pounds had been paid down. He had often seen Wakeman since -amongst the Jesuits. The Irish assassins were to receive twenty guineas -each for stabbing the king. Honest William was to receive fifteen -hundred pounds, and Pickering thirty thousand masses, valued at the -same sum. They were to shoot the king with silver bullets. A wager, he -said, was laid that the king should eat no more Christmas pies, and -that if he would not become R.C. (Roman Catholic, or _Rex Catholicus_), -he should no longer be C.R. Oates averred that he had gone to the -Jesuits at Valladolid, thence with letters from them to Burgos, thence -to Madrid, back to England, thence had gone to St. Omer, and back to -England with fresh instructions. They made him cognisant of their plans -for the murder, and he saw on their papers all the names signed. Since -his return he had discovered that they set fire to London in 1666, and -had used seven hundred fire-balls, familiarly called Tewkesbury mustard -pills, as containing a notable biting sauce. Their success encouraged -them to set fire to Southwark in 1676, by which they had gained two -thousand pounds above their expenses, as they had by carrying off -diamonds in the London fire made fourteen thousand pounds. They had now -a plan to set fire to Wapping, Westminster, and the ships in the river. -There were twenty thousand Catholics in London, who had engaged to -rise in twenty-four hours or less, and could easily cut the throats of -one hundred thousand Protestants. In Scotland eight thousand Catholics -had agreed to take arms; a general massacre of Protestants was planned -in Ireland; Ormond was to be murdered; forty thousand black bills -were provided for the Irish massacre, and Coleman had sent thither -two hundred thousand pounds. Poole, the author of the "Synopsis," Dr. -Stillingfleet, and De Brunt were also to be put to death. - -[Illustration: TITUS OATES BEFORE THE PRIVY COUNCIL. (_See p._ 250.)] - -The recital of this astounding story was listened to with amazement -and incredulity. The listeners looked at one another in wonder at the -audacity of the man who could relate such horrible and improbable -designs, and expect to be believed, after the account which he gave of -the mode by which he professed to obtain his information. This was that -he had feigned a conversion to discover the designs of the Jesuits; -had been duly admitted to the priesthood and to their monasteries, and -finally entrusted with the conveyance of their diabolical messages. -The Duke of York declared the whole to be a most impudent imposture, -but others thought no man in his senses would come forward with such -a startling tale, and implicate so many persons of consideration -without some grounds. Where, they asked, were his proofs? Where were -the papers that had been confided to him, which would be evidence -against the traitors? Oates confessed that he had no such papers, but -that he would undertake to procure abundance if he were furnished with -warrants and officers to arrest the persons whom he had accused, and -seize their papers. This was granted, and the next day the inquiry went -on. It was objected to the letters seized at Windsor, that they were -written in feigned hands, and were full of orthographical errors. Oates -replied that that was the art of the Jesuits, who gave such documents a -suspicious look, that if discovered they might pretend that they were -forged. But Charles, who became even more persuaded that the thing was -got up, asked Oates what sort of a man Don John was, as he professed to -have been introduced to him at Madrid. Oates replied at once that he -was tall, dark, and thin. The king turned to the duke and smiled, for -they both were well acquainted with Don John's person, which had more -of the Austrian than the Spaniard, and was fair, stout, and short. "And -where did you see La Chaise," added Charles, "pay down the ten thousand -pounds from the French king?" "At the house of the Jesuits," replied -Oates, unhesitatingly, "close to the Louvre." "Man!" exclaimed Charles, -who knew Paris better than Oates, "the Jesuits have no house within a -mile of the Louvre." - -These palpable blunders confirmed Charles in his opinion, and seemed -to annihilate the veracity of Oates. The king, certain of the whole -affair proving a sheer invention, went away to Newmarket, and left the -duke and Danby to finish the inquiry. But they who had set Oates to -work knew more than he did, and presently such confirmation was given -to Oates's assertions as astonished every one. At first, the clue -appeared broken. On examining the papers of Harcourt, the Provincial of -the Jesuits, nothing bearing the slightest indications of a plot could -be discovered; but not so with the papers of Coleman. This man was the -son of a clergyman in Suffolk, who had turned Catholic, and was not -only appointed secretary to the Duchess of York, but after her death -was much in the confidence of James. Coleman was undoubtedly a great -dabbler in conspiracy. He had maintained a correspondence with Father -La Chaise, the confessor of Louis XIV., with the Pope's nuncio at -Brussels, and other Catholics, for the re-establishment of the Catholic -religion in England, and he made himself a centre of intelligence -to the Catholics at home and abroad. He lived in great style, and -his table was frequented by the Whig members during the sitting of -Parliament. He sent weekly news-letters to the Catholics in various -quarters, and made in them the severest remarks on the ambition of the -French king and the conduct of the English Government. Yet all this -time he was importuning Louis to furnish money for the establishment -of the Catholic Church in England again. He obtained three thousand -five hundred pounds from the bankers whom Charles had broken faith -with on the shutting of the Exchequer, on pretence of influence with -Parliament, and two thousand five hundred pounds from Barillon, to -distribute amongst members of Parliament. - -In 1675 a foreigner of the name of Buchateau, but who was called -Louis Luzancy, had come to England, pretending to be a Catholic who -was desirous of joining the English Church, and who gave information -to some of the Opposition leaders that Father St. Germain, confessor -to the Duchess of York, had threatened to murder him if he did not -recant Protestantism. This made a great sensation, and he then said -he had made the discovery of a Popish plot, in which the king was to -be killed, and the streets of London were to run with the blood of -massacred Protestants. Though it was soon shown by Du Maresque, a -French Protestant clergyman, that Luzancy had fled from France for -forgery, and a swindling transaction at Oxford soon proved that he -was a great scoundrel, yet his story won him much patronage: he was -ordained and presented to the living of Dovercourt, in Essex, during -this present year. His pretended plot was very like this of Oates's, -and might possibly be its model. He had accused Coleman of similar -practices, but Coleman had boldly faced him and put him to silence. -But now Coleman had fled, itself a sign of guilt; amongst his papers -were found abundant evidence of his correspondence with the French -Court in 1674, 1675, and 1676. In one letter he said to La Chaise, "We -have here a mighty work upon our hands, no less than the conversion of -three kingdoms, and by that, perhaps, the utter subduing of a pestilent -heresy, which has for a long time domineered over a great part of this -northern world. There never were such hopes of success since the days -of Queen Mary." He declared the duke devoted to the cause and also -to the French king. He said, "I can scarcely believe myself awake, or -the thing real, when I think of a prince in such an age as we live in -converted to such a degree of zeal and piety as not to regard anything -in the world in comparison of God Almighty's glory, the salvation of -his own soul, and the conversion of our poor kingdom." He declared that -Charles was inclined to favour the Catholics, and that money would -do anything with him. "Money cannot fail of persuading the king to -anything. There is nothing it cannot make him do, were it ever so much -to his prejudice. It has such absolute power over him he cannot resist -it. Logic built upon money has in our Court more powerful charms than -any other sort of argument." Therefore he recommended three hundred -thousand pounds to be sent over on condition that Parliament should be -dissolved. - -These discoveries perfectly electrified the public. That there was -a plot they now had no doubt whatever, and the information touching -so close on the real secret of Charles's pension, must have startled -even him. Coleman, in these letters, stated that Parliament had -been postponed in 1675 till April, to serve the French designs, by -preventing Holland from obtaining assistance from England. Yet when -Oates had been confronted with Coleman before his flight, though Oates -pretended great intimacy with him, he actually did not recognise -him. Another proof, if any were wanted, that Oates was acting on the -knowledge of others, not on his own. Whoever they were, they had become -acquainted with Coleman's French correspondence, and who so likely as -Shaftesbury and the Whigs who used to frequent this man's house, and -who were themselves deep in a similar intrigue with the French Court? - -Still more astounding events, however, followed close on this -discovery. No sooner was this discovery in the letters of Coleman made, -than Sir Edmundbury Godfrey, the magistrate before whom Oates had made -his affidavit of the plot, who was a particular friend of Coleman's, -and had warned him of his danger, was missing, and was found murdered -amongst some bushes in a dry ditch between Primrose Hill and Old St. -Pancras Church. Godfrey was of a sensitive disposition, which sometimes -approached to insanity. On the apprehension of Coleman, Godfrey had -been seized with great alarm, and expressed his conviction that he -should be the first martyr of this plot. On the 12th of October he -burnt a large quantity of papers, and that day he was seen hurrying -about the town in a state of serious absent-mindedness. From that day -he was missing, and it was not till the sixth day that his body was -found. He lay forward, resting on his knees, his breast, and the left -side of his face. His sword was thrust through his heart with such -violence, that it appeared at his back. His cane was stuck upright in -the bank, his gloves lay near it on the grass, his rings were on his -fingers, and his money was in his purse. All these circumstances seemed -to indicate suicide; and to confirm it, it was reported that when the -sword was withdrawn, it was followed by a rush of blood. This, however, -the doctors denied, and on being stripped, the purple mark round his -neck showed that he had been strangled, and then thrust through, and -his body, cane, and gloves so disposed as to persuade the parties that -he had killed himself. - -But who, then, were the murderers? This was never discovered, but -the public, putting together all the circumstances, declared that -the Papists had done it, and that Oates's story was all true. That -Catholics, or at least such as were in the scheme of Coleman, had done -it, appears very probable, although it has been argued that they had -no motive. But it must be remembered that Godfrey was a friend and -associate of Coleman's. He had always been a partisan of the Catholics; -he gave Coleman warning to fly; he showed great alarm himself, and -commenced burning papers. All these circumstances indicate complicity. -That he was deep in the secrets of the party, and had dangerous papers -in his possession, is clear. Coleman was in custody, and something -might be drawn out of him. Godfrey might be arrested, and a man of -his nervous temperament might reveal what concerned the lives of many -others. There were the strongest motives, therefore, for those who had -any concern in the dangerous conspiracy of Coleman, to have Godfrey at -least out of the way. - -The public mind was in the wildest state of alarm and fermentation. -Every hour teemed with fresh rumours. Murders, assassinations, and -invasions were the constant talk of the panic-struck public. The City -put itself into a posture of defence; chains and posts were put up, and -no man deemed himself safe. - -In this state of the public mind Parliament met on the 21st of October. -Charles informed Parliament that he had obtained more favourable terms -for Spain by his army in Flanders, but that the expense had been -enormous; the supplies were not only exhausted, but the revenue of the -next year was anticipated, and it would require a liberal grant even to -disband the army. He alluded but passingly to the plot, for it touched -too nearly on the tender ground of his French secret, but said he left -the examination of the plot entirely to the law. But both Danby and the -Opposition rushed into the question, contrary to the wish of Charles. -Danby was anxious to divert the House from the threatened impeachment -of himself, and the Opposition to establish a Popish plot, to damage -the Duke of York's prospects in the succession. - -Oates was called before both Houses, as well as Dr. Tongue, and such -was the effect of their statements, that guards were placed in the -cellars under the Parliament House, to prevent another gunpowder plot; -and Charles was implored to order every Catholic, not a householder, -to quit London, to dismiss all Papists from his service, and have his -food prepared only by orthodox cooks. Committees were appointed to -search the conspiracy to the bottom. Shaftesbury took the lead in that -of the Lords, and there was busy work issuing warrants for searches and -arrests, sending out informers and officers, examining and committing -prisoners. In consequence of the charges made by Oates against Lords -Arundel, Powis, Bellasis, Petre, and Stafford, as having received -appointments from the Pope of the chief offices of State, they were -arrested and committed to the Tower. - -The Commons introduced a new Test Act to exclude every Catholic from -Parliament. This had indeed been effected in the Commons in the -preceding session by the Oath of Supremacy, and the declaration against -Transubstantiation; but the present test went to exclude the Catholic -peers from their House also. It prescribed the taking of the Oaths of -Supremacy and Allegiance, and a declaration that the Church of Rome -was an idolatrous church. Such a test had been frequently introduced -before and thrown out, but in this public _furore_ it rapidly passed -the Commons, and reached a third reading in the Lords, when James, -with tears in his eyes, entreated them to exempt him from so severe -an exclusion, protesting that his religion should always remain a -thing between God and his own soul. A proviso, exempting him from its -operation, was added to the Bill; but in the Commons this passed by -only two votes. Thus the Catholic peers were excluded by Titus Oates -from their seats, and their successors did not regain them till 1829. - -Under the stimulating effect of the repeated summonses of Oates before -Parliament, and his continually augmenting disclosures, both Houses -voted that "There had been and still was a damnable and hellish plot -contrived and carried on by the Popish recusants for assassinating and -murdering the king, and for subverting the Government, and rooting out -and destroying the Protestant religion." Titus Oates was declared "the -saviour of his country," and a pension of twelve hundred pounds a year -was, at the instigation of Parliament, settled on him. To increase -the effect of his disclosures, the funeral of the murdered Godfrey -was conducted with every circumstance of public parade. He had been -carried from Primrose Hill to his own house, and thousands had crowded -thither to see the martyr of Protestantism. Seventy-two divines, in -full canonicals, walked in procession to St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, -where he was buried, and they were followed by a thousand gentlemen in -mourning, including many members of Parliament. Dr. Lloyd, his friend -and Rector of the parish, preached a sermon from the text, "As a man -falleth before the wicked, so fellest thou." And he had two stout -fellows in the pulpit with him, dressed as clergymen, to defend him -from the Papists. - -The fury against the Catholics now amounted to a frenzy. Two thousand -suspected traitors were thrust into the prisons of the metropolis, and -thirty thousand Catholics, who refused to take the obnoxious oaths, -were compelled to quit their homes in London, and remove to twenty -miles' distance from Whitehall. The train-bands and volunteers, to -the number of twenty thousand, were occasionally kept all night under -arms; batteries were planted, and every military precaution was taken -to prevent a surprise. The terror spread over the whole country; orders -were issued to disarm the Catholics everywhere, and every one was -compelled to take the oaths, or give security for keeping the peace. - -[Illustration: THOMAS OSBORNE, FIRST DUKE OF LEEDS. (_From the Portrait -by Van der Vaart._)] - -And who was this Titus Oates, who had been able to conjure up such a -storm? One of the most loathsome of mankind. His real name was Ambrose. -He was the son of a ribbon weaver, who turned Anabaptist preacher -during the Commonwealth, and managed to secure an orthodox pulpit at -the Restoration. Titus was sent to Cambridge, where he took orders, -and became a curate in different parishes, and afterwards chaplain -on board a man-of-war. But wherever he went, the worst of characters -pursued him, as addicted to a mischievous and litigious temper, and -to the most debased and disgraceful vices. Out of every situation he -was expelled with infamy, and was convicted twice of perjury by a -jury. Reduced by his crimes to beggary, he fell into the hands of Dr. -Tongue, and by him was engaged to simulate the character of a convert -to Catholicism, so as to be able to discover all that he could of the -secret views and designs of the Papists. He was reconciled, as the -Catholics term it, to the church by a priest of the name of Berry -or Hutchinson, who was first of one religion and then of another, -and nothing long, and sent to the Jesuits' College at Valladolid, in -Spain. But he was successively ejected both from that college and from -St. Omer, with accumulated infamy. Returning to England he became -the ready tool of Tongue, who no doubt was also the tool of deeper -and more distinguished agitators behind. The Jesuits had held one of -their triennial meetings at the Duke of York's. This Tongue and Oates -converted into a special meeting, for the prosecution of their great -national plot, but fixed it at the White Horse in the Strand. They then -forged their mass of letters and papers, purporting to be the documents -and correspondence of these Jesuits, planning the assassination of the -king. These were written in Greek characters by Oates, copied into -English ones by Tongue, and communicated as a great discovery to Kirby. -Such were the apparent unravellers of the alleged plot; but these -puppets had their strings pulled by far more masterly men, who were -constantly extending their ground and linking up fresh machinery in the -scheme. The weak part of the affair was, that on the testimony of Oates -alone the whole rested. Those whom he incriminated, to a man, steadily -denied any knowledge or participation in any such plot as he pretended. -It was necessary to have two witnesses for convicting traitors, and -other tools were not long wanting. Government had offered a large -reward and full pardon to any one who could discover the assassins of -Sir Edmundbury Godfrey, and in a few days a letter was received from -one William Bedloe, desiring that he might be arrested in Bristol and -brought to London to give evidence. The warrant for his apprehension -was, singularly enough, sent to Bedloe himself, who caused his own -arrest by delivering it to the Mayor of Bristol. This Bedloe turned out -to be as thorough a scoundrel as Oates himself. He had been employed as -a groom by Lord Bellasis, and afterwards in his house; had travelled as -a courier on the Continent, and occasionally passed himself off as a -nobleman. He had been seized and convicted of swindling transactions in -various countries, and was just released from Newgate, when his eye was -attracted by the reward of five hundred pounds for the discovery of the -murderers of Godfrey. - -In his first examination by the king and the two Secretaries of State, -he disavowed all knowledge of the plot, but said he had seen the dead -body at Somerset House, where the queen lived, and that Le Fevre, the -Jesuit, told him that he and Walsh, another Jesuit, a servant of Lord -Bellasis's and attendant in the queen's chapel, had smothered him -between two pillows, and that they offered him two thousand pounds -to assist in conveying the body away. The next day, before the House -of Lords, he contradicted himself dreadfully, for the story of the -two pillows did not accord with the state of the body when found. Now -he said that he was not smothered, but strangled with a cravat. And -so far from knowing nothing of the plot, he confessed to knowing all -about the commissions offered to the Lords Arundel, Powis, Bellasis, -and others, and he added wonders and horrors of his own. Ten thousand -men, he said, were to land from Holland in Bridlington Bay, and seize -Hull; Jersey and Guernsey were to be invaded by a fleet and army from -Brest; an army from Spain of twenty or thirty thousand men was to -land at Milford Haven, and there be joined by Powis and Petre with -another army. There were forty thousand men ready in London, to kill -all the soldiers as they came out of their lodgings. He was to have -four thousand pounds for a great murder, meaning no doubt that of the -king, and the Government was to be offered to _one_, if he would -hold it of the Church. The king, Monmouth, Ormond, Buckingham, and -Shaftesbury were to be killed. Lords Carrington and Brudenel were named -as engaged in the plot, and were immediately arrested. When Charles -heard this astounding story, so diametrically opposed to his former -tales, he exclaimed, "Surely the man has received a new lesson during -the last four-and-twenty hours!" and no doubt he had. These additions -and improvements were constantly going on, without regard to the most -glaring self-contradictions; but the temper of Parliament made them -disregard obvious falsehoods of the most flagrant kind. So long as -there was a chance of excluding the Duke of York from Parliament, these -horrible stories were kept before the public imagination; but the -moment the proviso passed in his favour, the attack was diverted into -another and a higher channel. Buckingham had formerly endeavoured to -induce Charles to divorce the queen: now a deadly attack was made upon -her. - -On the 23rd of November, a Mr. Lloyd sought an interview with the king, -and informed him that Titus Oates was in possession of information -that would incriminate the queen. Charles, who had shown more sense -than any one through the whole business, and might have crushed it -in a short time if he had had half the active exertion that he had -shrewdness, expressed his decided disbelief, yet admitted Oates to -make his statement. It was this, that he saw a letter in July, in -which Wakeman, the queen's physician, asserted that her majesty had -given her consent to the murder of the king; that he himself was at -Somerset House one day in August, with several Jesuits, and was left in -the antechamber whilst they went in to the queen; that the door being -ajar, he heard a female voice exclaim, "I will no longer suffer such -indignities to my bed! I will join in his death and the propagation -of the Catholic faith;" that when the Jesuits retired he looked into -the room and saw there only the queen. Now Oates had repeatedly and -distinctly declared that he knew of no other persons implicated except -those he had informed of; and when he made the charge against Wakeman, -had said not a word of this grave accusation. Charles was certain -that it was altogether false, but to prove the man, sent the Earls of -Ossory and Bridgewater to make him point out the room and antechamber; -but he could not do it. Charles again declared that the fellow had -been instigated by some interested person, and ordered strict guard -to be kept over him, and no one to be allowed to speak with him. -Bedloe, however, was brought forward to confirm Oates's statement, and -declared that he had overheard a conversation between Catherine and -Lord Bellasis, Coleman, and some French gentlemen, in the gallery of -the queen's chapel, in which she, after shedding tears, consented to -the king's murder. Bedloe had been careful not to point out any private -rooms for this scene, because he had made a fatal blunder in laying -the scene of Godfrey's murder in a room always occupied by the queen's -footmen, and at the very time that the king was there; and not only -was there a throng of persons all over the palace, but a sentinel was -posted at every door, and a detachment of the Guards was drawn out in -the court. - -Bedloe, however, delivered his charge in writing to the House of -Commons, and then Oates appeared at the Bar, and, with a front of brass -and in a loud voice, exclaimed, "I, Titus Oates, accuse Catherine, -Queen of England, of high treason." The astounded Commons immediately -sent an address to Charles, requesting that the queen might be removed -from Whitehall, and desired a conference with the Lords. The Lords, -however, were not so precipitate; they desired first to see the -depositions made before the Council, then summoned Oates and Bedloe, -and strictly examined them. They particularly pressed them to explain -why this monstrous charge had not been produced before, and as they -could give no sufficient reason, they declined any conference on the -subject. Shaftesbury exerted himself to overrule this conclusion, but -in vain; and the charge was dropped, the king observing, "They think I -have a mind for a new wife; but for all that I won't see an innocent -woman abused." Impeachments, however, were received by the Lords -against the peers whom these miscreants had accused. - -And now began the bloody work which these villains had remorselessly -elaborated for a number of innocent persons, to serve the great end of -their employers. The first victim, however, was one whom a third base -wretch, thirsting for blood-money, a broken-down Scotsman, of the name -of Carstairs, had accused. This was Stayley, a Catholic banker, whom -the man said he had heard telling a Frenchman of the name of Firmin, -of Marseilles, in a tavern in Covent Garden, that the king was the -greatest rogue in the world, and that he would kill him with his own -hand. Carstairs had gone to Stayley and told him what he professed to -have heard, but offered to suppress the fact for two hundred pounds. -Stayley treated him with deserved contempt, but he was arrested within -five days and tried for his life. Burnet, on hearing the name of the -accuser, hastened to Sir William Jones, the Attorney-General, and told -him that this Carstairs was a man of the vilest character, and not to -be believed on his oath; but Jones asked him who had authorised him to -defame the king's witness, and Burnet timidly withdrew. Firmin could -have decided what Stayley had really said, but he was kept in custody -and not allowed to appear on the trial, and Stayley was condemned and -hanged. - -Coleman perished next, on the evidence of Oates and Bedloe, that he -had been plotting with the French Court; but he contended it was only -to obtain money for restoring Catholicism, and not to injure any -person. It was clear that he had received money from the French king, -and therefore was guilty of a serious crime, but it was equally clear -that both Oates and Bedloe fabricated much falsehood against him. His -own letters, however, were insurmountable evidence of his guilt. Next -came Ireland, Fenwick, Grove, Whitbread, and Pickering. Ireland, a -Jesuit priest, was accused of having signed, with fifty other Jesuits, -a resolution to kill the king, and the others of having engaged to -assist in the design. Oates swore to the guilt of the whole, Bedloe -only to that of Ireland, Grove, and Pickering, who were condemned, and -died protesting that they, before their apprehension, had never heard -of such a thing as a plot, much less had any concern in one. Bedloe -claimed to be the chief witness respecting the death of Godfrey; but -though he had unscrupulously seconded the evidence of Oates, Oates -would not support him in this case. He was obliged, therefore, to look -out for a second witness, and it was two months before he could find -one. At length, on the 21st of December, one Prance, a silversmith, -who had worked in the queen's chapel, was apprehended on suspicion, he -having absented himself from his house for several days about the time -of Godfrey's murder. The moment Bedloe saw him, he exclaimed, "That man -is one of the murderers." It was in vain that he denied it, equally -vain that he brought witnesses to prove that he did not leave home at -the time of Godfrey's death, but a week before. He was thrown into -Newgate, and loaded with irons; some say he was tortured, others that -he was worked upon by threats and promises. He confessed, and accused -three others--Hill, Green, and Berry, three servants in Somerset -House. But scarcely had he done so, when he entreated to be brought -before the king and Council again, and there on his knees, and with -every sign of agony and remorse, protested that all that he had said -was false, that he knew nothing whatever of either the murder or the -murderers. Afterwards, in prison, where he was chained to the floor, -the horror of his feelings was such, that Dr. Lloyd, who preached -Godfrey's funeral sermon, and now was become Dean of Bangor, said that -he was occasionally bereft of his reason. When urged to confess, he -again, however, repeated his former statement, but with various strange -additions; then Dr. Lloyd declined to have anything more to do with -it, but left him to Boyce, the gaoler. Prance afterwards said that -Boyce wrote many things that he copied after him, and he could see that -Boyce had been with Bedloe and Lord Shaftesbury, and that he was told -he must make his evidence agree with Bedloe's, or he would be sure to -be hanged. The first story of Prance was that they had killed Godfrey -because he was an enemy to the queen's servants; that Green strangled -him with a handkerchief, and punched him on the breast with his knee: -but finding him not dead, wrung his neck; that on the following -Wednesday night, about twelve o'clock, the body was put into a sedan -chair and taken to the Soho, and there conveyed on horseback before -Hill to the place in the fields where he was found, and where they -thrust his sword through him. - -Hill, Green, and Berry stoutly denied the whole affair, and pointed out -the gross contradictions between the evidence of Bedloe and Prance; but -Chief Justice Scroggs, who presided at all these trials, and showed -himself a most brutal and unprincipled judge, overruled all that. -Mrs. Hill, who brought witnesses into court in favour of her husband, -complained vehemently that they were browbeaten and laughed at. "My -witnesses," she exclaimed, "are not rightfully examined; they are -modest, and are laughed at." The unhappy victims were all condemned, -and died still protesting their innocence. Berry, who was a Protestant, -was respited a week, with a promise of pardon if he would confess; but -he would not--a sufficient proof of the man's innocence, who would not -purchase life by a lie. - -These victims having suffered, the drama of plots now produced a new -act. It was one of the great objects, as we have said, not only to -damage the succession of the Duke of York and to alarm the king, but -to ruin the Prime Minister, Danby, who had superseded the Cabal. -Intrigues were entered into with Montagu, the ambassador at Paris, -for this purpose. Montagu was, of course, in the secret of the money -transactions between the English and French Courts, and could, if it -were his interest, produce enough to destroy Danby, without letting -too much light in upon the whole foul business; for not only the king -on one side, but the patriots and the Opposition on the other, were -equally implicated. A fortunate incident facilitated their plans. -Montagu and Danby were at feud, and Danby only wanted a fair pretext -to remove Montagu from his post at Paris. In this position of things -Montagu furnished ample ground for his recall. He had made love to -Charles's famous mistress, the Duchess of Cleveland, now superseded -by the Duchess of Portsmouth. Cleveland was living in Paris a life as -little creditable as her life had been in England. But Montagu deserted -her for her daughter, and, on her resenting this, threatened if she -continued to annoy him, to expose her intrigues in the French Court, -for she was become a great political tool of Louis in his practices -on England. But Cleveland was not a woman to submit to be snubbed -and menaced even by a king, much less by a minister: she wrote at -once to Charles a furious letter against Montagu, for she had still -great influence with the king. She alleged that Montagu, who had -been employed by Charles to find out an astrologer, who had foretold -accurately Charles's restoration and entry into London on the 29th -of May, 1660, had bribed this man to give such answers to the king -as suited his own purposes. He had often told her that both the king -and the duke were fools--one a dull, governable fool, and the other -a wilful fool; that he wished the Parliament would send them both on -their travels again; that the king always chose a greater beast than -himself to govern him, and much of the like kind. - -Montagu did not wait for the blow which was sure to follow this -missive, but suddenly, without notice or permission, left Paris and -appeared in England. He put himself in communication with Shaftesbury -and his party, and also with Barillon, who would be only too glad to -get Danby dismissed from office. Danby watched the movements of Montagu -with anxiety, knowing that he had the power to make fatal disclosures. -To secure himself from the attack of the Government, and at the same -time to enable him to effect his own purpose, Montagu offered himself -as a candidate for Parliament at Grinstead, but was defeated by the -influence of Danby. At Northampton he was returned by the mayor, Sir -William Temple, while the Government nominee was returned by the -sheriff; but the popular party defended his election, and Montagu -gained his seat. It was agreed with the Opposition that he should lay -a charge against Danby of treasonable correspondence with France, and -other offences, and that they should move for his impeachment on these -grounds. Besides this, Montagu had made a bargain with Barillon that -one hundred thousand livres should be paid to the most powerful of -the Opposition, for their endeavours to crush Danby, and one hundred -thousand livres to himself, or forty thousand livres of _rentes_ on the -Hôtel de Ville, or a pension of fifty thousand livres--according to the -decision of the king--if Danby were excluded from office. - -[Illustration: HÔTEL DE VILLE, PARIS, IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. (_From -an Engraving by Rigaud._)] - -Danby was not ignorant of the storm brewing, and it was thought best -not to wait for its bursting; but the king sent and seized Montagu's -papers, on pretence that he had been intriguing with the Pope's nuncio -in Paris; and Erneley, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, announced this -fact to the House. It was a very adroit proceeding, but Montagu soon -discovered that the precious casket containing the most important -papers had been overlooked in the search. Montagu stated to the House -that Danby had missed his aim, that the papers were safe, and a -deputation was despatched to fetch them. They returned with a small -despatch box, and from this Montagu produced two letters of Danby, one -of them the letter in which Danby solicited a pension of six million -livres, on condition that he procured a peace from the allies, and to -which Charles had added the words, "This is writ by my order.--C. R." - -On the reading of this letter the House was thrown into a violent -agitation. The secret dealings of the king were partly brought to -light. It was now seen that Charles's zeal for the war was only a -pretence to extract money from the nation, and, this obtained, that he -was ready to sell the honour of the country to France; and that the -minister had consented to the infamous transaction. They immediately -voted Danby's impeachment by a majority of sixty-three, and appointed -a committee--of which Montagu was one--to draw up the articles. There -was a danger that Danby would retort on Montagu by producing letters -of his own, proving that he was mixed up with these transactions from -the beginning, and had indeed been made the medium of their proposal; -but Montagu trusted to the impossibility of detaching their evidence -from such as would have angered the country against the king. He was -right; yet two of his letters were sent by Danby to the House, one -giving information that Ruvigny was sent to London to treat through -Lord William Russell with the Opposition, and the other containing a -proposal from Montagu of a grant of money to Charles on the conclusion -of peace. These, at another time, would have produced a wonderful -sensation, but they were now cast aside to pursue the higher game, and -the next day--December 21st--the impeachment of Danby was sent up to -the Lords. - -On the 23rd Danby replied to the charges by pleading that he had -written the letter from the dictation of the king, who had certified -the fact by his own hand in the postscript; that it was well known -that he was neither a Papist nor a friend to the French alliance, but -that he had reason to believe that his accuser, a man who, from his -perfidy and breach of the most sacred trust, all men must abhor, had -been assisted by French counsel in getting up this impeachment. He -denied any guilty practices, and demanded only a fair trial. There was -a motion made to commit him to the Tower, but this was overruled, and -a day was fixed on which the Lord Treasurer should make his defence. -But to defeat this, Danby now advised the king to do that which he had -repeatedly dissuaded him from--namely, to dissolve the Parliament. -Accordingly, on the 30th of December, it was prorogued for four weeks, -and before it could meet again, namely, on the 24th of January, 1679, -he dissolved it by proclamation, summoning another to meet in forty -days. - -This Pension Parliament had now lasted nearly eighteen years. A -wonderful change had come over the spirit of this Parliament since its -first meeting. Soon after Charles's return no Parliament could be more -slavishly submissive. It had restored to him almost everything that the -Long Parliament had taken from his father--the power of the army, the -customs, and excise; it had passed the most severe and arbitrary Acts -for the supremacy of the Church, and the plunder and persecution of -Catholics and Dissenters. The Act of Uniformity, the Corporation Act, -the Test Act, the Conventicle Act, the Five-Mile Act, the Act which -excluded Catholic peers from their House, by which the Church and Crown -had been exalted, and the liberties of the people abridged, were all -the work of this Parliament. But in time, a different temper displayed -itself in this very pliant House. It stiffened and became uncompliant. -But this was not at all by a growth of virtue in it. Various -circumstances had produced this change. Buckingham, Shaftesbury, and -others of the Cabal ministry and their adherents, had lost place and -favour, and had organised a stout Opposition. Their chief objects were -to mortify and thwart the king, to destroy the prospect of the Popish -Duke of York's succession, and to overthrow their rival, Danby. In the -prosecution of these selfish ends, they had, as usual, assumed the -easy mask of patriotism, and had been joined by the Republican and -Patriot party. They had got up the cry of Popery, and driven the nation -frantic by alarm of Popish plots, and into much bloodshed, of which -the end was not yet. Their present attack on Danby was to thrust down -a much better man than themselves, though by no means a perfect one. -But Danby had always detested the French alliance, and the use made -of it to ruin the Protestant nations on the Continent and destroy the -balance of power, in favour of France. He had consented, it is true, -but most reluctantly, to write some of the king's begging letters to -Louis, and now the Opposition, whose hands were filthy with handling -Louis's bribe, had contrived to make him appear not the enemy, but -actually the ally and tool of France. Montagu, the great broker of -these corruptions, who had taken good care of himself, was become the -chastiser of a man who was not a tenth part so guilty as himself. But -the darkest part of this story is the share which the Patriotic party -had in this receipt of French money, and amongst them Algernon Sidney -and Hampden, the grandson of the great patriot. But in excuse for them -it may be urged that they did not vote against their consciences. - -When the new Parliament met it was found to be more violently -anti-Roman than the old one. The duke's known, the king's suspected, -Popery created a feeling in the nation that nothing could remove, -and which the recent excitements about a Popish plot had roused into -a universal flame. This flame the popular party took every means to -fan; and though the Government exerted all its power, its candidates -were everywhere received with execrations, and assertions of the -bloody machinations of the Papists. The new Parliament, therefore, -came up with vehement zeal against the plotters, and with unabated -determination to punish Danby. But the warning which the progress of -the election gave was not lost on Danby. He considered that it would -be one of the most powerful means of abating the public jealousy -of Popery, if the king could be induced to send the duke out of -the kingdom. Charles recoiled at so harsh a measure, and tried the -vain expedient of inducing James to pretend at least conversion, by -sending the Primate and other bishops to persuade him to return to the -Established Church. It was of course useless, and then Charles was -obliged to advise James to withdraw for awhile, and reside at Brussels. -James complied on two conditions--that the king should give him a -formal order to leave the kingdom, so that he might not seem to steal -away out of fear; and that he should pledge himself publicly that he -would never acknowledge the legitimacy of Monmouth, who had given out -that he had four witnesses, in case of Charles's death, to prove his -marriage with his mother. This was done in presence of the Council, the -members adding their signatures, and Charles ordered the instrument to -be enrolled in Chancery. James quitted London with the duchess on the -4th of March, leaving his daughter Anne with her uncle, that the people -might not suppose that he sought to convert her to Popery at Brussels. - -On the 6th of March Parliament met, and the Commons were immediately -engaged in a dispute with the Crown regarding the election of a -Speaker. They elected their old one, Mr. Seymour; the Lord Treasurer -appointed Sir Thomas Mears, one of his most active opponents in the -last Parliament. But during the interval since the dissolution, Danby -had been hard at work to convert, by some means or other, some of his -most formidable enemies. After some altercation the Commons gave way, -and Mears was appointed. - -But this exercise of royal prerogative only embittered the House -to punish Danby and screen Montagu. The Lords passed a resolution -that the dissolution of Parliament did not affect an impeachment--a -doctrine which has become constitutional. Montagu had absconded, -but reappeared when his election to Parliament gave him personal -protection. Everything, therefore, portending the conviction of Danby, -Charles ordered him to resign his staff, and then announced this fact -to Parliament, at the same time informing them that as he had ordered -him to write the letters in question, he had granted him a pardon, -and that he would renew the pardon a dozen times if there were a -continued attempt to prosecute him for an act simply of obedience to -his sovereign. - -But this attempt to take their victim out of their hands was resented -by the Commons as a direct breach of their privileges, and having -looked for a copy of this pardon in Chancery, and not finding it, they -learned from the Lord Chancellor that the pardon had been brought -ready drawn by Danby to the king, who signed it; and that the Seal -had not been affixed by himself, but by the person who carried the -bag, at Charles's own order. This irregularity the more inflamed -the Parliament. Powle, one of the French pensioners, with that air -of injured virtue which politicians so easily assume, inveighed -indignantly against Danby, who, he said, had brought the country to the -brink of ruin by pandering to the mercenary policy of Louis--the very -thing he had opposed,--and had raised a standing army and paid it with -French money. Moreover, he had concealed the Popish plot, and spoken of -Oates with contempt. The Commons forthwith passed a Bill of Attainder, -and the Lords sent to take Danby into custody; but he had absconded. On -the 10th of April, however, he surrendered himself to the Lords, and -was sent to the Tower. Lord Essex was appointed Lord Treasurer in his -stead, and Lord Sunderland, Secretary of State, took the station of -Prime Minister. Essex was popular, solid, and grave in his temperament, -but not of brilliant talent. Sunderland was a very different man. He -was clever, intriguing, insinuating in his manners, but as thoroughly -corrupt and unprincipled as the worst part of the generation in which -he lived. He had long been ambassador at the Court of France, and the -very fact of his holding that post between two such monarchs as Louis -and Charles, was proof enough that he was supple, and not restrained -by any nice sense of morals or honesty. He was perfidious to all -parties--a Cavalier by profession, but at the same time that he was -serving arbitrary monarchs most slavishly, he was Republican in heart. -He was especially attentive to the mother of Monmouth and the Duchess -of Portland, because he knew that they had great influence with his -master. - -[Illustration: ASSASSINATION OF ARCHBISHOP SHARP. (_See p._ 263.)] - -At this crisis Sir William Temple proposed to Charles a measure which -he thought most likely to abate the virulence of Parliament, and at the -same time prevent ministers from pursuing any clandestine purposes to -excite the suspicion of the Parliament and nation. Temple had always -shown himself above and apart from the mere interested ambitious and -selfish objects of the king's ministers. Whenever he was wanted, he -was called from his philosophic retreat of Moor Park, in Surrey, to -do some work of essential benefit to the nation, which it required -a man of character and ability to accomplish. He had effected the -Triple Alliance and the marriage of the Princess Mary with William of -Orange; he had refused to have any concern with the intrigues of the -Cabal; and now, when Parliament was fast hastening to press on the -prerogative, he proposed that the Privy Council should be increased -to thirty members, half consisting of officers of State, and half of -leading and independent members of the Lords and Commons. All these -were to be entrusted with every secret movement and proposition of -government; and the king was to pledge himself to be guided by their -advice. Temple augured that nothing pernicious could be broached by -unscrupulous ministers in a body where half were independent members -of Parliament, holding no office from the Crown; and that, on the -other hand, Parliament could not so vehemently suspect the tendency of -measures which had first the approbation of their own popular leaders. -The House of Commons had now driven three successive ministries from -office--Clarendon, the Cabal, and Danby--and was still bent on a -career violently opposed to the Crown. If Temple had calculated that -the effect would be to neutralise or convert the democratic members, -he would have been right; but that such a Council could ever work any -other way was impossible. The king would never long submit measures, -intended to maintain his prerogative, to a Council which was not -likely to carry his views at once to both Houses; but he might, -and undoubtedly would, in many cases, succeed in bringing over the -Opposition orators to his interest. This was the immediate effect on -most of them. Shaftesbury, Lord Russell, Saville, Viscount Halifax, -Powle, and Seymour, the late Speaker, were included in the Council. -But Temple soon found that men of such contrary views would not pull -well together, and was compelled to break his chief condition, and -compose a sort of inner council, of himself, Capel, Halifax, Essex, -and Sunderland, who prepared and really managed everything. Halifax -was a man of the most brilliant talents, ambitious, yet not thinking -himself so, but so little swayed by mere party, that he was called a -trimmer, and gloried in the title. For the rest--Capel, Cavendish, and -Powle lost the confidence of the Commons, which looked on the new -institution with distrust; Russell and Shaftesbury alone spoke out as -boldly as ever, and retained more influence in the two Houses than -they gained in the Council. In fact, the Opposition members soon found -that they might propose, but the king would not be outvoted in his own -Council. The very first measure suggested, was that all persons of -Popish tendencies should be weeded out of office, out of the posts of -lord-lieutenants, the magistracy, and the courts of law; but Charles, -perceiving that the object was to remove the staunchest supporters -of the Crown, quickly put an end to it. He called for the rolls, and -wherever he saw a name marked for removal, gave such ludicrous and -absurd reason for its retention, that there was no gravely answering -him. One objected to, he said, was a "good cocker," another an "expert -huntsman," "kept good foxhounds," or a "good house," "had always -excellent chines of beef," and the like. Arguments were thrown away on -the king, and the matter came to nothing. - -On the other hand, Shaftesbury, who had been made President of the -Council by Charles himself, undiverted by this from his great object, -pursued his Popery alarms out of doors, where the king could not -checkmate him. A fire broke out in a printing-house in Fetter Lane, -and the servant was induced to confess that one Stubbs had promised -her five pounds to do it, who in turn said Gifford, his confessor, had -set him on, urging it was no sin; and he added that London was to be -set on fire again by French Papists. The absurd story soon grew into -a rumour that the Duke of York was coming with a French army to claim -the throne and re-establish Popery with all its horrors. Shaftesbury -declared in the Lords that Popery must be rooted out if there was to -be any liberty left; that Popery and slavery, like two sisters, went -ever hand-in-hand; that one might now go first, now the other; but -wherever one was seen, the other was certainly not far off. The Commons -eagerly seizing on the temper of the nation, voted unanimously a Bill -of Exclusion against the Duke of York, and that a Protestant successor -should be appointed, as though the duke were actually dead. Sir William -Temple attempted to weaken this movement by attributing it to Monmouth -and Shaftesbury, between whom, it was asserted, there was a secret -understanding that if Monmouth's scheme of proving his legitimacy -succeeded, Shaftesbury should be his Prime Minister. Probably by the -advice of Temple, Charles proposed a plan for a compromise--that in -case a Popish prince succeeded, every power of altering the law should -be taken out of his hands; that no judges, justices, lord-lieutenants, -privy councillors, or officers of the navy should be appointed without -consent of Parliament; and that no livings or dignities in the Church -should be at the option of the king, but of a board of the most pious -and Protestant divines. Shaftesbury, however, ridiculed all these -precautions, as attempting to bind Samson with green withes, which he -could snap with the greatest ease. The Commons were of that mind, and -on the 21st of May, 1679, passed their Exclusion Bill by a majority -of two hundred and seven against one hundred and twenty-eight. The -Commons followed this up by proceeding in a body to the House of -Lords, and demanding judgment against Danby. They also required that -the Prelates should not vote on Danby's case, fearing that their -numbers might give the Crown a majority; but to this the Lords were -opposed, and though the bishops offered to concede the point, the king -forbade them, as the matter involved his prerogative. The Commons -persisting in their demand, now instituted a strict inquiry into the -cases of bribery of members of Parliament by the late minister, and -ordered one of his agents, Fox, the Treasurer of the Navy, to proceed -to Whitehall in company of three members, and bring his books and -papers for examination. The king resented the searching of his house -as a gross insult, and the books and papers were refused; but Fox was -compelled to state how many members he had paid money to, and he named -twenty-seven individuals. This was on the 24th of May, and Charles, to -cut the inquiry short, suddenly sent for the Commons, and prorogued -Parliament for ten weeks. Shaftesbury was so enraged at this unexpected -obstruction to his plans, that he vowed in the House of Lords that it -should cost the king's advisers of this measure their heads. - -This prorogation was, on other accounts, one of the most remarkable -eras in our Parliamentary annals, for before pronouncing the Parliament -prorogued, the king gave his consent to the Habeas Corpus Act, and -allowed the Act establishing the censorship of the press to expire. The -carrying of the Habeas Corpus Act was owing mainly to the influence of -Shaftesbury, and was a benefit of such magnitude, that it might cover -a multitude of the sins of that extraordinary man, who, with all his -faults, had a genuine substratum of patriotism in him. The press had -hitherto never been free. Elizabeth cut off the hands of Puritans who -offended her, and her successors dragged them into their Star Chamber. -Even the Long Parliament, when they abolished the Star Chamber, -declined to liberate the press, notwithstanding Milton's eloquent -appeal for the liberty of unlicensed printing. The press was at length -free, but only for a time, being too dangerous an engine to the corrupt -government which so long succeeded. - -Whilst the blood of unfortunate victims of imaginary plots was flowing -in England, in Scotland the same ruthless persecution had continued -against the Covenanters. Lauderdale had married the Countess of -Dysart, a most extravagant and rapacious woman, who acquired complete -influence over him; and to find resources for her expense, he levied -fines on the Nonconformists with such rigour and avidity, that it was -believed that he really sought to drive the people to rebellion, in -order to have a plea for plundering them. Such was the woful condition -of Scotland, delivered over by the lewd and reckless king to a man who -combined the demon characters of cruelty, insult, and avarice, in no -ordinary degree. Complaints from the most distinguished and most loyal -inhabitants were only answered by requiring them to enter into bonds -that neither they, nor their families, nor tenants should withdraw from -the Established Church, under the same penalties as real delinquents. -The gentry refused to enter into such bonds. Lauderdale, therefore, -determined to treat the whole West of Scotland as in an actual state -of revolt, and not only sent troops with artillery to march into the -devoted districts, but let loose upon them bands of wild Highlanders, -and commanded even the nobility, as well as others, to give up their -arms. The outraged population--left exposed to the spoliation of the -Highlanders, who, though they spared the lives, freely robbed the -inhabitants--sent a deputation of some of their most eminent men to lay -their sufferings before the king himself. They were, however, dismissed -with a reprimand, Charles replying, "I perceive that Lauderdale has -been guilty of many bad things against the people of Scotland, but I -cannot find that he has acted in anything contrary to my interest." - -At length Lauderdale's confederate, Archbishop Sharp, was murdered by -a band of Covenanting enthusiasts in Fife. There the cruelties of the -archbishop were pre-eminently intolerable. There David Hackston of -Rathillet, his brother-in-law, John Balfour of Kinloch, or Balfour of -Burley, as he is immortalised by Sir Walter Scott in "Old Mortality," -James Russell of Kettle, and six others determined to take vengeance -on a notorious creature of Sharp's, one Carmichael, who had pursued -his levy of fines with such brutality, as to have beaten and burnt -with lighted matches women and children, to compel them to betray -their masters, husbands, brothers, or fathers. On the 3rd of May, -1679, Carmichael had been out hunting, but hearing of Rathillet and -his band being on the watch for him, he left the field and got home. -The conspirators were returning disappointed, when a greater prey fell -into their hands. The wife of a farmer at Baldinny sent a lad to tell -them that the archbishop's coach was on the road, going from Ceres -towards St. Andrews. The delighted men gave chase, and, compelling the -old man to leave his coach, barbarously murdered him. The assassins -only crossed to the other side of Magus Muir, where the bloody deed -had been perpetrated, and in a cottage they spent the remainder of the -day in prayer and praising God for the accomplishment of what they -deemed this noble work. They then rode into the West, where they joined -Donald Cargill, one of the most noted of the Cameronian preachers, with -Spreul, and Robert Hamilton, a young man of good family, and a former -pupil of Bishop Burnet's, who had been excited by the persecutions of -the people to come out and attempt their relief. - -The murder of the archbishop only roused the Government to more -determined rigour, and the persecuted people, grown desperate, threw -off in great numbers all remaining show of obedience and resolved to -resist to the death. The more moderate Presbyterians lamented and -condemned the murder of the Primate, but the more enthusiastic looked -upon it as a judgment of God. They resolved to face the soldiery, and -they had soon an opportunity, for Graham of Claverhouse, a man who -acquired a terrible fame in these persecutions, being stationed at -Glasgow, drew out a troop of dragoons and other cavalry, and went in -pursuit of them. He encountered them at a place near Loudon Hill, in a -boggy ground called Drumclog, where the Covenanters, under Hamilton, -Balfour, and Cleland, defeated his forces, and put them to flight, -killing about thirty of them, including a relative of Claverhouse's -(June 11, 1679). The insurgents under Hamilton, elated with their -victory, marched after Claverhouse into Glasgow itself, but were -repulsed. They went on, however, increasing so fast, that Claverhouse -evacuated Glasgow, and marched eastward, leaving all the west of -Scotland in their hands. - -On the news reaching London, Charles despatched the Duke of Monmouth, -with a large body of the royal guards, to quell the rebellion. On the -21st of June, as the Covenanters lay near the town of Hamilton, they -received the intelligence that Monmouth, with his forces joined to -those of Claverhouse, was approaching. The insurgents had soon taken -to quarrelling amongst themselves, and the more moderate section -were now for submitting on favourable terms. Rathillet and the more -determined would not hear of any surrender, but marched off and left -the waverers, who sent a memorial to Monmouth, declaring that they were -ready to leave all their complaints to a free Parliament, and free -Assembly of the Church. The duke, who showed much mildness throughout -this campaign, replied that he felt greatly for their sufferings, -but that they must lay down their arms, and then he would intercede -for them with the king. On the receipt of this answer the greatest -confusion prevailed; the moderate durst not risk a surrender on such -terms, remembering the little mercy they had hitherto received from -the Government; the more violent, with a fatal want of prudence, now -insisted on cashiering their officers, who had shown what they called -a leaning towards Erastianism, or, in other words, a disposition to -submit to the civil power. - -Whilst they were in this divided state, Monmouth's army appeared in -sight on the 22nd of June. The Covenanters, therefore, compelled to -fight or fly, seized on the bridge of Bothwell, which crossed the -Clyde between the village of Bothwell and the town of Hamilton. It -was narrow, and in the centre there stood a gateway. Here Rathillet, -Balfour, and others posted themselves with about three hundred men to -defend this pass. But the army of Monmouth, on the slope of the hill -descending from Bothwell to the Clyde, commanded the opposite hill, -on which the Covenanters were posted, with his artillery, and under -its fire a strong body of troops advanced to force the bridge. Balfour -and Rathillet defended their post bravely, but the gate was at length -carried, and they were pushed back at the point of the bayonet. They -found themselves unsupported by the main body, which, on the artillery -playing murderously upon them, had retreated to Hamilton Heath, about a -quarter of a mile distant. There they rallied, and repulsed one or two -charges, and broke a body of Highlanders; but undisciplined, disunited, -and without artillery to cope with that of Monmouth, they were only -exposed to slaughter. They turned and fled. - -Monmouth commanded a halt, to spare the fugitives. But Claverhouse -pursued and cut them down to the number of four hundred men, besides -taking twelve hundred prisoners. Some of the ministers and leaders were -executed, the more obstinate were sent as slaves to the Plantations, -many of them being lost at sea, and the rest were liberated on giving -bonds for conformity. The efforts of Monmouth procured an indemnity and -indulgence, which might, after this severe chastisement, have produced -the most salutary effect; but this was speedily superseded by the old, -faithless, and cruel _régime_ of Lauderdale, and the still more brutal -rule of the Duke of York. - -During this time the Popish plot, with fresh actors and ramifications, -was agitated by the anti-Papal party with unabated zeal. On the 24th -of April, 1679, a Protestant barrister, Nathaniel Reading, was tried -for tampering with the evidence against Catholic noblemen in prison, -in order to reduce the charge from treason to felony. It appeared that -Bedloe had engaged him to do it, and then informed against him. There -appeared on the trial many damning circumstances against the character -and veracity of Bedloe, yet Reading was condemned to pay a fine of one -thousand pounds, and to suffer a year's imprisonment. - -Bedloe, Oates, and Prance were again, however, brought forward in -June against Whitbread and Fenwick, who had been illegally remanded -to prison on their former trial, and three other Jesuits--Harcourt, -Gavan, and Turner--were now also examined, and a new witness, one -Dugdale, a discarded steward of Lord Aston's, was introduced. Oates -had little to add to his former story, but Bedloe and Prance were -prolific in new charges. It was in vain that the prisoners pointed -out their gross prevarications and palpable falsehoods. They were all -condemned, as well as Langhorne, a celebrated Catholic barrister. -The infamous Jeffreys, now Recorder of London, sentenced them, amid -the loud acclamations of the spectators, and they were all executed, -after being offered a pardon on condition of confessing the plot, -and disclosing what they knew. Langhorne was promised his life if he -would reveal the property of the Jesuits, and on its proving only of -the value of twenty thousand or thirty thousand pounds, he was told -it was too insignificant to save his life. A second time his life was -offered him if he would reveal the plot, but he replied he knew of no -plot, and all were executed with the usual horrors. Next came up for -trial Sir George Wakeman, the queen's physician, and Corker, Rumby, and -Marshall, Benedictine monks; but the diabolical perjury of Oates this -time received such an exposure, that the prisoners were all acquitted. -Philip Lloyd, the clerk of the Council, deposed that when Oates had -been questioned by the Lord Chancellor whether he knew anything -personally of Sir George Wakeman, he had solemnly sworn that he did -not, yet this morning he had charged him with different acts of treason -committed in his own presence. - -Notwithstanding this rebuff to the despicable informer, the three monks -were recommitted on a fresh charge, and in every quarter of the kingdom -similar persecutions were carried on, numbers were thrown into prison, -and eight other Catholics were executed in different places. - -The Duke of York was every day becoming more uneasy in his residence -at Brussels. Knowing the intrigues of Shaftesbury and his party to -advance the claims of Monmouth, he repeatedly solicited the king to let -him return, and Charles falling ill in August, at Windsor, consented, -and James made his appearance at Court, much to the consternation of -Monmouth and his supporters. The king recovering, to put an end to the -intrigues and feuds between the two dukes, Charles sent Monmouth to -Brussels, instead of James, and ordered James to retire to Scotland. -Being, as usual, pressed for money, Charles again importuned Louis for -one million livres for three years; but Louis replied that he did not -see at this period what services England could render him for that -expense: and James advised him to manage without the money, by adopting -a system of rigid economy. In August he prorogued Parliament for a -year, and endeavoured to carry on without the French king's pension. -On seeing this, Louis, through Barillon, renewed his offers, but -Charles felt too proud to accept them, and then the French king once -more turned to the Patriots, so-called, to instigate fresh annoyances. -Barillon paid to Buckingham one thousand guineas, two thousand five -hundred guineas were distributed amongst Baber, Littleton, Harbord, -and Poole; and Montague received fifty thousand livres in part payment -of his reward for overthrowing Danby. The consequences were now seen. -On the 17th of November, the anniversary of the accession of Queen -Elizabeth, an anti-Popish procession was organised by Shaftesbury and -that party, though carried on under the auspices of the Green Ribbon -Club. The bellman went first, ringing his bell, and exclaiming at -intervals, "Remember Mr. Justice Godfrey!" Then came a man in the -habit of a Jesuit, supporting before him on horseback an effigy of the -murdered magistrate, followed by a long train of men and women, habited -as monks, nuns, priests, and Catholic bishops in capes and mitres, and -Protestant bishops in lawn sleeves, six cardinals with their caps, and, -lastly, the Pope on a litter, with his arch-prompter, the Devil, by his -side. This procession, commencing in Moorgate, traversed the streets -at night with flambeaux, amid a hundred thousand spectators, who were -frantic with cries of vengeance against Papists and Popery. At Temple -Bar, in front of the club-house, they burnt the whole array of Popish -effigies, amid fireworks and rending shouts. - -[Illustration: THE DUKE OF MONMOUTH.] - -This exhibition of fury against the Catholics was reported all over -Europe with astonishment and awe; but, on the other hand, it roused -Charles to dismiss Shaftesbury from the presidency of the Council, and -to order James to assume his proper place at Court. Russell, Capel, -Cavendish, and Powle, seeing their party reduced to impotence in the -Council, resigned, and Essex threw up the Treasury, and was succeeded -by Hyde, the second son of Clarendon. Sir William Temple also retired -again to his rural retreat, and Sydney Godolphin became a leading man -in the Council. Both Hyde and Godolphin were men of much talent, but -decided Tories. The character of Lawrence Hyde has been vigorously -sketched by Macaulay. He was a Cavalier of the old school, a zealous -champion of the Crown and of the Church, and a hater of Republicans -and Nonconformists. He had, consequently, a great body of personal -adherents. The clergy, especially, looked on him as their own man, and -extended to his foibles an indulgence of which, to say the truth, he -stood in some need, for he drank deep, and when he was in a rage--and -he was very often in a rage--he swore like a trooper. "Godolphin," says -the same authority, "had low and frivolous personal tastes, and was -much addicted to racing, card-playing, and cock-fighting." - -Between these new ministers and the Opposition the contest grew more -vehement. Shaftesbury persuaded Monmouth to return in 1680, and much -rejoicing was got up for him in public. The king was extremely angry, -and ordered him to retire, but Monmouth paid no attention to the -paternal command; and there was great talk of a certain black box, in -which the proofs of the marriage of Monmouth's mother, Lucy Walters -or Barlow, were contained. Charles summoned all the persons alleged -to know of this box and its contents, and questioned them, when there -clearly appeared to be no such box or such evidence; and these facts -were published in the _Gazette_. Still, the duke was extremely popular -with the people, and occupied a prominent place in the public eye. He -was Duke of Monmouth in England, of Buccleuch in Scotland, Master of -the Horse, Commander of the First Troop of Life Guards, Chief Justice -in Eyre south of Trent, a Knight of the Garter, and Chancellor of the -University of Cambridge; and the Opposition did all they could to -enhance his importance. The war of Whig and Tory, now the established -terms, was fierce. - -Of course the Popish plot continued to play its part, its puppets being -moved, and its victims selected by the great political Oppositionists. -There was also another plot, called from the hiding-place of the -incriminating documents, the Meal-Tub plot, in which the Presbyterians -were charged with conspiring to raise an army and establish a Republic. -The chief object of all these got-up plots was to drive James from the -succession, and two parties were at work for this purpose, who agreed -so far as excluding James, but were divided as to the successor to be -set up. Monmouth was the idol of Shaftesbury and his party; William of -Orange the selected favourite of Temple, Hyde, Godolphin, and their -party--a far more intellectual and able one. Against James this common -object of his exclusion told fearfully; for the rest, the deep and -cautious character of the Dutchman, and the light and frivolous one of -Monmouth, made William's chance far the best. Shaftesbury, Buckingham, -and their adherents contrived to win over the Duchess of Portsmouth to -part of their views by concealing the rest. They represented to her -that if the king were brought to nominate his successor, as Cromwell -had done, and as an Act of Parliament would enable him to do, her -eldest son might be chosen. The bait took, especially when it was -coupled with the terrors of an impeachment in default of compliance, -which threatened her ruin and that of her children. She flattered -herself that the illegitimacy of her son might be got over, and -went zealously into the affair. On the other hand, Shaftesbury made -himself sure that if this plan were accomplished, Monmouth would be -the successor-elect. She pledged herself to use all her influence with -Charles, and she was empowered to assure him of a large supply of money -from Parliament, and the same power of naming his successor as had been -given to Henry VIII. - -Charles appeared to fall into the scheme, but demanded no less than -eight hundred thousand pounds. For this he probably would have sold -his brother's birthright. The question of James's exclusion was -discussed in the Council, and Charles ordered James to return again -to Scotland. But what probably saved James was want of faith between -the leaders of the two exclusion factions and Charles, and between -each other. Each faction knew that the other had its own successor in -view, and both doubted Charles too much to trust him with the money -before the Exclusion Act was passed. Barillon, the French ambassador, -whose object was to maintain James, also came in as a third party, with -French money, to embarrass and divide them. To cut the main difficulty, -Shaftesbury determined to damage James irrevocably before the country; -he, therefore, on the 26th of October, 1680, brought forward a wretch -called Dangerfield to accuse the duke, before the Commons, of having -been at the bottom of the late plot against the Presbyterians; of -having given him the instructions to forge and distribute the lists and -commissions; of having presented him with twenty guineas; given him a -promise of much greater reward; and ridiculed his hesitation to shed -the king's blood. - -The audacity of an Opposition that could bring forward so horrible -a charge against the heir-apparent, on the evidence of a scoundrel -branded by sixteen convictions for base crimes, is something -incredible. But no sooner had Dangerfield made the statement, than -the House was thrown into a wonderful agitation, and Lord William -Russell rose and moved that effectual measures be taken to suppress -Popery and prevent a Popish succession. From that day to the 2nd of -November a succession of other witnesses and depositions were brought -before the House to strengthen the charge. The deposition of Bedloe, -on his deathbed, affirming all his statements, was read; one Francisco -de Faria, a converted Jew, asserted that an offer had been made to -him by the late Portuguese ambassador, to whom he was interpreter, -to assassinate Oates, Bedloe, and Shaftesbury; Dugdale related all -his proofs against the lords in the Tower; Prance repeated the story -of the murder of Godfrey, with fresh embellishments; and Mr. Treby -read the report of the Committee of inquiry into the plot. The House, -almost beside itself, passed a Bill to disable the Duke of York, as -a Papist, from succeeding, and stipulating that any violence offered -to the king should be revenged on the whole body of the Papists. But -on the 15th of November the Lords rejected it by sixty-three against -thirty. Shaftesbury then proposed, as the last means of safety, that -the king should divorce the queen, marry again, and have a chance -of legitimate issue; but on this the king put an effectual damper. -Disappointed in both these objects, the Opposition resorted to the -cowardly measure of shedding more innocent blood, in order to have a -fresh opportunity of exciting the alarm and rage of the people against -Popery. They selected, from the five Popish lords in the Tower, the -Lord Stafford for their victim. He was nearly seventy years of age, and -in infirm health, and they flattered themselves he would not be able -to make much defence. He was arraigned in Westminster Hall before a -Court of Managers, as in the case of Lord Strafford. The trial lasted -seven days, and Oates, Dugdale, Prance, Tuberville, and Denis, all men -of the most infamous and perjured character, charged him with having -held consultations with emissaries of the Pope, and having endeavoured -to engage Dugdale to assassinate the king, and so forth. The old earl -made an admirable defence, in which he dissected most effectually the -characters of his traducers; but he was condemned by a majority of -fifty-five to thirty-one, and was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 29th -of December, 1680. The sheriffs of London objected to the order for -his beheading, contending that he ought to suffer all the horrors of -the law against traitors; but the king commanded them to obey his -order. On the scaffold the earl, whose mild and pious demeanour made a -deep impression on the Popery-frightened people, declared his entire -innocence, and the people, standing with bare heads, replied, "We -believe you, my lord. God bless you, my lord!" - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -REIGN OF CHARLES II. (_concluded_). - - Charles's Embarrassments--Exclusion Intrigues--Parliament - Dissolved--The King again Pensioned by Louis--New Parliament - at Oxford--Violence of the Whigs--Charles Dissolves the - Oxford Parliament--Execution of Archbishop Plunket--Arrest of - Shaftesbury--Dismay of the Gang of Perjurers--Oates turned out of - Whitehall--Shaftesbury's Lists--Visit of William of Orange--James - in Scotland--Defeat of the Cameronians--Cargill's Manifesto--The - Duke of York's Tyranny--Flight of Argyll--The Torture in - Edinburgh--Arrogance of Monmouth--Contest between the Court and the - City--Death of Shaftesbury--Rye-House Plot--Suicide of the Earl of - Essex--Trial of Lord William Russell--Extraordinary Declaration - of the University of Oxford--Trial of Algernon Sidney--The - Duke of Monmouth Pardoned--Base Conduct of Monmouth--Trial of - Hampden--Trials in Scotland--Absolutism of Charles--Forfeiture - of Charters by the Corporations--Influence of the Duke of - York--Opposition of Halifax--Sickness and Death of the King. - - -Amid the contending factions of his Court, and in spite of the most -absolute destitution of money, Charles is described as being outwardly -merry. - -Yet his situation would have embarrassed a much wiser man. The -Opposition, trusting to his need of money, calculated on his giving -way on the Exclusion Bill; and they kept up their warfare by speeches, -pamphlets, and addresses to the public, and by secret pressure on him -through his ministers, his mistress, his nephew, the Prince of Orange, -and his allies. Sunderland and Godolphin urged his concession to the -Opposition in Parliament. The duchess, when he sought retirement -with her, harped on the same string. Halifax, who had offended the -Opposition greatly by his determined resistance to the Exclusion Bill, -now proposed a Bill of Limitations of the authority of James in case of -his succession; and the Prince of Orange warned the king on no account -to adopt this Bill, because it would undermine the very foundation of -the monarchy. - -[Illustration: ARRIVAL OF CHARLES AT OXFORD. (_See p._ 269.)] - -The Spaniards complained that Louis was violating the Treaty of -Nimeguen, and called on Charles to act as their ally and a party to -the Treaty. To contend with Louis required money, even if he were so -disposed, and money he had none. Instead of answering his demands for -it, the Commons expressed their resentment of his resistance to the -Exclusion Bill, by attacking all the supporters of the king. They -summoned various Tory leaders on one pretence or another to their bar; -they demanded the removal of Jeffreys from the office of Recorder of -London, and he made haste to submit; they voted impeachments against -Scroggs and North, the chief justices, and Lewis Weston and other -judges. They sent a message to the king, that unless the Duke of York -was excluded, there was no safety to Protestantism. They voted that -the Marquis of Worcester, Halifax, Clarendon, and Feversham, were -promoters of Popery; that they and Lawrence Hyde, and Seymour, ought to -be removed from the king's council, and that till then no money could -be voted; and, moreover, that any one lending the king money upon any -branch of the revenue, should be adjudged an enemy of the country. As -they were going on voting still further resolutions of a like kind, -Charles prorogued Parliament, and then by proclamation dissolved it, -ordering another to assemble at the end of two months at Oxford. - -The very naming of the place of meeting struck the Opposition with -alarm. In London they had a great protection in a strongly sympathising -population; but Oxford was notorious for its Royalist and Tory feeling; -and there Charles, amid a fiery mob of fortune-seeking gownsmen, -and a strong body of soldiery, might overawe Parliament, and direct -particular attacks against the Opposition leaders. These fears were -well founded. But the king had, in the interim, also strengthened -himself in another manner. He had first set to work every one of the -duke's friends that he possibly could, to induce him at least to appear -to conform to the demands of Parliament, but finding this utterly -unavailing, he had turned to his old friend Louis. The French monarch, -who never liked to leave Charles at the mercy of his Parliament, again -gratified his desire, and agreed to pay him two millions of livres this -year, and half a million of crowns in each of the two following years, -on condition that he should leave the Spaniards to his overbearing -encroachments. The many hints thrown out of secret treaties between -Charles and Louis had not been lost, and no written contract of this -agreement was made, but it was treated as a matter of honour, and only -the two monarchs, with Barillon on the one side, and Hyde on the other, -were included in the secret. - -Being thus made independent of his Parliament, Charles disregarded -the strongest remonstrances against holding the Parliament in Oxford, -and on the day appointed appeared there, attended by a troop of Horse -Guards, besides crowds of armed courtiers, and the Opposition members -and their party, likewise armed, and attended by armed followers. It -appeared more like a preparation for war than for peaceful debate. -Charles addressed the assembled hearers in the tone of a man who had -money in his pocket. He spoke strongly of the factious proceedings -of the last Parliament, and of his determination neither to exercise -arbitrary power himself, nor to suffer it in others; but to show that -he had every disposition to consult the wishes of his subjects, he -proposed to grant them almost everything they had solicited. He then -offered the substance of the Bill of Limitations proposed by Halifax, -that James should be banished five hundred miles from the British -shores during the king's life; that, on succeeding, though he should -have the title of king, the powers of government should be vested in a -regent, and this regent, in the first instance, be his daughter, the -Princess Mary of Orange, and after her her sister Anne; that if James -should have a son educated in the Protestant faith, the regency should -continue only till he reached his majority; that, besides this, all -Catholics of incomes of more than one hundred pounds per annum should -be banished, the fraudulent conveyance of their estates be pronounced -void, and their children taken from them, and educated in Protestantism. - -This was a sweeping concession; short of expelling James altogether, -nothing more could be expected, and it was scarcely to be expected -that Charles would concede that. On this one point he had always -displayed unusual firmness, and it was a firmness highly honourable to -him, for by it he maintained the rights of a brother, at the expense -of the aggrandisement of his own son. Nothing would have been easier -than to have, by a little finesse, conveyed the crown to Monmouth, the -favourite of the Protestant bulk of the nation, and for whom he had a -real affection. But the Whigs lost their opportunity; they were blinded -to their own interest by the idea of their strength, and thought -that, having so much offered, they were about to gain all. This was -the culminating point of their success; but they rejected the offer, -and from that hour the tide of their power ebbed, and their ruin was -determined. - -There was another attempt to spur on the country to carry the Exclusion -Bill, by making use of a miserable pretence of a plot got up by two -low adventurers, Everard and Fitzharris. First these fellows pretended -that the king was leagued with the duke to establish Popery; but when -Fitzharris was thrown into Newgate, he got up another story, that -he had been offered ten thousand pounds by the Duchess of Modena to -murder the king, and that a foreign invasion was to assist the Catholic -attempt. The Opposition were ready to seize on this man as another -Dangerfield, to move the country by the disclosure of these plots. -But Charles was beforehand with them, cut off all intercourse with -the prisoner, and ordered the Attorney-General to proceed against -him. The Commons claimed to deal with him, and sent up an impeachment -to the Lords; the Lords refused to entertain it, and voted that he -should be tried as the king directed, by common law. The Commons -were exasperated, and declared that this was a denial of justice, -a violation of the rights of Parliament, and any inferior court -interfering would be guilty of a high breach of the privileges of their -House. They were going on with the reading of the Exclusion Bill, when -suddenly the king summoned them to the House of Lords, and dissolved -Parliament. He had, on hearing of their proceedings, privately put -the crown and robes of State into a sedan-chair, and hastened to the -House. The astonishment and rage of the Opposition were inconceivable. -Shaftesbury called on the members not to leave the House, but it was -in vain; they gradually withdrew: the king rode off, attended by a -detachment of his Guards, to Windsor, and thus, after the session of a -week, ended his fifth and last Parliament. - -If the Whigs had not been blinded by their passions and their fancied -success, they might have seen the reaction that was taking place. -The long series of pretended plots had gradually opened the eyes of -the people; they began to wonder how they could have believed them, -and have consented to the spilling of so much blood on the evidence -of such despicable characters. At the execution of Lord Stafford, -instead of those yells of rage with which they had received some of -the previous victims, they cried that they believed him, and prayed -God to bless him. They might have seen this change still more clearly -in what now followed. Charles issued a Declaration of his reasons for -dissolving this Parliament;--that he had offered them everything that -reasonable men could desire, for which he had received only expressions -of discontent, and endeavours to usurp his authority; that they had -arrested Englishmen for offences with which Parliament had nothing -to do; had declared the most distinguished persons enemies to the -king on mere suspicion; had forbade any one to lend the king money -in anticipation of his revenue; had insisted on excluding the heir -apparent from the succession, notwithstanding all possible guarantees; -and that they were endeavouring to create a quarrel between the -two Houses, because the Lords would not interfere with the king's -prerogative. This Declaration, which was read in the churches, produced -a strong effect. The king was regarded as unreasonably treated, and -addresses of support were sent up from all quarters. The University -of Cambridge went the length of saying that "our kings derive not -their titles from the people, but from God, and that to Him only they -are accountable. They had an hereditary right of succession, which no -religion, no law, no fault, no forfeiture can alter or diminish." The -Whigs published a counter-address, but, still drawing their arguments -from Oates's plot, it failed to tell; this delusion had gone by, and -the opposite one of Divine Right was moving now, in consequence, with -an exaggerated impetus. The king persisted in bringing Fitzharris to -trial; the Whigs endeavoured to defend him by pleading that, being -impeached by the Commons, no other court than Parliament could try him; -but this was overruled, he was tried, condemned, and hanged. - -At the same time suffered the titular Archbishop of Armagh; the last -victim of the Popish plot, and perhaps the most hardly and unjustly -used. Oliver Plunket, the archbishop, was imprisoned merely for -receiving orders in the Catholic Church, contrary to the law; but -whilst in prison some of the Irish informers charged him with being -concerned in the Popish plot; but instead of trying him in Ireland, -where he was well known and could produce his witnesses, he was -brought to England, and before his evidence could arrive, was tried -and executed (July 1, 1681). A more shameful proceeding has never been -recorded. The Earl of Essex, who had been Lord-Lieutenant in Ireland, -solicited his pardon, saying to Charles, that from his own knowledge, -the charge against him was undoubtedly false. "Then," retorted the -king, "on your head, my lord, be his blood. You might have saved him -if you would. I cannot pardon him, because I dare not." The storm, in -fact, was about to burst on the heads of those who had raised it. There -was no Parliament to defend them, and the Government now proceeded to -retaliate. The miscreants who had served Shaftesbury in running down -his victims now perceived the change of public opinion, and either -slunk away or offered their services to Government against their former -employers. - -The first to be arrested were Shaftesbury himself, College, surnamed -the "Protestant joiner," and Rouse, the leader of the mob from Wapping. -Lord Howard was already in the Tower on the denunciation of Fitzharris. -The Grand Jury refused to find the Bill of Indictment against Lord -Howard; they did the same in the case of Rouse, but College was tried, -and the same witnesses who had been deemed worthy enough to condemn -the Catholics were brought against him. But the jury now refused to -believe them against a Protestant, and acquitted him. College, however, -was not permitted to escape so easily. He was a noisy and determined -leader of the people, sang songs and distributed prints, ridiculing the -king and Court, and was celebrated as the inventor of the Protestant -flail. It was found that some of his misdemeanours had been committed -in Oxfordshire, and he was sent down and tried there, where the Tory -feeling was not likely to let him off again. There the miserable -wretches, whose concocted evidence had doomed to death so many -charged by them as participators in the Popish plot, were now arrayed -against each other. Dugdale, Tuberville, and Smith swore against -College; Oates, Bolron, and others committed the political blunder of -contradicting them, and representing them in colours that in truth -belonged to the whole crew. For this proceeding Oates was deprived of -his pension and turned out of Whitehall; but College was condemned amid -roars of applause from the gownsmen. The execution of College was the -commencement of a murderous retaliation on the Whigs, as savage as had -been theirs on the Catholics. Shaftesbury, through the influence of -the sheriffs, and the vehement demonstrations of the City made in his -favour, was saved for the present by the jury ignoring the indictment, -amid the acclamations of the people, and the event was celebrated by -bonfires, ringing of bells, and shouts of "Monmouth!" "Shaftesbury!" -and "Buckingham!" - -But the arrest of Shaftesbury had led to consequences which were fatal -to him, and most disastrous to the Whig party generally. Amongst his -papers were found, in particular, two which roused the indignation of -the Tory and Catholic parties to a perfect fury. One was the form of -an Association for excluding James and all Catholics from the throne, -and from political power, and including a vow to pursue to the death -all who should oppose this great purpose. The other contained two -lists of the leading persons in every county, ranged under the heads -of "worthy men," and "men worthy," the latter phrase being supposed -to mean worthy to be hanged. When this was published, the "men -worthy" sent up the most ardent addresses of loyalty, and readiness -to support the Crown in all its views; and many of the "worthy men" -even hastened to escape from the invidious distinction. The king lost -no time in taking advantage of this ferment. He availed himself of -the information contained in these lists, and struck out the most -prominent "worthy men" in office and commission. As the Dissenters had -supported Shaftesbury and his party, he let loose the myrmidons of -persecution against them, and they were fined, distrained upon, and -imprisoned as remorselessly as ever. He determined to punish the City -for its partisanship, and by a _quo warranto_ to inquire into its many -different privileges. - -At this critical moment William of Orange proposed to pay a visit to -his uncles, which his loving father-in-law, James, strenuously opposed, -but which the easy Charles permitted. It was soon seen that William, -though his ostensible object was to induce Charles to enter into a -league against France--whose king continued, in spite of treaties, to -press on his encroachments,--yet was courted by the Exclusionists, even -by Monmouth, as well as Lord William Russell and other Whigs. With all -his habitual caution he could not avoid letting it be seen that he was -proud of the courtship. He even consented to accept an invitation from -the City to dinner, to the great disgust of the Court, which was in -high dudgeon at the conduct of the sheriffs, and William soon returned. -His object was to ascertain the strength of the Whig party, and though -the tide was rapidly running against it at that moment, he went back -with the conviction that some violent change was not very far off. -Though Charles promised William to join the alliance against France, -and call a Parliament, no sooner was the prince gone than he assured -Louis that he was his friend, and received a fresh bribe of a million -of livres to allow France to attack Luxembourg, one of the main keys of -Holland. - -James, during these months, had been distinguishing himself in Scotland -in a manner which promised but a poor prospect to Protestantism should -he ever come to the throne. After the battle of Bothwell Bridge, -the Covenanting party seemed for awhile to have sunk into the earth -and disappeared; but ere long there was seen emerging again from -their hiding-places the more determined and enthusiastic section -which followed Donald Cargill and Richard Cameron. These so-called -Cameronians believed that Charles Stuart, by renouncing the Solemn -League and Covenant, had renounced all right to rule over them; and -Cameron, with some twenty of his adherents, affixed (June, 1680) -on the cross of Sanquhar "a declaration and testimony of the true -Presbyterian, anti-prelatic, anti-erastian, and persecuted party in -Scotland." In this bold paper they disowned Charles Stuart, who ought, -they said, to have been denuded years before of being king, ruler, or -magistrate, on account of his tyranny. They declared war on him as a -tyrant and usurper; they also disowned all power of James, Duke of -York, in Scotland, and declared that they would treat their enemies as -they had hitherto treated them. - -The host of Israel, as they styled themselves, consisted of -six-and-twenty horse and forty foot. At Aird's Moss, this knot of -men, who spoke such loud things, were surprised by three troops of -dragoons, and Cameron, as bold in action as in word, rushed on this -unequal number, crying, "Lord, take the ripest, spare the greenest." -He fell with his brother and seven others (July 20, 1680). Rathillet, -who was there, was wounded and taken prisoner, but Cargill escaped. -Rathillet was tried and executed for the murder of Archbishop Sharp. -His hands were first cut off at the foot of the gallows; after hanging, -his head was cut off, and fixed on a spike at Cupar, and his body -was hung in chains at Magus Moor. Cargill reappeared in September, -1680, at Torwood, in Stirlingshire, and there preached; and then, -after the sermon, pronounced this extraordinary excommunication:--"I, -being a minister of Jesus Christ, and having authority from Him, do, -in His name and by His spirit, excommunicate, cast out of the true -Church, and deliver up to Satan, Charles II., King of Scotland, for -his mocking of God, his perjury, his uncleanness of adultery and -incest, his drunkenness, and his dissembling with God and man." He -also excommunicated the Duke of York for idolatry, Monmouth for his -slaughter of the Lord's people at Bothwell Bridge, Lauderdale for -blasphemy, apostasy, and adultery, and other offences. - -The Government thought it time to hunt out this nest of enthusiasts, -and put to death, as a terror, the prisoners taken at Aird's Moss. Two -of these were women, Isabel Alison and Marian Harvey, who went to the -gallows rejoicing. The Duke of York offered to pardon some of them -if they would only say, "God save the king," but they refused, and -congratulated each other that they should that night sup in Paradise. -Cargill and four followers were hanged in July, 1681. - -James now professed great leniency and liberality. Instead of -persecuting the Cameronians, he drafted them off into a Scottish -regiment which was serving abroad in Flanders, in the pay of Spain. He -put a stop to many of Lauderdale's embezzlements, and turned out some -of the worst of his official blood-suckers. He promised to maintain -episcopacy, and to put down conventicles, and brought into Parliament -a new Test Act, which was to swear every one to the king's supremacy, -and to passive obedience. His leniency was then soon at an end, and -the object he was driving at was too palpable to escape the slightest -observation. But Fletcher of Saltoun, Lord Stair, and some other bold -patriots, opposed the design, and carried a clause in the Test Act -for the defence of the Protestant religion, which was so worded as to -make it mean Presbyterianism of the Confession of Faith of 1560. This -so little suited James that he was impelled to add another clause, -excusing the princes of the blood from taking his own test. But Lord -Belhaven boldly declared that the object of it was to bind a Popish -successor. At this frank avowal, James's assumed liberality deserted -him, and he sent Lord Belhaven prisoner to Edinburgh castle, and -ordered the Attorney-General to impeach him. He removed Lord Stair -from his office of President of the Court of Session, and commenced -prosecutions against both him and Fletcher of Saltoun. The Earl of -Argyll, however, whose father had been executed by Charles soon after -his restoration, made a decided speech against the Test, and James -called upon him at the Council board to take it. Argyll took it with -certain qualifications, whereupon James appeared to be satisfied, and -invited Argyll to sit beside him at the Council board, and repeatedly -took the opportunity of whispering in his ear, as if he bestowed his -highest confidence on him. But this was but the fawning of the tiger -ere he made his spring. Two days after he sent him to the castle on -a charge of treason for limiting the Test. James, however, when some -of the courtiers surmised that his life and fortune must pay for his -treason, exclaimed, "Life and fortune! God forbid!" Yet on the 20th of -November, 1681, instructions arrived from England to accuse him of high -treason, and on the 12th of December he was brought to trial. To show -what was to be expected from such a trial, the Marquis of Montrose, the -grandson of the celebrated Montrose, whom the father of Argyll and the -Covenanters hanged, and who was, in consequence, the implacable enemy -of the present earl and all his house, was made foreman of the jury, -and delivered the sentence of guilty. The whole Council were called -on to endorse this sentence; even the bishops were not allowed to be -exempt, according to their privilege, from being concerned in a doom of -blood; and the earl's own friends and adherents had not the firmness to -refuse selling their names. Argyll, however, disappointed his enemies, -by escaping from his cell in Edinburgh Castle in the disguise of a page -to his daughter-in-law, Lady Lindsay, and made his way to England, and -thence to Holland, where, like many other fugitives from England and -Scotland, he took refuge with William of Orange. - -James now, whilst the Parliament was terror-stricken by this example of -royal vengeance, brought in a Bill making it high treason in any one -to maintain the lawfulness of excluding him from the throne, either -on account of his religion or for any other reason whatever. By this -he showed to the Exclusionists that they must expect a civil war with -Scotland if they attempted to bar his way to the throne of England. -Deeming himself now secure, he gave way to his natural cruelty of -temper, and indulged in tortures and barbarities which seemed almost -to cast the atrocities of Lauderdale into the shade. It was his custom -to have the prisoners for religion so tortured in the Privy Council, -that even the old hardened courtiers who had witnessed the merciless -doings of Lauderdale and Middleton, escaped from the board as soon as -the iron boots were introduced. But James not only seemed to enjoy the -agonies of the sentenced with a peculiar satisfaction, but he made an -order that the whole of the Privy Council should remain during these -more than inquisitorial horrors. He was thus employing himself, when he -was summoned to England by Charles, who assured him that he should be -allowed soon to return permanently, on condition that he made over part -of his Parliamentary allowance to the French mistress, the Duchess of -Portsmouth. - -[Illustration: ESCAPE OF ARGYLL. (_See p._ 272.)] - -The duke being allowed to return, and being restored to the office of -Lord High Admiral, and lodged in St. James's Palace, Monmouth, who had -been assured that James should be retained in Scotland, also returned -from abroad, in spite of the positive command of the king. On the -Duke of York's return, the Tories, who regarded it as a proof of the -ascendency of their principles, framed an address of congratulation, -and of abhorrence of Shaftesbury's scheme of Association. When Monmouth -arrived, the Whig party received him with still more boisterous -enthusiasm. The City was in a turmoil of delight, but in the blaze of -his popularity, Monmouth, conceiving that the Whig influence was on the -decline, endeavoured to follow the example of Sunderland, who had made -his peace with the king, and the Duke was readmitted to the Cabinet. -But Monmouth was too narrowly watched, and though he had sent offers -of reconciliation through his wife, the reproaches of Shaftesbury, -Russell, and his other partisans, made him draw back, and under -pretence of paying a visit to the Earl of Macclesfield, he set out, as -in 1680, on a tour through the provinces. - -Nothing could exceed Monmouth's folly in this progress. Had he been the -undoubted heir apparent to the crown, he could not have assumed more -airs of royalty; and at a moment when the eyes of both the king and -James were following him with jealous vigilance, this folly was the -more egregious. Wherever he came he was met by the nobles and great -landowners at the head of their tenantry, most of whom were armed, and -conducted in royal state to their houses. He was thus received by the -Lords Macclesfield, Brandon, Rivers, Colchester, Delamere, and Grey, as -well as by the leading gentry. He travelled attended by a hundred men -on horseback, one half of whom preceded, and the other followed him. -As he approached a town, he quitted his coach and mounted his horse, -on which he rode alone in the centre of the procession. On entering -the town, the nobles, gentry, and city officials took their places in -front, the tenantry and common people fell in behind, shouting, "A -Monmouth! a Monmouth! and no York!" Wherever he dined he ordered two -hundred covers to be laid for the guests, and the people, conducted -by proper officers, passed through the room in at one door and out at -another, in order to see him, as if he were a king. At Liverpool he -did not hesitate to touch for the king's evil. Wherever there were -fairs, races, or other public assemblies, he was sure to appear, and -ingratiate himself with the populace, not only by his flattering bows -and smiles, but by entering into their sports. He was a man of amazing -agility, and ran races on foot with the most celebrated pedestrians, -and after beating them in his shoes, he would run again in his boots -against them in their shoes, and win still. The prizes that he thus -gained he gave away at christenings in the evening. - -Whilst he was thus exciting the wonder of the common people by his -popular acts, accomplishments, and condescensions, the spies of -Chiffinch, his father's old agent for secret purposes, were constantly -around him, and sent up hourly reports to Court. Jeffreys, who was now -Chief Justice of Chester, and himself addicted to much low company, -buffoonery, and drunkenness off the bench, and the wildest and most -insulting conduct upon it, seized the opportunity of some slight -disturbances, which occurred during Monmouth's stay there, to win -favour with the Duke of York, by taking into custody and punishing -some of his followers. At Stafford Monmouth had engaged to dine in -the public streets with the whole population; but as he was walking -towards the appointed place, a king's messenger appeared, and arrested -him on a charge of "passing through the kingdom with multitudes of -riotous people, to the disturbance of the peace and the terror of the -king's subjects." Shaftesbury was not there, or Monmouth might have -been advised to throw himself on the protection of the people, and the -rebellion which he stirred up a few years later might have occurred -then, for Shaftesbury was now advising all the leaders of his party to -rise; but Monmouth surrendered without resistance, and was conveyed -to the capital, where he was admitted to bail himself in a bond of -ten thousand pounds, and his sureties in two thousand pounds each. -The king, with that affection which he always showed for this vain -and foolish young man, appeared satisfied with having cut short his -mock-heroic progress. - -But though the British Absalom for the present escaped thus easily, -the war of royalty and reassured Toryism on the long triumphant Whigs -was beginning in earnest. Shaftesbury, since his discharge from the -Tower, had seen with terror the rapid rising of the Tory influence, the -vindictive addresses from every part of the country against him, and -the undisguised cry of passive obedience. The circumstances seemed not -only to irritate his temper, but to have destroyed the cool steadiness -of his judgment. He felt assured that it would not be long before he -would be singled out for royal vengeance; and he busied himself with -his subordinate agents in planning schemes for raising the country. -These agents and associates were Walcot, formerly an officer under the -Commonwealth in the Irish army; Rumsey, another military adventurer, -who had been in the war in Portugal; Ferguson, a Scottish minister, who -deemed both the king and the duke apostates and tyrants, to be got rid -of by almost any means; and West, a lawyer. These men had their agents -and associates of the like views, and they assured Shaftesbury they -could raise the City at any time. - -But the tug of war was actually beginning between the Court and the -City, and the prospect was so little flattering to the City, that -Halifax said there would soon be hanging, and Shaftesbury even thought -of attempting a reconciliation with the duke. He made an overture, to -which James replied, that though Lord Shaftesbury had been the most -bitter of his enemies, all his offences should be forgotten whenever -he became a dutiful subject of his Majesty. But second thoughts did -not encourage Shaftesbury to trust to the smooth speech of the man who -never forgot or forgave. - -So long as the Whigs were in the ascendant, their sheriffs could secure -juries to condemn their opponents and save their friends. Charles -and James determined, whilst the Tory feeling ran so high, to force -the government of the City from the Whigs, and to hold the power in -their own hands. Sir John Moore, the then Lord Mayor, was brought -over to their interest, and they availed themselves of an old but -disused custom to get sheriffs nominated to their own minds. Thus the -Government had a complete triumph in the City; and they pursued their -advantage. A prosecution was commenced against Pilkington, one of -the late sheriffs, who in his vexation unguardedly said, "The Duke of -York fired the City at the burning of London, and now he is coming to -cut our throats." Damages were laid at one hundred thousand pounds, -and awarded by a jury at Hertford. Pilkington, whose sentence amounted -to imprisonment for life, and Shute, his late colleague, Sir Patience -Ward, Cornel, Ford, Lord Grey, and others were tried, Ward for perjury, -the rest for riot and assault on the Lord Mayor, and convicted. In all -these proceedings Mr. Serjeant Jeffreys was an active instrument to -promote the Government objects. - -But these triumphs were only temporary. The Court determined to -establish a permanent power over the City. It therefore proceeded -by a writ of _quo warranto_ to deprive the City of its franchise. -The case was tried before Sir Edward Sanders and the other judges -of the King's Bench. The Attorney-General pleaded that the City had -perpetrated two illegal acts--they had imposed an arbitrary tax on -merchandise brought into the public market, and had accused the king, -by adjourning Parliament, of having interrupted the necessary business -of the nation. After much contention and delay, in the hope that the -City would voluntarily lay itself at the feet of the monarch, judgment -was pronounced that "the City of London should be taken and seized with -the king's hands." When the authorities prayed the non-carrying out of -the sentence, the Lord Chancellor North candidly avowed the real object -of the proceeding,--that the king was resolved to put an end to the -opposition of the City, by having a veto on the appointment of the Lord -Mayor and sheriffs; that he did not wish to interfere in their affairs -or liberties further, but this power he was determined to possess, -and therefore the judgment was confirmed June 20th, 1683, and London -was reduced to an absolute slavery to the king's will. It was equally -determined to proceed by the same means of a _quo warranto_ to suppress -the charters of the other corporations in the kingdom. - -Shaftesbury had seen the progress of this enormous change with the -deepest alarm. He retired to his house in Aldersgate Street, and not -feeling himself secure there, hid himself successively in different -parts of the City, striving, through his agents, to move Monmouth, -Essex, and Grey to rise, and break this progress of despotism. He -boasted that he had ten thousand link-boys yet in the City, who would -rise at the lifting of his finger. It was proposed by Monmouth that -he should engage the Lords Macclesfield, Brandon, and Delamere to -rise in Cheshire and Lancashire. Lord William Russell corresponded -with Sir Francis Drake in the west of England, Trenchard engaged to -raise the people of Taunton. But Monmouth had more than half betrayed -the scheme to the king, and the progress of events in the City grew -formidable. Shaftesbury was struck with despair, and fled in November, -1682. He escaped to Harwich in the guise of a Presbyterian minister, -and got thence over to Holland. He took up his residence at Amsterdam, -where he was visited by Oates and Waller; but his mortification at the -failure of his grand scheme of "walking the king leisurely out of his -dominions, and making the Duke of York a vagabond like Cain on the face -of the earth," broke his spirits and his constitution. The gout fixed -itself in his stomach, and on the 21st of January, 1683, he expired, -only two months after his quitting England. - -The fall of this extraordinary man and of his cause is a grand lesson -in history. His cause was the best in the world--that of maintaining -the liberties of England against the designs of one of the most -profligate and despotic Courts that ever existed. But by following -crooked by-paths and dishonest schemes, and by employing the most -villainous of mankind for accomplishing his object, he ruined it. Had -he and his fellows, who had more or less of genuine patriotism in them, -combined to rouse their country by high, direct, and honourable means, -they would have won the confidence of their country, and saved it, or -have perished with honour. As it was, the great national achievement -was reserved for others. - -The flight and death of Shaftesbury struck terror into the Whig party. -Many gave up the cause in despair; others of a timid nature went over -to the enemy, and others, spurred on by their indignation, rushed -forward into more rash and fatal projects; and at this moment one of -the extraordinary revelations took place which rapidly brought to -the gallows and the block nearly the whole of Shaftesbury's agents, -coadjutors, and colleagues, including Lord William Russell and Algernon -Sidney. - -We have seen that Shaftesbury and his party had been seriously -contemplating an insurrection to compel Charles to adopt measures for -securing a Protestant succession which they could not persuade him -to, and that the efforts of the arch-agitator and his agents, West, -Ferguson, Rouse, Rumsey, Walcot, and others, to excite the nobles of -the Whig party to action, had proved abortive and induced Shaftesbury -to fly. Unfortunately, the royal party being now in the full tide of -retribution, the more contemptible portion of those who had been most -active in carrying on the Whig aggressions began to consider what -was to be gained by betraying their associates. On the 1st of June a -Scotsman was arrested on suspicion at Newcastle, and on him was found -a letter, which indicated agreement between the Opposition parties in -Scotland and England. A quick inquiry was set on foot after further -traces of the alarming facts; and on the 12th, the very day on which -judgment was pronounced against the City, Josiah Keeling, a man who had -been extremely prominent in the late contests about the sheriffs, and -who had displayed his zeal by actually laying hands on the Lord Mayor -Moore, for his support of the Government, now waited on Lord Dartmouth, -the Duke of York's close friend, and informed him of particulars of -the late schemes, as if they were yet actively in operation against -the king's life. Dartmouth took the informer to Sir Leoline Jenkins, -Secretary of State, who had been extremely active in the proceedings -against the City. The story which Keeling laid before Sir Leoline was -to the following appalling purport:--That in the month of March last, -when the king and Duke of York were about to proceed to Newmarket, to -the races, Goodenough, the late Under Sheriff, one of Shaftesbury's -most busy men in the City, lamenting the slavery to which the City was -fast being reduced, asked him how many men he could engage to kill the -king and the duke too; that he had repeated the same question to him -whilst the king and the duke were there; and that he then consented to -join the plot, and to endeavour to procure accomplices. Accordingly, -he engaged Burton, a cheesemonger, Thompson, a carver, and Barber, an -instrument-maker of Wapping. They then met with one Rumbold, a maltster -at the "Mitre" Tavern, without Aldgate, where it was settled to go down -to a house that Rumbold had, called the Rye House, on the River Lea, -near Hoddesdon, in Hertfordshire, and there execute their design. This -house lay conveniently by the wayside, and a number of men concealed -under a fence could easily shoot down the king's postilion and horses, -and then kill him and the duke, and the four guards with them. If they -failed to stop the carriage, a man placed with a cart and horse in a -cross lane a few paces farther on was to run his horse and cart athwart -the road, and there stop it, till they had completed their design. -From this circumstance the plot obtained the name of the Rye House Plot. - -At a subsequent meeting at the "Dolphin," behind the Exchange, there -was a disagreement as to the time when the king would return, and thus -they missed the opportunity, for Rumbold, who went down, said the king -and duke passed the place with only five Life-Guards. Various other -plans were then laid--one to cut off the king between Windsor and -Hampton Court. - -Secretary Jenkins, after listening to this recital, told Keeling that -it would require another witness to establish a charge of treason -against the conspirators, and Keeling fetched his brother John, who -swore with him to these and many other particulars--namely, that -Goodenough had organised a plan for raising twenty districts in the -City, and that twenty thousand pounds were to be distributed amongst -the twenty managers of these districts; that the Duke of Monmouth was -to head the insurrection, a person called the colonel was to furnish -one thousand pounds, and different men in different parts of the -country were to raise their own neighbourhoods; that the murder was -now to come off at the next bull-feast in Red Lion Fields. Two days -afterwards they added that Goodenough had informed them that Lord -William Russell would enter heart and soul into the design of killing -the king and the Duke of York. - -A proclamation was immediately issued for the arrest of Rumbold, -Colonel Rumsey, Walcot, Wade, Nelthorp, Thompson, Burton, and Hone; but -it was supposed that John Keeling, who had been reluctantly dragged -into the affair by Josiah, had given them warning, and they had all -got out of the way. Barber, the instrument-maker of Wapping, however, -was taken, and declared that he had never understood that the design -was against the king, but only against the duke. West soon surrendered -himself, and, in hope of pardon, gave most extensive evidence against -Ferguson and a dozen others; like Oates and Bedloe, continually -adding fresh facts and dragging in fresh people. He said Ferguson had -brought money to buy arms; that Wildman had been furnished with means -to buy arms; that Lord Howard of Escrick had gone deeply into it; -that Algernon Sidney and Wildman were in close correspondence with -the conspirators in Scotland; that at meetings held at the "Devil -Tavern," it was projected to shoot the king in a narrow street as he -was returning from the theatre; that they had hinted something of their -design to the Duke of Monmouth, but not the killing part of it, but -that he had sternly replied they must look on him as a son; and then -the relations of this wretched turncoat lawyer assumed all the wildness -of a Bluebeard story. Ferguson would hear of nothing but killing. The -new Lord Mayor, the new sheriffs Rich and North, were to be killed, and -their skins stuffed and hung up in Guildhall; the judges were to be -flayed, too, and their skins suspended in Westminster Hall and other -great traitors were to have their skins hung up in the Parliament House. - -[Illustration: THE RYE HOUSE.] - -Next, Rumsey turned informer, and, improving as he went on, he also -accused Lord William Russell, Mr. Trenchard, Roe, the Sword-Bearer of -Bristol, the Duke of Monmouth, Sir Thomas Armstrong, Lord Grey, and -Ferguson. He had, he said, met most of these persons at Shepherd's, -a wine-merchant, near Lombard Street, and nothing less was intended -by most of them than killing the king and his brother. Trenchard -had promised a thousand foot and three hundred horse in the West, -and Ferguson had engaged to raise twelve hundred Scots who had -fled to England after the battle of Bothwell Bridge. Shepherd, the -wine-merchant, was called, and said that Shaftesbury, before going -to Holland, the Duke of Monmouth, Lords William Russell and Grey, -Armstrong, Rumsey, and Ferguson had met at his house, and, he was -informed, had talked about securing his Majesty's Guards, and had -walked about the Court end of the town at night, and reported a very -remiss state of the Guards on duty. He added that as the design had not -obtained sufficient support, so far as he knew, it was laid aside. - -On the 26th of June a proclamation was issued for the apprehension of -Monmouth, Grey, Russell, Armstrong, Walcot, and others. Monmouth, Grey, -Armstrong, and Ferguson escaped; Lord William Russell, Sidney, Essex, -Wildman, Howard of Escrick, Walcot, and others were taken, then or soon -after. Russell was the first secured. He was found quietly seated in -his library, and though the messengers had walked to and fro for some -time before his door, as if wishing him to get away, he took no steps -towards it, but as soon as the officer had shown his warrant, he went -with him as though he had been backed by a troop. When examined before -the Council, he is said, even by his own party, to have made but a -feeble defence. He admitted having been at Shepherd's, but only to buy -wines. He understood that some of those whom he had seen there were a -crowd of dangerous designers; he should not, therefore, mention them, -but only the Duke of Monmouth, against whom there could be no such -charge. He denied that he had heard there anything about a rising in -the West or in Scotland, but only that in the latter country there were -many people in distress, ministers and others, whom it would be a great -charity to relieve. He was committed to the Tower, and on entering it -he said he was sworn against, and they would have his life. His servant -replied that he hoped matters were not so bad as that, but he rejoined, -"Yes! the devil is loose!" He saw the course things were taking; the -spirit that was in the ascendant; he knew that he had entered into -revolutionary schemes sufficiently for his condemnation, and that the -Duke of York, who had an old hatred for him, would never let him escape. - -Lord Howard was one of the last arrested. He went about after the -arrest of several of the others, declaring that there really was no -plot; that he knew of none; yet after that it is asserted, and strong -evidence adduced for it, that to save his own life he had made several -offers to the Court to betray his kinsman Russell. Four days before -Russell's trial, a serjeant-at-arms, attended by a troop of horse, -was sent to Howard's house at Knightsbridge, and after a long search -discovered him in his shirt in the chimney of his room. His conduct -when taken was most cowardly and despicable, and fully justified -the character that he had of being one of the most perfidious and -base of men. He wept, trembled, and entreated, and begging a private -interview with the king and duke, he betrayed his associates to save -himself. Russell had always had a horror and suspicion of him, but -he had managed to captivate Sidney by his vehement professions of -Republicanism, and by Sidney and Essex he had been induced to tolerate -the traitor. The Earl of Essex was taken at his house at Cassiobury, -and was escorted to town by a party of horse. He might have escaped -through the assistance of his friends, but he deemed that his flight -would tend to condemn his friend Russell, and he refused. - -He was a man of a melancholy temperament, but he bore up bravely -till he was shut up in the Tower, in the same cell where his wife's -grandfather, the Earl of Northumberland, in the reign of Elizabeth, -had died by his own hands or those of an assassin, and from which -his father, the Lord Capel, had been led to execution under the -Commonwealth. He now became greatly depressed. The rest of the -prisoners--Sidney, Hampden, Armstrong, Baillie of Jerviswood, and -others, both Scottish and English--displayed the most firm bearing -before the Council, and refused to answer the questions put to -them. Sidney told the king and his ministers that if they wished to -incriminate him, it was not from himself that they would get their -information. - -Lord William Russell was brought to trial on the 13th of July, at the -Old Bailey. He was charged with conspiring the death of the king, and -consulting to levy war upon him. Intense interest was attached to -this trial, in consequence of the high character of the prisoner, and -because it must decide how far the Whig leaders were concerned in the -designs of lower conspirators. He requested a delay till afternoon -or next morning, because material witnesses had not arrived, but the -Attorney-General, Sir Robert Sawyer, replied, "You would not have given -the king an hour's notice for saving his life; the trial must proceed." -He then requested the use of pen, ink, and paper, and for permission -to avail himself of the documents he had with him. These requests were -granted, and he then asked for some one to help him to take notes; -and the court replied that he might have the service of any of his -servants for that purpose. "My lord," said Russell, addressing Chief -Justice Pemberton, "my wife is here to do it." This observation, and -the lady herself then rising up to place herself at her husband's side -to perform this office, produced a lively sensation in the crowd of -spectators. The daughter of the excellent and popular Lord Southampton -thus devoting herself to assist her husband in his last extremity, was -an incident not likely to lose its effect on the mind of Englishmen, -and the image - - "Of that sweet saint who sat by Russell's side" - -has ever since formed a favourite theme for the painter and the poet. - -The witnesses first produced against him were Rumsey and Shepherd. -Rumsey deposed that the prisoner had attended a meeting at Shepherd's -for concerting a plan to surprise the king's Guards at the Savoy and -the Mews, and Shepherd confirmed this evidence. Russell admitted the -being at Shepherd's, and meeting the persons alleged, but denied the -object stated so far as he himself was concerned, or so far as he had -heard or understood. The last and most infamous witness was Lord Howard -of Escrick, a man of ability and address, but a thorough profligate, -and generally despised, and by Russell himself long suspected. Yet even -he seemed to feel the infamy of his position, and to give his evidence -with shame. Whilst in the midst of it, the Court was electrified by the -news that the Earl of Essex had that moment committed suicide in his -cell. He had called for a razor, shut himself up in a closet, and cut -his throat so effectually that he had nearly severed his head from his -body. When the news, however, reached the court of the Old Bailey, the -sensation was intense. The witness himself was greatly agitated by it, -and Jeffreys, who was counsel for the Crown, seized upon it to damage -the cause of the prisoner at the bar. He argued that the very act -showed the conscious guilt of Essex, who had been constantly mixed up -in the proceedings of Russell. - -Howard swore that he had heard from Monmouth, Walcot, and others, that -Russell had been deeply concerned with the conspirators, and especially -their head, Lord Shaftesbury. He alleged that Russell had taken part in -two discussions at Hampden's, where they had arranged the treasonable -correspondence with the Earl of Argyll and his adherents in Scotland; -and was aware of the agent, one Aaron Smith, being sent to Scotland -for the purpose of organising their co-operation. Being pressed to say -whether Lord William took an active part in these discussions, he did -not plainly assert that he did, as he said he was well known to be -cautious and reserved in his discourse, but that all was understood, -and he appeared to consent to everything. Russell admitted having been -at those meetings, but again denied any knowledge of any such designs, -and declared that Lord Howard's evidence was mere hearsay evidence, -and of no legal weight whatever; and that, moreover, Howard had -positively declared repeatedly that there was no plot, and had sworn to -his (Russell's) innocence. On this Howard was recalled, and explained -that it was before his arrest that he had ridiculed and denied the -plot--which, under the circumstances, was natural enough--and he had -sworn to Lord William's innocence only as far as regarded a design -of assassination of the king and duke, but not as regarded his -participation in the general plot. West and the serjeant-at-arms, who -had the Scottish prisoners in custody, were also called to prove the -reality of the plot, and of their looking chiefly to Lord William -Russell to head it. - -On his part the prisoner contended that none of the witnesses were to -be relied on, because they were swearing against him in order to save -their own lives. He also argued that, according to the statute of 25 -Edward III., the statute decided not the design to levy war, but the -overt act, to constitute treason. But the Attorney-General replied that -not only to levy war, but to conspire to levy war against the king, to -kill, depose, or constrain him, was treason by the statute. Before the -jury retired, Russell addressed them, saying, "Gentlemen, I am now in -your hands eternally; my honour, my life, and all; and I hope the heats -and animosities that are amongst you will not so bias you as to make -you in the least inclined to find an innocent man guilty. I call heaven -and earth to witness that I never had a design against the king's -life. I am in your hands, so God direct you." They returned a verdict -of guilty, and Treby, the Recorder of London, who had been an active -Exclusionist, pronounced the sentence of death. In spite of the efforts -of his relatives, the sentence was carried out on the 21st of July, -1683. - -On the day of Lord William Russell's death, the University of Oxford -marked the epoch by one of those rampant assertions of Toryism which -have too often disgraced that seat of learning. It published a -"Judgment and Declaration," as passed in their Convocation, for the -honour of the holy and undivided Trinity, the preservation of Catholic -truth in the Church, and that the king's majesty might be secured -both from the attempts of open bloody enemies and the machinations of -treacherous heretics and schismatics. In this declaration they attacked -almost every principle of civil and religious liberty, which had been -promulgated and advocated in the works of Milton, Baxter, Bellarmin, -Owen, Knox, Buchanan, and others. They declared that the doctrines of -the civil authority being derived from the people; of there existing -any compact, tacit or expressed, between the prince and his subjects -from the obligation of which, should one party retreat, the other -becomes exempt; of the sovereign forfeiting his right to govern if he -violate the limitations established by the laws of God and man, were -all wicked, abominate, and devilish doctrines, deserving of everlasting -reprobation. And they called upon "All and singular the readers, -tutors, and catechists, diligently to instruct and ground their -scholars in that most necessary doctrine, which in a manner is the -badge and character of the Church of England, of submitting to every -ordinance of man for the Lord's sake, teaching that this submission and -obedience is to be clear, absolute, and without exception of any state -or order of men." This doctrine of slaves, which Oxford would have -fixed on the nation as the badge of Englishmen, they were in a very few -years, under James, taught the practical blessing of. They had, when -their turn came, quickly enough of it, flung the badge to the winds, -and made a present of their plate to the Dutch prince, who came to -drive their sovereign from the throne. - -Before the trial of Algernon Sidney took place, Sir George Jeffreys -was made Lord Chief Justice in place of Sanders, who was incapacitated -by sickness. Before this alternately laughing and blackguarding demon -Algernon Sidney, the last of the republicans, was arraigned at the bar -of the King's Bench on the 7th of September, 1683. Rumsey, Keeling, and -West were brought against him, as against Russell, but the main witness -was the despicable Lord Howard, whom Evelyn truly calls, "That monster -of a man, Lord Howard of Escrick." On their evidence he was charged -with being a member of the Council of six, sworn to kill the king and -overturn his Government; with having attended at those meetings already -mentioned at Hampden's, Russell's, and Shepherd's; and with having -undertaken to send Aaron Smith to Scotland, to concert a simultaneous -insurrection, and to persuade the leading Scottish conspirators to come -to London, on pretence of proceeding to Carolina. - -Sidney, after Howard had delivered his evidence, was asked if he had -any questions to put to the witness, but he replied with the utmost -scorn, that "he had no questions to ask such as him!" "Then," said the -Attorney-General, "silence--you know the rest of the proverb." The -difficulty remained to prove Sidney's treason, for there were no two -witnesses able or willing to attest an overt act. But if it depended -on the existence of fact, there was not one of the Council of six who -was not guilty of really conspiring to drive out the next successor -to the Crown. Neither Russell, nor Hampden, nor Sidney, though they -laboured in self-defence to prove the plot improbable, ever really -denied its existence. They knew that it did exist, and were too honest -to deny it, though they notoriously sought to evade the penalty of it, -by contending that nothing of the kind was or could be proved. But -what said Hampden himself after the Revolution, before a committee -of the House of Lords? Plainly, "that the coming into England of King -William was nothing else but the continuation of the Council of Six." -The conspiracy by that time was become in the eyes of the Government -no longer a crime, but a meritorious fact. The injustice thus done to -these patriots was not that they had not committed treason against the -existing Government, but that they were condemned on discreditable and -insufficient evidence. When men conspire to get rid of a tyrannous -government by force, they commit what is legally rendered treason, and -must take the consequence, if detected by the ruling powers. But that -circumstance does not render the attempt less meritorious, and if it -succeeds they have their reward. In this case the prisoners knew very -well that if their real doings could be proved against them, they must -fall by the resentment of those whom they sought to get rid of; but -they resisted, and justly, being condemned on the evidence of traitors -like Lord Howard, and even then by evidence less than the law required. - -To make out the two necessary witnesses in this case, the -Attorney-General brought forward several persons to prove that the -Scottish agents of conspiracy for whom Sidney had sent had actually -arrived in London; but he relied much more on a manuscript pamphlet -which was found in Sidney's desk when he was arrested. This pamphlet -appeared to be an answer to Filmer's book, which argued that possession -was the only right to power. Three persons were called to swear that -it was in Sidney's handwriting; but the chief of these was the same -perfidious Shepherd, the wine-merchant, who had so scandalously -betrayed his party. He had seen Sidney sign several endorsements, and -believed this to be his writing. A second, who had seen him write -once, and a third, who had not seen him write at all, but had seen his -hand on some bills, thought it like his writing. This was by no means -conclusive, but that did not trouble the Court; it went on to read -passages in order to show the treasonableness of the manuscript, and -then it was adroitly handed to the prisoner on the plea of enabling -him to show any reasons for its being deemed harmless; but Sidney was -not caught by so palpable a trick. He put back the book as a thing -that no way concerned him. On this Jeffreys turned over the leaves, -and remarked, "I perceive you have arranged your matter under certain -heads; so, what heads will you have read?" Sidney replied that the man -who wrote it might speak to that; and asked with indignation whether -a paper found in his study against Nero and Caligula would prove that -he had conspired against Charles II.? What credit, he asked, was due to -such a man as Lord Howard, who had betrayed every one that had anything -to do with him, and had said that he could not get his pardon till the -drudgery of swearing was over? He contended that Howard was his debtor, -that he had a mortgage on his estate, and to get rid of repayment was -now seeking his life. He commented on the oldness of the work in the -manuscript, and asked the Attorney-General how many years the book of -Filmer's, which it replied to, had been written. Jeffreys told him -they had nothing to do with Filmer's book; the question was, would he -acknowledge the authorship of the pamphlet? Sidney replied, "No;" that -it was neither proved to be his, nor contained any treason if it had -been. - -[Illustration: TRIAL OF LORD WILLIAM RUSSELL. (_See p._ 278.) - -(_After the Picture by Sir George Hayter._)] - -Jeffreys, after a parade of humanity, declaring that the king desired -not to take away any man's life which was not clearly forfeited to -the law, but had rather that many guilty men should escape than one -innocent man suffer, concluded, nevertheless, by telling the jury that -_scribere est agere_--that they had evidence enough before them, and -they, accordingly, brought in a verdict of guilty. - -When the prisoner was brought up on the 26th of November to receive -sentence, he pleaded in arrest of judgment that he had had no trial, -that some of his jurors were not freeholders, and that his challenges -had not been complied with; yet he seems to have exercised that right -to a great extent, for the panel contains the names of eighty-nine -persons, of whom fifty-five were challenged, absent, or excused. As -jurymen, however, then were summoned, there might still be much truth -in his plea. He objected, too, that there was a material flaw in the -indictment, the words in the king's title--Defender of the Faith--being -left out. "But," exclaimed Jeffreys, "that you would deprive the king -of his life, that is in very full, I think." But this plea had a -certain effect, and a Mr. Bampfield, a barrister, contended that the -judgment should not be proceeded with whilst there was so material a -defect in the indictment. Sidney also insisted that there was no proof -of the manuscript being his, or of its being treason, and demanded that -the Duke of Monmouth should be summoned, as he could not be earlier -found, and now was at hand. But Jeffreys overruled all his pleadings, -and declared that there was nothing further to do than to pass -sentence. "I must appeal to God and the world that I am not heard," -said Sidney. "Appeal to whom you will," retorted Jeffreys, brutally, -and with many terms of crimination and abuse, passed on him sentence -of death with all its butcheries. On the 7th of December he was led to -execution. - -A very different man at this epoch obtained his pardon, and played -a very different part. The weak, impulsive, ambitious, and yet -vacillating Monmouth was by means of Halifax reconciled to his father. -Halifax, who was known as a minister by the name of the Trimmer, though -he had aided the Tories in gaining the ascendant, no sooner saw the -lengths at which they were driving, than he began to incline to the -other side. His tendency was always to trim the balance. When the Whigs -were in the ascendant he was a decided Tory; he did his best to throw -out the Exclusion Bill, and when it was thrown out he was one of the -first to advocate measures for preventing the mischiefs of a Popish -succession. His genius was not to stimulate some great principle, -and bear it on in triumph, but to keep the prevailing crisis from -running into extravagance. He was, like Danby, an enemy to the French -alliance; he loathed the doctrine of passive obedience; he was opposed -to long absence of Parliaments; he dared to intercede for Russell and -Sidney, when the Tory faction were demanding their blood; he saw the -undue influence that the Duke of York had acquired by the late triumph -over the Whigs, and he began to patronise Monmouth as a counterpoise; -he wrote some letters for Monmouth, professing great penitence, and -Monmouth copied and sent them, and the king at once relented. On the -25th of October Charles received him at the house of Major Long, in the -City; and though he assumed an air of displeasure, and upbraided him -with the heinous nature of his crimes, he added words which showed that -he meant to forgive. On the 4th of November there was another private -interview, and Halifax laboured hard to remove all difficulties. The -king offered him full forgiveness, but on condition that he submitted -himself entirely to his pleasure. On the 24th of November he threw -himself at the feet of the king and the Duke of York, and implored -their forgiveness, promising to be the first man, in case of the king's -death, to draw the sword for the maintenance of the duke's claims. -The duke had been prepared beforehand for this scene, and accorded -apparently his forgiveness. But Monmouth was then weak enough to be -induced to confirm the testimony of Lord Howard against his late -associates, and to reveal the particulars of their negotiations with -Argyll in Scotland. This he did under solemn assurances that all should -remain secret, and nothing should be done which should humiliate him. -Having done this, his outlawry was reversed, a full pardon formally -drawn, and a present of six thousand pounds was made him by the king to -start afresh with. - -No sooner, however, was this done than he saw with consternation his -submission and confession published in the _Gazette_. He denied that -he had revealed anything to the king which confirmed the sentences -lately passed on Russell and Sidney. The king was enraged, and insisted -that he should in writing contradict these assertions. He was again -cowardly enough to comply, and immediately being assailed by the -reproaches of his late friends, and especially of Hampden, whose turn -was approaching, and who said that Monmouth had sealed his doom, he -hastened to Charles, and in great excitement and distress demanded back -his letter. Charles assured him that it should never be produced in -any court as evidence against the prisoners, and advised him to take -some time to reflect on the consequences to himself of the withdrawal. -But next morning, the 7th of December, renewing his entreaty for the -letter, it was returned him in exchange for a less decisive statement, -and Charles bade him never come into his presence again. He then -retired to his seat in the country, and once more offered to sign a -paper as strong as the last. Even Charles felt the infamy of this -proceeding, and refused the offer. - -But still it was determined to make use of him, and he was subpœnaed -to give evidence on the approaching trial of Hampden. He pleaded -the promise that his confession should not be used against the -prisoners, but he was told that he had cancelled that obligation by -his subsequently withdrawing his letter. Seeing by this that he would -be dragged before a public court to play the disgraceful part of Lord -Howard, he suddenly disappeared from his house in Holborn, and escaped -to Holland, where he was well received by Prince William, who was now -the grand refuge of English and Scottish refugees of all parties and -politics. As Monmouth's escape deprived the court of his evidence, and -only one main witness, Lord Howard, could be obtained, the charge of -high treason was abandoned, and that of a misdemeanour was substituted. -Howard was the chief witness, and Hampden was found guilty and punished -by a fine of forty thousand pounds, and imprisoned till paid, besides -having to find two securities for his good behaviour during life. When -he complained of the severity of the sentence, which was equivalent to -imprisonment during the life of his father, he was reminded that his -crime really amounted to treason, and therefore was very mild. - -On the return of the Duke of York to Scotland, the persecutions of the -defeated Covenanters had been renewed there with a fury and diabolical -ferocity which has scarcely a parallel in history. Wives were tortured -for refusing to betray their husbands, children because they would not -discover their parents. People were tortured and then hanged merely -because they would not say that the insurrection there was a rebellion, -or the killing of Archbishop Sharp was a murder. The fortress of the -Bass Rock, Dumbarton Castle, and other strongholds were crammed with -Covenanters and Cameronians. Witnesses, a thing unheard of before, -were now tortured. "This," says Sir John Lauder of Fountainhall, -"was agreeable to the Roman law, but not to ours; it was a barbarous -practice, but yet of late frequently used amongst us." He also informs -us that Generals Dalziel and Drummond had imported thumbscrews from -Russia, where they had seen them used, by which they crushed the thumbs -of prisoners to compel them to confess. All the laws of evidence -were thrown aside, and the accused were condemned on presumptive -evidence. On such testimony the property of numbers was forfeited, and -the notorious Graham of Claverhouse was enriched by the estate of a -suspected Covenanter. - -By these torrents of blood, these diabolical engines of iron boots, -thumbscrews, and other tortures; by witnesses forced to implicate their -neighbours, and a herd of vile caitiffs brought forward to swear away -the lives and fortunes of every man who dared to entertain, though he -scarcely ventured to avow, a free opinion; by the Church preaching -passive obedience; by servile, bullying, and brutal judges; Charles had -now completely subdued the spirit of the nation, and had, through the -aid of French money, obtained that absolute power which his father in -vain fought for. - -One of the first uses which he made of this beautiful tranquillity was -to destroy the ancient seminaries of freedom--the corporations of the -country. Writs of _quo warranto_ were issued, and the corporations, -like the nation at large, prostrate at the foot of the polluted -throne, were compelled by threats and promises to resign their ancient -privileges. "Neither," says Lingard, "had the boroughs much reason to -complain. By the renewal of their charters they lost no franchise -which it was reasonable they should retain; many acquired rights which -they did not previously possess; but individuals suffered, because the -exercise of authority was restricted to a smaller number of burgesses, -and these, according to custom, were in the first instance named by the -Crown." - -[Illustration: THE BASS ROCK.] - -There, indeed, lay the gist and mischief of the whole matter. Charles -cared little what other privileges they enjoyed so that he could -deprive them of their most important privilege--their independence, -and make them not only slavish institutions, but instruments for the -general enslavement of the country. "In the course of time," says the -same historian, "several boroughs, by the exercise of those exclusive -privileges, which had been conferred on them by ancient grants from -the Crown, had grown into nests or asylums of public malefactors, and -on that account were presented as nuisances by the grand juries of the -county assizes." This was a good reason why those "several boroughs" -should have been reformed; but none whatever why all boroughs should -be compelled to surrender their independence to a despotic monarch. -The great instrument in this sweeping usurpation was the Lord Chief -Justice Jeffreys, a man admirably calculated for the work by his -power of coaxing, jeering, browbeating, and terrifying the reluctant -corporations. Before he set out on his summer circuit this year, -Charles presented him with a ring from his own finger, as a mark of his -especial esteem, at the same time giving him a very necessary piece of -advice, Chief Justice as he was, to beware of drinking too much, as the -weather would be hot. The ring was called Jeffreys' bloodstone, being -presented to him just after the execution of Sir Thomas Armstrong. - -Though blood had ceased to flow, persecution of the Whigs had not -ceased. Sir Samuel Barnardiston, the foreman of the grand jury which -had ignored the Bill against Lord Shaftesbury, was not forgotten. He -was tried for a libel, and fined ten thousand pounds, and ordered -to find security for his good behaviour during life. Williams, the -Speaker of the House of Commons, was prosecuted for merely having -discharged the duties of his office, in signing the votes; Braddon -and Speke were tried and punished severely for slandering the king -and duke by charging them with the murder of Essex. And James now -indulged his spleen against Titus Oates for his proceedings against -the Catholics, and his endeavour to exclude James from the succession. -The pretence seized upon was, that Oates and Dutton Colt had declared -that the Duke of York was a traitor, and that before he should come -to the succession, he should be banished or hanged, the hanging being -the fitter. Jeffreys, who tried them, had a particular pleasure in -sentencing Oates, who, in the days of his popularity, had hit the -rascally lawyer hard. In 1680 Jeffreys had fallen under the censure -of Parliament for interfering in its concerns, and they had not only -brought him to his knees at their bar, but had compelled him to resign -the recordership of London. On the trial of College, the "Protestant -joiner," Oates had appealed to Jeffreys, then Serjeant Jeffreys, to -confirm a part of his evidence. Jeffreys indignantly said he did not -intend becoming evidence for a man like him; whereupon Oates coolly -replied, "I don't desire Sir George Jeffreys to become an evidence -for me; I have had credit in Parliaments, and Sir George had disgrace -in one of them." Jeffreys was stunned by this repartee, and merely -replied, "Your servant, doctor; you are a witty man and a philosopher." -But now the tide had turned; Jeffreys had the witty man at his mercy, -and he fined him and Colt one hundred thousand pounds, or imprisonment -till paid, which meant so long as they lived. - -Tardy justice was also done to the Catholic peers who were in the -Tower. Lord Stafford had fallen the victim of Protestant terrors -during the ascendency of the Whigs; Lord Petre died, worn out by his -confinement, but the Lords Powis, Arundel, and Bellasis, after lying in -durance vile for five years, were brought up by writ of Habeas corpus, -and were discharged on each entering into recognisances of ten thousand -pounds for himself, and five thousand pounds each for four sureties, to -appear at the bar of the House if called for. The judges, now that the -Duke of York, the Catholic prince, was in power, could admit that these -victims of a political faction "ought in justice and conscience to have -been admitted to bail long ago." Danby, too, was liberated on the same -terms, though he never could be forgiven by the king or duke for his -patronage of Oates, and his zeal in hunting out the plot. - -The influence of James was every day more manifest. Charles restored -James to his former status by placing him at the head of the Admiralty; -and, to avoid subjecting him to the penalties of the Test Act, himself -signed all the papers which required the signature of the Lord High -Admiral. Seeing that this was received with perfect complacency, he -went a step farther, and, in defiance of the Test Act, introduced James -again into the Council. This, indeed, excited some murmurs, even the -Tories being scandalised at his thus coolly setting aside an Act of -Parliament. - -No sooner was James reinstated in the Council, than he planned yet more -daring changes. Under the plea which he afterwards carried so far in -his own reign, of relieving the Dissenters, he sought to relieve the -Catholics from their penalties. What his regard was for the Dissenters -has been sufficiently shown by their cruel persecution in England, and -by his own especial oppression of the Covenanters in Scotland. - -One morning, however, Jeffreys, who had lately been admitted to the -Council, appeared at the board with an immense bundle of papers and -parchments, and informed the king that they were the rolls of the names -of the recusants that he had collected during his late circuit. He -declared that the gaols were crammed with them, and that their case -deserved the serious attention of the king. Lord Keeper North, who saw -instantly the drift of the motion, and who had a profound jealousy of -Jeffreys, who, he knew, was anxiously looking for the Seals, asked -whether all the names in the list belonged to persons who were in -prison? Jeffreys replied no, for the prisons could not hold all the -persons convicted of recusancy. North then observed, that besides -Catholics there were vast numbers of Nonconformists and other persons -included in those lists, who were professed enemies of the king, and of -Church and State, and that it would be far easier and safer to grant -particular pardons to Catholics, than thus at once to set at liberty -all the elements of commotion in the kingdom. The blow was struck. -Strong as was the Government then, it dared not give a measure of -exemption exclusively to the Catholics. The scheme, it was obviously -seen, was transparent, and there was a significant silence. Neither -Halifax, nor Rochester, nor the more Protestant members having occasion -to open their mouths, the Council passed to other business. - -But Halifax saw with alarm the advancing influence of the duke, and -trembled for his own hold of office, for the duke, he knew, hated -him mortally. He, therefore, as a certain resource against this -advancing power, advised Charles to call a Parliament, but that Charles -had resolved never to do. He still received a considerable sum from -Louis, though not so large in amount nor so regularly paid as when his -services were more needful; and to decrease his expenditure, he had, -during the last year, sent a squadron under Lord Dartmouth to destroy -the fortification of Tangier, which he had received as part of the -dowry of the queen. Had that Settlement been well managed, it would -have given England great advantages in the Mediterranean; but nothing -of that kind was well managed by this unpatriotic king. To spare the -expenditure necessary for its maintenance, he thus destroyed the -defences, and left the place to the Moors, to the great indignation of -Portugal, which thought rightly that, if he did not value it, he might -have restored it. - -Defeated in that quarter, Halifax next endeavoured to stop the -advancement of Lord Rochester. This was Lawrence Hyde, the second son -of the late Lord Chancellor Clarendon, and the especial favourite of -the duke. He had (in 1682) not only been created Earl of Rochester, -but made First Commissioner of the Treasury. Halifax beheld in his -rise an ominous competitor, especially as the duke was the mainspring -of his prosperity. He therefore accused Rochester of negligence or -embezzlement in his office, and succeeded in removing him (1684) from -the Treasury board to the Presidency of the Council. This Halifax -called kicking a man upstairs. Nor did Rochester's promotion end here. -He was soon after appointed to the government of Ireland, the old and -veteran colleague of Rochester's father, and the staunch champion of -Charles in the days of his adversity, being removed to make way for -him. The great object, however, was not simply Rochester's promotion, -but the organisation of a powerful Catholic army in Ireland, for which -it was deemed Ormond was not active enough, this army having reference -to James's views on England, which afterwards proved his ruin. - -By this appointment Rochester was removed from immediate rivalry with -Halifax; but sufficient elements of danger still surrounded that -minister. Halifax and his colleagues had succeeded in strengthening -the Protestant succession by the marriage of the second daughter of -the duke, Anne, to a Protestant prince; but even in this event the -influence of Louis had been active. Through the medium of Sunderland, -who continued in office, and maintained a close intimacy with the -French mistress, the Duchess of Portsmouth, Louis took care that, -though the nation would not tolerate any but a Protestant prince for -Anne's husband, it should be one of no great importance. George, Prince -of Hanover, afterwards George I., had been selected, and made a visit -to London, but returned without the princess. The fortune, it had been -suggested, was not enough for the penurious German; his father recalled -him to marry the Princess of Zell, a circumstance which Anne never -forgot or forgave. In the midst of the agitation of the Rye House Plot, -and but two days before the execution of Lord William Russell, another -wooer appeared in George, brother of the King of Denmark. This young -man also had the approbation of Louis, and the match took place a week -after his arrival. - -Still Halifax felt a growing insecurity in the royal favour. The -whole influence of the Duke of York was exerted to ruin him, and he -therefore determined once more to attempt to re-establish Monmouth in -the king's favour. This popular but weak young man was living in great -honour at the Court of the Prince of Orange. Many remonstrances had -been made by the Duke of York to his daughter and son-in-law, against -their encouragement of a son who had taken so determined a part both -against his own father, the king, and himself, their father. But the -prince and princess were well aware of Charles's affection for his -undutiful son, and therefore did not fear seriously offending him. -Under the management of Halifax, Van Citters, the Dutch ambassador in -London, went over to the Hague on pretence of negotiating some measure -of importance between the two countries. The Prince of Orange affected -to comply with the wishes of Charles for the removal of Monmouth. But -this nobleman, instead of taking up his residence at Brussels, as was -given out, suddenly returned to London privately, had an interview with -his father, and as suddenly returned to the Hague, saying that in three -months he should be publicly admitted at Court, and the Duke of York -be banished afresh. Charles, meantime, had proposed to James to go and -hold a Parliament in Scotland, as if conferring a mark of particular -honour and confidence on him. But the private visit of Monmouth had not -escaped James, nor the correspondence of Halifax with him, and this -caused a fresh energy of opposition to that minister to be infused -into the duke's creatures at Court. Halifax had recommended a most -enlightened measure to the king as regarded the American colonies, -which, had it been adopted, might have prevented their loss at a later -period. He represented that the grant of local legislatures to them -would be the best means of developing their resources, and governing -them in peace; but on this admirable suggestion the duke's partisans -seized as something especially anti-monarchical and injurious to the -power of the king. The duke, the Duchess of Portsmouth, and the Earl of -Sunderland re-echoed these opinions, and drew from Charles a promise -that unless Halifax retired of himself, he should be dismissed on the -first plausible occasion. The influence of the French king was also at -work to effect the overthrow of Halifax. It was in vain that Louis had -endeavoured to buy him as he had done the king, the duke, and the other -ministers; and as he could not be bought, the only alternative was -to drive him from office. He was feebly supported by the Lord Keeper -North; he was actively and zealously undermined by his colleagues, -Sunderland and Godolphin; but still Charles hesitated. He enjoyed the -wit and brilliant conversation of Halifax; he knew well his ability, -and, still more, he was in a most indolent and undecided frame of -mind. Macaulay has well described him at this moment:--"The event -depended wholly on the will of Charles, and Charles could not come to -a decision. In his perplexity he promised everything to everybody. -He would stand by France, he would break with France; he would never -meet another Parliament; he would order writs for a Parliament without -delay. He assured the Duke of York that Halifax should be dismissed -from office, and Halifax that the duke should be sent to Scotland. -In public he affected implacable resentment against Monmouth, and in -private conveyed to Monmouth assurances of unalterable affection. How -long, if the king's life had been protracted, his hesitation would have -lasted, and what would have been his resolve, can only be conjectured." - -But his time was come. It was not likely that a man who had led the -dissipated life that Charles had, would live to a very old age. He -was now in his fifty-fifth year, and the twenty-fifth of his reign, -that is, reckoning from the Restoration, and not from the death of -his father, as the Royalists, who would never admit that a king could -be unkinged, did. His health, or, more visibly, his spirits, had -lately much failed--no doubt the consequence of that giving way of -his debilitated system, which was soon to carry him off. His gaiety -had quite forsaken him; he was gloomy, depressed, finding no pleasure -in anything, and only at any degree of ease in sauntering away his -time amongst his women. It was thought that his conscience began to -trouble him for the profligacy of his life, and the blood that had been -shed under his rule; but Charles was not a man much troubled with a -conscience; he was sinking without being aware of it, and the heaviness -of death was lying on him. On Monday, the 2nd of February, 1685, he -rose at an early hour from a restless couch. Dr. King, a surgeon and -chemist, who had been employed by him in experiments, perceived that he -walked heavily, and with an unsteady gait. His face was ghastly, his -head drooping, and his hand retained on his stomach. When spoken to he -returned no answer, or a very incoherent one. King hastened out, and -informed the Earl of Peterborough that the king was in a strange state, -and did not speak one word of sense. They returned instantly to the -king's apartment, and had scarcely entered it when he fell on the floor -in an apoplectic fit. As no time was to be lost, Dr. King, on his own -responsibility, bled him. The blood flowed freely, and he recovered his -consciousness. When the physicians arrived they perfectly approved of -what Dr. King had done, and applied strong stimulants to various parts -of his body. The Council ordered one thousand pounds to be paid to Dr. -King for his prompt services, but the fee was never paid. - -As soon as the king rallied a little, he asked for the queen, who -hastened to his bedside, and waited on him with the most zealous -affection, till the sight of his sufferings threw her into fits, and -the physicians ordered her to her own apartment. Towards evening -Charles had a relapse, but the next morning he rallied again, and was -so much better, that the physicians issued a bulletin, expressing hope -of his recovery; but the next day he changed again for the worse, -and on the fourth evening it was clear that his end was at hand. The -announcement of his dangerous condition spread consternation through -the City; the momentary news of his improvement was received with -unequivocal joy, the ringing of bells, and making of bonfires. When -the contrary intelligence of his imminent danger was made known, -crowds rushed to the churches to pray for his recovery; and it is said -the service was interrupted by the sobs and tears of the people. In -the royal chapel prayers every two hours were continued during his -remaining moments. - -James was never a moment from the dying king's bedside. He was -afterwards accused of having poisoned him--a suspicion for which there -does not appear the slightest foundation; but, apart from natural -brotherly regard, James was on the watch to guard the chances of his -succession. Every precaution was taken to secure the tranquillity of -the City, and to insure an uninterrupted proclamation of his accession. -In the room, too, were as constantly a great number of noblemen and -bishops. There were the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishops of -London, Durham, and Ely, and Bath and Wells, besides twenty-five lords -and privy councillors. A bishop, with some of the nobles, took turns to -watch each night. - -Early on the Thursday morning, Ken, of Bath and Wells, ventured to warn -the king of his danger, and Charles receiving the solemn intelligence -with an air of resignation, he proceeded to read the Office for the -Visitation of the Sick. He asked Charles if he repented of his sins, -and on replying that he did, Ken gave him absolution according to the -prescribed form of the Church of England, and then inquired whether -he should administer the Sacrament. To this there was no answer. Ken, -supposing that the king did not clearly comprehend the question, -repeated it more distinctly. Charles replied there was yet plenty of -time. The bread and wine, however, were brought, and placed on a table -near him; but though the question was again repeatedly asked by the -bishop, Charles only replied, "he would think of it." - -The mystery was, however, solved by the French mistress, who, drawing -Barillon, the French ambassador into her boudoir, said, "Monsieur -l'Ambassadeur, I am going to tell you the greatest secret in the world, -and my head would be in danger if it were known here. The king, in the -bottom of his heart, is a Catholic, and nobody tells him the state he -is in, or speaks to him of God. I can no longer with propriety enter -into his chamber, where the queen is almost constantly with him; the -Duke of York thinks about his own affairs, and has no time to take the -care that he ought of the king's conscience. Go and tell him that I -have conjured you to warn him to do what he can to save the soul of the -king, his brother. He is master in the royal chamber, and can make any -one withdraw from it as he lists. Lose no time, for if you delay ever -so little, it may be too late." - -When Barillon whispered this to James, he started as from a lethargy, -and said, "You are right, there is no time to lose. I will rather -hazard all than not do my duty." A priest was found in Huddleston, who -had been with the king in the battle of Worcester, and accompanied him -in his flight. He had become a Benedictine monk, and had been appointed -one of the chaplains of the queen. - -The duke, stooping to the king's ear, had inquired in a whisper whether -he should bring him a Catholic priest, and Charles instantly replied, -"For God's sake, do!" The duke then requested, in the king's name, all -the company to retire into an adjoining room, except the Earl of Bath, -Lord of the Bedchamber, and Lord Feversham, Captain of the Guard, and -as soon as this was done, Huddleston, disguised in a wig and gown, was -introduced by the backstairs by Chiffinch, who for so many years had -been employed to introduce very different persons. Barillon says that -Huddleston was no great doctor, which is probably true enough, having -originally been a soldier, but he managed to administer the Sacrament -to the king, and also the extreme unction. Charles declared he pardoned -all his enemies, and prayed to be pardoned by God, and forgiven by all -whom he had injured. - -This ceremony lasted three-quarters of an hour, and the excluded -attendants passed the time in much wonder and significant guesses. They -looked at one another in amazement, but spoke only with their eyes, -or in whispers. The Lords Bath and Feversham being both Protestants, -however, seemed to disarm the fears of the bishops. But when Huddleston -withdrew, the news was speedily spread. That night he was in much -pain; the queen sent to excuse her absence, and to beg that he would -pardon any offence that she might at any time have given him. "Alas! -poor woman!" he replied, "she beg my pardon! I beg hers with all my -heart; take back to her that answer." He then sent for his illegitimate -sons, except Monmouth, whom he never mentioned, and recommended them -to James, and, taking each by the hand, gave them his blessing. The -bishops, affected by this edifying sight, threw themselves on their -knees, and begged he would bless them too; whereupon he was raised up -and blessed them all. Having blessed the bishops, he next blessed the -ladies of his harem, and particularly recommended to his successor -the care of the Duchess of Portsmouth, who had been pretty active for -his exclusion, and also the Duchess of Cleveland, hoping, moreover, -that "poor Nelly"--Nell Gwynne--would not be left to starve. Three -hours afterwards this strange monarch breathed his last on the 6th of -February, 1685. - -[Illustration: _By permission of the Corporation of Liverpool._ - -THE ANTE-CHAMBER OF WHITEHALL DURING THE LAST MOMENTS OF CHARLES II., -1685. - -FROM THE PICTURE BY E. M. WARD, R.A., IN THE WALKER ART GALLERY, -LIVERPOOL.] - - - - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF JAMES II.] - -CHAPTER X. - -REIGN OF JAMES II. - - James's Speech to the Council--Rochester supersedes Halifax--Other - Changes in the Ministry--James Collects the Customs without - Parliament--French Pension continued--Scottish Parliament--Oates - and Dangerfield--Meeting of Parliament--It grants Revenue for - Life--Monmouth and Argyll--Argyll's Expedition--His Capture and - Execution--Monmouth's Expedition--He enters Taunton--Failure of - his Hopes--Battle of Sedgemoor--Execution of Monmouth--Cruelties - of Kirke and Jeffreys--The Bloody Assize--The Case of Lady Alice - Lisle--Decline of James's Power--He Breaks the Test Act--Revocation - of the Edict of Nantes--Prorogation of Parliament--Acquittal - of Delamere--Alienation of the Church--Parties at Court--The - Dispensing Power Asserted--Livings granted to Catholics--Court of - High Commission Revived--Army on Hounslow Heath--Trial of "Julian" - Johnson--James's Lawlessness in Scotland and Ireland--Declaration - of Indulgence--The Party of the Prince of Orange and the Princess - Mary--Expulsion of the Fellows of Magdalen College--New Declaration - of Indulgence--Protest of the Seven Bishops--Birth of the Prince of - Wales--Trial and Acquittal of the Bishops--Invitation to William - of Orange--Folly of James--William's Preparations--Blindness of - James and Treachery of his Ministers--William's Declaration--James - convinced, makes Concessions--William lands at Torbay--His Advance - to Exeter--Churchill's Treason--Flight of the Princess Anne and her - Husband--James sends Commissioners to Treat with William--Flight - of James--Riots in London--Return of James--His Final Flight to - France--The Convention--The Succession Question--Declaration of - Rights--William and Mary joint Sovereigns. - - -To the reign of merry cruelty now succeeded the reign of gloomy, -ascetic, undisguised ferocity. Charles could laugh and sport with his -ladies, whilst his subjects were imprisoned and tortured. James, who -never laughed, pursued his cruel bent with a settled butcher-like mood, -and would have extirpated nations, were it in his power, to restore -Catholicism, and establish the political absolutism adored by the -Stuarts. Yet he began the reign of the Inquisition with the hypocrisy -of the Jesuit. When the breath had left the body of Charles, James -retired for a quarter of an hour to his chamber, and then met the -Privy Council with a speech which promised everything that he was most -resolved not to perform. He began by eulogising the deceased "as a good -and gracious king." If he really thought his late merry, debauched, -and despotic brother good and gracious, it was an evil omen for the -nation, whose ruler had such conceptions of what was good and gracious. -He then added, "I have been reported to be a man fond of arbitrary -power; but that is not the only falsehood which has been reported of -me; and I shall make it my endeavour to preserve this Government, -both in Church and State, as it is by law now established. I know the -principles of the Church of England are favourable to monarchy, and the -members of it have shown themselves good and loyal subjects; therefore -I shall take care to defend and support it. I know, too, that the laws -of England are sufficient to make the king as great a monarch as I can -wish; and as I shall never depart from the just rights and prerogatives -of the Crown, so I shall never invade any man's property. I have often -before ventured my life in defence of this nation, and shall go as far -as any man in preserving it in all its just rights and liberties." - -The first thing which scandalised the people was the miserable economy -of the late king's funeral. It was said to be scarcely befitting a -private gentleman, and the Scottish Covenanters asserted that the dead -tyrant had been treated, as the Scriptures declared tyrants should be, -to the "burial of an ass." The first thing which James set about was -the rearrangement of the Cabinet. There was but one man in the Cabinet -of the late king who had his entire confidence--this was Rochester, -the second son of the late Lord Clarendon. To him he gave the office -of Lord High Treasurer, thus constituting him Prime Minister; to -Godolphin, who had held this office, he gave that of Chamberlain to the -Queen. Halifax was deprived of the Privy Seal, and was made President -of the Council, a post both less lucrative and less influential, a -circumstance which highly delighted Rochester, who now saw the wit who -said he had been kicked upstairs, served in precisely the same way. -Sunderland, the late Secretary of State, was suffered to retain his -office. He had intrigued and acted against James; both he and Godolphin -had supported the Exclusion Bill, but Sunderland now with his usual -supple artifice, represented that he could have no hope of the king's -favour but from the merit of his future services; and as he possessed -some dangerous secrets, he was permitted to keep his place. He did -not, however, content himself with this, but cherished the ambition -of superseding Rochester as Lord Treasurer, and therefore represented -himself to the Catholics as their staunch friend, whilst they knew that -Rochester was the champion of the Church of England. For the present, -nevertheless, from having been at high feud with both Rochester and -Clarendon, he cultivated a strong friendship with them to make his -position firm with the king. Halifax had opposed the Exclusion Bill, -but he had become too well known as a decided enemy of Popery and of -the French ascendency. James, therefore, tolerated him for the present, -and whilst he assured him that all the past was forgotten, except the -service he had rendered by his opposition to the Exclusion Bill, he -told Barillon, the French ambassador, that he knew him too well to -trust him, and only gave him the post of President of the Council to -show how little influence he had. - -The Great Seal was retained also by Lord Guildford, who, though -he was by no means a friend of liberty, was too much a stickler -for the law to be a useful tool of arbitrary power. James secretly -hated him, and determined to associate a more unscrupulous man with -him in the functions of his office. This was his most obedient and -most unflinching creature, the Lord Chief Justice Jeffreys, of whose -unexampled villainies we shall soon hear too much. Guildford was by the -overbearing Jeffreys at once thrust back into the mere routine of a -judge in equity, and all his State functions and patronage were usurped -by this daring man. At the Council board Jeffreys treated him with the -most marked contempt, and even insult, and poor Guildford soon saw -all influence and profit of the Chancellorship, as well as the Chief -Justiceship, in the hands of Jeffreys, and himself reduced to a cipher. - -But the most ungenerous proceeding was that of depriving the old and -faithful Lord Ormond of the Lord-Lieutenancy of Ireland. Ormond had not -only stood firmly by Charles I., but had suffered unrepiningly the evil -fortunes of Charles II. He had shared his exile, and had done all in -his power for his restoration. He had opposed all the endeavours by the -Popish Plot and the Exclusion Bill to get rid of James, and was highly -respected in his office in Ireland. He had lately lost his eldest -son, Lord Ossory, and, though aged, was still vigorous and zealous in -discharge of his duties. But he had the unpardonable faults of being -a firm Protestant and as firm an advocate for the constitutional -restrictions of the Crown. James recalled him from his Lord-Lieutenancy -on the plea that he was wanted at Court in his other office of Lord -Steward of the Household. But the ancient chief felt the ungrateful -act, and, at a farewell dinner at Dublin to the officers of the -garrison, in toasting the health of the king, he filled a cup of wine -to the brim, and, holding it aloft without spilling a drop, declared -that whatever the courtiers might say, neither hand, heart, nor reason -yet failed him--that he knew no approach of dotage. - -Having made these changes in the ministry, James lost no time in -letting his subjects see that he meant to enjoy his religion without -the restraints to which he had been accustomed. He had been used to -attend Mass with the queen in her oratory, with the doors carefully -closed; but the second Sunday after his accession he ordered the chapel -doors to be thrown wide open, and went thither in procession. The Duke -of Somerset, who bore the sword of State, stopped at the threshold. -James bade him advance, saying, "Your father would have gone farther." -But Somerset replied, "Your Majesty's father would not have gone so -far." At the moment of the elevation of the Host, the courtiers were -thrown into a strange agitation. The Catholics fell on their knees, -and the Protestants hurried away. On Easter Sunday Mass was attended -with still greater ceremony. Somerset stopped at the door, according to -custom, but the Dukes of Norfolk, Northumberland, Grafton, Richmond, -and many other noblemen, accompanied the king as far as the gallery. -Godolphin and Sunderland also complied, but Rochester absolutely -refused to attend. Not satisfied with proclaiming his Catholicism, -James produced two papers, which he said he had found in the strong -box of the late king, wherein Charles was made to avow his persuasion -that there could be no true Church but the Roman, and that all who -dissented from that Church, whether communities or individuals, became -heretic. James declared the arguments to be perfectly unanswerable, -and challenged Sancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, to attempt it. This -was not very consistent with his speech as regarded the Church of -England, and his next step was as great a violation of his assurance -that he would not invade any man's property. Funds for carrying on the -Government were necessary, and James declared that as the customs and -part of the excise had only been granted to Charles for his life, they -had now lapsed, and that it would produce great inconvenience to wait -for the meeting of Parliament for their re-enactment. Nothing prevented -him from calling Parliament at once, but James undoubtedly had a fancy -for trying his father's favourite measure of levying taxes without -Parliament. It was contended that as no law for customs or excise now -existed, all goods newly imported would come in duty free, and ruin the -merchants who had to sell goods which had paid the duty. North, Lord -Guildford, recommended that the duties should be levied as usual, but -the proceeds kept in the Exchequer till Parliament met and authorised -their appropriation; but Jeffreys was a councillor much more after the -king's heart. He recommended that an edict should at once be issued, -ordering the duties to be paid as usual to his Majesty, and this advice -was carried, every one being afraid of being declared disloyal, or a -trimmer, who voted against it. The proclamation was issued, but, to -render it more palatable, it announced that a Parliament would be very -soon called, and as many addresses as possible from public bodies, -sanctioning the measure, were procured. The barristers and students of -the Middle Temple, in their address, thanked the king for preserving -the customs, and both they and the two universities expressed the most -boundless obedience to the king's sovereign and unlimited power. But -the public at large looked on with silent foreboding. "The compliments -of these bodies," says Dalrymple, "only served to remind the nation -that the laws had been broken." - -Before venturing to assemble Parliament James endeavoured to render -Louis of France acquiescent in this step. He knew from the history -of the late reign how averse Louis was from English Parliaments, -which were hostile to his designs against the Continental nations. -He therefore had a private interview with Barillon, in which he -apologised most humbly for the necessity of calling a Parliament. He -begged him to assure his master of his grateful attachment, and that -he was determined to do nothing without his consent. If the Parliament -attempted to meddle in any foreign affairs, he would send them about -their business. Again he begged him to explain this, and that he -desired to consult his brother of France in everything, but then he -must have money by some means. This hint of money was followed up -the next day by Rochester, and Barillon hastened to convey the royal -wishes. But Louis had lost no time in applying the effectual remedy -for a Parliament, the moment the assembling of one became menaced. -He sent over five hundred thousand crowns, which Barillon carried in -triumph to Whitehall, and James wept tears of joy and gratitude over -the accursed bribe. But he and his ministers soon hinted that the -money, though most acceptable, would not render him independent of -Parliament, and Barillon pressed his sovereign to send more with an -urgency which rather offended Louis, and rendered it possible that -the ambassador had a pretty good commission out of what he obtained. -James sent over to Versailles Captain Churchill, already become Lord -Churchill, and in time to become known to us and all the world as -the Duke of Marlborough. He was to express James's gratitude and his -assurances of keeping in view the interests of France, and so well -did the proceedings of Churchill in Paris and of Barillon in England, -prosper, that successive remittances, amounting to two millions of -livres, were sent over. But of this, except four hundred and seventy -thousand livres, the arrears of the late king's pension, and about -thirty thousand pounds for the corruption of the House of Commons, -Louis strictly forbade Barillon paying over more at present to James -without his orders. In fact, he was no more assured of the good faith -of James than he had been of that of Charles; and he had ample reason -for his distrust, for at the very same time James was negotiating a -fresh treaty with his son-in-law, the Prince of Orange. - -It is impossible to comprehend the full turpitude of this conduct of -James without keeping steadily in view the aims of both James and -Louis. James's, like that of all the Stuarts, was simply to destroy -the British constitution and reign absolutely. To do this the money -of France was needed to render them independent of Parliaments, and a -prospect of French troops should the English at length rebel against -these attempts at their enslavement. The object of Louis was to keep -England from affording any aid to any power on the Continent, whilst he -was endeavouring to overrun it with his armies. - -On the day of the coronation in England (April 23rd), St. George's -Day, the Parliament in Scotland met. James called on the Scots to set -a good example to the approaching Parliament of England in a liberal -provision for the Crown; and the Scottish Estates, as if complimented -by this appeal, not only responded to it by annexing the excise to -the Crown for ever, and offering him besides two hundred and sixty -thousand pounds a year for his own life, but declared their abhorrence -of "all principles derogatory to the king's sacred, supreme, sovereign, -and absolute power and authority." They did more, they passed an Act -making it death for any one to preach in a conventicle, whether under -a roof or in the open air. In England the elections were going on most -favourably, and therefore James seized on the opportunity, whilst all -appeared smiling and secure, to indulge his appetite for a little -vengeance. - -On the 7th of May, Titus Oates, the enemy of James and of Popery, the -arch-instrument of the Whig agitators, was brought up to the bar of the -King's Bench, before the terrible Jeffreys. When he was now brought -up, the Court was crowded with people, a large proportion of them -being Catholics, glad to see the punishment of their ruthless enemy. -But if they expected to see him depressed or humbled, they were much -disappointed. He came up bold and impudent as ever. Jeffreys flung his -fiercest Billingsgate at him, but Oates returned him word for word -unabashed. On his last trial he had sworn he had attended a council of -Jesuits on the 24th of April, 1671, in London, but it was now proved -beyond doubt that on that very day Oates was at St. Omer. He had sworn -also to being present at the commission of treasonable acts by Ireland, -the Jesuit, in London, on the 8th and 12th of August, and on the 2nd of -September of the same year. It was now also clearly proved that Ireland -left London that year on the 2nd of August, and did not return till the -14th of September. Oates was convicted of perjury on both indictments, -and was sentenced to pay a thousand marks on each indictment; to be -stripped of his clerical habit; to be pilloried in Palace Yard, and led -round Westminster Hall, with an inscription over his head describing -his crime. He was again to be pilloried in front of the Royal Exchange, -and after that to be whipped from Aldgate to Newgate, and after two -days' interval whipped again from Newgate to Tyburn. If he survived -this, which was not expected, he was to be confined for life, but five -times every year he was to stand again in the pillory. - -If the crimes of this wretch were monstrous, his punishment was -equally so. He had the assurance on his trial to call many persons -of distinction, including members of Parliament, to give evidence -in his favour, but he was answered only by bitter reproaches, for -having led them into the spilling of much innocent blood. The lash was -applied the first day so unmercifully, that though he endured it for -some time, it compelled him to utter the most horrible yells. Several -times he fainted, but the flagellations never stopped, and when the -flogging ceased, it was doubted whether he was alive. The most earnest -entreaties were made to the king and queen to have the second flogging -omitted, but they were both inexorable. Yet the guilty wretch survived -through all, though he was said to have received seventeen hundred -stripes the second day on his already lacerated body. So long as James -reigned, he was subjected to the pillory five times a year, but he -lived to be pardoned at the Revolution, and receive a pension of five -pounds a week in lieu of that granted him by Charles II. He died in -1705. - -Dangerfield, who had not only succeeded in destroying so many innocent -victims, but had displayed villainy and ingratitude of the blackest -dye, was also convicted, and sentenced to pay five hundred pounds, and -to be pilloried twice and whipped twice over the same ground as Oates. -He was extremely insolent on his trial, but on hearing his sentence he -was struck with horror, flew into the wildest exclamations, declared -himself a dead man, and chose a text for his funeral sermon. Singularly -enough, his end was really at hand. On returning from his whipping -a gentleman named Robert Francis, of Gray's Inn, stepped up to the -coach and asked him how his back was. Dangerfield replied by a curse, -and Francis thrusting at him with his cane, wounded him in the eye; -the wound was declared to occasion his death, though the unmerciful -flogging was probably the real cause, and Francis was tried for the -murder, and hanged. - -[Illustration: JAMES II.] - -The meeting of Parliament on the 19th of May drew the public attention -from these barbarities. Every means had been exerted to influence the -elections. In the counties the reaction of Toryism, and the effects -of the Rye House Plot in defeating and intimidating the Whigs, gave -the Court every advantage. In the corporations the deprivation of -their ancient charters made them the slaves of Government. But even -with these advantages James was not satisfied. Wherever there appeared -likely to be any independent spirit shown, agents were sent down to -overawe the people, and to force a choice of the Government candidate. -On the 22nd of May James went to the House of Lords in great state -to open Parliament. He took his seat on the throne with the crown on -his head, and his queen, and Anne, his daughter, Princess of Denmark, -standing on the right hand of the throne. The Spanish and other -Catholic ambassadors were present, and heard the Pope, the Mass, the -worship of the Virgin Mary, and the saints all renounced, as the Lords -took their oaths. James then produced a written speech and read it. He -repeated in it what he had before declared to the Council, that he -would maintain the Constitution and the Church as by law established, -and added that, "Having given this assurance concerning their religion -and property, they might rely on his word." Although it had been the -custom to listen to the royal speech in respectful silence, at this -declaration the members of both Houses broke into loud acclamations. He -then informed them that he expected a revenue for life, such as they -had voted his late brother. Again the expression of accord was loud and -satisfactory, but what followed was not so palatable. "The inclination -men have for frequent Parliaments, some may think, would be the best -secured by feeding me from time to time by such proportions as they -shall think convenient, and this argument, it being the first time I -speak to you from the throne, I will answer once for all, that this -would be a very improper method to take with _me;_ and that the best -way to engage me to meet you often is always to use me well. I expect, -therefore, that you will comply with me in what I have desired, and -that you will do it speedily." This agreeable assurance he followed up -by announcing a rebellion to have broken out in Scotland under Argyll -and other refugees from Holland. - -When the Commons returned to their own House, Lord Preston entered -into a high eulogium of the king, telling the House that his name -spread terror over all Europe, and that the reputation of England -was already beginning to rise under his rule; they had only to have -full confidence in him as a prince who had never broken his word, and -thus enable him to assert the dignity of England. The House went into -a Committee of Supply, and voted his Majesty the same revenue that -Charles had enjoyed, namely, one million two hundred thousand pounds -a year for life. But when several petitions against some of the late -elections were presented, a serious opposition asserted itself in a -most unexpected quarter. This was from Sir Edward Seymour, of Berry -Pomeroy Castle, the member for Exeter. Seymour was both a Tory and a -High Churchman, proud of his descent from the Lord Protector Seymour, -and who had great influence in the western counties. He was a man of -indifferent moral character, but able and accomplished, and a forcible -debater. He was now irritated by the Government proceedings in the -elections which had interfered with his interests, and made a fierce -attack on the Government pressure on the electors; denounced the -removal of the charters and the conduct of the returning officers; -declared that there was a design to repeal the Test and Habeas Corpus -Acts, and moved that no one whose right to sit was disputed should vote -till that right had been ascertained by a searching inquiry. There was -no seconder to the motion, and it fell to the ground; for the whole -House, including the Whigs, sat, as it were, thunderstruck. But the -effect was deep and lasting, and in time did not fail of its end. - -For the present, however, things went smoothly enough. The king -informed the House--through Sir Dudley North, the brother of the Lord -Keeper Guildford, and the person who had been elected Sheriff of -London by the influence of Charles for his ready and ingenious modes -of serving the royal will--that his late brother had left considerable -debts, and that the naval and ordnance stores were getting low. The -House promptly agreed to lay on new taxes and North induced them to tax -sugar and tobacco, so that the king now had a revenue of one million -nine hundred thousand pounds from England, besides his pension from -France, and was strong in revenue. - -The Lords were employed in doing an act of justice in calling before -them Lord Danby, and rescinding the impeachment still hanging over -his head, and also summoning to their bar Lords Powis, Arundel, and -Bellasis, the victims of the Popish plot, and fully discharging them -as well as the Earl of Tyrone. They also introduced a Bill reversing -the attainder of Lord Stafford, who had been executed for treason and -concern in the Popish plot, now admitting that he had been unjustly -sacrificed through the perjury of Oates. The Commons were proceeding -to the third reading of this Bill, when the rebellion of Monmouth -was announced, and the question remained unsettled till the trial of -Warren Hastings more than a century afterwards, when men of all parties -declared that Oates's Popish plot was a fiction, and the attainder of -Stafford was then formally reversed. - -The political refugees who had fled to Holland and sought protection -from Prince William were numerous, and some of them of considerable -distinction. Monmouth and the Earl of Argyll were severally looked -up to as the heads of the English and Scottish exiles. The furious -persecution against the Covenanters in Scotland and the Whigs in -England had not only swelled these bands of refugees, but rendered -them at once ardent for revenge and restoration. Amongst them Ford; -Lord Grey of Wark; Ferguson, who had been conspicuous among the Whig -plotters; Wildman and Danvers, of the same party; Ayloffe and Wade, -Whig lawyers and plotters; Goodenough, formerly Sheriff of London, who -gave evidence against the Papists; Rumbold, the Rye House maltster, -and others, were incessantly endeavouring to excite Monmouth to avail -himself of his popularity, and the hatred of Popery which existed, to -rebel against his uncle and strike for the crown. Monmouth, however, -for some time betrayed no desire for so hazardous an undertaking. -On the death of Charles he had returned from the Hague, to avoid -giving cause of jealousy to James, and led the life of an English -gentleman at Brussels. William of Orange strongly advised him to take -a command in the war of Austria against the Turks, where he might -win honour and a rank worthy of his birth; but Monmouth would not -listen to it. He had left his wife, the great heiress of Buccleuch, -to whom he had been married almost as a boy from royal policy, and -had attached himself to Lady Henrietta Wentworth, Baroness Wentworth -of Nettlestede. The attachment, though illicit, appeared to be mutual -and ardent. Monmouth confessed that Lady Henrietta, who was beautiful, -amiable, and accomplished, had weaned him from a vicious life, and had -their connection been lawful, nothing could have been more fortunate -for Monmouth. In her society he seemed to have grown indifferent to -ambition and the life of courts. But he was beset by both Grey and -Ferguson, and, unfortunately for him, they won over Lady Wentworth to -their views. She encouraged Monmouth, and offered him her income and -her jewels to furnish him with immediate funds. With such an advocate, -Grey and Ferguson at length succeeded. Grey was a man of blemished -character. He had run off with his wife's sister, a daughter of the -Earl of Berkeley, and was a poor and desperate adventurer, notoriously -cowardly on the field of battle. Ferguson was a fiery demagogue and -zealot of insurrection. He had been a preacher and schoolmaster amongst -the Dissenters, then a clergyman of the Church, and finally had become -a most untiring intriguer, and was deep in the Rye House Plot. Under -all this fire of rebellion, however, there was more than a suspected -foul smoke of espionage. He was shrewdly believed, though not by his -dupes, to be in the pay of Government, and employed to betray its -enemies to ruin. - -Monmouth having consented to take the lead in an invasion, though with -much reluctance and many misgivings, a communication was opened with -Argyll and the Scottish malcontents. We have seen that Argyll, after -his father had been inveigled from his mountains and beheaded, had -himself nearly suffered the same fate from James when in Scotland. -He had been imprisoned and condemned to death on the most arbitrary -grounds, and had only managed to escape in disguise. He had purchased -an estate at Leeuwarden, in Friesland, where the great Mac Cailean -More, as he was called by the Highlanders, lived in much seclusion. -He was now drawn from it once more to revisit his native country at -the head of an invading force. But the views of the refugees were so -different, and their means so small, that it was some time before -they could agree upon a common plan of action. It was at length -arranged that a descent should be made simultaneously on Scotland and -England--the Scottish expedition headed by Argyll, that on England by -Monmouth. But to maintain a correspondence and a sort of unison, two -Englishmen, Ayloffe and Rumbold the maltster, were to accompany the -Scots, and two Scotsmen, Fletcher of Saltoun and Ferguson, the English -force. Monmouth was sworn not to claim any rank or reward on the -success of the enterprise, except such as should be awarded him by a -free Parliament; and Argyll was compelled, although he had the nominal -command of the army, to submit to hold it only as one of a committee of -twelve, of whom Sir Patrick Hume of Polwarth was to be president. - -In fact, Argyll at the outset displayed a fatal want of knowledge -of human nature or firmness of resolution, in consenting to accept -a command on so impossible a basis. To expect success as a military -leader when hampered with the conflicting opinions of a dozen men of -ultra views in religion and politics, and of domineering wills, was the -height of folly. Hume, who took the lead in the committee, was a man of -enormous conceit, a great talker, and a very dilatory actor. Next to -him was Sir John Cochrane, the second son of Lord Dundonald, who was -almost equally self-willed and jealous of the power of Argyll. With -their Republican notions, they endeavoured to impose such restrictions -on the power of the earl as were certain to insure the ruin of the -attempt, in which everything must depend on the independent action of a -single mind. - -We have already noticed the character of Ferguson, one of the twain -selected to accompany Monmouth. Fletcher of Saltoun, the other, was -a far different man--a man of high talent, fine taste, and finished -education. At the head of a popular senate he would have shone as an -orator and statesman; but he had those qualities of lofty pride and -headstrong will which made him by no means a desirable officer in -an army of adventurers, although his military skill was undoubted. -What was worse, from the very first he foreboded no good result from -the expedition, and accompanied it only because he would not seem to -desert his more sanguine countrymen. When Wildman and Danvers sent from -London flaming accounts of the ripeness of England for revolt, and -said that just two hundred years before the Earl of Richmond landed in -England with a mere handful of men, and wrested the Crown from Richard, -Fletcher coolly replied that there was all the difference between the -fifteenth century and the seventeenth. - -These men, Wildman and Danvers, represented the country as so prepared -to receive Monmouth, that he had only to show his standard for whole -counties to flock to it. They promised also six thousand pounds in -aid of the preparations. But the fact was that little or no money -came, and James and his ministers were duly informed of the measures -of the insurgents, and were at once using every means with the Dutch -Government to prevent the sailing of the armaments, and taking steps -for the defence of the Scottish and English coasts. We may first -follow the fortunes of Argyll and his associates, who sailed first. -He put out from the coast of Holland on the 2nd of May, and after a -prosperous voyage, sighted Kirkwall, in Orkney, on the 6th. There he -very unwisely anchored, and suffered two followers to go on shore to -collect intelligence. The object of his armament then became known, and -was sure to reach the English Government in a little time. The Bishop -of Orkney boldly ordered the two insurgents to be secured, and refused -to give them up. After three days lost in endeavouring to obtain their -release, they seized some gentlemen living on the coast, and offered -them in exchange. The bishop paid no regard to their proposal or their -menaces, and they were compelled to pursue their voyage. - -The consequence of this ill-advised measure was that news of the -armament was sent to Edinburgh with all speed, and whilst the invading -force was beating round the northern capes and headlands, active -preparations were made for defence. The whole of the militia, amounting -to twenty thousand men, were called out; a third of these, accompanied -by three thousand regulars, were marched into the western counties. -At Dunstaffnage, Argyll sent his son Charles ashore to summon the -Campbells to arms, but he returned with the report that many of the -chiefs had fled or were in prison, and the rest afraid to move. At -Campbelltown, in Kintyre, Argyll published a proclamation, setting -forth that he came to suppress Popery, prelacy, and Erastianism, and -to take the crown from James, whom he accused of persecution of the -Covenanters, and the poisoning of his brother. He sent across the hills -the fiery cross to summon all true men to his standard, and appointed -Tarbert as the place of rendezvous. About eighteen hundred men mustered -at the call, but any advantage to be derived from this handful of men -was far more than counterbalanced by the pertinacious interference of -Cochrane and Hume. They insisted on arranging everything, even the -appointment of the officers over Argyll's own clan. They insisted also -that the attack should be directed against the Lowlands, though Argyll -wisely saw that they had no chance whatever in the open country with -their present force. He contended that having first cleared the Western -Highlands of the national soldiery, they should soon have five or six -thousand Highlanders at their command, and might then descend on the -Lowlands with effect. Rumbold advocated this prudential course, but all -reasoning was lost on Hume and Cochrane, who insolently accused Argyll -of wanting only to secure his own territories, and sailed away with -part of the troops to the Lowlands. They found the coast, however, well -guarded by the English ships, and escaped up the Clyde to Greenock. -There they again quarrelled between themselves, and finding the people -not at all disposed to join them, they returned to Argyll. But they -had learned no wisdom: the earl again proposed to endeavour to secure -Inverary--they as firmly opposed it. They, therefore, fixed on the -castle of Ealan Ghierig as their present headquarters, landed their -arms and stores, and made an officer named Elphinstone commander of -the fort. Argyll and Rumbold now drove back the troops of Athol, and -prepared to march on Inverary; but from this they were diverted by a -call from Hume and Cochrane at the ships, who were about to be attacked -by the English fleet. Argyll hastened to them, and proposed to give -fight to the English, but was again prevented by these infatuated men. -The earl, therefore, in utter despair, passed into Dumbartonshire, -and was the very next day followed by the news of the capture of all -his ships, and the flight of Elphinstone from Ealan Ghierig, without -striking a blow. As a last desperate attempt, Argyll proposed to -make a rush on Glasgow and secure a strong footing there; but the -very men who had so strongly urged the attempt on the Lowlands now -deserted him in numbers, and on the march nothing but disasters from -the insubordination of the little army ensued. They were attacked on -all sides by the militia, and when the earl and Ayloffe advised a bold -attack on the enemy, Hume and his partisans protested against it. The -end of all was that, becoming involved amongst morasses, the army was -seized with panic, and rapidly melted away. The wrong-headed Hume -escaped, and reached the Continent; Cochrane was taken, and soon after -Rumbold, Major Fullerton, and Argyll himself were seized. - -[Illustration: THE LAST SLEEP OF ARGYLL. (_See p._ 297.) - -(_From the Fresco by E. M. Ward, R.A., in the House of Commons._)] - -The conduct of Argyll after his capture was distinguished by a calm -dignity which showed how superior he was to the factious, pugnacious -men who had baffled all his plans. With his arms pinioned behind him, -he was led bareheaded through the streets of Edinburgh, from Holyrood -to the castle. The Royalists thus revelled in revenging on the son the -act of his father thirty-five years before, when he caused Montrose to -be conducted over the very same ground. The headsman marched before him -with his axe, and on reaching his cell in the castle Argyll was put -into irons, and informed that his execution would quickly follow. This -was the 20th of June; his execution did not take place till the 30th. -During the ten days the orders of James were that he should be tried -all ways to compel him to confess the full particulars of the invasion, -its originators, supporters, and participators. It was understood that -James meant that his favourite application of the boots and thumbscrews -should be used, but this was not attempted. Argyll was menaced, but -his firm refusal to reveal anything that would incriminate others, -convinced his enemies that it was useless, and could only cover them -with odium. The last day of his life he lay down to rest, ere the hour -of his execution should arrive. During his sleep, a renegade Privy -Councillor insisted on entering his cell. The door was gently opened, -and there lay the great Argyll in heavy chains and sleeping the happy -sleep of infancy. The beholder turned and fled, sick at heart. His -former sentence of death was deemed sufficient to supersede any fresh -trial, and being brought out to the scaffold, and saying that he died -in peace with all men, one of the Episcopalian clergymen stepped to -the edge of the scaffold and exclaimed to the people, "My lord dies a -Protestant." "Yes," said the earl, also going forward, "a Protestant, -and cordial hater of Popery, prelacy, and all superstition." His head -was fixed on the top of the Tolbooth, where that of Montrose had -formerly stood. - -On the 30th of May, nearly a month after the sailing of Argyll, -Monmouth left the Texel. His squadron consisted of a frigate of -thirty-two guns, called the _Helderenbergh_, and three small tenders, -a fourth tender having been refused by the Dutch. He was attended -by about eighty officers, and a hundred and fifty men of different -degrees, fugitives from England and Scotland. With such a force he -proposed to conquer the crown of England! All the fine promises of -money by Wildman and Danvers had ended in smoke, and he had only been -able, chiefly through the revenues of Lady Henrietta Wentworth, to -supply himself with arms and stores for a small body of cavalry and -infantry. The voyage was long and tedious, the weather was stormy, -and the Channel abounded with the royal cruisers. On the morning of -the 11th of June his little fleet appeared off the port of Lyme, in -Dorsetshire. - -Monmouth was extremely popular with the people, and on discovering -that it was their favourite hero come to put down the Popish tyrant, -he was received with loud acclamations. "Monmouth and the Protestant -religion!" was the cry. There was a rush to enlist beneath his banners, -and within four-and-twenty hours he was at the head of fifteen hundred -men. Dare, one of the adventurers, had been put ashore as they came -along the coast to ride across the country and rouse the people of -Taunton, and he now came in at the head of about forty horsemen, -with the news that the people of Somersetshire were in favour of his -cause. But with this arrival came the tidings that the Dorsetshire -and Somersetshire folk were mustering at Bridport to attack them, and -Monmouth ordered Lord Grey, who was the commander of the cavalry, -to march there at once, and disperse them before they had collected -in strength. But here an incident occurred which showed the unruly -materials that he had to work with. Dare had mounted himself on a fine -horse in his expedition to Taunton, and Fletcher of Saltoun, who was -second in command of the cavalry under Grey, without asking leave -of Dare, as superior officer, and being himself badly mounted, took -possession of his horse. Dare refused to let him have it, they came to -high words, Dare shook his whip at Fletcher, and the proud Scot drew -his pistol and shot Dare dead on the spot. This summary proceeding, -which might have passed in the ruder country of Scotland, created a -violent outburst amongst the soldiers of Monmouth. They demanded of -the duke instant execution of the murderer, and it was only by getting -on board the _Helderenbergh_ that Fletcher escaped with his life. He -returned to Holland, and thus was lost to the expedition almost its -only man of any talent and experience. - -The next morning Grey, accompanied by Wade, led forth his untrained -cavalry to attack the militia at Bridport. There was a smart brush -with the militia, in which Monmouth's raw soldiers fought bravely, and -would have driven the enemy from the place, but Grey, who was an arrant -coward in the field, turned his horse and fled, never drawing bit till -he reached Lyme. The men were indignant, and Monmouth was confounded -with this conduct of his chief officer; but nevertheless he had not -moral firmness to put some more trusty officer in his place. Four -days after his landing, the 15th of June, Monmouth marched forward to -Axminster, where he encountered Christopher Monk, Duke of Albemarle, -the son of the first General Monk, at the head of four thousand men -of the trained bands. Though daunted at first, Monmouth accepted the -situation, and disposed his men admirably for a fight. He drew up -the main body in battle array on advantageous ground, sent out his -skirmishers to the front, and, as a last precaution, lined the hedges -of a narrow lane, through which Albemarle must pass to come at him, -with musketeers. Monk, however, was too cautious to risk a pitched -battle on these terms--the more especially as his own forces were -untrustworthy. There appeared so much enthusiasm for Monmouth amongst -his troops that, fearing their desertion, he drew back. The result -was that the whole body was speedily thrown into disorder, that panic -seized them, and that they fled pell-mell towards Exeter, flinging away -their arms and uniforms to expedite their escape. Monmouth, however, -probably not aware of the extent of the rout, steadily pursued his -march to Chard, and thence to Taunton, where he arrived on the 18th -of June, just a week after his landing, and was received by the whole -place with the warmest demonstrations of joy. - -All this seemed auspicious and encouraging, but it did not satisfy -Monmouth. He knew that, without the adhesion of the army and the -leading gentry, he should never make his way to the crown. Their -adhesion had been promised him, but where were they? Not a regiment had -given a sign of being ready to join him. Lords Macclesfield, Brandon, -Delamere, and other Whig noblemen--who, he had been assured, would -instantly fly to his standard--lay all still. Trenchard of Taunton, who -had promised to join him, unlike his townsmen, fled at his approach, -and made his way into Holland, to the Prince of Orange. Wildman, who -had promised such wonders of county support and of money, did not -appear. On the contrary, the nobility and gentry from all parts of the -country, with the clergy, were pouring in addresses of attachment and -support to James. Parliament, both Lords and Commons, displayed the -same spirit. - -The common people might believe that the son of Lucy Walters was -legitimate, but the educated classes knew better, and that Monmouth -could never be king. Parliament, therefore, at once voted James four -hundred thousand pounds for present necessities, and laid new taxes -for five years on foreign silks, linen, and spirits. They ordered -Monmouth's declaration to be burnt by the hangman, and rapidly passed -against him a Bill of Attainder, setting a reward of five thousand -pounds on his head. They were ready to go farther, and the Commons -actually passed a Bill for the preservation of the king's person and -government, making it high treason to say that Monmouth was legitimate, -or to make any motion in Parliament to alter the succession. But James, -knowing the uselessness of any such Act, adjourned Parliament without -waiting for the Act passing the Lords, and dismissed the nobles and -gentry to defend his interests in their different localities. He took -care, however, to revive the censorship of the press, which had expired -in 1679. - -When Monmouth, with consternation, noted these adverse circumstances, -Ferguson was ready with a reason. It was that Monmouth had committed -a capital error in not taking the title of king. The style and title -of king, he asserted, carried a wonderful weight with the English. -But of this right he had deprived himself by abjuring this title and -leaving it entirely to James. The majority would fight for the man -who was in possession of the royal name, but for whom were they to -fight who fought for Monmouth? Nobody could tell, and the result must -be discouragement. Grey seconded Ferguson: Wade and the Republicans -opposed the scheme. But probably Monmouth was only too willing to be -persuaded, and, accordingly, on the 20th of June, he was proclaimed in -the market-place of Taunton. As the names of both rivals were James, -and James II. would continue to mean James who now had that title, -Monmouth was styled King Monmouth. Immediately on taking this step, -Monmouth issued four proclamations. Following the example of James, -he set a price on the head of James, late Duke of York; declared the -Parliament sitting at Westminster an unlawful assembly, and ordered -it to disperse; forbade the people to pay taxes to the usurper; and -proclaimed Albemarle a traitor, unless he forthwith repaired to the -standard of King Monmouth, where he would be cordially received. - -Almost every part of this proceeding was a gross political blunder. -By assuming the royal title he lost nearly everything, and gained -nothing. He offended the Republican party, and divided the allegiance -of his little army, some of the most energetic of whose officers, as -Wade and others, were of that political faith. He offended that great -Protestant party which was looking forward to the Protestant succession -of William of Orange and the Princess Mary, and in case of their want -of issue to the Princess Anne. He cut off all retreat to Holland in -case of failure, and all hope of mercy from James if he fell into his -hands. By pledging himself on landing not to aspire to the crown, and -thus immediately breaking his pledge, he inspired the thinking portion -of the people with deep distrust, as inducing the same disregard of -his word as had been so long conspicuous in the Stuarts. With all the -influential Protestants who might have joined him, so soon as events -gave hope of success, considering him the champion of a Protestant -succession, he had placed himself in a hopeless position, because that -succession could only come through a legitimate issue. By denouncing -the Parliament that body became his mortal foes. The only party from -which he could now expect any support was the people, and without -means, without leaders, without military training, the result could -only be failure, utter and fearful. - -And despite the persuasions of Ferguson, the melancholy truth seemed -already to stare the unhappy Monmouth in the face. He received a secret -answer from Albemarle, addressed to James Scott, late Duke of Monmouth, -telling him that he knew who was his lawful king, and that he had -better have let rebellion alone. As he rode out of Taunton on the 22nd -of June towards Bridgewater, it was remarked that he looked gloomy and -dejected; the very people who crowded in the road to greet him with -huzzas, could not help remarking how different was the expression of -his countenance to what it had been in his gay procession there five -years before. The only man who seemed elated with anticipation of -triumph was Ferguson, and if, as is suspected to have been the case, he -were playing the traitor to the unfortunate Monmouth, he might now well -grow confident of his diabolical success. - -[Illustration: THE CROSS, BRIDGEWATER, WHERE MONMOUTH WAS PROCLAIMED -KING.] - -On reaching Bridgewater, where there existed a strong Whig body, -Monmouth was again well received. The mayor and aldermen in their robes -welcomed him, and preceded him in procession to the Cross, where they -proclaimed him king. He took up his abode in the castle, encamped his -army on the castle field, and crowds rushed to enlist in his service. -His army already amounted to six thousand men, and might soon have -been doubled or trebled; but his scanty supply of arms and equipments -was already exhausted. He had no money, and men without weapons were -useless. Numbers of them endeavoured to arm themselves, mob-fashion, -with scythes, pitchforks, and other implements of husbandry and of -mining. - -Meanwhile, troops were drawing from all quarters, and preparing to -overwhelm the invaders. Lord Feversham and Churchill, afterwards -Marlborough, were ordered to march with strong bodies of troops to the -West. Churchill was already arrived, and Feversham rapidly approaching. -The militias of Sussex and Oxfordshire were drawing that way, followed -by bodies of volunteer gownsmen from Oxford. To prevent any of the Whig -party from affording Monmouth aid, they and the Nonconformists were -closely watched, and many seized and imprisoned. - -From Bridgewater Monmouth advanced to Glastonbury, and thence to Wells -and Shepton Mallet. He appeared to have no precise object, but to seek -reinforcements; from Shepton Mallet he directed his march on Bristol, -which was only defended by the Duke of Beaufort and the muster of his -tenantry. Bristol, once gained, would give them a strong position, -and afford large supplies of money, stores, and arms. But Churchill -harassed his rear on the march, and to reach the Gloucestershire -side of the town, which was easiest of assault it was necessary to -march round by Keynsham Bridge, which was partly destroyed. Men were -despatched to repair it, and Monmouth following, on the 24th of June -was at Ponsford, within five miles of the city. On reaching Keynsham -Bridge, it was found to be repaired, but they were there encountered -by a body of Life Guards under Colonel Oglethorpe, and Bristol having -received reinforcements, the attack on it was abandoned. It was -then proposed to get across the Severn and march for Shropshire and -Cheshire, where he had been enthusiastically received in his progress; -but the plan was not deemed practicable, and he advanced to Bath, which -was too strongly garrisoned to make any impression upon. On the 26th -they halted at Philip's Norton. - -Feversham was now at their heels, and attacked them, the charge being -led by the Duke of Grafton--the son of Charles and the Duchess of -Cleveland--who fought bravely, but was repulsed. Monmouth, however, -took advantage of the night to steal away to Frome, which was well -affected to his cause, but had been just visited and disarmed by the -Earl of Pembroke with the Wiltshire militia. The night march thither -had been through torrents of rain and muddy roads; Frome could afford -neither assistance nor protection; and, to add to his disappointment, -here news reached him of the total failure of Argyll's expedition into -Scotland, and that Feversham was now joined by his artillery and was in -pursuit of him. Under these disastrous circumstances, and not a man of -note, not a regiment of regulars or militia (as had been so liberally -promised him by Wildman and Danvers) having come over to him, Monmouth -bitterly cursed his folly in having listened to them, and resolved -to ride off with his chief adherents, and get back to the Continent -and his beloved Lady Wentworth. But from this ignominious idea he was -dissuaded by Lord Grey, and they retreated again towards Bridgewater, -where a report represented fresh assembling of armed peasantry. They -reached that town on the 2nd of July, and, whilst throwing up trenches -for defence, on the 5th Feversham arrived with about five thousand -men, and pitched his tents on Sedgemoor, about three miles from the -town. Feversham himself, with the cavalry at Weston Zoyland, and the -Earl of Pembroke with the Wiltshire militia, about fifteen hundred in -number, camped at the village of Middlezoy. Monmouth and his officers -ascended the tower of the church and beheld the disposition of the -enemy. Sedgemoor had formerly been a vast marsh, where Alfred, in his -time, had sought a retreat from the triumphant Danes, and it was now -intersected by several deep ditches, as most fen lands are, behind -which the royal army lay. Near Chedzoy were some regiments of infantry -which Monmouth had formerly commanded at Bothwell Bridge. - -It was reported that the soldiers were left, by the reckless -incapacity of the general, to drink cider and preserve little watch; -and Monmouth, who saw that they lay in a very unconnected condition, -conceived that by a skilful night attack he could easily surprise -them. The gormandising incapacity of Louis Duras, now Lord Feversham, -a foreigner who had been advanced by Charles II., was notorious, and -the transcendent military talents of Churchill, who was in subordinate -command, were yet little known. Preparations were therefore instantly -made for the surprise. Scouts were sent out to reconnoitre the ground, -who reported that two deep ditches full of mud and water lay between -them and the hostile camp, which would have to be passed. At eleven -o'clock at night the troops, with "Soho" for their watchword, marched -out of Bridgewater in profound silence, taking a circuitous route, -which would make the march about six miles. It was a moonlight night, -but the moor lay enveloped in a thick fog, and about one in the -morning the troops of Monmouth approached the royal camp. Their guides -conducted the soldiers by a causeway over each of the two ditches, and -Monmouth drew up his men for the attack, but by accident a pistol went -off; the sentinels of the division of the army--the Foot Guards--which -lay in front of them, were alarmed, and, listening, became aware of the -trampling of the rebels as they were forming in rank. They fired their -carbines and flew to rouse the camp. There was an instant galloping -and running in all directions. Feversham and the chief officers were -aroused, and drums beat to arms, and the men ran to get into rank. No -time was to be lost, and Monmouth ordered Grey to dash forward with -the cavalry, but he was suddenly brought to a halt by a third dyke, of -which they had no information. The Foot Guards on the other side of the -dyke demanded who was there, and on the cry of "King Monmouth!" they -discharged a volley of musketry with such effect, that the untrained -horses of Grey's cavalry became at once unmanageable; the men, thrown -into confusion, were seized with panic and fled wherever they could -find a way or their horses chose to carry them. Grey, as usual, was -in the van of the fugitives. But, on the other hand, Monmouth came now -rushing forward with his infantry, and, in his turn, finding himself -stopped by the muddy dyke, he fired across it at the enemy, and a -fierce fight took place, which was maintained for three-quarters of an -hour. Nothing could be more brave and determined than Monmouth and his -peasant soldiers. But day was now breaking, the cavalry of Feversham, -and the infantry of Churchill, were bearing down on their flanks from -different quarters, and Monmouth, then seeing that his defeat was -inevitable, forgot the hero and rode off to save his life, leaving -his brave, misguided followers to their fate. If anything could have -added to the base ignominy of Monmouth's desertion of his adherents, -it was the undaunted courage which they showed even when abandoned. -They stood boldly to their charge; they cut down the horsemen with -their scythes, or knocked them from their saddles with the butt end -of their guns; they repulsed the vigorous attack of Oglethorpe, and -left Sarsfield for dead on the field. But, unfortunately, their powder -failed, and they cried out for fresh supplies in vain. The men with -the ammunition waggons had followed the flight of the cavalry, and -driven far away from the field. Still the brave peasantry and soldiers -fought desperately with their scythes and gunstocks, till the cannon -was brought to bear on them, and mowed them down in heaps. As they -began to give way the royal cavalry charged upon them from the flank, -the infantry poured across the ditch, the stout men, worthy of a better -fate and leader, were overwhelmed and broke, but not before a thousand -of them lay dead on the moor, or before they had killed or wounded more -than three hundred of the king's troops. - -The unfortunate rebels were pursued with fury, and hunted through -the day out of the neighbouring villages, whither they had flown for -concealment. The road towards Bridgewater was crowded with flying -men and infuriated troopers following and cutting them down. Many of -those who rushed frantically into the streets of Bridgewater fell and -died there of their wounds, for the soldiers, who were treated by the -farmers to hogsheads of cider, were drunk with drinking, with blood -and fury. A vast number of prisoners were secured, for they were a -profitable article of merchandise in the Plantations; five hundred -were crowded into the single church of Weston Zoyland, and the battle -and pursuit being over, the conqueror commenced that exhibition of -vengeance which was always so dear to James. Gibbets were erected by -the wayside, leading from the battle-field to Bridgewater, and no less -than twenty of the prisoners were hanging on them. The peasantry were -compelled to bury the slain, and those most suspected of favouring the -rebels were set to quarter the victims who were to be suspended in -chains. Meanwhile Monmouth, Grey, and Buyse, the Brandenburger, were -flying for their lives. They took the north road, hoping to escape -into Wales. At Chedzoy Monmouth drew up a moment to hide his George -and procure a fresh horse. From the summit of a hill they turned and -saw the final defeat and slaughter of their deluded followers. They -pushed forward for the Mendip Hills, and then directed their course -towards the New Forest, hoping to obtain some vessel on that coast to -convey them to the Continent. On Cranborne Chase their horses were -completely exhausted; they therefore turned them loose, hid their -saddles and bridles, and proceeded on foot. But the news of the defeat -of the rebels had travelled as fast as they, and in the neighbourhood -of Ringwood and Poole parties of cavalry were out scouring the country, -in hopes of the reward of five thousand pounds for Monmouth. Lord -Lumley and Sir William Portman, the commanders, agreed to divide the -sum among their parties if successful, and early on the morning of the -7th, Grey and the guide were taken at the junction of the two cross -roads. This gave proof that the more important prize was not far off. -The officers enclosed a wide circle of land, within which they imagined -Monmouth and Buyse must yet be concealed; and at five the next morning -the Brandenburger was discovered. He confessed that he had parted -from Monmouth only four hours before, and the search was renewed with -redoubled eagerness. The place was a network of small enclosures, -partly cultivated and covered with growing crops of pease, beans, and -corn, partly overrun with fern and brambles. The crops and thickets -were trodden and beaten down systematically in the search, and at seven -o'clock Monmouth himself was discovered in a ditch covered with fern. - -[Illustration: "AFTER SEDGEMOOR." - -FROM THE PAINTING BY W. RAINEY, R.I.] - -Monmouth, though mild and agreeable in his manners, had never displayed -any high moral qualities. Indeed, if we bear in mind the frivolous and -debauched character of the Court in which he had grown up, whether it -were the Court of the exile or of the restored king, it would have -been wonderful if he had. He was handsome, gay, good-natured, but -dissolute and unprincipled. He was ready to conspire against his -father or his uncle, to profess the utmost contrition when defeated, -and to forget it as soon as forgiven. He has been properly described -as the Absalom of modern times. If he merely deserted his miserable -followers on the battle-field, he now more meanly deserted his own -dignity. He continued, from the moment of his capture to that when he -ascended the scaffold, prostrating himself in the dust of abasement, -and begging for his life in the most unmanly terms. He wrote to James -instantly from Ringwood, so that his humble and agonised entreaties -for forgiveness would arrive with the news of his arrest. James -admitted the crawling supplicant to the desired interview, but it was -in the hope of the promised word of wondrous revelation, not with any -intention of pardoning him. He got him to sign a declaration that -his father had assured him that he was never married to his mother, -and then coolly told him that his crime was of too grave a dye to be -forgiven. The queen, who was the only person present besides James -and the two Secretaries of State, Sunderland and Middleton, is said -to have insulted him in a most merciless and unwomanly manner. When, -therefore, Monmouth saw that nothing but his death would satisfy the -king and queen, he appeared to resume his courage and fortitude, and -rising with an air of dignity, he was taken away. But his apparent -firmness lasted only till he was out of their presence. On his way to -the Tower he entreated Lord Dartmouth to intercede for him--"I know, -my lord," he said, "that you loved my father; for his sake, for God's -sake, endeavour to obtain mercy for me." But Dartmouth replied that -there could be no pardon for one who had assumed the royal title. -Grey displayed a much more manly behaviour. In the presence of the -king he admitted his guilt, but did not even ask forgiveness. As -Monmouth was under attainder, no trial was deemed necessary, and it -was determined that he should be executed on Wednesday morning, the -next day but one. On the fatal morning of the 15th he was visited by -Dr. Tenison, afterwards archbishop, who discoursed with him, but not -very profitably, on the errors of his ways. Before setting out for -the scaffold, his wife and children came to take leave of him. Lady -Monmouth was deeply moved; Monmouth himself spoke kindly to her, but -was cold and passionless. When the hour arrived, he went to execution -with the same courage that he had always gone into battle. He was no -more the cringing, weeping supplicant, but a man who had made up his -mind to die. A disgusting scene of butchery followed, owing to the -nervousness of the executioner. The populace were so enraged at the -man's clumsiness, that they would have torn him to pieces if they could -have got at him. Many rushed forward to dip their handkerchiefs in -Monmouth's blood, and the barbarous circumstances of his execution and -the unfeeling persecution of the prelates, did not a little to restore -his fame as a martyr to liberty and Protestantism. - -Whilst these things were going on in London, the unfortunate people -in the West were suffering a dreadful penalty for their adherence to -Monmouth. Feversham was called to town, and covered with honours and -rewards, though it was notorious that he had done nothing towards -the victory. Buckingham even declared that he had won the battle of -Sedgemoor in bed. In his place was left one of the most ferocious and -unprincipled monsters that ever disgraced the name of soldier. This was -Colonel Kirke, who had been governor of Tangier until it was abandoned, -and now practised the cruelties that he had learned in his unrestrained -command there. In that Settlement, left to do his licentious will on -those in his power, he acquired a name for arbitrary, oppressive, and -dissolute conduct, which in ordinary times would have insured his -death. He now commanded the demoralised soldiers that he had brought -back with him, and who, whilst they were capable of every atrocity, -were called "Kirke's lambs," because, as a Christian regiment sent -against the heathen, they bore on their banner the desecrated sign of -the Lamb. His debauched myrmidons were let loose on the inhabitants -of Somersetshire, and such as they could not extort money from, they -accused on the evidence of the most abandoned miscreants, and hanged -and quartered, boiling the quarters in pitch, to make them longer -endure the weather on their gibbets. The most horrible traditions -still remain of Kirke and his lambs. He and his officers are said to -have caused the unhappy wretches brought in, who were not able to -pay a heavy ransom, to be hanged on the sign-post of the inn where -they messed, and to have caused the drums to beat as they were in the -agonies of death, saying they would give them music to their dancing. -To prolong their sufferings, Kirke would occasionally have them cut -down alive, and then hung up again; and such numbers were quartered, -that the miserable peasants compelled to do that revolting work, were -said to stand ankle deep in blood. All this was duly reported to the -king in London, who directed Lord Sunderland to assure Kirke that -"he was very well satisfied with his proceedings." It was asserted in -London that in the single week following the battle, Kirke butchered a -hundred of his victims, besides pocketing large sums for the ransom of -others, yet he declared that he had not gone to the lengths to which -he was ordered. On the 10th of August he was sent for to Court, to -state personally the condition of the West, James being apprehensive -that he had let the rich delinquents escape for money, and the system -of butchery was left to Colonel Trelawny, who continued it without -intermission, soldiers pillaging the wretched inhabitants, or dragging -them away to execution under the forms of martial law. But a still -more sweeping and systematic slaughter was speedily initiated under a -different class of exterminators--butchers in ermine. - -[Illustration: MONMOUTH'S INTERVIEW WITH THE KING. (_See p._ 303.)] - -Lord Chief Justice Jeffreys, the most diabolical judge that ever sat on -the bench--now rendered furious by nightly debauch and daily commission -of cruelties; in his revels hugging in mawkish and disgusting fondness -his brutal companions; in his discharge of his judicial duties passing -the most barbarous sentences in the most blackguard and vituperative -language; in whose blazing eye, distorted visage, and bellowing voice -raged the unmitigated fiend,--was sent forth by his delighted master -to consummate his vengeance on the unhappy people whom the soldiers -had left alive and cooped up in prison. He was already created Baron -of Wem, dubbed by the people Earl of Flint, and, the Lord Keeper just -now dying, he was promised the Great Seal if he shed blood enough to -satisfy his ruthless king. Four other judges were associated with him, -rather for form than for anything else, for Jeffreys was the hardened, -daring, and unscrupulous instrument on whom James confidently relied. - -Jeffreys' Bloody Assize, as it was then and always has been termed, -both from its wholesale slaughter and from the troops which accompanied -him throughout the circuit--a name constantly used by the unfeeling -king himself--was opened at Winchester on the 27th of August, and -commenced with a case of hitherto unexampled ruthlessness. Mrs. Alice -Lisle--or, as she was generally called, Lady Alice, her husband, -one of the judges of Charles I., having been created a lord by -Cromwell--was now an infirm and aged woman, deaf and lethargic. Her -husband had been murdered, as we have related, by the Royalists, as -he was entering the church at Lausanne. Lady Alice was known far and -wide for her benevolence. Though her husband was on the other side, she -had always shown active kindness to the followers of the king during -the Civil War, and on this account, after her husband's death, his -estate had been granted to her. During the rebellion of Monmouth her -son had served in the king's army against the invader; yet this poor -old lady was now accused of having given a night's shelter to Hicks, -a Nonconformist minister, and Nelthorpe, a lawyer, outlawed for his -concern in the Rye House Plot. They were fugitives from Sedgemoor, -and the law of treason was that he who harbours a traitor is liable -to death, the punishment of a traitor. Mrs. Lisle had no counsel, and -pleaded that though she knew that Hicks was a Presbyterian minister, -she did not know that he and Nelthorpe were concerned in the rebellion, -and there was no direct proof of the fact. - -Jeffreys terrified the witnesses, and then came the turn of the jury. -They retired to consult, but not coming to a speedy conclusion, for -they were afraid of the judge, and yet loth to condemn the prisoner, -Jeffreys sent them word that if they did not agree he would lock them -up all night. They then came into court and expressed their doubts of -Mrs. Lisle knowing that Hicks had been with Monmouth. Jeffreys told -them that their doubt was altogether groundless, and sent them back -to agree. Again they returned, unable to get rid of their doubt. Then -Jeffreys thundered against them in his fiercest style, and declared -that were he on the jury, he would have found her guilty had she been -his own mother. At length the jury gave way and brought in a verdict -of guilty. The next morning Jeffreys pronounced sentence upon her amid -a storm of vituperation against the Presbyterians, to whom he supposed -Mrs. Lisle belonged. He ordered her, according to the rigour of the old -law of treason, to be burned alive that very afternoon. - -This monstrous sentence thoroughly roused the inhabitants of the -place; and the clergy of the cathedral, the staunchest supporters of -the king's beloved arbitrary power, remonstrated with Jeffreys in such -a manner, that he consented to a respite of five days, in order that -application might be made to the king. The clergy sent a deputation to -James, earnestly interceding for the life of the aged woman, on the -ground of her generous conduct on all occasions to the king's friends. -Ladies of high rank, amongst them the Ladies St. John and Abergavenny, -pleaded tenderly for her life. Feversham, moved by a bribe of a -thousand pounds, joined in the entreaty, but nothing could move that -obdurate heart, and all the favour that James would grant her was that -she should be beheaded instead of burnt. Her execution, accordingly, -took place at Winchester on the 2nd of September, and James II. won -the unenviable notoriety of being the only tyrant in England, however -implacable, who had ever dyed his hands in woman's blood for the -merciful deed of attempting to save the lives of the unfortunate. What -made this case worse was, that neither Hicks nor Nelthorpe had yet been -tried, so that the trial of Mrs. Lisle was altogether illegal, and the -forcing of the jury completed one of the most diabolical instances of -judicial murder on record. - -From Winchester Jeffreys proceeded to Dorchester. He came surrounded -by still more troops, and, in fact, rather like a general to take -bloody vengeance, than as a judge to make a just example of the guilty, -mingled with mercy, on account of the ignorance of the offenders. The -ferocious tyrant was rendered more ferocious, from his temper being -exasperated by the agonies of the stone which his drunken habits had -inflicted on him. He had the court hung with scarlet, as if to announce -his sanguinary determination. When the clergyman who preached before -him recommended mercy in his sermon, he was seen to make a horrible -grimace, expressive of his savage disdain of such a sentiment. It was -whilst preparing to judge the three hundred prisoners collected there, -that he received the news of his elevation to the woolsack. He had -received orders from James to make effectual work with the rebels, and -he now adopted a mode of despatching the unhappy wretches in wholesale -style. As it would be a very tedious work to try all that number one by -one, he devised a more expeditious plan. He sent two officers to them -into the prison, offering them mercy or certain death. All who chose -to make confession of their guilt should be treated with clemency, -all who refused should be led to immediate execution. His clemency -amounted to a respite of a day or two--he hanged them all the same. -Writing to Sunderland, Jeffreys said on the 16th of September:--"This -day I began with the rebels, and have despatched ninety-eight." Of the -three hundred, two hundred and ninety-two received sentence of death. -Eighty only were hanged, the rest were, for the most part, sent to the -Plantations as slaves. - -From Dorchester he went to Exeter, where two hundred and forty-three -prisoners awaited their doom. He proceeded in the same way, and -condemned the whole body in a batch, and as they saved him much -trouble, he did not hang so many of them. Taunton, the capital of -Somersetshire, the county where the rebellion was the strongest, -presented him with no fewer than a thousand prisoners. Here he -perfectly revelled in his bloody task. The work seemed to have the -effect of brandy or champagne upon him. He grew every day more -exuberant and riotous. He was in such a state of excitement from -morning to night, that many thought him drunk the whole time. He -laughed like a maniac, bellowed, scolded, cut his filthy jokes on -the astounded prisoners, and was more like an exulting demon than a -man. There were two hundred and thirty-three prisoners hanged, drawn, -and quartered in a few days. The whole number hanged in this bloody -campaign has been variously stated at from three to seven hundred. -Probably the medium is the most correct. But so many were hung in -chains, or their jointed quarters and limbs displayed on the highways, -village greens, and in the market-places, that the whole country -was infected with the intolerable stench. Some of their heads were -nailed on the porches of parish churches; the whole district was a -perfect Golgotha. It was in vain that the most distinguished people -endeavoured to check the infuriated judge's rage; he only turned his -evil diatribes on them, and gave them what he called "a lick with the -rough side of his tongue." Because Lord Stowell, a Royalist, complained -of the remorseless butchery of the poor people of his neighbourhood, he -gibbeted a corpse at his park gate. - -The fate of the transported prisoners was worse than death itself. They -were eight hundred and forty in number, and were granted as favours -to the courtiers. Jeffreys estimated that they were, on an average, -worth from ten pounds to fifteen pounds apiece to the grantee. They -were not to be shipped to New England or New Jersey, because the -Puritan inhabitants might have a sympathy with them on account of their -religion, and mitigate the hardship of their lot. They were to go to -the West Indies, where they were to be slaves, and not acquire their -freedom for ten years. They were transported in small vessels with all -the horrors of the slave trade. They were crowded so that they had not -room for lying down all at once; were never allowed to go on deck; -and in darkness, starvation, and pestiferous stench, they died daily -in such quantities that the loss of one-fifth of them was calculated -on. The rest reached the Plantations, ghastly, emaciated, and all but -lifeless. Even the innocent school girls, many under ten years of age, -at Taunton, who had gone in procession to present a banner to Monmouth, -at the command of their mistress, were not excused. The queen, who had -never preferred a single prayer to her husband for mercy to the victims -of this unprecedented proscription, was eager to participate in the -profit, and had a hundred sentenced men awarded to her, the profit -on which was calculated at one thousand pounds. Her maids of honour -solicited a share of this blood-money, and had a fine of seven thousand -pounds on these poor girls assigned to them. - -The only persons who escaped from this sea of blood were Grey, Sir -John Cochrane, who had been in Argyll's expedition, Storey, who had -been commissary to Monmouth's army, Wade, Goodenough, and Ferguson. -All these owed their escape to money or their secret services in -giving information against their old friends, except Ferguson, who by -some means escaped to the Continent. On the other hand, Bateman, the -surgeon who had bled Oates in Newgate after his scourging, and by his -attentions saved his life, was, for a mere duty of his profession, -arrested, tried, hanged, and quartered. - -James now seemed at the summit of his ambition. He had established an -actual reign of terror. The dreadful massacre of the West struck dumb -the most courageous, and this gloomy tyrant gave full play to his love -of cruelty. The Nonconformists were everywhere beset by informers, who -imprisoned, robbed, and abused them at pleasure. They could only meet -for worship in the most obscure places and in the most secret manner. -Their houses were broken into and searched on pretence of discovering -conventicles. Their ministers were seized and thrust into prison. -Baxter was there; Howe was obliged to escape abroad. Never, even in -the time of Laud, had the oppression been so universal and crushing. -All spirit of resistance appeared to be quenched in terror. The close -of the year 1685 was long remembered as one of indescribable and -unexampled depression and speechless misery. - -James, on the contrary, never was so triumphant. He believed that he -had now struck effectual terror into the country, and might rule at -will. He had increased the army, and openly declared the necessity of -increasing it further. He had in many instances dispensed with the -Test Act in giving many commissions in the army to Catholics, and he -resolved to abolish both that Act and the Habeas Corpus Act. His great -design was to restore the Roman religion to full liberty in England; -he believed that he was able now to accomplish that daring deed. -Parliament was to meet in the beginning of November, and he announced -to his Cabinet his intention to have the Test Act repealed by it, -or, if it refused, to dispense with it by his own authority. This -declaration produced the utmost consternation. Halifax, however, was -the only member who dared to warn him of the consequences, and avowed -that he would be compelled to oppose the measure. James endeavoured to -win him over to his views, but finding it vain, determined to dismiss -him from office. His more prudent Councillors cautioned him against -such an act on the eve of the meeting of Parliament, on the ground -that Halifax possessed great influence, and might head a dangerous -opposition. But James was the last man to see danger ahead, and Halifax -ceased to be President of the Council. The news was received with -astonishment in England, with exultation in Paris, and with discontent -at the Hague. - -The dismissal of Halifax produced a great sensation out of doors. The -Opposition gathered new courage. Danby and his party showed themselves -early to coalesce with the adherents of Halifax. The whispered -assurance that Halifax was dismissed for refusing to betray the Test -and Habeas Corpus Acts created general alarm, and even the leading -officers of the army did not hesitate to express their disapprobation. -Just at this crisis, only a week before Parliament would assemble, came -the news of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. This -Edict had been issued under the ministry of Richelieu, and had closed -the long and bloody war between Catholic France and its Protestant -subjects. Under certain restrictions the Huguenots were tolerated, -and were contented. But Louis, urged by the Jesuits, had long been -infringing on the conditions of the treaty. He had dismissed all -Huguenots from his service, had forbade them to be admitted to the -profession of the law, and compelled Protestant children to be educated -by Catholics. Now at length he abolished the Edict altogether, by which -the Huguenots were once more at the mercy of dragoons and ruffian -informers and constables. Their ministers were banished, their children -torn from them, and sent to be educated in convents. The unhappy people -seeing nothing but destruction before them, fled out of the kingdom -on all sides. No less than fifty thousand families were said to have -quitted France, some of them of high rank and name, the bulk of them -weavers in silk and stuffs, hatters, and artificers of various kinds. -Many settled in London, where they introduced silk weaving, and where -their descendants yet remain, still bearing their French names, in -Bethnal Green and Spitalfields. Others carried their manufacturing -industry to Saxony, and others emigrated to the Cape as vine growers. -France, by this blind act of bigotry, lost a host of her best citizens, -and had her arts carried to her rivals. - -This was a terrible blow to the scheme of James for restoring -Romanism to power in England. The people justly said, if a politic -monarch like Louis could not refrain at such a serious cost from -persecuting Protestants, what was England to expect should Romanism -gain the ascendency here, under a bigoted and narrow-minded king like -James? James himself saw the full extent of the, to him, inopportune -occurrence, and professed to join heartily in the universal outcry of -Europe, not excepting the very Pope himself, and Spain, the land of -Jesuits and inquisitions; for those parties who were suffering from -the aggressions of Louis found it, like James, convenient to make an -outcry. What more irritated James was an address which the French -clergy in a body had presented to Louis, applauding the deed and -declaring that the pious king of England was looking to Louis for his -aid in reducing his heretical subjects. This address was read with -astonishment and terror by the English people, and James hastened to -condemn the revocation of the Edict, and to promote and contribute to -the relief of the refugees who had sought shelter here. This affected -sympathy did not last long. - -On the 9th of November James met his Parliament. He congratulated them -on the suppression of the rebellion in the West, but observed that it -had shown how little dependence could be placed on the militia. It -would be necessary to maintain a strong regular force, and that would, -of course, require proportionate funds. He had, he observed, admitted -some officers to commissions who had not taken the test, but they were -such as he could rely on, and he was resolved to continue them there. -On their return to their House the Lords tamely voted him an address -of thanks, but with the Commons a demur on this head arose, and a -delay of three days was voted before considering an address. This was -ominous, and during the interval the ambassadors of Austria and the -Pope advised James not to quarrel with the Parliament. Barillon, on the -contrary, urged him towards the fatality, for which he required little -stimulus. If he quarrelled with his Parliament, he must become Louis's -slave, and leave Austria, Spain, and Italy at his mercy. When the -Parliament resumed the question, the members, both Whigs and Tories, -who were alike opposed to James's projected aggressions, carefully -avoided any irritating topic except that of the army. They took no -notice of the atrocities committed in the west; they did not revert to -the illegal practices by which members in the interest of Government -had been returned, but they skilfully proposed improvements in the -militia, so as to supersede the necessity of a standing army. When the -vote for Supply was proposed, the House carried a motion for bringing -in a Bill for rendering the militia more effective, and on this motion -Seymour of Exeter, a Tory, as well as Sir William Temple, and Sir John -Maynard, who had taken a leading part in the Parliamentary struggle -against Charles I., and was now upwards of eighty years of age, took -part: several officers of the army, including Charles Fox, Paymaster -of the Forces, voted on the popular side of the question. Of course -they were dismissed. But the House now having broken the ice, voted an -address to the king on the subject of maintaining inviolate the Test -Act. When they went into Committee for the Supply, the king demanded -one million two hundred thousand pounds, the House proposed four -hundred thousand pounds. They were afterwards willing to advance the -sum to seven hundred thousand pounds, but the Ministers put the motion -for the original sum to the vote, and were defeated. The next day the -Commons went in procession to Whitehall, with their address regarding -the test. James received them sullenly, and told them that whatever -they pleased to do, he would abide by all his promises. This was saying -that he would violate the Test Act as he had done. On returning to -their House, John Coke of Derby said he hoped they were all Englishmen, -and were not to be frightened from their duty by a few high words. As -the House had been careful to avoid any expressions disrespectful to -the king, they resented this manly but incautious speech, and committed -Coke to the Tower. The Court took courage at this proceeding, but -though the Commons had not all at once recovered their independent -tone, the discontent was strongly fermenting, and though Seymour had -at first in vain called on them to examine the abuses of the franchise -during the last election, they now took up the question, and Sir John -Lowther of Cumberland, another Tory member, headed this movement. The -same spirit in the same day broke out in the Lords. Though they had -voted thanks for the address, Halifax now contended that that was -merely formal, and the Earl of Devonshire, William Cavendish, the bosom -friend of Lord William Russell, and Viscount Mordaunt, afterwards -the celebrated Earl of Peterborough, proposed to consider the king's -speech, and vehemently denounced a standing army. What was still more -significant was, that Compton, the Bishop of London, a Royalist, and -the son of a Royalist--that Earl of Northampton who had fought for -Charles I.,--and who had, moreover, been the educator of the two -princesses, not only spoke for himself, but for the whole bench and -Church, and declared that the constitution, civil and ecclesiastic, -was in danger. Here was a quick end of the doctrine of Non-resistance. -Jeffreys endeavoured to reply to these ominous harangues, but the -bully of the bench, where he had it all his own way, here cut a very -different figure. He was scarified in a style of refined sarcasm, -against which his coarse Billingsgate was worse than harmless; it -recoiled upon his own head, and this brutal monster, cowardly as he was -insolent, sank prostrate before the whole House, and even gave way to a -dastardly flood of tears of shame. James, astonished and enraged, but -not warned by this first breath of the rising tempest, the next morning -hurried to the House of Lords and prorogued Parliament till the 10th of -February; but it never met again, being repeatedly prorogued, till the -national spirit arose which drove him from the throne. - -[Illustration: JUDGE JEFFREYS. (_After a Painting by Sir Godfrey -Kneller._)] - -The prorogation of Parliament was followed by the trial of three Whig -leaders of eminence. These were Gerard, Lord Brandon, the eldest son -of the Earl of Macclesfield, Hampden, the grandson of the patriot, and -Henry Booth, Lord Delamere. Hampden and Gerard were accused afresh of -having been concerned in the Rye House Plot, Delamere of having been -in league with Monmouth. Grey, Earl of Stamford, had been on the eve -of being tried by the Peers on a similar charge of concern in the Rye -House Plot, but the prorogation defeated that, and he was soon after -liberated. These were the men against whom Grey had been induced to -give information, and who, with Wade and Goodenough, were witnesses. -Hampden and Gerard were tried at the Old Bailey and condemned. But -Grey had stipulated that their lives should be safe, and they were -redeemed by their relatives at a heavy price. Delamere, as a peer of -the realm, was tried by a High Court of Peers, and as he was accused of -having been engaged with Monmouth, his life was in danger. Jeffreys was -appointed Lord High Steward, and he selected thirty peers as triers, -all of whom in politics were opposed to Delamere, and half of them -ministers and members of the royal household. He did not stop there, -but as he had a personal spite against Delamere for having complained -of him to Parliament when Chief Justice of Chester, and called him a -"drunken jackpudding," he did his best personally to condemn him. But -in spite of the murderous bias with which the villainous judge had -contrived the prisoner's death, the Lords Triers unanimously acquitted -him. This was a fact that equally electrified James and the country. -Both saw that there was a spirit abroad that was no longer to be -trifled with. The people openly rejoiced; the infatuated tyrant raged, -but took no warning. The very Tories who had carried the Crown hitherto -through every attempt, the Established Church which had preached -Non-resistance, saw the gulf, to the edge of which their principles had -brought them. Their loyalty paused at the threshold of Romanism, and -the destruction of the safeguards of the liberty of the subject. The -deadly artifices which an abandoned judge and a lawless monarch had -employed against the life of Delamere, might soon be practised against -every one of them. The spell of despotism, therefore, was broken. The -spirit of an unconquerable suspicion had reached the very cabinet and -the household of the Romish king, and his power was at an end. - -But the greater the danger the more recklessly the bigotry-blinded -monarch rushed upon it. His father had been bent on destroying the -Constitution, but stood firm to the Anglican Church; James was resolved -to root out both Church and Constitution together; but to his narrow -intellect it never occurred that if his father lost his head in -attempting half of this impossible enterprise, his danger was double -in aiming at the whole. At the very beginning of the year 1686 he took -a sudden stride in the direction of avowed Romanism, and during the -whole year he marched forward with an insane hardihood that struck the -boldest and most adventurous of his friends with consternation. The -fact as to whether Charles II. had died a Catholic or a Protestant was -still a matter of dispute. A few knew the truth, more surmised, but -the bulk of the people still believed him to have been a Protestant. -James determined to sweep away the remaining delusion. He therefore -brought forth the two papers from Charles's strong box, and challenged -the whole bench of bishops to refute them. He especially called on -Sancroft, the Archbishop of Canterbury, to do it; but as the Primate -from policy declined it, James took it for granted that they were -secretly admitted to be unanswerable. He therefore had them printed in -magnificent style, and appended to them his own signature, asserting -that they were his late brother's own composition, and left in his -own handwriting. He had this proof of Charles's Romanism distributed -liberally to his courtiers, to the prelates and dignitaries of the -Church, and amongst the people, even delivering them out of his coach -window to the crowds as he drove about. He thus at once made known that -his late brother had been secretly a Romanist, and that he was himself -an open and uncompromising one. - -His next step was to throw all the power of the Government into -the hands of the most unscrupulous Catholics. His brother-in-law, -Rochester, the Lord Treasurer, was nominally his Prime Minister, but -Sunderland and a knot of Catholics were the really ruling junto. -Sunderland, one of the basest men that ever crawled in the dust of a -Court's corruption, was the head of this secret cabal. Sunderland, in -the last reign, had been a violent Exclusionist. He had intrigued with -the Duchess of Portsmouth, through her, if possible, to bring Charles -to consent to this measure; but so soon as James was on the throne, he -became his most servile tool, declaring that as he had nothing to hope -but from the king's clemency and his own efforts to make compensation -for the past, James could have no more efficient servant. James, who -was a mean soul himself, did not spurn this meanness, but made use of -it, and truly Sunderland earned his dirty bread. Avarice was his master -vice, and he would have sold two souls for money if he had them. He -retained the post of President of the Council, and held with it his -old one of Secretary of State; whilst observing the course which James -was taking, he did not despair to wrest from the staunch Protestant -Rochester his still more lucrative office of Lord Treasurer. He had not -the foresight to perceive that the project which James entertained to -restore Romanism must bring speedy destruction on them all. This sordid -minister was, at the same time, in the pay of Louis, at the rate of six -thousand pounds a year, to betray all his master's most secret counsels -to him. - -With Sunderland were associated in the secret Romish junto--Sunderland -himself not being an avowed Catholic, but a private professor--some -of those Catholic lords who had been imprisoned on account of the -Popish plots--Arundel, Bellasis, and William Herbert, Earl of Powis. To -these were added Castlemaine, the man who for a title and revenue had -sold his wife to Charles II. He had been imprisoned, too, on account -of the Popish plot, and was ready to take vengeance by assisting to -destroy his Protestant enemies and their Church together. With him were -associated two of the most profligate and characterless men of that -profligate age--Jermyn, celebrated for his duels and his licentious -intrigues, and lately created by James Lord Dover, and a man familiarly -named Dick Talbot--whom James had also for these crimes, which were -merits in James's eyes, made Earl of Tyrconnel. These merits were, that -Talbot was ready for any service of unmanly villainy that his master -could desire. Like another prime favourite and associate of James, -Lord Chancellor Jeffreys, Tyrconnel was notorious for his drinking, -gambling, lying, swearing, bullying, and debauchery. He was equally -ready to lie away a woman's character or to assassinate a better man -than himself. In the last reign, when it was desired by the Court to -ruin the character of James's wife, Anne Hyde, that she might be got -rid of, he joined with Colonel Berkeley in the infamous assertion that -they had had the most familiar intrigues with her. When they did not -succeed with James, they as readily confessed that the whole was a lie. -A man with the least spark of honour in him would have remembered this -unpardonable villainy to his now deceased wife, and have banished the -wretch from Court. James promoted him, and made him one of his most -intimate companions. Tyrconnel offered to murder the Duke of Ormond, -and was rewarded for his readiness by being made commander of the -forces in Ireland; but his services were chiefly at present demanded at -Court. - -[Illustration: FOURPENNY PIECE OF JAMES II.] - -To this precious cabal was added Father Petre, the Jesuit Provincial, -brother of Lord Petre, and the organ of the Jesuits at Court. The Pope, -too, had his agents at Court, Adda, his nuncio, and a vicar-apostolic; -but these advocated cautious measures, for Innocent XI. had a difficult -card to play in the Popedom. Louis, the greatest of the Catholic kings, -was the most dangerous enemy of the temporal power of the Pope, as of -every other temporal power, and the Jesuits were all at variance with -him, because he leaned toward the Jansenist party, which at this time -was in the ascendency, through the triumphant attacks on the Jesuits by -Pascal in his "_Lettres Provinciales_." The Jesuits, on the contrary, -advocated all James's views. These generally subtle men seemed driven, -by their falling estimation all over Europe, to clutch at a hope of -power in England, and they had at all times been famed for their sly -policy of insinuation rather than for their caution and moderation when -successful. For their high-handed proceedings they had then, as they -have since, been driven again and again from almost every Christian -country. They did not display more than their ordinary foresight in the -affairs of James. - -But we should not possess a complete view of the position and character -of James's Court if we did not take in a few other actors--the French -king's agents, and the king's mistresses. To Barillon, who had so long -been ambassador at the English Court, and the agent of Louis's bribes, -the French king had sent over Bonrepaux; and whilst Barillon attached -himself to Sunderland and the secret Catholic cabal, Bonrepaux devoted -his attentions to Rochester and his section of the ministry, so that -Louis learned the minutest movements and opinions of both parties. -These parties, in their turn, made use of the king's mistresses; for -James, although in disposition the very opposite of Charles, was, -with all his morose profession of zealous piety, just as loose in his -adulteries. - -[Illustration: FIVE-GUINEA PIECE OF JAMES II.] - -With the aid of the Council of his Catholic cabal, James now began -in earnest to put down Protestantism in this kingdom, and restore -Romanism. As there was no hope of money from Parliament, he made his -peace with the King of France, stooped his shoulder to the burden, and -became once more a servant unto tribute. He abandoned all the best -interests of England, apologised to Louis for having received the -Huguenots, and took measures to defeat the very subscription in their -favour which he had commenced and recommended. He arrested John Claude, -one of the refugees who had published an account of the persecutions of -the Huguenots by Louis, and caused his book to be publicly burnt. In -spite of this and his open discouragement, the subscription amounted -to forty thousand pounds, but he took good care that the unfortunate -Huguenots should never get the money, by ordering every one who applied -for it to first take the Sacrament according to the Anglican ritual, -which he knew differed so much from their own mode, as to form an -effectual bar, which it did. And this was the man who complained of the -Test Act as a violation of conscience. He had himself dispensed with -this Act in defiance of the law, but he now sought to obtain a sanction -from the judges for the breach of the Act. To Parliament he durst not -appeal; he therefore called on the twelve judges to declare that he -possessed this dispensing power as part of his prerogative. The judges -to a man refused; he dismissed them and appointed more pliant ones. -But the law officers of the Crown were equally stubborn. Sawyer, the -Attorney-General, told the king that he dared not do it, for it was not -to abolish a statute, but the whole statute law from the accession of -Elizabeth. Sawyer was too useful to be dismissed, but Heneage Finch, -the Solicitor-General, was turned out, and Powis, a barrister of no -mark, was put in his place. A case was immediately tried in the Court -of King's Bench, to obtain the judges' sanction. Sir Edward Hales -was formally prosecuted for holding a commission in the army, being -a Catholic; but the Lord Chief Justice, Sir Edward Herbert, took the -opinion of the new judges upon it, which was, that the king possessed -the power to dispense with the Act, and judgment was given accordingly. -No sooner was James in possession of this decision of the King's Bench, -than he appointed the four Catholic lords of his secret cabal members -of the Privy Council--namely, Arundel, Bellasis, Powis, and Dover. - -Having perpetrated this daring act in the Council, James hastened to -exercise the same power in the Church. Encouraged by the known opinions -and intentions of the king, several clergymen who had outwardly -conformed to the Church of England and held livings, now threw off the -mask and proclaimed themselves of the Catholic Church, and applied -to James to authorise them still to hold their livings. These were -Obadiah Walker, Master of University College, Oxford; Boyce, Dean, and -Bernard, fellows of different colleges; and Edward Sclater, curate of -Putney and Esher. The king granted them dispensations to hold their -livings, despite their avowed conversion to the doctrines of another -Church, on the plea that he would not oppress their consciences. But -to support men in holding livings in a Church which they had abandoned -was so outrageous a violation of that Church's conscience, that it -was impossible long to be submitted to. James, in his very contracted -mind, imagined that, because the bishops and ministers had so zealously -advocated absolute submission to his will, they would practise it. -How little could he have read human nature. Of these sudden converts, -Sclater and Walker as suddenly reconverted themselves at the Revolution. - -James having now his hand in, went on boldly. He had permitted -professed converts to Catholicism to retain their Protestant livings, -he next appointed a Catholic to a Church dignity. John Massey, a Fellow -of Merton, who had gone over to Rome, was, in violation of every -local and national statute, appointed Dean of Christ Church. Massey at -once erected an altar and celebrated Mass in the cathedral of Christ -Church, and James told the Pope's nuncio that this should soon be -the case in Cambridge. It remained now only to fill the sees of the -Church with Catholic bishops as they fell vacant; and to enable him -to do that, it was necessary, in the first place, to possess himself -of a power in the Church like that which he had assumed in the State. -He must have a tribunal before which he could summon any refractory -clergy, as he could now by his pliant judges control any appeal to the -bench. He therefore determined to revive the Court of High Commission, -that terrible engine of the Tudors and the Stuarts, which the Long -Parliament had put down. This court had power not only to cite any -clergyman before it who dared to preach or publish anything reflecting -on the views or measures of the king, but "to correct, amend, and alter -the statutes of the universities, churches, and schools," or where the -statutes were bad to make new ones, and the powers of the Commission -were declared to be effectual for these purposes, "notwithstanding any -law or statute to the contrary." In fact, all the powers of the High -Commission were revived, and the old device and motto were adopted on -the seal. - -[Illustration: WINDSOR CASTLE, FROM THE BROCAS.] - -This was a direct and daring declaration of war on the Church. The -Act of Supremacy was thus turned against it, and every clergyman, -professor, and schoolmaster, from the Primate to the simple curate and -tutor, was laid at the mercy of this insane tyrant. The alarm of the -whole Court and country when this outstanding fact was made known, -was indescribable. The staunchest courtiers trembled at the temerity -of the monarch: the French ministers and the Jesuits alone applauded. -The new and terrible power of the tribunal was quickly brought into -play. The Commission was made known about the middle of July, and seven -commissioners were named. At their head stood Jeffreys, who was now to -display his truculent spirit in the character of a Grand Inquisitor. -The six other commissioners were Archbishop Sancroft, Bishops Crewe of -Durham and Sprat of Rochester, Lords Rochester, Sunderland, and the -Chief Justice Herbert. Sancroft excused himself from acting on the -plea of ill-health, and James in anger immediately ordered him to be -omitted in the summons to the Privy Council, saying, if his health were -too bad to attend the Commission, it was equally so to attend the -Council, and Cartwright, Bishop of Chester, was put on the Commission -in his stead. These pliant Churchmen and courtiers were quickly shown -what work they had to do. Amongst the clergymen who had ventured to -preach against the Roman Church, and to reply to the attacks which the -Romish preachers were now emboldened to make on the Anglican Church, -beginning at Whitehall itself, Sharp, Dean of Norwich, and one of -the royal chaplains, had been honest enough to defend his own faith, -and expose the errors of Rome, in a sermon at his own Church of St. -Giles's-in-the-Fields. Compton, the Bishop of London, was immediately -called upon by Sunderland to suspend him. But Compton, though he had -lately fallen under the royal displeasure for opposing James's designs -in the House of Lords, and had been dismissed from the Privy Council, -and from his post of Dean of the Royal Chapel, replied that he could -not suspend Sharp without hearing him in his defence. Thereupon Compton -was at once summoned before the new Commissioners. He demurred, -declared the Court illegal, that he was a prelate, and amenable only -to his peers in the Church, or, as lord of Parliament, to his peers in -Parliament. Consenting, however, at length to appear, he was abruptly -asked by Jeffreys why he had not suspended Sharp. Compton demanded a -copy of the Commission, to see by what right they summoned him. This -roused the base blood of Jeffreys, who began to insult the prelate, -as he had done many a good man before, declaring that he would take -another course with him; but the rest of the Commissioners recalled the -brutal bully to a sense of the respect due to the bishop. After the -hearing of the case, Rochester, Herbert, and Sprat declared for his -acquittal; but James, enraged at his Treasurer, vowed if he did not -give his vote against Compton, he would dismiss him from his office. -The place-loving minister gave way. Compton was suspended from his -spiritual functions, but dared the Court to touch his revenues; and the -Chief Justice warned James that did he attempt to seize them, he would -be defeated at common law. For awhile, therefore, James was obliged to -restrain his proceedings till, as he resolved, he had put the laws more -completely under his feet. - -But enough had already been done to produce a change such as never had -been seen in England since the days of Queen Mary. Encouraged by the -king's countenance and proceedings, the Catholics now openly set at -nought all the severe laws against them, their chapels, and priests. -Though it was still death by the law for any Romish clergyman to appear -in England, and all meetings of Catholics for worship were forbidden -under the severest penalties, the streets now swarmed with the clergy -in full canonicals, and Popish chapels were opened in every part of -the kingdom. The Protestant public gazed in astonishment at sights -which neither they nor their fathers had beheld in England. The frieze -cowls, and girdles of rope, crosses, and rosaries, passed before them -as apparitions of an almost fabulous time. James threw open the old -chapel at St. James's, where a throng of Benedictine monks located -themselves. He built for himself a public chapel at Whitehall, and -induced Sandford, an Englishman, but the envoy of the Prince Palatine, -to open a third in the City. A brotherhood of Franciscans established -themselves in Lincoln's Inn Fields; another of Carmelites appeared in -the City; a convent was founded in Clerkenwell, on the site of the -ancient cloister of St. John, and a Jesuit church and school were -opened in the Savoy, under a rector named Palmer. - -The same ominous change appeared all over the country, especially in -those districts where Catholics were numerous. But neither in town -nor country were the common people disposed to see the whole empire -of Popery thus restored. They assembled and attacked the Catholics -going into their chapels, insulted them, knocked down their crosses -and images, and turned them into the streets. Hence riots ran high and -fiercely in London, Worcester, Coventry, and other places. The Lord -Mayor ordered the chapel of the Prince Palatine in Lime Street to be -closed, but he was severely threatened by the king and Jeffreys. The -mob then took the matter into their hands; they attacked the chapel at -high Mass, drove out the people and priests, and set the cross on the -parish pump. It was in vain that the train bands were ordered out to -quell the riot; they refused to fight for Popery. - -But this spirit, which would have caused a wiser monarch to pause, -only incensed James, and he assembled an army of thirteen thousand -men on Hounslow Heath to overawe the City, and conveyed thither -twenty-six pieces of artillery, and ample supplies of ammunition from -the Tower. But it boded little prospect of support from his army that -the people of London immediately fraternised with it, and the camp -became the great holiday resort of all classes, resembling, in the -strange concourse of strange characters who appeared there, Schiller's -description of the camp of Wallenstein. James, however, was proud of -his army, and flattered himself that from his having formerly been a -general in the French service, he could command it to some purpose. But -there were as clever tacticians as himself at work. He allowed Mass -to be publicly celebrated in the tent of Lord Dumbarton, the second -in command, and this, with the known fact that many officers were -Catholics, and the sight of priests and friars strolling about amongst -the tents, roused the zeal of Protestant patriots. Foremost amongst -these was Dr. Samuel Johnson, who had been chaplain to Lord William -Russell, and was a man of liberal ideas of government, and a sturdy -champion of Protestantism. In the last reign he had written a severe -satire on James, under the title of "Julian the Apostate," in which he -drew a vigorous parallel between the Roman apostate and the English -one. Julian, according to him, an idolater even when he pretended not -to be, was a persecutor when he pretended freedom of conscience, and -robbed cities of their municipal charters, which were zealous for the -true faith. For this daring philippic he was prosecuted and imprisoned -in the King's Bench, but this did not prevent him from still making -war on the Popish prince. "Julian" Johnson, as he was called, had -found, while imprisoned in the King's Bench, congenial society in -the companionship of a fellow-prisoner, whose name was Hugh Speke. -This man, Speke, being of a gloomy, seditious temperament, furnished -"Julian" Johnson with money to print, and encouraged him by every kind -of argument in endeavouring to excite in the Hounslow camp an active -spirit of hostility to the Romish schemers. Thereupon Johnson wrote and -published a stirring address to the soldiers, which was distributed -in thousands amongst the army. There could be no mistake concerning -the style of this document, even if the writer and his friend had kept -their counsel, as they did not. The publication was speedily traced to -Johnson, who was thereupon brought up to the bar of the King's Bench, -and, after a long examination, condemned to stand three times in the -pillory, to be whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, and to pay a fine of -five hundred marks. - -Johnson was one of those sturdy, uncompromising reformers--always -found, like the petrel, just before the occurrence of a storm--who -are regarded with almost more terror and aversion by men of more -moderate views or weaker nerves, than by the national offenders whom -they attack. When assured by the judge that he might be thankful to -the Attorney-General that he had not arraigned him of high treason, he -indignantly replied that he thanked him not; that he did not consider -himself favoured by being degraded and whipped like a hound, when -Popish writers disseminated with impunity what they pleased. This -was denied by the Attorney-General and the bench; but Johnson was -prepared for them, and pulling a whole mass of such publications from -his pocket, which were issued by permission of the royal censor, he -read their titles aloud, saying, "There, let Mr. Attorney-General now -show whether he will do his duty by them." To spare the priesthood -degradation in the person of Johnson, he was cited, at the command of -the High Commission, before Crewe and Sprat, the royal Commissioners, -accompanied by the Bishops of Rochester and Peterborough, to the -chapter-house of St. Paul's, and personally degraded from his order. -In having the Bible taken from him in the ceremony, Johnson shed some -tears, but said, "You cannot deprive me of its blessed promises." He -received two hundred and seventeen lashes in enforcing his punishment, -but bore it stoutly, and declared that he could have sung a psalm had -he not deemed that it might appear like bravado. - -Though the clergy blamed Johnson, and stood aloof from him as a -firebrand, because he preached resistance to Popery, which they were -soon to do themselves, they were now loud in their pulpits in replying -to its attacks, and exposing its lying legends, and its mummery of -relics, its tricks of priestcraft, its denial of the Scriptures and -the Cup to the laity, the celibacy of the clergy, the abuse of the -confessional, and the idolatry of image worship, and prayers to saints. -Distinguished amongst these declaimers were Tillotson, Tenison, -Stillingfleet, Sherlock, Prideaux, Wake, Atterbury, and many lesser -lights in the pulpit. But this zeal was not confined to preachers, -for the printing presses of the Universities were kept constantly -going. The Catholics, under royal patronage, replied as actively, and -the war of pamphlets and pulpits foreshadowed a war of actual arms. -James, as blind to all signs of the times as his father had been, -went insanely on his way, now eagerly endeavouring to convert his -daughter Anne, and now as resolutely scheming to deprive his daughter -Mary of the succession. In Scotland and Ireland his crusade against -the constitution of the realm and the Protestant religion was equally -fierce and reckless. - -To Scotland James sent down orders to the Government to dispense with -the test and admit Catholics to all offices, and nothing was to be -published without the Chancellor's licence, so that no reflections -might be made on the Catholic religion or the king's order. The Duke of -Queensberry--who was Lord Treasurer, and therefore regarded as Prime -Minister--though a Tory, declared that he would not undertake to do -anything against the Protestant religion, but there were not wanting -sycophants who were ready to attempt just what the king pleased, in the -hope of supplanting Queensberry. These were Lord Perth, the Chancellor, -and his brother Lord Melfort, Secretary of State. They went over to -Romanism as a means of preferment, and were imitated by the Earl of -Murray, a descendant of the Regent, and a member of the Privy Council. -Perth opened a Catholic chapel in his house, and soon received a cargo -of priests' dresses, images, crosses, and rosaries. The incensed -mob attacked the house during Mass, tore down the iron bars from -the windows, chased the worshippers from their shrine, and pelted -Lady Perth with mud. The soldiers were called out, and considerable -bloodshed followed. James, irritated instead of being warned, sent -down orders to punish the rioters severely, to screen the Catholics -from penalties, and to renew the persecution of the Covenanters with -all rigour. Alarmed at these insensate commands, three members of the -Privy Council--the Duke of Hamilton, Sir George Lockhart, and General -Drummond--hastened up to London to explain to James the impossibility -of enforcing them, but made no impression. - -On the 29th of April the time arrived for the meeting of the Scottish -Parliament, when a letter from James was read calling on the Estates to -pass a Bill freeing the Catholics from all penalties; but so far from -the Parliament accepting such a proposition, the Lords of the Articles, -whose business it was to introduce the propositions for new measures, -and who had been chosen by James himself, declined to comply with the -proposal. In vain they were urged by Perth, Melfort, and Murray; they -remained refractory for three weeks, and then only dared to recommend -that the Catholics should be permitted to worship in their own houses. -But even this the Parliament would not consent to, and, after a week's -debate, threw out even this very much modified scheme. James, who had -during this discussion seen the intense anxiety in England to learn -the news of the progress of the debate, perpetrated one of the most -audacious acts of arbitrary power that modern times have witnessed. -He sent for the mail bags from the North regularly, and detained all -correspondence thence till the matter was ended. No single Scottish -letter was issued in London for a whole week. - -When at last the news, in spite of him, burst forth amid loud -rejoicings, he was enraged, but, like his father, he declared that -he would do by his own royal authority what he wanted; that he had -been only foolish in asking for what the Act of Supremacy gave him in -Scotland as perfectly as in England. He therefore launched the bolts -of his vengeance at those who had disputed his will. Queensberry was -dismissed from all his offices, the Bishop of Dunkeld ejected from his -see, and crowds of Papists were appointed to the posts of those who -had refused to obey the royal mandate. Without the ceremony of an Act -of Parliament, James proceeded to usurp the rights of boroughs, and -to appoint provosts and town councillors at his will; he ordered the -judges to declare all the laws against Catholics void, and announced -his intention of fitting up a Roman Catholic chapel in Holyrood. These -measures struck a momentary terror and deep silence into the Scottish -people, but it was only the silence preceding the storm. - -In Ireland James had a preponderating body of Catholics eager to -receive justice and the restoration of their estates at his hands. -But only a wise and cautious monarch could succeed in making decent -recompense to the native Irish for their many sufferings and -spoliations. Their lands, by the Act of Settlement, were for the most -part in the hands of a sturdy race of Englishmen, both Episcopalians -and Presbyterians, who had been placed there at successive periods, -and extensively by the Commonwealth. To announce that he would repeal -this Act, and reinvest the natives with their ancient demesnes, was at -once to rouse to arms a body of such pluck and nerve as the Celtic race -had no chance with, notwithstanding their numbers. At the news that -the Act was to be revoked, and the Church and Government of Ireland -to be put into the hands of Catholics, the timid English gentry fled, -the trade of the island received a paralysing blow, and the sturdy -Saxon population prepared not only to defend their possessions, but to -exterminate, if necessary, the aboriginal tribes. - -Clarendon, the Lord-Lieutenant, the brother of Rochester, the Prime -Minister of England, in great alarm wrote to James, detailing the -immediate effects of this announcement; but James persisted in his -obstinate course. He declared that the Protestants were his enemies, -and that it was necessary to fortify himself with his friends; that -his father had lost his head by conceding--he should have said by -conceding too late,--and that he would concede nothing. He went on -putting Catholics into the Privy Council, into the corporations and -the army, dismissing Protestants to make room for them. He then sent -out Tyrconnel, as his unscrupulous instrument, to occupy the post -already his, of head of the army; he was at the same time furnished -with instructions to take virtually all the functions of government -into his hands, and reduce Clarendon to a cipher. Clarendon, like -all the Hydes, was meanly attached to office and its emoluments, or -he would at once have resigned rather than suffer the indignity of -beholding his office usurped by a bullying ruffian like Tyrconnel. -This desperate gambler, duellist, and debauchee, soon began to talk -of the Act of Settlement as a damned and villainous thing; set about -remodelling the army so as to exclude all Protestants, and replace them -by Catholics; officers and men of the Protestant faith were dismissed -by wholesale; he was in league with the priests to drill the entire -Papist population, so as to confer the whole power of the island on -them, and place every Protestant throat at their mercy. In a very few -weeks he had introduced two thousand Popish soldiers into the army, -and gave out that by Christmas the whole of the troops would be native -Catholic. In the Church and the State he pushed on rudely the same -measures, and with a violence of conduct and of language which appeared -more like drunken madness than anything else. Taking the cue from him, -and instructed by the priests, everybody treated Clarendon with marked -insult and contempt. Still clinging meanly to office, he appealed to -his brother in London to obtain for him more honourable treatment, but -was thunderstruck by the news that Rochester himself had been dismissed. - -[Illustration: PARLIAMENT HALL, EDINBURGH.] - -Rochester, the champion to whom the Protestants of the Anglican Church -looked up for aid, had, as miserably as his brother, disgraced himself -by suffering his honour to be compromised by the love of office and -income. He saw the career which James was running, and which no -remonstrance or popular menace could arrest, and instead of resigning -with dignity when his counsels became useless, he had even flattered -James with the hope of his conversion. But he did not deceive the -Jesuit Cabal which surrounded and governed James. They assured the -king that nothing would ever make Rochester a genuine supporter of -Catholic views, and the sooner he cut himself loose from the connection -the better. Accordingly, on the 19th of December, the king, with many -professions of regard, took from his brother-in-law Rochester the -Treasurer's staff, but softened his fall by granting him out of Lord -Grey's estate lands to the yearly value of seventeen hundred pounds, -and an annuity of four thousand pounds for his own life and that of -his son. He was spared also the mortification of seeing his rival -Sunderland invested with his office; the Treasurership was put in -commission; Lord Arundel received the Privy Seal, and Bellasis was -made First Lord of the Treasury, whilst Dover, a ruined gambler, and -Godolphin received places at the board. - -The fall of Clarendon followed rapidly on that of Rochester. On the -8th of January, 1687, he received the order to resign his post to -Tyrconnel. Such was the panic at this news, that no less than fifteen -hundred families of gentlemen, merchants, and tradesmen, are said to -have fled from Dublin to England in a week, and a reign of terror -commenced all over Ireland. The known intentions of the king, and the -character of his Lord-Lieutenant, were the signals for proscription -to all Protestants, and they were turned out of the army, the offices -of State, from the bench, and the magistracy, with an indecency which -astonished the moderate Catholics themselves. Law and justice appeared -to be at an end. The worst passions of a population long loaded with -every species of injustice were let loose, and the once dominant race -now saw themselves the objects of unconcealed hatred and recrimination. -The wild population drove off their cattle, set fire to their houses, -and the newly-raised soldiery devoted themselves with the gusto of -vengeance to pillaging, murdering, and outraging the Protestant -settlers with a frightful exultation. - -Such were the ominous circumstances under which the year 1687 opened. -By driving from him his relatives, the Hydes, James had severed the -last ties between him and Protestantism; had demolished the last -guarantees of Protestant security. The whole Protestant public, and -many of the more clear-sighted Catholics, looked forward with an awful -sense of impending mischief, and they were only too correct in their -apprehensions. - -James was determined to push forward his schemes for the restoration of -Romanism in defiance of every long-cherished prejudice of the people, -and of every constitutional principle. Besides the conversions which -interest had made amongst the courtiers, there were a few other persons -of more or less distinction who for royal favour had apostatised, -but the number was most insignificant. The Earl of Peterborough, -and the Earl of Salisbury--the descendant of Cecil, Elizabeth's -minister,--had embraced Catholicism, and amongst literary men some -half dozen. There were Wycherley, the obscene dramatist, Haines, a low -comedian, and Tindal, who afterwards became a professed deist; but the -most remarkable and deplorable instance was that of the poet Dryden. -Dryden had sufficiently degraded his fine talents by plays and other -compositions which could not be read now without a blush; but his -compliance with the impure taste of the age had not enriched him. He -enjoyed a pension of one hundred pounds a year from Charles, but that -expired with Charles, and James, on renewing it, withdrew the usual -butt of sack which accompanied it. After that no further notice was -taken of the poet who had rendered such services to the royal cause, -and, pressed by his needs, Dryden declared himself a Papist, and was -speedily rewarded by royal notice and emolument. Henceforward his pen -was employed to defend the royal religion, and the most remarkable -result of his labours remains in his celebrated poem of "The Hind and -Panther." - -Slight as were these triumphs over the steadfast minds of Englishmen, -James began now to be aware that he must win over bodies which he -really hated, and had hitherto persecuted with all his might, if he -meant to succeed. We have had occasion to relate the horrible cruelties -and sanguinary ferocity with which he had pursued the Covenanters in -Scotland and the Puritans in England, but he now deemed it necessary -to pretend himself their friend. The Church had so uniformly and -vehemently proclaimed the doctrine of Non-resistance, that he -imagined he was pretty sure of it; but in Scotland and England the -Nonconformists were a numerous and sturdy race, and danger from them -might be apprehended in case Romanism was too exclusively reinstated. -He therefore concluded to make his approaches to this object by -feigning a love of religious liberty. He commenced first in Scotland -by issuing a Declaration of Indulgence, on the 12th of February, -1687, but with an avowal of absolutism and a niggardly concession of -religious liberty, which were not likely to be very gratefully received -by the Scots. "We, by our sovereign authority, prerogative royal and -absolute power, do hereby give and grant our royal toleration. We allow -and tolerate the modern Presbyterians to meet in their private houses, -and to hear such ministers as have been or are willing to accept of our -indulgence; but they are not to build meeting-houses, but to exercise -in houses. We tolerate Quakers to meet in their form in any place or -places appointed for their worship; and we, by our sovereign authority, -suspend, stop, and disable all laws and Acts of Parliament made and -executed against any of our Roman Catholic subjects, so that they shall -be free to exercise their religion and to enjoy all; but they are to -exercise in houses or chapels; and we cass, disannul, and discharge all -oaths by which our subjects are disabled from holding offices." - -Thus James had declared himself absolute, above all laws, and at -liberty to discharge any Act of Parliament. The same breath which gave -a decree of religious liberty, annihilated every other liberty, and -made the whole nation dependent on the will of one man. But whilst thus -sweeping away all the labours of all past Parliaments at his pleasure, -he with an inconsistency which betrayed a secret feeling that the power -of Parliament was not so easily set aside, even then contemplated -calling Parliament together if he could have but a prospect that it -would confirm what he had done in Scotland, and proposed immediately -to do in England. He therefore commenced a system of what has been -called "closetings." He sent for the Tory members of Parliament, who -were in town, one by one, and taking them into his closet at Whitehall, -tried by personal persuasions and by bribes--for though dreadfully -penurious, he now all at once became liberal of promises, and tolerably -liberal of money--and entreated the members to oblige him by voting for -the abolition of the laws against Catholics, which he told them had -been, in truth, directed against himself; and whilst he promised, he -threatened, too, in case his wishes were not complied with. Whilst he -made this experiment in town, the judges now on circuit were ordered to -send for the members in the country to the different county towns, and -use the same persuasions. The result was by no means satisfactory. If -there was one feeling stronger than another which had taken possession -of the public mind, it was, then and long after, that the Catholics -were not to be trusted with power, and that to grant them opportunity -would be to restore the horrors of Queen Mary's days. James himself -met with some signal rebuffs, and in every instance he dismissed the -refusers from any office that they held; amongst them Herbert, Master -of the Robes, and Rear-Admiral of England. - -As no good was to be obtained from Parliament, he at once prorogued it -again till November, asserting that he would grant toleration on his -own authority; and on the 8th of April he issued his "Declaration of -Indulgence for England." This Declaration, though in not quite positive -and reiterated terms, set forth the same principle of absolutism, and -independence of Parliament. "We have thought fit, by virtue of our -royal prerogative, to issue forth this our declaration of indulgence, -making no doubt of the concurrence of our two Houses of Parliament -when we shall think it convenient for them to meet." He made no secret -in it of wishing to see Catholicism the religion of the land; but, -as the people did not seem willing to accept it, he had resolved to -give to all professions of religion the same freedom. He talked like -a philosopher about the virtues and justice of entire toleration, -and the impolicy as well as injustice of persecution--conveniently -ignoring that his practice, whenever he had had the power, had been in -direct opposition to these smooth maxims. He not only then proceeded -to abolish all the penal acts which had ever been passed, giving -free right of worship, public or private, to all denominations, but -denounced the utmost vengeance of the laws against any one who should -disturb any congregation or person in the exercise of their religion. - -The substance of the Declaration was admirable; it was so because it -was the Christian truth; but the deed had two defects, and they were -fatal ones. It was granted at the expense of the whole Constitution; -and to admit that it was valid was to abandon Magna Charta and the -Petition of Right, and accept instead the arbitrary will of the -monarch. The second and equally fatal objection was that every one -knew, from James's practice, and his proved deceitfulness, and his -obstinate persistency, that the whole was but a snare to introduce -Romanism, and then tread down every other form of religion. James -boasted to the Pope's nuncio that the Declaration would be a great -blow, and that in a general liberty of conscience the Anglican Church -would go down, for persecution of the Dissenters would then be revenged -upon her, and, unsupported by the Crown, she would meet with deserved -contempt. And, had the toleration been legitimately obtained and -guaranteed, after the servile conduct of the Church at that time, -this might have been the case. The Dissenters had every reason to be -thankful for toleration. They had been trodden down by the Anglican -hierarchy; they had been dragged before the arbitrary High Commission, -and plundered and imprisoned at pleasure. The bishops had supported -every unrighteous act against them--the Conventicle Acts, the Test Act, -the Five-Mile Act, the Act of Uniformity; and now they could enjoy -their property, the peace of their firesides, their liberty, and their -worship in the open sight of God and man. These were great boons, and, -therefore, a great number of Nonconformists expressed their gratitude -for them. The Quakers in particular sent up a grateful address, which -was presented by Penn with an equally warm speech; but both they and -the other Dissenters restricted themselves to thanking James for the -ease they enjoyed, without going into the question of his right to -grant it. Some few individuals, in their enthusiasm, or worked upon by -the Court, went beyond this; but the general body of the Nonconformists -were on their guard, and some of the most eminent leaders refused even -to address the king in acknowledgment of the boon. Amongst these were -Baxter, who had been so ignominiously treated by Jeffreys; Howe, who -had had to flee abroad; and Bunyan, who had suffered twelve years' -imprisonment for his faith; they boldly reminded their followers of the -unconstitutional and, therefore, insecure basis on which the relief -rested; that a Protestant successor might come--even if before that -Popery, grown strong, had not crushed them--and again subject them to -the harsh dominance of the Anglican hierarchy. - -No exertions were omitted to induce the Dissenters to send up -addresses; and they were actively canvassed by members of their -different bodies, as Carr, Alsop, Lobb, and Rosewell, the last of whom -was liberated from prison for the purpose. James took care to throw -all the blame of the past persecutions on the Church, which, he said, -had been at the bottom of all those councils. The Church, on the other -hand, deserted by the Crown, retorted the accusation, and attributed -every act of persecution to the Government, to which it professed -unwillingly to have submitted. Thus was seen the edifying sight of the -two arch-oppressors quarrelling, and in their bitter recriminations -letting out the confession that they both knew very well how base and -un-Christian their conduct had been. - -But there was a third party to which all alike looked with anxiety in -this crisis, and this consisted of William of Orange and his wife. As -Protestants, and the probable successors of James, if they approved -of the Indulgence, they would greatly strengthen the king; if they -disapproved of it altogether, it would give a shock to the Protestant -interest in England. But William was too politic not to see all the -bearings of the question, and he and the princess jointly avowed their -entire approval of complete toleration of all phases of the Christian -religion, but their disapproval of the illegal means by which James -aimed to effect it, and of Catholics being admitted to place and power. -These were precisely the views of the great majority of Englishmen; -and accordingly James sank still deeper in public odium on this -publication, and William and Mary rose in popularity. They seized the -opportunity to organise a most powerful party in their favour, and -thus pave the way to an accession to the throne, which their sagacity -assured them would much sooner arrive than the natural demise of the -king. Mary has been censured for so readily uniting in a plan to drive -her father from the throne. So long as the policy of James promised -a continuance of his power, no steps were taken by Mary to supersede -him; so soon as it became evident that no earthly power, to say nothing -of justice or right, could keep him on the throne, it became a mere -act of prudence to take care that no alien interest usurped her own. -That Mary contemplated or committed any act of personal cruelty or -harshness towards her father beyond securing her succession against an -intruder, remains to be shown. Her husband, with all his virtues, was -not proof against allowing, if not perpetrating, questionable acts; -and he had been so jealous of his dignity and power, that for years -he brooded in gloomy discontent on the prospect of Mary's succession -to the crown of England without his having any claim to share it, not -even communicating his splenetic feeling to her. But this secret was -penetrated by Burnet, explained to Mary and, through her generosity, -at once the difficulty was dissipated by her engaging to admit him to -a full share of her hereditary authority. From that moment William -redoubled his zeal to secure the succession; but there is no question -that Mary exerted her filial regard to secure her father against any -personal injustice. - -[Illustration: JOHN DRYDEN. (_After the Portrait by Sir Godfrey -Kneller._)] - -William now despatched to England orders to his ambassador, Dykvelt, -to use his endeavours to knit up the different sections of the -discontented into one paramount interest in his favour. The scattered -elements of an overwhelming power lay around the throne, which James, -by his blind folly and tyranny, had made hostile to himself, and -prepared ready to the hand of a master to combine for his destruction. -Danby, who had fallen in the late reign for his opposition to the -French influence, and who had been the means of uniting Mary to -William, had regained extensive influence amongst both Tories and -Whigs, and was driven by James into determined opposition. Halifax, -who had been the chief champion of James's accession by opposing the -Exclusion Bill, and whose dangerous eloquence made him especially -formidable, had been dismissed and neglected by him. Finch, Earl of -Nottingham, a zealous Tory and Churchman, and one of the most powerful -orators of the House of Lords, he made his enemy by his dismissal -of his younger brother from the post of Solicitor-General for not -acquiescing in the king's dispensing powers, and by his attacks on the -Church and the Constitution. The Earl of Devonshire he had managed, by -imprisonment and a monstrous fine, equally to disgust; and the Earl -of Bedford he had completely alienated by the execution of his son, -Lord William Russell. Compton, the Bishop of London; Herbert, lately -Rear-Admiral of England; Clarendon, Rochester, Lumley, Shrewsbury, -had all, by a most insensate folly, been offended by dismission and -private injuries. There was not a man of any talent or influence whom -this fatuous tyrant had not driven from him in his obstinate resolve to -set Romanism and despotism along with him on the throne, except Lord -Churchill, upon whom he continued to heap favours, but who was too -worldly-wise not to see that his benefactor was running headlong to -ruin, and who was by no means the man to share ruin out of gratitude. -Dykvelt executed his mission so well, that in four months he returned -to the Hague with a packet of letters in his possession from all those -noblemen, bishops, and others, including Admiral Russell, the cousin -of the decapitated Lord William Russell, promising William their most -enthusiastic support. From the Princess Anne, who was bound up heart -and soul with Churchill and his clever wife--afterwards the celebrated -Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough--her sister Mary also received the most -cordial assurances that nothing should induce her to abandon her -religion, or her attachment to her sister's rights. - -Dykvelt returned from England on the 9th of June; and, to continue -the effect produced in that country, on the 8th of August another -agent in the person of General Zulestein was despatched thither. His -ostensible mission was to offer an address of condolence on the death -of the queen's mother, the Duchess of Modena; but his real one was to -strengthen the connection with the malcontents, which he could the more -unsuspectedly do from his military character, and from his having taken -no particular part in diplomacy. Zulestein was completely successful; -but these proceedings could not entirely escape James or his envoy at -the Hague, the Catholic Marquis of Abbeville, who succeeded in getting -Burnet, the active adviser of William, removed from open intercourse -with the Court. But Burnet was still not far off, and through his chief -counsellors, Bentinck and Halweyn, William still consulted with him -on every step of the plans regarding England. James also sought to -reach William through Stewart, a Scottish lawyer, who had fled from -his persecutions of the Covenanters to the Hague, but who, on the -appearance of the Declaration of Indulgence, most suddenly went to the -king's side, in hopes of promotion. Stewart wrote a letter to Fagel, -the Grand Pensionary, who had great influence with William, which he -confessed was at the suggestion of the king, strongly urging him to -use his power with William to persuade him to support James's act; but -Fagel, with a dexterous policy, replied in another letter, stating that -the prince and princess were advocates for the most ample toleration, -but not for the abolition of the Test, or of any other Act having -the inviolability of the Anglican Church for its object. This was -calculated to satisfy the Catholics of every privilege which they could -reasonably expect from the laws and the public opinion of England, -whilst it fully assured the Church of its safety under William and Mary. - -Every fresh movement thus contributed to strengthen the position of -William, and to show to James, had he had sufficient mind to comprehend -it, how completely his conduct had deprived him of the confidence of -his subjects. Even the Pope took no pains to conceal how suicidal he -deemed his policy. He would have sufficiently rejoiced in any rational -prospect of the return of England to the Church of Rome, but he was not -dull enough to imagine the sentiment of the king the sentiment of the -nation; on the contrary, he was persuaded that the rash cabals of the -Jesuits were inevitably hastening a crisis which must the more deeply -root the Anglican antipathy to Popery. James had despatched Castlemaine -as ambassador to Rome with a splendid retinue. It was not enough -that this open affront was done to his country by sending a Catholic -ambassador to the Pope, and in the person, too, of a man who had no -distinction except the disgraceful one of having purchased his title by -the prostitution of his wife; but Castlemaine was deputed to solicit a -dispensation from Innocent for Father Petre to receive the Episcopal -dignity, which was forbidden to a Jesuit. James contemplated nothing -less than making Petre Archbishop of York, which see he kept vacant -for the purpose; but the Pope was too much at enmity with the Jesuits, -as well as with James for his impolitic conduct, and his alliance with -the great French aggressor, to concede any such favour. Castlemaine, -who was living in pomp at Rome, threatened to take his departure if -this request was not granted, and Innocent only sarcastically replied -by bidding him start in the cool of the morning, and take care of his -health on the journey. - -This discourtesy shown him by the head of that religion for which he -was putting everything to the hazard, had, however, only the effect of -further raising the pugnacity of James. He determined only the more to -honour and exalt Popery in England. The nuncio, Adda, had been made -Archbishop of Amasia--a mere title of honour, in consequence of James's -desire that he should be publicly acknowledged at his Court. Hitherto -both he and the Vicar-Apostolic, Leyburn, had been instructed by the -Papal Court to keep a careful incognito; but James would no longer -consent to this; and, accordingly, on the 1st of May, 1686, Adda had -been publicly consecrated at Whitehall, by the titular Archbishop of -Ireland, assisted by Leyburn, the Vicar-Apostolic. In the evening of -that day the nuncio was received into the royal circle, in the queen's -apartments; and James shocked and disgusted his courtiers by falling -on his knees before him and imploring his blessing. It was the first -time that an English Court had seen their monarch, for a very long -period, doing homage at the feet of a Papal nuncio, and the effect was -humiliating. On the 3rd of July the nuncio was favoured with a public -reception at Windsor. He went thither attended by a numerous procession -of the ministers and of officials of the Court, and was conveyed in -a royal coach, wearing a purple robe, and a brilliant cross upon his -breast. In his train were seen with surprise and contempt the equipages -of Crewe, Bishop of Durham, and Cartwright, Bishop of Chester. The Duke -of Somerset, as First Lord of the Bedchamber, was expected to introduce -him; but he declined, representing the penalties to which the act would -expose him. This refusal was the less expected, because he had not -objected to carry the sword of State before his Majesty when the king -had gone to the royal Papal chapel. James was indignant. "I thought," -he said, "that I was doing you a great honour by appointing you to -escort the minister of the first of all crowned heads." Somerset, moved -to a firmness of demeanour and language unusual even in him, declared -that he dared not break the law. James replied, "I will make you fear -me as well as the law. Do you not know that I am above the law?" "Your -Majesty," replied Somerset, with commingled dignity and affected -humility, "may be above the law, but I am not; and I am only safe while -I obey the law." The king, not used to being thwarted, much less to -language of so plain a sort, turned from him in a rage, and the next -day issued a decree depriving him of his posts in the Household and of -his command in the Guards. - -This most impolitic conduct James followed, on the 1st of February, -1687, by a still more absurd and ludicrous, but equally mischievous, -reception. It was that of Cocker, an English Benedictine monk, who, -being more deeply implicated in treason than his friends cared to -confess, had narrowly escaped with his life in the trials of the Popish -plot. This man the Elector of Cologne had appointed his Resident at the -English Court--probably at the suggestion of James, and in defiance of -public opinion; and James now insisted that he should receive a public -introduction to Court, in the habit of his order, and attended by six -other monks in a like costume. Thus James took a pleasure in violating -the laws and insulting public opinion at every turn, to show that he -was independent of both; and he now prepared to commence in earnest the -destruction of the Church. - -Before advancing to this dangerous experiment, however, he deemed it -necessary to tighten the discipline of the army, which had shown no -little disgust at his proceedings. - -Many of James's soldiers had deserted, and it was found that they -were under no oath or obligation which rendered such desertion liable -to serious punishment. But James determined to punish them, even -condignly, in order to strike a sufficient terror into the whole army. -He consulted the judges as to whether he did not possess this power; -they said that he did not. Instead of accepting this answer, James -dismissed Herbert, the Chief Justice of the King's Bench, Sir John -Holt, another judge of the same bench and Recorder of London, and put -in their places Sir Robert Wright, a creature of Jeffreys', a man -of ruined and base character, Richard Allibone, and Sir Bartholomew -Shower as Recorder. With these infamous instruments he went to work; -and, instead of trying the offenders by court-martial, he brought them -before these men in the King's Bench and in the Old Bailey, and hanged -them in sight of their regiments. By these outrages on every law and -principle of constitutional safety James thought he had terrified the -army into obedience; and he now attacked the very existence of the -Universities, in order to give the education of the country into the -hands of Popery. - -James commenced his encroachments on the Universities by ordering one -Alban Francis, a Benedictine monk, to be admitted a Master of Arts of -Cambridge. That many persons not strictly admissible by the rules of -the University had received honorary degrees, including foreigners of -different forms of faith, and even a Turk, was indisputable; but the -object of these favours was so clear that no mischief could arise from -the practice. But now the Universities were but too well aware that -James aimed at a thorough usurpation of these schools by the Catholics -to lightly pass the matter by. The heads of colleges sent hastily to -Albemarle, their Chancellor, begging him to explain to the king that -the person named could not be admitted according to the statutes; at -the same time they conceded so far as to offer to admit Francis on his -taking the Oaths of Supremacy and Obedience. - - -He refused. James menaced the authorities, but in vain, and he -summoned them before the High Commission Court. John Pechell, the -Vice-Chancellor of the University, attended by eight fellows, including -the illustrious Isaac Newton--afterwards Sir Isaac--appeared, and were -received by Jeffreys with all his devilish bluster. Pechell was soon -terrified at this most brutal monster, whose employment alone would -have sufficiently stamped the character of James; and, when any of -the other fellows attempted to speak, Jeffreys roared out, "You are -not Vice-Chancellor; when you are, you may talk; till then, hold your -tongue." Finding, however, that, though he could embarrass, he could -not bend the Vice-Chancellor, Jeffreys, by order of James, declared -Pechell dismissed from the office of Vice-Chancellor, and all his -emoluments suspended. This was a gross violation of the rights of the -University, and Jeffreys added to the outrage a piece of his usually -blasphemous advice to the fellows--"Go your way and sin no more, lest a -worse thing befall you." - -[Illustration: JAMES DOING HOMAGE TO THE PAPAL NUNCIO. (_See p._ 323.)] - -The decease of the President of Magdalen College, Oxford, enabled James -to follow up his plans without loss of time. Magdalen was one of the -very richest of the English foundations, and consisted of a president, -forty fellows, and thirty scholars, called Demies. It was the law of -the foundation that the President could only be elected from those -who were or had been members of that college, or of New College. The -President died in March, 1687, and the 13th of April was fixed for -the election of the new one. A Dr. Smith, a learned Orientalist, and -an enthusiastically loyal man, applied for the royal consent, but was -informed that the king was determined to give it only to one of his -own religion; and, to the astonishment and disgust of the college, -one Anthony Farmer was named as the royal nominee. The choice seemed -made to insult the University in the highest degree possible, for -not only was Farmer a Popish convert, but a man of the most drunken, -debauched, and infamous character that could have been picked from the -vilest haunts of unnamable wickedness. The astounded fellows humbly but -earnestly remonstrated, but in vain. On the appointed day, despite the -king's positive injunctions, and the presence of his agent, the choice -fell on a distinguished and highly virtuous member of the college, John -Hough. - -The irate king summoned the fellows before the beastly Jeffreys and -the High Commission, as he had summoned the heads of the University of -Cambridge. There Jeffreys exhibited his wonted display of insufferable -Billingsgate; and when Dr. Fairfax, one of the fellows, had the -boldness to call in question the legality of the High Commission, he -lost all patience. "Who is this man? What commission has he to be -impudent here? Seize him; put him into a dark room. What does he do -without a keeper? He is under my care as a lunatic. I wonder nobody has -applied to me for the custody of him." But, after all, the character of -Farmer was shown to be so vilely reprobate, that he was dropped, and -the college ordered to receive Dr. Parker, Bishop of Oxford. - -Parker was not an openly acknowledged Papist, but was understood to be -really one; but he was neither a fellow of Magdalen nor of New College, -and the fellows were firm enough to stand by their own election of Dr. -Hough. James determined to go in person to Oxford and overawe these -obstinate men; and he was the more bent upon it, having in the meantime -suffered a similar defeat in endeavouring to force a Catholic into the -hospital connected with the Charterhouse School. The trustees refused, -and were called before Jeffreys. There he began browbeating the master, -Thomas Burnet, but was unexpectedly opposed by the venerable Duke of -Ormond. At this the bully swagger of this most hideous and contemptible -judge that ever sat on a bench at once gave way, for he had no real -courage. He stole from the court, and the scheme failed for the day. -But the High Commission having sentenced Hough to be deposed from the -presidentship of Magdalen, and Fairfax from his fellowship, again -met, and summoned the trustees of the Charterhouse. Here again they -were awed by a letter addressed to the king, signed by the trustees, -including the names of Ormond, Halifax, Danby, and Nottingham, the -chiefs of all the great parties who secured to James his crown, and -still by their forbearance kept it on his head, so that they were -compelled to pause before proceeding farther. - -On the 16th of August James set out on a progress, with every display -of royal state which could impress on the minds of his subjects an -idea of his kingly position. He proceeded to Portsmouth, Southampton, -Bath; thence by Gloucester and Worcester to Ludlow, Shrewsbury, and -Chester; whence he again turned south, and reached Oxford on the 3rd -of September. Everywhere he had been attended by the High Sheriffs -of the counties with splendid retinues; and the clergy in the towns -had flocked around him in great numbers, though he continued on his -progress to neglect their preaching for Mass. If outward circumstances -could be relied on, it might have been supposed that the king had -never been more popular; and, with all the _prestige_ of this tour, he -summoned the refractory fellows of Magdalen before him, and rated them -soundly on their disobedience. They knelt and offered him a petition, -but he haughtily refused to look at it, bidding them go that instant -and elect the Bishop of Oxford, or expect his high displeasure. But the -fellows could not be thus brought to submission, and James quitted the -town in high dudgeon. - -On the 20th of October James sent down a special commission, consisting -of Cartwright, Bishop of Chester, Wright, Chief Justice of the King's -Bench, and Jenner, a baron of the Exchequer, attended by three troops -of cavalry, with drawn swords, to Oxford, to expel Hough and instal -Parker. Parker was installed, but the fellows would not acknowledge -him. James, therefore, ejected them altogether. In a few weeks Parker -died, and then the king proceeded to put the whole college into the -hands of Papists, appointing Gifford, one of the four vicars-apostolic, -president; for now, in the regular progress of his system, James had -admitted four vicars-apostolic instead of one, which had been the case -before. It may be imagined what resentment this arbitrary proceeding -occasioned, not only in the Universities themselves, but amongst the -clergy in every quarter of the kingdom, who now saw that nothing would -deter the king from uprooting the deepest foundations of the Church. - -Still more daring and atrocious schemes were agitated by James and -his Popish cabal. Soon after his accession it had been proposed -to set aside the claims of the Princess of Orange, and make Anne -heir-apparent, on condition that she embraced Popery. Anne refused. -It was then proposed to make over Ireland to Louis of France in case -Mary of Orange could not be prevented from succeeding to England; and -Louis expressed his assent to the proposal. Tyrconnel was to make -all necessary preparations for this traitorous transfer. But at this -moment a new light broke on James, which quashed these unnatural and -unnational projects: the queen was declared pregnant. The news of -this prospect was received by the public with equal incredulity and -suspicion. The queen had had several children, who had died in their -infancy; and there was nothing improbable in the expectation of another -child, although five years had elapsed since her last confinement. The -prospect of an heir, however, true or false, drove James on further and -more desperate projects. Should a son be born, and live, which none -of the queen's children had done hitherto, the Popish heir would be -exposed to the danger of a long minority. James might die before the -son had been firmly rooted in the Catholic faith, and the Protestant -bishops and nobles would surround him with Protestant instructors, and -most likely ruin all James's plans of perpetuating Popery. To obviate -this, he determined to have an Act of Parliament, settling the form of -the child's guardianship and education, and vesting all the necessary -powers in Catholic hands. Any prudent man would at least have waited -to see the birth and probable life of the child before rushing on so -desperate a scheme; for, to have an Act, he must call a Parliament; -and to call a Parliament in the present feeling of the nation was to -bring together one of the most determinedly Protestant assemblies of -men that had ever been seen. But James was of that mole-eyed, bigot -character which rushed headlong on the most perilous issues. He -determined to pack a Parliament by means which none but a madman would -have attempted. Whether from county or borough, he could expect nothing -but a most obstinate and universal demonstration in favour of the -Church and Constitution. His brother Charles, for his own purposes, had -deprived the towns of their charters, because they were Whig and often -Nonconformist, and had given them others, which put them into the hands -of the Tories and Churchmen, and these were the very men who now would -resist James's plans to the death. The country was equally Church and -Tory, but all this did not daunt James. He determined to remodel the -corporations, and to change every magistrate in the counties that was -not ready to carry out his views. He appointed a Board of Regulators at -Whitehall to examine into the state of the corporations and introduce -new rules and new men as they thought fit. These regulators were seven -in number, and all Catholics and Jesuits, except the king's incarnate -devil, Jeffreys. These men appointed deputations of chosen tools to -visit the different corporations, and report to them; and James issued -a proclamation announcing his intention to revise the commissions of -the peace, and of the lieutenancy of counties. In fact, James proceeded -like a man who was satisfied that he could do just as he pleased with -the Constitution of a country which, through all ages, had shown itself -more jealous of its Constitution than any other in the world. - -He sent for the lords-lieutenants, and delivered to them a paper of -instructions, with which they were each to proceed to their several -counties. They were to summon all the magistrates, and tell them what -his Majesty expected from them on the ensuing election of Parliament, -and to send him up their individual answers, along with the list of -all the Catholic and Dissenting gentlemen who might take the place of -those who should dare to object to the king's plans on the bench or in -the militia. The proposal was so audacious, that the greater proportion -of the lords-lieutenants peremptorily refused to undertake any such -commission; these included the noblest names in the peerage, and they -were at once dismissed. The sweeping measure of turning out the Duke -of Somerset, the Viscounts Newport and Falconberg, the Earls of Derby, -Dorset, Shrewsbury, Oxford, Pembroke, Rutland, Bridgewater, Thanet, -Abingdon, Northampton, Scarsdale, Gainsborough, and many others, showed -how far James was gone in his madness. As the king could not get any -noblemen to take the places of the dismissed, he filled them up as he -could, and even made his butcher, Jeffreys, lord-lieutenant of two -counties. But all was in vain; he soon received answers from every -quarter that the whole nation, town and country, absolutely refused to -obey the king's injunctions. Even those who had gone most zealously -to work were obliged to return with most disconsolate reports, and -to assure the king that, if he turned out every magistrate and -militia officer, the next would still vote against Popery. Catholics -and Nonconformists, though glad of indulgence, would not consent to -attempt measures which could only end in defeat and confusion. The -Nonconformists would not move a finger to endanger Protestantism. It -was the same in the corporations. Some of these James could deprive -of their charters, for the new ones frequently contained a power of -revocation; but when he had done this he found himself no forwarder, -for the new ministers upon the points that he had at heart were as -sturdy as the old. Other towns from which he demanded the surrender of -their charters refused. Wherever James could eject the Church members -of corporations he did so, from London to the remotest borough, and put -in Presbyterians, Independents, and Baptists. It was perfectly useless; -they were as Protestant as the Church. Even where he obtained a few -truckling officials, they found it impossible to make the people vote -as they wished; and in the counties the Catholic or Dissenting sheriffs -were equally indisposed to press the Government views, or unable to -obtain them if they did. He changed the borough magistrates in some -cases two or three times, but in vain. Some of the people in the towns -did not content themselves with mere passive resistance; they loudly -declared their indignation, and the tyrant marched soldiers in upon -them; but only to hear them exclaim that James was imitating his dear -brother of France, and dragonading the Protestants. - -Whilst these things were going on all over the country, James was -putting on the same insane pressure in every public department -of Government. The heads of departments were called on to pledge -themselves to support the wishes of the king, and to demand from their -subordinates the same obedience. The refractory were dismissed, even -to the highest law officers of the Crown; and James demanded from the -judges a declaration that even the Petition of Right could not bar the -exercise of his prerogative; but the bench consulted in secret, and the -result was never known. He even contemplated granting no licences to -inns, beer-houses, or coffee-houses, without an engagement to support -the king, in spite of Church or magistrate; but another of his measures -now brought things to a crisis. - -James determined to make his intentions known for fully restoring -Popery by a new Declaration of Indulgence, in which he reminded his -subjects of his determined character, and of the numbers of public -servants that he had already dismissed for opposing his will. This -Declaration he published on the 27th of April, 1688, and he ordered the -clergy to read it from all pulpits in London on the 20th and 27th of -May, and in the country on the 3rd and 10th of June. This was calling -on the bishops and clergy to practise their doctrine of Non-resistance -to some purpose; it was tantamount to demanding from them to co-operate -in the overthrow of their own Church. They were, as may be supposed, -in an awful dilemma; and now was the time for the Dissenters--whom -they had so sharply persecuted and so soundly lectured on the duty of -entire submission--to enjoy their embarrassment. But the Dissenters -were too generous, and had too much in common at stake. They met and -sent deputations to the clergy, and exhorted them to stand manfully for -their faith, declaring that they would stand firmly by them. A meeting -of the metropolitan clergy was called, at which were present Tillotson, -Sherlock, Stillingfleet--great names--and others high in the Church. -They determined not to read the Declaration on the 20th, and sent -round a copy of this resolution through the City, where eighty-five -incumbents immediately signed it. - -The bishops meanwhile met at Lambeth, and discussed the same question. -Cartwright of Chester, one of the king's most servile tools, and a -member of the High Commission, took care to be there, to inform the -king of what passed; but during his stay nothing but a disposition to -compliance appeared to prevail, and he hurried away to Whitehall with -the news. No sooner, however, was he gone than letters were secretly -despatched, summoning the bishops of the province of Canterbury; and -another meeting took place on the 18th, or two days prior to the -Sunday fixed for the further reading of the Declaration. The bishops -concluded not to read it, and six of them waited on the king with the -written resolution. James was confounded, having assured himself that -they meant to comply. He used the most menacing language, and declared -that they had set up the standard of rebellion; and ordered them from -his presence to go at once and see that he was obeyed. To prevent the -publication of the resolution, he detained it; but that very evening it -was printed and hawked through the streets, where it was received with -acclamations by the people. Any but a mad bigot, seeing the feelings -of the public, would have instantly revoked the declaration; but James -was not that man. Sunday arrived, and out of all the hundred churches, -the Declaration was only read in four, and with the effect of instantly -clearing them, amid murmurs of indignation. Still it was not too late -to recall the Order in Council; and even James himself, with all his -folly and infatuation, was now staggered. It was strongly recommended -in the Council to abandon the Declaration; but James listened to his -evil genius, the brutal Jeffreys, and determined to bring the seven -signing bishops to trial before the Court of King's Bench, on a charge -of seditious libel. The fatal counsel was adopted, and they were -summoned to appear before the Privy Council on the 8th of June. - -In the interval the bishops and clergy in all parts of England, with -few exceptions, showed the same resolute spirit. The Bishops of -Gloucester, Norwich, Salisbury, Winchester, Exeter, and London, signed -copies of the same petition. The Bishop of Carlisle regretted that, not -belonging to the province of Canterbury, he could not do the same. The -Bishop of Worcester refused to distribute the Declaration amongst his -clergy; and the same spirit showed itself amongst the parochial clergy, -who almost to a man refused to read it. - -On the evening of the day appointed, the seven prelates--namely, -Sancroft, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Lloyd of St. Asaph, Ken of Bath -and Wells, Turner of Ely, Lake of Chichester, White of Peterborough, -and Trelawney of Bristol--attended the Privy Council. Jeffreys took up -the petition, and, showing it to Sancroft, asked him if that was not -the paper which he had written, and the six bishops present had signed. -Sancroft and his colleagues had been instructed by the ablest lawyers -in England as to the course they should pursue, and the dangers to be -avoided. The Primate, therefore, instead of acknowledging the paper, -turned to the king and said--"Sir, I am called hither as a criminal, -which I never was before; and, since I have that unhappiness, I trust -your Majesty will not be offended if I decline answering questions -which may tend to criminate me." "This is mere chicanery," said James. -"I hope you will not disown your own handwriting." Lloyd of St. Asaph -said that it was agreed by all divines that no man in their situation -was obliged to answer any such question; but, as James still pressed -for an answer, Sancroft observed that, though he were not bound to -accuse himself, yet, if the king commanded it, he would answer, taking -it for granted that his Majesty would not take advantage to bring -his admission there in evidence against him. James said he would not -command him; but Jeffreys told them to withdraw for awhile, and when -they were called back, James commanded the Primate, and he acknowledged -the writing. They were then again sent out, and, on coming back, were -told by Jeffreys that they would be proceeded against, not before the -High Commission, but, "with all fairness," before the King's Bench. - -They were then called upon to enter into recognisances, but they -refused, on the plea that they were peers of Parliament, and that no -peer of Parliament could be required to enter into recognisances in -case of libel. This greatly disconcerted James, for it compelled him -to send them to prison, and he justly feared the effect of it on the -public. But there was no alternative; a warrant was signed for their -commitment to the Tower, and they were sent thither in a barge. - -The scene which immediately took place showed that James had at length -a glimmering of the danger which he had raised. The whole river was -crowded with wherries full of people, who crowded round the bishops -to entreat their blessings, many rushing breast-high into the water -to come near enough. James, in terror, ordered the garrison and -guards of the Tower to be doubled; but the same spirit animated the -soldiers, who knelt at the approach of the prelates, and also solicited -their blessing. Presently the soldiers were found carousing to the -health of their prisoners; and when Sir Edward Hales, who had been -made Lieutenant of the Tower for his going over to Popery, desired -the officers to put a stop to it, they returned and told him that -it was impossible, for the soldiers would drink nobody's health but -the bishops'. Every day the gates of the Tower were besieged by the -equipages of the chief nobility. The very Nonconformists came in bodies -to condole with their old persecutors; and Tower Hill was one constant -throng of people manifesting their sympathy. - -Two days only after the bishops were sent to the Tower--namely, the -10th of June--was announced what, under other circumstances, would -have been a most auspicious event for James--the birth of an heir. -But the nation was so full of suspicion, both of the monarch and the -Jesuits that he had around him, that it would not credit the news that -the healthy boy which was born was the actual child of James and his -queen. It was certainly of the highest moment that James should have -taken every precaution to have the birth verified beyond dispute; but -in this respect he had been as singularly maladroit as in all his -other affairs. As the Protestants were, of course, highly suspicious, -he should have had the usual number of Protestant witnesses ready. -But the queen, who sat playing cards at Whitehall till near midnight, -was suddenly taken ill a month before the calculated time, and there -was neither the Princess Anne present--she was away at Bath,--nor -the Archbishop of Canterbury, nor the Dutch ambassador--whom it was -so necessary to satisfy on behalf of the Prince and Princess of -Orange,--nor any of the Hyde family, not even the Earl of Clarendon, -the uncle of Mary and Anne. On the contrary, there were plenty of -Jesuits, and the renegades Dover, Peterborough, Murray, Sunderland--who -directly afterwards avowed himself a Catholic--Mulgrave, and others. -The consequence was that the whole people declared the child spurious; -that it had been introduced into the bed in a warming-pan; and when -the public announcement was made, and a day of solemn thanksgiving was -appointed, there was no rejoicing. Fireworks were let off by order -of Government; but the night was black and tempestuous, and flashes -of lurid lightning paled the artificial fires, and made the people -only the more firm in the belief that heaven testified against the -imposture. And yet there was no imposture. There were some Protestants -present--sufficient to prevent any collusion, and particularly Dr. -Chamberlain, the eminent accoucheur; but James, by his folly and -tyranny, had deprived himself of the public confidence, and fixed on -his innocent offspring a brand of disavowment, which clung to him and -his fortunes, and has only been removed by the cooler judgment of -recent times. William of Orange sent over Zulestein to congratulate -James on the birth of an heir; but that minister brought back the -account that not one person in ten believed the child to be the queen's. - -[Illustration: THE SEVEN BISHOPS ENTERING THE TOWER. (_See p._ 328.)] - -On Friday, the 15th of June, the first day of term, the bishops were -brought from the Tower to the King's Bench, and, pleading not guilty, -they were admitted to bail till the 29th of June. During this fortnight -the public excitement continued to augment, and from every quarter of -the kingdom--even from the Presbyterians of Scotland, who had shown -themselves such determined opponents of prelacy, and had been such -sufferers from it--came messages of sympathy and encouragement to -the bishops. On that day immense crowds assembled to receive their -blessings, and to utter others on their way to Westminster Hall; and -this homage was the warmer because the prelates had resisted the demand -of Sir Edward Hales, the Lieutenant of the Tower, for his fees, this -renegade having shown them little courtesy, and now plainly letting -them know that, if they came again into his hands, they should lie on -the bare stones. - -Every means had been taken to pack a jury. Sir Samuel Astrey, the Clerk -of the Crown, had been summoned to the palace, and been instructed -by James and his great legal adviser, Jeffreys. The judges, too, -were of the most base and complying character. They were such as had -been raised from the very lowest ranks of the bar for their servile -fitness, and because the more eminent lawyers would not stoop to such -ignominy. They were Wright; Allibone, a Papist; Holloway and Powell; -the Attorney-General, Sir Thomas Powis, an inferior lawyer; the -Solicitor-General, Sir William Williams, a man of ability and vigour, -but rash, imperious, and unpopular. Ranged against these were the most -brilliant lawyers of the time--Sawyer and Finch, formerly Attorney- -and Solicitor-General; Pemberton, formerly Chief Justice; Maynard; Sir -George Treby, who had been Recorder of London, and others. Somers, -afterwards Lord Chancellor in William's reign, was the bishops' junior -counsel. The foreman of the jury was Sir Roger Langley. On the side of -the prosecution, the judges, and even the blustering Jeffreys, betrayed -a sense of terror. - -The trial commenced at nine in the morning, and not till seven in the -evening did the jury retire to consider their verdict. The lawyers for -the prisoners raised great difficulties as to proving the handwriting -of the libel, and next in proving its being published in Westminster. -The Crown lawyers were obliged to bring into court Blathwayt, a clerk -of the Privy Council, for this object; and then the counsel for the -prisoners stopped him, and compelled him to state what had passed there -between the bishops and the king--much to the chagrin of the Government -party. Before the publication could be proved, even Sunderland was -obliged to be brought into court in a sedan. He was pale, trembled -violently from fright and shame of his late apostacy, and gave his -evidence with his eyes fixed on the ground. But even then, when the -judges came to consider the bishops' petition, they were divided in -opinion. Wright and Allibone declared it a libel, and contended for the -royal right of the dispensing power; but Holloway conceded that the -petition appeared to him perfectly allowable from subjects to their -sovereign; and Powell set himself right with the public and wrong with -the Court--a significant sign--by boldly declaring both the Dispensing -Power and the Declaration of Indulgence contrary to law. - -With such sentiments developing themselves on the bench, there could -be little doubt what the verdict would be; yet the jury sat all night, -from seven o'clock till six the next morning, before they were fully -agreed, there being, however, only three dissentients at first. When -the court met at ten o'clock, the crowd, both within and without, was -crushing and immense; and when the foreman pronounced the words "Not -guilty," Halifax was the first to start up and wave his hat; and such -a shout was sent up as was heard as far as Temple Bar. The news flew -far and wide; the shouting and rejoicing broke out in every quarter of -the town. The whole population, nobility, clergy, people, all seemed -gone mad. There were more than sixty lords who had stood out the trial, -and now threw money amongst the throngs as they drove away. The people -formed a line down to the water's edge, and knelt as the bishops passed -through, asking their blessing. The Attorney-General, Williams, was -pursued in his coach with curses and groans; and Cartwright, the Bishop -of Chester, and James's tool of the High Commission, being descried, -was hooted at as "That wolf in sheep's clothing!" and, as he was a very -fat man, one cried, "Room for the man with the Pope in his belly!" - -The whole town was in an intoxication of delight. Bonfires were lit, -guns fired, bells rung all night, and the Pope in effigy was burnt in -several places--one before the door of Whitehall itself; another was -kindled before the door of the Earl of Salisbury, who had lately gone -over to Popery; and his servants, in their ill-timed zeal, rushing out -to extinguish it, were attacked, and, firing on the people, killed -the parish beadle, who was come to attempt what they themselves were -attempting--to put out the fire. That morning James had gone to review -his troops on Hounslow Heath. He received the news of the acquittal -by a special messenger while in Lord Feversham's tent. He was greatly -enraged, and set out at once for London. Before, however, he was clear -of the camp the news had flown amongst the soldiers, and a tremendous -cheering startled him. "What noise is that?" demanded James. "Oh!" -said the general, "it is nothing but the soldiers shouting because the -bishops are acquitted." "And call you that nothing?" asked James; and -added angrily, "but so much the worse for them." - -The very day which pronounced the acquittal of the bishops saw signed -and despatched an invitation from the leading Whigs to William -of Orange to come over and drive the tyrant from the throne. The -Whigs had long been contemplating and preparing for this end; they -now saw that the crisis was come. The brutal and besotted king had -effectually alienated all hearts from him. From him nothing but -destruction of every liberty and sentiment that Englishmen held dear -was to be expected; and in the heir which was now, as was generally -believed, foisted on the nation by the king and the Jesuits, there -was only the pledge of the reign of Popery and proscription, and of -the extermination of all those high hopes and privileges which were -entwined with Protestant freedom. The Whig leaders had sent repeatedly -to William to stimulate him to the enterprise; but, apart from his -habitual caution and the salutary fear that Monmouth's reception -had inspired, the Prince of Orange had many difficulties to contend -with from the peculiar constitution of the Dutch Republic, and the -peculiar views and interests of his allies. Though at the head of -the Dutch confederation, he had always experienced much opposition -from individual states and cities, especially Amsterdam, which his -great enemy, Louis of France, managed to influence. This invitation -called him to expel from his throne a Catholic king, and replace his -Government by a Protestant one, though the Pope and Spain, the most -Catholic of countries, were his close allies, and must not be offended. -He had, therefore, stipulated that he should receive such an invitation -under the hands and seals of the Whig leaders as should leave little -doubt of his reception, and that he should be regarded as the saviour -from an intolerable ruler, and not forced to attempt a conquest which -must in its very success bring ruin by wounding the national pride of -England. - -He now received a paper, signed by the Earls of Shrewsbury, Devonshire, -and Danby, Lord Lumley, Bishop Compton, Edward Russell, the Admiral of -England, and Henry Sidney, the brother of the late Algernon Sidney, -and afterwards Earl of Romney. This paper, which had been furnished at -William's request, was but the result of negotiations between himself -and the Whig leaders for some time. He now called into council with the -English envoy his confidential friends, Bentinck and Dykvelt, and it -was resolved that the time for action was come, and that the invitation -should be accepted. In the meantime, whilst William began in earnest, -but as secretly as circumstances would allow, his preparations, James -at home did everything which a foolish and obstinate ruler could do to -complete the alienation of the affections of his subjects. He returned -from his camp to his capital only to find it in transports of delight -over his own defeat, and resounding with the explosions of guns and -crackers, with drinkings of the health of the bishops in the streets, -and with the effigy of the Pope blazing before his own gate. So far -from making him pause at the contemplation of the avowed and universal -spirit of his people, he was only the more exasperated, and continued -muttering, "So much the worse for them." He determined to take -summary vengeance on the clergy, on the lawyers who had opposed or -deserted him, on the army, and on the people. He at once promoted Mr. -Solicitor-General Williams, for his unscrupulous conduct on the trial -of the bishops, to a baronetcy, and would have placed so convenient -a man on the bench could he have spared him at the bar. He dismissed -Powell and Holloway; he determined to visit with his vengeance all the -clergy throughout the kingdom who had refused to read the Declaration; -and an order was issued to all the chancellors of the dioceses and the -archdeacons to make a return of them. No matter that they approached -ten thousand in number; if necessary, he would drive them all from -their benefices. The judges on the circuits were ordered to denounce -these refractory clergy, and to speak in the most derogatory terms -of the bishops. He broke up his camp, the soldiers of which had been -intended to overawe the capital, and stand by whilst he destroyed the -national Constitution and the national religion; but had now terrified -and disgusted him by drinking the healths of the liberated bishops. - -But all his angry attempts only recoiled on himself, and showed more -clearly than ever that the reins of power were irrecoverably slipping -from his fingers. The spell of royalty--a people's respect--was utterly -broken. The chancellors and archdeacons paid no attention to the order -for reporting their independent brethren; the High Commission met, -and, so far from finding any returns, received a letter from one of -the most truckling of their own body, Sprat, Bishop of Rochester, -resigning his place in the High Commission. If such a man saw the -handwriting on the wall, the warning, they felt, must be imminent, and -they departed in confusion. The judges, on their part, found themselves -deserted on their circuits; nobody but the sheriff and his javelin -men came to meet them, and then went through their duties amid every -sign of indifference to their dignity. They were treated, not as the -high-minded judges of England, but as the base and venal tools of a -most lawless and mischievous monarch. The soldiers were as bold in -their separate quarters as they had been in camp. James thought he -could deal with them separately, and tried the experiment by ordering a -regiment of infantry, which had been raised in the Catholic district of -Staffordshire, to sign an engagement to support him in dispersing all -the rest, or to quit the army. Almost to a man they piled their arms, -and the confounded king was obliged to withdraw the order. But James -had a remedy even for the defection of the army. In Ireland the brutal -and debauched Tyrconnel had been busily engaged in drilling Irish -Celts, and preparing an army so strongly Catholic that he might by this -means carry out the royal design of repealing the Act of Settlement, -and driving the Protestant colonists from their lands. These troops -James sent for, regiment after regiment, and the people of England -saw, with equal indignation and alarm, that their liberties, their -religion, their laws, were to be trodden down, and the kingdom reduced -to a miserable abode of slaves by the wild tribes of the sister island, -vengeful with centuries of unrequited oppressions. This put the climax -to the national resentment, and still more pressing messages were sent -over to William to hasten his approach, and leaders of party in large -numbers contemplated a speedy transit to his standard. It was at this -juncture that the wild genius of Wharton gave vent to the pent-up -feelings of Protestant wrath, by the adaptation of the old Irish tune -of "Lillibullero" to English words. - -William, meanwhile, was making strenuous preparations for his -enterprise. He formed a camp at Nimeguen, collecting troops and -artillery from the different fortresses. Twenty-four additional ships -of war were fitted out for service, and arms and accoutrements were -in busy preparation in every manufactory in Holland. He had saved up -unusual funds for him, and had money also pouring in from England and -from the refugee Huguenots, who hoped much from his enterprise in -favour of Protestantism. It was impossible that all this preparation -could escape the attention of other nations, and especially of -the quick-sighted Louis XIV. of France. But William had a ready -answer--that he wanted an extra squadron to go in pursuit of a number -of Algerine corsairs which had made their appearance off the Dutch -coasts. The military preparations were not so easily explained; but -though Louis was satisfied that they were intended against England, -James, blind to his danger, as strongly suspected that they were meant -to operate against France. The only enemies which William had to really -dread were Louis and the Council of Amsterdam, which Louis had so -long influenced to hostility to William, and without whose consent no -expedition could be permitted. But the ambition and the persecuting -bigotry of Louis removed this only difficulty out of William's way -in a manner which looked like the actual work of Providence. The two -points on which Amsterdam was pre-eminently sensitive were trade and -Protestantism. Louis contrived to incense them on both these heads. -His unrelenting persecution of the Huguenots, including also Dutch -Protestants who had settled in France, raised an intense feeling in -Amsterdam, stimulated by the outcries and representations of their -relatives there. To all appeals for tolerance and mercy Louis was -utterly deaf; and whilst this feeling was at its height, he imposed a -heavy duty on the importation of herrings from Holland into France. -Sixty thousand persons in Holland depended on this trade, and the -effect was, therefore, disastrous. In vain did the French envoy, Avaux, -represent these things; Louis continued haughty and inexorable. - -[Illustration: VIEW IN THE HAGUE: THE HALL OF THE KNIGHTS IN THE -BINNENHOF.] - -These circumstances, in which the pride and bigotry of Louis got the -better of his worldly policy, completed the triumph of William of -Orange. He seized on them to effect a removal of the long-continued -jealousies of the Council of Amsterdam against him. He entered into -negotiations with the leading members of the Council through his -trusty friends Bentinck and Dykvelt, and as they were in the worst of -humours with Louis, the old animosities against William were suffered -to sleep, and he obtained the sanction of the States-General to his -proposed expedition for the release of England from the French and -Catholic influences, and its reception into the confederation of -Protestant nations. Another circumstance just at this crisis occurred -to strengthen all these feelings in Holland and Germany, and to account -for any amount of troops collected at Nimeguen. The aggressions of -Louis had roused and combined all Europe against him. Powers both -Catholic and Protestant had felt themselves compelled to unite in order -to repress his attempts at universal dominion. The King of Spain, the -Emperor of Germany, the King of Sweden had entered into the League of -Augsburg to defend the empire; and to these were added various Italian -princes, with the Pope Innocent XI. himself at their head. Louis had -not hesitated to insult the Pope on various occasions, and now he -saw the pontiff in close coalition with heretic princes to repel his -schemes. - -In May of this year died Ferdinand of Bavaria, the Elector of Cologne. -Besides Cologne, the elector possessed the bishoprics of Liége, -Münster, and Hildesheim. In 1672 Louis had endeavoured to secure a -successor to the Elector in the French interest. He therefore proposed -as his coadjutor the Cardinal Furstemberg, Bishop of Strasburg; -and he would have succeeded, but it was necessary, in order to his -choice, that Furstemberg should first resign his bishopric; to this -the Pope, in his hostility to Louis, would not consent; he refused -his dispensation. But now, the Elector having died, the contest was -renewed. Louis again proposed the cardinal; the allies of the League -of Augsburg nominated the Prince Clement of Bavaria, who was elected -and confirmed by the Pope, though a youth of only seventeen years of -age. The allies were equally successful in the bishoprics of Liége, -Münster, and Hildesheim; but the principal fortresses, Bonn, Neutz, -Kaiserswerth, and Rheinberg, were held by the troops of Furstemberg, -and therefore were at the service of France. Louis was, however, -exasperated at the partial defeat of his plans, and complained loudly -of the partiality of the Pope, and began to march troops to the support -of Furstemberg. - -But whilst Louis was actually planning a sweeping descent on the German -Empire, in which William of Orange lay pre-eminently in his way, he -was at the same time in danger of a more momentous occurrence--that -of William leaving the way open by sailing for England. If William -should succeed in placing himself on the throne of England, he would -be able to raise a far more formidable opposition to his plans of -aggrandisement than he had ever yet done. Even with his small resources -he had proved a terrible enemy, and had arrayed all Europe against him; -what would he do if he could bring all the powers of England by land -and sea to co-operate with Holland, Spain, Austria, Sweden, and the -Netherlands? The stupidity of James and the offended pride of Louis -saved William in this dilemma, and led Louis to commit on this occasion -the cardinal blunder of his reign. - -It was impossible that Louis could be ignorant of what William was -doing. The preparations of ships and troops were indications of a -contemplated attack somewhere. It might be directed to resist the -French on the side of Germany; but other facts equally noticeable -demonstrated that the object was England. Avaux, the French envoy at -the Hague, in the absence of Abbeville, who was on a visit to England, -noticed, in the months of April and May, a swift sailing boat, which -made rapid and frequent passages between England and Rotterdam; and he -noticed that, after every arrival from England, there were closetings -of William and the English Whig leaders at the Hague, especially -Russell. After the birth of the heir-apparent of England, William -despatched Zulestein to London with his professedly warm, though they -could not be very sincere, congratulations on the event; but soon -after, on the escape to the Hague of Rear-Admiral Herbert, who was -supposed to carry the invitation of the leading Whigs to William, the -prince omitted the child's name in the prayers for the royal family of -England, and openly expressed his doubts of his being the real child of -the queen. - -These circumstances, the continued activity of the military -preparations, the constant sailings of this mysterious boat, and the -subsequent closetings, with the continual growth of the number of -distinguished English refugees at the Hague, satisfied the French -envoy that a descent on England was certain and nigh at hand. Avaux -not only warned Louis of the imminent danger, but he warned James by -every successive mail from the Hague, through Barillon. Louis took -the alarm. He despatched Bonrepaux to London to arouse James to a due -sense of his peril, and offered to join his fleet with an English one -to prevent the passage of the Dutch armament. He held a powerful body -of troops ready to march to the frontiers of Holland, and ordered Avaux -to announce to the States-General that his master was fully cognisant -of the warlike preparations of the Stadtholder; that he was quite -aware of their destination, and that, as the King of England was his -ally, he should consider the first act of hostility against James as a -declaration of war against himself. He at the same time declared the -Cardinal Furstemberg and the Chapter of Cologne under his protection. -Simultaneously the same message was delivered to the Spanish Governor -of Flanders, and Marshal d'Humières was despatched to take the command -of the French army in that quarter. - -This plain declaration fell like a thunderbolt into the midst of the -States-General. There was the utmost evident confusion. A poor and -embarrassed excuse was made, and a courtier sent post haste to fetch -William from Minden, where he was in secret negotiation with the -Elector of Brandenburg. If James took the alarm, and Louis, as was his -intent, went heartily into the coalition to defeat the enterprise, -it must become a most hazardous undertaking, even if it were at all -feasible. But the folly of that most wrong-headed of the Stuarts again -saved the Prince of Orange, and removed the last difficulty out of the -way of his enterprise. James would not believe a word of the warning. -He would not believe that his own daughter would sanction an attempt -at his dethronement. He would not believe that William's armament had -any other object than the King of France himself. He highly resented -the declaration of Louis that there was an alliance between them, as -calculated to alarm his own subjects, especially his Protestant ones. -He received Bonrepaux with cold hauteur in return for his offers of -assistance; and Van Citters, the Dutch ambassador, with proportionate -cordiality, who hastened on the part of the States to assure him that -the French communications were sheer inventions. He gave orders that -all the foreign ministers should be informed that there was no such -league between France and England as Louis had pretended for his own -purposes. - -In fact, James was living all this time in the midst of a set of -traitors, who, even to his most confidential minister, Sunderland, had -secretly gone over to William, and were putting him in possession of -every daily thought, word, and intention of their master. Besides the -seven that had signed, and of whom Admiral Russell was already with -William, the Earl of Shrewsbury had fled to him, having mortgaged his -estates and taken forty thousand pounds with him, and offered it to -the prince. The two sons of the Marquis of Winchester, Lord Wiltshire, -and a younger brother; Halifax's son, Lord Eland; Danby's son, Lord -Dumblaine; Lord Lorne, the son of the unfortunate Earl of Argyll; -Lord Mordaunt, Gerard, Earl of Macclesfield, and Admiral Herbert -were already with him. Herbert had been appointed Admiral to the -Dutch fleet, with a pension of six thousand pounds a year. Wildman, -Carstairs, Ferguson, Hume, who had escaped from the Argyll and Monmouth -expeditions, went there; and, whilst the sons of Halifax and Danby -were with William, they themselves, though remaining in England with -Devonshire, Lumley, and others, were sworn to rise in his favour the -moment he landed. But the worst of the unsuspected traitors at his -own Court were the Lords Churchill and Sunderland. James had made -Churchill almost everything that he was; on Sunderland he had heaped -benefits without stint or measure. He had scraped money together -by all possible means; and James did not merely connive at it, he -favoured it. This meanest of creeping things was in the pay of France -to the amount of six thousand pounds per annum; he had a pension from -Ireland of five thousand pounds more; as President of the Council he -occupied the post of Prime Minister, and derived immense emoluments -from fines, forfeitures, pardons, and the like. Rather than lose his -place, he had openly professed Catholicism; but scarcely had he thus -sold his soul for his beloved pelf and power, when he saw as plainly -as any one else that the ground was sliding from under the feet of his -foolish master, and was overwhelmed with consternation. He hastened -again to sell himself to William, on condition that his honours and -property should be secure; and thus had James his very Prime Minister, -his most confidential and trusted servant, at every turn drawing out -all his plans and thoughts, and sending them to his intended invader. -Sunderland's wife was the mistress of Sidney, who was at the Hague; -and, through her, this most contemptible of men sent constantly his -traitorous communications to her paramour, and so to William. - -With such snakes in the grass about him, James was completely blinded -to his danger. Churchill and Sunderland persuaded him that there was -no danger from Holland, and inflamed his resentment at what they -called the presumption of Louis. They were completely successful; and -Sunderland, after the establishment of William in England, made a -boast of this detestable conduct. Louis was so much disgusted by the -haughty rejection of his warning, that he himself committed a gross -political error. Instead of preventing the descent on England, and the -aggrandisement of his great opponent William--by far the most important -measure for him--by directly attacking the frontiers of Holland, and -keeping William engaged, in his vexation he abandoned the besotted -James, and made an attack on the German Empire. Dividing his army, one -portion of it, under the Marquis of Boufflers, seized Worms, Mainz, -and Treves; a second, under Humières, made itself master of Bonn; and -a third, under the Duke of Duras and Marshal Vauban, took Philippsburg -by storm. The greater part of the Rhine was at once in Louis's hands, -and great was the triumph in Paris. But not the less was the exultation -of William of Orange; for now, the French army removed, and the mind of -Louis incensed against James, the way was wide open for him to England. - -No time was now lost in preparing to depart. A Memorial, professing to -be addressed by the Protestants of England to the States, but supposed -to have been drawn up by Burnet, was published, accompanied by two -declarations in the name of William to the people of England and -Scotland. These latter were the work of the Grand Pensionary Fagel, -but condensed and adapted more to the English taste by Burnet. In the -Memorial the people of England were made to complain of the wholesale -violation of the Constitution and the liberties of his subjects by -James, and of the attempt to fix a false and Popish heir on the nation. -They called on William to come over and vindicate the rights of his -wife, and at the same time to rescue the country of her birth and her -rightful claims from Popery and arbitrary power. - -The Declaration to England and Scotland in reply was drawn with -consummate art. William admitted that he had seen with deep concern -the fundamental and continual violations of the laws of the kingdom. -The contempt of Acts of Parliament; the expulsion of just judges from -the bench to make room for the servile instruments of oppression; the -introduction of prohibited persons into both the State and Church, to -the jeopardy of freedom and true religion; the arbitrary treatment -of persons of dignity by the illegal High Commission Court; the -forcible introduction of Papists into the colleges; the removal of -lords-lieutenants, and the destruction of corporations which stood -firmly for the rights and religion of the nation; the attempt to impose -a spurious and Popish issue on the throne, and the equally atrocious -attempt to tread down English liberties by an army of Irish Papists: -for these reasons William declared himself ready to comply with the -prayers of the English people, and to come over with a sufficient force -for his own protection, but with no intention or desire of conquest, -but simply to restore freedom by an independent Parliament, to inquire -into the circumstances attending the birth of the pretended prince, and -to leave everything else to the decision of Parliament and the nation. -He declared that he should endeavour to re-establish the Church of -England and the Church of Scotland, and at the same time to protect the -just rights of other professors of religion willing to live as good -subjects in obedience to the laws. - -When copies of these papers were sent to James by his ambassador, -Abbeville, from the Hague, the delusion of the affrighted monarch was -suddenly and rudely dissipated. He gazed on the ominous documents--in -which his subjects invited a foreign prince to take possession of his -throne, and that prince, his son-in-law, accepted the proposal--with -a face from which the colour fled, and with a violently trembling -frame. Fear at once did that which no reason, no accumulation of the -most visible signs of his vanishing popularity could ever effect. He at -once hastened to make every concession. He summoned his Council, and -forwarded a despatch to the Hague, declaring that he regarded the siege -of Philippsburg by Louis as a breach of the Treaty of Nimeguen, and -that he was ready to take the field against him in conjunction with the -forces of Spain and Holland. Before an answer could be received, James -hurried forward the work of retractation. When he looked around him -there was not a power or party that he had not alienated--the Cavaliers -and Tories who fought for his father, and supported his brother through -a thousand arbitrary measures; the Church, the Dissenters, the army, -the navy, the bench, the bar, the whole people, held in constant terror -of being made the abject victims of Popish domination, he had, in his -insane rage for his religion, offended, injured, and alarmed beyond -measure. He now sought to win back the able Halifax; he issued a -proclamation, protesting that he would protect the Church, and maintain -the Act of Uniformity; that Catholics should no longer be admitted -to Parliament or the Council. He sent for the bishops, and asked for -their earnest advice in the restoration of public affairs. He ordered -the restoration of the deposed magistrates and lords-lieutenants; -he reinstated Compton, Bishop of London; he gave back the charter -to the City, and, a few days after, the charters of the provincial -corporations; he immediately abolished the Court of High Commission; -and finally replaced Dr. Hough and the ejected fellows of Magdalen -College in full possession of their house and privileges. - -These sweeping concessions showed plainly that the tyrant knew very -well how odious his encroachments had been, and that nothing but -fear could force their abandonment from his ungenerous soul. They -had, therefore, the less effect. There was public rejoicing, indeed, -but it was for the victory over the mean despot, not for gratitude -for concessions which it was felt would be resumed the moment danger -should pass; and this feeling was deepened by an accident. The Bishop -of Winchester was sent down to Oxford to formally reinstate the -principal and fellows of Magdalen, but was as suddenly recalled; and -this event, coupled with a rumour that the Dutch fleet had put to -sea, but was dispersed by a storm and put back, made the people more -firmly conclude that no faith could be reposed in the words of James. -The bishop, it was contended, had been temporarily recalled on urgent -affairs; but the effect remained the same. Still, the City of London -celebrated the recovery of its charter with much rejoicing, and sent -a deputation to express their gratitude to the king. The Dukes of -Somerset, Ormond, and Newcastle, the Marquis of Winchester, the Earls -of Derby, Nottingham, and Danby, and the Bishop of London, declared -their fidelity, and the prelates issued a form of prayer for the safety -and prosperity of the royal family. - -[Illustration: WILLIAM OF ORANGE EMBARKING TO JOIN THE "BRILL." (_See -p._ 338.)] - -Whilst James was exerting himself to conciliate his subjects, he was -equally industrious in putting the kingdom into a posture of defence. -He made Lord Dartmouth Commander of the Fleet, which consisted of -thirty-seven men-of-war, and seven fire-ships--a naval force inferior -to that of the prince, and, still worse, weak in the principles of -loyalty, though Dartmouth himself might be relied on. His army, -including about six thousand Irish and Scots, amounted to forty -thousand men--more than enough to repel the force of the invaders, had -the hearts of the men been in the cause. - -William was compelled to delay his embarkation for more than a week by -tempestuous weather. His fleet, under the command of Herbert, which -was lying off Scheveningen, on the 28th of September, was compelled -to seek shelter in Helvoetsluys. The wind raged furiously till the -15th of October, and public prayers were offered in the churches for -more favourable weather. All attempts to invade England had, since -William of Normandy's enterprise, been notoriously defeated by storms; -and the people became so superstitious on this head that it was found -necessary, under severe penalties, to forbid foreboding language. -On the 16th, the wind abating, William took a solemn leave of the -States-General. He thanked them for their long and devoted support of -him in his endeavours for the independence of Europe, and committed -his wife to their protection whilst he was absent for the same great -object, and the security of the Protestant religion. He declared that -if he died it would be as their servant; if he lived, it would be as -their friend. The Pensionary Fagel, now old and failing, replied with -great emotion; and, amid the tears of most present, William stood like -a stoic, without any visible agitation. The deputies of the principal -towns accompanied him to the water side, and that evening he went on -board his frigate the _Brill_. The next day a public fast was held in -the Hague, with sermons and prayers for the success of the expedition, -and Mary continued to retain her place in the church in public during -the long service from half-past ten in the morning till half-past seven -in the afternoon. - -On the afternoon of the 19th the fleet sailed from Helvoetsluys, the -men-of-war, in three divisions, forming a long line out at sea, and the -transports driving before the breeze nearer land. The day was fine, the -wind steady from the south-west; and as the eventful squadron passed -the sandy downs of Scheveningen, the inhabitants of the Hague crowded -them in thousands, and raised acclamations of anticipated success. But -the scene rapidly changed. By ten o'clock at night a furious tempest -was again raging, which dispersed the fleet, sank one ship, damaged -many others, compelled them to throw overboard great quantities of -stores, and destroyed a thousand horses through their being closed down -under hatches. The fleet managed to regain Helvoetsluys, which William -himself reached on the 21st. He refused to go on shore, but sent to the -States for fresh supplies, and busied himself in pushing on his repairs. - -The news of this disaster reached England with many aggravations, so -that it was imagined that the expedition would be given up for that -season; and James declared with much satisfaction that it was what he -expected, the Host having been exposed for several days. He seized, -however, the time afforded by this delay to assemble an extraordinary -body, the members of the Privy Council, the peers who were in or near -London, the judges, the law officers of the Crown, the Lord Mayor and -aldermen, the queen-dowager, and two-and-twenty women--some ladies -about the queen, some menials. The Princess Anne was summoned, but -excused herself on account of indisposition. "I have called you -together," said James, "upon a very extraordinary occasion; but -extraordinary diseases must have extraordinary remedies. The malicious -endeavours of my enemies have so poisoned the minds of many of my -subjects, that, by the reports I have from all hands, I have reason -to believe that many do think this son which God has pleased to bless -me with be none of mine, but a supposititious child." The witnesses -were all examined on oath except the queen-dowager, and presented such -a mass of evidence as was undoubtedly complete, and it was enrolled -in chancery and published. But such was the intense prejudice of the -age that it failed to convince the public at large. As Anne was not -present, the Council waited on her with a copy of the evidence, on -which she observed, "My lords, this was not necessary; the king's word -is more to me than all these depositions." Yet her uncle, Clarendon, -assures us that she never mentioned the child but with ridicule, and -only once was heard to call it the Prince of Wales, and that was when -she thought it was dying. Anne, in fact, was devoted to the cause -of the Prince of Orange; and Barillon says that she avoided every -opportunity of convincing herself of what she did not wish to believe. - -This singular deed of verification of the child's identity was the -last act of the ministry of Sunderland. His treason had not escaped -observation. A letter of his wife's had been intercepted and shown to -him by the king, in which she was found in close correspondence with -Sidney. He strictly denied all knowledge of it, and did not hesitate to -advert to his wife's _liaison_ with Sidney as sufficiently exculpatory -of himself. For a time he lulled James's suspicions, but they again -revived; and, on the very evening of this extraordinary council, James -sent Middleton and demanded the Seals. To the last Sunderland acted -the part of injured innocence; but was not long in getting away to -the Hague, not, however, in time to join William before his second -embarkation. His office of Secretary to the Southern Department was -given to Middleton, and of Secretary to the Northern Department to -Lord Preston, both Protestants. Petre was dismissed from the Council, -but retained his post as Clerk of the Closet at Whitehall. But all -this did not alter the tone of public feeling. The very day before the -assembling of the extraordinary council, the London mob demolished a -new Catholic chapel; and on the 14th of October, the king's birthday, -there had been no sign of rejoicing, not even the firing of the Tower -guns; but the people reminded one another that it was the anniversary -of the landing of William the Conqueror. Their thoughts were running on -the landing of another William. - -On the 1st of November the Prince of Orange again set sail, and this -time with a favourable though strong gale from the east. Besides -the English noblemen and gentlemen whom we have mentioned, including -also Fletcher of Saltoun, William had with him Marshal Schomberg, an -able and experienced general, who was appointed second in command; -Bentinck, Overkirk, and Counts Solmes and Sturm. Herbert was the chief -admiral, much to the chagrin of the Dutch admirals, but very wisely -so determined by William, who well knew the hereditary jealousy of -the Dutch fleet, and the remembered boast and besom of Van Tromp -in England. He resolved that, if they came to conflict with Lord -Dartmouth, it should be English commander against English, or his cause -might receive great prejudice. For twelve hours William drove before -the breeze towards the coasts of Yorkshire, as if intending to land -there; then, suddenly tacking, he stood down the Channel before the -gale. Dartmouth attempted to issue from the mouth of the Thames to -intercept him, but the violent wind which favoured William perfectly -disabled him. His vessels as they came out to sea were driven back -with much damage, compelled to strike yards and top-masts, and to lie -abreast the Longsand; whilst William, leading the way in the _Brill_, -sailed rapidly past with his whole fleet and a crowd of other vessels -that had gathered in his rear, to the amount of nearly seven hundred. -It was twenty-four hours before Dartmouth could give chase, and on the -5th of November William reached Torbay, his real destination. - -William took up his quarters in a cottage whilst his troops were -landing, and from its thatched roof waved the flag of Holland, bearing -the significant motto, "I will maintain the Protestant Religion and -the Liberties of England." Burnet was one of the first to congratulate -William on his landing on English soil; and, at the recommendation -of Carstares, the first thing on the complete disembarkation was -to collect the troops, and return public thanks to Heaven for the -successful passage of the armament. The next day William marched in -the direction of Exeter; but the rains continued, and the roads were -foul, so that he made little progress. It was not till the 9th that -he appeared before the city. The people received him with enthusiasm, -but the magistracy shrank back in terror, and Bishop Lamplough and -the dean had fled to warn the king of the invasion. The city was in -utter confusion, and at first shut its gates; but as quickly agreed -to open them, and William was accommodated in the vacated deanery. -But the people of the West had suffered too much from the support -of Monmouth not to have learnt caution. A service was ordered in the -cathedral to return thanks for the safe arrival of the prince; but -the canons absented themselves, and only some of the prebendaries and -choristers attended, and, as soon as Burnet began to read the prince's -declaration, these hurried out as fast as they could. On Sunday, which -was the 11th, Burnet was the only clergyman that could be got to preach -before the prince, and the Dissenters refused the fanatic Ferguson -admittance to their chapel. This extraordinary person, however, who -appears to have been one-third enthusiast and two-thirds knave, called -for a hammer, and exclaiming, "I will take the kingdom of heaven by -storm!" broke open the door, marched to the pulpit with his drawn sword -in his hand, and delivered one of those wild and ill-judged philippics -against the king which did so much mischief in the attempt of Monmouth. - -Altogether, so far the cause of William appeared as little promising -as that of Monmouth had done. Notwithstanding the many earnest -entreaties from men of high rank and of various classes--nobles, -bishops, officers of the army and navy,--a week had elapsed, and no -single person of influence had joined him. The people only, as in -Monmouth's case, had crowded about him with shouts of welcome. William -was extremely disappointed and chagrined; he declared that he was -deluded and betrayed, and he vowed that he would re-embark, and leave -those who had called for him to work out their own deliverance, or -receive their due punishment. But on Monday, the 12th, his spirits -were a little cheered by a gentleman of Crediton, named Burrington, -attended by a few followers, joining his standard. This was immediately -followed, however, by the news that Lord Lovelace, with about seventy -of his tenants and neighbours, had been intercepted by the militia at -Cirencester, taken prisoners, and sent to Gloucester Castle. The slow -movement of the disaffected appears to have originated in William's -not having landed in Yorkshire, as was expected, but in the west, -where he was not expected. In the North Lords Delamere and Brandon in -Cheshire, Danby and Lumley in Yorkshire, Devonshire and Chesterfield in -Derbyshire, in Lancashire the Earl of Manchester, in Nottinghamshire -and Lincolnshire Rutland and Stamford, and others were all waiting to -receive him. The very army which had been encamped on Hounslow Heath -was the seat of a secret conspiracy of officers, with Churchill himself -at their head, who kept up constant communication with the club at the -"Rose" tavern in Covent Garden, of which Lord Colchester was president. -But all this concert was paralysed for a time by William's appearance -in so distant a quarter. - -But the elements of revolt, which had suffered a momentary shock, -now began to move visibly. The very day that Lord Lovelace was -captured, Lord Colchester marched into Exeter, attended by about -seventy horse, and accompanied by the hero of "Lillibullero," Thomas -Wharton. They were quickly followed by Russell, the son of the Duke of -Bedford, one of the earliest promoters of the revolution, and still -more significantly by the Earl of Abingdon, a staunch Tory, who had -supported James till he saw that nothing but the reign of Popery would -satisfy him. A still more striking defection from the king immediately -followed. Lord Cornbury, the eldest son of the Earl of Clarendon, -pretended to have received orders to march with three regiments of -cavalry stationed at Salisbury Moor, to the enemy in the west. He was a -young man entirely under the influence of Lord Churchill, having been -brought up in the household of his cousin, the Princess Anne, where -Churchill and his wife directed everything; and there can be no doubt -that this movement was the work of Churchill. As the cavalry proceeded -from place to place by a circuitous route to Axminster, the officers -became suspicious, and demanded to see the orders. Cornbury replied -that his orders were to beat up the quarters of the army in the night -near Honiton. The loyal officers, who had received hints that all was -not right, demanded to see the written orders; but Cornbury, who had -none to produce, stole away in the dark with a few followers who were -in the secret, and got to the Dutch camp. His regiment, and that of -the Duke of Berwick, James's own (natural) son, with the exception of -about thirty troops, returned to Salisbury; but the third regiment, -the Duke of St. Albans', followed the colonel, Langton, to Honiton, -where General Talmash received them; and most of the officers and a -hundred and fifty privates declared for the prince, the rest being made -prisoners, but soon afterwards discharged. - -The news of this defection of one so near to the king's family -created the greatest consternation in the palace. In his terror James -summoned a military council. He was anxious to receive the assurances -of fidelity from his other officers--as if any assurances, under the -circumstances, anything but leading them against the enemy, could test -the loyalty of these men. He told them that he wished to be satisfied -that there were no more Cornburys amongst them; and that if any had -scruples about fighting for him, he was ready to receive back their -commissions. Of course they protested the most ardent devotion to his -cause, though there was not a man of them that was not already pledged -to desert him. Churchill, recently made a lieutenant-general, and the -Duke of Grafton, the king's nephew, were especially fervid in their -expressions of loyalty; so, too, were Trelawney, smarting secretly over -the persecution of his brother, the Bishop of Bristol, and the savage -Kirke, who, when James had importuned him to turn Papist, had replied -that he "was sorry, but he had already engaged to the Grand Turk that -if he changed his religion he would become a Mussulman." Reassured -by these hollow professions, James gave orders for joining the camp -at Salisbury; but the next morning, before he could set out, he was -waited on by a numerous deputation of lords spiritual and temporal, -with Sancroft at their head, praying that a free Parliament might be -immediately called, and communication opened with the Prince of Orange. - -James received the deputation ungraciously. In all his hurried -concessions he had still shown his stubborn spirit by refusing to -give up the Dispensing power; and now, though he declared that what -they asked he passionately desired, he added that he could not call a -Parliament till the Prince of Orange quitted the kingdom. "How," he -asked, "can you have a free Parliament whilst a foreign prince, at the -head of a foreign force, has the power to return a hundred members?" He -then fell foul of the bishops, reminding them that the other day they -refused to avow under their hands their disapproval of the invasion, -on the plea that their vocation was not in politics; and yet here -they were at the very head of a political movement. He charged them -with fomenting the rebellion, and retired, declaring to his courtiers -that he would not concede an atom. He then appointed a council of -five lords--of whom two were Papists, and the third Jeffreys--to keep -order during his absence, sent off the Prince of Wales to Portsmouth -to the care of the Duke of Berwick, the commander, and set out for -Salisbury. He reached his camp on the 19th of November, and ordered a -review the next day at Warminster, of Kirke's division. Churchill and -Kirke were particularly anxious that he should proceed to this review, -and Kirke and Trelawney hastened on to their forces, on pretence of -making the necessary preparations. On the other hand, Count de Roye as -earnestly dissuaded James from going to Warminster. He told him that -the enemy's advanced foot was at Wincanton, and that the position at -Warminster, or even that where they were at Salisbury, was untenable. -James, however, was resolved to go; but the next morning, the 20th, -he was prevented by a violent bleeding at the nose, which continued -unchecked for three days. - -[Illustration: WILLIAM OF ORANGE ENTERING EXETER. (_See p._ 339.)] - -Scarcely had this impediment occurred when news came that the king's -forces had been attacked at Wincanton, and worsted by some of the -division of General Mackay. James was now assured that, had he gone to -Warminster, he would have been seized by traitors near his person, and -carried off to the enemy's quarters. He was advised to arrest Churchill -and Grafton; but, with his usual imprudence, he refused, and summoned -them along with the other officers to a military council, to decide -whether they should advance or retreat. Feversham, Roye, and Dumbarton -argued for a retreat; Churchill persisted in his recommendation of an -advance to the post at Warminster. The council lasted till midnight, -when Churchill and Grafton, seeing that their advice was not followed, -felt the time was come to throw off the mask, and therefore rode -directly away to the prince's lines. The next morning the discovery -of this desertion filled the camp with consternation, and this was -at its height when it was known that Churchill's brother, a colonel, -Trelawney, Barclay, and about twenty privates had ridden after the -fugitives. It was said that Kirke was gone too, but it was not the -fact; and he was now arrested for having disobeyed orders sent to him -from Salisbury; but he professed such indignation at the desertion of -Churchill and the others, that the shallow-minded king set him again at -liberty. The deserters were received by William with a most gracious -welcome, though Schomberg remarked of Churchill that he was the first -lieutenant-general that he had ever heard of running away from his -colours. - -In James's camp all was confusion, suspicion, and dismay. There was -not a man who was sure of his fellow, and the retreat which commenced -more resembled a flight. Numbers who would have fought had they been -led at once to battle, now lost heart, and stole away on all sides. The -news that found its way every hour into the demoralised camp was enough -to ruin any army. From every quarter came tidings of insurrection. -The Earl of Bath, the Governor of Plymouth, had surrendered the place -solemnly to William; Sir Edward Seymour, Sir William Portman, Sir -Francis Warre--men of immense influence in Devon, Somerset, and -Dorset--were already with William at Exeter; a paper had been drawn -up and signed by the leading persons there to stand by the prince, -and, whether he succeeded or whether he fell, never to cease till they -had obtained all the objects in his declaration; Delamere had risen -in Chester, and had reached Manchester on his way south; Danby had -surprised the garrison at York; the town had warmly welcomed him, and a -great number of peers, baronets, and gentlemen were in arms with him. -Devonshire had called together the authorities and people of Derby, and -published his reason for appearing in arms, calling on them to assist -all true men in obtaining a settlement of the public rights in a free -Parliament. At Nottingham he was met by the Earls of Rutland, Stamford, -Manchester, Chesterfield, and the Lords Cholmondeley and Grey de Ruthyn. - -These were tidings of a reaction as determined as James's headstrong -career had been; but the worst had not yet overtaken him. On the -evening of November 24th he had retreated towards London as far as -Andover. Prince George of Denmark, the husband of the Princess Anne, -and the Duke of Ormond, supped with him. Prince George was a remarkably -stupid personage, whose constant reply to any news was, "Est-il -possible?" When the intelligence of one desertion after another came he -had exclaimed, "Est-il possible?" But the moment supper was over and -the king gone to bed, Prince George and Ormond rode off to the enemy -too. When James the next morning was informed of this mortifying news, -he coolly replied, "What! Is 'Est-il possible' gone too? Were he not my -son-in-law, a single trooper would have been a greater loss." With the -prince and Ormond had also fled Lord Drumlanrig, the eldest son of the -Duke of Queensberry, Mr. Boyle, Sir George Hewit, and other persons of -distinction. The blow was severe; and though James at the first moment, -being stunned, as it were, seemed to bear it with indifference, he -pursued his way to London in a state of intense exasperation. There the -first news that met him was the flight of his own daughter Anne. Anne -was bound up, soul and body, with the Churchills, and it had no doubt -been for some time settled amongst them that they should all get away -to the prince her brother-in-law. - -It was towards evening of the same day that Anne fled that James -arrived at Whitehall, agitated by the awful desertions of his highest -officers and his nearest relatives. This announcement put the climax -to his torture. He exclaimed, "God help me! My very children have -forsaken me." Severe as the punishment of his desperate treason against -his people deserved to be, this certainly was a cruel fate. For some -days a lady near his person records that she thought she saw in him -occasional aberrations of intellect. That night he sat late in council, -and it was urged on him to call together such peers and prelates as -were in London to consult on the necessary steps in this crisis. The -next day came together nearly fifty peers and bishops, and James asked -their advice as to calling a Parliament. On this head there appeared -no difference of opinion; but Halifax, Nottingham, and others, urged -with equal earnestness that all Catholics should be dismissed from -office, and a general amnesty published for all in arms against him. -James assented to the calling a Parliament, but his eyes were still -not opened to the folly of his past conduct, and he would give no -assurance of dismissing the Papists, and broke out into vehement -language at the proposal to pardon his enemies. "My lords," he said, -"you are wonderfully anxious for the safety of my enemies, but none -of you troubles himself about my safety." And he vowed that he would -yet take vengeance on those who had deserted him, and, above all, on -Churchill. Clarendon, who was on the eve of running off to William, -took the opportunity to utter the bitter feelings which his dismissal -from the Lord-Lieutenancy of Ireland to make way for Tyrconnel had no -doubt long left in his mind. He upbraided James with his dogged and -incurable Popery, with sacrificing everybody and everything for it; -declaring that, even at that moment, James was raising a regiment from -which Protestants were rigorously excluded. He taunted him with running -away from the enemy, and asked him who was likely to fight for him when -he himself was the first to flee. - -After this severe treatment by his closest connections, James -appeared to comply with the advice of the lords. He sent for Halifax, -Nottingham, and Godolphin, and informed them that he had appointed -them Commissioners to treat with William. He dismissed Sir Edward -Hales from the Tower, and placed Bevil Skelton, a Protestant, there. -But the nature or the intention of this most obtuse of bigots was by -no means changed; he was internally as determined as ever to reverse -every concession on the first possible occasion. Barillon tells us that -he assured him that all this was a mere feint; that he only sent the -Commissioners to William in order to gain time for sending his wife and -child into France; that as to calling a Parliament, that would only -be to put himself into their power, and compel him to submit to their -conditions; that he had no faith in his troops, except the Irish; none -of the rest would fight for him; and, therefore, as soon as the queen -and young prince were safe, he should get away to Ireland, Scotland, -or France, and await the turn of events. Such was the utterly hopeless -character of the Stuart race! - -To clear the way for the escape of the royal infant, Lord Dover was -put in command at Portsmouth, and James sent orders to Lord Dartmouth -to see that the child was safely conveyed to the French coast. In -anticipation of the accomplishment of this object, he made every -preparation for his own flight. He sent to Jeffreys to bring the Great -Seal, and take up his quarters with it in the palace, lest by any -means it should fall into the hands of the invader, and thus give an -air of authority to his proceedings. But his escape was delayed by -unpleasant news from Lord Dartmouth. The announcement of the calling -of a Parliament, and of attempted agreement with the Prince of Orange, -had spread exultation through the navy, and the officers had despatched -an address of fervent thanks to James, when the arrival of the infant -prince awoke a general suspicion that all was still hollow, and that -James meant nothing but escape. The officers were in great agitation, -and plainly pointed out to Dartmouth his heavy responsibility if he -allowed the prince to quit the kingdom. Dartmouth, therefore, wrote -James, declaring that he would risk his life for the support of the -Crown, but that he dared not undertake to facilitate the escape of the -Prince of Wales. This was confounding news, and James took instant -measures for the return of his son to London, and for his escape by -another means to France. - -Meanwhile William was gradually advancing towards the capital, and, on -the 6th of December, the king's Commissioners met him at Hungerford, -where they found the Earls of Clarendon and Oxford already swelling -the Court of the invader. They were received with much respect, and -submitted their master's proposal that all matters in dispute should be -referred to the Parliament for which the writs were ordered, and that, -in the meantime, the Dutch army should not advance nearer than forty -miles from London. The Whigs in William's Court were decidedly averse -from reconciliation with James, whose implacable nature they knew; but -William insisted on acceding to the terms, on condition that the royal -forces should remove the same distance from the capital, and that the -Tower of London and Tilbury Fort should be put into the keeping of -the City authorities. If it were necessary for the king and prince to -proceed to Westminster during the negotiations, they should go attended -only by a small guard. Nothing could be fairer; but William knew well -the character of his father-in-law, and felt assured that he would -by some means shuffle out of the agreement, and throw the odium of -failure on himself; and he was not deceived. Never had James so fair an -opportunity of recovering his position and securing his throne, under -constitutional restraints, for his life; but he was totally incapable -of such wisdom and honesty. - -On the very day that the royal Commissioners reached William's camp, -James received the Prince of Wales back from Portsmouth, and prepared -to send him off to France by another route. On the night of the 10th of -December he sent the queen across the Thames in darkness and tempest, -disguised as an Italian lady, and attended by two Italian women, one of -whom was the child's nurse, and the other carried the boy in her arms. -They were guarded by two French refugees of distinction--Antonine, -Count of Lauzun, and his friend Saint Victor. They arrived safely at -Gravesend, where a yacht awaited them, on board of which were Lord and -Lady Powis. Saint Victor returned to inform James that they had got -clear off, and in a few hours they were safely in Calais. - -Scarcely did Saint Victor bring the cheering news of the auspicious -sailing of the yacht, when the Commissioners arrived with the -conditions that had been agreed on by William. Here was the guarantee -for a speedy adjustment of all his difficulties; but the false and -distorted-minded James only saw in the circumstance a wretched means -of further deceit and contempt of his people and of all honourable -negotiation. He pretended to be highly satisfied, summoned for the -morrow a meeting of all the peers in town, and of the Lord Mayor -and aldermen, and directed that they should deliberate freely and -decide firmly for the good of the country. This done, he retired to -rest, ordered Jeffreys to be with him early in the morning, said to -Lord Mulgrave, as he bade him good night, that the news from William -was most satisfactory, and, before morning, had secretly decamped, -leaving his kingdom to take care of itself rather than condescend to a -pacification with his son-in-law and his subjects, which should compel -him to rule as a constitutional king. - -But James was not satisfied with this contemptible conduct; he indulged -himself before going with creating all the confusion that he could. -Had the writs, which were preparing, been left for issue on the 15th -of January, 1689, a new Parliament would be in existence, ready to -settle the necessary measures for future Government; he therefore -collected the writs and threw them into the fire with his own hands, -and annulled a number which were already gone out, by an instrument for -the purpose. He also left a letter for Lord Feversham, announcing his -departure from the kingdom, and desiring him no longer to expose the -lives of himself and his soldiers "by resistance to a foreign army and -a poisoned nation;" then, taking the Great Seal in his hand, he bade -the Earl of Northumberland, who was the Lord of the Bedchamber on duty, -and lay on a pallet bed in the king's room, not to unlock the door -till the usual hour in the morning, and then, disguised as a country -gentleman, disappeared down the back stairs. He was waited for by Sir -Edward Hales, whom he afterwards created Earl of Tenterden, and they -proceeded in a hackney-coach to Millbank, where they crossed the river -in a boat to Vauxhall. When in mid-stream, he flung the Great Seal into -the water, trusting that it would never be seen any more; but it was -afterwards dragged up by a fishing-net. James, attended by Hales and -Sheldon, one of the royal equerries, drove at a rapid pace for Elmley -Ferry, near the Isle of Sheppey, having relays of horse ready engaged. -They reached that place at ten in the morning, and got on board the -Custom House hoy which was waiting for them, and dropped down the river. - -[Illustration: JAMES HEARING OF THE LANDING OF WILLIAM OF ORANGE. -(_After the Painting by E. M. Ward, R.A._)] - -In the morning, when the Duke of Northumberland opened the king's -chamber door, and it was discovered that James had fled, the -consternation in the palace may be imagined. The courtiers and the -numbers of persons who were waiting to fulfil their morning duties, -and the lords who had been summoned to council, spread the exciting -tidings, and the capital became a scene of the wildest and most -alarming confusion. Feversham obeyed the orders of the king left in -his letter, without pausing to ask any advice, or to calculate what -might be the consequences. These were as serious as might have been -expected. There was no Government, no constituted authority to appeal -to. Lord Rochester had continued loyal to the last; but the base -desertion of James and the imminent danger at once decided him. He -bade the Duke of Northumberland muster the Guards, and declare for -William. The officers of the other regiments in London followed the -advice, and endeavoured to keep together their men, declaring for the -Prince of Orange. The lords who had been summoned to Council hastened -into the City to concert measures with the Lord Mayor and aldermen for -the public safety. A meeting was hastily called in Guildhall, where -the peers, twenty-five in number, and five bishops, with Sancroft and -the new Archbishop of York at their head, formed themselves into a -provisional council to exercise the functions of Government till the -Prince of Orange should arrive, for whom they sent a pressing message, -praying him to hasten and unite with them for the preservation of -the Constitution and the security of the Church. The two Secretaries -of State were sent for, but Preston alone came; Middleton denied the -authority of the self-created Council. The Lieutenant of the Tower, -Bevil Skelton, was ordered to give up the keys to Lord Lucas, and an -order was sent to Lord Dartmouth, desiring him to dismiss all Popish -officers from the fleet, and attempt nothing against the Dutch fleet. -But no measures could prevent the outbreak of the mob in London. The -feeling against the Catholics displayed itself on all sides. Under -pretence of searching for Papists, the hordes of blackguards from -every low purlieu of London swarmed forth and broke into houses, and -plundered them at their pleasure. The vile Jeffreys was with difficulty -saved from the fury of the mob. - -James, his heartless master, was also seized. The Custom House hoy in -which he embarked was found wanting in ballast, and the captain was -obliged to run her ashore near Sheerness. About eleven at night on the -12th of December, before the hoy could be floated again by the tide, -she was boarded by a number of fishermen who were on the look-out for -fugitives, and the appearance of the king immediately attracted their -notice. "That is Father Petre," cried one fellow; "I know him by his -hatchet face." James was immediately seized and searched; but, though -he had his coronation ring in his pocket, besides other jewels, they -missed them, and did not recognise him. They carried him ashore at -Feversham, where, at the inn, amid the insults of this rabble, he -declared himself their king. The Earl of Winchelsea, hearing of the -king's detention, hastened to his assistance, had him removed to the -house of the Mayor, and sent word of his capture to London. - -When the countryman who carried the messages from Lord Winchelsea -arrived at Whitehall, the news of the king's detention occasioned the -greatest embarrassment. The lords had sent for William, and hoped -that they were well rid of the foolish king. Nothing could have been -easier than their course if James had got over to the Continent. -The throne would be declared vacant, and the Prince and Princess of -Orange invited to occupy it, on giving the necessary guarantees for -the maintenance of the Constitution. But now the whole question was -involved in difficulties. If James persisted in his right to the -throne, in what capacity was William to be received? Could any safe -measures be arranged with a man like James? Was he to be deposed, -and his son-in-law and daughter forcibly placed on his throne? The -dilemma was equally embarrassing to the lords and prelates, and to -the prince himself. When the messenger was introduced, and delivered -a letter from James, but without any address, Halifax moved that they -should instantly adjourn, and thus leave the letter unnoticed. Halifax -was deeply incensed at the trick which James had played off upon him -in sending him to negotiate with William merely that he might get -away, and was now resolved to adhere to the prince; but Lord Mulgrave -prevailed on the lords to retain their seats, and obtained from them -an order that Lord Feversham should take two hundred Life Guards, and -protect the king from insult. Feversham demanded the precise powers of -his order, and was told that he must defend the king from insult, but -by no means impede the freest exercise of his personal freedom. This -meant that they would be glad if he facilitated his escape. Halifax -immediately left London, and joined the Prince of Orange, who was now -at Henley-on-Thames. Sancroft and the clergy, as soon as they were -aware that the king had not left the country, retired from any further -participation in the Council. William and his adherents were extremely -chagrined at this untoward turn of affairs. When the messenger arrived -at Henley he was referred to Burnet, who said, "Why did you not let the -king go?" - -But when Feversham arrived at the town whose name he bore, the king -was no longer disposed to escape. His friends who had gathered about -him, Middleton and Lord Winchelsea especially, had endeavoured to show -him that his strength lay in remaining. Had he vacated the throne by -quitting the kingdom, it had been lost for ever; but now he was king, -and might challenge his right; and the prince could not dispossess -him without incurring the character of a usurper, and throwing a -heavy odium of unnatural severity on himself and his wife. James had -sufficient mind left to perceive the strength thus pointed out to him. -He resolved to return to his capital, and from Rochester despatched -Feversham with a letter to William, whom he found advanced to Windsor, -proposing a conference in London, where St. James's should be prepared -for the prince. By this time William and his Council had determined on -the plan to be pursued in the great difficulty. He had calculated on -James's being gone, and had issued orders to the king's army and to the -lords at Whitehall in the style of a sovereign. His leading adherents -had settled amongst themselves the different offices that they were to -occupy as the reward of their adhesion. It was resolved, therefore, -if possible, to frighten James into a second flight. No sooner had -Feversham delivered his despatch than he was arrested, and thrown into -the Round Tower on the charge of having disbanded the army without -proper orders, to the danger of the capital, and of having entered the -prince's camp without a passport. Zulestein was despatched to inform -James that William declined the proposed conference, and recommended -him to remain at Rochester. - -James, however, was now bent on returning to London. He had not waited -for the prince's answer, but on Sunday, the 16th of December, he -entered his capital in a sort of triumphal procession. He was preceded -by a number of gentlemen, bareheaded. Immense crowds assembled as if -to welcome him back again. They cheered him as he rode along. The -bells were rung, and bonfires were lit in the streets. Elated by these -signs, as he imagined them, of returning popularity, he no sooner -reached Whitehall than he called around him the Jesuits who had hidden -themselves, stationed Irish soldiers as guards around his palace, had -grace said at his table by a Jesuit priest, and expressed his high -indignation at the lords and prelates who had presumed to usurp his -functions in his absence--who had, in fact, saved the capital from -destruction when he had abandoned it. His folly, however, received an -abrupt check. Zulestein was announced, and delivered the stern message -of William. James was confounded, but again repeated his invitation -for his nephew to come to town, that they might settle all differences -in a personal conference. Zulestein coldly assured him that William -would not enter London whilst it contained troops not under his orders. -"Then," said James, "let him bring his own guards, and I will dismiss -mine, for I am as well without any as such that I dare not trust." -Zulestein, however, retired without further discussion, and the moment -he was gone, James was informed of the arrest of Feversham. - -Alarmed at these proofs of the stern spirit of William, James sent in -haste to Stamps and Lewis, the leading members of the City Council--the -Lord Mayor had never recovered his terror of Jeffreys' presence,--to -offer to place himself under their protection till all necessary -guarantees for the public liberties had been given and accepted. But -the Common Council had not had time to forget his seizure of their -charter, and they prudently declined to enter into an engagement which, -they said, they might not be able to fulfil. Whilst James was thus -learning that though the City acclamations might be proofs of regret -for his misfortunes, they were by no means proofs of a desire for his -continuing to reign, William, on the same day, the 17th, bade all -his leading adherents hold a solemn council, to consider what steps -should be taken in this crisis. It was understood that he would never -consent to enter London whilst James was there, and it was resolved -that he should be removed to Ham House, near Richmond, which the -brutal Lauderdale had built out of the bribes of Louis XIV. and the -money wrung from the ravaged people of Scotland. Halifax, Shrewsbury, -and Delamere were despatched to James with this intimation, though -Clarendon had done all in his power to have James seized and confined -in some foreign fortress till Tyrconnel surrendered Ireland to the -prince's party. - -Simultaneously with the three lords, William ordered his forces to -advance towards London. In the evening of the 17th James heard that the -Dutch soldiers had occupied Chelsea and Kennington. By ten o'clock at -night Solmes, at the head of three battalions of infantry, was already -making across St. James's Park, and sent word that his orders were to -occupy Whitehall, and he advised the Earl of Craven, who commanded -the Coldstream Guards, to retire. Craven--though now in his eightieth -year, was still possessed of the courage and chivalry which he had -displayed in the wars of Germany, and which had won him the heart of -Elizabeth of Bohemia, who was said to be married to him--declared -that, so long as he retained life, no foreign prince should make a -King of England a prisoner in his own palace. James, however, ordered -him to retire. The Coldstream Guards withdrew, and the Dutch guards -surrounded the palace. James, as if there were no danger to his person, -went composedly to bed, but only to be roused out of his first sleep -to receive the deputation from the prince. On reading the letter -proposing his removal to Ham, which Halifax informed him must be done -before ten o'clock in the morning, James seems to have taken a final -resolve to get away. He protested against going to Ham, as a low, damp -place in winter, but offered to retire to Rochester. This was a pretty -clear indication of his intention to flee--the very object desired. A -messenger was despatched in all speed to the prince, who returned with -his full approbation before daybreak. - -The morning of the 18th was miserably wet and stormy, but a barge -was brought to Whitehall Stairs, and the wretched monarch went on -board, attended by the Lords Arran, Dumbarton, Dundee, Lichfield, -and Aylesbury. The spectators could not behold this melancholy -abdication--for such it was--of the last potentate of a most unwise -line, who had lost a great empire by his incurable infatuation, -without tears. Even Shrewsbury and Delamere showed much emotion, -and endeavoured to soothe the fallen king; but Halifax, incurably -wounded in his diplomatic pride by the hollow mission to the prince -at Hungerford, stood coldly apart. Boats containing a hundred Dutch -soldiers surrounded his barge as it dropped down the river. James -landed and slept at Gravesend, and then proceeded to Rochester, where -he remained four days. - -Though his advisers entreated him not to fly, James had now sunk the -last manly feeling of a monarch who would dare much and sacrifice more -to retain a noble empire for his family. A dastardly fear that if he -remained he would be put to death like his father took possession -of him. He made a last offer to the bishops, through the Bishop of -Winchester, as he had done to the City of London, to put himself into -their hands for safety, but they also declined the responsibility, and -he then gave all over as lost. On the evening of the 22nd of December -he sat down before supper, and wrote a declaration of his motives for -quitting the kingdom. About midnight he stole quietly away with the -Duke of Berwick, his natural son, and, after much difficulty, through -storm and darkness, reached a fishing smack hired for the purpose, -which, on Christmas Day, landed him at Ambleteuse, on the coast of -France. Thence he hastened to the castle of St. Germains, which Louis -had appointed for his residence, and where, on the 28th, he found his -wife and child awaiting him. Louis also was there to receive him, had -settled on him a revenue of forty-five thousand pounds sterling yearly, -besides giving him ten thousand pounds for immediate wants. The conduct -of Louis was truly princely, not only in thus conferring on the fallen -monarch a noble and delightful residence, with an ample income, but in -making it felt by his courtiers and all France, that he expected the -exiled family to be treated with the respect due to the sovereigns of -England. - -The flight of James had removed the great difficulty of William--that -of having recourse to some measure of harshness towards him, as -imprisonment, or forcible deposition and banishment, which would have -greatly lowered his popularity. The adherents of James felt all this, -and were confounded at the advantage which the impolitic monarch had -given to his enemies. The joy of William's partisans was great and -unconcealed. In France the success of William was beheld with intense -mortification, for it was the death-blow to the ascendency of Louis -in Europe, which had been the great object of all his wars, and the -expensive policy of his whole life. In Holland the elevation of their -Stadtholder to the head of the English realm was beheld as the greatest -triumph of their nation; and Dykvelt and Nicholas Witsen were deputed -to wait on him in London and congratulate him on his brilliant success. -But, notwithstanding all these favourable circumstances, there were -many knotty questions to be settled before William could be recognised -as sovereign. The country was divided into various parties, one of -which, including the Tories and the Church, contended that no power -or law could affect the divine right of kings; and that although a -king by his infamy, imbecility, or open violation of the laws might be -restrained from exercising the regal functions personally, those rights -remained untouched, and must be invested for the time in a regent -chosen by the united Parliament of the nation. Others contended that -James's unconstitutional conduct and subsequent flight amounted to an -abdication, and that the royal rights had passed on to the next heir; -and the only question was, which was the true heir--the daughter of -James, the wife of William, or the child called the Prince of Wales? -The more determined Whigs contended that the arbitrary conduct of the -House of Stuart, and especially of James, who attempted to destroy both -the Constitution and the Church, had abrogated the original compact -between prince and people, and returned the right of electing a new -monarch into the hands of the people; and the only question was, who -should that choice be? There were not wanting some who advised William -boldly to assume the crown by right of conquest; but he was much too -wise to adopt this counsel, having already pledged himself to the -contrary in his Declaration, and also knowing how repugnant such an -assumption would be to the proud spirit of the nation. - -To settle these points he called together, on the 23rd of December, -the peers, all the members of any Parliament summoned in the reign -of Charles II. who happened to be in town, and the Lord Mayor and -aldermen, with fifty other citizens of London, at St. James's, -to advise him as to the best mode of fulfilling the terms of his -Declaration. The two Houses, thus singularly constituted, proceeded to -deliberate on the great question in their own separate apartments. The -Lords chose Halifax as their Speaker; the Commons, Henry Powle. The -Lords came to the conclusion that a Convention was the only authority -which could determine the necessary measures; that in the absence -of Charles II. a Convention had called him back to the throne, and -therefore a Convention in the absence of James might exercise the same -legitimate function. When the Lords presented an address to this effect -on the 25th, William received it, but said it would be necessary to -receive the conclusion of the Commons before any act could take place. -On the 27th the Commons came to the same decision, and William was -requested to exercise the powers of the executive till the Convention -should assemble. - -In issuing orders for the election of the members of the Convention, -William displayed a most politic attention to the spirit of the -Constitution. He gave direction that no compulsion or acts of undue -persuasion should be exercised for the return of candidates; no -soldiers should be allowed to be present in the boroughs where the -elections were proceeding; for, unlike James, William knew that he had -the sense of the majority of the people with him. The same measure was -adopted with regard to Scotland. There, no sooner had William arrived -in England, than the people rose against James's Popish ministers, -who were glad to flee or conceal themselves. Perth, the miserable -renegade and tyrant, endeavoured to escape by sea; he was overtaken, -brought ignominiously back, and flung into the prison of Kirkcaldy. The -Papists were everywhere disarmed, the Popish chapels were attacked -and ransacked. Holyrood House, which swarmed with Jesuits, and with -their printing presses, was not exempt from this summary visitation; -and bonfires were made of all sorts of Popish paraphernalia--crosses, -books, images, and pictures. William now called together such Scottish -noblemen and gentlemen as were in London, who adopted a resolution -requesting him to call a Convention of the Estates of Scotland, to meet -on the 14th of March, and in the meantime to take on himself the same -executive authority as in England. William was, therefore, the elected -ruler of the whole kingdom for the time. This power he proceeded to -exercise with a prudence and wisdom which were in striking contrast to -the antagonism of James. All parties and religions were protected as -subjects; Feversham was released, and the administration of justice -proceeded with a sense of firmness and personal security which gave -general confidence. - -On the 22nd of January, 1689, the Convention met. The Lords again chose -Halifax as Speaker, the Commons, Powle. The Catholic lords had not -been summoned, and were not there. In the Lords, Bishop Sherlock and -a small knot of Tories were for recalling James, and attempting the -impossible thing of binding him to the Constitution; another party, of -which Sancroft was known to be the head, though he had not the courage -to go there and advocate it, were for a regency; whilst Danby contended -for proclaiming the Princess Mary in her own right; and the Whigs were -for nominating William as an elective prince. In the Commons, similar -parties appeared; but the great majority were for declaring the throne -vacant, and, on the 28th, they passed a resolution to that effect, and -the next day another, that no Popish king could possess the throne. -These carried up to the Lords were, after a debate of two days, also -adopted, but only by small majorities. - -James now sent a letter to each House, declaring that he had not -abdicated, but had been compelled to withdraw by necessity; and he -offered to return and redress every grievance. Both Houses refused -to receive the letters; but in both the question as to who should be -the successor to the throne was violently debated. Lord Lovelace and -William Killigrew presented a petition to the Commons, demanding that -the crown should be given to the Prince and Princess of Orange jointly. -A member asked if the petition were signed, and Lovelace replied "No," -but added that he would soon procure signatures enough. In fact, -there were noisy crowds about the House; and Lovelace was suspected of -having brought the mob from the City to intimidate the opponents. His -proceedings were strongly protested against, and William himself sent -for him and expressed his disapprobation of bringing any such influence -to force the deliberations of the Convention. The Earl of Devonshire -then gathered a meeting of the advocates of the prince and princess -at his house, where the question was discussed, and where Halifax -concluded for William and Danby for Mary. To obtain, if possible, some -idea of the leaning of William, who had preserved the most profound -silence during the debates, Danby put the question to a friend and -countryman of William's present what was the real wish of William. -He replied that it was not for him to say, but that, if he must give -an opinion, he did not believe that the prince would consent to be -gentleman-usher to his wife. This opened the eyes of Danby, who said, -"Then you all know enough, and I far too much." In fact, blind must all -have been who had studied the character of William not to have seen -from the first that he came there to be king, and that on equal terms -at least with his wife. The man who had for years brooded in jealous -secrecy over the idea that his wife would one day be raised over his -own head by her claim on the British crown, was not likely to accept -less than an equal throne with her. - -Whilst this question was still agitating both Houses, Mary herself -settled it by a letter to Danby, in which she thanked him for his zeal -in her behalf; she declared that she was the wife of William, and had -long resolved, if the throne fell to her, to surrender her power, by -consent of Parliament, into his hands. This was decisive, and the -enemies of William had only the hope left that the Princess Anne might -protest against William, and insist on the precedence of her rights and -those of her issue. But Anne had long been perfectly accordant with -William and Mary, and declared herself entirely willing that William -should hold the throne for his life. - -Mary and Anne having spoken out, William now sent for Halifax, Danby, -Shrewsbury, and the other leaders, and told them that, having come -for the good of the nation, he had thought it right to leave the -nation to settle its election of a ruler, and that he had still no -desire to interfere, except to clear their way so far as he himself -was concerned. He wished therefore to say that, if they decided to -appoint a regent, he declined to be that man. On the other hand, if -they preferred placing the princess, his wife, on the throne, he had -nothing to object; but if they offered to give him during his life the -nominal title of king, he could not accept it; that no man respected or -esteemed the princess more than he did, but that he could never consent -to be tied to the apronstrings of any woman, even the very highest and -best of her sex; that if they chose to offer him the crown for life, -he would freely accept it; if not, he would return cheerfully to his -own country, having done that which he had promised. He added that -he thought, in any case, the rights of Anne and her issue should be -carefully protected. - -This left no doubt as to what must be the result. A second conference -was held on the 5th of February between the two Houses, where the -contest was again renewed as to whether the throne was actually vacant, -and they parted without coming to any agreement; but the Lords, on -returning to their own House, yielded, and sent down to the Commons -the new oaths, and the resolution that the prince and princess should -be declared king and queen. The Commons, who had already come to -this conclusion, would not, however, formally pass it till they had -taken measures for securing the rights of the subject before finally -conferring the crown. They therefore drew up what was called the -"Declaration of Rights," by which, while calling William and Mary to -the throne, they enumerated the constitutional principles on which -the crown should be held. This Declaration was passed on the 12th of -February, and about a year afterwards was formally enacted, under the -title of the "Bill of Rights," which contains the great charter of the -liberties of the English people. - -The Declaration stated that, whereas the late king, James II., had -assumed and exercised a power of dispensing with and suspending laws -without consent of Parliament, and had committed and prosecuted -certain prelates because they had refused to concur in such arbitrary -powers; had erected an illegal tribunal to oppress the Church and the -subject; had levied taxes, and maintained a standing army in time of -peace without consent of Parliament; had quartered soldiers contrary -to law; had armed and employed Papists contrary to law; had violated -the freedom of election, and prosecuted persons in the King's Bench -for causes only cognisable by Parliament; and whereas, besides these, -the personal acts of the late king, partial and corrupt juries had -been returned, excessive fines had been imposed, illegal and cruel -punishments inflicted, the estates of persons granted away before -forfeiture or judgment; all these practices being utterly contrary to -the known laws, statutes, and freedom of the realm: - -And whereas the said king, having abdicated the throne, and the Prince -of Orange, who under God had delivered the realm from this tyranny, had -invited the estates of the realm to meet and secure the religion and -freedom of the kingdom; therefore, the Lords spiritual and temporal, -and the Commons in Parliament assembled, did, for the vindication -and assertion of their ancient rights, declare--That to suspend the -execution of the laws, or to dispense with the execution of laws by -regal authority without consent of Parliament, that to erect boards of -commissioners, and levy money without Parliament, to keep a standing -army in time of peace without the will of Parliament, are all contrary -to law; that the election of members of Parliament ought to be free, -speech in Parliament free, and to be impeached nowhere else; no -excessive bail, or excessive fines, nor cruel or unjust punishments can -be awarded; that jurors ought to be duly impanelled, and, in trials for -high treason, be freeholders; that grants and promises of fines before -conviction are illegal and void; and that, for redress of grievances -and the amendment of laws, Parliaments ought to be frequently held. All -these things are claimed by the Declaration as the undoubted rights and -inheritance of Englishmen; and, believing that William and Mary, Prince -and Princess of Orange, will preserve from violation all these rights -and all other their rights, they resolve and declare them to be King -and Queen of England, France, and Ireland for their joint and separate -lives, the full exercise of the administration being in the prince; -and, in default of heirs of the Princess Mary, the succession to fall -to the Princess Anne of Denmark; and, in the default of such issue to -the Princess Anne of Denmark, to the posterity of William. On the same -12th of February on which this most important document was passed, the -Princess Mary landed at Greenwich. - -The next morning, Wednesday, the 13th of February, 1689, the two Houses -waited on William and Mary, who received them in the Banqueting room -at Whitehall. The prince and princess entered, and stood under the -canopy of State side by side. Halifax was speaker on the occasion. He -requested their Highnesses to hear a resolution of both Houses, which -the Clerk of the House of Lords then read. It was the Declaration of -Rights. Halifax then, in the name of all the Estates of the realm, -requested them to accept the crown. William, for himself and his wife, -accepted the offer, declaring it the more welcome that it was given in -proof of the confidence of the whole nation. He then added for himself, -"And as I had no other intention in coming hither than to preserve -your religion, laws, and liberties, so you may be sure that I shall -endeavour to support them, and be willing to concur in anything that -shall be for the good of the kingdom, and to do all that is in my power -to advance the welfare and the glory of the nation." - -This declaration was no sooner brought to an end than it was received -with shouts of satisfaction by the whole assembly, and, being heard by -the crowds without, was re-echoed by one universal "Hurrah!" The Lords -and Commons, as in courtesy bound, then retired; and, at the great -gate of the palace, the heralds and pursuivants, clad in their quaint -tabards, proclaimed William and Mary King and Queen of England, at the -same time praying for them, according to custom, "a long and happy -reign." The dense mass of people, filling the whole street to Charing -Cross, answered with a stunning shout; and thus, in three months and -eight days from the landing of William at Torbay, the Great Revolution -of 1688 was completed. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -PROGRESS OF THE NATION FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO THE GREAT REVOLUTION. - - Religion: Nonconformist Sects--Imprisonment of Bunyan--Fox - and the Society of Friends--The Punishment of James - Naylor--Expulsion of Roger Williams--Other Religious - Sects--Literature: Milton--His Works--Cowley--Butler--Dryden--Minor - Poets--Dramatists of the Restoration--Prose Writers: Milton and - Dryden--Hobbes--Clarendon--Baxter--Bunyan--Walton--Evelyn and - Pepys--Founding of the Royal Society--Physical Science--Discoveries - of Napier, Newton, and Flamsteed--Mathematicians and - Chemists--Harvey and Worcester--Painting, Sculpture, and - Engraving--Coinage--Music--Furniture--Costume--Manners and - Customs--State of London--Sports and Amusements--Country - Life--Travelling--The Clergy--Yeomen--Village Sports--Growth - of the Revenue and Commerce--Growing prosperity of the North - of England--The Navigation Act--Norwich and Bristol--Postal - Arrangements--Advantages Derived from the Industries of the - Foreign Refugees--The East India Company--Condition of the People: - Wages--The Poor Law--Efforts of Philanthropists. - - -The struggles of the Church we have sufficiently traced in our -recent chapters. With the Restoration it came back to full power and -possession of its revenues and honours, and held them firmly against -all rivals till James menaced them with the recall of the Roman -hierarchy, when, joining with the alarmed public, it compelled the -monarch himself to fly, and continued on its own vantage-ground. The -only notice of religious phenomena at this period demanded of us is -rather what regards the sects which now became conspicuous. - -The leading sects, the Presbyterians, the Independents, and the -Baptists--then called Anabaptists--differed little in their faith. -They were all of the Calvinistic school, whilst the Episcopal Church -was already divided by the contending parties of Calvinists and -Arminians. We have related the struggles of the Presbyterians, English -and Scottish, for the possession of the Establishment in England to -the exclusion of all other faiths; the triumph of the Independents, -with more liberal views, through Cromwell and the army, and the -expulsion of both these parties from the national pulpits following -on the Restoration. The Baptists, though many of them were high in -the army and the State during the Commonwealth, never displayed the -political ambition of the other two great denominations. They cut, -indeed, no figure in the secular affairs of the nation, but they were -most honourably distinguished by their assertion of the right of -private opinion. They were as tolerant of religious liberty as the -Independents, or more so, from whom they differed only in their views -of the rite of Baptism. Their early history in England was adorned by -the appearance in their pulpits of one of the most extraordinary men -of modern times--John Bunyan, whose "Pilgrim's Progress" continues -to delight all classes of men, and will continue to do so as long as -the English language is read. Bunyan, a tinker by trade, was serving -in the Parliamentary army at Leicester, at the time of the battle of -Naseby; and when Charles I. fled to that town John was ordered out as -a sentinel, and his life was saved by another soldier volunteering to -take his duty, who was shot at his post. Bunyan was thrown into prison -for daring to preach under Charles II., and lay in gaol twelve years -and a half, solely because he had a conscience of his own; and was only -liberated on the Declaration of Indulgence by James II. A Mr. Smyth, a -clergyman of the Church of England, who adopted their faith, was the -first to open a chapel for the Baptists in London, and, encouraged by -his example, others were soon opened, and the views of the denomination -soon spread over England and Wales, in later times to be eloquently -expounded by Robert Robinson and Robert Hall. - -But the most remarkable organisation of a religious body was that of -the Society of Friends, or, as they soon came to be nicknamed, Quakers, -whose founder, George Fox, was born at Drayton, in Leicestershire, -in 1624. His father was a weaver, and George was apprenticed to a -shoemaker, who also had a little farm. He informs us in his own -journal that he preferred the farming, and chiefly devoted himself -to it. When he was about nineteen he became deeply impressed with a -religious feeling. It was a time when religious discussion was making -rapid progress amongst the people from the more general access to the -Bible, and many were dissatisfied with the different churches, which -seemed too much engaged in attempts at worldly aggrandisement, and -at achieving a dominance over each other. George was one of these. -In seeking for clear views of religious faith, such as could set his -mind at rest, he went to various clergymen of the Established Church -first, but he found no light. One of them bade him take tobacco and -sing psalms; and another, Cradock of Coventry, was beginning to speak -comfortably to George as they walked in the garden, when the embryo -reformer unluckily happened to set his foot on a flower-border, which -threw the clergyman into such a rage that the discourse was abruptly -brought to an end. - -[Illustration: ROGER WILLIAMS LEAVING HIS HOME IN MASSACHUSETTS. (_See -p._ 354.)] - -Finding no relief or illumination from professors, as he called them, -Fox wisely took his Bible, and used to retire into a hollow tree in -the fields, where he read and prayed earnestly to God to enlighten -his understanding to comprehend the sacred volume, and the genuine -will of the Lord. The result was that he came to a clear and steadfast -conviction that Christianity was strictly a spiritual thing, having -nothing specifically to do with States and Governments, with worldly -pomp and power, and strivings after mortal honours and high places; -that Christ simply and strictly defined it when He said, "My kingdom -is not of this world." He saw that it was the grand principle by which -the soul of man is intended to be regenerated--born again, in fact, and -made fitting to enter into the kingdom of disembodied souls, in the -presence of God and His angels. He found himself, in a word, called -back from the conflicting views and empty ceremonies of the time to -Christianity as it existed among the Apostles--a perfectly spiritual, -and holy, and disinterested thing, embodying the wisdom and the truth -of God, and inhabiting, not formal creeds and outward ceremonies, but -the heart of man, and thence influencing all his thoughts and actions -for good. George perceived that all fixed creeds, all rites and -ceremonies, all investments in State power, were but as cobwebs and old -rags with which the self-interest and self-love of men had enveloped, -encumbered, and degraded it; and he felt himself called to go forth and -proclaim this, which he emphatically styled "the truth." - -Fox carried his great Christian text into every act and department -of life. He was the first to elevate woman to her true place--an -intellectual, moral, and political equality with man; basing his -principle on the apostolic declaration that male and female are all one -in Christ Jesus. Acting on this principle, the women of his Society -became preachers, and transacted their own affairs of association in -their own meetings. He refused to take an oath before a magistrate, -because Christ expressly forbade His disciples to swear at all under -any circumstances; he refused to say "Thou" to a poor man, and "You" -to a rich one, as was then the odious practice; he refused to take -off his hat as a mark of homage to the wealthy and great, on the same -principle that it was a custom of pride and invidious distinction; and -he addressed prince or magistrate with the respectful boldness which -became a man sensible that the only true dignity was the dignity of -truth. The sufferings which were brought upon him and his followers by -these novel doctrines and practices from all parties were terrible. -About three thousand of them were imprisoned, even under the more -liberal rule of the Commonwealth, and as many under Charles II. Their -property was spoliated, their meeting-houses were pulled down, and -their families grossly insulted in their absence. Yet the doctrine -spread rapidly, and many eminent men embraced it; amongst others, -William Penn, the son of Admiral Penn, and the learned Robert Barclay, -who wrote the celebrated vindication of their faith. - -At the same time the violent agitation of the period, and the -enthusiasm of this new doctrine, led some of Fox's followers into -considerable extravagances. The most prominent case was that of -James Naylor, who for a time was undoubtedly led into insanity by -the effervescence of his mind under his religious zeal; and allowed -women to lead his horse into Exeter, crying "Holy! holy! holy!" and -spreading their scarves and handkerchiefs in the way before him, as if -he had been the Saviour come again. Naylor professed that this homage -was not offered to him personally, but to Christ within him. His case -occupied the House of Commons for nearly two months altogether. There -were violent debates on it from morning till night; but at length, on -the 17th of December, 1656, it was voted that he should be set in the -pillory in Palace Yard for two hours; then be whipped from Westminster -to the Old Exchange, London, twice, wearing a paper containing a -description of his crimes; should have his tongue bored through with a -hot iron by the hangman for his blasphemy; be branded on the forehead -with the letter B; that he should be sent to Bristol, and there -whipped through the city on a market-day, paraded face backwards on a -saddleless horse, and then sent back to Bridewell, in London, where -he should be kept to hard labour, and debarred from the visits of his -friends, and from access to pens, ink, and paper. - -All this was rigidly inflicted upon him, and borne heroically. After -two years' confinement in Bridewell he was dismissed, thoroughly cured -of his hallucination, ready to admit it, but as firm in his adhesion -to the principles of Quakerism as ever; and the Society, pitying his -fall, never withdrew from him their sympathy or the enjoyment of his -membership. He died soon after his release. - -In America, in New England, the Quakers were more fiercely persecuted -than in England by the Puritans, who had themselves fled from -persecution. In Massachusetts and Connecticut they were ordered to -have their ears cut off if men, to be publicly whipped if women; and -for a second offence to have their tongues bored through if they dared -to come into these colonies; and this not deterring them, they hanged -several men and women. Endicott, the Governor of Connecticut, when one -of them quoted the words of St. Paul, "For in Him we live, and move, -and have our being," irreverently replied, "And so does every cat and -dog." - -This intolerance of the Puritans was equally exerted against one of -their own members, the venerable Roger Williams, who was driven from -Massachusetts for courageously advocating the doctrine of perfect -freedom of conscience. In fact, Roger Williams was one of the very -first, if not the first man, who proclaimed this great doctrine; and -therefore deserves to be held in eternal remembrance. The honour of -being the earliest publisher of the right of spiritual freedom must, -perhaps, be awarded to Leonard Busher, who published a work on the -subject in 1614, and dedicated it to King James. Roger Williams, -expelled from Massachusetts, proceeded to Narraganset Bay, and became -the founder of the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, -where the most perfect freedom of religious faith was allowed. - -Besides the sects in England already enumerated, there were many minor -ones. The "Millenarians," or "Fifth Monarchy Men," whose views we have -already explained. To this sect Major-General Harrison belonged; and -they created a riot under Venner, the wine-cooper. There was a sect -called "The Seekers," amongst whom Fox once fell, and many of them -joined him, believing they had found what they sought. There were the -"Ranters," a body noted for their noise and vociferation; "Behmenists," -or disciples of the German mystic, Jacob Behmen; "Vanists," followers -of the religious views of Sir Harry Vane; and lastly, "Muggletonians," -the disciples of one Ludovick Muggleton and John Reeve. - -Muggleton was a journeyman tailor, and he and Reeve pretended to be the -two witnesses mentioned in the eleventh chapter of "The Revelation." -They were fanatics of the wildest and most furious character, and -professed to have power to save or damn all whom they pleased, and they -"dealt damnation round the land" with the utmost freedom. The Quakers -and Behmenists were the objects of their most violent denunciations, -probably because Fox and Penn protested against their wild and fanatic -doctrines, which were the antipodes of those of Fox; for, instead -of representing God as a pure spirit, they asserted that He had a -corporeal body, and came down to earth in it as Christ, leaving the -prophet Elias in heaven to rule in His absence. They contended that -man's soul is inseparably united to his body, dies and rises again -with it. They professed to have an especial knowledge of "the place -and nature of heaven, and the place and nature of hell;" with the -persons and natures of devils and angels. The truculent ravings of -these fanatics may be seen in the works and letters of Muggleton, -still extant. In one letter he delivers sentence of damnation on -six-and-twenty Quakers at once. "Inasmuch," he says, "as God hath -chosen me on earth to be the judge of blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, -therefore, in obedience to my commission from the true God, I do -pronounce all these twenty-six persons whose names are above written, -cursed and damned in their souls and bodies from the presence of God, -elect men, and angels in eternity." But this was little: he declared -all Quakers, and Behmenists, and numbers of other people damned and -cursed for ever. - -This repulsive apostle of perdition was tried at the Old Bailey, -and convicted of blasphemy in 1676, and died in 1697, at the age of -eighty-eight. - -We have seen with what a desolating sweep the bloody conflicts of -the Parliament against the encroachments of kingship prostrated the -pursuits of literature and art. We might have expected that the return -to established tranquillity under restored monarchy would have caused -a new spring of genius. But in no reign in England, and in no country -except France, have debauchery and the most hideous grossness so -defiled the productions of poetry and the drama. - -Amid the satyr crew of degraded men and women who then represented -the literary world of England, some few, however, maintained a pure -and dignified career. At the head of these, equally exalted above the -rest by genius and purity of life and morals, stood John Milton (_b._ -1608; _d._ 1674), one of the greatest epic poets, if not the greatest, -that the world has produced. Milton had saturated himself with the -poetic spirit, imagery, and expression of the Prophetic bards, as -well as with knowledge of those of Greece and Rome; and he brought to -bear an immense mass of varied learning on his subject with a power -of appropriation that gave to it a new and wonderful life instead -of the aspect of pedantry. The names of people and places which he -moulds into his diction seem to open up to the imagination regions of -unimagined grandeur and beauty amid strains of solemnest music; and -the descriptions of scenery, such as abound in "Comus," "Lycidas," -and "Arcades," as well as those diffused through "Paradise Lost" and -"Paradise Regained," are like the most exquisite glimpses into the most -fair and solitary landscapes, breathing every rural fragrance, and -alive with all rural sounds and harmonies. - -But it was when he was old, and poor, and blind, and living among the -hatred and the ribald obscenity of the Restoration, that he had scaled -those sublime altitudes of genius, and seemed to walk on the celestial -hills amid their pure and glorious inhabitants, rather than on earth -surrounded by rankest impurities and basest natures. It was when - - "His soul was like a star, and dwelt apart," - -when he had fallen on evil days, that he had alone allowed himself -leisure to work out these the earliest of his aspirations. Long -before--when he had returned from his pleasant sojourn in Italy, where -he saw Galileo in his prison, and was himself received and honoured -by the greatest men of the land, as in anticipation of his after -glory, and was now engaged in defending the sternest measures of -the Republicans--in his "Reasons of Church Government urged against -Prelacy" he unfolded the grand design of his master work, but kept it -self-denyingly in his soul till he had done his duty to his country. -The views which he cherished in his literary ambition are as exalted in -their moral grandeur as his genius was in its native character. These -were, he said, "That what the greatest and choicest arts of Athens, -Rome, or modern Italy and those Hebrews of old did for their country, -I, in my proportion, with this over and above of being a Christian, -might do for mine, not caring to be named once abroad, though perhaps -I could attain unto that, but content me with these British islands -as my world." At this period, it seems, he had not made up his mind -whether he should adopt "the epic form, as exemplified by Homer, -Virgil, and Tasso, or the dramatic, wherein Sophocles and Euripides -reign; or in the style of those magnificent odes and hymns of Pindarus -and Callimachus, not forgetting that of all those kinds of writing the -highest models are to be found in the Holy Scriptures in the Book of -Job, in the Song of Solomon, and the Apocalypse of St. John, in the -grand songs interspersed throughout the Law and the Prophets." But in -one thing he was fixed--that the work should be one "not raised from -the heat of youth, or the vapours of wine, like that which flows at -waste from the pen of some vulgar amorist, or the trencher fury of some -rhyming parasite, nor to be obtained by the invocation of Dame Memory -and her siren daughters, but by devout prayer to that Eternal Spirit -who can enrich with all utterance and knowledge, and sends out His -seraphim with the hallowed fire of His altar, to touch and purify the -lips of whom He pleases." - - "So prayed, more gaining than he asked, the bard, - Holiest of men." - -So he waited, fighting the battles of his country side by side with -Cromwell and Hampden, Pym and Marvell; and when at length he found -leisure to achieve his last great triumph, he was left alone in the -field. He had outlived the long battle of king and people, in which -extraordinary men and as extraordinary events had arisen, and shaken -the whole civilised world. Blind, poor, and old, as if some special -guardianship of Providence had shielded him, or as if the very foes who -had dragged the dreaded Cromwell from his grave feared the imprecations -of posterity, and shrank from touching that sacred head--there sat the -sublime old man at his door, feeling, with grateful enjoyment, the -genial sunshine falling upon him; or dictating immortal verses to his -daughters, as the divine _afflatus_ seized him. - -Much has been said of the small sum received for his "Paradise Lost," -and the slow recognition which it met with. But it is not a fact that -"Paradise Lost" was coolly greeted. Long before Addison gave his -laudatory critique in the _Spectator_, the glory of Milton's great poem -had been attested by Barrow, Andrew Marvell, Lord Anglesea, who used -often to visit him in Bunhill Fields, by the Duke of Buckingham, and -by many other celebrated men. Sir John Denham appeared in the House of -Commons with a proof-sheet of "Paradise Lost" in his hand, wet from -the press, and, being asked what it was, replied, "part of the noblest -poem that ever was written in any language or age." The poem went into -two editions during the author's life, and he corrected it for a third, -which was published soon after his death. In fact, Milton's fame had to -rise from under piled heaps of hatred and ignominy on account of his -politics and religion, for he had attacked the Church as formidably as -the State in his treatise on "The Best Mode of Removing Hirelings" out -of it, as well as in his book against prelacy; but it flung off all -that load of prejudice, and rose to universal acknowledgment. - -We need not detain ourselves with much detail of his other poetical -works, which are now familiar to all readers. They consist of his early -poems, including the exquisite "L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso," his -"Comus" and "Lycidas," a mask and an elegy: his magnificent sonnets, -his "Samson Agonistes," a sacred drama, but constructed strictly on the -Grecian model. It has been often said that Milton had no genius for the -drama; the "Samson" is a sufficient refutation of that opinion. It is -full of dramatic power and interest; it is like some ancient piece of -sculpture, unique, grand, massive, and solemn; and, indeed, had Milton -devoted himself to the drama, it would have been rather in the style of -Sophocles than of Shakespeare, for he was too lofty and earnest in his -whole nature for real humour, or for much variation in mood and manner. -He could never have been a comic poet, but, had he willed it, would -undoubtedly have been a great tragic one. The epic character, however, -prevailed in him, and decided his career. - -[Illustration: MILTON DICTATING "PARADISE LOST" TO HIS DAUGHTERS. (_See -p._ 356.) - -(_After the Picture by Munkacsy._)] - -Besides these poetical works, were his odes, including the splendid -ones of the "Nativity" and the "Passion," and a great number of -translations from the chief poets of Greece, Rome, and Italy, original -poems written in Latin and Italian, portion of the Psalms "done into -metre," and "Paradise Regained." This last poem, though bearing no -degree of equality to the "Paradise Lost," is yet a noble poem, and -would have made a great reputation for any other man. It is clearly not -so well thought out and elaborated as the "Paradise Lost," which was -the dream of his youth, the love and the labour of his prime. "Paradise -Regained," on the other hand, was the chance suggestion of Thomas -Elwood, his Latin reader, and closed with the temptation of Christ in -the wilderness, instead of including the Crucifixion and Ascension, -which might have given the poet a scope equal in magnificence to that -of his former great epic. Of his prose works we shall speak presently. - -The most popular of all poets of this period was Abraham Cowley (_b._ -1618; _d._ 1667). He is a striking example of those authors whom the -critics of the time cry to the skies, and whom more discriminating -posterity are willing to forget. Cowley, in his lifetime, had ten -times the fame of Milton. Johnson, so unjust to many of our poets, -can hardly be said to be so to Cowley. He says--"Though in his own -time considered of unrivalled excellence, and as having taken a flight -beyond all that went before him, Cowley's reputation could not last. -His character of writing was not his own; he unhappily adopted that -which was predominant. He saw a certain way to present praise; and, not -sufficiently inquiring by what means the ancients have continued to -delight through all the changes of human manners, he contented himself -with a deciduous laurel." - -He, in fact, for popularity's sake, preferred art, or rather artifice, -to nature. Yet there are many beautiful thoughts, much real fancy -and wit scattered through his poems; but they are too often buried -in outrageous conceits and distorted metre. He never seems really in -earnest, but always playing with his subject, and constructing gewgaws -instead of raising immortal structures. - -Cowley was a zealous Royalist; he went over to France when the queen -of Charles I. retired thither, and became her secretary for her -private correspondence with Charles. Afterwards he was sent over in -the character of a spy on the Republican party and its proceedings. -"Under pretence of privacy and retirement, he was to take occasion of -giving notice of the posture of things in this nation;" but became -suspected, and was arrested. He then fawned on Cromwell, wrote verses -in his honour, which, however, were only shown in private; and, when -the Commonwealth began to exhibit signs of dissolution, he again -hastened to the exiled Court in France, and came back in the crowd -of Royalists eager for promotion. But his flattering of Cromwell had -been reported, and he was treated with coldness. Yet after some time, -through Buckingham and the Earl of St. Albans, he obtained a lease of -some lands, and, after the ill reception of his play of "The Cutter of -Colman Street," he retired into the country, first to Barn Elms, and -next to Chertsey, in Surrey, where he died in his forty-ninth year. - -The great satirist of the age was Samuel Butler (_b._ 1600; _d._ -1680), who in his "Hudibras" introduced a new kind of poetry--a comic -doggerel, now styled, as _sui generis_, Hudibrastic. Butler was the -son of a yeoman, and had been educated for the Church without those -connections which lead to promotion. With an immense accumulation of -learning, and talent enough to have made half a dozen bishops, he -became at one time a clerk to one Jeffreys, a justice of the peace at -Earl's Coomb, in Worcestershire, and afterwards to Sir Samuel Luke, at -Woodend, in Bedfordshire. In these situations he gleaned the characters -and materials for his "Hudibras," a burlesque on the Puritans. Sir -Samuel Luke was the actual Hudibras. The poem ridicules the Puritans in -every way, but especially for attempting to put down bear-baiting; and -accordingly the first canto-- - - "The adventure of the bear and fiddle - Is sung, but breaks off in the middle." - -Hudibras and his man Ralpho attack the bear, but are defeated, -and then Hudibras retires and makes love to a rich widow. He is a -Presbyterian, and Ralpho an Independent; and in the course of the story -all the leading characters of the Commonwealth, Cromwell, Fleetwood, -Desborough, Lambert, are ridiculed by name, as are Pym, Calamy, -Case, Byfield, Lentham, and the rest under more or less transparent -nicknames, as Ashley Cooper, under the name of the "politician," and -John Lilburne, under that of "brother haberdasher." The first part was -published in 1663, the second in 1664, and the third in 1678, fourteen -years later. Still the poem remained unfinished. It did not require, -however, even the second part to make it famous. It was received with -one universal burst of laughter and applause by the Royalists. Charles -II. and his courtiers were merrier over it than all, and Charles quoted -it continually with unfailing gusto. The Earl of Dorset resolved to -seize the opportunity, and introduce the author, through Buckingham, -to Charles. Buckingham gave him an audience, but just as they were -entering on conversation, Buckingham saw some ladies of loose character -going past, ran out after them, and the poet was not only forgotten, -but could never get a second interview. Clarendon, however, promised -to see him duly rewarded, but never kept his word, and Butler lived -poor and died neglected, at the age of eighty. This shameful neglect -has been much commented on; but no one seems to have reflected that -there may have been more in this than mere neglect. Butler, in his -double-edged satire, made some very hard hits at the Church, and, -while ridiculing the Puritans, gave some not very light back-strokes -to the licentiousness of the Royalists. He wrote an avowed "Satire on -the Licentiousness of the Age;" and in his third part so far vented -his resentment at his neglect as to satirise Charles himself for being -led by the apronstrings of his numerous mistresses. He laughed at the -sages of the newly established Royal Society in his "Elephant in the -Moon;" and such a man is more frequently kicked than rewarded. The -Church did not forget his sallies against it, and refused him burial in -Westminster Abbey. When he wrote the questions and answers between the -man disguised as a devil and Hudibras-- - - "What makes a church a den of thieves?-- - A dean, a chapter, and white sleeves. - What makes all points of doctrine clear?-- - About two hundred pounds a year. - And that which was proved true before, - Prove false again?--Two hundred more"-- - -though the sting was intended for the Puritans, the Puritans laid hold -on the passage, and quoted it against the Church, and this and like -blows rebounded, no doubt, on the poets head. - -The most illustrious name of this period next to that of Milton is that -of John Dryden (_b._ 1631; _d._ 1701). He wrote almost every kind of -poetry--satires, odes, plays, romantic stories--and translated Juvenal, -Persius, the epistles of Ovid, and Virgil. It was unfortunate for the -genius of Dryden that he was generally struggling with poverty, and -by marrying an aristocratic and uncongenial wife, the sister of Sir -Robert Howard, he was all the more compelled to exert his powers to -live in the style which their circumstances demanded. Hence he produced -an immense mass of writings which added little to his fame. Foremost -amongst these are his plays, nearly thirty in number, which were mostly -unsuccessful, and which abound with such gross indecencies that, had -they even high merit otherwise, they would be found to be unperusable. -He had the presumption to new-model Shakespeare's "Midsummer Night's -Dream" and the "Tempest"--two of the most poetical compositions in -existence--and blurred them with the foul leprosy of obscenity. He -treated the "Paradise Lost" in the same way; nor did his necessities -lead him to these enormities only; but there is little doubt they -drove him to apostatise from his religion, and from his original -political faith. His first poem of any note was a most eulogistic elegy -on the death of Cromwell, in which, amongst many other such things, he -said-- - - "Heav'n in his portrait showed a workman's hand, - And drew it perfect, yet without a shade." - -His very next poem, and that of some length, was "Astræa Redux; a Poem -on the Happy Restoration and Return of his Sacred Majesty Charles II.," -immediately followed by "A Panegyric on his Coronation," in which he -heaps still more glowing praise on the young royal libertine, and -flings dust as liberally at his late idol:-- - - "While our cross stars denied us Charles's bed, - Whom our first flames and virgin love did wed, - For his long absence Church and State did groan, - Madness the pulpit, faction seized the throne; - Experienced age in deep despair was lost, - _To see the rebel thrive_, the loyal crossed." - -The accomplished sycophant received as his reward the office of Poet -Laureate, with three hundred pounds a year; and he paid officiously -more than his peppercorn of praise in the "Annus Mirabilis, or Year of -Wonders, 1666," in which the sea fights with the Dutch and the Fire -of London were commemorated in elegiac stanzas, and the most fulsome -and almost impious adulation was poured in showers on both the king -and his heir apparent, the Duke of York--not forgetting an especial -poetical address to the duchess on her husband's victories over the -Hollanders. No doubt Dryden made himself sure that his Laureate salary -was safe, but he was mistaken. James, though "the best who ever bore -the name," could forget benefits, and even flatteries; but he never -forgot an ill turn, or anything that endangered his great design of -restoring Popery; and Dryden, to please the Church and the late king, -whom he did not know to be at heart a Papist, had written his "Religio -Laici," in which he had pulled the Catholic Church to pieces, and -lauded superlatively the Anglican hierarchy. James first took away his -butt of sack, and then his salary; whereupon Dryden directly turned -Catholic, and wrote "The Hind and the Panther," to beslaver Popery, -kick down Protestantism, and reconcile the public to James's invidious -scheme of abolishing the Test Act for his own purposes. This succeeded, -and Dryden continued to receive his pay, and do his dirty work during -James's reign. It was expected that he would wheel round again on -William and Mary's success; but he lived and died Catholic. - -With all respect for the genius of Dryden, it is thus impossible for a -truthful historian to take any but a melancholy view of his personal -character, and of the mass of his writings. They are, in fact, mostly -on subjects that do not fall within the legitimate province of true -poetry. His "Absalom and Achitophel"--written to ridicule Monmouth -and Shaftesbury, with their accomplice, Buckingham, under the name of -"Zimri," and to damage the Whig party generally--is transcendently -clever; but even the highest satirical and political verse is not -poetry--it is only cleverness in verse; and this is the grand -characteristic of Dryden's poetry--it is masterly verse. There is no -creative faculty in it; it is a matter of style rather than of soul and -sentiment; and in style he is a great master. This made Milton say that -Dryden was a good rhymester, but no poet; and in Milton's conception of -poetry, and in that which has taught us to venerate Homer, Shakespeare, -Milton, Wordsworth, Shelley, and others, Dryden was not a poet of the -highest rank. A modern critic has given him great credit for "creative -power and genius" in his adaptations of some of Chaucer's tales; but -this is a mistake. The creative genius is Chaucer's; Dryden has only -remodelled the tales in modern language; the ideas, the invention, -are all Chaucer's; Dryden's share consists in his wonderful, elastic, -musical diction, in which he undoubtedly excels every English author -in the heroic measure. Pope's is more artificial, but is far behind -in musical rhythm and elastic vigour. Dryden's heroic verse is music -itself, and music full of its highest elements. In it the trumpet -sings, the drum beats, the organ blows in solemn thunder, the flute and -fife shrill forth eloquence, and all mingled instruments seem to chorus -in a combination of blissful sounds and feelings. In the latter part -of his life Dryden, standing independent of all Government drudgery, -shows more worthily both in life and verse. His translation of Virgil -yet remains the best in our language. He had done with his contemptible -squabbles with Elkanah Settle and Shadwell, who won from him the -honours and profits of the theatre; and his "Fables," as he called -them--tales from Chaucer--seemed to inspire him with a more really -poetic feeling. In them he seemed to grow purer, and to open his soul -to the influences of classical and natural beauty, to the charms of -nature, and of old romance. These tales will always remain the truest -monuments of Dryden's fame. His odes, much as they have been praised, -are rather feats of art than outpourings of poetic inspiration. His -"Alexander's Feast" is but a description of the effects of music on a -drunken conqueror and a courtesan. Who now would dream of placing it by -the side of Coleridge's "Ode to France," or Wordsworth's "Intimations -of Immortality from Recollections of Childhood"? But any one turning to -"Palamon and Arcite" will find himself in a real fairyland of poetry, -and perceive how much Keats, Leigh Hunt, and other modern poets have -formed themselves on his style, and have even adopted his triplets. - -We have given so much space to these the greatest poets of this period, -that we have little for the rest. We have mentioned Andrew Marvell's -beautiful ballad, "The Emigrants" (p. 180), and Wither's poems (p. -178), in our previous review. Sir John Denham's descriptive poem, -"Cooper's Hill," had great popularity, and is a good specimen of that -class of verse. Waller was a reigning favourite for his lyrics, which -are elegant, but destitute of any high principle or emotion, as the man -was, who wrote a panegyric on Cromwell and another on Charles II.; and -when Charles told him he thought that on Cromwell the better, replied, -"Sir, we poets never excel so well in writing truth as in writing -fiction." Amongst the courtiers of Charles, Buckingham and Rochester -were poets. Buckingham's comedy, "The Rehearsal," which was written -to ridicule the heroic drama copied by Dryden from the French, still -finds admirers; and the genius of Rochester was unquestionable, but -still inferior to his obscenity. Sir Charles Sedley, another courtier, -wrote comedies and songs almost equally famous for their dissoluteness. -Charles Cotton, the author of "Virgil Travestied," was a writer of much -wit, but nearly equal grossness, though he was the intimate friend of -Izaak Walton, who was also no mean poet. The Earls of Roscommon and -Dorset were popular, the first for his "Essay on Translated Verse," -written in verse, and the other for his splendid ballad written at sea, -commencing "To all you ladies now on land." Pomfret, a clergyman, wrote -a didactic poem called "The Choice," which Dr. Johnson declared to be -more frequently read than almost any poem in the language, and which -Southey believed to be the most popular poem in the language. It is, -in reality, one of the common-places gone by. Sir William Davenant, a -reputed son of Shakespeare, wrote "Gondibert," a heroic poem in elegiac -stanzas, which has good parts, but, as a whole, is intolerably dull. -Sir Richard Fanshawe was celebrated as a translator, especially of -Guarini's "Pastor Fido." Another translator from Greek and Spanish -was Thomas Stanley, the learned editor of Æschylus, and the author of -"The History of Philosophy." Besides these may be mentioned Bulteel, -a popular songwriter; Philip Ayres, a lyrical poet; Dr. Henry More, -author of a poem, "The Life of the Soul," in Spenserian stanzas; and -Flatman, an imitator of Cowley. - -[Illustration: SAMUEL BUTLER.] - -The dramatic writing of the period was rather voluminous than -first-rate. Davenant wrote above twenty plays, masks, etc.; but the -most eminent dramatists were the unfortunate Otway, Nathaniel Lee, -Sir George Etherege, Wycherley, Crowne, Southern, and Jasper Mayne. -Otway's "Orphan" and "Venice Preserved" still maintain their fame; -he wrote altogether ten plays. Nathaniel Lee wrote ten tragedies, -a great mixture of talent and bombast. The most celebrated of them -are his "Theodosius" and his "Rival Queens." Crowne wrote seventeen -plays, in which the selections made by Charles Lamb in his "Dramatic -Specimens" show that there exists perhaps the most pre-eminent dramatic -genius of the age. Etherege is the author of three comedies of great -polish and brilliancy, and set the pattern for Wycherley, and for -Congreve, Farquhar, and Vanbrugh in the next period. Wycherley wrote -four comedies equally remarkable for vigour and indecency. In fact, -it is scarcely necessary to repeat that the whole of the dramatic -literature of this period is thoroughly disfigured with the coarsest -and most revolting sensuality and obscenity. Southern belongs properly -to the next era, as he produced only two of his plays during this -period--his tragedy of "The Loyal Brother," and his comedy of "The -Disappointment." Shadwell and Settle inundated the stage with worthless -plays; and Mrs. Aphra Behn, a courtesan as well as writer, was the -author of a whole host of comedies, novels, and poems. Of the two -comedies by Jasper Mayne--who, by-the-by, was a clergyman--"The City -Match" is the better. Perhaps we ought not to close this review of -the poets without a mention of the most successful poetaster of the -age, Nahum Tate, who was in such estimation as to be allowed to supply -our churches with his most wretched version of the Psalms, and to be -employed by Dryden to continue his satire of "Absalom and Achitophel." - -At the head of the prose writers of this period, as of the poets, -we must place Milton. Though his writings are for the most part on -controversial subjects, they were subjects of such immense importance -that they acquired a lasting value. They bear a certain relation to -his poetry. This in its highest exhibition celebrated the triumph of -the Deity over the powers of evil. His prose writings were employed to -support the struggle of liberty against the advocates of all political -evil--absolutism. Poetry seemed to have become the habitual expression -of his mind, and, therefore, there is in his prose style a certain -awkwardness and stiffness. He moves like David in armour that he had -not well proved; and his utterance, solemn and full of deep thought and -erudition, is, as it were, forced and formal. But when he warms up with -the greatness of his subject, he runs into a strain of grave eloquence -which has scarcely an equal in the language. - -The great prose works of Milton comprise his "History of England" -from the earliest times to the Conquest, including all the old -legends of the chroniclers, the arrival of Brute from Rome, the -story of King Lear, and those fine fables which have been the -storehouses of poets and dramatists; his "Tractate on Education;" his -magnificent "Areopagitica;" his "Tenure of Kings and Magistrates;" the -"Eikonoklastes;" the "Defensio pro Populo Anglicano" and "Defensio -Secunda"--vindicating the conduct of England in deposing impracticable -kings; his "Treatise on the Best Manner of Removing Hirelings out of -the Church;" his essay on "Civil Power in Ecclesiastical Causes;" his -"State Letters," written at the command of Cromwell; an "Art of Logic;" -a "Treaty of True Religion, Heresy, Schism, Toleration, and what Best -Means may be used against the Growth of Popery;" and his "Familiar -Letters," in Latin. Besides these he left in manuscript a "Brief -History of Muscovy," and a "System of Theology"--both since published. -It may be safely said that scarcely any other writer has left such a -sound and profound body of knowledge of all that is necessary for the -maintenance of freedom, civil and religious, in the State. - -Dryden is also a vigorous prose writer; but nothing can be more -characteristic of the two men than the prose of Milton and Dryden. -The one is grave, solemn, independent, upholding the sacred interests -of religion and liberty; the other, that of Dryden--besides short -lives of Polybius, Lucian, and Plutarch, and an "Essay on Dramatic -Literature"--consists chiefly of a mass of his dramatic writings, -couched in the most extravagant and unmanly terms of flattery. It is in -vain to say that this was the spirit of the time; we have only to turn -to Milton and behold that a great soul despised such sycophancy as much -then as now. - -Clarendon's "History of the Rebellion" and Memoirs of his own life -assume a permanent importance from the position which he occupied in -the struggles of those times; as literary compositions they are unique -in style, but as historical authority, it is necessary to read them -with caution. - -Hobbes (_b._ 1588; _d._ 1679), the celebrated philosopher of -Malmesbury, was one of the most powerful minds of the age. By his -works, called the "Leviathan," his treatise on "Human Nature," on -"Liberty and Necessity," and his "Decameron Physiologicum," with others -of the like kind, he became the head of a great school of writers, -which found wide acceptance in France, Germany, and England. Mr. Mill -says--"Hobbes is a great name in philosophy, on account both of what -he taught, and the extraordinary impulse which he communicated to the -spirit of free inquiry in Europe." But, on the other hand, it has been -well observed by a modern writer that, "as for what is properly to be -called his system of philosophy--and it is to be observed that in his -own writings his views in metaphysics, in morals, in politics, are all -bound and built up together into one consistent whole--the question -of the truth or falsehood of that seems to be completely settled. -Nobody now professes more than a partial Hobbism. If so much of the -creed of the philosopher of Malmesbury as affirms the non-existence of -any essential distinction between right and wrong, the non-existence -of conscience or the moral sense, the non-existence of anything -beyond mere sensation in either emotion or intelligence, and other -similar negatives of his moral and metaphysical doctrine, has still -its satisfied disciples, who is now a Hobbist either in politics or -mathematics? Yet certainly it is in these latter departments that we -must look for the greater part of what is absolutely original in the -notions of this teacher. Hobbes's philosophy of human nature is not -amiss as a philosophy of Hobbes's own human nature. Without passions or -imagination himself, and steering his own course through life by the -mere calculations of an enlightened selfishness, one half of the broad -mass of Humanity was to him nothing better than a blank." - -Hobbes was a thorough advocate of personal monarchy, as is testified -by his "De Corpore Politico," his "Leviathan," and "Behemoth," the -last being a history of the Civil War from 1640 to 1660. Hobbes lived -to a great age, praised by his admirers as an example of independence. -His arguments were ably answered by Cudworth, by Clarendon, Bishops -Cumberland, Bramhall, and Tenison, by Dr. Henry More in his "History of -Philosophy;" by Eachard, and others. - -A writer who has had a different influence was Richard Baxter (_b._ -1615; _d._ 1691). Baxter held the same position in the religious world -as Halifax in the political one. Halifax gloried in the name of a -"Trimmer." He was constantly occupying the middle post in the world of -party. Sometimes one party congratulated itself that it had him, but -presently it found him defending measures of its opponents. In fact, he -was an independent thinker, and, extending his hand to either party as -he thought it right at the moment, he turned the balance of conflicting -opinions. Exactly so with Baxter; a clergyman of the Church of England, -he was yet a decided Nonconformist. He was a Monarchist in theory, -but was so disgusted with the Royalists for their licentiousness and -notions of absolutism, that he went over to the camp of Cromwell and -preached in it. But when Cromwell assumed the supreme power, again -Baxter was on the other side, condemning to his face his usurpation. -Baxter's mediating views led him to hope, on the return of Charles II., -that Nonconformity and the Church might shake hands. He believed in -Charles's "Healing Declaration," and drew up an accommodating Liturgy, -but found himself deceived; the Hierarchy rejected such compromises. -He became a sufferer from Nonconformity, and yet remained an advocate -of Conformity to a certain extent. So was it in his theological -views; with one hand he embraced Calvin, with the other Arminius. He -rejected Calvin's doctrine of Reprobation, yet accepted his theory -of Election--that is, that certain persons are pre-ordained from all -eternity as instruments for certain work by God; but he agreed with -Arminius's assertion that all men whatever are capable of salvation, -for that Christ distinctly declared that He died for all, and that -whoever believed should be saved. The views of Baxter were adopted by -large numbers, who became a sect under the name of "Baxterians;" but -they were gradually absorbed into the different denominations of the -Independents, Baptists, etc., who may now be considered as generally -holding Baxter's mild and amiable opinions. Watts and Doddridge were -eminent professors of Baxter's creed. The chief works of Baxter are -his "Methodus Theologiæ," his "Catholic Theology," and his "Saints' -Everlasting Rest." The last is by far the most popular. It has been -circulated by tens of thousands into all quarters where the English -language reaches, and, like the "Pilgrim" of Bunyan, is to be found on -the shelves of the cottage and the farm in the remotest nooks. Perhaps -no book ever gave so much consolation to the spirits of so many simple -and earnest seekers after religious rest as this work of the venerable -Richard Baxter. - -Bunyan (_b._ 1628; _d._ 1688) was a contemporary of Baxter, but a man -of a more robust and sturdy temper. Lying twelve years in Bedford gaol -for his religious faith, he there produced his immortal "Pilgrim's -Progress," a work which, as the production of an illiterate tinker, -was contemptuously ignored by the critics and the learned of the time, -till it had spread like a flood over the whole land and was become the -delight of the nation. The "Pilgrim" is a wonderful work for any man, -and Bunyan was undoubtedly a genius of the very first class. - -With Baxter and Bunyan, the gentle angler, Izaak Walton (_b._ 1593; -_d._ 1683), claims a place for his "Lives of Religious Worthies," and -not less for his "Complete Angler," one of the first works, along with -"Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry," which awoke the love of -nature. - -Side by side with these worthies stands John Evelyn (_b._ 1620; _d._ -1706), a man who mixed with the Court in Charles II.'s reign without -defiling himself. He was the model of a true English gentleman--pious, -honourable, and exerting himself at once to maintain sound morals -and to promote science. His Memoirs present a lively picture of the -dissolute age in which he lived; and he sought to draw men away from -the sink of corruption by encouraging them to plant and cultivate -their estates. For this he wrote his "Sylva; or, a Discourse of -Forest Trees," still a standard and most delightful work. He was one -of the first members and promoters of the Royal Society, and wrote -"Numismata, a Discourse of Medals;" a "Parallel of Ancient and Modern -Architecture;" a work on Theology; and the first "Gardener's Almanac." - -[Illustration: JOHN BUNYAN.] - -As a memoir-writer of the same period Samuel Pepys (_b._ 1632; -_d._ 1703) is more popular than Evelyn. Pepys was Secretary to -the Admiralty in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.; and his -inimitably-gossiping volumes of whatever he saw during those times have -been often reprinted and read everywhere with great unction. Pepys, -besides this, continued a most invaluable collection of old ballads -begun by Selden, from which Bishop Percy amply helped himself in -collecting his "Reliques;" so that to Pepys and John Selden we really -owe much of that great revolution in taste and poetry which we ascribe -almost exclusively to Percy. Another Memorialist of this period was Sir -William Temple, a man who, like Evelyn, maintained a high moral status, -and was held in great esteem for his philosophical essays. In Scotland -Sir George Mackenzie stood conspicuous for his "Institution of the Laws -of Scotland," and not less for various works of taste, as his "Aretina; -or, The Serious Romance," and his "Religio Stoici; or, The Virtuoso." -Burnet, the author of "The Sacred Theory of the Earth," also belongs -to this period. In his work the Biblical account of the origin of the -earth is made the foundation of a scientific treatise. - -The Church at this period possessed great and eloquent men--Tillotson, -Sherlock, Barrow, South, Stillingfleet, and others. Their sermons -remain as storehouses of religious argument. They were nearly all -of the Arminian school. Barrow was, besides, one of the ablest -geometricians that have appeared. - -[Illustration: GRESHAM COLLEGE, WHERE THE ROYAL SOCIETY WAS FIRST -HOUSED.] - -During the period now under review a great step in the progress of -science was made by the foundation of the Royal Society. The honour of -originating this famous society belongs to Mr. Theodore Haak, a German, -who was resident in London. At his suggestion a number of scientific -gentlemen, including Dr. Goddard, a physician in Wood Street, but also -a preparer of lenses for telescopes; Dr. Wallis, the mathematician; Dr. -Wilkins, afterwards Bishop of Chester; Drs. Ent, Gisson, and Merrit, -and Mr. Samuel Foster, professor of astronomy in Gresham College. -These meetings began in 1645, and were held at one of their houses, -or in Gresham College, or at apartments in Cheapside. Though some -of these gentlemen were removed by promotion, others continued to -join it, as Boyle, Evelyn, Wren--afterwards Sir Christopher. In 1662 -a royal charter was obtained, and in the following year additional -privileges were granted under a second charter. The first President -was Lord Brouncker, and the first council consisted of Mr.--afterwards -Lord--Brereton, Sir Kenelm Digby, Sir Robert Moray, Sir William Petty, -Sir Paul Neile, Messrs. Boyle, Slingsbey, Christopher and Matthew -Wren, Balle, Areskine, Oldenburg, Henshaw, and Dudley Palmer, and -Drs. Wilkins, Wallis, Timothy Clarke, and Ent. Balle was the first -treasurer, and Wilkins and Oldenburg the first secretaries. The Society -was pledged not to meddle with questions of theology or State, and -their chief subjects of notice were the physical sciences, anatomy, -medicine, astronomy, mathematics, navigation, statistics, chemistry, -magnetism, mechanics, and kindred topics. In the spring of the second -year the Society numbered a hundred and fifteen members; amongst them, -besides many noblemen and gentlemen of distinction, we find the names -of Aubrey, Dr. Barrow, Dryden, Cowley, Waller, and Sprat, afterwards -Bishop of Rochester. The Society commenced the publication of its -Transactions in 1665, which became a record of the progress of physical -and mathematical science for a long series of years. - -During the short period over which the present review ranges--that -is, from the Restoration in 1660 to the Revolution in 1688, that is, -only twenty-eight years--some of the greatest discoveries in science -were made which have occurred in the history of the world; namely, the -discovery of the circulation of the blood by Dr. William Harvey; the -improvement of the tables of logarithms constructed by Napier; the -invention of fluxions by Newton, and the calculus of fluxions, or the -differential calculus, by Leibnitz; the discovery of the perfected -theory of gravitation, by Newton; the foundation of modern astronomy, -by Flamsteed; and the construction of a steam-engine by the Marquis of -Worcester, originally suggested by Solomon de Caus, a Frenchman. - -Napier (_b._ 1550; _d._ 1617) published his tables of Logarithms in -1614, under the title of "Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio," -and in the same or the next year he and his friend, Henry Briggs, gave -them their improved and perfect form, for from that time to the present -they have admitted of no further improvement. They came from the -hands of their author and his assisting friend perfect. The principle -of their construction Napier did not declare; but this important -revelation was made by Briggs and Napier's son in 1619. By these tables -Napier superseded the long and laborious arithmetical operations -which great calculators had previously to undergo, and which the most -simple trigonometrical operations demanded. Without this wonderful -aid even Newton could not have lived to formulate the principles that -he drew from, and established for ever upon, the material accumulated -by prior mathematicians. Napier in fact furnished by these tables a -scale by which not only the advantages which he proposed of shortening -arithmetical and trigonometrical labour were effected, but which -enabled his successors to weigh the atmosphere and take the altitudes -of mountains, compute the lengths and areas of all curves, and to -introduce a calculus by which the most unexpected results should -be reached. "By reducing to a few days the labour of many months," -says Laplace, "it doubles, as it were, the life of an astronomer, -besides freeing him from the errors and disgust inseparable from long -calculations." - -We are not, however, to suppose that Napier was the first who had a -perception of the nature of logarithms. In almost all grand discoveries -the man of genius stands upon the shoulders of preceding geniuses to -reach that culminating point which brings out the full discovery. In -very early ages it was known that if the terms of an arithmetical and -geometrical series were placed in juxtaposition, the multiplication, -division, involution, and evolution of the latter would answer to and -might actually be effected by a corresponding addition, subtraction, -multiplication, and division of the former. Archimedes employed this -principle in his "Arenarius," a treatise on the number of the sands. -Stifel, in his "Arithmetica Integra," published at Nürnberg in 1644, -exhibits a still clearer notion of the use of this principle; but the -merit of Napier was this--that whilst those who preceded him could -only apply the principle to certain numbers, he discovered the means -of applying it to all, and thus was enabled to construct and bring -to perfection at once his admirable tables. There was an attempt to -show that he had stolen the idea from Longomontanus, but that great -mathematician settles this matter by himself attributing the whole -invention to Napier. - -Besides the Logarithms, Napier--or, to give him his full title, Lord -Napier of Merchiston--is also noted for his elegant theorems, called -his "Analogies," and his theorem of "the five circular parts," which -furnishes a ready solution of all the cases of right-angled spherical -triangles. He also invented what are called "Napier's Bones," to -facilitate the performance of multiplication and division; instruments -of such value, that had he not discovered the logarithms, they would -have, to a certain extent, supplied their place. - -The discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton (_b._ 1642; _d._ 1727), however, -put the crown to the glories of this period. Their extent can only be -learnt by a perusal of his "Principia; or, Mathematical Principles of -Natural Philosophy," containing his complete theory of the laws of -the universe, based on the grand doctrine of Gravitation, of which -he published afterwards a popular view under the title of "De Mundi -Systemate," enunciating the truths contained in the third book of the -"Principia;" his "Optics," containing his theories of light and colour, -founded on a host of curious experiments; his "De Quadratura Curvarum," -containing an exposition of his method of fluxions; his "Method of -Fluxions and Analysis by Infinite Series." A great many of those -discoveries were made known to the public through his communications -to the Royal Society. The announcement of his binomial theorem, by -which he was able to determine the area and rectification of curves, -the surface and contacts of the solids formed by their revolution and -the position of their centre of gravity--a theory of infinite avail -in his determination of the laws of the planetary bodies--is dated -1664, that of his "Method of Fluxions," 1665; but he did not claim -this till 1669. He professed to have written a tract on the subject in -1664, but he did not produce this tract till he had seen some of the -same results published in Mercator's "Logarithmotechnia," four years -afterwards. In 1666 he demonstrated the great law of gravitation, and -applied it to the planets, but was baffled in his attempts to apply -it to the moon through a false estimate of the earth's diameter. This -was corrected by Picard's measurement of an arc of the meridian, with -which Newton became acquainted in 1682, and then after sixteen years' -delay he completed his system. But his "Principia" was not published -collectively till 1687; his "Optics" till 1704, with his "De Quadratura -Curvarum." - -Unparalleled as were the achievements of Newton, these were not -accomplished, any more than any other great performances, without -substantial hints and assistance from preceding or contemporary genius. -The very principle of gravitation had been pointed out by Robert Hooke, -and Newton was compelled to admit, and offered to publish a scholium -acknowledging the fact, that Hooke, Wren, and Halley had already -deduced this law--that the gravitation of the planets was as the curvic -square of the distance--from Kepler's second law of analogy between -the periodic times and the mean distances of the planets. Newton's -defenders say that he probably made this concession for the sake of -peace; but was Newton likely to surrender a great truth, vitally -affecting his fame for science and discovery, if there were not solid -grounds for it? - -Still less to the credit of Newton was his conduct towards Leibnitz -in the dispute regarding the Differential Calculus. Leibnitz having -heard through Oldenburg that Newton had made discoveries as to the -measurement of tangents, in fact, as to his binomial theorem, and -as to fluxions, desired to have some account of them, and Newton, -through Oldenburg, communicated to Leibnitz his binomial theorem, but -concealed his knowledge of fluxions under a most abstruse anagram, -which was formed from the words, "_Data Equatione quotcunque fluentes -quantitates envolvente fluxiones invenire, et vice versâ_." It has -been well observed that if Leibnitz could draw any light from that -anagram, he must have possessed superhuman sagacity. Leibnitz, however, -having himself made most important discoveries in fluxions, at once -and candidly communicated the theory of what he called, and what is -still called, the differential calculus, to Newton. This, Newton, in a -scholium included in his "Principia," admitted to be a method hardly -differing from his own except in the form of words and symbols. Yet -in the third edition of the "Principia" he omitted this confession, -claimed the exclusive invention of the differential calculus for -himself, and branded Leibnitz as a plagiarist. The fact was, that -Leibnitz had gone a step beyond Newton. Newton had discovered fluxions, -but Leibnitz had discovered the fluxionary calculus, or, as he termed -it, the differential calculus. - -Still more discreditable was the conduct of Newton to Flamsteed (_b._ -1646; _d._ 1719). Flamsteed was the first Astronomer Royal. Charles -II. established an observatory at Greenwich, one of the best things -he ever did. The observatory was, in fact, the queen's house in -Greenwich Park, and Flamsteed was appointed Astronomical Observator, -with the magnificent salary of a hundred pounds a year, and not a -single instrument, not even a telescope. It was in vain that he applied -for instruments; and his appointment might have been a sinecure had -he not procured instruments at his own expense, and taught pupils to -maintain himself. But through all these difficulties he went on making -observations, and in time not only made a mass of the most valuable -lunar observations, but had made a map and catalogue of the stars, -such as there had never been before for completeness and accuracy. -His catalogue included three thousand three hundred stars, "whose -places were more accurate than any determined in the next fifty years, -and whose selection and nomenclature has served as a basis to every -catalogue since that time." Bailey, Flamsteed's biographer, claims--and -very justly claims--that the commencement of modern astronomy dates -from his observations, for no one would care to go beyond them to -compare any made in our day. - -Newton was very intimate with Flamsteed, and with good cause, for -he depended on his supplying him with the necessary observations to -enable him to establish his lunar theory, and it is on evidence that -Flamsteed furnished him with every lunar observation that he made. When -Flamsteed had completed his catalogue, he proposed to publish it, and -Prince George of Denmark, knowing that Flamsteed had expended on his -instruments two thousand pounds more than his salary, offered to pay -for the printing. A committee, consisting of Newton, Sir Christopher -Wren, Dr. Arbuthnot, Dr. Gregory, and Mr. Roberts, was appointed to -superintend this publication. The whole story, based on letters and -documents of the time found at Greenwich observatory, is too long to -be detailed here; but the upshot of it is, that the catalogue and -observations of Flamsteed were printed and published, not as his own, -but as those of Halley. In vain did Flamsteed protest against this -most scandalous deed. Newton and his associates were strong in the -favour of the queen and Halifax, and Newton used the most opprobrious -language to the man by whose labours he had so greatly benefited, and -whom he had now helped to rob of his dearest possession--his fame. -The softest name that he gave him was that of "puppy." Flamsteed -could obtain no redress--though they had broken his seal to come at -his catalogue--till after the death of Queen Anne and Halifax, when -he was enabled to get possession of the remainder of the books called -Halley's, styled, "Historia Celestis libri duo." He immediately began -preparations for publishing them himself, and demanded his MSS. from -Newton, who refused, and was sued for them by Flamsteed. In the -meantime, to avoid being compelled to give up the MSS. to the rightful -owner, Newton handed them over to Halley! Every insult was offered to -Flamsteed. He was summoned before the Royal Society to answer whether -he had his instruments in order, a matter in which the Society had no -authority, and what made the matter more atrocious, the instruments -were Flamsteed's own. Newton even twitted Flamsteed with his one -hundred pounds a year salary, at which Flamsteed indignantly reminded -him that he had been receiving three hundred pounds a year himself -ever since he came to London. Flamsteed's work was not completed till -after his death, when it appeared under the name of "Historia Cœlestis -Britannica." - -It is difficult to conceive more overbearing, unjust, and unworthy -proceedings than those of Newton against Flamsteed. Sir David Brewster, -in his "Life of Newton," endeavoured to defend him by asserting that -Flamsteed did not appreciate Newton's theory; as if Flamsteed was -not quite at liberty to have his own opinion, an opinion shared by -many at the time, and which theory, in the first edition of the -"Principia," the only one then out, was in some respects grossly -incorrect--"rejected," as Flamsteed remarked, "by the heavens." -Brewster also urged that Flamsteed showed unwillingness to furnish -Newton with the requisite lunar observations. He was under no -obligation whatever to do so; yet, as proved, he furnished him with all -he had made. It is contended also that the committee had a right to -break the seal of Flamsteed to get at his catalogue--an assertion than -which nothing can be more immoral. - -On the whole view of this case, as it rests on broad facts, we are -compelled, in justice between man and man, to declare our opinion that -Flamsteed was not only one of the most illustrious astronomers which -England has ever produced, but also one of the most ill-used of men; -and without derogating an iota from the scientific merits of Sir Isaac -Newton, it is clear, from his conduct to both Leibnitz and Flamsteed, -that he adds another proof to that of Bacon, that intellectual -greatness and moral greatness do not necessarily reside in the same -mind. - -Amongst the other men of mathematical note in this period we may -mention Henry Briggs, the coadjutor of Napier. His "Trigonometrica -Britannica" showed that he had had a near view of the binomial theorem -afterwards discovered by Newton. This work was published after his -death by his friend, Henry Gellibrand, also an able mathematician. -Thomas Harriott, author of a work on algebra--"Artis Analyticæ -Praxis"--is said to have discovered the solar spots before Galileo, -and the satellites of Jupiter only a few days after Galileo. Jeremiah -Horrocks was beforehand with Newton in the theory of the lunar motions, -which Newton afterwards demonstrated to be the necessary consequence -of gravitation. Dr. Wallis, Crabtree, Gascoigne, Milbourn, Shakerley, -and Gunter--the author of Gunter's Scale--were all men of high merit -in those branches of science. Barrow we have already mentioned as -a distinguished geometrician as well as a theologian. He was only -excelled in optics by Newton himself; and in his "Sectiones Geometricæ" -he nearly anticipated Newton's principle of fluxions. James Gregory, -professor of mathematics at Edinburgh, the first constructor of a -reflecting telescope; and his nephew, David Gregory, of Oxford; John -Collins, author of various philosophical works and papers; Roger Cotes, -author of "Harmonia Mensurarum," etc.; and Dr. Brook Taylor, author of -"Methodus Incrementorum," were all substantial contributors to the -higher sciences at this era. Halley, whose name occurs so unfavourably -in the affair with Flamsteed, succeeded him as Astronomer Royal, and is -noted as being the first to find out the exact return of a comet which -bears his name, and for his catalogue of the southern stars, published -in 1679. Besides his profound astronomical talents, he added in various -ways to the knowledge of the time. He was the first to construct tables -of mortality; introduced improvements in the diving-bell; and wrote -treatises on the variations of the compass, on the trade winds, and -other subjects. - -[Illustration: SIR ISAAC NEWTON.] - -In pneumatics and chemistry the Honourable Robert Boyle made some -discoveries, and considerably improved the air-pump; and Robert Hooke, -already mentioned as one of the earliest theorists of gravitation, -also had a pretty clear notion of the gas now termed oxygen. Thomas -Sydenham is a great name in medicine of this time; and the department -of natural history took a new start under the hands of Ray, Willoughby, -Lester, and others. Ray published his "Historia Plantarum," and edited -Willoughby's works on birds and fishes. Conchology was advanced by -Martin Lester, and Woodward opened up the new region of mineralogy. The -two most extraordinary discoveries, however, next to those of Newton, -were those of the circulation of the blood by Harvey (_b._ 1578; _d._ -1657), and of the steam-engine by Solomon de Caus, introduced into -England by the Marquis of Worcester (_b._ 1601; _d._ 1667). - -The theory of the circulation of the blood, like almost every other -great theory founded on fact, was not left for Harvey to think out _ab -origine_. That the blood flowed from the heart to the extremities was -known to the ancients, and stated by Aristotle. Galen even had argued, -from the discovery of valves in the pulmonary artery, that the blood -was also returned to the heart. Servetus, of Geneva, the same who was -put to death for heresy, had demonstrated the circulation through the -lungs, and again this theory had been propounded by Rualdus Columbus -in 1559. In 1571 Cæsalpinus of Arezzo came still nearer to the true -theory, from observing the swelling of veins below a ligature--thence -inferring that the blood flowed from the extremities as well as to -them. It is clear, therefore, that all but positive demonstration was -arrived at when Harvey appeared. But though this demonstration was -all that was now needed, it was a work of no ordinary courage and -genius. The few facts known were overlaid by such a mass of absurd -and contradictory notions amongst medical men, that nothing but the -nicest and completest experiments could establish the truth. This -Harvey undertook to do, and accomplished it. He informed Boyle, as we -learn from that philosopher's "Treatise on Final Causes," that the -idea of the true circulation was first suggested to him when studying -under Fabricius Aquapendente, at Padua, by noticing the valves in the -veins--the same that had attracted the attention of Galen. To ascertain -the fact, he made numerous accurate experiments on both dead and living -animals, and the result was the clearest proof of the fact that the -blood is propelled from the heart through the arteries, and returned -to it through the veins. Besides this, his experiments threw a flood -of light on the action of the heart, on its diastolic and systolic -functions, as observed both in adult subjects and in the fœtus; on the -true action of the lungs on the blood, and other important points. -His completed views were so opposed to the notions of the Faculty -at the time, that a stupendous prejudice was raised against him, -and his practice fell off greatly from the clamour which was raised -against what his fellow-practitioners called his wild speculations. -It is a well-known fact that not one medical man who had passed his -fortieth year ever admitted the discovery of Harvey. The most famous -anatomists abroad joined in the outcry against his theory. Primrosius, -Parisanus, Riolanus, professors of anatomy at Paris, and Plempius, -professor at Louvain, were violent against it. Harvey very modestly -permitted the storm to blow, certain that a truth built on positive -facts would in the end prevail. He refused to answer the attacks of any -one but Riolanus; but his friend, Dr. Ent, ably wielded the pen in -his defence, and Harvey had the pleasure to see Plempius before long -confess himself a convert, and many others then followed. - -Besides Harvey's great discovery, he made many other anatomical -investigations with great care and ability, and especially on a vital -subject, detailed in his treatise "De Generatione." His merits became -so fully acknowledged that he was elected President of the College of -Physicians. - -But the gifted men of this age who could determine the laws of worlds, -and systems of worlds, and the vital principles of the living body, -failed to perceive the wondrous capabilities of another invention -destined to revolutionise society at a later day. The Marquis of -Worcester, whom we have seen figuring conspicuously as the Earl of -Glamorgan, in the civil strife of Charles I.'s reign, constructed a -steam-engine--a very rude one, of course--which Sorbiere, a Frenchman, -saw at work at his lordship's house at Vauxhall in 1663. It was capable -of throwing up water to a great height. This engine is described by the -marquis in his "Century of Inventions," published this same year, 1663. -It is the sixty-eighth in the catalogue, and entitled "An admirable and -most forcible way to drive up water by fire." He used a cannon for his -boiler, and says he has seen "water run like a constant fountain-stream -forty feet high. One vessel of water rarefied by fire driveth up forty -of cold water." - -The marquis had learned this invention from the work of a Frenchman, -Solomon de Caus, entitled "Les Raisons des Forces Mouvantes." This De -Caus had travelled in England, and had importuned his own countrymen -to examine what he deemed a wonderful discovery--the power of steam; -but, like Thomas Gray, when urging on England a system of railroads, he -was treated as a bore and a maniac. The marquis found De Caus actually -confined in the Bicêtre in Paris as a madman, for wanting to convince -his countrymen of the marvellous powers of steam. The marquis's own -notion appeared to be that the engine might be employed chiefly for -the raising of water--a trait attributed to him by Stuart, in his -"Anecdotes of Steam-Engines," published in 1651, in which the writer -mentions a little engine at work at his house in Lambeth, which "might -be applied to draw or hale ships, boates, etc., up rivers against the -stream; to draw carts, wagons, etc., as fast without cattel; to draw -the plough without cattel, to the same dispatch, if need be." - -The views of the marquis were thus rapidly expanding on the subject; -and it is wonderful that the invention should have been suffered to -sleep a century and a half longer. Still more wonderful is it that the -powers of steam slept so long, when, according to Gibbon, the architect -of St. Sophia, Constantinople, centuries ago, was so well aware of it -that he used to shake the house of his neighbour, an enemy of his, with -steam machinery. - -Of architecture there was none belonging to this period. The glorious -old Gothic had closed for the time its career, and even the most -eminent architects despised it. Inigo Jones introduced an Italian -style, and committed the atrocity of erecting Grecian screens in -Gothic cathedrals; and we shall find Wren, the architect of the noble -classical fabric of St. Paul's, equally incapable of perceiving the -beauty of Gothic. To him it was barbarian. - -With Charles II. came in French taste, and almost all the professors of -painting, sculpture, and engraving were foreigners. The whole art of -painting was expended in portraiture and on the decorations of walls -and ceilings after the fashion of Le Brun, but not with his genius. -Verrio and Sir Peter Lely engrossed the patronage of the Court, and the -admiration of the public. - -Antonio Verrio, a Neapolitan painter, who transferred himself to -France and then to England, covered immense spaces of wall and -ceiling at Windsor Castle and other places with his gods, goddesses, -and similar figures, pouring them out, as Walpole observes, without -much invention and as little taste, but certainly with a great show -of colour. He painted most of the ceilings at Windsor, one side of -the Hall of St. George and the chapel, most of which works are now -destroyed. On the ceiling of St. George's Hall he drew Ashley Cooper, -Earl of Shaftesbury, as Faction dispersing libels; and the housekeeper, -Mrs. Marriott, as Fury, because she had offended him. He was paid an -enormous sum for these works, and spent it in ostentation. He had a -house in St. James's Park, and was also master gardener to the king. -Walpole gives an extraordinary example of his freedom in demanding -money of the king. He had just received a thousand pounds when he -appeared at Court, and found Charles in such a circle that he could -not approach him; but, nothing daunted, he called out to him that -he desired to speak to him. Being asked what he wanted, he replied, -"Money." The king smiled, and reminded him of the thousand pounds just -had. "Yes," said he, "but pedlars and painters cannot give long credit; -that was soon paid away, and I have no gold left." "At that rate," -said Charles, "you would spend more than I do." "True," replied the -impudent foreigner; "but does your majesty keep an open table as I do?" - -Being a Tory, at the Revolution he refused to paint for King William; -but was employed by the Earl of Exeter at Burleigh House, and the Earl -of Devonshire, at Chatsworth, where plenty of his works remain. Dr. -Waagen says he received more from Lord Exeter alone than Raphael or -Michael Angelo received for all their immortal works. The earl paid -him for twelve years one thousand five hundred pounds a year--that -is, eighteen thousand pounds, besides his keep and equipage at his -disposal. At length the earl persuaded him to work for King William at -Hampton Court, where, besides other things, he painted the staircase so -badly that he was suspected to have done it on purpose. - -In the wake of Verrio came Jacques Rousseau and Charles de la -Fosse, the painters of the dome of the Invalides in Paris. Some few -Englishmen, too, were employed in fresco-painting. Among them were -Isaac Fuller, remains of whose performance may be seen in the dome -of St. Mary Abchurch, in London; John Freeman, a scene painter; and -Robert Streater, a man of superior skill, who painted the ceiling of -the theatre at Oxford, and many other ceilings, besides historical -subjects, and even still life. - -Lely, the painter of Charles's beauties, now at Hampton Court, was -a native of Germany, but had studied chiefly in Holland, where -Charles is supposed to have met with him. His ladies are endowed with -remarkable beauty and grace, but there is a certain likeness running -through them all, especially in the complexion, the tone and tint of -the flesh, as well as the disposal of the drapery, which gives one -the inevitable impression that they are to a great degree got up, and -made rather after his peculiar model than their own real appearance. -However, whether they are striking likenesses or not, they are -beautiful pictures. His draperies are arranged in broad folds, and he -relieves his figures by a landscape background, which made Walpole -say, "His nymphs trail fringes and embroidery through meadows and -purling streams." The essence of Lely's painting is Court artifice. -It is showy, affected, and meretricious. Besides his Court portraits -he occasionally attempted the historic, one of the best of this kind -which he executed being "Susannah and the Elders," at Burleigh House. -Amongst a crowd of foreigners who sought to share Sir Peter Lely's -popularity were Henry Gascar, James Huysman, and Sunman, from the -Netherlands--all excellent portrait painters. Netscher also came to -England for a time; and William Wissing, of Amsterdam, an admirable -artist, succeeded Lely at his death, and was only eclipsed by the -rising fame of Kneller, a German, who afterwards became King William's -Court painter. Of the French school was Philip Duval, a pupil of the -celebrated Le Brun. - -[Illustration: EVELYN "DISCOVERING" GRINLING GIBBONS. (_See p._ 372.)] - -Amongst native portrait painters may be mentioned Michael Wright, a -Scotsman, who painted the judges for the Guildhall of London; though he -is more noted for his portrait of Lacy, the actor, in three characters; -of Henry Anderton, a pupil of Streater's, who became very popular; of -John Greenhill, and Thomas Flatman, the last being also a poet of some -note. - -A number of Dutch and Flemish painters of still life were also employed -in England at this period, of whom the most celebrated were Vansoon, -Hoogstraten, Roestraten, and Varelst, who also attempted portraiture. -There were also Abraham Hondius, animal painter, and Danker, Vosterman, -Griffier, Lancrinck, and the two Vanderveldes, landscape painters. The -Vanderveldes were justly in high esteem; Lancrinck was the painter of -Lely's backgrounds. - -The two great sculptors were Caius Gabriel Cibber, a native of -Holstein, and Grinling Gibbons, whom Macaulay calls a Dutchman, but -who, though supposed to be of Dutch extraction, was an Englishman, born -in Spur Alley, London. Cibber--who was the father of Colley Cibber, -afterwards Poet Laureate, and immortalised by Pope in the "Dunciad"--is -now chiefly known by his two figures of "Raging" and "Melancholy -Madness," which adorned the principal gate of old Bethlehem Hospital, -and were afterwards removed to South Kensington--works of real genius. -He also erected the bas-reliefs on the pedestal of the London Monument, -and did much work at Chatsworth. - -Grinling Gibbons was found by John Evelyn in a cottage at Deptford, -carving his celebrated "Stoning of St. Stephen," after Tintoretto, and -by him introduced at Court. He executed a marble statue of Charles II. -for the area of the Royal Exchange, and another in bronze of James II. -for the garden at the back of Whitehall, which fixed his high merit as -a sculptor; but his unrivalled genius in carving soon drew him from -sculpture, and he became extensively employed at Windsor, Chatsworth, -Petworth, and other great houses, carving flowers, feathers, foliage, -and like ornaments, which rival in wood the lightness and accuracy of -nature. In the chapel at Windsor he executed abundance of carving of -doves, pelicans, palm-branches, etc. At St. Paul's he did much of the -foliage and festoons of the stalls and the side aisles of the choir. -At Chatsworth there are feathers in lime-wood that rival those of the -living goose; and he there executed in wood a point-lace cravat of -marvellous delicacy. At Southwick, in Hants, he embellished an entire -gallery, and a room at Petworth, which is generally regarded as amongst -his very finest performances. - -Engraving at this era fell also greatly into the hands of foreigners. -Loggan, Booteling, Valet, Hollar, and Vanderbank were amongst the -chief; but there were two Englishmen who were not less patronised by -their countrymen. Robert White was a pupil of Loggan's, and, like his -master, excelled in portraits. Walpole enumerates two hundred and -fifty-five works of this artist, many of them heads drawn by himself, -and striking likenesses. But William Faithorne was unquestionably at -the head of his profession. Faithorne in his youth fought on the royal -side, and was taken by Cromwell at the siege of Basing House along with -Hollar. Hollar left England during the Commonwealth, and resided at -Antwerp, where he executed his fine portraits from Leonardo da Vinci, -Holbein, and other great masters. On the Restoration he returned to -England, and did the plates in Dugdale's "Monasticon," "History of -St. Paul's," and "Antiquities of Warwickshire," and in Thoroton's -"Nottinghamshire;" and he made drawings of the town and fortress of -Tangier for Charles, which he engraved, some of these drawings still -remaining in the British Museum. Faithorne took refuge in France, and -there studied under Nanteuil, and acquired a force, freedom, richness, -and delicacy in portrait engraving which were unequalled in his own -time, and have scarcely been surpassed in ours. He drew also in crayons. - -The art of mezzotint was introduced at this period by Prince Rupert, -who was long supposed to have invented it; this, however, has since -then been doubted; but its introduction by him is certain; and it -became so much cultivated as to become almost exclusively an English -art. - -The coins of this period were the work of the Roteri family. Of these -there were John and Norbert (his son), Joseph and Philip. Their father -was a Dutch banker, who had obliged Charles during his exile by the -loan of money, on condition that, in case of restoration, he should -employ his sons. They were men of much taste and skill, as their coins -show, though by no means equal to Simon, the coiner of Cromwell. -They, however, introduced some decided improvements into our coin, -particularly that of graining or letters on the rims of the coin. -Charles called in all the Commonwealth money, and coined fresh. In 1662 -the gold coin called a guinea was first invented, from gold brought -from the coast of Guinea, and bore the stamp of an elephant under the -king's head, in honour of the African company which imported it. In -the last year of Charles's reign he coined farthings of tin, with only -a bit of copper in the middle. The figure of Britannia still retained -on our copper coinage was first introduced in the copper coinage of -Charles (_see p._ 205), and was modelled by Philip Roteri from Miss -Stuart, afterwards Duchess of Richmond, of whom Charles was deeply -enamoured, much to the scandal of all decent subjects. - -James II. followed the fashion of Charles in coining tin halfpence and -farthings with copper centres. After his abdication he was reduced in -Ireland to the necessity of coining money out of old brass cannon, and -pots and pans, and, when these failed, out of pewter. - -With the Restoration came back mirth and music, which had been banished -by the Puritans from both churches and private houses. However, it -is but just to except Cromwell and Milton from censure. Cromwell was -especially fond of the organ, and gave concerts in his own house when -at the head of the Government. Milton, as might be supposed from -his poetical nature, and the solemn music of his verse, was equally -attached to harmony of sounds. He was the friend of Henry Lawes, one of -the greatest composers of the time, and addressed to him the well-known -sonnet on the publication of his airs, beginning - - "Harry, whose tuneful and well-measur'd song - First taught our English music how to span - Words with just note and accent." - -But perhaps the Royalists were all the more musical on their return -to power to mark their contempt of the gloomy Puritans, and music -burst forth in church and chapel, in concert, and theatre, and private -house with redoubled energy. The theatres and operas did not delay to -draw the public by the charms of music as well as of representation. -Even during the latter years of the Commonwealth Sir William Davenant -opened a kind of theatre under the name of masque and concert, and -enlivened it by music. The Royalists at Oxford during the time Charles -I.'s Court was there, held weekly musical parties with the members of -the University; and no sooner was the Commonwealth at an end than the -heads of houses, fellows, and other gentlemen renewed these parties, -and furnished themselves with all necessary instruments, and the -compositions of the best masters. But what marks the musical _furore_ -of this period more than all was the flocking of the aristocracy and -the finest musical performers to the miserable house of a dealer in -coal-dust in Clerkenwell, where musical parties were held. "It was," -says Dr. John Hawkins, "in Aylesbury Street, Clerkenwell. The room -of the performance was over the coal-shop; and, strange to tell, Tom -Britton's concert was the weekly resort of the old, the young, the -gay, the fair of all ranks, including the highest order of nobility." -Dr. Pepusch and frequently Handel played the harpsichord there--though -this must have been at a later period, for he did not arrive in England -till 1710. Mr. Needler, Accountant-General of the Excise; Hughes the -poet, Wollaston the painter, and many other amateurs were among the -performers. Walpole says Britton took money from his visitors, but -Hawkins entirely denies it. - -The example of Tom Britton was contagious, and similar places of -musical entertainment, but on the principle of professional emolument, -were soon opened east and west. Amongst the first of these was Sadler's -Wells. - -One of the finest composers for the theatre and opera was Matthew Lock. -He was appointed Composer in Ordinary to Charles II., and composed a -church service and some anthems; but he was much more famous for his -setting of songs, and the music to plays. He wrote that to Davenant's -alteration of "Macbeth," to Shadwell's opera, "Psyche," and various -other dramas. He received a salary of two hundred pounds a year as -Director of the King's Music. He became a convert to Catholicism, and -was made Organist to Catherine, the queen of Charles. But the rage for -everything French was growing, and Lock was succeeded in his office by -a Frenchman, Cambert, who produced an English opera; and he by Louis -Grabut, another Frenchman, who set Dryden's "Albion and Albanius," a -satire on Shaftesbury--a poor performance. After Charles quarrelled -with Louis XIV., Italian taste superseded the French, and Italian music -and musicians were patronised. Amongst the latter Nicola Matteis was a -popular violinist. - -But that which possessed the most decided merit was the church music -of this period. It was not that which one would have expected in the -reign of Charles II., but we must do him the justice to say that he -seems to have encouraged greatly the musical services of the Church. -He united all the distinguished composers and performers, to assist in -restoring this service to its former glory; and, amongst the survivors -of his father's reign, reappeared Dr. Child, Dr. Christopher Gibbons, -Dr. Rogers, Dr. Wilson, Henry Lawes, Milton's friend, Byrne, Lowe, and -Cook, commonly called Captain Cook, from his having borne a commission -in the Royalist army. Cook was made Master of the Children of the -Choir, in the Royal Chapel; Child, Gibbons, and Lowe, Organists; Lawes, -Clerk of the Cheque; Rogers, Organist at Eton; Byrne, Organist at St. -Paul's; and Wilson was attached to the service in Westminster Abbey. - -By these means the church musical service was soon raised to a high -pitch of excellence; a spirit was diffused through the whole kingdom -from the king's chapel, and the cathedral services became as fine -as ever. Captain Cook trained his boy-choristers to admiration, and -out of them arose some of the best composers of sacred music that -England possesses. Amongst them are Pelham Humphrey, Michael Wise, -John Blow, and, superior to them all, Henry Purcell. Some of these -produced anthems whilst mere striplings, which still remain in use. -Amongst these Pelham Humphrey greatly distinguished himself; and was, -therefore, sent by Charles to Paris, to study under the famous Lulli, -and then made gentleman of his chapel. At the death of Cook, his -master, he succeeded to his office. Michael Wise became for a time, -Organist of Salisbury Cathedral, but returned to the Royal Chapel as -one of the gentlemen. His anthems are still greatly admired. Blow -succeeded Humphrey as Master of the Children, and was Organist of -Westminster Abbey. He published various compositions, both sacred and -secular, some of which are yet in much esteem, while others have fallen -into neglect. - -But the musical master of the age was Henry Purcell (_b._ 1658; _d._ -1695), organist of Westminster Abbey, and afterwards of the king's -chapel. His sacred music, especially his "Te Deum" and "Jubilate," -has never been surpassed. Dr. Burney declared him superior to all -the foreign composers of the day--Carissimi, Stradella, Scarlatti, -Keiser, Lulli, and Rameau; but others do not except any composers of -any previous age. In his secular music he again surpassed himself. His -music of the drama is voluminous. He set the songs in Nahum Tate's -"Dido;" the music for Lee's "Theodosius;" that for the "Tempest," -as altered by Dryden, which is still heard with delight; that for -the "Prophetess," altered by Dryden and Betterton, from Beaumont -and Fletcher; the songs of Dryden's "King Arthur," in which are the -lovely air "Fairest Isle," the charming duet "Two Daughters of this -Aged Stream are We," and the inimitable frost-scene. He furnished the -music for Howard's and Dryden's "Indian Queen." In Dryden's altered -"Boadicea," the duet and chorus "To Arms," and the air "Britons, strike -home," are still heard with acclamations on all occasions of patriotic -excitement. Besides these he wrote airs, overtures, and set tunes -for numerous other dramas, as Dryden's and Lee's "Timon of Athens," -"Œdipus," "The Fairy Queen," altered from the "Midsummer Night's -Dream," and Dryden's "Tyrannic Love." He wrote many odes, glees, -catches, rounds, many single songs and duets, twelve sonatas for two -violins and a bass, etc. The air of "Lillibullero" is attributed to -him. His widow published many of these after his death, in two folio -volumes called "Orpheus Britannicus." The music of Purcell is national -property, and, in spite of more recent genius, will long continue to be -heard with rapture. - -Notwithstanding Charles II.'s restoration of church music, he -endeavoured to degrade it by the introduction of French customs, and -at one time introduced a band of twenty-four fiddlers into his chapel, -in imitation of Louis XIV. Tom D'Urfey ridiculed it in the song, -"Four-and-twenty Fiddlers all in a Row;" and Evelyn describes his -disgust at witnessing this strange sight, "more fit for a tavern or -playhouse than a church." The public feeling, indeed, soon caused the -king to withdraw the Gallic innovation. - -Amongst the musical productions of this time we may note Blow's -"Amphion Anglicus," Roger North's "Memoir of Music," still in -manuscript; Sir Francis North's "Philosophical Essay on Music," Lord -Brouncker's translation of Descartes' "Musicæ Compendium." Marsh, -Archbishop of Armagh, was the first to treat acoustics methodically, -in a paper in the "Philosophical Transactions." Dr. Wallis, one of the -founders of the Royal Society, and an eminent mathematician, wrote much -in the "Philosophical Transactions" on musical subjects, and published -an edition of "Ptolemy's Harmonies." Thomas Mace, John Birchensha, -Christopher Simpson, and John Playford are musical authors of that age. - -The furniture of this period had the general characteristics of the -last age. Cane backs and seats began to be used in chairs, and the -beautiful marqueterie work adorned tables, cabinets, clock-cases, -wardrobes, and other rich pieces of furniture. The Louis Quatorze -style, with its rich sweeps and abundance of carving and gilding, -began to appear in England, but did not attain to general use till a -later period. The floors began to be covered with gay-coloured mats -and carpets, but the richest pieces of Turkey carpet were still more -frequently used for table-covers. Oil-cloth was now introduced from -Germany, and manufactured in London. The Gobelins tapestry manufactory -was established in France in 1677, and towards the end of this period -the walls of the great mansions of England were covered with the -products of its looms. - -The costume of gentlemen underwent rapid and various metamorphoses in -Charles II.'s time. From the rich and elegant costume of Charles I. it -degenerated first into one with an exceedingly short doublet, without -any under waistcoat, loose petticoat breeches, with long drooping lace -ruffles at the knee. This costume, however, still retained much of the -Vandyke style. It had the high-crowned hat and plume of feathers, the -falling lace collar, and the natural hair. But soon came the monstrous -peruke, or periwig, as the word was corrupted to in England, copied -from the fashion of the Court of Louis XIV., which superseded the -natural hair in both men and women, the women appearing to have adopted -it first. Then followed the square, long coat, and huge jack-boots, -and cocked hat, which became the general dress of the next century. -False hair had been worn by both sexes in the times of Elizabeth and -James I., but never to the same preposterous extent as now. Charles -II., though adopting the periwig fashion himself, and thus confirming -it, yet refused to allow the clergy to use it. He wrote a letter to the -University of Cambridge, ordering the clergy neither to wear periwigs, -nor smoke tobacco, nor read their sermons; and, on a fellow of Clare -Hall venturing to preach before him in a wig and holland sleeves, he -ordered the statutes concerning decency of apparel to be put in force -against him and similar offenders. - -The high-crowned hat or broad-leaved sombrero of Spain not harmonising -well with the periwig, the crown was suddenly lowered, the brim turned -up, and a drooping feather thrown backwards over it. The petticoat -breeches came in as early as 1658; and, in the following year, Randal -Holmes thus describes a gentleman's dress:--"A short-waisted doublet -and petticoat breeches, the lining being lower than the breeches, is -tied above the knees; the breeches are ornamented with ribands up to -the pocket, and half their breadth upon the thigh. The waistband is -set round with ribands, and the shirt hanging out over them." These -petticoat breeches soon grew into actual skirts, and the doublet or -jacket, which at the beginning of the reign scarcely came below the -breast, towards the end of it was so elongated that it was an actual -coat, and had buttons and buttonholes all down the front. - -Along with a particular costume described by Evelyn, which Charles -adopted in 1666, consisting of a long close vest of black cloth or -velvet pinked with white satin; a loose surcoat over it of an Oriental -character, and instead of shoes and stockings, buskins or brodequins; -he also wore small buckles instead of shoestrings. Charles was so proud -of this dress that he vowed he would never wear any other; but it did -not last long, and buckles did not become the general fashion till the -reign of Queen Anne. - -Long and short kersey stockings were an article of export in this -period, as well as stockings of leather, silk, or woollen, and worsted -for men and children. Socks also occur under the name of "the lower end -of stockings." Amongst the imports were hose of crewel, called Mantua -hose, and stockings of wadmal. Neckcloths or cravats of Brussels and -Flanders lace were worn towards the end of the "Merry Monarch's" reign, -and tied in a knot under the chin, the ends hanging down square. - -The costume of Knights of the Garter assumed its present shape, the cap -of estate, with its ostrich and heron plume, and the broad blue ribbon -worn over the left shoulder and brought under the right arm, where -the jewel or lesser George hangs, being introduced just before the -publication of Ashmole's "History of the Order." The baron's coronet -dates from this reign. - -The costume of James II.'s reign varied little from that of Charles. -The hats indeed assumed various cocks, according to the fancy of some -leader or party. One cock was called the Monmouth cock. - -The ladies in the voluptuous reign of Charles II. abandoned the -straight-laced dresses with the straight-laced manners of their Puritan -predecessors. Bare bosoms and bare arms to the elbows were displayed, -and the hair, confined only by a single bandeau of pearls, or adorned -by a single rose, fell in graceful profusion upon their snowy necks. -The rounded arm reclined on the rich satin petticoat; whilst the gown -of the same rich material extended its voluminous train behind. Lely's -portraits are not to be regarded as representing the strict costume of -the age, but they give us its spirit--a studied negligence, an elegant -_déshabillé_. The starched ruff, the steeple-crowned hat, the rigid -stomacher, and the stately farthingale were, however, long retained by -less fashionable dames of the country; and when the ruff was discarded, -a rich lace tippet veiled the breast. The women of ordinary rank also -still retained much of this costume, with the hood and tippet. - -In their riding habits the ladies imitated the costume of the men as -nearly as they could. Evelyn says that he saw the queen in September, -1666, going to take the air "in her cavalier riding-habit, hat, and -feathers, and horseman's coat." This seems to be a very rational dress -for the occasion, yet the sight did not please Mr. Pepys, for he -remarks about the same time--"Walking in the galleries at Whitehall, -I find the ladies of honour dressed in their riding garbs, with coats -and doublets, with deep skirts--just for all the world like men, and -buttoned in their doublets up to the breast, with periwigs and with -hats. So that only for a long petticoat dragging under their men's -coats, nobody could take them for women in any point whatever, which -was an odd sight, and a sight that did not please me." - -Yet Mrs. Stuart, afterwards Duchess of Richmond, _did_ please -him:--"But, above all, Mrs. Stuart, in her dress, with her hat cocked -and a rich plume, with her sweet eye, and little Roman nose, and -excellent taille, is now the greatest beauty I ever saw, I think, in my -life." - -The military costume of the period remained much the same as during -the civil wars and Commonwealth; but vambraces were abandoned by the -arquebusiers, and defensive armour was gradually falling into disuse. -The helmet and corset, or cuirass, or the gorget alone, worn over a -buff coat, formed all the defence of steel worn by the officers at this -period. "The arms, offensive and defensive," says the statute of the -13th and 14th of Charles II., "are to be as follows:--The defensive -armour of the Cavalry to consist of a back, breast, and pot, and the -breast and pot to be pistol-proof. The offensive arms a sword, and case -of pistols, the barrels whereof are not to be under fourteen inches -in length. For the Foot, a musketeer is ordered to have a musket, the -barrel not under three feet in length; a collar of bandeliers, with a -sword. Pikemen to be armed with a pike of ash, sixteen feet long, with -a back, breast, head-piece, and sword." - -[Illustration: COSTUMES OF THE TIME OF CHARLES II.] - -The familiar names of several of the regiments of the British army -commence from Charles II.'s reign. The Life Guards were raised in -1661--composed and treated, however, like the Gardes du Corps of the -French,--being principally gentlemen of families of distinction, who -themselves, or their fathers, had fought in the Civil War. In the same -year the Blues were embodied, and called the Oxford Blues, from their -first commander, Aubrey, Earl of Oxford. The Coldstream Guards date -their formation from 1660, and two regiments were added to the one -raised about ten years previously by General Monk at Coldstream, on the -borders of Scotland. To these were added the 1st Royal Scots, brought -over from France at the Restoration; the 2nd, or Queen's, raised in -1661; the 3rd, or Old Buffs, so named from their accoutrements being -composed of buffalo leather, embodied in 1665; the Scottish Fusiliers, -afterwards the 21st, raised in 1678, and so called from their carrying -the fusil, invented in France in 1630--being a firelock lighter than -the musket, but about the same length; and the 4th, or King's Own, -raised in 1680. - -During this reign the bayonet--so called from Bayonne, where it was -invented--was sometimes three-edged, sometimes flat, with a wooden hilt -like a dagger, and was screwed or merely stuck into the muzzle of the -gun. The bayonet superseded the rapier attached to the musket-rest in -James's reign. Even then the bayonet was a far inferior weapon to what -it subsequently became, as it had to be removed to fire and charge -again. The Grenadiers were introduced in 1678, and were so called -from being practised to fling hand grenades, each man having a pouch -full. To these James added, in 1685, the 1st, or King's regiment of -Dragoon Guards, the 2nd, or Queen's Dragoon Guards, and the 5th and 7th -regiments, called the Royal Fusiliers; and in 1688, the year of the -Revolution, the 23rd, or Welsh Fusiliers, were raised. - -We need not repeat what has been so frequently stated in these pages -about the profligacy of the Court and aristocracy in Charles II.'s -reign, which soon polluted the spirit of the greater part of the -country. However harsh and repulsive were the manners and social maxims -of the Puritans, they were infinitely preferable to the licentiousness -and blasphemy of the Cavaliers, who mistook vulgarity and obscenity -for gentility. Notwithstanding the traditionary feeling left by the -Royalist writers of these times, and too faithfully taken up by such -writers as Sir Walter Scott, it is now beginning to be perceived -that the Cavaliers were, in reality, the vulgar of the age. If to -swear, gamble, bully, murder, and use the most indecent language, and -lead the most indecent lives, be marks of vulgarity, these were the -distinctive marks of too many of the Cavaliers. The Puritans, with -all their acerbity and intolerance, had a reverence for sound and -Christian principles at the core of their system. Virtue and moral -piety were their admiration, however rudely they demonstrated it. -But the Cavaliers gloried in every opposite vice the more, because -the Puritans, whom they despised, denounced them. We have seen the -spirit of private assassination which animated them, and led them to -the murder of Dorislaus, the Commonwealth ambassador in Holland; of -Ascam, its minister at Madrid; of Colonel Lisle, at Lausanne; and -their repeated attempts on the life of Cromwell, in pursuance of their -avowed doctrine of assassination shown in the tract called "Killing no -Murder." This does anything but justify their high claim to the title -of men of honour, and finds no parallel in the principles or practices -of the Puritans of England, though the Scottish Covenanters stooped to -this base practice in the murder of Archbishop Sharp. - -Then as to profane swearing, their conversation, larded with oaths, -would have disgraced the most uncouth trooper of to-day. "The new band -of wits and fine gentlemen," says Macaulay, "never opened their mouths -without uttering a ribaldry of which a porter would now be ashamed, -and without calling on their Maker to curse them, sink them, confound -them, blast them, and damn them." "No man," says Lord Somers, "was -accounted a gentleman, or person of any honour, that had not in two -hours' sitting invented some new modish oath, or found out the late -intrigue between the Lord B. and the Lady P., laughed at the fopperies -of priests, and made lampoons and drollery on the sacred Scriptures -themselves." As to drinking and gambling, these vices were beyond -conception; and the plunder of the people by the Cavalier troopers was -carried on as if they had been in an enemy's country. - -We have only to refer to the abandoned character of the women of -Charles's Court, and amongst the aristocracy, who imitated the monarch -in selecting mistresses and even wives from the stage, to remind the -reader of the immoral character of the age. As we have already said, -any one who would convince himself of the sink of infamy and obscenity -which society was then, has only to look at the plays which were acted; -at their language, declaimed by women without a blush or any evidence -of disgust; plays written even by such men as Dryden. "Whatever our -dramatists touched," says Macaulay, "they tainted. In their imitations -the houses of Calderon's stately and high-spirited Castilian gentlemen -became sties of vice, Shakespeare's 'Viola' a procuress, Molière's -'Misanthrope' a ravisher, Molière's 'Agnes' an adulteress. Nothing -could be so pure or so heroic, but that it became foul and ignoble by -transfusion through those foul and ignoble minds." The same writer, -making a few exceptions--and a noble one in the case of Milton--says -of the poets of that age that "from Dryden to D'Urfey the common -characteristic was hard-hearted, shameless, swaggering licentiousness, -at once inelegant and inhuman." - -Whilst such was the condition of the Court, the aristocracy, the -theatre, and the literature of the country, we may imagine what was -the condition of the lower orders. The state of London was little, if -anything, improved in civilisation--by no means improved in its moral -tone--since the days of James I. The city was rising in a more healthy -and substantial form from the fire, with wider streets, and better -drainage; but it was still badly lighted, and disgraced by filthy -kennels. - -At the close of Charles II.'s reign London was lighted, by contract, -by one Herring, who engaged to place a lamp at every tenth door, -when there was no moon, from six to twelve o'clock at night, from -Michaelmas to Lady-Day; and this was thought to be a wonderful advance. -To us it would appear just darkness visible; and vast tracts of -population were destitute of even this feeble glimmer. Whitefriars -still continued the haunt of thieves, bullies, desperate debtors, -and abandoned women, who rushed out and defended themselves from any -visitations of duns or constables. The neighbourhood of Whitehall -itself was little better, from the resort of the bully-mob of those -who called themselves gentlemen. These young men, often belonging to -good families, or the sons of wealthy citizens, assembled for noise and -mischief in theatres and in the streets. They had been successively -known as the "Darr Hearts," "the Heroics," "the Muns," "Tityre Tu's," -"the Hectors," "the Roaring Boys," and "Bonaventors," so continually -figuring in the comedies of the time. They now bore the name of -"the Scourers," and frequented the theatres to damn plays, and the -coffee-houses to pick up the last sayings of the wits, which were -commonly not very cleanly, when such men as Rochester, Sedley, Dryden, -and Wycherley were the stars there. They then sallied into the streets -in bands, breaking windows, tearing off knockers, defacing signs, -upsetting stalls, fish- or fruit-sellers, storming taverns, beating -quiet passengers, and rudely insulting respectable women. Frequently -they came to a regular fight with some other mob of "Scourers," and -then rushed headlong, knocking down all whom they met. The watchmen -carefully kept out of their way, and the military had to disperse them -when they became particularly riotous. One great delight of these -genteel ruffians was to hustle passengers into the kennel, or into -Fleet Ditch and its tributaries, which ran then in open Styx-like -blackness along the streets. To add to these dangers of walking the -City in the evening thieves and pickpockets assaulted the passers by -from dark entries below; and it was the common practice to empty all -sorts of filth out of chamber windows. The City apprentices still -kept up their riotous character. On one occasion, having attacked and -beaten their masters, they were some of them put into the pillory; -whereupon they tore down the pillory, and when set up again they again -pulled it down. There were feuds and street encounters everywhere. The -weavers and butchers, the frequenters of bear-gardens and theatres, or -sword-players, were continually falling into parties and ending the -dispute by a general _mêlée_. - -The aristocracy had evacuated the City-especially since the fire--and -had located themselves along the Strand, Lincoln's Inn Fields, -Bloomsbury, Soho, and all quarters tending towards Whitehall; others -located themselves in Covent Garden; and in the fields now covered -by the piles of Bedford Square and the British Museum stood the -magnificent mansions of Bedford House and Montague House. But most of -the sites of the splendid squares and streets of our now West End were -open country, or the rubbish-heaps of the neighbourhood. Club-life -was just beginning. There were numbers of political clubs, the most -famous of which was the King's Head, or Green Ribbon Club, from the -members wearing a green ribbon in their hats, to distinguish them from -their opponents. There was the club of Shaftesbury and the Whig party, -which was engaged in the design of excluding the Duke of York from the -succession, and which raised all the Titus Oates plots to accomplish -their object. It met at the King's Head Tavern opposite to the Temple -Gate. But coffee-houses, now become general, were in reality clubs; -and every class and party had its coffee-house, where its members met. -There was the literary coffee-house, called Will's, situate between -Covent Garden and Bow Street, where Dryden was the great man, and -where literary lords, literary lawyers, dramatists, players, and wits -of all sorts met to settle the merits of literature and the stage. -There were lawyers' coffee-houses, citizens' coffee-houses, doctors' -coffee-houses, the chief of them Garraway's; Jesuits' coffee-houses, -Puritans' coffee-houses, and Popish coffee-houses, where every man -found his fellows, and partisans met and learned the news; and in these -haunts the spirit of party and of religious antagonism was carried to -its fiercest height. The chief place of public lounging was the New -Exchange in the City, and Spring Gardens, Hyde Park, and the Mulberry -Garden, which were continually occurring in the comedies of the day as -the places of assignation, as well as the fashionable masquerades. - -But whilst such were the most marked features of life in London at -that day, we are not to suppose that there was not a large number of -the population who retained a love of virtue, purity, and domestic -life. The religious were a numerous class; and the stern morality of -the Nonconformists beheld with pity and indignation the dissipated -flutterings of the corrupt world around them. Besides these there was -a numerous population of sober citizens, who, though they did not go -with the Puritans in religion, were disgusted with the French manners, -maxims, houses, and cookery, and stood by their native modes and ideas -with sturdy John Bullism. The musical taste of the age tended to draw -them together to more rational enjoyments than debauchery and the -tainted stage, and the increasing use of coffee and tea gave to musical -and social parties a more homelike and refined character. - -[Illustration: CHELSEA HOSPITAL.] - -The popular sports and amusements still, however, were of the usual -description. All the old cruel sports of bear-baiting, bull-baiting, -and cock-fights, which the Puritans had suppressed, came back with -royalty. Horse-racing was in vogue; and gambling was such a fever -amongst the wealthy, that many great estates were squandered at cards; -and the Duke of St. Albans, when more than eighty years of age, and -quite blind, used to sit at the gaming-table from day to day, with a -man beside him to tell him the cards. Billiards, chess, backgammon, -and cribbage were in great request; and bowls, ninepins, boat-racing, -yacht-racing, running at the ring, were sports both with the people and -the gentry. Ladies joined in playing at bowls; skating was introduced -by the courtiers, who had spent much time in Holland. Swimming and -foot-races were fashionable. Colonel Blood planned to shoot Charles -once when he went to swim in the Thames near Chelsea, and the Duke of -Monmouth, as we have seen, in his popular tour ran races against all -comers, first without boots, and then beat them running in his boots -whilst the others ran without. - -Charles prided himself on his pedestrian feats. The common people -were as much delighted as their ancestors with all the exhibitions -of Bartholomew Fair and Smithfield, of fire-eaters, jugglers, -rope-dancers, dancing dogs and monkeys, Punch, feats of strength, and -travelling theatres, where some Scripture story was represented, as is -yet the case on the Continent. - -In the country, life continued to move on at its usual rate. Land had -not approached to anything like its present value, and education was an -immense way farther behind, so that a large number of the aristocracy, -including nearly the whole of the squirearchy, continued to live on -their estates, and rarely made a visit to London. The ravages which the -Civil War had made in all parts of the country had left traces on many -a rental which were yet far from being obliterated; and the contempt -into which the clerical office had fallen since the Reformation, -and absorption of the Church lands, left one outlet for the sons of -the squirearchy at this time little available. The landed gentry, -therefore, for the most part continued to occupy a position of much -local importance, but, with few exceptions, did not mingle with the -great world of London, or aspire to lead in social or political rivalry -on the national arena. The squire was on the bench and at the quarter -sessions; he was often colonel of the militia, and knew his importance -in the country; but beyond that he was little heard of except when -civil strife called him out to defend the altar and the throne. But -within his own little world he was all in all, proud of his power, -and prouder of his pedigree; but if the Squire Westerns of Fielding's -time are faithfully portrayed, how much more rustic, Toryfied, and -confined in the range of their ideas and experience must they have -been nearly two hundred years before. Few of them had the ambition to -distinguish themselves by literary attainments--such accomplishments -they left to the Drydens and Danbys of the metropolis. Many heirs of -estates, therefore, at this era never went to a university, or, if -they did, made but a brief abode there, and returned little better for -the sojourn, depending on their property to give them all the _éclat_ -they aspired to. To enjoy the sports of the field, attend the county -race meeting and county ball, to live surrounded by huntsmen and -gamekeepers, to keep a coarse but exuberant table, and to terminate the -day's sport by a drunken carouse, included the pursuits and habits of -three-fourths of this class. - -As these gentry went little to town, their manners were proportionally -rustic, and their circle of ideas confined, but from their confinement -the more sturdy. Toryism of the extremest type was rampant amongst -them. Church and State, and the most hearty contempt of everything -like Dissent and of foreigners, were regarded as the only maxims for -Englishmen; and the most absolute submission of the peasantry to the -despotic squirearchy was exacted. In a justice-room if a man was poor -it was taken for granted that he was wrong. Justice Shallows and -Dogberrys were not the originals of the pages of Shakespeare, but of -the country bench of magistrates and its constabulary. Ideas travelled -slowly, for books were few. A Bible, a Common Prayer-book, and a -"Guillim's Heraldry" were the extent of many a gentleman's library. -Newspapers were suppressed by the restrictions on the press during the -latter part of Charles's reign; and the news-letters which supplied the -country contained a very meagre amount of facts, but no discussion. - -There were few coaches, except in the districts immediately round -London, or to the distance of twenty or thirty miles, and the roads -were in general impassable in winter. On all but the main lines of -highway, pack-horses carried the necessary merchandise from place to -place through deep narrow tracks, some of which remain to our time. It -took four or five days to reach London by coach from Chester, York, -or Bristol, and this was attended by perils and discomforts that made -travellers loth to encounter such a journey, and often to make their -wills before starting. Macaulay has summed up the terrors of the road, -as given by our Diarists, in the following passage:--"On the best lines -of communication the ruts were deep, the descents precipitous, and the -ways often such that it was hardly possible to distinguish them in the -dusk from the unenclosed heath and fen on both sides. Ralph Thoresby, -the antiquary, was in danger of losing his way on the Great North Road -between Barnby Moor and Tuxford, and actually lost his way between -Doncaster and York; Pepys and his wife, travelling in their own coach, -lost their way between Newbury and Reading. In the course of the same -tour they lost their way near Salisbury, and were in danger of having -to pass the night on the plain. It was only in fine weather that the -whole breadth of the road was available for wheeled vehicles. Often the -mud lay deep on the right and the left, and only a narrow track of firm -ground rose above the quagmire. At such times obstructions and quarrels -were common, and the pass was frequently blocked up during a long time -by carriers neither of whom would give way. It happened almost every -day that coaches stuck fast, until a team of cattle could be procured -from some neighbouring farm to tug them out of the slough. But in bad -seasons the travellers had to encounter inconveniences still more -serious. Thoresby, who was in the habit of travelling between Leeds -and the capital, has recorded in his Diary such a series of perils and -disasters as might suffice for a journey to the Frozen Ocean, or to the -desert of Sahara. On one occasion he learned that the floods were out -between Ware and London, that passengers had to swim for their lives, -and that a higgler had perished in the attempt to cross. In consequence -of these tidings he turned out of the high road, and was conducted -across some meadows, when it was necessary for him to ride to the -skirts in water. In the course of another journey he narrowly escaped -being swept away by an inundation of the Trent. He was afterwards -detained at Stamford four days, on account of the state of the roads, -and then ventured to proceed only because fourteen members of the House -of Commons, who were going up in a body to Parliament, with guides -and numerous attendants, took him into their company. On the roads of -Derbyshire travellers were in constant fear for their necks, and were -frequently compelled to alight and lead their beasts. The great route -through Wales to Holyhead was in such a state that, in 1685, a viceroy, -going to Ireland, was five hours travelling fourteen miles--from St. -Asaph to Conway. Between Conway and Beaumaris he was forced to walk a -great part of the way, and his lady was carried in a litter. His coach -was, with much difficulty, and by the help of many hands, brought after -him entire. In general, carriages were taken to pieces at Conway and -borne on the shoulders of stout Welsh peasants to the Menai Straits. -In some parts of Kent and Sussex none but the strongest horses could, -in winter, get through the bog, in which at every step they sank deep. -The markets were often inaccessible during several months. It is said -the fruits of the earth were sometimes suffered to rot in one place, -while in another place, distant only a few miles, the supply fell short -of the demand. The wheeled carriages in this district were generally -pulled by oxen. When Prince George of Denmark visited the stately -mansion of Petworth in wet weather he was six hours going nine miles; -and it was necessary that a body of sturdy hinds should be on each side -of his coach, in order to prop it. Of the carriages which conveyed his -retinue several were upset and injured. A letter from one of the party -has been preserved, in which the unfortunate courtier complains that, -during fourteen hours, he never once alighted, except when his coach -was overturned or stuck fast in the mud." - -To avoid the nuisance of carriages on such roads the habit prevailed -of travelling on horseback; but then it was necessary to go well -armed, and, if possible, in company, for the country was infested with -highwaymen. The adventures of horsemen were commonly as numerous and -exciting as those of the folk who used carriages, though mails and -carriages were also frequently stopped by the highwaymen of the day. -To abate the difficulties of the road, on the Restoration the turnpike -system was adopted--a new era in road-making--and what were called -flying coaches were put on the amended ways, which conveyed passengers -at a better rate. - -During the Commonwealth, travellers met equally provoking impediments -in passing through towns, if they dared to travel on Sundays. There -was a fine for such a breach of the Sabbath; and Elwood describes his -ludicrous dilemma when riding to a Friends' Meeting on Sunday, on a -borrowed horse, with a borrowed hat and great-coat; for his father -had locked up his own horse, hat, and coat to keep him from the -conventicle. Being stopped and brought before a magistrate, he was -ordered to pay the fine; but he replied that he had no money. "You have -a good horse, however," observed the magistrate. "That is borrowed," -said Elwood. "Well, you have a good great-coat." "That is borrowed, -too," added Elwood. "Nay, then, we must have your hat, it is a good -one." "That also is borrowed," continued the young Quaker. At which the -magistrate, declaring that he never saw such a traveller in his life, -who had nothing but what was borrowed, ordered him to be detained till -the morrow, and then sent back again. - -In the times we are now reviewing the tables were turned, and the -Royalist churchmen and squirearchy were employing their country -leisure in breaking up the conventicles of all sorts of Dissenters, -pulling down the meeting-houses of the obstinate Quakers, and sending -them to prison by shoals. Sir Christopher Wren, by order of the king, -tried his hand at pulling down Quakers' meeting-houses, before he -built St. Paul's. The spirit of political and ecclesiastical party -violence raged through the country, and formed a strange contrast, in -the cruelties and oppression practised on the truly religious portion -of the community, to the profligacy of the gentry and, above all, of -the Court. What rendered this condition of things more gloomy was the -low position which the country clergy then occupied. The property -of the Church having fallen into the hands of the aristocracy, the -generality of country livings were poor, and depended chiefly on -the small tithes and a miserable glebe of a few acres. Whilst some -few men of distinguished abilities, like Burnet, Tillotson, Barrow, -and Stillingfleet, rose to distinction and occupied the few wealthy -dignities and livings, the parish clergymen were too commonly men of -low origin and little education. Men of family disdained the office, -and the chaplain of a great house was looked on as little better than -a servant; he married the cook or the housekeeper, and became the -hanger-on of some country hall, joining in the rude riot and the ruder -jests of his patron. Even so late as Fielding's time, the relative -position of the squire and the parson were those of Western and parson -Adams. - -Perhaps the most pleasing feature of country life was that of the -position of the yeoman, or man of small independent property. This -class had been increased by the various distributions of great estates; -and it is calculated that at this time one-seventh at least of the -population consisted of men with their families who lived on their own -little demesnes producing from fifty to a hundred pounds a year. The -number of men who farmed the lands of the aristocracy at that time is -affirmed to have been much fewer than those who farmed their own. This -independence of condition gave them independence of mind, and it was -amongst this class that the strongest resistance to the dominance and -intolerance of the squirearchy was found. Many of them during the Civil -War and the Commonwealth adopted the Puritan faith, and continued to -maintain it in defiance of Five-Mile Acts, Conventicle Acts, and Acts -of Uniformity. From them descended the sturdy spirit which, uniting -with a kindred spirit in towns, continued to vindicate the liberties -and manly bearing of the British population. - -Nor amid the corruptions and bitternesses of the times had all the -ancient poetical customs of the people disappeared. Neither the -asceticism of the Puritan nor the profligacy of the Cavalier had been -able to utterly extinguish such customs as had a touch of nature in -them. The Londoners made their swarming excursions to Greenwich, and -Richmond, and Epping Forest, where they gave way to all their pent-up -fun and frolic, and enlivened the banks of the Thames with their songs -as they rowed to and fro. The old holidays of the departed church still -survived. Valentine's Day was still a day of love missives, and of -presents of gloves, jewellery, silk stockings, and ornamental garters -from gentlemen to their valentines. Mayday reassumed its jollity; -may-poles, put down by the Commonwealth, again lifted their heads; and -Herrick's beautiful verses resumed their reality:-- - - "There's not a budding boy or girl this day - But is got up and gone to bring in May; - A deal of youth ere this is come - Back, and with whitethorn laden, home." - -The Puritans beheld the return of the custom with horror. In 1660, -the year that Charles II. and may-poles came back again, a Puritan, -writing from Newcastle, says:--"Sir,--The country as well as the town -abounds with vanities, now the reins of liberty and licentiousness are -let loose. Maypoles, and players, and jugglers, and all things else -now pass current. Sin now appears with a brazen face." Just as Charles -and James were landing in the merry month of May, at Dover, Thomas -Hall published his "Funebria Floræ, the Downfall of May Games"--a most -inopportune moment. With equal horror, the Puritans beheld the old -sports at village wakes and Whitsuntide, the jollity of harvest homes, -and the mirthful uproar of Christmas, come back. New Year's Day, with -its gifts--a Roman custom as old as Romulus--not only reappeared as a -means of expressing affection amongst friends, but as a source of great -profit to the king and nobility. For as Numa ordered gifts to be given -to the gods on that day, so gifts were now presented by the nobility to -the king, and long after his time by the dependents of the nobility, -and those who sought favour from them, to the nobles. Pepys says that -the whole fortunes of some courtiers consisted in these gifts. But -Christmas boxes, which originated in New Year's gifts, and have become -confounded with them in England, have survived the New Year's gifts of -the time we are reviewing. - -The great evidences of the growth of a nation are the increase of -its trade, its population, and its governmental revenue. When these -three things continue to augment, _pari passu_, there can be no -question of the substantial progress of a nation. All these had been -steadily on the increase during this period, and the advocates of -royalty point to these circumstances to prove the mischiefs of the -Civil War and the Commonwealth. It would be enough in reply, even -did we admit the reality of the alleged facts, to observe that the -mischief, whatever it was, was necessitated by the crimes and tyrannies -of royalty. But we have only to look carefully at the whole case to -see that the prosperity following the Restoration had its source in -the Commonwealth. In spite of the violent changes and dislocations -of society during the period of the conflict with Charles I., these -upheavings and tempests threw down and swept away a host of things -which cramped and smothered the free action of commerce and internal -industry. The lava which burst in fiery streams from the volcano of -revolution, though it might for a time destroy life and property, -only required a little more time to moulder and fertilise the earth. -A host of mischievous monopolies were annihilated in this convulsion. -The foreign commerce was carefully extended. Not only at home were -Englishmen relieved from the incubus of Government absolutism, and -interference with private speculation, but the haughty fleets of Dutch, -and French, and Spaniards were swept from the ocean, and English -merchants were encouraged to extend their enterprises, not only by the -greater security at sea, but by the act of the Long Parliament allowing -the import of commodities from its colonies and possessions in America, -Asia, and Africa, only in English bottoms. This, it has been contended, -did us no good, because it compelled the Dutch to turn their attention -to the Baltic trade, and enabled them to get the precedence of us -there. But this is a mistake; for the removal of the overbearing fleets -of the Dutch, and the stimulus given to our commerce by this privilege, -led to a far greater amount of mercantile activity in England, and -helped us to assume a position in which at a later date we could safely -introduce the principles of free navigation. - -[Illustration: MAY DAY REVELS IN THE TIME OF CHARLES II.] - -Cromwell fostered British commerce by all the means in his power, and -most successfully; and the commercial activity thus excited acquired -power, and continued to increase ever afterwards. He encouraged and -extended the colonies, especially by the acquisition of Jamaica, -and the trade with the West Indies and American colonies added -increasingly, during the period now under review, to our commercial -wealth and navy. The writer of "The World's Mistake in Oliver -Cromwell," published in the "Harleian Miscellany," says:--"When this -tyrant, or Protector, as some call him, turned out the Long Parliament -in April, 1653, the kingdom had arrived at the highest pitch of trade -it ever knew. The riches of the nation showed itself in the high value -of land and of all our native commodities, which are the certain marks -of opulence." Besides this, the great quantity of land thrown into the -hands of small proprietors, from time to time, and from a succession -of causes, ever since the breaking up of the Roman Church, and all -its monasteries and convents by Henry VIII., was every day telling -more markedly on the wealth and spirit of the people. We have just -seen what a powerful body the yeomanry had grown; and, from the same -causes, a large accession of capital had flowed into trade. The culture -of these divided lands was enormously increased; instead of lying as -vast deserts and hunting grounds, they now were become fertile farms. -The internal resources of the country were rapidly and constantly -developing themselves; and from the cool transfer of the taxation from -the aristocracy to the people at large, it had become the interest of -the monarchs, if they did little positively to accelerate the growth of -national wealth, at least to leave in freedom the capital-increasing -exertions of the population. The more the people traded abroad, the -greater were the proceeds of the customs; the more they consumed, the -greater the proceeds of the excise; now the chief items of the royal -revenue. All the sources of national wealth originated in the Long -Parliament and the Commonwealth, for the transfers of the customs and -excise were first made then, and only resumed after the Restoration. - -[Illustration: SHIPS OF THE TIME OF CHARLES II.] - -We may now notice the rapid growth of these items of revenue. In the -first year of Charles II.'s reign--namely, 1660--the proceeds of the -customs were £361,356; in the last year of James's reign, 1688, they -were £781,987. Thus, in twenty-eight years the customs had more than -doubled themselves. We have not the same complete accounts of the -excise, imports and exports, for the same period; but those which we -have show the same progressive ratio. In 1663, the imports and exports -together amounted to £6,038,831; in 1669, or only six years afterwards, -they were £6,259,413; and, since 1613, they had risen up to this amount -from £4,628,586. This showed a steady increase of consumption in the -nation. During this time the imports exceeded the exports considerably, -demonstrating the fact that the internal wealth was greater than the -export of goods; but the balance of trade gradually adjusted itself, -and, in 1699, the excess of exports over imports was £1,147,660; -showing that even exportable articles of manufacture, of raw produce, -or of commodities the growth of our colonies and settlements, had -continued to increase. The proceeds of the excise in 1660, when Charles -became possessed of it, amounted only to about one million; but -increased so rapidly that in little more than a century it reached ten -millions. - -The value of land, and of all kinds of property, rose in proportion. -Davenant, in his "Discourses on Trade," shows that the value of the -whole rental of England in 1660 was but £6,000,000; in 1688 it was -£14,000,000. So that, in 1660, the whole land of England, at twelve -years' purchase, was worth only £72,000,000; but, in 1688, at fourteen -years' purchase, its then estimated value, it was worth £254,000,000. - -As to the mercantile shipping of the country, its tonnage in 1688 was -nearly double what it was in 1666. Sir William Petty, in his "Political -Arithmetic," published in 1676, states that, within the previous forty -years, the houses in London had doubled themselves: the coal trade from -Newcastle had quadrupled itself, being then 80,000 tons yearly; the -Guinea and American trades had grown up from next to nothing to 40,000 -tons of shipping; the customs were trebled; the postage of letters -increased from one to twenty; the whole income of Government, in short, -was trebled; and the number and splendour of coaches, equipages, and -household furniture were wonderfully increased. - -These effects were surely no results of the wise measures of such -monarchs as Charles and James; they were traceable, as clearly as -light to the sun, to the bold and able heads of the Long Parliament -and Commonwealth, to their victories over the enemies and rivals of -the nation, and to the able regulations which they had made in all -quarters for the honourable maintenance of our name and the prosperity -of our commerce. What such men as Charles and James did may be seen by -examining the condition of what fell under their own management. What -the nation at large did by its native energy we have just seen; what -these monarchs did let us now see. The royal navy, in 1666, amounted -only to 62,594 tons; but in 1685, the last year of Charles, it amounted -to 103,558 tons; and, though it fell off a little under James, in -1688, the last year of James, it still reached 101,892 tons. This -looks admirable on the surface; but it is necessary to look under the -surface, and then we perceive a marvellous difference. The nation had -become justly proud of its navy, which had destroyed the great Armada, -and, under Blake, had put down the supremacy of Holland and Spain at -sea; and though the Commons were averse from trusting Charles II. with -money, after they saw that it all went to concubines and parasites, -they were never appealed to on the subject of the navy in vain. When -Danby was minister, they voted at once £600,000 for the building of -thirty new men-of-war. On the evidence of Pepys, the Secretary of the -Admiralty, we have it, that scarcely any of this magnificent array -of ships were fit for use. The very thirty new vessels for which the -£600,000 had been voted had been built of such villainous timber that -they were absolutely unseaworthy; and the rest were so rotten and -worm-eaten that they would have sunk if they were carried out of port. -The same testimony was borne by the French ambassador, Bonrepaux, who, -when Charles made a bluster as if he would go to sea, in 1686, examined -our fleet, and reported to his Government that it need not trouble -itself about the English navy, for that both ships and men were merely -nominal. In fact, the money which should have repaired the ships and -paid the officers and men had gone the way of all Charles's money. -Pepys was pursued in the streets by starving sailors, who demanded the -redemption of their tickets; shoals of them lay in the streets, without -food or means of procuring shelter; many of them perished of hunger, -and some officers are said to have shared the same fate. The whole -was the most shameful scene of waste of the public money, neglect of -vessels and of men, of utter indolence on the part of the Crown, and -consequent negligence on the part of the authorities; of scandalous -corruption in many of them, and knavery and peculation in contractors. -Such was the state of things that, in 1667, or seven years after the -Commonwealth, the Dutch, under De Ruyter, entered the Thames, destroyed -the fortifications at Sheerness, took and burned some of our largest -ships, and threw the capital into paroxysms of terror. "Many English -sailors," says Pepys, "were heard on board the Dutch ships, crying, 'We -did heretofore fight for tickets--now we fight for dollars!'" - -Besides the causes already enumerated for the rapid progress of -England in wealth and prosperity at this period, the persecutions of -Protestants abroad, which drove hither their weavers and artisans, and -the union with Scotland, giving internal peace and security, had a -wonderful influence. De Witt, the celebrated Dutch minister, refers to -these causes in a remarkable passage of his work called "The Interest -of Holland," published in 1669. "When," he says, "the compulsive laws -of the Netherland Halls had first driven the cloth-weaving from the -cities into our villages, and, by the cruelty of the Duke of Alva, -the say-weaving went also after it, the English by degrees began to -send their manufactures throughout Europe; they became potent at sea, -and no longer to depend on the Netherlands. Also by that discovery of -the inexpressibly rich cod-bank of Newfoundland, those of Bristol in -particular made use of that advantage. Moreover, the long persecution -of Puritans in England has occasioned the planting of many English -colonies in America, by which they derive a very considerable foreign -trade thither; so that this mighty island, united with Ireland under -one king, seated in the midst of Europe, having a clear, deep coast, -with good havens and bays, in so narrow a sea that all foreign ships -that sail either to the eastward or the westward are necessitated, even -in fair weather, to shun the dangerous French coast, and sail along -that of England, and in stormy weather to run in and preserve their -lives, ships, and merchandise in the bays--so that England now, by its -conjunction with Scotland, being much increased in strength, as well -as by manufactures as by a great navigation, will in all respects be -formidable to all Europe." - -The clear-sighted Dutch diplomatist has summed up the grand points of -England's advantages at that and succeeding periods, and some of these -deserve our particular attention. The union with Scotland, though yet -dependent only on the Crown of the two countries resting on the same -head, was a circumstance of infinite advantage. It gave a settlement -and security to all the northern portions of the island which they -had never enjoyed before. Till James VI. of Scotland became James -I. of England, not only agriculture but all kinds of manufacturing -and commercial enterprise were kept in check by the frequent hostile -inroads of the Scots. Even when there was peace between the Crowns, the -fierce people inhabiting both sides of the Border were in continual -bickerings with each other; and a numerous body of mosstroopers, whose -only profession was plunder, harassed the rich plains of England by -their predatory raids. The state of things described by Sir Walter -Scott as existing in these regions only about a century ago, gives us -a lively idea of what must have been the savagery of the Borderers at -the time we are describing. If he himself, as he tells us, was probably -the first who drove a gig into Liddesdale, and if at that time the -wilds and moorlands of the Border were peopled by tribes of freebooters -as lawless as savages, what must have been the state of the northern -counties whilst the two countries were at feud? We are told that even -the judges and king's officers could not reach the towns on the Border -without a strong military guard. - -But as the union of the Crowns became settled and consolidated, a -new era commenced north of the Trent. These counties, full of coal -and ironstone, abounding with streams and all the materials for -manufacture, began to develop their resources, and to advance in -population and activity at an unexampled rate. Birmingham and Sheffield -extended their hardware trade; Leeds and its neighbouring villages, its -cloth manufactures; Manchester, its cotton-spinning, though yet little -aided by machinery; and Liverpool was rapidly rising as a port by its -trade with Ireland. The union of the Crowns was, in fact, the beginning -of that marvellous impetus which has at this day covered all the north -with coal-works, iron-works, potteries, spinning and weaving factories, -and towns, which have grown up around them with their 530,000 people, -like Birmingham; their 425,000, like Sheffield; their 445,000, like -Leeds; their 780,000, like Manchester (with Salford); and 716,000, like -Liverpool. It was the same security amid attendant advantages which -raised the immense commercial and manufacturing population of Glasgow, -Paisley, Greenock, and neighbouring towns on the other side of the -Border--Glasgow alone now numbering its 787,000 people. - -In the south and west Norwich and Bristol were most flourishing towns. -Norwich owed its growth and prosperity to the establishment of the -worsted manufacture, brought thither by the Flemings as early as the -reign of Henry I., in the thirteenth century, and to the influence of -four thousand other Flemings, who fled from the cruelty of the Duke of -Alva in Elizabeth's time, bringing their manufacture of bombazines, -which has now expanded itself into a great trade in bombazines, shawls, -crapes, damasks, camlets, and imitations of Irish and French stuffs. -Norwich had its fine old cathedral, its bishop's palace, its palace of -the Duke of Norfolk, adorned with the paintings of Italy, and where the -duke used at this time to live with a state little less than royal. It -had also a greater number of old churches than any town in England, -except London: old hospitals and grammar schools, and the finest -market-place in the kingdom. - -Bristol, next to London, was the great trading port, and the commerce -with America and the West Indies was fast swelling its importance. One -of its most lucrative and, at the same time, most infamous sources of -commerce was the conveyance of convicts to the Plantations of America -and Jamaica. We have seen the eagerness of the courtiers of James -II., and even the queen and ladies, for a share of this traffic, and -the numbers of the unfortunate men implicated in the insurrection of -Monmouth who were sent off thither and sold. Jeffreys himself condemned -eight hundred and forty of them to this slavery, and calculated that -they were worth ten pounds apiece to those who had to sell them to -the British merchants, who probably made much more of them. That the -profits were enormous is evident by the avidity with which victims were -sought after, and with which innocent persons were kidnapped for the -purpose. Bristol, indeed, at that time was engaged in a veritable white -slave-trade, and the magistrates were deep in it, which fact coming to -Jeffreys' knowledge, he made it a plea for extorting money from them. - -To understand, however, the immense difference between the England of -that day and of the present, we have only to state that the population -of none of these pre-eminent towns amounted to 30,000, few county towns -exceeded 4,000 or 5,000, and the whole population of England was, -according to various calculations, at the most five millions and a -half, nor was it increasing at all rapidly. - -To protect the trade of England, Charles II. passed an Act (statute 12 -Car. II., c. 18), commonly called the Navigation Act, carrying out the -principle of the Act of the Commonwealth already referred to, confining -the import of all commodities from Asia, Africa, or America to English -bottoms, and also all goods from Europe to English ships, or the ships -of the particular country exporting them. The next year a similar Act -was passed by the Scottish Parliament. The Act of the Commonwealth had -effected its purpose--the depression of the Dutch carrying trade--and -it was now time to relax these restrictions, but we shall see that -even at a later day it required a struggle to repeal these laws, and -to convince people, by the subsequent immense increase of foreign -commerce, of the impolicy of them. Charles's Government went further, -and, in 1662, forbade any wine but Rhenish, or any spirits, grocery, -tobacco, potashes, pitch, tar, salt, resin, deals, firs, timber, or -olive oil, to be imported from Germany or the Netherlands. In 1677, -alarmed at the vast importation of French goods and produce, his -Government prohibited every French article for three years; but the Act -remained unrepealed till the 1st of James II., by which our merchants -and shopkeepers were deprived of great profits on these silks, wines, -fruits, and manufactured articles, and the public of the comfort of -them. - -Another evidence of the growth of the country was the increase of the -business of the post-office. The origin of the English post-office is -due to Charles I., who, at the commencement of his disputes with the -Parliament, established a system of posts and relays. This the Civil -War put an end to; but the Commonwealth, in 1656, established the -post-office, with several improvements. At the accession of Charles, -a new Act was passed (12 Car. II., c. 25); and three years afterwards -the proceeds of this office and of the wine duties were settled on the -Duke of York and his heirs male. The duke farmed it out at £21,500, -but on his accession the revenue amounted to £65,000. By this post a -single letter was carried eighty miles for twopence; beyond eighty -miles threepence was charged, and there was an advance according to -the weight of packets. The privilege of franking was allowed, though -not expressly granted in the Act, to peers and members of Parliament. -There were mails, however, only on alternate days, and in distant and -difficult parts of the country, as on the borders of Cornwall and the -fens of Lincolnshire, only once a week. Wherever the Court went mails -were sent daily; this was the case, also, to the Downs, and, in the -season, to Bath and Tunbridge Wells. Where coaches did not run, men -on horseback carried the bags. The increasing business of London soon -demanded a more frequent delivery, and the penny post was first started -by William Dockwray, which delivered letters six times a day in the -City, and four times in the outskirts. At this time the post-office -business included the furnishing of all post-horses--whence the name; -and the Governments on the Continent generally retain more or less -of this practice. The growth of England from the time of the Stuarts -till now receives a significant proof in the present gross revenue -for letters, stamps, telegrams, and other post office business being -upwards of £16,000,000 a year. - -The transmission of the mails made it necessary to improve the roads, -and hence arose the toll-bar system, by an Act of 15 Car. II., which -ordered the repairing of highways and the erection of bars or gates -upon them, in Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire, and Huntingdonshire, -owing to the Great North Road being so much cut up by the heavy -malt and barley waggons going to Ware, whence their contents were -forwarded by water to London and other towns. The system was found so -advantageous that it gradually became general. - -[Illustration: THE OLD EAST INDIA HOUSE IN 1630.] - -The extension and improvement of our manufactures was greatly promoted -by the persecution of the Protestants in France and the Spanish -Netherlands. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes, in 1685, compelled -thousands of citizens to seek refuge in England, who, as we have seen, -were at first warmly patronised by James II., but afterwards as much -discouraged. Their value to the country was, however, too obvious for -the community to sanction this neglect. They settled in Spitalfields, -and introduced the weaving of silks, brocades, and lutestrings; and the -trade and the descendants of these refugees until lately distinguished -the same quarter of London. It is supposed that they also brought with -them the art of making the finest kinds of writing paper, which was -previously imported from France. - -Before this, and from the very beginning of this period, other -foreigners--refugees tempted by liberal offers--had introduced other -manufactures. In the year of Charles's accession, the Anglo-French -population of Jersey and Guernsey were allowed to import wool from -England duty free, and pushed their manufacture--worsted hosiery--to -great perfection. In 1660 some Flemings introduced the improved arts -of dyeing and dressing woollen cloths, by which they raised our cloths -to an equality with the Continental ones. Other foreigners in the same -year were encouraged to commence the manufacture of linen and tapestry. -Some others settled at Ipswich, in 1669, and the Scots, who had carried -the linen-weaving to Ireland, were at this time making great progress -with it there. In 1670 the Duke of Buckingham brought from Venice men -skilled in the manufacturing of glass; the Dutch loom was brought -over, and, in 1676, the printing of calicoes, now so vast a trade at -Manchester, was commenced in London, in imitation of those brought -from India. In 1680 machines for ribbon-weaving were introduced, -to which Coventry owed so much of her trade. The art of tinning -sheet-iron was brought over from Germany by natives of that country, -at the instigation of Andrew Yarranton, the agent of an English -company. A Dutchman erected the first wire-mill in England at Sheen, -near Richmond; and pinchbeck was introduced by its inventor under the -patronage of Prince Rupert. In fact, the seeds of many of the greatest -branches of English manufactures were sown during this period. - -One of our largest trading companies also was fast growing, and was -destined to lay the foundation of the grandest colonial territory which -the world ever saw. Most of the companies which had previously existed -were now gone down, or were broken up by the increasing aversion of -the nation to monopolies; but the East India Company were every day -acquiring fresh life and power. The scene of their operations lay so -distant from public observation, particularly at that day when the -means of communication were so tardy and partial, and the Press did not -maintain an instant and perpetual attention upon everything concerning -the realm, that the Government were only too glad to leave with the -Company the whole management of those remote affairs, especially as -they poured so much profit into the country, of which the Government -had their share. Accordingly, Charles had scarcely seated himself -on his throne than he renewed the charter of the Company granted by -Cromwell in 1657, with augmented powers. This charter, dated the 3rd -of April, 1661, gave the Company the most absolute and unconditional -power. They were authorised to seize and send home any Englishman -presuming to trade in the East, and found so trading either in India -or the Indian seas. They were empowered to appoint their own judges, -and conduct the whole civil and military establishment; to make war -or peace with any of the native powers, or any powers not Christian; -to build any ports they pleased there or in St. Helena for their -accommodation and defence. In short, the most complete absolutism -was conferred on them in their territories, or such as they should -gain, and the most entire secrecy of transactions, by shutting out -every individual who might be disposed to pry into or criticise their -proceedings. - -Bombay, which Charles had received with Catherine from Portugal, as -part of her marriage portion, was, in 1667, handed over to the Company, -and the effect of this addition of territory and of power was soon -seen. In 1676 their accumulated profits had doubled their capital, -and the price of their stock rose to 245 per cent. The following -facts, drawn from a publication supposed to be written by Sir Josiah -Child, entitled "The East India Trade a most Profitable Trade to this -Kingdom," which appeared in 1667, will show the extraordinary traffic -of the Company at that early period. They employed, the writer said, -from thirty to thirty-five ships of from three hundred to six hundred -tons burden. Their annual exports amounted to £430,000, and their -imports to £860,000; consisting of silks, raw and wrought, calico, -drugs, pepper, indigo, saltpetre, etc. They, moreover, licensed other -traders, who brought from India diamonds, pearls, musk, ambergris, -etc., to the amount of £150,000, and took out goods from England to -double that amount. - -The writer proceeds to show how profitable this trade was to the -public as well as to the Company:--"The pepper I reckon at eightpence -a pound weight; so necessary a spice for all people, which formerly -cost us three shillings and fourpence a pound, being nowhere to be -had but in India; and were we obliged to have it from the Dutch, they -would probably raise it as high as they do their other spices; yet, -supposing it so low as one shilling and fourpence a pound, it would -be a further expense of £6,000 to the nation. Saltpetre is of that -absolute necessity that, without it, we should be like the Israelites -under the bondage of the Philistines--without the means of defending -ourselves. Possibly, if we had no Indian trade, we might, in time of -peace, purchase it, though it would cost us double what it does now. -But, in case of war, where could we have sufficient? Not surely from -our enemies. Or would our gentlemen, citizens, and farmers be willing -to have their cellars and rooms dug up, as in Charles I.'s reign, and -be deprived of freedom in their own houses, exposed and laid open to -saltpetre-men? Which method would be, besides, by no means equal to -the affording us the necessary supplies. Raw silk we might possibly -be supplied with from other parts, though not so cheap as from India; -and Indian wrought silks serve us instead of so much Italian or French -silks, which would cost us almost treble the price of Indian silks, to -the kingdom's loss of about £20,000 a year. Calicoes serve instead of -the like quantity of French, Dutch, and Flemish linen, which would cost -us thrice as much; hereby £200,000 or £300,000 is saved to the nation." - -Amongst the articles of the greatest luxury which the Company imported -was tea. So long as we procured tea from the Dutch merchants it was too -dear for general use. So late as 1666--that is, six years after the -Restoration--it cost fifty shillings a pound from the Dutch East India -Company; but the English Company soon afterwards made their way to -China, in 1678, and imported four thousand seven hundred pounds of it; -and from this period we may date the more frequent use of tea. It was -long, however, before it became the formidable rival of beef and beer -at breakfast, or superseded these articles at the afternoon meal. It -was at first sold in the liquid state in London, and it was many years -before it made its way through the country; many ladies, in ignorance -of its true use, committing the mistake of boiling the leaves, and -serving them up as greens, throwing away the liquid! - -In 1677, under the privilege of a new charter from Charles, the Company -began to earn money in their Indian territories. These privileges were -again extended by a fresh charter from Charles in 1683, and by James in -1686. In 1687 the Company laid the foundations of Calcutta, and went on -rapidly acquiring trade and territory, to be noticed at a later period. - -Meanwhile, the trade with our American and West Indian colonies was -becoming valuable. During the latter years of the Stuart dynasty, the -exports to these colonies had risen to the amount of about £400,000 -per annum, in different manufactures, provisions, household furniture, -etc.; and the imports thence in tobacco, sugar, ginger, cotton wool, -fustic, indigo, cocoa, fish, furs, and timber to nearly a million. Thus -the trade and wealth of England at the close of this period were in a -condition of healthy and rapid development, and our colonial system -was beginning to attract the "envy and admiration of the world." What -this has grown to by a steady progression in our time may be seen by -comparing the revenue of the country now with what it was then. Then it -amounted to about £1,500,000; now it amounts from all sources to over -£141,000,000. - -Notwithstanding the rapid growth of the country in commerce and -internal wealth, it would be a false indication that the working -classes were well off. They were a body without education, without -political rights, and, consequently, without that intelligence and -union which can alone insure the fair reward of their labour; nor was -the humanity of the most civilised portion of the community at that -period of a degree which regarded the sufferings of others with much -feeling. All accounts of it leave the impression that it was a hard -and cruel age; as is usually the case, when sensuality and barbarity -go hand in hand. The sanguinary vengeance which Charles took on the -leaders of the Commonwealth immediately on his restoration; the savage -persecutions for religion in England and Scotland; the terrible -use of the iron boot and the thumbscrew in the latter country; the -bloody campaign of Jeffreys in England; the sale of convicts, and the -kidnapping of innocent people for the Plantations; public whippings, -pilloryings, brandings, and tongue-borings, as in the case of James -Naylor--all indicate a brutal and unfeeling tone of society. Macaulay -quotes from writers of the age many other revolting traits of this -stamp. "Whigs were disposed to murmur because Stafford was suffered to -die without seeing his bowels burned before his face. Tories reviled -and insulted Russell as his coach passed from the Tower to the scaffold -in Lincoln's Inn Fields. As little mercy was shown by the populace to -sufferers of a humbler rank. If an offender was put into the pillory, -it was well if he escaped with life, from the shower of brickbats and -paving-stones. If he were tied to the cart's tail, the crowd pressed -round him, imploring the hangman to give it the fellow well, and make -him howl. Gentlemen arranged parties of pleasure to Bridewell, on court -days, for the purpose of seeing the wretched women who beat hemp there -whipped. A man pressed to death for refusing to plead, or burned for -coining, excited less sympathy than is now felt for a galled horse -or an overdriven ox. Fights, compared with which a boxing-match is a -refined and humane spectacle, were the favourite diversions of a large -part of the town. Multitudes assembled to see gladiators hack each -other to pieces with deadly weapons, and shouted with delight when one -of the combatants lost a finger or an eye. The prisons were hells on -earth--seminaries of every crime and every disease. At the assizes, the -lean and yellow culprits brought with them from their cells to the dock -an atmosphere of stench and pestilence which sometimes avenged them -signally on the bench, bar, and jury. But on all this misery society -looked with profound indifference." - -But we shall soon find that this conclusion is, on the whole, too -sweeping. Even that age had its philanthropists, and we may name the -crowds who flocked to witness the agonies of a hanging man to point in -some degree the wide distance between the mobs of this age and that. -But, as concerns the condition of the people, the important difference -is that the humanity which now pervades the community was scarcely to -be recognised then. The poor were treated with little tenderness. -Though four-fifths of the working people were engaged in agriculture, -agriculture was then extended over a very small portion of the country. -There was a surplus of hands, and these, therefore, were poorly paid, -whilst their clothing and provisions were comparatively high. Not -more than half the area of the island was then, it is supposed, in -cultivation, and the tillage was rude and slovenly. The rate of wages -for agricultural labourers, wood-cutters, shepherds, and the like, -differed in different parts of England, but in the best it did not -average more than four shillings a week with food, or six shillings -without. In 1661, the magistrates of Essex fixed the rate of wages from -March to September at eightpence a day with food, and one shilling -and twopence without; and for the other months, sixpence with food, -and a shilling without. Women had, of course, less. In most counties -a similar scale was fixed by the magistrates; and an Act of Elizabeth -empowered them to punish whoever gave more or less, and the labourer -who received more or less. Wheat at that time was seventy shillings a -quarter--a price enormously in excess of current prices. All kinds of -clothing that they could make themselves were much higher than with us, -because manufacturing was not so extensive. - -The wages of artisans were but little better, except in London, where -first-rate bricklayers and carpenters could earn two shillings or -two-and-sixpence a day. In many counties, indeed, they were restricted -to the same rate as that of the labourers. In 1685 this was the -case in Warwickshire, where the daily wages of masons, bricklayers, -carpenters, shinglers, and other handicraftsmen, were fixed with -those of ploughmen, miners, ditchers, etc., at only sixpence a day. A -shilling a day is quoted as extravagant wages. The consequence was that -children were compelled to work as early as six years of age. This was -very much the case at Norwich; and writers of the time refer with pride -to the fact that before nine years of age children earned more than was -necessary for their own support by twelve thousand pounds a year! The -consequence of the miserable pay and the dearness of food and clothing -was an amount of pauperism scarcely less than in the reign of Henry -VIII. or Elizabeth. The poor rates amounted at that period to from -seven to nine hundred thousand pounds a year. - -The condition of the poor was rendered infinitely worse two years after -the restoration of Charles II. than it had been, by an Act which was -passed to prevent them from settling in any other place than the one -where they had previously resided. This was the origin of the law of -settlement, which continued down to 1834 to harass the poor, and to -waste the parochial funds in litigation. In fact, Sir Frederick Eden, -in his work on "The State of the Poor," asserts that it caused more -litigation, and was more profitable to the lawyers, than any other Act -ever passed. - -The preamble of the Act of 1662 recounts the prevalence of pauperism, -and at the same time professes that this enactment "is for the good of -the poor"! "The necessity," it says, "number, and continued increase of -the poor, not only within the circles of London and Westminster, with -the liberties of each of them, but also through the whole kingdom of -England and dominion of Wales, is very great and exceeding burdensome, -being occasioned by reason of some defects in the law concerning -the settlement of the poor, and for want of due provision of the -regulations of relief and employment in such parishes or places where -they are legally settled, which doth enforce many to turn incorrigible -rogues, and others to perish for want, together with the neglect of the -faithful execution of such laws and statutes as have formerly been made -for the apprehension of rogues and vagabonds, and for the good of the -poor." - -It was therefore provided that any two justices of the peace should, -on complaint made by the churchwardens and overseers of the poor, -within forty days after the arrival of any new comer in the parish, -proceed to remove him by force to the parish where he had last a legal -settlement, either as native, householder, sojourner, apprentice or -servant, unless he either rented a house of ten pounds a year, or could -give such security against becoming chargeable as the judges should -deem sufficient. This was made more stringent by a subsequent Act, 1 -James II. c. 17, which, to prevent any one from getting a settlement by -the neglect or oversight of the parish authorities, dated the day of -his entrance into the parish only from the time that he gave a written -notice of his new abode and the number of his family. - -These enactments, in fact, converted the free labourers of England into -serfs. They were bound to the soil, and could not move from the spot -unless by the will of the overseers and justices. It was not necessary -that a man should become chargeable to the parish in order to effect -his removal; it was enough that the authorities could assume that he -might become so; and it was not till 1795--in fact, till the reign of -George III.--that this oppressive law was ameliorated, allowing working -people to change their abode as they saw a better chance of employment -elsewhere, so long as they did not come upon the parish. - -The unsatisfactory state of pauperism to which the law of settlement -brought the kingdom set numbers of heads at work to plan schemes of -employing the destitute poor; and Sir Josiah Child proposed that -persons should be appointed for this purpose, to be called "the fathers -of the poor." This seems to be the origin of the modern guardians of -the poor. It was too early in the history of endeavour to educate and -employ the poor, for these recommendations to receive much general -attention; but there were some individuals who set themselves zealously -to work to convert the swarming paupers into profitable workers and -respectable members of society. The most eminent of these were two -shopkeepers of London, Andrew Yarranton and Thomas Firmin. Yarranton -was a linendraper; and, being employed by "twelve gentlemen of England" -to bring over men from Saxony and Bohemia who understood the art of -tinning sheet-iron, he there made close observation of the manufacture -of linen, and conceived the idea of introducing the linen manufacture, -and employing the unemployed poor upon it and the manufacture of iron. -He went to Ipswich, to see whether the linen manufacture could not be -established there; but he found the poor already so well employed in -the stuff and say and Colchester trade, that he did not think it a -suitable place. He calculated the paupers at that time at a hundred -thousand, and reckoned that by employing this number at fourpence a -day each would occasion a profitable outlay amongst them of upwards of -six hundred thousand pounds, by which means almost the whole of the -poor-rates would be saved. In 1677 he published a book containing his -views called "England's Improvement by Sea and Land," showing how to -set at work all the poor of England, with the growth of our own lands; -to prevent unnecessary suits at law, with the benefits of a voluntary -register; where to procure vast quantities of timber for the building -of ships, with the advantage of making the great rivers of England -navigable. He gave rules for the prevention of fires in London and -other cities, and informed the several companies of handicraftsmen -how they might always have cheap bread and drink. In short, Mr. -Yarranton was a regularly speculative man, but one who had a good share -of calculating common sense in the midst of his manufacturing and -philanthropic schemes. Apparently he travelled the kingdom well, and -made careful observations as to the best localities for carrying on his -proposed trades; and he seems to have come to the conclusion that the -midland counties would be the best for the linen manufacture, and that -most people might be employed on it. The midland counties he regarded -as admirably adapted for the growth of flax, from the fertility of the -land, and for the trade, because of the easy conveyance of goods by -water on the rivers Trent, Soar, Avon, and Thames, from the counties of -Nottingham, Leicester, Warwick, Northampton, and Oxford. He found many -parts of England already so well supplied with manufactures, that he -did not think the poor required more work there; and his descriptions -of the manufactures going on in different parts of the island give a -lively view of the manufacturing industry of the time. "In the West -of England," he says, "clothing of all sorts, as in Gloucestershire, -Worcestershire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, and a small portion of -Warwickshire; in Derby, Nottingham, and Yorkshire, the iron and woollen -manufactures; in Suffolk, Norfolk, and Essex, the woollen manufacture; -in Kent, Sussex, and Surrey, some cloth, iron, and materials for -shipping. Then the counties to raise provisions and to vend them -at London, to feed that great mouth, are Cambridge, Huntingdon, -Buckingham, Hertford, Middlesex, and Berks." - -A publication like this of Andrew Yarranton was calculated to produce -the most beneficial change in the condition of the people. It pointed -out the true resources and wealth of the nation, and showed a way to -get rid of pauperism, and at the same time to raise and enrich the -whole realm. It made landowners aware of the extent to which their -estates would be augmented in value by the introduction of popular -industries; and one of its most immediate effects seems to have been -its influence on Yarranton's fellow London shopkeeper, Mr. Thomas -Firmin. - -In "The Life of Mr. Thomas Firmin, late citizen of London, written by -one of his most intimate acquaintance," 1698, we learn that he was a -shopkeeper of Leadenhall Street. We learn, moreover, that he was born -at Ipswich in 1632, and began the world as a tradesman with a hundred -pounds. His character for probity and ability was already such that he -flourished, married a citizen's daughter with five hundred pounds, and -in process of time occupied superior premises in Lombard Street. Here, -though a confirmed Unitarian, and entertaining the celebrated Unitarian -leader, Mr. Biddle, and procuring him an allowance of one hundred -crowns from Cromwell whilst he was kept prisoner in Scilly, yet he was -on intimate terms with Dr. Tillotson, and many other eminent Churchmen. -Though not bearing on our main subject, the following extract is worth -diffusing amongst the religious of to-day:--"During the imprisonment -of Mr. Biddle at Scilly, Mr. Firmin was settled in Lombard Street, -where first Mr. Jacomb, then Dr. Outram, was minister. With these two, -being excellent preachers and learned men, he maintained a respectful -and kind friendship. Now also he grew into intimacy with Dr. Whichcot, -Dr. Worthington, Dr. Wilkins, afterwards Bishop of Chester; Mr. -Tillotson (for he was not yet doctor), Archbishop of Canterbury; but in -their dignity, and to their very last, Mr. Firmin had the same place -and degree in their friendship and esteem that at any time formerly -he had. While Dr. Tillotson preached the Tuesday's lecture at St. -Lawrence, so much frequented by all the divines of the town, and by -a great many persons of quality and distinction, when the doctor was -obliged to be at Canterbury, where he was dean, or was out of town, -either for diversion or health, he generally left it to Mr. Firmin -to provide preachers for his lecture; and Mr. Firmin never failed -to supply his place with some very eminent preacher, so that there -never was a complaint on the account of Dr. Tillotson's absence; and -this Mr. Firmin could easily do, for now there was hardly a divine of -note, whether in London or in the country, that frequented London, -but Mr. Firmin was become acquainted with him; which thing helped -him much to serve the interests of many hopeful young preachers and -scholars, candidates for lectures, schools, cures, or rectories, for -whom he would solicit with as much affection and diligence as other -men do for their sons or other near relations. See here a trader, who -knew no Latin or Greek, no logic or philosophy, compassed about by an -incredible number of learned friends who differed so widely in opinion -from him." - -The secret of it was Firmin's freedom from bigotry, and his perfectly -benevolent character. When the Plague broke out in 1665, which carried -off nearly a hundred thousand people, and left vast numbers destitute -from the flight of the employers, Firmin seized on the plan of -manufacturing linen, so earnestly recommended by Yarranton, and this -upon a method first set on foot by Thomas Gouge, the clergyman of St. -Sepulchre's. This was to buy up both flax and hemp rudely dressed, and -give it out to the poor to spin at their own homes. He built a house in -Aldersgate, which he called his great work-house, or spinning-house, -and there he gave out the flax and hemp, and took in the yarn. The -object of Firmin was not to make money by the speculation, but to -allow the poor people all the profit; and, indeed, he allowed them -more, for he sank a considerable sum of money in it. But he was fast -growing rich, and he was too wise to allow himself to become the slave -of riches; and though from six hundred pounds his capital had grown -to twenty thousand pounds, he determined not to leave more than five -thousand pounds behind him. His object was to employ the people instead -of giving them money as a charity; and he observed that he found it -greatly to the relief of the poor; for that they could earn threepence -or fourpence a day, working only such times as they could spare from -any other occupations, "who, being at work in their own homes, and -where they could with convenience attend it, many of them became so -much pleased with it, that so much money given them for doing nothing -would not have done them half so much good as that which they got by -their own labour in this employment." - -But Firmin had not studied the dry rules of political economy, and had, -therefore, no objection to give money too where he saw it was needed. -He had studied in the school of Christ, who said, "The poor ye have -always with you"; and "What you do to one of these little ones you do -also unto me." He was not opposed to all almshouses and hospitals, -lest people should calculate on them and grow lazy. Concerning this -work-house and the spinners, he would often say that "to pay the -spinners, to relieve 'em with money begged for 'em, with coals and -sheeting, was to him such a pleasure as magnificent buildings, pleasant -walks, well-cultivated orchards and gardens, the jollity of music and -wine, or the charms of love or study, are to others." - -The East India and Guinea Companies, as well as many private persons, -took his goods; and the Fire of London, following the Plague, gave him -plenty of work to do in the way of assisting the destitute. Firmin -added woollen spinning and weaving to the spinning of flax and hemp; -but, after all, he considered the making of linens the most adapted to -employ the people in such circumstances. "I know of no commodity of the -like value," he says, "that can be set up with less stock. Three parts -of four, even of that cloth which comes not to above two shillings an -ell, will be paid for work to the spinner and weaver; and many times a -woman will spin a pound of flax that cost but sixpence or sevenpence to -that fineness, that she will receive twelvepence or fourteenpence for -her pains, which will make an ell of cloth worth three shillings; at -which rate five parts of six will be paid for labour: nay, sometimes I -have seen a pound of flax, not worth above one and sixpence at most, -spun to that fineness that it hath been worth ten shillings; and in -other parts I have seen a pound of flax of not much higher value spun -to that fineness that it hath been worth three or four pounds sterling." - -Firmin next set children to work in schools of industry--a plan again -introduced as new in our own day. The idea, he confesses, came from -abroad, but he had the honour of introducing it in England. "I have," -he says, "at this time some children working for me, not above seven or -eight years old, who are able to earn twopence a day, and some, that -are a little older, two shillings a week; and I doubt not to bring any -child about that age to do the like; and still, as they grow up and -become proficients, even in this poor trade of spinning, they will be -able to get more and spin better than older people. Neither would I -have those schools confined only to spinning, but to take in knitting, -and make lace or plain work, or any other work which children shall be -thought most fit for." He then refers to the foreign practice, and to -the fact of children being employed at Norwich, where it was computed -that they had earned twelve thousand pounds more than they had spent in -knitting fine Jersey stockings. - -This was a plan admirable for teaching children all kinds of businesses -and household work, but liable to enormous abuses; and the trading -community seized on it and carried it into coal mines, and cotton and -other factories, to that fearful extent of cruelty that compelled the -Legislature of our time to step in and protect the unhappy children. -Firmin's honest and benevolent mind did not foresee this evil use of -the idea; yet he was by no means incautious. He used to beg often as -much as five hundred pounds a year, and distribute it amongst the poor; -but he always took pains to inquire into cases of real necessity, and -visited the sufferers in their own houses to convince himself of their -actual distress. - -In Yarranton, Gouge, and Firmin we see the pioneers of that great host -of philanthropists who have from time to time followed in their steps, -till now the whole country is alive with schools, ragged schools, -reformatories, schemes of industry, and the numerous institutions which -are on foot to improve the condition of the poor. In that age we see -the germs of the vast manufacturing system which has made one great -workshop of Britain, and caused its redundant population to overflow -to the amount of nearly a quarter of a million a year into other -countries and hemispheres, carrying their industrious habits and skill -to found new nations. Indeed, taking altogether the age under review, -notwithstanding the dissoluteness of the Government and the selfishness -of the upper and middle classes, and the roughness of the lower, it -was an epoch in which the elements of future greatness were rife. The -rigour and independence which punished the tyranny of Charles I., and -created the Commonwealth, though they seemed to recede in Charles II.'s -reign, again displayed themselves under James II., and driving away -the impracticable Stuarts, established an elective monarchy, the Bill -of Rights, and religious freedom. In that period philanthropy became -united with manufacturing and commercial enterprise, whence have sprung -the glory and greatness of England; and then, too, in the writings of -Child, Davenant, Petty, and others, dawned the first principles of -political economy, afterwards elaborated into a system by Adam Smith, -and still perfecting itself as a science by the correction of its -errors, and the blending of a spirit of humanity with its original -exactness of deduction. The great principles of the Commonwealth -moulding the monarchy at the Revolution to its demands, settled -permanently the liberties and the ascendency of the English race. - - - - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF WILLIAM AND MARY.] - -CHAPTER XII. - -REIGN OF WILLIAM AND MARY. - - Accession of William and Mary--Discontent of the Church and - the Army--William's First Ministry--His Dutch Followers--The - Convention becomes a Parliament--Oath of Allegiance--Settlement - of the Revenue--Suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act--The Mutiny - Bill--Settlement of Religion--The Coronation--Declaration of War - with France--Violence of the Revolution in Scotland--Parties - in the Scottish Parliament--Letter from James--Secession of - Dundee--Edinburgh in Arms--Settlement of the Government--Dundee - in the Highlands--Battle of Killiecrankie--Mackay Concludes - the War--The Revolution in Ireland--Panic among the - Englishry--Londonderry and Enniskillen Garrisoned--Negotiations - of Tyrconnel--His Temporary Success--Landing of James--He Enters - Dublin--His Journey into Ulster--The Siege of Londonderry--It - is Saved--Legislation of the Irish Parliament--Arrival of - Schomberg--Factiousness of the English Whigs--State of the English - Army in Ireland--Renewed Violence of the Whigs--The Corporation - Act Thrown Out--William Threatens to Leave England--Dissolution - of Parliament--Tory Reaction--Venality of the New - Parliament--Settlement of the Revenue--Whig Propositions--The Act - of Grace--Preparations for War--A Jacobite Plot--William goes to - Ireland--Progress of the War under Schomberg--Gradual Improvement - of his Position and Ruin of the Jacobite Army--The Battle of the - Boyne--Flight of James--William Enters the Irish Capital--News - from England--Siege of Limerick--Battle of Beachy Head--Landing of - the French in Torbay--Courage of the English People--Settlement - of Scotland--Marlborough's Successes in Ireland--Parliament - Grants Liberal Supplies--Preston's Plot Thwarted--William - Sets Out for Holland--Vigour of Louis--Fall of Mons--Trial of - Jacobite Conspirators--Treason in High Places--Punishment of the - Non-Jurors--The Continental Campaign--Condition of Ireland--Arrival - of St. Ruth--Siege of Athlone--Battle of Aghrim--Second Siege and - Capitulation of Limerick. - - -William of Orange had now fully succeeded in his enterprise. By the -resolution of the two Houses of Parliament on the 13th of February, -1689, he was admitted to hold the Crown for his life in conjunction -with his wife, who was not merely queen consort, but queen regnant. -They were declared to be elected to that office and dignity by the free -choice of the nation. They could neither of them claim the Crown by -direct succession, for James was alive, and protesting against the idea -of his abdication. Mary could not claim by succession, even if James -had abdicated; for, although there had been much endeavour to prove -the infant son of James a supposititious child, the effort had failed. -There was no sufficient proof of the fact, but much evidence against -it; and nobody now doubts that the infant who afterwards acquired the -name of the Pretender was the real son of James and the queen. Had the -right of succession been admitted, neither William nor Mary could have -succeeded; but this right was now, in fact, denied. The right for the -subjects to elect their own monarchs was proclaimed by the Bill of -Rights; and by that right, and no other, William and Mary sat on the -English throne. - -But splendid as was the position which William had achieved--that of -the monarch of one of the very first kingdoms of the world--his throne -was no bed of roses. The Catholics and the Tories still retained their -old leaning towards James. True, many of the Tories had been greatly -embittered against James by his later measures, but now that he was -deposed, and a monarch sat on the throne who had been notoriously -brought in by the Whigs, a strong reaction took place in them. They -professed surprise at William assuming the sceptre; they pretended -that they had expected from his declaration that he intended only to -assist them in bringing James to reason, and in putting him under -proper constitutional restraints. Numbers of them were already in -full correspondence with the banished prince. The clergy were equally -disaffected. They had resisted the attempts of James to bring in -Popery, but they had now got a Presbyterian king, and were not very -sanguine of his support of the hierarchy. - -[Illustration: KENSINGTON PALACE. (_From a Photograph by F. G. O. -Stuart, Southampton._)] - -Similar feelings prevailed in the army. It had been powerful in -numbers, but had done nothing to withstand a foreign prince at the head -of foreign troops marching through the country, and placing himself on -the throne. They had not been exactly defeated, because they had not -come to a regular engagement; but they saw a foreign prince, supported -by his foreign troops, presiding in the country; and though not beaten, -they felt humbled, and were now as near to mutiny as they had been -ready to revolt under James. - -As for the Whig party, which had invited and supported William, they -were only eager for office and emolument. It was not patriotism in the -bulk of them which animated them, but the triumph of their party; and -they thought that nothing could ever pay them for the favour they had -conferred on William. The accounts of those writers who were present -and cognisant of their proceedings represent them as clamorous for -place, honour, and emolument, no one thinking that William could do -enough for them, and every one ready to upbraid him for giving to -others those posts to which they thought they were more entitled. - -His first public measure was to announce that all Protestant subjects -who were in office on the 1st of December last should retain their -posts till further notice. On the 17th of February he published -the list of his Privy Council, which contained men of almost all -parties--Danby, Halifax, and even old Sancroft, the Archbishop of -Canterbury, in order to show the Church that its interests would be -protected. This and all other endeavours, however, failed to win over -the High Church prelate. - -If some of the members of the Council gazed at each other in -astonishment to find themselves included in one body, still more -was that the case with the Ministry. Danby, though a Tory, was made -President of the Council; but whilst this offended others, who -remembered that he had opposed the idea of the throne being vacant, -though he had resisted the appointment of a regency, he himself was -woefully disappointed in not receiving the White Staff. But William -neither now nor till the end of his reign entrusted the office of Lord -High Treasurer to a single person, but put it in commission. On the -other hand, Halifax, who had not joined William's party till the last -moment, received again the Privy Seal, and was continued Speaker of -the House of Lords, to the great disgust of the Whigs, who remembered -how long he had deserted them, and how successfully he had opposed -them on the question of the Exclusion Bill. To add to their chagrin, -the Earl of Nottingham was made Secretary of State. Nottingham had -been foremost amongst those who had maintained the doctrine of passive -obedience; who had denied that the throne could for an instant become -vacant; who had declined to give up James or to call in William, but -had also led this party in submitting to the decision of the Convention -in favour of William and Mary, on the ground that we are enjoined -by the New Testament to be subject to the powers that be. The other -Secretary, the Earl of Shrewsbury, was indeed a Whig, and in the -highest favour with that party. He had been foremost in calling in -William; but then he was a mere youth, only eight-and-twenty years of -age. Admiral Herbert expected to be appointed Lord High Admiral, and to -have the entire control of the Admiralty; but he had the mortification -to see a number of others placed at the Board of Admiralty to share -his authority, though he bore nominally the name of First Lord of it. -Churchill expected to be made Master of the Ordnance for his treason to -James; but William had too certain evidence that he was at this very -moment a traitor to himself; was in correspondence with the Court of -St. Germain's, and believed that he would be one of the first to run -if any future success warranted a hope of James's restoration. He -was therefore appointed only to a post in the household, along with -Devonshire, Mordaunt, Oxford, Dorset, Lovelace, and others; whilst the -gallant foreigner Schomberg was made Master of the Ordnance. - -Whilst the leaders, therefore, were deeply disappointed, all aspirants -to favour were extremely jealous of the three staunch Dutch adherents -of William--Bentinck, Overkirk, and Zulestein--whom William kept -about him with a very natural feeling, for they had been faithful -to him through all his arduous struggles in his own country, and -were now, indeed, almost the only men in whom he could put implicit -confidence. The main thing in which Danby, Halifax, Nottingham, and -Shrewsbury agreed was in complaining that William did not make them -his confidants, but preferred the secret advice of Bentinck, whom he -soon made Earl of Portland, and the counsel of Sidney, whom he created -Lord Sidney. William had but too much cause for keeping the knowledge -of his thoughts and intentions from those around him, for many amongst -his privy councillors and chief ministers would have betrayed them at -once to the exiled monarch. Danby had been heard to say, even after -James had quitted England, that if he would only abandon his priests, -he might come back again; and others besides Churchill were in regular -traitorous correspondence with James's Court. With all William's -caution, not a thing was discussed in his council but was immediately -transmitted to St. Germain's. To his trusty countrymen already -mentioned William gave profitable offices near his person. His great -friend Bentinck was made Groom of the Stole, with five thousand pounds -a year; Overkirk Master of the Horse; and Zulestein had charge of the -robes. - -These arrangements being made, on the 18th of February, William, -for the first time, addressed the two Houses of Parliament. It is -remarkable that the very subject which he introduced to them was a -demand for liberal supplies to carry on the war on the Continent. He -had, he said, no choice in the matter, as France had already begun war -on England. - -William reminded them, too, that their domestic affairs would demand -serious attention, and especially the condition of Ireland, where a -strong feeling was known to exist for the fallen dynasty, through the -interests of the Catholic religion. He exhorted them, moreover, to -take immediate measures for securing the despatch of business. This -alluded to the settlement of the great question whether the Convention -could continue to sit legally after the deposition of the monarch who -had called it. The question had been debated in the Council, and now, -on the king's retiring, the lords immediately laid on the table of -the House a Bill declaring the Convention a valid Parliament. It was -speedily carried and sent down to the Commons; but there it excited a -warm debate. The Whigs were vociferous for it; the Tories, who believed -that the calling of a new Parliament would be in their favour, were as -vehemently against it. The depositions of Edward II. and Richard II. -were referred to and strongly argued upon; but the case in point was -the Convention which recalled Charles II., and continued to sit and -act long after. Sir John Maynard moreover contended that, as they were -like men who found themselves in a trackless desert, it was not for -them to stand crying, "Where is the king's highway?" but to take the -track that would lead them out of it. That track was the precedent of -Charles II.'s reign. The House passed the Bill without a division, and -it received the Royal assent on the tenth day after the accession. - -A clause in this Bill provided that, after the 1st of March, no person -could sit or vote in either House until he had taken the new oath of -allegiance to their majesties. Great excitement was occasioned by this -oath. It was hoped by the Tories and High Church there would be found -a sufficient number of persons of influence who would refuse the oath, -so as to render the seat of the new monarchs unstable, and open the way -to the return of James. Care was taken to consult the prejudices of -the adherents to the old notions of right divine as much as possible, -and the words "rightful and lawful sovereigns," after deliberation -were omitted; but this did not prevent many from refusing it. As the -day approached for taking the oath, the capital was full of rumours. -It was said that the Duke of Grafton had escaped to France in order -to reconcile himself to his uncle; and numerous other persons were -supposed to have followed his example. When the day arrived, however, -Grafton was one of the first to present himself; and the number of the -lords who declined it, amongst them the Earls of Clarendon, Lichfield, -and Exeter, with the Archbishop of Canterbury and some of the bishops, -was small. Of the bishops, five were of those who refused to obey the -commands of James to publish his Indulgence, and had been sent to the -Tower. Rochester, the brother of Clarendon, was expected to refuse -the oath, as he had adhered to James after Clarendon had abandoned -him; but Clarendon's income was secure from his estate. Rochester -had a pension of four thousand pounds a year, which he would lose if -he refused the oath--a strong argument, which seems to have proved -convincing, for he took the oath. Four hundred of the Lower House had -taken the oath on the 2nd of March, and amongst them Seymour, who had -led the Tory Opposition; but when the oath was extended to the clergy -and other individuals in office, above four hundred of the clergy, -including some of the most distinguished dignitaries, refused it; and -thus began the great schism of the non-jurors, who long continued to -figure as the unswerving advocates of divine right. - -The next great question was that of the revenue. The Parliaments of -Charles and James had been exceedingly munificent in their grants of -income. In the heat of their loyalty at the Restoration, the Commons -forgot all the salutary fears of their predecessors, and gave up every -point for which they had contended with Charles I. Tonnage and poundage -were granted for life, and afterwards confirmed to James. They settled -on these monarchs half of the excise in perpetuity, and half for life. -The fixed revenue of Charles and James had been one million two hundred -thousand pounds, but the actual revenue had been a great deal more. It -was now found by examination of the accounts that James had been in the -annual receipt of no less than two millions, of which ninety thousand -pounds had been expended in secret service money. William had, since -arriving at Whitehall, been in the habit of collecting and applying -this magnificent revenue as chief of the State; and seemed to expect -that it would be now settled on him. The first question discussed was, -whether an income granted to a monarch for life could be received -legally by his successor in case of his abdication so long as he lived. -Many of the chief lawyers contended that the revenue was granted to -the monarch in his political capacity, and not to the man, and that, -therefore, the prince who came to discharge his official duties so -long as he lived was rightfully in receipt of it. But the more common -sense opinion prevailed, that the prince who superseded another by the -call of the nation must receive all his rights as well as his call -from the nation. The House therefore passed to the question of the -amount of the revenue, and they did not appear very much disposed to -use the same lavish folly towards William as they had done towards -the late monarchs. Instead of granting him a life revenue, they -granted him one million two hundred thousand pounds, the sum allowed -to Charles II., but only for three years, one half of which was to be -appropriated to the civil list, the other half to the public defences. -William was sensibly chagrined by this caution, and complained much of -want of confidence in him, and of unusual parsimony. He presented a -claim of seven hundred thousand pounds from the Dutch, the cost of the -expedition which had placed him on the throne. The Commons consented -to pay six hundred thousand pounds, and William received the sum for -his careful countrymen with a very ill grace. The Commons did not the -less displease him by reducing his demand for the navy from one million -one hundred thousand pounds to seven hundred thousand pounds, and -by granting the supply for the army for only six months; Sir Edward -Seymour all the time warning them that it was the foolish liberality of -Charles II.'s Parliament which enabled him to enslave the nation as he -had done. - -[Illustration: WILLIAM III.] - -One thing which did William great credit, however, was the -recommendation to the Commons to abolish the abominable hearth-tax. As -he had advanced from Torbay to London, the people had importuned him -on all sides to set aside this detestable tax, which had been farmed -out to rapacious collectors, who treated the people with every species -of insult, cruelty, and violence in enforcing payment of it. It was a -most unequal tax, which fell with disproportionate weight on the very -poor; for as it was levied, not by the value of the property, but by -the number of chimneys, the peasant in many cases paid nearly as much -as a man of really great substance; and where the money was not ready -when called for, the tax-gatherers forced open even bedrooms, and sold -the very bed from beneath the sick, and the table at which the family -sat. William was much impressed by its injustice, and, at his special -desire, the Act was repealed. - -[Illustration: MARY II.] - -Whilst in the midst of the money debates, a circumstance occurred which -materially hastened the decision, and no doubt increased the liberality -of the Commons. William announced to them that James had sailed from -Brest, with an armament, for Ireland. But the alarm of James's descent -on Ireland, and the disaffection in the army, roused the Commons from -their tone of caution. They passed resolutions of patriotic devotion -to the Crown, and in an address assured William that their lives and -fortunes were at his service in its defence. They went further. As -there were great numbers of political persons in custody--persons -openly disaffected to the present dynasty having been prudently secured -during the progress of the revolution,--now that the revolution was -completed, and authorised judges were once more on the bench, it was -feared that these prisoners would demand their habeas corpus, and come -forth at the very moment when all the adherents of James were on the -alert to watch the effect of his reception in Ireland. The Commons, -therefore, passed an Act to suspend the Habeas Corpus Act for the -present. - -But simultaneously the Commons were passing another Act of scarcely -less significance. Hitherto there had been no military power of -controlling and punishing soldiers or officers who offended against -discipline or their oath. They were subject only to the civil -tribunals, and must be brought there, and tried and punished as any -other subjects. James had obtained from his servile judges a decision -that he might punish any deserter from his standard summarily; but -this was not law, and the Commons, now alarmed by an affair at -Ipswich, where a regiment of Scottish soldiers had mutinied, passed -an Act called the Mutiny Bill, by which any military offenders -might be arrested by military authority, and tried and condemned -by court-martial in perfect independence of the civil authority. -This Bill, which passed without a single dissentient vote, at once -converted the soldiers into a separate class, and in effect founded -what all parties disclaimed and affected to dread--a standing army. -Like the Act for the suspension of the Habeas Corpus, it was only for -a limited period; but the unsettled state of the kingdom at the moment -of its expiration caused it to be renewed, and it became a permanent -institution, though to this day we annually go through the ceremony of -formally renewing the Mutiny Bill. - -The passing these extraordinary measures excited the alarm of many even -well-disposed to the revolution; but to the adherents of the Stuart -dynasty they afforded the opportunity for the most vehement declamation -against the new monarch. The person, the manners, the spirit, and -intentions of William were severely criticised. He was undeniably of a -close and gloomy temperament, and found it impossible to assume that -gaiety and affability of demeanour which to Charles II. were natural. -He had the manners and the accent of a foreigner, and chilled all those -who approached him at Court by his cold and laconic manners. In fact, -he knew that he was surrounded by traitors, and could unbend only in -the company of his Dutch favourites. He became extremely unpopular, -and not all the endeavours and the agreeable and cordial manners -of the queen could prevent the serious effect of his own reserved -temper. At the same time more was truly to be attributed to the force -of circumstances than to any bias of William towards tyranny. In one -direction William was anxious to extend the liberties of the nation. -He was for establishing the utmost freedom of religious opinion. He -would have abolished the Test Act, and granted free enjoyment of all -Christian creeds and of office to members of all denominations; but -though there was no fear of a leaning to Popery in him, he found -himself stoutly opposed in these intentions by his subjects. The Church -was split into High Church and Low Church, jurors and non-jurors; but -every party in the Church, and almost every body of Dissenters, was -averse from conceding any liberty of creed or capability of office to -the Catholics. Again, the Church was bent against admission of any one -to office who refused to subscribe to the Thirty-nine Articles, and to -take the oaths, not only of Allegiance but of Supremacy. Under these -circumstances William found it impossible to set aside the Test Act -or the Corporation Act; but he brought in and passed the celebrated -Toleration Act. Yet even this Act, from which we still date our -enjoyment of religious liberty, was circumscribed. It did not repeal -the obnoxious Act of Uniformity, the Five Mile Act, the Conventicle -Act, and those other statutes which so harassed and oppressed the -Dissenters; but it exempted them from their operation on certain -conditions. They must subscribe thirty-four out of the Thirty-nine -Articles, which most of them could do; the Baptists were excused from -professing belief in the efficacy of infant baptism; and the Quakers -from taking an oath if they professed a general belief in Christianity, -promised fidelity to the Government, and made a declaration against -transubstantiation. This Act, therefore, cautious and meagre as it -appeared, gave a freedom to the Dissenting world which it had hitherto -been destitute of. - -William made a resolute effort also to heal the great schism of -the Church, and admit, by a comprehensive Bill, the main body of -Nonconformists. By this Bill as introduced, it was proposed to -excuse all ministers of the Established Church from the necessity of -subscribing the Thirty-nine Articles; they were only to make this -declaration: "I do approve of the doctrine, and worship, and government -of the Church of England by law established, as containing all things -necessary to salvation; and I promise in the exercise of my ministry -to preach and practise according thereunto." The same looseness -of declaration was extended to the two universities. Presbyterian -ministers could be admitted to the pulpits and livings of the Church -by accepting from a bishop a simple command to preach, administer the -sacraments, and perform all the ministerial offices of the Church. -Except in a few churches, the clergyman might wear the surplice or -not, as he wished; might omit the sign of the cross in baptism; might -christen children with or without godfathers and godmothers; might -administer the Sacrament to persons sitting or kneeling, as they -pleased. Besides this, the Bill proposed a Commission to revise the -liturgy, the canons, and the constitution of the ecclesiastical -courts. But it was soon found that no such sweeping changes could be -effected. There was no determined opposition to the revision of the -liturgy, but the danger to the rites on which the High Church laid so -much stress soon called forth powerful resistance. It was represented -that all manner of anomalous and contradictory practices would soon -rend to pieces the harmony and decorum of the Church. Presbyterian -and Puritan would set at defiance the most honoured practices of the -Establishment. The Dissenting body were as much alarmed as the High -Church. This wide door of admission to the Church, it was feared, would -draw away a whole host of their ministers and members; and as the Test -Act was by no means to be removed, they would thus become additionally -unable to contend for its future abolition. The Bill, after much -discussion and many modifications, fell to the ground. - -[Illustration: COVENANTERS PREACHING. - - FROM THE PICTURE BY SIR GEORGE HARVEY, R.S.A., - IN THE CORPORATION ART GALLERY, GLASGOW. -] - -The next attempt was to modify the Oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy, -so as to accommodate the consciences of the Non-jurors; but it was -finally agreed that all persons holding ecclesiastical or academical -preferment who did not take the oaths before the 1st of August should -be suspended, a pecuniary allowance to the deprived, in some cases to -be at the option of the king, but not to exceed one-third of the income -forfeited. This was followed by the passing of a new Coronation Oath, -by which their majesties bound themselves to maintain the Protestant -religion as established by law, and the coronation took place on the -11th of April. - -These domestic matters being thus settled, war was declared against -France on the 13th of May. The inhuman desolation of the Palatinate -in the preceding winter, where Louis's general, Duras, had laid waste -the whole country, burned down the towns, leaving all of that fertile -and populous district one black and terrible desert, had roused the -powers of Europe against him. Germany, Spain, Holland, and England all -prepared for vengeance, and the people and Parliament of England were -equally loud in denunciation of the worthless desolator. - -Whilst these affairs had been progressing in England, Scotland had -been equally active. The Scots had even more profound cause of hatred -to James, and more hope of effectual relief from William, than the -English. In England the Church had managed to maintain its ascendency, -and the fierceness of persecution had been somewhat restrained. There -the iron boot and thumbscrews, and the fury of Tory troopers, had not -perpetrated the horrors that they had done north of the Tweed. The -Scots had had the hateful yoke of Episcopacy forced on them, their -Church completely put down, and their liberties in a variety of ways -crushed by the authorised licence of James's delegated ministers. - -No sooner, therefore, had James fled than the suppressed feeling of the -people burst forth. At Edinburgh crowds assembled, took down the heads -of the slaughtered Whigs from the gates, and committed them in solemn -ceremony to the earth. The episcopal clergy were set upon in many parts -of Scotland, especially in the West, where the Covenanters prevailed, -and where they had suffered so much from the emissaries of the Church. -The Covenanters now chased them away from their manses, ransacked -them, turned their wives and children out, broke all the furniture, or -set fire to it. They tore the gown from the back of the clergyman if -they could catch him, destroyed all the prayer-books they could find, -locked up the church, and warned ministers not to be found there again. -Two hundred clergymen were thus forcibly ejected. Christmas Day was -selected for the commencement of this summary process, to mark their -abhorrence of such superstitious festivals. As amid this violence many -began to plunder, the Presbyterian ministers and elders assembled, and -resolved that in future every incumbent of a parish should have due -notice served on him to quit his parsonage peaceably, to avoid the -necessity of being driven out by force. - -The bishops and dignitaries made an instant appeal to William for -protection, and a proclamation was issued--for William had no military -force in Scotland--ordering the people to desist from further violence -towards the clergy till the Parliament should determine the form of the -establishment. But so little regard was paid to it, that on the same -day that it was published at Glasgow, the mob rushed to the cathedral, -and drove out the congregation with sticks and stones. - -On the 14th of March the Scottish Convention of Estates met. By the -able management of Sir James Dalrymple of Stair--afterwards Lord -Stair--and his son, Sir John Dalrymple, who was an able debater, it -was so managed that chiefly Whigs were returned. Sir James was a man -of great legal learning, and consummate talent, though of doubtful -character, who had been deprived of his position as a privy councillor -and Chief Lord of the Court of Session, and had gone over to Holland, -and was William's main adviser as to Scottish affairs. His son, Sir -John, longer continued to side with the Stuarts, and was made Lord -Advocate; but at the Revolution he appeared in the other party, and -was supposed to have been for some time in effect pledged to William's -cause in secret through his father. He at once declared for William -on his landing, and exerted himself zealously for his interests in -Scotland. - -With the Dalrymples was associated George Lord Melville, who had also -been for some time with William in Holland. On the other hand, the -celebrated Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, and Colin Lindsay, -Earl of Balcarres, were the chief agents of James in Scotland. These -two leaders had pretended to go over to William, or at least to -acquiesce in the change of dynasty; had waited on him on his arrival at -Whitehall, and been well received by him. William was urged to arrest -these noblemen, as too deeply implicated in the tyrannies of James -and the murder of the Covenanters ever to be allowed to mingle with -the new order of things; but William would not listen to the advice, -determining to give every one a fair trial of living peaceably. So -far did they promise this, that William granted them an escort of -cavalry on their return to Scotland, without which they would not have -been allowed by the Covenanters to reach Edinburgh alive. The name of -Claverhouse was a horror in every Scottish home in the Lowlands, where -he was loathed for his terrible cruelties towards the Presbyterian -population. - -No sooner did they reach Edinburgh than they set to work with all -possible activity to assist the interests of James in the Convention -and the country. The Duke of Gordon, who held the castle for James, was -on the point of surrendering it when they arrived; but they exhorted -him to hold out, and called upon all the Royalists who were elected -at the Convention to take their places and defend the absent king's -interests. When the Estates met, the Earl of Argyll, who had been -proscribed by James, took his seat amid the murmurs of the Jacobites, -who declared that, as a person under legal attainder, he was incapable -of performing any office in the State. This was, however, overruled -by the majority. Melville, who had been living abroad too, and had -reappeared with William, presented himself, but without any opposition. -The Duke of Hamilton was put in nomination by the Whigs for the -presidency of the Convention, and the Duke of Athol by the Jacobites. -Neither of them was a man whose conduct in the late reign was entitled -to respect. Hamilton had adhered to James to the last, and had -acquiesced in many invasions of the laws and liberties of Scotland; -Athol had not only been a violent partisan of James, but had fawned on -William immediately on his arrival, and, being coldly received, had -wheeled round again. Hamilton was chosen president; and the moment -this was discovered twenty of the Jacobites instantly went over to -the stronger side. It was a striking fact that in Scotland, while the -great body of the people had stood to the death for their principles, -the nobility had become so corrupt through compliance with the corrupt -Court, and in eagerness for office, that public principle was at the -lowest ebb amongst them. - -The Convention having thus organised itself, sent a deputation to the -Duke of Gordon demanding the surrender of the castle, as its cannon -might at any moment knock in the roof of the Parliament House, and -drive thence the Convention. Gordon requested twenty-four hours to -consider the proposition; but Dundee and Balcarres again succeeded in -inducing him to hold out. The Convention determined to try the force of -arms. They summoned the castle to surrender in due form, and pronounced -the penalties of high treason on all who dared to occupy it in defiance -of the Estates. They called out a guard to stop communication with the -castle, and made preparations for a regular siege of the fortress. The -next day a messenger arrived from King James with a letter, which, on -being read, was found to be a furious denunciation of the Convention, -and of every one who had shown a willingness to receive William. At -the same time it offered pardon to all traitors who should return to -their duty in a fortnight, with the alternative, if they refused, of -the utmost vengeance of the Crown. There was no regret for any past -acts which might have tended to alienate his subjects, no promises of -future redress. The very friends of the king, whom nothing could alter -or improve, were astonished and dispirited, and they stole away out of -the Convention, pursued through the streets by the groans and curses -of the crowd. At the same time, a letter was read from William, modest -and liberal, trusting to the result of the free deliberations of the -Estates. James, as was always the case with him, had done incalculable -service to the cause of his rival. His most bigoted adherents could -not avoid seeing that, were he restored to the throne, he would only -continue to pursue the blind and foolish course which had already -driven him from it. What added to the disgust of all parties was, that -the letter was countersigned by Melfort, James's Secretary of State--a -furious Papist and apostate from Protestantism, and nearly equally -abhorred by both Protestants and Catholics. - -[Illustration: COVENANTERS EVICTING AN EPISCOPALIAN CLERGYMAN. (_See -p._ 403.)] - -The Royalists, thus hopeless of effecting anything in the Convention, -and yet unwilling to yield up the cause, adopted the advice of -Dundee and Balcarres, who had the authority of James to open a rival -Convention at Stirling. Athol consented to go with them; but on -Monday, the 18th, he showed a fear of so far committing himself, and -requested the party to wait for him another day. But the case of Dundee -did not admit even a day's delay. The Covenanters of the West, whom -Hamilton, and the Dalrymples had summoned to Edinburgh, and who for -some time had come dropping in in small parties, till all the cellars -and wynds of the city were thronged with them, vowed to kill the hated -persecutor; and he made haste to flee, accompanied by his dare-devil -followers, all as well-known to, and as detested by, the Covenanters -as himself for their atrocities in the West. Whilst the Convention -was in deliberation, sentinels from the castle hurried in to say that -Claverhouse had galloped up to the foot of the fortress on the road to -Stirling, accompanied by a detachment of his horsemen, and that he had -climbed up the precipice high enough to hold a conversation with Gordon. - -At this news the Convention was thrown into a tumult of indignation. -Hamilton ordered the doors to be locked, and the keys laid on the -table, so that no one should go out but such persons as should be sent -by the assembly to call the citizens to arms. By this means all such -Royalists as were in became prisoners till such time as the citizens -were ready. Lord Leven, the second son of Lord Melville, who inherited -the title of old General Leslie in right of his mother, was sent to -call the Covenanters to arms; and presently the streets were thronged -with the men of the West in rude military array, sufficient to ensure -the safety of the Estates. As the drums beat to arms, Dundee descended -from the rock and, waving his cap, with the cry that he went to where -the spirit of Montrose called him, rode off towards Stirling. - -The Convention now proceeded with their business. They sent a letter -of thanks to William, which the bishops to a man refused to sign; -the Bishop of Edinburgh having, as chaplain, before prayed for the -return of James. William has been said to have privately wished that -Episcopacy might be established in Scotland; but, if so, such specimens -of the prelatic spirit there must have gone far to extinguish that -desire. Other symptoms of opposition were not wanting, even yet. The -Duke of Queensberry arrived from London, and revived the spirits of the -Jacobites. Again they urged the Duke of Gordon to fire on the city, but -he refused; and the chances of resistance were now taken away by the -arrival of General Mackay with the three regiments of Scots who had -served under William in Holland. The Convention immediately appointed -Mackay general of their forces; and, thus placed at their ease, they -proceeded to arrange the government. They appointed a committee, after -the manner of the Lords of the Articles, to draw up the plan which -should be adopted. As a last means of postponing this business, a -proposal was made by the Jacobites to join with the Whigs to concert a -scheme of union of the kingdom with England. This was a scheme which -was now growingly popular. During the Commonwealth the trade of England -had been opened to Scotland. All custom-houses, and levying of duties -on goods imported or exported between the countries, had been removed. -The Scots had been admitted to perfect freedom of foreign trade -with England, and the benefit had become too apparent to be lightly -relinquished. But, on the Restoration, all this had been altered. The -old and invidious restrictions had been renewed, and the great loss of -wealth thus induced had wonderfully modified the spirit of national -pride which opposed the abandonment of the ancient independence -of the nation. The Dalrymples and Lord Tarbet were favourable to -this proposition, but the Convention at large was too wise to -endanger the defeat of the acknowledgment of the new sovereign by an -indefinitely-prolonged debate on so vital a question. They proceeded -to declare that James, by his misconduct, had "forfaulted" his right -to the crown; that is, that he had forfeited it--a much more manly -and correct plea than that James had "abdicated," which he continued -to protest that he never had done, and he was at this moment in arms -with Ireland asserting his unrelinquished claim to it. As the term -"forfaulted," according to Scottish law, would have excluded all his -posterity, an exception was made in favour of Mary and Anne, and their -issue. This resolution was warmly defended by Sir John Dalrymple, and -as warmly by Sir James Montgomery, the member for Ayrshire, who had -been a determined champion of the Covenanters; and was resisted by the -bishops, especially by the Archbishop of Glasgow. It was carried with -only five dissentient voices, and was then read at the Market Cross, -in the High Street, by Hamilton, attended by the Lord Provost and the -heralds, and the Earl of Argyll, the son of James's decapitated victim. -Sir John Dalrymple and Sir James Montgomery were deputed to carry it, -with the second resolution that the crown should be offered to William -and Mary, to London. To define on what principles this offered transfer -of the crown was made, a Claim of Right, in imitation of the English -Bill of Rights, was drawn up and accompanied it. - -But with the acknowledgment of William as King of Scotland he was -far from having acquired a state of comfort. In both his Governments -his ministers and pretended friends were his continual tormentors. -In England his Council and his chief ministers were at daggers -drawn--every one dissatisfied with the post he occupied, jealous of the -promotion of his rivals, and numbers of them in close correspondence -with the Court of James. In Scotland it was precisely the same; it was -impossible to satisfy the ambition and the cupidity of his principal -adherents. The Covenanters were exasperated because the Episcopalians -were merely dismissed from the Establishment, and were not handed -over to retaliation of all the injuries they had received from them. -Sir James Montgomery, who expected a much higher post, was offered -that of Chief Justice Clerk, and refused it with disdain. He at once -concerted plans of opposition, and made his attack amidst a whole -host of similarly disappointed aspirants. Amongst these were two who -had been in the insurrections of Monmouth and Argyll--Sir Patrick -Hume and Fletcher of Saltoun, men of great ability, but of reckless -and insubordinate character. A club was formed, in which these men, -with Montgomery, the Lords Annandale and Ross, and a whole tribe of -minor malcontents, did all in their power to thwart and embarrass the -government of William. The chief promotion had been conferred on the -Duke of Hamilton, who was made Lord High Commissioner; the Earl of -Crawford, a very indigent, but very bitter Presbyterian, who before -this appointment did not know where to get a dinner, was made President -of Parliament; Sir James Dalrymple was appointed the Principal Lord -of Session, and his son, Sir John, was restored to his office of Lord -Advocate. Lord Melville became Secretary of State, and Sir William -Lockhart Solicitor-General. But whilst some of these thought they ought -to have had something higher or more lucrative, there were scores for -whom the limited administration of Scotland afforded no situation in -accordance with their own notions of their merits, and these hastened -to join the opposition. - -Meanwhile Dundee was exerting himself in the Highlands to rouse the -clans in favour of King James. But this he found an arduous matter. -The Highlanders, at a distance from the scenes and the interests which -divided both England and the Lowlands of Scotland, occupied with their -hunting and their own internal feuds, cared little for either King -James or King William. If anything, they would probably have given the -preference to William, for James had more than once sent his troops -after them to chastise them for their inroads into the domains of -their Saxon fellow-subjects. Dundee himself had retired to his own -estate, and offered to remain at peace if he received from William's -ministers a pledge that he should not be molested. But, unfortunately -for him, an emissary from James in Ireland, bearing letters to Dundee -and Balcarres, was intercepted, and immediately Balcarres was arrested, -and Dundee made his escape into the Highlands. There, though he could -not move any of the clans by motives of loyalty to declare for James, -he contrived to effect this object through their own internal enmities. -Most of them had an old and violent feud with the clan Campbell. The -Argyll family had, through a long succession of years, extended its -territories and its influence over the Western Highlands at the expense -of the other clans, some of which it had nearly extirpated; and now -the head of the family came back from exile in the favour of the -new monarch, and all these clans, the Stuarts, the Macnaghtens, the -Camerons, the Macdonalds, the Macleans, were in alarm and expectation -of a severe visitation for past offences, and for unpaid feudal dues. -They were, therefore, moved from this cause to unite against William, -because it was to unite against MacCallum More, the chieftain of -Argyll. If William was put down, Argyll was put down. Whilst Dundee was -busy mustering these clans, and endeavouring to reconcile their petty -jealousies and bring them to act together, he sent earnestly to James -in Ireland to despatch to him a tolerable body of regular troops, for -without them he despaired of keeping long together his half savage -and unmanageable Highlanders. Till then he avoided a conflict with -the troops sent by the Convention under Mackay against him. It was in -vain that Mackay marched from one wild district to another; the enemy -still eluded him amongst the intricate fastnesses and forests of the -Highlands till his troops were wearied out with climbing crags, and -threading rugged defiles and morasses; and he returned to quarters -in Stirling, Aberdeen, and other towns at the foot of the mountain -district. - -It was the opinion of Lord Tarbet, who understood the statistics of the -Highlands well, that, if William would send about five thousand pounds -to enable the clans to discharge their debts to the Earl of Argyll, -and obtain from that chieftain an assurance that he would abstain from -hostilities against them, they would all submit at once, and leave -Dundee to find support where he could. But his advice was attempted to -be carried out in so absurd a manner, by choosing an agent from the -clan Campbell as the mediator on the occasion, that the clans refused -to treat with him, and became all the more devoted to the interests of -James. - -Things were in this position when in June a civil contention broke -out in Athol. The marquis, unwilling to declare for either side, had -retired to England, and his eldest son, Lord Murray, who had married a -daughter of the Duke of Hamilton, and declared for King William, was -opposed by the marquis's steward, who declared for King James. The -steward held Blair Castle, and Lord Murray besieged him in it. This -called out Dundee to repel Murray and support the steward, the adherent -of James; and Mackay, hoping now to meet with him, put his forces in -march for the place of strife. The two armies, in fact, at length came -into contact in the stern pass of Killiecrankie, near Dunkeld. This was -then one of the wildest and most terrible defiles in the Highlands; the -mountain torrent of the Garry roaring through its deep and rocky strait. - -The forces of Dundee consisted of about three thousand Highlanders, -and a body of Irish, under an officer of the name of Cannon, amounting -to about three hundred, an ill-armed and ragged rabble whom James had -sent over instead of the efficient regiments for which Dundee had so -earnestly prayed. On the other hand, Mackay commanded about the same -number of regular troops; these were the three Scottish regiments which -he had brought from Holland, a regiment of English infantry--afterwards -the Thirteenth of the Line--and two regiments of Lowland Scots, newly -raised, commanded by the Lords Kenmore and Leven. He had, besides, two -troops of horse, one of which was led by Lord Belhaven. - -On the morning of Saturday, the 17th of June, Mackay had just -struggled through the pass of Killiecrankie, his twelve hundred -baggage-horses--for no wheel-carriages could approach such a -place--were scarcely through, when the enemy was upon them. The men had -thrown themselves down on an open space on the banks of the Garry, to -recover from their fatigue, when they were called to resume their arms -by the appearance of Dundee leading on his troops of wild Highlanders. -Cameron of Lochiel, a man of distinguished bravery and ability, was -second in command, and urged Dundee to come to an engagement without -the least delay. The two armies drew up, that of Mackay with the Garry -on its left, that of Dundee with the stream on its right. Lord Murray -and the few forces with him united with the forces of Mackay. - -It was early in the afternoon when the hostile parties began to fire on -each other, and the regular troops of Mackay did considerable execution -on the Highlanders; yet it was seven o'clock in the evening before -Dundee gave the order to charge. Then the Highlanders raised a wild -shout, which was returned by the enemy with a cry so much less lively -and determined, that Lochiel exclaimed, "We shall do it now; that is -not the cry of men who are going to win." The Highlanders dropped -their plaids and rushed forward. They were received by a steady fire -of the Lowlanders; but, as these prepared to charge with the bayonet, -they were so much delayed by the nature of the operation--having, -according to the practice of the time, to stick the bayonets into the -muzzles of their guns, instead of, as now, having them already fixed -beneath them--that the Highlanders were down upon them before they were -prepared, and cut through and through their lines. Having discharged -their fire-arms, the Celts threw them away, and assailed the Lowland -troops with dirk and claymore. The whole of the Scottish regiments -broke, and were scattered like leaves before a whirlwind. Balfour -was killed at the head of his regiment; Mackay's brother fell whilst -gallantly endeavouring to keep together his men; and Mackay himself was -compelled to give way. The English horse were yet on the ground, and -Mackay spurred towards them, and called on them to charge and break -the onslaught of the furious Highlanders on the foot; but he called in -vain; in spite of the brave example of Belhaven, the horse fled as -fast as their steeds could carry them. There was nothing for it but for -Mackay to endeavour to save himself; and, followed by only one servant, -he managed to cut his way through the enemy and reach a neighbouring -height. - -There the scene that presented itself was astounding. His whole -army had vanished except the English regiment, which kept together -in perfect order, and a few of the troops of Lord Leven. These had -poured a murderous fire into the ranks of the Highlanders, and still -shot numbers of them down as in fiery rage they pursued the flying -Lowlanders down the ravine, where the confused mass of enemies were -plunged in chaotic strife--one violent, horrid effort to escape or -to kill. In this strange _mêlée_ were involved the twelve hundred -pack-horses, which alone effected a diversion for the fugitives, the -Highlanders stopping to make themselves masters of so rich a booty. - -Mackay lost no time in getting the English regiment, with Lord Leven -and his remnant of men, and such few others as he could collect, across -the Garry. This being effected he halted, and again looked back, -expecting that he should be hotly pursued, but no such thing; the -Highlanders were, in fact, too agreeably detained by the plunder. But -this supposition did not account to him for the easy manner in which -such a general as Dundee allowed of his retreat, and he declared to his -guards that he was sure Dundee must have fallen. And in this opinion he -was right. Dundee had fallen in the very commencement of the general -charge. He had led it on, contrary to the advice of Lochiel, who had -urged on him the necessity of not exposing himself too much. Waving his -hat, and calling his soldiers to follow him, he dashed forward, when a -bullet struck him below the cuirass, which was raised by his action of -rising in his stirrups and waving his arm, and he fell to the ground. -The tradition of the Highlands is, that Dundee was believed to have -made a compact with the devil, and bore a charmed life, which no ball -of lead or iron could touch; that a soldier of Mackay's army, seeing -him galloping unharmed amid showers of flying balls, plucked a silver -button from his own coat, and fired at him with instant effect. The -fall of the general was observed only by a few of his own soldiers who -were near him, and one of them caught him in his arms. He asked, "How -goes the day?" "Well for King James," said the man, "but I am sorry -for your lordship." "If it be well for the king," replied Dundee, "it -matters the less for me," and expired. - -[Illustration: BATTLE OF KILLIECRANKIE: THE LAST CHARGE OF DUNDEE. -(_See p._ 408.)] - -Mackay made his way over the mountains by Weem Castle and Castle -Drummond to Stirling. On the way he overtook the fugitives from -Ramsay's regiment, who had fled at the first onset. They were -completely cowed and demoralised; and it was only by threatening to -shoot any man that left the track that he could prevent them from -dispersing amongst the hills. Many of them, after all, managed to elude -his vigilance, and were killed by the Highlanders for their clothes. -It was reported that Mackay lost two thousand men in the battle, and -that five hundred were made prisoners; but, on the other hand, a -great number of the Highlanders fell on the field. The rest, before -retreating with the booty, piled a great heap of stones on the spot -where Claverhouse fell. This is still shown, and is the only monument -of John Graham, Viscount Dundee, for the Church of Blair Athol in which -he was buried has long since disappeared, and his tomb with it. - -The news of the defeat of Mackay caused consternation throughout the -Lowlands, and even in London, whither it was carried by couriers -charged with earnest appeals to the king to hasten forces on to -Scotland, to protect the people from the torrents of victorious -barbarians from the mountains, who were with terror expected to -devastate the whole country. The Scottish Convention urged Hamilton to -dismiss them, that they might provide for their safety; but fast on the -heels of the first news came that of the certain death of Dundee, which -at once reassured the country; for, without him, the Highlanders were -regarded as comparatively innocuous, as a body without a head. And this -was very near the truth; for the command had now fallen on the Irish -officer Cannon, who, with his ragamuffin brigade, was not likely to -remain long very formidable. In fact, he very soon managed to disgust -the proud Highland chieftains. Lochiel returned home, and many of the -Celts, satisfied with their plunder, followed his example. Others, -however, stimulated by the hope of similar good fortune, came rushing -from their hills, adding, by their conflicting prejudices and wild -insubordination, only to the weakness of the force. Cannon dispatched -a party of the Robertsons into the Lowlands to collect cattle and -provisions for his army; but Mackay came upon them at St. Johnstone's, -and killed one hundred and twenty of them, and took thirty prisoners. -This revived the spirit of his troops, and infused new confidence -through the country. In fact, Mackay was an excellent general, and was -unremitting in his exertions to renew the courage and discipline of his -troops. He had seen the fatal effect of the clumsy use of the bayonets -at Killiecrankie, and he lost no time in having them made to screw upon -the muskets, so that these could be fired with them ready fixed. - -And very soon he had need of all his generalship. The ministers at -Edinburgh had ordered him to garrison Dunkeld with the Cameronian -regiment newly raised. The town was unfortified; and in vain Mackay -protested against exposing his men thus to the attack of the whole body -of the Highlanders encamped at Blair Castle. But the Highland army, -led on by Cannon, were received with a spirit worthy of the old race -of Covenanters, were repulsed, and driven back with great slaughter. -The young commander Lieutenant-Colonel Cleland, and after him Captain -Monro, fell at the head of the besieged; but the victory was decisive. -The Highlanders dispersed with their booty to their homes; Cannon, with -his disorderly Irish, escaped to the Isle of Mull; the fame of Mackay -and his troops was higher than ever, and the war in Scotland was at an -end. - -We have continued to this point the affairs of Scotland, that we might -not interrupt the still more important transactions which at the same -time took place in Ireland. On the 12th of March, two days before the -opening of the Scottish Convention, James had landed in Ireland. That -island was peculiarly open to the influence of James, for the bulk of -the population were Catholics, and they were thrown into a state of -great excitement by the hope of being able to drive the Protestants -from their estates by his appearance there with a French army, of -wreaking vengeance on them for all their past oppressions, and of -regaining their ancient patrimony. - -From the moment almost that James had mounted the throne of England, he -began his preparations for putting down Protestantism in Ireland, and -raising a military power there which should enable him to crush it also -in England. The Protestant judges had been removed one after another -from the bench, so that little justice could be obtained in Irish -tribunals by Protestant suitors. The Protestants were diligently weeded -out of the army, and lying Dick Talbot, the Earl of Tyrconnel, James's -most obsequious tool, was his Lord-Lieutenant, and bent on carrying out -his plans to the fullest extent. There arose a terrible panic amongst -the Protestants that a general massacre was contemplated, and the -Englishry began to collect whatever of value they could carry with -them, and escape across the Channel into England or Wales. Tyrconnel -sent for the leading Protestants to Dublin, and protested with many -oaths that the whole rumour was a malicious and groundless lie. Nobody, -however, put any faith in his assurances, and the exodus rapidly -increased, whilst such Protestants as possessed any means of defence -in towns, armed themselves, threw up fortifications, and determined -to sell their lives dear. Such was the case at Kenmare, in Kerry; at -Bandon, Mallow, Sligo, Charleville, Enniskillen, and Londonderry. - -Such was the state of Ireland at the time of the landing of William at -Torbay. Tyrconnel despatched a body of Popish infantry in December, -1688, to take possession of Enniskillen. The inhabitants summoned -the Protestants of the surrounding country to their aid, rushed -out on the soldiers as they approached the gates of the town, and -defeated them. They then appointed Gustavus Hamilton, a captain in the -army, their governor, and determined to hold their own against the -lieutenant-governor. Londonderry likewise shut its gates in the face -of the Earl of Antrim, who armed a Popish regiment to garrison their -town. This exploit was the work of thirteen apprentices, whose bold and -decisive deed was quickly imitated by the rest of the inhabitants. The -town was put into a posture of thorough defence, the country round was -alarmed, the Protestant gentry flocked in with armed followers, horse -and foot, and Antrim thought it prudent to retire to Coleraine. - -At another time Tyrconnel would have taken a bloody vengeance on the -courageous Protestants of Ulster, but matters in England appeared too -critical to permit him such indulgence. He had recourse, therefore, -to artifice. He despatched Lord Mountjoy, the Master of the Ordnance, -with his regiment, which included many Protestants, to Londonderry. -Mountjoy was a Protestant himself, though an adherent of King James; -had much property in Ulster, and was highly respected there. The -citizens of Londonderry willingly admitted him within their walls, -and suffered him to leave a garrison there, consisting solely of -Protestant soldiers, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Lundy as -governor. To the people of Enniskillen Mountjoy was less courteous; -he somewhat curtly treated a deputation thence, and advised them to -submit unconditionally to James. Tyrconnel even affected to enter into -negotiation with William, and General Richard Hamilton was not very -wisely despatched by William to Ireland to treat with him. Hamilton had -been in command under Tyrconnel till a recent period, and had been sent -by him with reinforcements to James in England. There, finding James -had fled, he coolly went over to William, and, strangely enough, was -deemed sufficiently trustworthy to be returned to his old master as -negotiator. He no sooner arrived than he once more declared for King -James. Tyrconnel, however, did not himself so soon throw off the mask -of duplicity. He protested to the Prince of Orange that he was quite -disposed to treat for the surrender of Ireland, and to the alarmed -Catholics of Ireland--who got some wind of his proceedings--that he -had not the most distant idea of submitting. On the other hand, he -prevailed on Lord Mountjoy, who had so well served him at Londonderry, -to go on a mission to James at St. Germains, professedly to procure -a concession from James that his Irish subjects should submit to -William for the present, and not rush into a contest to which they were -unequal, but wait for better times. The real truth was, that James -had already despatched Captain Rush from St. Germains to Tyrconnel to -assure him that he was coming himself with all haste with a powerful -fleet and army. Tyrconnel was, therefore, desirous to get Mountjoy -secured, as he was capable of uniting the Protestants and heading them -against the bloody butchery that James and Tyrconnel destined for -them. Mountjoy somewhat reluctantly fell into the snare. He proceeded -to France, accompanied by Chief Baron Rice, a fanatical Papist, who -had boasted that he would drive a coach and six through the Act of -Settlement. Rice had secret instructions to denounce Mountjoy as a -traitor, and to recommend James to make him fast. No sooner, therefore, -did he present himself at St. Germains than he was clapped into the -Bastille. - -This act of diabolical treachery being completed, Tyrconnel now -abandoned further disguise, and prepared to hand over the whole -Protestant population of Ireland to the exterminating fury of the -Catholic natives. "Now or never! now and for ever!" was the watchword -of blood and death to all the Englishry. It was embroidered on the -viceregal banner, and floated over the castle of Dublin. The Catholics -were called on to arm and secure Ireland for the Irish. The call was -obeyed with the avidity of savages. Those who had not arms manufactured -them out of scythes, forks, and other rural implements. Every smithy -was aglow, every hammer resounding in preparation of pike and -skean, the Irish long knife. By February, 1689, the army of Ireland -was swelled with regulars and irregulars to a hundred thousand men. -There was one universal shout of Bacchanalian acclaim, and rush to -secure the plunder of the Protestants. The houses of the wealthy were -ransacked, the cattle driven off, the buildings, and even the heaths -set fire to. The wild marauders roasted the slaughtered cattle and -sheep at huge fires often made of timbers of the buildings, emptied -the cellars, and sang songs of triumph over the heretic Englishry, and -of Ireland restored to its legitimate owners. What an Ireland it was -likely to become under them was soon evident. They were not content to -kill enough to satisfy their hunger; these children of oppression and -ignorance, like wolves, destroyed for the mere pleasure of destroying; -and D'Avaux, the French ambassador, who accompanied James over the -country from Kinsale to Dublin, describes it as one black, wasted -desert, for scores of miles without a single inhabitant, and calculates -that in six weeks these infuriate savages had slaughtered fifty -thousand cattle and three or four hundred thousand sheep. - -Before such an inundation of fury and murder, the few Protestant -inhabitants were swept away like chaff before the wind. All the -fortified towns and houses in the south were forced by the ruthless mob -and soldiery, or were abandoned, and the people fled for their lives to -seek an asylum in Ulster. Those of Kenmare managed to get across in a -small vessel to Bristol. - -In all this fearful scene of devastation Hamilton, who had come over -as the emissary of William, was one of the most active and unpitying -agents. Enniskillen and Londonderry were the only Protestant places -which now held out, and Hamilton commenced his march northward to -reduce them. This march was only another wild blast of desolation, -like that which had swept the south, and left the country a howling -wilderness. In addition to Hamilton's regular troops, hosts of the -self-armed and merciless Irish collected on his track, and burnt, -plundered, and murdered without mercy. The people fled before the rout, -themselves burning their own dwellings, and laying waste with fire the -whole district, so that it should afford no shelter or sustenance to -the enemy. The whole of the Protestant population retreated northwards, -leaving even Lisburn and Antrim deserted. Thirty thousand fugitives -soon found themselves cooped up within the walls of Londonderry, and -many thousands were shut up in Enniskillen. - -At this crisis James landed at Kinsale, and marched to Cork. He -had brought no army, but a number of officers to command the -Irish troops. His General-in-Chief was Count Rosen, a man of much -military experience. Next to him were Lieutenant-General Maumont, -Brigadier-General Pusignan, and four hundred other officers of -different ranks. He was accompanied by Count D'Avaux, who had been -ambassador in England, a man clever, shrewd, keenly observant, and with -little mercy or principle. His object was to secure Ireland rather -for Louis than for James, and he served his master with cunning and -zeal. James brought with him arms for ten thousand men, abundance of -ammunition, and a military chest of about a hundred and twenty thousand -pounds sterling. Before quitting St. Germains Louis XIV. himself had -paid James a parting visit, displayed towards him the most marked -friendship, embraced him at parting, and told him, in his epigrammatic -way, that the greatest good that he could desire for him was that they -might never meet again. - -James landed on the 12th of March, and two days after was in Cork. The -Irish received him with enthusiastic acclamations as a saviour; but -the effects of his anticipated arrival, and the measures concerted -by himself and carried out by the brutal Tyrconnel, met him on the -instant. He was anxious to push on to Dublin; but the whole country -was a desert, and horses could not be procured in sufficient numbers -to convey his baggage, nor food to sustain them on the way. During the -detention consequent on this, Tyrconnel arrived to welcome His Majesty -to Ireland. On the 24th of March he entered Dublin amid the hurrahs -and the festive demonstrations of flowers, garlands of evergreens, of -tapestry and carpets hung from the windows, of processions of young -girls in white, and friars and priests with their crosses, and with -the host itself. At sight of that, James alighted, and, falling on -his knees in the mud, bared his head in humble devotion. The next -morning James proceeded to form his Privy Council. This was composed -of his natural son, the Duke of Berwick, the Duke of Powis; the Earls -of Abercorn, Melfort, Dover, Carlingford, and Clanricarde; the Lords -Thomas Howard, Kilmallock, Merrion, Kenmare; Lord Chief Justice -Herbert, the Bishop of Chester, General Sarsfield, Colonel Dorrington, -and, strangely enough, D'Avaux, who should have retained the -independent position of ambassador; the Marquis D'Abbeville, and two -other foreigners. The Protestant Bishop of Meath, at the head of his -clergy, appeared before him, imploring his protection, and permission -to lay before him the account of the injuries they and their flocks had -received. James affected to declare that he was just as much as ever -desirous to afford full liberty of conscience, and to protect all his -subjects in their rights and opinions; but he said it was impossible to -alter what had already taken place, and he gave an immediate proof of -the impartiality which Protestants were likely to receive at his hands -by dismissing Keating, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, the only -Protestant judge still remaining on the bench. - -These measures dispatched, it became the question whether, in the -interval before the meeting of Parliament, James should continue in -Dublin, or should proceed to the army besieging Londonderry, and -encourage it by his presence. This called forth the conflicting views -and interests of his adherents, and his whole court became rent by -struggling factions. The English exiles warmly urged the king to -proceed to Ulster. They cared little for the fate of Ireland, their -views and wishes were fixed on England. In the north, as soon as -Londonderry was put down, it was easy for James to go across to -Scotland, there to commence the campaign for the recovery of the -English crown. But this was the very thing which his Irish partisans -dreaded. They felt certain that if James recovered the English throne, -they should be left to contend with the colonists of Ulster themselves; -and the victorious ascendency of that small but sturdy body of people -was too vividly burnt into their minds by ages of their domination. -They therefore counselled James to remain as a king at Dublin, and -leave his generals to put down the opposition in the north; and in -this they were zealously seconded by D'Avaux and the French. James on -the throne of England would be a very different person to James on the -throne of Ireland only. In the one case, if he succeeded, he might ere -long become independent of Louis; if he failed, the English Protestant -king would soon subdue Ireland to his sway. But if James continued -only monarch of Ireland, he must continue wholly dependent on Louis. -He could only maintain himself there by his aid in men and money, and -then Ireland would become gradually a French colony--a dependence most -flattering to the pride and power of France--a perpetual thorn in the -side of England. - -The contention between the two parties was fierce, and Tyrconnel joined -with the French and Irish in advising James to remain at Dublin. On -the other hand, Melfort and the English pointed out to him the immense -advantage to his prospects to settle the last remains of disaffection -in the north, and to appear again in arms in his chief kingdom, where -they persuaded him that the Highlanders and all the Catholic and -Royalist English would now flock to his standard. William, they assured -him, was to the highest degree unpopular; a powerful party in Scotland -were opposed to him, and in the ascendant. These views prevailed. -James, attended by D'Avaux and the French officers, set out for Ulster. -The journey was again through a country blasted by the horrors of war -and robbery. There was no fodder for their horses, scarcely a roof to -shelter the heads of the travellers; and, after a long and terrible -journey, plunging and struggling through deep roads, and bogs where -there was no road at all, famished and worn out by fatigue, they -reached Charlemont on the 13th of April. When James at length arrived -before Londonderry, the fall of that place did not appear likely to -be quite so early an event as he had been led to believe. Rosen, -however, treated lightly the resistance which the inhabitants could -make. The walls of the town were old, the ditches could scarcely be -discerned, the gates and drawbridges were in disorder, and the town -was commanded at various points by heights from which artillery might -play upon it. What was still more favourable to James, it was well -known that Lundy, the governor, was a traitor. Rosen was placed in -the chief command, and Maumont next to him over the head of Hamilton. -Lundy meanwhile depressed the spirits of the people within by telling -them that it was useless to attempt to defend such a place, and kept -up a secret correspondence with the enemy without, informing them of -all that passed there, and of its weak points and condition. He did -more--he contrived to send away succours which arrived from England. -Colonel Cunningham appeared in the bay with a fleet having on board -two regiments for the defence of the place. Cunningham and his chief -officers went on shore and waited on the governor. Lundy called a -council, taking care to exclude all but his own creatures; and these -informed Cunningham that it was mere waste of men and money to land -them; the town was perfectly indefensible; and that, in fact, he was -going to surrender it. His supporters confirmed this view of the -case, and Cunningham and his officers withdrew, and soon after made -sail homeward, to the despair of the inhabitants; Lundy, as he saw -them depart, sending word into the enemy's camp that he was ready to -surrender. - -But the spirit of the inhabitants was now roused. They openly declared -Lundy a traitor, and, if they could have found him, would have killed -him on the spot. He had, however, concealed himself, and at night was -enabled, by connivance of his friends, to escape over the walls in -disguise. As night approached, the people, to their astonishment, found -the gates set open, and the keys were not to be found. People said they -had seen the confederates of Lundy stealing out, and the alarm flew -through the place. The townsmen came together, and called all to arms -by beat of drum. A message was despatched to Cunningham to bring in his -forces; but he was already on the move, and declared that his orders -permitted him only to follow the commands of the governor. - -Thus deserted, the inhabitants courageously resolved to depend on their -own energies. They placed Major Baker and Captain Murray at the head of -the armed citizens, who amounted to seven thousand, many of them Ulster -gentlemen of family, and endowed with all the dauntless spirit which -had made them so long masters of the north of Ireland. At this moment, -too, the Rev. George Walker, the Rector of Donaghmore, who had been -driven in along with the rest of the fugitives, displayed that spirit, -eloquence, and ability which inspired the whole place with a wonderful -enthusiasm, and which have made his name famous amongst the Protestant -patriots of Ireland. Walker was appointed joint governor with Major -Baker, and they set themselves to work to organise their armed people -into military bodies with their proper officers, to place cannon on -all the most effective points, and post sentinels on the walls and -at the gates. The forces of James were already drawn up before the -place, expecting the promised surrender of Lundy. Presently a trumpeter -appeared at the southern gate, and demanded the fulfilment of the -governor's engagement. He was answered that the governor had no longer -any command there. The next day, the 20th of April, James sent Lord -Strabane, a Catholic peer of Ireland, offering a free pardon for all -past offences on condition of an immediate surrender, and a bribe to -Captain Murray, who was sent to hold a parley with him, of a thousand -pounds and a colonelcy in the royal army. Murray repelled the offer -with contempt, and advised Strabane, if he valued his safety, to make -the best of his way out of gunshot. - -At this unexpected answer, James displayed the same pusillanimity which -marked his conduct when he fled from England. Instead of ordering the -place to be stormed, he lost heart, and, though he had been only eleven -days before the town, set off back to Dublin, taking Count Rosen with -him, and leaving Maumont in command, with Hamilton and Pusignan under -him. Then the siege was pushed on with spirit. The batteries were -opened on the town, to which the townsmen replied vigorously; and, on -the 21st of April, made a desperate sally under Captain Murray, killed -General Maumont and two hundred of the Irish, and, under cover of a -strong fire kept up by a party headed by Walker, regained the town. The -siege under Hamilton, who succeeded to the command, then languished. On -the 4th of May the townspeople made another sally, and killed Pusignan. -After this sallies became frequent, the bold men of Londonderry carried -off several officers prisoners into the town, and two flags of the -French, which they hung up in the cathedral. It was at length resolved -by the besiegers to carry the place by storm, but they were repelled -with great loss, the very women joining in the _mêlée_, and carrying -ammunition and refreshments to the defenders on the walls. As the -storming of the town was found to be impracticable, Hamilton commenced -a blockade. The troops were drawn round the place, and a strong boom -thrown across the river, and the besiegers awaited the progress of -famine. - -All this time the people of Enniskillen had been making a noble -diversion. They had marched out into the surrounding country, levied -contributions of provisions from the native Irish, and given battle to -and defeated several considerable bodies of troops sent against them. -They took and sacked Belturbet, and carried off a great quantity of -provisions; they made skirmishing parties, and scoured the country in -the rear of the army besieging Londonderry, cutting off straggling -foragers, and impeding supplies. The news of the continued siege of -Londonderry, and the heroic conduct of the people of both these places, -raised a wonderful enthusiasm in England on their behalf. Lundy, who -had reached London, and Cunningham, who had brought back his regiments, -were arrested, and Lundy was thrown into the Tower and Cunningham -into the Gatehouse. Kirke was also dispatched with a body of troops -from Liverpool to relieve the besieged in Londonderry. On the 15th -of June his squadron was discerned approaching, and wonderful was the -exultation when it was ascertained that Kirke had arrived with troops, -arms, ammunition, and supplies of food. - -It was high time that relief should have come, for they were reduced to -the most direful extremities, and were out of cannon-ball, and nearly -out of powder. But they were doomed to a horrible disappointment. -Kirke, who could be bold enough in perpetrating barbarities on -defenceless people, was too faint-hearted to attempt forcing the boom -in the river, and relieving the place. He drew off his fleet to the -entrance of Lough Foyle, and lay there in tantalising inactivity. His -presence, instead of benefiting them, brought fresh horrors upon them; -for no sooner did James in Dublin learn that there was a chance of -Kirke's throwing in fresh forces and provisions, than he dispatched -Rosen to resume the command, with orders to take the place at all costs. - -This Rosen, who was a Russian, from Livonia, was a brutal savage, and -vowed that he would take the place, or roast the inhabitants alive. He -first began by endeavouring to undermine the walls; but the besieged -so briskly attacked the sappers, that they soon killed a hundred of -them, and compelled them to retire. Filled with fury, Rosen swore that -he would raze the walls to the ground, and massacre every creature in -the town,--men, women, and children. He flung a shell into the place, -to which was attached a threat that, if they did not at once surrender, -he would collect from the whole country round all the people, their -friends and relatives, the women, the children, the aged, drive them -under the walls, and keep them there till they perished. He knew that -the besieged could give them no support, for they were perishing fast -themselves from famine, and its attendant fevers and diseases. The -fighting men were so weak that they often fell down in endeavouring to -strike a blow at the enemy. They were living on dogs, rats, any vile -thing they could seize. They had eaten up all the horses to three, -which were mere skin and bone. They had salted the hides and chewed -them to keep down their ravening hunger. There were some amongst them -who began to talk of eating the bodies of those who fell in the action. -Numbers perished daily in their houses of exhaustion, and the stench -arising from the unburied dead was terrible and pestilential. Many of -their best men had died from fever, amongst them Major Baker, their -military governor, and Colonel Mitchelbourne had been elected in his -place. They were reduced to fire brickbats instead of cannon-balls; and -their walls were so battered, that it was not they but their own spirit -which kept out the enemy. Yet, amid these horrors, they treated the -menace with silent contempt, and sent out an order that any one even -uttering the word "Surrender," should be instantly put to death. - -The savage Rosen put his menace into force. He drove the wretched -people from the country, at the point of the pike, under the walls. -On the 2nd of July this melancholy crowd of many hundreds was seen -by the besieged from the walls, hemmed in between the town and the -army--old men incapable of bearing arms, miserable women, and lamenting -children, where, without food or shelter, they were cooped up between -their enemies and their friends, who could not help them. Many of -these unhappy people had protections under James's own hand, but Rosen -cared not for that. For two days and nights this woful throng of human -beings was kept there, in spite of the strong remonstrances of Hamilton -and other English officers, who were not accustomed to such devilish -modes of war. The indignant men in Londonderry erected gallows on the -walls, and sent Rosen word that, unless he let the perishing people go, -they would hang up the principal of their prisoners. But it was not -till many of the victims had died, and a storm of indignation at this -unheard-of barbarity assailed him in his own camp, that Rosen opened -his ranks and allowed the poor wretches to depart. - -James, who was himself by no means of the melting mood, was shocked -when he heard of this diabolical barbarity, and the comments upon it -amongst those around him. He recalled Rosen and restored the command -to Hamilton. Then the siege again went on with redoubled fury, and all -the last expiring strength of the besieged was required to sustain it. -Hamilton also terrified them by continual _ruses_ and false rumours. -He ordered his soldiers to raise a loud shout, and the besieged to -be informed that Enniskillen had fallen, and that now there was no -hope whatever for them. The besieged were so depressed by this news, -for they had no means of testing it, that they offered to capitulate, -but could obtain no terms that they could accept. And all this time -the imbecile or base Kirke was lying within a few miles of them with -abundance of provisions, and a force capable with ease of forcing its -way to them. He had even the cruelty to send in a secret message to -Walker that he was coming in full force, and then to lie still again -for more than a fortnight. At length, however, he received a peremptory -order from William to force the boom and relieve the town. No sooner -did this order reach him than he showed with what ease he could have -accomplished this at first, six weeks ago. The boom was burst asunder -by two vessels--the _Mountjoy_ and _Phœnix_--dashing themselves -against it, while they were covered by a third, the _Dartmouth_, and -the place was open (July 30) to the conveyance of the troops and the -provisions. Kirke was invited to take the command, and the Irish -camp, despairing of any success, drew off on the 1st of August, and -raised this most memorable siege, in which four out of the seven -thousand defenders perished, besides a multitude of other inhabitants, -amounting, according to some calculations, to eight or nine thousand -souls. On the side of the Irish as many are said to have fallen; and -of the thirty-six French gunners who directed the cannonade, all had -been killed but five. Besides the miseries endured in the town, those -of the poor people who survived being driven under the walls found, on -their return to what had been their homes, that they were their homes -no longer. Their villages, crops, ricks, buildings, all had been burnt -down, and the whole country laid waste. - -[Illustration: THE "MOUNTJOY" AND "PHŒNIX" BREAKING THE BOOM AT -LONDONDERRY. (_See p._ 416.)] - -The Enniskilleners had meanwhile been actively engaged against other -detachments of James's army, but had bravely beaten them off, and on -the same day that Londonderry was relieved had won a signal victory -over them at Newton Butler, attacking five thousand Irish under General -Macarthy, though they themselves numbered only about three hundred, -and killing, it is said, two thousand, and driving five hundred more -into Lough Erne, where they were drowned. This decisive defeat of the -Irish hastened the retreat of the army retiring from Londonderry. -They fled towards Dublin in haste and terror, leaving behind their -baggage. Sarsfield abandoned Sligo, and James was on the very point -of abandoning Dublin in the midst of the panic that seized it. At -the same time came from Scotland the news of the death of Dundee at -Killiecrankie; and on the 13th of August Marshal Schomberg landed at -Carrickfergus with an army of sixteen thousand, composed of English, -Scots, Dutch, Danes, and French Huguenots. Matters were fast assuming -a serious aspect for James; his affairs not only in the field, but his -civil government, falling every day into a more ominous condition. - -[Illustration: LANDING OF MARSHAL SCHOMBERG AT CARRICKFERGUS. (_See p._ -416.)] - -One reason for James quitting the siege of Londonderry in person was -that the time for the assembling of his Irish Parliament drew near. -No sooner did he reach Dublin than he was met by the news that the -English fleet under Admiral Herbert had been beaten by the French at -Bantry Bay. Herbert had been ordered to intercept the French fleet -between Brest and Ireland; but he had missed it, and James had safely -landed. Whilst he was still beating about, a second squadron, under -Chateau Renard, had also made its way over, and anchored with the first -in Bantry Bay. On Herbert discovering them there, confident in their -superior numbers, they came out, and there was a sharp fight. In the -evening Herbert sheered off towards the Scilly Isles, and the French -with great exultation, as in a victory, returned into the bay. James -found the French at Dublin in high spirits at the unusual circumstance -of beating English sailors; but his English adherents were by no means -pleased with this triumphing over their countrymen, hostile though they -were; and James, who had always prided himself on the English navy, is -said, when D'Avaux boasted how the French had beaten the English, to -have replied gloomily, "It is the first time." Even the English exiles -in France showed a similar mortification, though the French victory, -such as it was, was in their cause. Both sides, however, claimed the -victory. In England Parliament voted thanks to Herbert; in Dublin James -ordered bonfires and a _Te Deum_. - -On the 7th of May, the day after the _Te Deum_, James met his -Parliament. What sort of a Parliament it was, and what it was likely to -do in Ireland may be surmised from the fact that there were only six -Protestants in the whole House of Commons, consisting of two hundred -and fifty members. Only fourteen lords appeared to his summons, and of -these only four were Protestants. By new creations, and by reversal -of attainders against Catholic peers, he managed to add seventeen -more members to the Upper House, all Catholics, so that in the whole -Parliament there were only ten Protestants, and four of these were the -Bishops of Meath, Ossory, Cork, and Limerick. The majority of these -members were not only Catholic, eager to visit upon the Protestants all -the miseries and spoliations which the latter had inflicted on them, -but they were men totally unaccustomed to the business of legislation -or government, from having been long excluded from such functions, -and condemned to pass their time on their estates in that half savage -condition which qualified them rather for bandits than for lawgivers -and magistrates. - -James's first act was that of complete toleration of liberty of -conscience to all Christian denominations. This sounded well, and was -in perfect keeping with his declarations and endeavours in England -for which he had been driven out, and England had now an opportunity -of observing with what justice; of judging whether or not his real -object had been wrongfully suspected. In his speech from the throne, he -reverted with great pride to these endeavours, and to his determination -still to be the liberator of conscience. This was language worthy of -the noblest lawgiver that ever existed; but, unfortunately, James's -English subjects never could be persuaded of his sincerity, and did -not believe that this happiness would arrive as the result of his -indulgence. The very next Act which he now passed decided that they -had not mistrusted him without cause. Scarcely had he passed the Act -of Toleration, when he followed it up by the repeal of the Act of -Settlement, by which the Protestants held their estates, and their -rights and liberties in Ireland. This just and tolerant monarch thus, -at one stroke, handed over the whole Protestant body to the mercy of -the Irish Catholics, and to one universal doom of confiscation. The -Bill was received with exultation by this Parliament, which portended -all the horrors which were to follow. - -But there were other parties whose estates were not derived from the -Act of Settlement, but from purchase, and another Act was passed to -include them. It was a Bill confiscating the property of all who had -aided or abetted the Prince of Orange in his attempt on the Crown, or -who were absent and did not return to their homes before the 5th of -October. The number of persons included in this great Act of Attainder, -as it was called, amounted to between two and three thousand, including -men of all ranks from the highest noble to the simplest freeholder. All -the property of absentees above seventeen years of age was transferred -to the king. The most unbounded lust of robbery and revenge was thus -kindled in the public mind. Every one who wanted his neighbour's -property, or had a grudge against him, hurried to give in his name to -the Clerk of the House of Commons, and, without any or much inquiry, it -was inserted in the Bill. - -To make the separation of England and Ireland complete, and to set up -the most effectual barrier against his own authority, should he again -regain the throne of England, James permitted his Parliament to pass an -Act declaring that the Parliament of England had no power or authority -over Ireland, and this contrary to the provisions of Poynings' Act, -which gave the initiative power to the English Council, and made every -Irish Act invalid unless first submitted to the King and Council of -England. - -Having transferred the property of the laity back to the Irish, -another Act made as sweeping a conveyance of that of the Church from -the Protestant to the Catholic clergy. Little regard had been had to -Catholic rights in piling property on the Protestant hierarchy, and -as little was shown in taking it back again. The Anglican clergy were -left in a condition of utter destitution, and more than this, they were -not safe if they appeared in public. They were hooted, pelted, and -sometimes fired at. All colleges and schools from which the Protestants -had excluded the Catholics were now seized and employed as Popish -seminaries or monasteries. The College of Dublin was turned into a -barrack and a prison. No Protestants were allowed to appear together in -numbers more than three, on pain of death. This was James's notion of -the liberty of conscience, and a tender regard for "every man's rights -and liberties." It was a fine lesson, too, for the clergy and gentry -who had welcomed him to Ireland as the friends of passive obedience. -They had now enough of that doctrine, and went over pretty rapidly to a -different notion. The Protestants everywhere were overrun by soldiers -and rapparees. Their estates were seized, their houses plundered, their -persons insulted and abused, and a more fearful condition of things -never existed in any country at any time. The officers of the army sold -the Protestants protections, which were no longer regarded when fresh -marauders wanted more money. - -This model Parliament voted twenty thousand pounds a year to Tyrconnel -for bringing this state of things about, and twenty thousand pounds -a month to the king. But the country was so completely desolated, -and its trade so completely destroyed by this reign of terror and of -licence, that James did not find the taxes come in very copiously; and -he resorted to a means of making money plentiful worthy of himself. He -collected all the old pots, pans, brass knockers, old cannon, and metal -in almost any shape, and coined clumsy money out of them, on which he -put about a hundred times their intrinsic value. The consequence was -that shopkeepers refused to receive this base coin. All men to whom -debts were due, or who had mortgages on other men's property, were -opposed to having them discharged by a heap of metal which in a few -weeks might be worth only a few pence a pound. Those who refused such -payment were arrested, and menaced with being hanged at their own -doors. Many were thrown into prison, and trade and intercourse were -plunged into a condition of the wildest anarchy. The whole country was -a scene of violence, confusion, and distress. Such was the state of -Ireland and of James's Court when, as we have seen, Schomberg landed -with his army at Carrickfergus on the 23rd of August, and roused James, -his Court, and the whole country to a sense of their danger, and of -the necessity for one great and universal effort. A spirit of new life -seemed to animate them, and James, receiving fresh hope from the sight, -marched from Dublin at the head of his troops to encounter Schomberg. - -During the summer the Court of William had not been an enviable place. -In the spring the Parliament had proceeded to reverse the judgments -which had been passed in the last reign against Lord William Russell, -Algernon Sidney, the Earl of Devonshire, Cornish, Alice Lisle, and -Samuel Johnson. Some of the Whigs who had suffered obtained pecuniary -compensation, but Johnson obtained none. He was deemed by the Whigs -to be too violent--in fact, he was a Radical of that day. The -scoundrel Titus Oates crawled again from his obscurity, and, by help -of his old friends the Whigs, managed to obtain a pension of three -hundred pounds a year. This done, there was an attempt to convert the -Declaration of Rights into a Bill of Rights--thus giving it all the -authority of Parliamentary law; and in this Bill it was proposed, in -case of William, Mary, and Anne all dying without issue, to settle -the succession on the Duchess Sophia of Brunswick Lüneburg, the -daughter of the Queen of Bohemia, and granddaughter of James I.; but -it failed for the time. A Bill of Indemnity was also brought in as an -Act of oblivion of all past offences; but this too was rejected. The -triumphant Whigs, so far from being willing to forgive the Tories who -had supported James, and had been their successful opponents during -the attempts through Titus Oates and his fellow-plotters to exclude -James from the succession, were now clamorous for their blood and -ruin. William refused to comply with their truculent desires, and -became, in consequence, the object of their undisguised hatred. They -particularly directed their combined efforts against Danby, now Earl -of Caermarthen, and Halifax. They demanded that Caermarthen should be -dismissed from the office of President of the Council, and Halifax from -holding the Privy Seal, and being Speaker of the House of Lords. But -William steadfastly resisted their demands, and declared that he had -done enough for them and their friends, and would do no more especially -in the direction of vengeance against such as were disposed to live -quietly and serve the State faithfully. - -On the 19th of October the second session of William's first Parliament -met. The Commons were liberal in voting supplies; they granted at once -two million pounds, and declared that they would support the king to -the utmost of their ability in reducing Ireland to his authority, -and in prosecuting the war with France. The required sum was to be -levied partly by a poll-tax, partly by new duties on tea, coffee, and -chocolate, partly by an assessment of one hundred thousand pounds on -the Jews, but chiefly by a tax on real property. The Jews, however, -protested that they would sooner quit the kingdom than submit to the -imposition, and that source was abandoned. The Commons next took up -the Bill of Rights, and passed it, omitting the clause respecting the -succession of the House of Brunswick, which measure was not brought -forward again for eleven years. They, however, took care, at the -suggestion of Burnet to insert a clause that no person who should marry -a Papist should be capable of ascending the throne; and if any one -on the throne so married, the subjects should be absolved from their -allegiance. - -[Illustration: FIVE-GUINEA PIECE OF WILLIAM AND MARY.] - -[Illustration: CROWN OF WILLIAM AND MARY.] - -[Illustration: FOURPENNY PIECE OF WILLIAM AND MARY.] - -After thus demonstrating their zeal for maintaining the throne in -affluence and power, the Commons next proceeded to display it in a -careful scrutiny of the mode in which the last supplies had been spent. -The conduct of both army and navy had not been such as to satisfy the -public. The Commons had, indeed, not only excused the defeat of Herbert -at Bantry Bay, but even thanked him for it as though it had been a -victory. But neither had Schomberg effected anything in Ireland; and -he loudly complained that it was impossible to fight with an army that -was not supplied with the necessary food, clothing, or ammunition. This -led to a searching scrutiny into the commissariat department, William -himself being the foremost in the inquiry, and the most frightful -peculation and abuses were brought to light. The muskets and other arms -fell to pieces in the soldiers' hands; and, when fever and pestilence -were decimating the camp there was not a drug to be found, though -one thousand seven hundred pounds had been charged Government for -medicines. What baggage and supplies there were could not be got to the -army for want of horses to draw the waggons; and the very cavalry went -afoot, because Shales, the Commissary-General, had let out the horses -destined for this service to the farmers of Cheshire to do their work. -The meat for the men stank, the brandy was so foully adulterated that -it produced sickness and severe pains. In the navy the case was the -same; and Herbert, now Lord Torrington, was severely blamed for not -being personally at the fleet to see into the condition of his sailors, -but was screened from deserved punishment by his connections. The -king was empowered by Parliament at length to appoint a Commission of -Inquiry to discover the whole extent of the evil, and to take remedies -against its recurrence. - -Then the Commons reverted again to their fierce party warfare. Whigs -and Tories manifested an equal desire to crush their opponents if they -had the power, and they kept William in a constant state of uneasiness -by their mutual ferocity, and their alternate eagerness to force him -into persecution and blood. Edmund Ludlow, one of the regicides, who -had managed to escape the murderous vengeance of Charles and James, -but whose companion, John Lisle, had fallen by the hands of Charles's -assassins at Lausanne, had been persuaded that he might now return to -England unmolested. But he soon found that he was mistaken. The Tories -vehemently demanded his arrest of the king, and William was obliged to -promise compliance; but he appeared in no haste in issuing the warrant; -and probably a hint was given to Ludlow, for he escaped again to the -Continent, and there remained till his death. - -[Illustration: HALFPENNY OF WILLIAM AND MARY.] - -On the other hand, the Whigs were as unrelaxing in their desire of -persecuting the Tories. They refused to proceed with the Indemnity -Bill, which William was anxious to get passed as a final preventive -of their deadly intentions. They arrested and sent to the Tower the -Earls of Peterborough and Salisbury for going over from their party -to that of James in the last reign, in order to impeach them of high -treason. The same was done to Sir Edward Hales and Obadiah Walker. They -appointed a committee to inquire into the share of various individuals -in the deaths of Lord William Russell, Sidney, and others of the Whig -party. The committee was termed "the Committee of Murder," and they -summoned such of the judges, law officers of the Crown, and others as -had taken part in these prosecutions. Sir Dudley North and Halifax were -called before them, and underwent a severe examination; but they did -not succeed in establishing a charge sufficient to commit them upon. -Halifax had already resigned the Speakership of the House of Lords, and -they sought to bring William to deprive him of the Privy Seal. In these -proceedings of the Commons, John Hampden, the grandson of the great -patriot, and John Howe, were the most violent. Hampden went the length -of saying that William ought to dismiss every man who had gone over to -him from the late king, and ought not to employ any one who entertained -Republican principles. This declaration, from a man who had himself -been a full-length Republican and the friend of Sidney, threw the House -into a roar of laughter; but that did not abash Hampden. On behalf of a -committee of the Commons, he drew up an address so violent that it was -altogether dropped, calling on the king to dismiss the authors of the -late malversations and the consequent failures of the army and navy. - -The Whigs next brought in a Bill to restore to the corporations -their charters, which had been taken away by Charles II.; but, not -content with the legitimate fact of the restoration of these ancient -rights, they again seized on this as an opportunity for inflicting -a blow on the Tories. They introduced at the instigation of William -Sacheverell, a clause disqualifying for seven years every mayor, -recorder, common councilman, or other officer who had been in any way -a party to the surrender of these charters. They added a penalty of -five hundred pounds and perpetual disqualification for every person -who, in violation of this clause, should presume to hold office in any -corporation. They declared that if the Lords should hesitate to pass -this Bill, they would withhold the supplies till it was acquiesced in. - -But William did not hesitate to express his displeasure with the Bill, -and with the indecent hurry with which it was pushed forward. A short -delay was interposed, and meanwhile the news of the intended passing -of the Bill was carried into every quarter of the kingdom, and the -Tories, Peers and Commons, who had gone down to their estates for -Christmas, hastened up to town to oppose it. The battle was furious. -The Whigs flattered themselves that, if they carried this Bill, the -returns to the next Parliament would be such that they should be able -to exclude their opponents from all power and place. After a fierce and -prolonged debate, the Bill was thrown out, and the Tories, elated by -their victory, again brought forward the Indemnity Bill; but this time -they were defeated in turn, and the Whigs immediately proceeded with -their design of converting this Bill into one of pains and penalties; -and to show that they were in earnest, they summoned Sir Robert Sawyer -before the House for his part in the prosecution of the Whigs in the -last reign. He had been Attorney-General, and conducted some of the -worst cases which were decided under Jeffreys and his unprincipled -colleagues, with a spirit which had made him peculiarly odious. The -case of Sir Thomas Armstrong was in particular brought forward--a very -flagrant one. Sir Thomas had been charged with being engaged in the -Rye House plot. He had escaped to the Netherlands, but the authorities -having been bribed to give him up, he was brought back, and hanged, -without a hearing, as an outlaw. It was a barbarous case, and deserved -the severest condemnation. But it was pleaded, on the other hand, -that Sawyer had rendered great services to the Whig cause; that he -had stoutly resisted the attempts of James to introduce Popery and -despotism; that he had resigned his office rather than advocate the -Dispensing Power, and had undertaken the defence of the seven bishops. -No matter; he was excepted from indemnity and expelled the House. A -committee of the whole House proceeded to make out a complete list of -all the offenders to be excluded from the benefit of the Bill. - -This brought William to a resolve which, if carried into effect, would -have given a death-blow to the Whig party, and have neutralised the -glory of their accomplishment of the Revolution. He sent for his chief -ministers, and announced to them his determination to relinquish the -fruitless task of endeavouring to govern a country thus torn to pieces -by faction; that he was weary of the whole concern, and would return -to Holland, never more to meddle with English affairs, but abandon -them to the queen; that for ten months he had been vainly endeavouring -to make peace between the factions of Whig and Tory, and to prevent -them from rushing at each other's throats; that they clearly regarded -nothing but their mutual animosities, for in their indulgence they -utterly neglected the urgent affairs of the nation. Their enemy was in -Ireland, yet it had no effect in bringing them to their senses. Still -worse, every department of the Government was overrun with corruption, -peculation, and neglect. The public service was paralysed; the public -peace was entirely destroyed; and as for himself, with far from robust -health and with the duty of settling the Government upon him, it was -useless further to contend; he could contend no longer. A squadron was -ready to bear him away, and he could only hope that they would show -more regard to the wishes of the queen than they had to his. - -Whether William was in earnest, or whether he only had recourse to a -ruse to bring the combatants to their senses, the result was the same. -The ministers stood confounded. To drive the king from the country by -their quarrels, and that at a time when the old and implacable enemy -of Protestantism and liberty was at their doors, would be a blow -to freedom and to their own credit from which the most disastrous -consequences must flow. They entreated him on their knees and with -tears to forego this design, promising all that he could desire. -William at length consented to make one more trial; but it was only on -condition that the Bill of Indemnity should pass, and that he should -himself proceed to Ireland, and endeavour, by his own personal and -determined effort, to drive James thence. - -Accordingly, on January 27, 1690, he called together the two Houses, -and, announcing his intention to proceed to Ireland, declared the -Parliament dissolved, amid the utmost signs of consternation in the -Whigs, and shouts of exultation from the Tories. This act of William's -to defeat the malice of the Whigs, and his continued firm resistance -to their endeavours to fine and disqualify the Tories, had a wonderful -effect on that party. A numerous body of them deputed Sir John Lowther -to carry their thanks to the king, and assure him that they would -serve him with all their hearts and influence. Numbers of them who had -hitherto stood aloof began to appear at Court, and attended the levee -to kiss the king's hand. William gave orders to liberate those whom the -Whigs had sent to prison on charges of treason. - -On the 1st of February the hour arrived in which all ecclesiastics who -had neglected to take the Oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy would be -deposed. A considerable number of them came in in time; but Sancroft, -the Primate, and five of his bishops, stood out, and were deprived of -their bishoprics, but were treated with particular lenity. - -It was soon found that the conduct of the Whigs had alienated a great -mass of the people. Their endeavours, by Sacheverell's clause, to -disqualify all who had consented to the surrender of the corporation -charters, had made mortal enemies of those persons, many of whom were -at the moment the leading members of the corporations, and therefore -possessing the highest influence on the return of members to the new -Parliament. The same was the case in the country, amongst those who -had been sheriffs or other officers at that period. The consequence -was that the Tories returned a decided majority to the new House, and -amongst them came up Sir Robert Sawyer from Cambridge, whilst the -violence of Hampden had caused his exclusion. - -The revival of the Tory influence introduced great changes in the -ministry. Halifax resigned the Privy Seal. Mordaunt--now Earl of -Monmouth--Delamere, Sidney Godolphin, and Admiral Herbert--now Earl of -Torrington--were dismissed. Caermarthen was continued Lord President of -the Council, and Prime Minister. Sir John Lowther was appointed First -Lord of the Treasury, in place of Monmouth. Nottingham retained his -post as Secretary of State; and Thomas Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, was -placed at the head of the Admiralty, Torrington having, to his great -discontent, to yield that position, but retaining that of High Admiral, -and being satisfied by a splendid grant of ten thousand acres of Crown -land in the Peterborough fens. Delamere, too, was soothed on his -dismissal by being created Earl of Warrington. Richard Hampden became -Chancellor of the Exchequer. - -Parliament met on the 20th of March, and the Commons, under the new -Tory influence, elected Sir John Trevor Speaker, who was besides made -First Commissioner of the Great Seal. In this man is said to have -commenced that system of Government corruption of Parliament--the -buying up, or buying off of members, which grew to such a height, -and attained its climax under Sir Robert Walpole. Trevor was an -unscrupulous Tory, and Burnet says he was "furnished with such sums -of money as might purchase some votes." He undertook, accordingly, -to manage the party in the House. The Whigs were in the worst of -humours, but they had now learnt that it was not wise to push matters -with the Crown too far, and as a body they watched their opportunity -for recovering by degrees their ascendency. Some of the more violent, -however, as the Earl of Shrewsbury and the notorious Ferguson, entered -into immediate correspondence with James. - -William, in his opening speech, dwelt chiefly on the necessity of -settling the revenue, to enable him to proceed to Ireland, and on -passing the Bill of Indemnity; and he was very plain in expressing -his sense of the truculent spirit of party, which, in endeavouring to -wound one another, injured and embarrassed his Government still more. -He informed them that he had drawn up an Act of Grace, constituting the -Bill of Indemnity, and should send it to them for their acceptance; -for it is the practice for all such Acts to proceed from the Crown, -and then to be voted by the Peers, and finally by the Commons. He -then informed them that he left the administration during his absence -in Ireland in the hands of the Queen; and he desired that if any Act -was necessary for the confirmation of that authority, they should -pass it. The Commons at once passed a vote of thanks, and engaged to -support the Government of their Majesties by every means in their -power. On the 27th of March they passed unanimously the four following -resolutions--namely, that all the hereditary revenues of King James, -except the hearth-tax, were vested now in their present Majesties; that -a Bill should be brought in to declare and perpetuate this investment; -that the moiety of the excise granted to Charles and James should be -secured by Bill to their present Majesties for life; and finally, that -the customs which had been granted to Charles and James for their lives -should be granted for four years from the next Christmas. William -was much dissatisfied with the last proviso, and complained that the -Commons should show less confidence in him, who had restored their -liberties, than in Charles and James, who destroyed them. Sir John -Lowther pressed this point on the Commons strongly, but in vain; and -Burnet told King William that there was no disrespect meant towards -him, but that the Commons wished to establish this as a general -principle, protective of future subjects from the evils which the -ill-judged liberality of past Parliaments had produced. - -The next measure on which the Whigs and Tories tried their strength -was a Bill brought in by the Whigs to do what was already sufficiently -done in the Bill of Rights--to pronounce William and Mary the rightful -and lawful sovereigns of this realm, and next to declare that all the -acts of the late Convention should be held as valid as laws. The first -part, already sufficiently recognised, was quietly passed over; but the -Tories made a stout opposition to extending the Act beyond the year -1689, on the plea that nothing could convert the self-constituted -Convention into a legal Parliament. But the distinction was a mere -party distinction; for, if the Convention was not a legal body, nothing -could render its acts so. The Earl of Nottingham, who headed this -movement, entered a strong protest on the journal of the Lords against -it, and this protest was signed by many peers, and amongst them the -Whig peers, Bolton, Macclesfield, Stamford, Bedford, Newport, Monmouth, -Herbert, Suffolk, Warrington, and Oxford. The Bill, however, was -carried, and with still more ease in the Commons. - -The Tories, mortified at the triumph of the Whigs, now brought in a -Bill to change the military government of the City of London as the -lieutenancy of the counties had been changed. They thanked the king -for having by his measures brought in so many Churchmen and thrown out -so many Nonconformists. This Bill the Whigs managed to impede till the -session closed; but not so with another from the Tory party, ordering -payment of the five hundred pounds fines incurred by all who had taken -office or served as magistrates without taking the necessary Oaths of -Allegiance and Supremacy. This was carried, and the money ordered to be -paid into the Exchequer, and a separate account of it to be kept. - -The defeat of the Whigs only infused more fierceness in the party -warfare. They hastened to bring in a Bill compelling every person in -office, civil, ecclesiastical, or military, to take an oath to abjure -King James and his right to the Crown, thence called the Abjuration -Oath. This oath might, moreover, be tendered by any magistrate to any -subject of their Majesties whatever, and whoever refused it was to be -committed to prison, and kept there till he complied. It was hoped by -the Whigs that this Bill would greatly embarrass the Tories who had -taken office under the present monarchy, and accordingly it met with -a decided opposition in the Commons, and was thrown out by a majority -of one hundred and ninety-two to one hundred and seventy-eight. It was -then, with some alteration, introduced as a fresh Bill into the Lords. -William went down to the Lords to listen personally to the debate; -and several of the peers made very free and pertinent remarks on the -uselessness of so many oaths to bind any disloyal or unconscientious -person. - -The Bill was defeated in the Lords by being committed, but never -reported, for on the 20th of May, after King William had given his -consent to the Bill, which he had recommended, for conferring on the -queen full powers to administer the government during his absence in -Ireland, and also to that revising the _quo warranto_ judgment against -the City of London, the Marquis of Caermarthen appeared in the House -with an Act of Grace ready drawn and signed by the king. - -[Illustration: HENRY VII.'S CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER ABBEY.] - -William had tried in vain to curb the deadly animosities of the -contending parties by Bills of Indemnity. These could be discussed -and rejected, not so an Act of Grace: it issued from the sovereign, -and came already signed to Parliament. It must be at once accepted or -rejected by each House, and in such a case as the present, where it -was meant as a healing and pacifying act, it could not be rejected -without a disloyal and ungracious air. Accordingly it was received with -the deference which it deserved, and both Houses gave their sanction -to it, standing bareheaded, and without one dissenting voice. From -the benefit of this Act of Grace, pardoning all past offences, were, -it is true, excepted thirty names, prominent amongst whom were the -Marquis of Powis, the Lords Sunderland, Huntingdon, Dover, Melfort, -and Castlemaine; the Bishops of Durham and St. Davids; the Judges -Herbert, Jenner, Withers, and Holloway; Roger Lestrange; Lundy, the -traitor governor of Londonderry; Father Petre; and Judge Jeffreys. This -last monster of infamy was already deceased in the Tower, but it was -well understood that if the others named only kept themselves at peace -they would never be inquired after. Neither party, however, thanked -William for the constrained peace. The Whigs were disappointed of the -vengeance they burned to enjoy; the Tories, and even those who had the -most narrowly escaped the intended mischief, ungenerously said that if -William had really anything to avenge, he would not have pardoned it. - -[Illustration: WILLIAM PENN.] - -The day after the passing of this important Act he prorogued -Parliament. The Convocation which had been summoned, and met in Henry -VII.'s Chapel--St. Paul's, its usual meeting-place, having been burnt -down in the Great Fire, was not yet rebuilt--had been prorogued some -time before. Its great topic had been the scheme of comprehension, -which was warmly advocated by Burnet and the more liberal members, but -the High Church was as high and immovable as ever. Nothing could be -accomplished, and from this time the Nonconformists gave up all hope of -any reunion with the Church. - -William now made preparations for the Irish campaign. It was time, -for Schomberg had effected little, and the English fleet had done -worse than nothing at sea. It was not only in Ireland that the danger -of William lay, or whence came his troubles. He had to maintain the -contest on the Continent against Louis XIV., against James in Ireland, -against corruption and imbecility in his fleet, against the most -wholesale mismanagement and peculation in every department of the -English Government, and against the feuds and disaffection of his own -courtiers and servants. Whilst the contests which we have just related -were agitating Parliament, William was vigorously at work inquiring -into the malversation all around him. Shales, the Commissary-General, -was dismissed, and a new spirit was introduced into the commissariat -under the vigilant eye of William himself. Instead of the vile poisons -and putrid meats, excellent provisions were supplied to the army. -The villainies by which the poor soldiers had been robbed of their -clothing, and bedding, and tents, terminated, and they were soon well -clothed, lodged, and equipped. The road to Chester swarmed with waggons -conveying wholesome supplies, and a fleet lay there ready to convey -the king over, with additional troops and stores. Before he set out -himself, the army in Ireland amounted to thirty thousand effective men. - -But the affairs of the Channel fleet were in the worst possible -condition. William there committed the error of continuing Torrington, -better known as Admiral Herbert--who had been suspected of a leaning -towards James, and who had been already beaten at Bantry Bay--in the -chief command, when he removed him from his post of First Lord of the -Admiralty. Herbert was a debauched, effeminate fellow, indulging in all -sorts of license and luxury, whilst his sailors were suffering the most -atrocious treatment. They had such meat served out to them that neither -they nor even dogs could touch it. They were ill-fed, ill-clothed, -ill-paid; the contractors and the officers were enriching themselves -at their expense; and, what was worse, they were compelled to bear the -disgrace of having our commerce interrupted in all directions by the -French cruisers. Whilst they lay inactive in Portsmouth, the French -scoured the English coast, and captured trading vessels with their -cargoes to the value of six hundred thousand pounds. - -William had, however, difficulties at home to surmount before he could -depart for Ireland. Just as he was prepared to set out, the discovery -was made of an extensive traitorous correspondence between a number -of concealed Jacobites and the Court of St. Germains. Some of his -own ministers and courtiers were deep in it. Two messengers had been -despatched from James's queen from St. Germains, with letters to the -conspiring Jacobites. One of these, of the name of Fuller, was induced -by some means to betray the secret. He went boldly to Whitehall, -and delivered his despatches to William. Crone, the other, was -arrested, and soon after another messenger of the name of Tempest. The -disclosures made through this means revealed an extensive ramification -of treason that was enough to appal the stoutest heart and coolest -brain. The queen's own relative, Clarendon, was one of the most zealous -plotters; Ailesbury and Dartmouth, who had both taken the oaths to -the new monarchs, were among the most guilty; and the latter, though -an admiral, was prepared, in connection with other officers, to betray -the coast defences, and to carry over their ships to the enemy. William -Penn was arrested on account of an intercepted letter to James, and -charged with treason; but he denied any treasonable intentions, and -said he only corresponded with James as an old friend. Nothing of a -criminal nature could be proved against him, and he was soon liberated. -Viscount Preston, who had been raised to that dignity by James, but -was not admitted by the peers to possess a valid patent of nobility, -was another; and what was far more mortifying, the Earl of Shrewsbury, -who had so recently resigned the seals as Secretary of State, was -discovered to be deeply implicated. It was found that the conspiracy -was spread far and wide throughout the country, and that the Jacobites -in Worcestershire, Lancashire, Yorkshire, and other northern counties, -were laying in arms and ammunition, and gentlemen who had received -commissions from James were actually mustering and drilling troops -on the solitary moorlands. The correspondence was as active between -England and Ireland, as between England and France. - -Amid dangers of such magnitude it may seem strange that William -should venture to leave England, and burthen his wife with the cares -and responsibilities of such a crisis, amid the machinations of so -many determined enemies; but his affairs as imperiously demanded his -presence in Ireland, and he therefore took the best measures that he -could for the assistance and security of the queen. He appointed a -council of nine of the most efficient and trusty persons he could think -of, some Whigs, some Tories. They were Devonshire, Dorset, Monmouth, -Edward Russell, Caermarthen, Pembroke, Nottingham, Marlborough, and -Lowther. In making this selection William must have put aside many -personal prejudices. Marlborough was appointed as most likely to advise -the queen as to military affairs, though he was the known partisan and -adviser of Anne. Russell, who was an admiral and Treasurer of the Navy, -was the person to advise her in naval matters, and Caermarthen was, -from his experience, and as having a great regard for the queen, the -man on whom she could most rely for the management of the main business -of the State. William solemnly laid upon them the great trust which he -reposed in them, and called upon them as men and statesmen, to afford -the queen every assistance which her being left under such trying -circumstances demanded for her. He likewise informed Rochester that -he was well acquainted with the treasonable practices of his brother -Clarendon, and bade him warn him from him to tempt him no further to a -painful severity. - -Having arranged this matter, William set out on the 4th of June for -Chester, where he embarked on the 11th, and landed at Carrickfergus -on the 14th. He proceeded immediately towards Belfast, and was met by -Schomberg on the way. William was attended by Prince George of Denmark, -the Duke of Ormond, the Earls of Oxford, Scarborough, and Manchester, -Mr. Boyle, and many other persons of distinction. He appointed the -whole of his army to rendezvous at Loughbrickland, and immediately set -about organising his plans, and preparing his stores for an active -campaign. Before we enter upon that, however, we must take a hasty -glance at what Schomberg had done during the autumn, winter, and spring. - -This was little for so numerous an army, commanded by so experienced -a general. Schomberg was, it is true, eighty years of age, and many -complained that time had diminished his fire, and that much more -ought to have been effected. But William, who may be supposed a -most competent judge, cast no blame upon him; on the contrary, he -thanked him for having preserved his army at all, his troops having -had to contend with the horrors of a deficient and most villainous -commissariat, as we have already shown. - -Schomberg on landing had taken Carrickfergus, Newry, and Dundalk, where -he entrenched himself. He had found the country through which he passed -a perfect waste. It could afford him no provisions, and, if he were -compelled to fall back, no shelter. James, on his landing, had advanced -from Dublin to Drogheda, where he was with twenty thousand men, besides -vast numbers of wild Irish, armed with scythes, pikes, and skeans. But -Schomberg found himself in no condition for fighting. His baggage could -not reach him for want of waggons, and from the state of the roads. -His arms were many of them good for nothing, being the vile rubbish -furnished by the contractors under the management of the fraudulent -Ministry and the infamous Commissary-General Shales. His soldiers were -suffering from want of proper clothing, shoes, beds, and tents. Worse -still, the soldiers were fast perishing with fever. Bad food, bad -clothing, bad lodging, and drenching and continual rains without proper -shelter, were fast doing their work on the English army. Schomberg did -his best. He stimulated his soldiers to make roofs to their huts of -turf and fern, and to make their beds of heather and fern, raised on -dry mounds above the soaking rains. But all was in vain. The soldiers -were become spiritless and demoralised. They were either too listless -to move or too excited by whisky, which they managed to get, to follow -his recommendations. Scenes like those which appeared in London during -the Plague now horrified his camp. The soldiers gave way to wild -license, drank, swore, sang bacchanalian songs, drank the Devil's -health, and made seats of the corpses of their dead comrades at their -revels, which they declared were the only ones they had to keep them -out of the wet. - -The sickness appeared at the same time in the English fleet which lay -off the coast at Carrickfergus, and swept away almost every man from -some of the vessels. By the commencement of November, Schomberg's army -could not number more than five thousand effective men. The Irish -in James's army did not suffer so much, and they rejoiced in the -pestilence which was thus annihilating their heretic enemies. But the -weather at length compelled James to draw off, first to Ardee, and -then into winter quarters in different towns. Schomberg, thus set at -liberty, quickly followed his example, and quartered his troops for the -winter in the different towns of Ulster, fixing his headquarters at -Lisburn. His army had, however, lost above six thousand men by disease. - -In February, 1690, the campaign was begun by the Duke of Berwick, -James's natural son, who attacked William's advanced post at Belturbet; -but he met with such a reception that he nearly lost his life, being -severely wounded and having his horse killed under him. In fact, the -condition of the two armies had been completely changed during the -winter by the different management of the two commanders. Schomberg -had been diligently exerting himself to restore the health and to -perfect the discipline of his troops. As spring advanced he received -the benefit of William's exertions and stern reforms in England. Good, -healthy food, good clothing, bedding, tents, and arms arrived. Fresh -troops were from time to time landing, amongst them regiments of German -and Scandinavian mercenaries. By the time of William's arrival the army -was in a fine and vigorous condition, and amounted to thirty thousand -men. - -Not so the army of James: it had grown more and more disorderly. James -and his Court had returned to Dublin, where they spent the winter -in the grossest dissoluteness and neglect of all discipline or law. -Gambling, riot, and debauchery scandalised the sober Catholics, who had -hoped for a saviour in James. Of all the army, the cavalry alone had -been maintained by its officers in discipline. The foot soldiers roamed -over the country at pleasure, plundering their own compatriots. James's -own kitchen and larder were supplied by his foragers from the substance -of his subjects, without regard to law or any prospect of payment. It -was in vain that remonstrances were made; James paid no attention to -them. His bad money was gone; he had used up all the old pots, pans, -and cracked cannon, and applied to Louis for fresh remittances, which -did not arrive. To complete the ruin of his affairs, he requested the -withdrawal of Rosen and D'Avaux, who, heartless as they were, saw -the ruinous course things were taking, and remonstrated against it. -Lauzun, an incompetent commander, was sent over to take their place, -accompanied by about seven thousand French infantry. When Lauzun -arrived in Ireland, the desolation of the country, the rude savagery of -the people, and the disorders of the Court and capital, were such as to -strike him and his officers with astonishment and horror. He declared -in his letters to the French minister, Louvois, that the country was in -so frightful a state that no person who had lived in any other could -conceive it; that James's chief functionaries pulled each his different -way, instead of assisting the king; and that "such were the wants, -disunions, and dejection, that the king's affairs looked like the -primitive chaos." - -Unfortunately, Lauzun was not the man to reduce chaos to order. He had -accompanied Mary, the queen of James, in her flight from London to -Paris, and had there too won the good graces of Madame Maintenon; and -by the influence of these ladies, who imagined him a great general, -he obtained this important command. He had to fill the place of both -D'Avaux and Rosen, of ambassador and general, without the sagacity and -skill which would have fitted him for either. He conceived the greatest -contempt and hatred of the Irish, and was not likely to work well with -them. Such was the condition in which James was found on the landing of -King William. - -William, we have said, pushed on immediately to Belfast, and thence, -without permitting himself to be delayed by the congratulatory -multitudes that surrounded him, he hastened forward to his main army -at Loughbrickland. The soldiers of his army consisted of a variety of -nations, many of whom had won fame under great leaders. There were -Dutch, who had fought under William and his great generals against -those of Louis of France; Germans, Danes, Finlanders, French Huguenots, -now purged of their false countrymen; English and Scottish troops, -who had fought also in Holland, in Tangier, at Killiecrankie; and -Anglo-Irish, who had won such laurels at Londonderry, Enniskillen, -and Newton Butler. All were animated by the presence of the king, and -of his assembled generals of wide renown, and with the confidence of -putting down the Popish king, and his French supporters and Irish -adherents, who had robbed and expelled them and their families. The -Germans and Dutch burned to meet again the French invaders of their -country, the desolators of the Palatinate; and the French Protestants -were as much on fire to avenge themselves on their Catholic countrymen, -who had been their oppressors. It was not merely English troops -acting on ordinary grounds of hostility against Irish ones, but -representatives of almost all Protestant Europe collected to avenge the -wrongs of Protestants and of their own countries. - -William was confident in his army, and declared that he was not come -to Ireland to let the grass grow under his feet. Schomberg still -recommended caution when it was no longer needed, and thus gave a -colour to the words of those who accused him of having shown too much -caution already, which they insinuated was but the result of old age. -On the 24th of June, only ten days after landing, William was in full -march southwards. James did not wait for his coming, but abandoned -Dundalk and retreated into Drogheda. His generals, indeed, represented -to him that caution and delay were his best policy against so powerful -a force, and even recommended that he should retreat beyond Dublin and -entrench himself at Athlone, as a more central and defensible position; -but James would not listen to this, and Tyrconnel strengthened him in -the resolution. - -[Illustration: JAMES ENTERING DUBLIN AFTER THE BATTLE OF THE BOYNE. -(_See p._ 431.)] - -The morning of the 1st of July, destined to become a great epoch in -Ireland, rose brilliantly, and the opposing armies were in motion by -four o'clock. William overnight had given the word "Westminster" as -the recognition sign, and ordered his men to wear each a green sprig -in his hat, to distinguish them from the enemy, who, out of compliment -to France, wore a white cockade, generally of paper. According to -William's disposition of battle, Meinhart Schomberg, the son of the old -general, supported by Portland and Douglas with the Scottish guards, -was to take the right and secure the bridge of Slane. He himself -headed the left wing near Drogheda with a strong force of cavalry, -and Schomberg the centre, which was opposite Oldbridge, where he was -supported by the Blues of Solmes, and the brave Londonderries and -Enniskilleners, and on his left the French Huguenots under Caillemot, -and between them and William the Danes. Meinhart Schomberg found the -bridge of Slane already occupied by Sir Neil O'Neil, with a regiment of -Irish Dragoons; but the English charged them briskly, killed O'Neil, -and made themselves masters of the bridge. This was a grand advantage -at the outset. It enabled the English to attack the right wing of -James, and endangered their seizure of the pass of Duleek, a very -narrow defile in the hills, about four miles in their rear, by which -they would cut off altogether their retreat. Lauzun, who had posted -the main strength of the Irish infantry at the foot of Oldbridge, -and supported them by Sarsfield's horse, was compelled to despatch -the horse towards Slane Bridge, to guard against this danger, thus -weakening his centre. - -Nearly at the same moment that this movement took place, William put -himself at the head of his cavalry, and with his sword in his left -hand, for his right arm was too sore and stiff from a gunshot received -on the previous day to hold it, he dashed into the river and led his -wing across. At the same moment Schomberg gave the word, and the centre -was in motion. Solmes' Dutch Blues led the way, and their example was -instantly followed by the men of Londonderry and Enniskillen, and at -their left the Huguenots. The men waded through the stream, holding -aloft their muskets and ammunition. The brunt of the encounter was -there, for there the enemy had expected the main attack, and had not -only concentrated their forces there, horse and foot, but had defended -the bank with a breastwork and batteries. The English had to advance -against the deadly fire from these defences, and from the thronging -Irish, who raised the wildest hurrahs, whilst they could return no fire -till they were nearly across and sufficiently raised from the water. -Then they saw the breastwork and the batteries lined with one mass of -foes. They, however, pushed resolutely forward, fired, charged the foe, -and in an instant the whole demoralised Irish broke and fled. Never was -there so complete and ignominious a rout. These men, on whom so much -depended, but who, despite all warnings to James, had been suffered to -plunder and riot without restraint or discipline, now dispersed with -so dastardly a rapidity that it was more like a dream than a reality. - -The engagement was now general, from the left where William commanded, -almost under the walls of Drogheda, to the bridge of Slane. The English -and their allies had forced their way across the river, and were -engaged in fierce contest with the Irish horse and the French cavalry -and foot. When Schomberg saw the cavalry of Tyrconnel and Hamilton bear -down upon his centre, and that they had actually driven back Solmes' -Blues into the river, he dashed into the river himself, to rally and -encourage them. Probably stung by a generous sense of shame, for he -had discouraged the attempt to attack the Irish army in that position, -the old man now exhibited an opposite degree of incaution, for without -defensive armour he rushed into the _mêlée_, disregarding the advice -of his officers to put on his cuirass. As he rode through the river, -Caillemot was borne past him to the north bank mortally wounded, but -still crying to his brave Huguenots, "On! on! my lads! To glory! to -glory!" Schomberg took up the cry of encouragement to the men, appalled -by the loss of their general, and said, "Allons, messieurs, voilà vos -persécuteurs!" But scarcely had he uttered the words when he, too, -received a mortal wound and fell. When he was found he was dead, with a -bullet wound through his neck, and a couple of sword gashes on his head. - -For half an hour the battle raged with a fury such as the oldest -soldiers of the Netherlands now declared they had never seen surpassed. -Hamilton and Tyrconnel led on their cavalry against Schomberg's forces -with a steadiness and bravery that were as much to their credit as -their conduct in civil life had been disgraceful. William, on his part, -had found a warm reception on the left. The Irish horse withstood him -stoutly, and drove back his guards and the Enniskilleners repeatedly. -On his first coming up to the Enniskilleners, he was mistaken for one -of the enemy, and was near being shot by a trooper. The mistake being -rectified, the Enniskilleners followed him with enthusiasm. William -threw away all thought of danger, and led them into the thickest of the -fight. At one moment a ball carried away the cock of his pistol, at -another the heel of his boot, but he still led on. The Enniskilleners -fought desperately, and the horse of Ginkell charged brilliantly. - -[Illustration: KING WILLIAM III. AT THE BATTLE OF THE BOYNE. - - FROM THE PAINTING PROBABLY BY JAN. WYCK, - IN THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY. -] - -They were thus fighting their way towards the centre, and had advanced -as far as Plottin Castle, about a mile and a half from Oldbridge, -when the Irish horse made a last furious effort, drove back the -Enniskilleners, and killed a number of them. William rallied them, -and again led them to the charge, broke the Irish cavalry, and took -prisoner Hamilton, who had been heading this gallant charge. When -William saw, wounded and a prisoner, the man who had proved so -traitorous to him when sent to Ireland, he said, "Is this business -over, or will your horse make more fight?" "On my honour, sir," replied -Hamilton, "I believe they will." "_Your_ honour, indeed!" muttered -William; but ordering the wounded man to be properly attended to, he -rode forward to join the main body and end the fight. - -That was now soon over. The centre and the right wing had done dreadful -execution. They had nearly annihilated whole regiments. One of them -had only thirty men left without a wound. They had fought in a manner -worthy of a better cause and a better leader, for James had early -abandoned the field, and left his deluded followers to the mercy of the -enemy. No sooner did he see the Irish fly before the enemy at Oldbridge -than, from his safe position on the hill of Donore, he gave orders for -all the baggage and the artillery, except six pieces, already in full -employ in the engagement, to be conveyed with all speed on the road to -Dublin, so as to effect their passage through the defile of Duleek; -and, escorted by Sarsfield's horse, he made all haste after them. - -If James was one of the worst and most infatuated monarchs that ever -reigned in time of peace, in war he was the most dastardly. In England -he fled disgracefully on the approach of William, without a blow, and -here again he showed the same utter want of spirit and energy. He had -taken no care to keep his soldiers disciplined and in proper tone for -the coming war, and he deserted them at the first symptoms of reverse. -If the English had pushed on briskly from the bridge of Slane, they -might still have intercepted him, and brought him prisoner to William; -but, the conflict over, they relaxed their efforts, and William gave -orders to spare the flying troops as much as possible. When Lauzun and -Tyrconnel approached the pass of Duleek with their retreating cavalry, -they found it choked with a confused mass of waggons, artillery, and -terrified fugitives. They therefore faced about, and repelled the -pursuers till the rout had got through. The cavalry of William still -followed the flying throng as far as the Neale, a second pass, and till -it grew dark, when they returned to the main army. James continued -his panic flight, however, never stopping till he reached Dublin. -The city had all day been in a state of intense excitement. First had -come the news that William was wounded, then that he was dead; amid -the rejoicing of the Jacobites came the horrid news of the defeat, -followed about sunset by James himself, attended by about two hundred -cavalry, haggard, wayworn, and covered with dust. All that night kept -pouring in the defeated troops, and early in the morning James, not -deeming himself safe, took leave of the mayor, aldermen, and officers -of his army, upbraiding the Irish with their cowardice in having -deserted him almost without a blow, and vowing that he would never -trust to an Irish army again. The Irish returned the compliment, and -declared that, if the English would exchange kings, they were ready to -fight again, and to conquer too. If any man had ever caused his own -misfortune and defeat, it was James; but he never took the means to -avoid discomfiture, and he never saw, or at least, never seemed to see, -that the blame lay with himself. Without, therefore, making another -effort, though he had a large army still on foot, and all the south of -Ireland to employ it in, he continued his flight towards Waterford, in -terror all the way lest he should be overtaken by William's cavalry, -and, reaching Waterford on the third day, he got away by water, without -loss of time, to Kinsale, whence he sailed for France, quitting Ireland -at the spot where he had entered it. - -It might have been expected that Tyrconnel and Lauzun would yet -rally their forces at Dublin, and make a resolute stand there. But -the decisive defeat of the Boyne, the untrustworthiness of the Irish -infantry, the loss on the field amounting to upwards of one thousand -five hundred, and those chiefly cavalry, the desertion of vast numbers -of infantry on the road southward, and the precipitate flight of James, -discouraged them. Towards evening of the same day that James left, -Tyrconnel and Lauzun mustered their forces and marched out of the city, -determining to make their stand on the Shannon, within the strong -defences of Athlone and Limerick. No sooner had they evacuated the city -than the Protestants issued from their retreats, liberated all the -prisoners, and sent off messengers to invite William to enter his new -capital in triumph. This he did on the 6th of July, and then made for -Waterford. - -William's object in reaching Waterford was to take ship for -England--not, like James, to abandon his army out of mere -cowardice--but in order to protect England too. He had received news -that the French, under Tourville, were hovering on the southern coast -of England; that they had again defeated the British fleet under the -wretched Torrington, and were meditating invasion of the country. He -hastened on; the Irish troops at his approach abandoned Clonmel and -Kilkenny. Waterford was similarly evacuated, and William, nominating -Count Solmes commander-in-chief during his absence, was about to -embark, when he received further intelligence. Tourville had made a -partial descent at Teignmouth in Devonshire, sacked it, and then drawn -off in consequence of the menacing attitude of the inhabitants of the -western counties. He therefore hastened to rejoin his army, which was -on the way towards Limerick, where Douglas had found such resistance -that he had been compelled to raise the siege. On the 9th of August he -sat down before that town, and found the Irish determined to make a -resolute defence of it. - -The Irish, ashamed of their conduct at the battle of the Boyne, -and seeing their Saxon masters once more rapidly recovering their -ascendency in the island, one and all, men and officers, determined -on here making a stand to the death. They did not owe their spirit to -their French allies, for Lauzun and his officers ridiculed the idea of -defending the place, which they regarded as most miserably fortified. -Tyrconnel joined them in that opinion; but Sarsfield encouraged his -countrymen, and exhorted them to cast up breastworks of earth, which, -in our times--as at Sebastopol--have convinced military men that they -are far more impervious to cannon than stone or brick walls. He could -not convince the French, who had lost all faith in Irish prowess, -and who pined to return to France from the miseries and privations -of Ireland; nor Tyrconnel, who was old, and completely dispirited by -the action of the Boyne. He and the French drew off with the French -forces into Galway; and Boisseleau, a Frenchman, who _did_ sympathise -with the Irish, and Sarsfield, were left to defend the place. They -had yet twenty thousand men, who were animated by a new spirit, and -were destined to make the defence of Limerick as famous as that of -Londonderry. - -Limerick stood partly on an island in the Shannon; and to take that -part it was necessary to have boats, for only a single bridge connected -the two parts of the town, or the two towns, as they were called--the -English and the Irish. William had a quantity of tin boats on the way -for this service, and his cannon and ammunition were also following -him. Sarsfield seized immediately on this circumstance when it came -to his knowledge. He got out of the city in the night, surprised -the escort of the guns, and destroyed the guns, blew up the powder, -and made good his return to the town. This exploit raised Sarsfield -wonderfully in the opinion of his countrymen, and at the same time -raised their own spirits. - -William sent for fresh guns from Waterford, and pressed on the siege; -but the autumnal rains began to deluge the low, marshy banks of the -Shannon, and to sweep away his men with fever. The Irish, on the -other hand, had received a fresh stimulus to exertion in the arrival -of Baldearg O'Donnel, the chief of one of the most famous old races -of Ulster, who had been in the service of Spain, and had returned -to assist his countrymen in this last effort to throw off the yoke -of the Saxon. The high veneration for the name of the O'Donnel, and -the character of the man, placed him at the head of a large class of -the Irish in Limerick. There was a prophecy that an O'Donnel was to -conquer the English, and the enthusiastic Celts believed that this was -the time. And, in truth, the prediction appeared beginning to verify -itself, for, after a desperate attempt to take the town by storm on -the 27th of August, William resolved to raise the siege, and place his -troops in healthy quarters for the winter. During this attempt, William -had another narrow escape from a cannon-ball. His men, too, after -breaching the walls in several places, and carrying the counterscarp, -or covered way, suffered great loss. On the 30th the siege was raised, -and William hastened to Waterford, and thence to England. He left -the government of the island in the care of three Lords Justices, -namely, Viscount Sidney, Lord Coningsby, and Sir Charles Porter. -About the same time Tyrconnel and Lauzun quitted Ireland for France, -leaving the affairs of James in a council of civilians, and the army -under a commission, at the head of which stood the Duke of Berwick as -commander-in-chief, and in the very lowest place the brave Sarsfield, -of whom the aged Tyrconnel entertained a jealousy worthy of himself and -of his master. - -[Illustration: - - _Reproduced by André & Sleigh, Ld., Bushey, Herts._ - -A LOST CAUSE: THE FLIGHT OF JAMES II. AFTER THE BATTLE OF THE BOYNE, -1690. - -BY ANDREW C. GOW, R.A. FROM THE PAINTING IN THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF -BRITISH ART. ] - -[Illustration: THE FRENCH RETREATING FROM TORBAY. (_See p._ 434.)] - -We must now take notice of what had been passing in England and -Scotland during William's campaign in Ireland. Immediately after his -departure the traitor Crone was brought to the bar, and, after a full -and fair trial, convicted and condemned to death. Pardon, however, -was offered him on condition of his revealing what he knew of the -Jacobite machinations. After a violent struggle with himself, and after -two respites, he complied, and gave important information to the Privy -Council. The evidences of an active conspiracy of the Jacobites were -too prominent to be overlooked. Tourville, the French admiral, was -hovering on the coasts of Devon and Dorsetshire, and the Jacobites, -as expecting a descent of a French force, were all in a state of the -greatest excitement. It was deemed necessary to arrest a number of the -most dangerous conspirators, amongst whom was Clarendon, the queen's -uncle; and he and the rest were committed to the Tower. Torrington -was ordered to join the fleet in the Downs, and chase the French -admiral from the coast. At St. Helens he was joined by a powerful -Dutch squadron, under the command of Admiral Evertsen, and they lay -off Ventnor, whilst Tourville with his fleet lay off the Needles. -An engagement was expected every hour, when Torrington was seen to -draw off from the coast of the Isle of Wight, and retreat before the -French admiral towards the Strait of Dover. The alarm in London became -excessive. The scheme of the Jacobites, as it was revealed to the -Council, was to enter the Thames; the Jacobites in London had agreed to -rise and seize the queen, and proclaim James. James himself had engaged -to leave Ireland to Lauzun and Tyrconnel, and throw himself once more -amongst his adherents in England. Another squadron of the French was to -land at Torbay; and the country once in their possession, the united -French fleet was to cut off the return of William from Ireland. With a -knowledge of these plans, and the doubtful conduct of Torrington, the -Privy Council was in a state of great agitation. Caermarthen was for -the most decisive measures, in which he was energetically supported by -Monmouth. They proposed that Russell, who was not only a first-rate -officer, but a determined one, should be sent over to the fleet, and -Monmouth, at his own request, as a military officer, was sent with -him. A dispatch, however, was sent before them, ordering Torrington to -come to an engagement at all hazards, and this compelled him to act -before Russell and Monmouth could get on board. On the 30th of June, -the day before the battle of the Boyne, he felt himself compelled to -come to an engagement with Tourville off Beachy Head. Tourville had -eighty-two men-of-war; the united fleet of England and Holland did not -exceed sixty; but a Blake or Russell would have thought little of the -difference. Torrington, as had been too plainly evident in the affair -of Bantry Bay, was a man of very different stuff. When compelled to -fight, he determined that the Dutch should bear the brunt of it. He -therefore placed the Dutch vessels in the van, and gave the signal to -engage. The Dutch fought with their usual bravery, and for many hours -sustained almost the whole fury of the battle, little supported by -the English. Torrington showed no inclination to engage, but appeared -rather disposed to see the Dutch, whom he hated, annihilated. A few -of the English captains did their duty gallantly; but, so far as -Torrington was concerned, had it not been for the Dutch, the French -might have ascended the Thames, as Van Tromp formerly did, and insulted -the whole seaboard of the country at their pleasure. When the Dutch had -lost two admirals and many other officers they drew off, their ships -being in a terribly shattered condition. One of their dismantled ships -fell into the hands of the French, the others Torrington ordered to -be either burnt or towed away; and, ignominiously retiring into the -Thames, he pulled up the buoys, to prevent the French from following. -Tourville, however, had suffered so much from the Dutch, that he drew -off towards his own coast, and left the Londoners to suffer all the -alarms without the danger of invasion. London, indeed, was in the same -state of terror as in the time of the Dutch invasion of the Thames. The -wildest rumours were every hour arriving. The confidence in Torrington -was gone, and he was generally denounced as being a traitor to the -Government. Either he was a most incompetent commander or his heart was -not in the cause: and the latter was no doubt the fact; for, though -his treason was not patent at this time, it afterwards became certain -enough that he maintained a close correspondence with the Courts of -both St. Germains and Versailles. But, whether traitor or imbecile, -London was in no degree confident of his being able to repel the -French. It was believed by numbers that the dockyards at Chatham would -be destroyed, the ships in the Thames under protection of the Tower be -set fire to, and the Tower itself be cannonaded. To add to the gloom -and affright, the news of the defeat of Count Waldeck at Fleurus, in -the Netherlands, by Luxemburg, Louis's general, just then arrived. -Paris was ablaze with fireworks and rejoicings; London was all gloom -and panic. - -And truly there were menacing circumstances. Tourville was bearding -the English on their own coasts; Torrington dared not or would not go -to encounter him; and Marshal Humières lay with a strong force on the -opposite shores, not far from Dunkirk, in readiness, it was believed, -to go on board Tourville's fleet and make a descent on England, where -the Jacobites were prepared to join the invaders. But on the fourth day -after the battle of Beachy Head arrived the news of William's splendid -victory on the Boyne, and the spirit of the nation rose at once. It -was felt that the ascendency of James was over, and the news of his -ignominious flight, which soon followed, completely extinguished the -hopes of his partisans, and gave stability to the throne of William and -Mary. - -And this was soon strikingly demonstrated. Tourville triumphantly -ranged along the English coasts, after his victory at Beachy Head, -without opposition, and he now imagined that nothing was necessary to -the restoration of James but a descent on England with a tolerable -force, which was certain to be welcomed by the expectant Jacobites. -Accordingly Tourville took on board a considerable body of soldiers, -and made for the coast of Devon. His fleet numbered a hundred and -eleven sail, but of these a large number were mere Mediterranean -galleys, rowed by slaves, and sent as transports to carry over the -troops. On the 22nd of July he landed at Torbay, where William himself -had landed; but, instead of finding the gentry or the people ready -to join him in support of King James, the whole west rose as one man -at the glare of the beacon signals which blazed on the hill-tops. -Messengers were spurring from place to place all night to carry the -exact intelligence to the authorities; and the next morning all -Devonshire appeared to be marching for Torbay. Tourville speedily -beheld numbers of armed horsemen, the gentry and yeomanry of the -neighbourhood, assembled on the hills, and everything warned him to -embark again as quickly as possible. But he would not retire without -leaving some trace of his visit. He despatched a number of his galleys -to Teignmouth, where the French landed, set fire to the town, burned -down a hundred houses, destroyed the fishing-boats in the harbour, -killed or drove away all the live stock they could find, and demolished -the interior of the churches, the pulpits, the communion-tables, and -the Bibles and Prayer-books, which they tore up and trampled under -foot in their hatred of Protestantism. This specimen of what England -was to expect if she received back James at the point of French -bayonets produced the most salutary effects on the whole nation. - -Mary showed herself equal to the emergency in the absence of her -husband. She applied to the Lord Mayor to know what state of defence -the City was in, and received the most prompt and satisfactory answer. -His lordship assured her that the City would stand by her to a man; -that it had ten thousand men, well armed and disciplined, prepared -to march, if necessary, at an hour's notice; that it would raise six -regiments of foot and two regiments of horse at its own cost, and -pay besides into the royal treasury a hundred thousand pounds. The -country everywhere displayed the same loyalty. The yeoman cavalry -of the different counties assembled in arms; those of Suffolk, -Essex, Hertford, and Buckingham, marched to Hounslow Heath, where -Mary received them amid acclamations of loyalty; she received the -cavalry troops of Kent and Surrey on Blackheath. The militia was -called out; noblemen hurried to their counties to take command of -the forces there; and others, amongst whom was the lately recreant -Shrewsbury, flocked to Whitehall to offer their lives and fortunes -for the defence of the throne. The miners of Cornwall appeared, ten -thousand in number, armed as best they might be, ready to expel the -invaders. Those of the Jacobites who stubbornly retained their faith in -James, who still designated him as the "stone which the builders had -foolishly rejected," and who by their secret press urged the people -to the assassination of William, and to vengeance on his Protestant -supporters, slunk into hiding-places and remained prudently quiet. -Even the non-juring clergy and bishops excited the indignation of -the masses as men who encouraged by their conduct the hopes of the -Papists; and the Bishop of Norwich was attacked in his palace, and was -only rescued by the prompt measures of the authorities. The non-jurors -were suspected of leaning not only to James, but to Popery; and a new -liturgy, which had been printed and industriously circulated, praying, -in no ambiguous words, for the restoration of James by a foreign -invasion, and for the murder of William, was widely believed to proceed -from them, although they strenuously denied it. - -Such was the position of things in England when William returned from -Ireland. In Scotland great changes had taken place. The remains of the -Jacobite force in the Highlands had been effectually put down. In the -spring of 1690 James had sent over an officer with the commission of -General-in-Chief of the Jacobite forces in Scotland. General Buchan, -therefore, took precedence of the drunken and incompetent Cannon; but -all the troops that he could muster were not more than one thousand -four hundred, and these were surprised and crushed by William's -general, Sir Thomas Livingstone, who occupied Inverness. General -Mackay completed the subjugation of the Highlands by building a fort -at Inverlochy, called, after the king, Fort William, which effectually -held the Camerons and Macdonalds in check. The last chance of James was -over in that quarter. - -At Edinburgh the battle with the disaffected politicians came very soon -to a similar end. The most prominent of them, Montgomery, Ross, and -Annandale, offered to yield their opposition if William would admit -them to favour and office; but William disdained to purchase their -adhesion, and they then, in resentment, flung themselves into the arms -of James. The treaty was carried on through the medium of James's -agent in London, one Neville Payne; and Mary, James's queen, sent -over dispatches, creating Montgomery for his treason Earl of Ayr and -Secretary of State, with a pension of ten thousand pounds to relieve -his immediate necessities, for he was miserably poor and harassed by -creditors. Ross was to be made an earl, and have the command of the -Guards; and Annandale was to be a marquis, Lord High Commissioner, -and Governor of Edinburgh Castle. But this measure, which the Court -of St. Germains fondly fancied was going to give them the ascendency -in the Scottish Parliament, produced an exactly contrary effect. The -old Tory Jacobites were so much incensed at this favour shown to these -renegade Whigs, whilst they themselves were passed over, that the whole -plot went to pieces in an explosion of jealousy, and on the meeting of -the nobles the new proselytes of Jacobinism, who were to have turned -the scale in favour of the Stuart dynasty, were found to be utterly -helpless and abandoned. - -This turbulent and factious party being thus broken up, and some of -them going over to the new Government voluntarily as the means of -safety, and others being brought over by timely offers of place or -money, the settlement of the affairs of Scotland became tolerably easy. -The Presbyterian religion was declared the established religion of -Scotland. Contrary to the will of William, a Toleration Act for that -kingdom had been rejected. The confession of faith of the Westminster -Assembly was adopted; the remaining Presbyterian ministers who had been -rejected at the Restoration, now reduced from three hundred and fifty -to sixty, were restored, and the Episcopalian ministers were forcibly -ejected in turn, and Presbyterians installed. The old synodal polity -was restored, and the sixty old restored ministers, and such as they -should appoint, were ordered to visit all the different parishes, and -see that none but godly ministers, sound in the Presbyterian faith, -were occupying the manses and the pulpits. This, however, did not -satisfy a section of the old Cameronian school. They complained that -the Parliament had betrayed the Solemn League and Covenant, and had -sworn, and had caused others to swear, to a non-Covenanting monarch, -and they refused to bow the knee to this Baal. Thus a non-juring party -sprang up also in Scotland. In William's opinion, however, too much -had been done in the way of conformity; and on his return from Ireland -he selected as Lord High Commissioner to Scotland Lord Carmichael, -a nobleman of liberal mind, and accompanied this appointment by a -letter to the General Assembly, declaring that he would never consent -to any violent or persecuting measures, and that he expected the same -from them. "We never," he nobly observed, "could be of the mind that -violence was suited to the advancing of true religion; nor do we intend -that our authority shall ever be a tool to the irregular passions of -any party. Moderation is what religion enjoins, what neighbouring -churches expect from you, and what we recommend to you." And the -determination of the monarch put a strong and beneficial restraint on -the spirit of the religious zealots of the North. - -[Illustration: EDINBURGH CASTLE IN 1725. (_From a Print of the -Period._)] - -William had returned from Ireland with a great accession of power and -_éclat_. He had shown that the imbecile and bigoted James could not -stand for a moment before him; he had reduced Ireland to such general -subjection that the remaining insurgents in the south could not long -hold out. To hasten this result, and to cut off the access of fresh -reinforcements from France, he now sent out an expedition, which had -been some time preparing under Marlborough, to reduce Cork and Kinsale, -and garrison them for himself. That strange but able man, Marlborough, -though he was at this very moment in full correspondence with the Court -of St. Germains so as to meet all chances, and even the now remote -one of James ever regaining the throne, though he was disliked and -suspected by William and Mary, yet himself proposed this expedition, -anxious to grasp some of the glory of re-conquering Ireland, and -perhaps not inattentive to the equally attractive prospect of winning -booty. Marlborough was already lying at Portsmouth with his squadron -when William reached London; and sailing thence on the 18th, he landed -at Cork on the 21st of September, with five thousand men. The Duke of -Würtemberg there joined him with his four thousand Danes, together -making a strong force, but which was in danger of becoming paralysed -by the German duke insisting on taking the chief command on account -of his superior rank. Marlborough was not a man willingly to resign -any position likely to do him honour; but he consented to share the -command, taking it on alternate days. With him he had also the Duke of -Grafton, one of Charles II.'s illegitimate sons, who had fallen under -suspicion of leaning to his uncle James, but, to prove his loyalty to -William, came out as a volunteer. Cork was vigorously attacked, and -in forty-eight hours it capitulated. The garrison, between four and -five thousand men, surrendered as prisoners, and Marlborough promised -to use his endeavours to obtain the favour of William for both them -and the citizens. He forbade his troops to plunder, but was obliged to -use force to repel the hordes of wild people who rushed in and began -ransacking the Catholics. The Duke of Grafton fell in the attack. - -Without losing a day, Marlborough sent forward his cavalry to Kinsale -to demand its surrender, and followed with his infantry. The Irish -set fire to the town, and retired into two forts, the Old Fort and -the New Fort. The English, however, managed to put out the fire, and -Marlborough arriving, invested the forts, and took the Old Fort by -storm, killing nearly five hundred men, who refused to surrender. -The garrison of the New Fort, after seeing Marlborough prepared to -storm that too, yielded on condition that they might go to Limerick. -They were twelve hundred strong. In this fort was found abundance of -provisions, a thousand barrels of wheat, and eighty pipes of claret. - -Having executed this mission, and secured the two forts for the king, -Marlborough re-embarked, and reached London again in little more than a -month from the day that he sailed from Portsmouth. William, astonished -at the rapidity of this success, declared that there was no officer -living who had seen so little service, who was so qualified for a -general as Marlborough. The English people went still further, and -declared their countryman had achieved more in a single month than the -king's Dutch favourites in two campaigns. - -On the 2nd of October William opened the new session of Parliament. -He was received with the warmest demonstrations of attachment. He had -shown himself strong, and James had shown himself weak. The country had -been alarmed by the menace of invasion, and all parties were disposed -to rally round the monarch who gave them every promise of security and -pre-eminence. In his speech he paid the highest tribute to the bravery -of the army, and declared that, had his affairs allowed him to have -begun the campaign earlier, he should have been able to clear the whole -country of the enemy. In order to do that in the ensuing campaign, -and to put a check on the too conspicuous designs of the French, it -would be essential to grant liberal supplies. He reminded them of the -dishonour which had befallen the English flag, and of the necessity of -promptness in Parliament to enable him to wipe away the stain, and to -secure the reputation of England by crushing the efforts of the king of -France. - -His speech was received with loud acclamations. Thanks were voted -for his achievements in Ireland, and to the queen for her able -administration during his absence; and the Commons proceeded to vote -supplies on a scale which had yet had no example. The army was fixed -at sixty-nine thousand men, of whom twelve thousand were to consist of -cavalry. The navy was to consist of twenty-eight thousand men; and the -cost of the whole, including ordnance, was estimated at four million -pounds. In return for this unprecedented force and unprecedented -allowance for it, the Commons demanded that they should appoint a -commission of nine to examine and bring forward the accounts: the -commissioners to be all members of their own House. The proposition was -acceded to without opposition by both the peers and the king, and a -Bill, including the appointment of the commissioners, was prepared and -passed. On the 15th of November a Bill received the royal assent for -doubling the excise on beer, ale, and other liquors; and on the 20th -of December another Bill passed for granting certain duties upon East -India goods, wrought silks, and other merchandise; and a second Bill -for increasing the duties on wine, vinegar, and tobacco. - -In considering ways and means, the Commons proposed, as they had laid -so many burdens on themselves, that the persons of all those who had -been engaged in the rebellion in Ireland should be attainted, and their -estates confiscated, and the proceeds be applied to the discharge -of the expenses of the war; and they brought in and passed a Bill -for that purpose. But the Lords did not appear inclined to sanction -so wholesale a confiscation of the estates of all the Catholics -of Ireland, as this would have amounted to; nor could it be very -acceptable to the king, though they proposed to place a considerable -portion of the forfeitures at his disposal. The Lords allowed the -Bill to lie on their table, notwithstanding several urgent reminders -from the Commons, and so at last it dropped. This must have been what -William particularly desired, for it was contrary to his natural -clemency to let loose the fiends of party fury after the sufficiently -deadly evils of war, and it was contrary to his promises to many who -had submitted on assurances of impunity; and having got the chief -supplies which he wanted, he sought to shorten the Session as much -as possible, by telling Parliament that, by a certain day, it was -necessary for him to leave for Holland on important affairs. Yet, after -the liberal votes of the Commons, still keeping in memory the disgrace -of the navy, he added that, if some annual provision could be made for -augmenting the navy, and building some new men-of-war, "it would be -a very necessary care for that time, both for the honour and safety -of the nation." The Commons thought so much the same that they voted -an additional five hundred thousand pounds expressly for building new -ships of war. - -The last proceeding which marked this Session was the discovery of a -fresh Jacobite plot. The Tory minister Caermarthen had long been the -object of the particular enmity of the Whigs, and they were doing -everything possible to undermine his influence. At last their efforts -appeared to be growing perceptible. The king had introduced into the -ministry, one after another, men to whom Caermarthen had a particular -aversion, or who were particularly hostile to his power. Godolphin was -made First Lord of the Treasury; Marlborough was rising fast in the -military department; and Sidney was sent for by William from Ireland, -without consulting Caermarthen, and appointed Secretary of State. His -enemies were eagerly watching for the favourable moment to come down -on the declining minister and complete his ruin, when he suddenly, at -the very close of the year and the Session, laid before William all -the particulars of a desperate plot of the Jacobites, which showed -plainly enough that a minister of such vigilance was not to be lightly -dispensed with. Fortune, however, rather than his own sagacity, had -favoured the Prime Minister. - -The anticipated absence of William from England in the spring appeared -to offer a favourable conjuncture for James making another attempt -for the recovery of the throne. The Jacobites, therefore, had met and -concluded to send three of their number to St. Germains to consult -with the Court there on the best means of effecting this object. -It was proposed that James should make great protestations of his -determination to allow of and secure the political and religious -rights of all his subjects, and that he should come attended only by -so moderate a force that it should not look like a French invasion. -The opinions of the leading Jacobites were to be conveyed by these -messengers in a packet of letters to be carefully concealed; and -amongst the writers of these letters were the Earl of Dartmouth, -Viscount Preston--so-called--and the Earl of Clarendon. This weak -man, whom William had warned through Rochester of his knowledge of -his practices, and who had declared that he would never again meddle -with treason, was again as busy as ever. A vessel was engaged, called -the _James and Elizabeth_, to carry over the three agents, namely, -Preston, Ashton, and Elliott, who were to come on board on the last -night of the year. The skipper of the _James and Elizabeth_, though -offered extraordinary pay for the trip, suspecting what was the nature -of his passengers, gave notice of the fact to Caermarthen, who sent and -boarded the vessel at midnight, when the traitors were secured along -with their papers, which were conveyed to the Secretary of State's -office at Whitehall, where Caermarthen and Nottingham passed the night -in examining the contents of the fatal packet, and the next morning -laid them before the king. - -This great discovery, which fell like a thunderbolt on the Jacobites, -was scarcely less disconcerting to the Whigs. It was hopeless after -this to attempt anything against so alert and trusty a minister. -William, relieved from all apprehensions of danger by this timely -discovery, left the three traitors in the custody of his Government, -and the leaders yet at large under their eye, and hastened to get over -to Holland. On the 5th of January he prorogued Parliament till the 31st -of March; and in his farewell speech he said that he thought it proper -to assure them that he should make no grants of the forfeited lands in -England or Ireland; that those matters could be settled in Parliament -in such a manner as should be thought most expedient. Unfortunately, -this was a promise which William failed to keep, and which brought -upon him no lack of trouble in the future. On the 6th, whilst his -English subjects were indulging in all the festivities of the season, -William set out, attended by a splendid train of courtiers, for the -Hague, where a great Congress was appointed to consider the best means -of resisting the aggressions of Louis of France. He was received by his -subjects, after a dangerous voyage, with shouts of joy. - -William's spirit and sound sense seemed to reanimate the drooping -energies of the Allies. The quota of troops to be furnished by every -prince was determined; it was agreed to bring two hundred and twenty -thousand men into the field in spring, and never to rest till they -had not only driven Louis from the territories of his neighbours, -but had compelled him to give toleration to his Protestant subjects. -These matters arranged, William made use of the influence which the -new alliance with the Duke of Savoy gave him, to procure a cessation -of the persecutions of the duke's Protestant subjects, the Waldenses. -To him these simple mountain shepherds--Christians of a Church -remaining independent of Rome from the earliest times--owed it that -they could once more live in peace; that numbers of them were released -from dungeons, and their children, who had been torn from them to be -educated in Popery, were restored. - -All being thus favourably settled, the princes dispersed to their -several States, and William retired to obtain a short period of -relaxation at Loo. But he was speedily roused from his repose. The -proceedings of the Congress had been closely and anxiously watched by -Louis of France. He saw that its deliberations were certain to produce -a profound impression on Europe, and he resolved to neutralise this -by one of his sudden and telling blows. At once all his available -means and forces were put in motion. A hundred thousand soldiers were -in rapid march on Mons, one of the most important fortresses of the -Spanish Netherlands. Louis did not even trust the operations of this -assault to his famous general, Luxemburg, and the greatest military -genius of the age, Vauban; but he hurried to the scene of action -himself, early as the season was--in March. Five days after the siege -commenced Louis was there, accompanied by the Dauphin, the Dukes of -Orleans and of Chartres. He pushed on the attack with vigour, to have -it over before any assistance could arrive. Though suffering from the -gout, he went about amongst the soldiers, encouraging them by the -blandest and most familiar addresses; helped personally to bind up -their wounds in the hospitals, and partook of the broth prepared for -them. With his quick perception of the dangers from his adversaries, he -had noticed the diversion which it was intended that the Duke of Savoy -should make, by taking the field on that side; and he had suddenly -thrown an army into Savoy, captured Nice, and provided the duke with -enough to do to hold his own. By this means he had been able to bring -from the Maritime Alps a large body of troops to this siege. - -William was sensible of the disastrous effect which the fall of -Mons would have on the spirits of his Allies, and on the Courts of -Sweden and Denmark which had been brought to the point of joining -the confederation; he therefore rushed from his place of temporary -retirement, mustered the forces of the States-General, sent dispatches -after the German princes, urging them to bring up all the troops they -could collect to the rescue of Mons, and to the generals of the Spanish -troops in Flanders. By forced marches he advanced towards the devoted -city; but all the vices of confederations were now glaringly apparent -in contrast to the single and prompt action of a despot. The German -princes, naturally slow, were already far off; the Spanish generals -were utterly unprepared for such an emergency; and William found it -almost impossible to procure even horses to drag his artillery and -stores. He sent on, however, hasty messengers to apprise the people of -Mons of his approach; but the vigilance of the French prevented them -from reaching the city. An immense quantity of artillery was thundering -against the walls of Mons; breaches were made in them; a redoubt was -carried, sword in hand; shells fell in showers on the roofs and streets -of the town, which was burning in ten places. The inhabitants, appalled -by the terrible destruction awaiting them, threatened to murder the -garrison if they did not surrender; and the garrison, ignorant of the -relief which William was bringing, surrendered on the 20th of April. -William, deeply chagrined, returned to the Hague, and thence hastened -back to London; whilst Louis, in proud triumph, returned to Versailles -to receive the congratulations of his courtiers on his splendid -_coup-de-main_. - -On William's return to London, he found his Government had tried the -traitors, Preston, Ashton, and Elliott. Preston and Ashton were found -guilty, and sentenced to death; Elliott was not brought to trial. By -some it has been asserted that the evidence of his being admitted -into the real interior of the plot was not clear; by others, that he -purchased his escape by disclosures. Ashton was hanged on the 18th of -January--the very day on which William had embarked at Gravesend for -Holland. Preston, after much vacillation between the desire to accept a -proffered pardon and repugnance to the conditions attached to it--that -of making a full disclosure of his accomplices--at length chose life -and dishonour, and made charges against Clarendon, Dartmouth, Turner -Bishop of Ely, and William Penn. Clarendon was sent for a time to the -Tower; Dartmouth, who was accused, as an admiral, of the heinous crime -of intending to betray Portsmouth to the French, indignantly repelled -the accusation, and died in the Tower without having been brought to -trial. Turner escaped to France. Penn was accused of writing to James -to assure him that, with thirty thousand men, he might command England. -But this message to James rested on the evidence of the lying and -infamous Melfort, who was totally unworthy of all belief; and Penn, -so far from shrinking from the charge, went straight to Sidney, the -Secretary of State, and denied the whole allegation. That he had a -friendly feeling for and commiseration of James, he did not deny; but -he declared himself a faithful subject of William and Mary, and, so -far from being willing to aid any design against them, if he became -aware of any such he would at once disclose it. Instead of clapping -Penn in the Tower--which the Government would have done, had they any -such letters inviting James to come over with thirty thousand men,--he -was suffered to depart in full freedom. He afterwards made a religious -journey on the Continent as a minister of the Society of Friends, and -then he returned to England; but without any attempt on the part of -Government to molest him. - -But there were deeper and more real traitors than any of these around -William--namely, Admiral Russell, Sidney Godolphin, and Marlborough. -These men, encouraged by the fall of Mons and the triumphant aspect of -Louis's affairs, renewed with fresh activity their intrigues with the -Court of James. It was in vain that William heaped riches, honours, -and places of confidence upon them; they were ready to receive any -amount of favours, but still kept an eye open to the possible return of -James, and made themselves secure of pardon from him, and kept him duly -informed of all the intended movements of William both at home and on -the Continent. Russell was made High Admiral in place of Torrington. He -was Treasurer of the Navy, enjoyed a pension of three thousand pounds -a year, and a grant from the Crown of property of great and increasing -value near Charing Cross. But, with an insatiable greediness, he still -complained of unrequited services; and, having a shoal of poor and -hungry relatives badgering him for places and pensions, he complained -that their incessant demands could not be gratified; and he cherished -the hope that he could sell his treason at a favourable crisis to -King James at no mean price. Godolphin was First Commissioner of the -Treasury, sat in the Privy Council, and enjoyed the confidence of the -sovereign; his former conduct in being one of the most pliant tools -of James, ready to vote for his Act of Indulgence, being overlooked. -Yet he was sworn, through the agency of a Mr. Bulkeley, to serve the -interests of James. Hand in hand with him went Marlborough, who--though -he was now fast overcoming the long-retained prejudices of William, -and had been honoured by his commission in the expedition to Ireland, -and by his warm approbation on his return, and had the prospect of -a brilliant command of the army in Flanders, where he could indulge -his highest ambition--was yet a most thorough traitor, making a -hypocritical pretence of great sorrow to James for his desertion of -him, and, through Colonel Sackville, and Lloyd, the non-juring Bishop -of Norwich, offering, on a good opportunity, to carry over the whole -army to James. - -Amid these lurking treasons, the exultation of the Jacobites over the -fall of Mons was open and insolent. They came by swarms out of their -hiding-places, and thronged the Park and the neighbourhood of the -Palace, even insulting the queen in her drives before William's return. - -William's indignation on hearing these facts roused him to put the laws -in force against the non-juring bishops. The most extraordinary lenity -had been shown them. They had been suffered to reside in their sees and -occupy their palaces; they had been offered to be excused taking the -oaths on condition that they would live quietly, and discharge their -ecclesiastical functions of ordaining ministers, confirming their young -flocks, and other such duties, but without avail. Now that Turner was -discovered in treasonable correspondence with St. Germains, and the -rest refused to disavow what he had attributed to them in his letters, -it was resolved to eject them. Sancroft was ejected from Lambeth, -and Tillotson was nominated Archbishop of Canterbury in his place; -Ken was removed from Bath and Wells, and Kidder instituted in his -stead. In place of Turner, succeeded Dr. Patrick; Fowler was appointed -to Gloucester, and Cumberland to Peterborough. Soon after Lamplugh, -Archbishop of York, died and Dr. Sharp took his place. Sancroft -continued to maintain all his old pugnacity, and nominated other -bishops in opposition to William's Government as sees fell vacant. -But perhaps the most savage outcry was raised on the appointment of -Dr. Sherlock to the deanery of St. Paul's, vacated by the election of -Tillotson to Canterbury. Tillotson himself was furiously assailed by -the Jacobites as a thief and a false shepherd, who had stolen into the -fold of the rightful pastor. Sherlock had been a zealous non-juror -himself, but had been seriously convinced of the Scriptural ordinance -to submit to any Government, whatever its origin, which was firmly -established. He was, therefore, violently and scurrilously assailed -as a perjured apostate. Amongst the ejected non-juring clergy, Henry -Dodwell was so insolent, that William remarked, "That Dodwell wants -me to put him in prison, but I will disappoint him." The magnanimous -forbearance of William, and the audacious impertinence of the -non-jurors in consequence, form a wonderful contrast. - -[Illustration: THE DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH. (_After the Portrait by Sir -Godfrey Kneller._)] - -Scarcely had William time to settle these affairs, and arrange the plan -of campaign in Ireland, when he was compelled to return to Holland. -Unaware as yet of the more recent treason of Marlborough, he took -him with him. He had conceived the highest opinion of his military -talents, and he was confirmed in this opinion, on his arrival at the -Hague, by the Prince of Vaudemont, a distinguished commander in the -Dutch service. He praised highly the Generals Talmash and Mackay; as -to Marlborough, he declared that he had every quality of a general; -that his very look showed it, and that he was certainly destined to do -something great. William replied that he was of the same conviction. - -William found himself at the head of seventy thousand men of various -nations, the different contingents of the Allies, and the beginning of -the campaign was very promising. He sent Marlborough on to Flanders to -collect the forces there, and form a camp to cover Brussels against -the advance of Luxemburg and the French. His convenient position no -doubt suggested to James the idea of his immediate execution of his -promised treason. James, therefore, sent him word that he expected his -fulfilment of his engagement; but to this startling demand Marlborough -replied that the time was not come. It was necessary to have first -obtained a complete ascendency over the troops, or, instead of -following him, they would abandon him, and the only consequence would -be making things worse. William's immediate arrival put an end to -the temptation, and he marched against Luxemburg, who retired before -him. He next sent a detachment against Marshal Boufflers, who was -besieging Liége, and, having succeeded in this, he crossed the Sambre, -to endeavour to bring Luxemburg to an engagement. But this crafty -general, who had an inferior though well-appointed army, took care to -avoid a general action, calculating that William's army, made up of so -many nonentities, would, if let alone, ere long go to pieces. Thus the -summer was spent in marches and counter-marches without any result, -except of wearying out the patience of William, who in September -surrendered the command to the Prince of Waldeck, and retired to his -favourite hunting-seat at Loo, and soon after returned to England. - -The summer campaign was carried on by the Allies in other quarters -with more or less success. In Spain the French made some barbarous -inroads, but were vigorously repelled. They were more successful in -their combat with the Duke of Savoy. Marshal Catinat took several of -their towns, besieged Coni, and advanced within three leagues of Turin, -the duke's capital. Just, however, as they were hoping for a signal -triumph, they were arrested by the appearance of a new hero, destined, -in co-operation with Marlborough, to shake to the foundations the power -of Louis XIV. This was Eugene, Prince of Savoy. Eugene, being joined -by young Schomberg with a few troops, and some money from William, at -the suggestion of Schomberg made a sudden march across the mountains, -raised the siege of Coni, and then, issuing on the plains, drove back -Catinat, and regained Carmagnola. On the Rhine, where the Elector -of Saxony commanded, nothing of moment was effected; but the French -allies, the Turks, who were harassing Austria, received a severe defeat -at Salankeman, on the Danube, which placed the Emperor of Germany at -his ease. - -The campaign in Ireland did not begin till June. The condition of that -island during the winter was miserable in the extreme. The ravages -which the Irish--mad with oppression, ignorance, and revenge, let loose -by the frightful policy of James--had inflicted on the country from the -north to the south, such as we have described them, must necessarily -have left it a prey to famine, chaos, and crime. In the north, where -the Protestants had regained the power, there was the commencement -of restoration. Those who had fled to England with their movable -property came swarming back. It was, indeed, to towns burnt down and -fields laid waste; but they brought with them money, and, still more, -indomitable energies, which impelled them instantly to begin rebuilding -their dwellings, at least in such a manner as to shelter them from the -elements, and to cultivate and sow their fields. Commerce came back -with them; and the estuaries of the Foyle, the Lagan, the Bann, the -Carlingford, and the Boyne were busy with ships and boats pouring in -food, seed, and live-stock. So soon as Nature had time to do her part -and to ripen her crops, there would be once more comparative plenty, -and there was an animating prospect of a secure permanence of peace -and order. But in the south, and still more the south-west, where the -troops of James still held their ground, the condition of things was -as appalling as can be conceived. In the north the Protestants kept -a tight hand on the native Irish; they refused them the possession -of arms; they forbade them to proceed more than three miles from -their own dwellings, except to attend market; and not more than five -Papists were to meet together on any occasion or pretence. They forbade -them to approach the frontier within ten miles, to prevent them from -communicating with the enemy. If outrages were committed, they were -visited with unsparing severity. But if the north was strict and yet -struggling, the south was in a fearful state of calamity. The soldiers -traversed the country, levying contributions of cattle and provisions -wherever they could find them. They were no better than so many -bandits and rapparees, who swarmed over the desolated region, carrying -violence, terror, and spoliation wherever they came. There was no money -but James's copper trash, bearing high nominal values. Provisions and -clothes, where they were to be had, fetched incredible prices; and -merchants feared to approach the ports, because they were in as much -danger of wholesale robbery as the shopkeepers and farmers on land. - -In the Irish camp the utmost license, disorder, and destitution -prevailed. The Duke of Berwick was elected to command during the -absence of Tyrconnel in France; but his power was a mere fiction, and -he let things take their course. Sarsfield was the only officer who had -any real influence with the soldiers. But early in the spring Tyrconnel -returned, bringing some supplies of money and clothing; and in April a -fleet also arrived, bringing arms, ammunition, flour, and provisions. -With these came what was much needed--two general officers--St. Ruth -and D'Usson. St. Ruth was a general of considerable experience. He -had lately served in Savoy, and had the _prestige_ of victory; but -he was vain and cruel, was mortally hated by the Huguenots for his -persecutions of them, and was called by them "the hangman." His very -name, therefore, was a guarantee for the Huguenot troops in the English -service fighting to the utmost. He was astonished and disgusted at the -dirty, ragged, and disorderly crew that bore the name of the Irish -army; but he began actively to repress their license, and to drill them -into some discipline. - -On the 6th of June Ginkell took the field against him with a body of -efficient troops, reinforced by some excellent regiments from Scotland, -and having now under his command Talmash and Mackay, two brave -officers. At the head of the French refugees was the Marquis Ruvigny, -the brother-in-law of General Caillemot, who fell at the Boyne. On -the 7th Ginkell reached Ballymore, and compelled the fortress there, -containing a garrison of one thousand men, to surrender, and sent all -the prisoners to Dublin. Having placed the fortress, which stood on an -island in the lake, in good defence, he marched forward, and, on the -18th, sat down before the very strongly-fortified town of Athlone. On -his march he had been joined by the Duke of Würtemberg and his Danish -division. - -Athlone stood on the Shannon, the river cutting it in two. The stream -there was deep and rapid, and was spanned by a bridge on which stood -two mills, worked by the current below, and on the Connaught side was a -strong fort, called King John's Fort, with a tower seventy feet high, -and flanking the river for a distance of two hundred feet. The town -on the Leinster side, where Ginkell was, was defended by bold earthen -ramparts, the most indestructible of any kind by cannon. Ginkell, -however, lost no time in attacking it. On the 20th his cannon were all -in order for bombarding, and he opened a terrible fire on the town. -Under cover of his fire the troops rushed to the walls, and the French -refugees were the first to mount a breach, and one of them, flinging -his grenade, fell with a shout of triumph. His example was quickly -followed. The assailants sprang over the walls in hundreds, clearing -the way with hand grenades; and the Irish giving way, there was a hot -pursuit along the bridge, by which they sought to escape into the other -half of the town. The crash and confusion there were such, that many of -the flying Irish were trodden under foot, and others were forced over -the parapets of the bridge, and perished in the Shannon. The near side -of the town was in Ginkell's possession, with the loss of only twenty -men killed and forty wounded. - -The cannonade was continued on the bridge and on the town across the -river, and the next day it was repeated with increased effect from -batteries thrown up along the river bank. The next morning it was -discovered that the mills were greatly damaged; one, indeed, had -taken fire, and its little garrison of sixty men had perished in -it. A great part of the fort had also been beaten down. The French -officers had constructed a _tête-de-pont_ at the end of the bridge -to assist the fort, had broken down some of the arches, and made the -conquest of a passage by the bridge next to impossible. To add to the -difficulty of the enterprise, St. Ruth had hastened from Limerick -with an army superior in numbers to that of Ginkell. But this force -was more imposing in appearance than formidable in reality. St. Ruth, -calculating on the difficulty of the passage, imagined that he could -hold the place with little loss till the autumnal rains drove the -English from the field through sickness. He therefore ordered D'Usson -to attend to the defence of the passage, and fixed his camp about three -miles from the town. - -There was a weak spot, however, which was pointed out to Ginkell--a -ford at some little distance from the bridge. It is true that a force -was posted to guard this ford, commanded by Maxwell, an officer who had -recently been to St. Germains with dispatches from the Duke of Berwick, -and was put into command at this ford by Tyrconnel in defiance of St. -Ruth--the interference of Tyrconnel in military affairs, much to the -disgust of St. Ruth, being as constant as if he were commander-in-chief -as well as lord-lieutenant. Sarsfield soon became aware of the design -of Ginkell to attempt this ford, and warned St. Ruth of it. But the -vanity of that officer made him treat the warning with scorn. "What!" -said he, "attempt the ford; they dare not do it, and I so near." Warned -again, he exclaimed, "Monsieur! Ginkell's master ought to hang him -for attempting to take Athlone, and mine ought to hang me if I let -him." Sarsfield, who knew better what the enemy dared do, said as he -withdrew, "He does not know the English." - -[Illustration: THE ASSAULT OF ATHLONE. (_See p._ 443.)] - -Ginkell himself, after reconnoitring the ford and the breastwork -opposite, had no great desire for the attempt. He continued the -cannonade on the fort and town till the end of June, and it became -necessary, from the want of forage, to advance or retreat. A council -of war was called. Mackay was against the attempt, but Würtemberg, -Talmash, and Ruvigny were for it, and Ginkell, though hesitatingly, -consented. There was observed a degree of carelessness in the Irish -soldiers guarding the ford; there had been a rumour in their camp that -the English were about to retreat in despair, and the light-hearted -Hibernians had begun to relax their vigilance, and to gamble and idle -about. It was resolved to seize the opportunity and dash over at -once. Fifteen hundred grenadiers were selected for the service, and a -handsome present was distributed to each man. The Duke of Würtemberg, -Talmash, and a number of other officers volunteered to accompany them -as privates, and the spirits of the men rose to enthusiasm. In memory -of the auspicious day at the Boyne they stuck each a green twig in -their hats, and, locking their arms twenty abreast, they plunged into -the stream. In their ardour they lifted up the Duke of Würtemberg -and bore him on their shoulders. Six battalions were drawn up ready -to support them, under the command of Mackay. The stream, even at -the ford, was deep enough to reach their chins, and very strong; but -the resolute men pressed on, and soon got firm footing, and, with a -stunning shout, reached the other bank. The Irish, suddenly aroused -to the danger, hurried to the bank, fired a single volley, and broke. -The grenadiers the next moment were over the breastwork, and in full -pursuit of the enemy. In a few minutes they had chased the guards from -the head of the bridge; planks were thrown over the broken arches, and -the troops, rushing over, enabled others to cross in rude pontoons; and -in less than an hour the English were masters of the town, with the -loss of only twelve men killed and about thirty wounded. - -[Illustration: SCENE AT THE REMOVAL OF THE IRISH SOLDIERS FROM -LIMERICK. (_See p._ 447.)] - -D'Usson made a vain attempt to regain the town; he was repelled with -ruinous loss, and was himself thrown down by the flying rout and nearly -trampled to death. St. Ruth, when he heard that the town was taken, -exclaimed, "Taken! that is impossible, and I close at hand." But he -found it no longer safe to be so close at hand. In the night, covered -with shame at his folly and absurd confidence, he struck his tents, and -made a hasty retreat towards Aghrim, where, encouraged by the natural -strength of bogs and hills, he halted and entrenched himself. There -was the fiercest bickering in the camp; the French party and the Irish -charging each other with the misfortune. St. Ruth, to excuse himself, -laid the blame on Maxwell, whose duty it was to guard the ford. Maxwell -was not there to defend himself, for his soldiers fled faster than -he, and he was made prisoner. But Tyrconnel, who had always supported -Maxwell, protested that he had done his duty like a brave man, and had, -along with himself, repeatedly warned St. Ruth of his temerity. The -dispute rose so high that Tyrconnel quitted the camp, and retired to -Limerick in high dudgeon. - -Being relieved from the presence and interference of Tyrconnel, St. -Ruth again resolved to fight. He was stung by the loss of reputation -which he had sustained at Athlone, and by the reflection of its -injurious impression at the Court of France. Sarsfield, one of those -Cassandra-like counsellors who give the most prudent advice but are -never listened to, attempted to dissuade him. He pointed out how far -superior in discipline and bottom were the troops of Ginkell to those -which he now commanded, and recommended a system of excursive warfare, -which should harass and, by seizing favourable crises, defeat the -English piecemeal. His words were lost on St. Ruth, who prepared for -the approach of Ginkell by going amongst his soldiers personally to -rouse their desire to reconquer their good name, and by sending the -priests amongst them to stimulate them by religious motives. Ginkell -did not let him wait long. As soon as he had settled the defences of -Athlone, he pursued his march towards Aghrim. - -On the 12th of July he came up with the army of St. Ruth, and found it -very strongly posted. Before him was a morass of half a mile across; -beyond the morass rose the hills round the old ruined castle of Aghrim, -and at their feet, between them and the bog, the infantry were strongly -entrenched, and supported by the cavalry posted commandingly on the -slopes of the hills. Difficult as was the approach, it was recommended -by Mackay to make an instant attack, whilst the spirits of the troops -were high from the first sight of the enemy they had so lately beaten. -The battle was determined on, though it was getting late in the -afternoon. The infantry struck boldly into the red bog, and plunged -on courageously, though often up to their waists in mud and water. -Mackay led his horse against their right, and Eppinger's dragoons and -Portland's horse advanced against their left. The cavalry found their -way through the bogs very difficult; the Dutch and English dragoons -met with a repulse in the pass of Urachree, and the infantry were in -front of the enemy long before the cavalry could operate on the wings. -The Irish infantry that day fought bravely. They poured a fierce fire -into the English, and were well supported by the horse. The battle -became desperate; the English fought their way into the entrenchments, -and drove the Irish up one of the hills; but there they found two old -Danish forts, the old castle of Aghrim, and every hedge and thicket -lined with muskets. The contest was unequal, and the infantry found -themselves at length driven back to the margin of the bog. Elated at -the sight, St. Ruth exclaimed, "The day is ours! Now will we drive -these English back to the gates of Dublin!" - -But he was deceived. Talmash rallied the foot, and led them again -to the conflict; and whilst the struggle was renewed and the day -fast closing, St. Ruth perceived the horse of Mackay and Ruvigny, -the English and Huguenot cavalry, approaching on the right. They -came over but a few soldiers abreast, through a narrow track between -the bogs; but they soon formed in a dense body, and St. Ruth rode -off to encounter them and stop them from out-flanking his force. As -he galloped up towards them, a cannon-shot carried off his head. -The officers threw a cloak over his body to prevent his fall from -disheartening his men. But the absence of command was soon felt. The -English fought with fresh fury; and Sarsfield, who was in the rear with -the reserve, waiting orders, did not advance till the Irish ranks were -broken and all was over. The flight became general. The English horse -pursued and hewed down the fugitives as long as they could see; and had -not Sarsfield covered the miserable fugitives with his horse, scarcely -a man of the infantry would have been left. - -The English army camped for the night on the ground which had been -occupied by the enemy. Nearly twenty thousand English and their allies -entered the battle against something more than the same number of Irish -and French. On the side of the English six hundred were killed and one -thousand wounded. On the part of the Irish four thousand fell on the -field, and nearly as many are said to have perished in the flight. The -panic-stricken multitude, flinging their arms away, continued their -flight, some of them to Limerick, and others to Galway, where D'Usson -was now in command. Whole waggon-loads of muskets and other arms were -picked up and purchased by Ginkell at a few pence apiece. - -The English spent the next day in burying their own dead; but left -the corpses of the Irish on the field, and marched forward to attack -Galway. D'Usson, who had about two thousand five hundred men in Galway, -made at first a show of resistance, calculating on the assistance -of Baldearg O'Donnell. But O'Donnell, after endeavouring in vain to -bargain for an earldom, consented to accept five hundred pounds a year -and a commission in William's army. This unexpected event compelled -D'Usson to surrender, on condition that he might march out and join the -Irish army in its last place of retreat, Limerick. - -Ginkell soon followed and invested the town. The last struggle for a -monarch little worthy the cause of so much bloodshed was now to be -fought out. At Limerick the Irish were to make their last stand for -the possession of their native country. If they failed here, the Saxon -remained absolute lord of their soil. - -On the 14th of August the advanced guard of Ginkell's army appeared in -sight of Limerick. On the same day Tyrconnel, who was in authority in -this city, died of apoplexy, and D'Usson and Sarsfield were left in -full command of the troops. A commission was produced, which appointed -three lords-justices--Plowden, Fitton, and Nagle; but the city was in -reality a military garrison, and the military ruled. There were fifteen -thousand infantry in the town, and three or four thousand cavalry -posted on the Clare side of the Shannon, communicating with the town on -the island by the Thomond bridge. By this means communication was kept -up with the country on that side, so that provisions might be brought -in; and several cargoes of biscuits and other dry stores were imported -from France. The country all around, however, had been so swept by -successive forages, that it was difficult to collect any cattle or -corn, and the stoutest hearts were little confident of being able to -maintain a long defence. - -Ginkell took possession of the Limerick side of the town, and -reoccupied the ground before held by the besiegers. He commenced by -erecting fresh batteries of far heavier cannon than William brought to -bear on the city, and soon poured a fiery storm of balls and shells -into it, which crashed in the roofs and laid whole streets desolate. At -the same time a squadron of English men-of-war sailed up the Shannon, -and closed access to the city or escape from it by water. The town, -however, held out till the 22nd of September, when Ginkell, beginning -to fear the rains and fevers of autumn, and that they might compel him -to draw off, and thus continue the war to another year, determined to -obtain possession of the bridge, and attack the cavalry on the other -side. He therefore passed the river by a bridge of William's tin boats, -and, assaulting the cavalry, put them to utter rout. They left their -camp with many arms and much store of provisions, and fled with as much -precipitation as they had done from Aghrim, scattering again the whole -country with their arms. Ginkell next attacked the fort which defended -the bridge, carried it and the bridge, and thus was able to invest the -whole town. In the haste to draw up the movable part of the bridge -nearest to the city, the soldiers retreating from the fort were shut -out, and a terrible massacre was made of them on the bridge. Out of -eight hundred men only one hundred and twenty escaped into Limerick. - -This disaster broke the spirit of the Irish entirely. Even the -stout-hearted Sarsfield was convinced that all was over, and it was -resolved to capitulate. An armistice was agreed to. The Irish demanded -that they should retain their property and their rights; that there -should be perfect freedom for the Catholic worship, a Catholic priest -for every parish, full enjoyment of all municipal privileges, and full -capability to hold all civil and military offices. Ginkell refused -these terms, but offered others so liberal that they were loudly -condemned by the English, who were hungering after the estates of the -Irish. He consented that all such soldiers as desired to continue in -the service of James should be not only allowed to do so, but should -be shipped to France in English vessels; that French vessels should -be permitted to come up and return in safety; that all soldiers who -were willing to enter William's service should be received, and -that on taking the oath of allegiance all past offences should be -overlooked, and they and all Irish subjects taking the oaths should -retain their property, should not be sued for any damages or spoliation -committed during the war, nor prosecuted for any treason, felony, or -misdemeanour, but should, moreover, be capable of holding any office or -practising any profession which they were capable of before the war. -They were to be allowed to exercise their religion in peace as fully as -in the reign of Charles II. It is to the disgrace of England that this -part of the treaty should not have been kept. - -These terms were accepted, and the treaty was signed on the 3rd of -October, and thus terminated this war, which, in the vain endeavour -to restore a worthless monarch, had turned Ireland into a desert and -a charnel-house. When it came to the choice of the soldiers to which -banner they would ally themselves, out of the fifteen thousand men, -about ten thousand chose to follow the fortunes of James, and were -shipped off with all speed, as they began to desert in great numbers. -Many of those who actually embarked did it under a solemn assurance -from Sarsfield that their wives and children should go with them; but, -once having the men on board, this pledge was most cruelly broken, and -the greatest part of the women and children were left in frantic misery -on the shore. The scenes which took place on this occasion at Cork are -described as amongst the most heartrending in history. But this agony -once over, the country sank down into a condition of passive but gloomy -quiet, which it required more than a century to dissipate. Whilst -Scotland again and again was agitated by the endeavours to reinstate -the expelled dynasty, Ireland remained passive; and it was not till the -French Revolution scattered its volcanic fires through Europe that she -once more began to shake the yoke on her galled neck. Yet during all -this time a burning sense of her subjection glowed in her blood, and -the name of the Luttrel who went over to the Saxon at the dividing day -at Limerick, and received for his apostacy the estates of his absent -brother, remained a term of execration amongst the Irish. Meanwhile the -Irish regiments which went to France won a brilliant reputation in the -wars of the Continent, and many of the officers rose to high position -in France, in Spain, in Austria, and Prussia. Their descendants still -rank with the nobility of those countries. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -WILLIAM AND MARY. - - Proceedings in Parliament--Complaints against Admiral - Russell--Treason in the Navy--Legislation against the - Roman Catholics--The East India Company--Treasons - Bill--The Poll Tax--Changes in the Ministry--Marlborough - is deprived of his Offices--His Treachery--The Queen's - Quarrel with the Princess Anne--William goes Abroad--Fall - of Namur--Battle of Steinkirk--Results of the Campaign--The - Massacre of Glencoe--Proposed Invasion of England--James's - Declaration--Russell's Hesitation overcome by the Queen--Battle of - La Hogue--Gallant Conduct of Rooke--Young's Sham Plot--Founding of - Greenwich Hospital--Ill Success of the Fleet--Discontent of the - People--Complaints in the Lords and Commons--The Land Tax--Origin - of the National Debt--Liberty of the Press--The Continental - Campaign--Battle of Landen--Loss of the Smyrna Fleet--Attack - on the Navy--New Legislation--Banking Schemes of Chamberlayne - and Paterson--The Bank of England Established--Ministerial - Changes--Negotiations for Peace--Marlborough's Treason and the - Death of Talmash--Illness and Death of Queen Mary. - - -On the 19th of October William arrived from Holland, and on the 22nd he -opened Parliament. He congratulated it on the termination of the war -in Ireland, and on the progress of the English arms both on land and -sea. It was true that on the Continent there had been no very decisive -action, but the Allies had compelled the French to retreat before -them, and to confess their power by avoiding a general engagement -with them. At sea, though not so much had been effected in some -directions as might have been hoped, yet the French had been driven -from the open into their own ports, and an English fleet had convoyed -a large merchant fleet from the Mediterranean in safety. This was -very different to previous years, when their cruisers had made great -captures of our merchantmen. We had also sent a fleet up the Shannon, -which prevented them from aiding the insurgents in Ireland, and were -now in undisputed supremacy again on the ocean. Of course William had -to demand heavy supplies to maintain the fleet in this position, and to -pursue the war with vigour against Louis. All this the members of both -Houses listened to with apparent satisfaction, and voted him cordial -thanks. - -On the 6th of November it was unanimously voted in the Commons that -the supplies asked for by the Crown should be granted; and first -they voted £1,575,898 for the service of the navy, including the -building of three new docks at Portsmouth--one dry and two wet ones. -On the 16th they resolved that the army, in compliance with William's -recommendation, should be raised to 46,924 men; and on the 4th of -January, 1692, they voted £2,100,000 for the maintenance of the army, -of which Ireland was to pay £165,000. - -But though a large majority in both Houses supported warmly the -endeavour to curb the inordinate ambition of Louis XIV., these sums -were not passed by the Commons without searching inquiries into -the accounts and into the abuses which, notwithstanding William's -vigilance, abounded in all departments of Government. No doubt the -party in opposition, as is generally the case, did much of this work -of reform more to gratify their private resentment, and to make their -rivals' term of office anything but agreeable, than from genuine -patriotism; but, at the same time, there was plenty of ground for their -complaints. Serious charges were made against Admiral Russell for -his lukewarm conduct at sea, and his mismanagement of the Admiralty. -The fact was that Russell, as was strongly suspected, and as we now -know from documents since come to light, was no less a traitor than -Torrington, Dartmouth, and Marlborough. He was in active correspondence -with James, and ready, if some turn in affairs should serve to make it -advantageous, to go over to him with the fleet, or as much of it as -would follow him, and others of the admirals; for Delaval, Killigrew, -and other admirals and naval officers, were as deep in the treason. - -There were loud complaints of the vileness of the commissariat still, -and it was declared that far more of our men fell by disease from bad -and adulterated food than in battle. The complaints against Russell, -who was called to the bar of the House, he threw upon the Admiralty, -and the Admiralty on the commissariat department. Russell complained -also of the ministry, and particularly of the Earl of Nottingham; and -thus, by this system of mutual recrimination, all parties contrived to -escape. The Commons, however, were not so to be silenced. They charged -on the officers of the army, on its commissariat, on the men in office, -and on the Government officials almost universally, the same monstrous -system of corruption, peculation, and negligence of every thing but -making money for themselves. They insisted on a rigorous examination of -all the accounts by their own members, and they voted that all salaries -and profits arising from any place or places under the Crown should not -amount to more than five hundred pounds for any one person, except in -the cases of the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Commissioners of -the Great Seal, the judges, ambassadors, and officers of the army and -navy. - -[Illustration: GEORGE SAVILLE, MARQUIS OF HALIFAX.] - -There were plenty of posts in which this restriction would have been -most salutary, for men in some of the most trivial and useless of -them were pocketing many thousands of pounds; but it was soon found -that the whole nation could not furnish sufficient people patriotic -enough to serve their country for five hundred pounds a year each; and, -therefore, in a few weeks a fresh resolution was taken, which negatived -this. - -The business of the year 1691 closed by the passing of a Bill to -exclude all Catholics, in pursuance of the Treaty of Limerick, from -holding any office in Ireland, civil, military, or ecclesiastical, or -from practising in any profession, or sitting in the Irish Parliament, -before they had taken the Oath of Allegiance. The Commons attempted by -this Bill to make it necessary for a Catholic to take also the Oath -of Supremacy, and the Oath against Transubstantiation; but the Lords -showed that this was contrary to the first article of the Treaty of -Limerick, and this clause was struck out, and the Bill then passed. -When the agitation for Catholic emancipation commenced, loud complaints -were made that by this Bill the Treaty of Limerick had been violated. -But this was a mistake; the violation of it took place some years -afterwards by another Bill. The first article of the Treaty provided -that on a Catholic taking the Oath of Allegiance, he should be admitted -to all the privileges specified, according to the law in Charles II.'s -time; and this law, whether always enforced or not, empowered the Crown -to tender this Oath to all subjects. - -The year 1692 was opened by Parliament bringing forward several -important Bills, which were, however, too much contested to be carried -this year. The first of these was a Bill for regulating the trade -of the East India Company, increasing the number of shareholders, -restricting the amount of stock in the hands of individuals, and -incorporating a new Company which had sprung up with the old one. -The East India Company had become a most flourishing concern. From -the Restoration to this time, only thirty-three years, its annual -imports had risen in value from eight thousand pounds to three hundred -thousand pounds. Its capital amounted only to three hundred and seventy -thousand pounds, but it yielded an annual profit of thirty per cent., -besides having, up to 1676, doubled the value of the whole capital. The -Company, however, instead of increasing in shareholders, was rapidly -sinking into a monopoly of a few individuals. Amongst these Sir Josiah -Child, whom we lately quoted in our review of the commerce of the -period, stood chief, and was become, as it were, the king and despot of -the whole concern. Five members were said to possess or hold one-sixth -of all the votes, and amongst these Child had the predominant amount. -His income from the Company was stated at twenty thousand pounds a -year, and his word was law in it. - -These enormous profits naturally called forth a rival company, and the -contest between them grew from year to year till it came to occupy -and divide the spirit of the whole mercantile world. The new Company -insisted on the right of trading also to many parts of India, the old -one stood on their charter as a charter of exclusion of all others. The -favour of Government was purchased by the old Company by well-applied -gifts of money to Government, and by sharing with Government the -profitable patronage. The question was now brought before Parliament, -and hotly debated; but the Bill was dropped for the present, and a -proposition to William to grant a charter to the new Company was -evaded, on the plea of requiring deep consideration. - -The next important Bill was for regulating trials in cases of high -treason. It was time that great reforms should take place on this head. -During the Stuart times men had been most easily and conveniently -put out of the way, by counsel being refused them under charge of -high treason, and by refusal to allow them the perusal of the Bill of -Indictment previous to the trial. Juries were packed by sheriffs, and -State prisoners were thus murdered at will. The same gross injustice -extended to prisoners charged with other offences; but the great strain -towards injustice was in the case of those charged by the State with -treason, and against whom it employed the ablest lawyers of the realm. -By this machinery, all through the reigns of the Stuarts, as well as of -their predecessors, whole throngs of men, many of them of extraordinary -endowments and high rank, had been judicially destroyed. The proposed -Bill, therefore, provided that every person charged with high treason -should be allowed to have his own counsel, to have a copy of the -indictment delivered to him ten days before the trial, along with a -list of the freeholders from whom his jury were to be selected, that -he might have opportunity to challenge any of them. The Bill was most -desirable, but it was frustrated for the time by the Lords insisting on -an extension of their own privileges regarding such trials. Instead of -being tried by the court of the Lord High Steward--who could summon -twelve or more peers at his discretion if the Parliament was not -sitting--they demanded that, during the recess, as during the Session, -every peer should be summoned to attend any such trial. The Commons -somewhat unreasonably opposed this very proper reform, on the ground -that the peers had too many privileges already, and the Bill dropped -for the time. - -Besides these the Commons sent up various other bills, which were -nearly all rejected by the Lords. There was a Bill for reducing the -rate of interest on money; a Bill investing in the king the forfeited -estates in both England and Ireland as a fund for the war; a Bill to -proportion the pay in the army to the real complement of men; for -there was a practice, in which Marlborough was especially engaged, of -returning regiments as complete which were far from being so, and of -pocketing the pay of the men wanting. There was a Bill to continue -the commissioners of public accounts, most unreasonably rejected by -the Lords, whilst they allowed to pass a Bill which has always been -regarded with hostility in England--a poll tax, levying on all persons, -except servants, children, and paupers, a shilling a quarter; on every -peer of Parliament, ten pounds a year; on every income of three hundred -pounds a year, ten shillings per annum; and on all gentlemen of three -hundred pounds a year income from real property, and on all clergymen -or teachers with incomes of eighty pounds, one pound each a year. - -On the 29th of February William prorogued Parliament, and made active -preparations for his departure for the Continent. Before he took his -leave, however, he made various changes in his Cabinet and Ministry, -which showed that the Whigs were still losing ground with him, and the -Tories, or the "Trimmers," who veered, according to circumstances, -to one party or the other, acquiring favour. The Earl of Rochester, -younger brother of Lord Clarendon, one of Mary's uncles; Lord Ranelagh, -Lord Cornwallis, and Sir Edward Seymour, who had all along hitherto -opposed the king, were made members of the Privy Council, and the Earl -of Pembroke Privy Seal. Charles Montague was made a Commissioner of the -Treasury, and Sidney Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. But the circumstance -which occasioned the greatest sensation, and wonder, and mystery was -the sudden dismissal of Lord Marlborough from all his offices under -the king, both in the Court and the army. As Marlborough had been -manifestly rising in William's estimation from the successful display -of his military talents, this abrupt dismissal excited the keenest -curiosity of both Court and country, which William took no means to -gratify. But from what we now know of the causes of this striking -expression of William's displeasure, we can well understand that there -was more in it than William could, without implicating the Princess -Anne, make known. - -We have seen that Marlborough all along, whilst courting the favour -of William, was endeavouring to recover that of James. He had been -one of the very first to abandon that monarch when trusted by him, -but he had written letters expressing the bitterest repentance and -remorse for that treason, whilst he was thus prepared, if necessary, -to perpetrate a new one. But Marlborough, as he had a genius capable -of the very highest achievements, had one also capable of the most -complicated treacheries in politics. It was not enough for him to be -serving William and vowing secretly to James that he was only watching -his opportunity to serve him, but he had a third and more alluring -treason. He and his wife had the ductile and yet obstinate princess -Anne completely in their hands. They lived with her at Whitehall, they -drew largely from her income, they selected her friends, they moulded -her likings and her antipathies; she was a complete puppet in their -keeping. From his lucrative station as keeper of Anne's purse, person, -and conscience, through his clever and unprincipled wife, Marlborough -watched intently the temper of the nation. He saw that there was an -intense jealousy of the Dutch, not only amongst the people on account -of trade and national rivalry, but in the Parliament and aristocracy, -on account of William's preference for his Dutch friends. Bentinck, -Ginkell, Overkirk, and Zulestein were the only men in whom he reposed -entire confidence. On them he heaped wealth, estates, and honours. -Ginkell was just now elevated to an earldom, and a large grant of -lands was contemplated for him in Ireland. On Portland rich grants had -been bestowed, and more were anticipated. William's continual absences -on the Continent, his cold reserve whilst in England, the large -expenditure of men and money for the prosecution of the Continental -war, though really for the liberties of Europe, were represented -by the discontented as a wholesale draft upon the country for the -aggrandisement of Holland. - -These were the things Marlborough saw which gave vitality to the -intrigues of the Jacobites; and the only causes which prevented the -revulsion from becoming general in favour of James were his incurable -despotism, his imbecility as a monarch, and the certain return of -Popery in his train. But there was another person to whom none of -these objections applied--the Princess Anne--the person already in -his guidance or power. Anne was at once English and a Protestant. The -former fact gave her a mighty advantage over William--the latter over -James. Would it not, therefore, be possible to substitute Anne for -her father? To do this it was only necessary to inflame the prejudice -in Parliament and among the people against the Dutch influence, to -inoculate the army with the same feeling, already well-disposed to it -by jealousy of the Dutch troops, and to obviate the objections of those -who repelled the idea of bringing back James by turning their attention -on one nearer home. The absence of William on the Continent, and the -disaffection of most of the admirals, would afford an opportunity -of resisting his return to both army and navy. And with Anne queen, -Marlborough would become the pillar of her throne, commander of her -army, and dispenser of her patronage. - -That this was no mere dream is clear enough now. It was, indeed, one of -the various rumours of the time. Evelyn says that it was one of these -that Marlborough "was endeavouring to breed division in the army, and -to make himself the more necessary by making an ill correspondence -betwixt the princess and the Court." But James himself as plainly -asserts the fact of this charge against Marlborough. "It was the plan," -he says, "of my friends to recall me through the Parliament. My Lord -Churchill was to propose in Parliament to drive away all the foreigners -from the councils and the army of the kingdom. If the Prince of Orange -consented to this, he would have been in their hands. If he refused, -Parliament would have declared against him, and Lord Churchill was, -at the same time, to cause the army to declare for the Parliament, -the fleet the same, and then to recall me. Already this plan was -in agitation, and a large party was already gained over, when some -faithful but indiscreet subjects, thinking to serve me, and imagining -that Lord Churchill was not acting for me, but really for the Princess -of Denmark, discovered all to Bentinck, and thus destroyed the whole -scheme." - -The proof that William was satisfied that Marlborough's grand plan -was real, was that he at once dismissed him from all his employments. -That Marlborough had long intrigued with James, William was quite -aware, but on that account he never troubled him; this, however, was -by far a more dangerous treachery, and he resented it accordingly. -The Marlboroughs, notwithstanding, continued at Whitehall with Anne, -and might probably never have been molested, had not the imperious -Lady Marlborough in her anger determined to set the king and queen at -defiance. She, therefore, had the assurance to accompany the princess -to the Drawing-Room at Kensington Palace a few evenings after, and the -next day brought an expostulatory letter from the queen to her sister, -informing her that after such an outrage Lady Marlborough must quit -Whitehall. Anne sent to entreat Mary to pass the matter over, declaring -that there was no misery that she would not suffer rather than be -deprived of Lady Marlborough. The only answer was an order from the -Lord Chamberlain, commanding her ladyship to quit the palace. Anne, -determined not to lose the society of her favourite, left Whitehall -with the Marlboroughs, and betook herself to Sion House, which was lent -to her by the Duke of Somerset, and soon after she removed to Berkeley -House, standing on the present site of Devonshire House, in Piccadilly, -which became her permanent residence. There all the Marlborough faction -assembled, and there Anne vented her indignation without restraint or -delicacy against William, calling him a "Dutch abortion," a "monster," -a "Caliban." A fresh stimulus was given to the malice of that clique; -every means was used to excite hatred of the Government of William, and -to increase the partisans of James. With such a termagant spirit as -Lady Marlborough, and such a plotting spirit as that of her husband, a -strong feeling was excited against the queen, who was represented as -totally without heart, as having usurped the throne of her father, and -sought to strip her sister of her most valued friendships. Amidst such -an atmosphere of malice and detraction William was compelled to leave -the queen. - -[Illustration: LADY MARLBOROUGH AND THE PRINCESS ANNE AT THE QUEEN'S -DRAWING-ROOM. (_See p._ 452.)] - -He embarked for Holland on the 5th of March. He left the country amid -the rumours of false plots and real schemes of invasion. One Fuller, -under the tuition of the notorious Titus Oates, had been accusing -no less than fifty lords and gentlemen, including Halifax and some -of the king's own ministers, of having pledged themselves to bring -in James. However true it might be that many of these were at heart -really ready for such a change, it was clearly shown that Fuller's -story was got up merely to make money by it, and it was treated with -contempt. The rumour of an invasion was, as we shall find, more real. -Disbelieving it, or pressed by the necessity of giving a blow to -Louis in Flanders, William made a speedy journey to the Hague. There -the difficulties which he had to overcome were such as would have sunk -the courage of any less firm-hearted man. But though William managed -to just hold his stupid and selfish Allies together--too stupid and -selfish to perceive their own real interests--he found it impossible -to get them into the field. Whilst they were moving like tortoises, -each afraid to be before his neighbour, each taking leave to delay -because his neighbour delayed, Louis rushed into the arena with his -wonted alertness. On the 20th of May he was in his camp at Flanders. He -made a grand review of his troops in the neighbourhood of Mons. There -a hundred and twenty thousand men were drawn up in a line eight miles -long. Such a circumstance was well calculated to spread a deadening -report amongst the Allies of the crushing vastness of his army. He was -attended by a splendid retinue of nearly all the princes and rulers of -France; there was the Duke de Chartres, in his fifteenth year only; the -Dukes of Bourbon and Vendôme; the Prince of Conti; and whole troops of -young nobles following them as volunteers. Louis appeared in the midst -of them with all the splendour and luxury of an Eastern emperor. - -From the imposing review Louis bore down directly on Namur. Namur stood -strongly at the confluence of the Meuse and the Sambre. It was strong -by nature on the sides next the rivers, and made so by art on the land -side. The Baron de Cohorn, an engineer who rivalled Vauban, was always -in William's army to advise and throw up fortifications. Cohorn had -made it one of the most considerable fortresses on the Continent, and -he now lay in the city with a garrison of nine thousand men, under -the Prince de Brabazon. All the other fortresses--Mons, Valenciennes, -Cambray, Antwerp, Ostend, Ypres, Lille, Tournay, Luxemburg, and others, -had yielded to the Grand Monarque; Namur alone had resisted every -attempt upon it. And now Louis invested it with his whole force. Louis -himself laid siege to the place with forty thousand men, and posted -Luxemburg with eighty thousand more on the road between Namur and -Brussels. Brabazon calculated on the army of William effecting the -relief of the place, and Louis resolved to make his approach impossible. - -William, joined by the forces of Brandenburg and Liége, and with his -army swelled to a hundred thousand men, advanced to the Mehaigne, -within cannon-shot of Luxemburg's camp, but there he found himself -stopped. Luxemburg's army lay on the other bank of the river, and -was so strongly posted, and watched so vigilantly every movement of -William, that he saw no means of forcing a way towards the beleaguered -city. Whilst thus impeded by the river and the vast force of Luxemburg, -Nature came to complete the chafing king's mortifications. Heavy -rains set in on St. Medard's Day, the 8th of June, the French St. -Swithin. The rivers burst their banks, and the whole country lay under -water. If William had had the means to cross the river, the drenching -torrents and the muddy soil would have rendered all military operations -impossible. Louis with difficulty kept his men to their posts in the -siege. Still the assault was pushed on. Cohorn, the engineer, was -disabled by a severe wound whilst defending a fort on which he greatly -prided himself; and from that hour the defence languished. Brabazon was -a man of no spirit; Cohorn's fort was taken, and the town surrendered -on the 20th of June. - -The exultation of Louis and the French on the fall of Namur was -unbounded. This triumph had been won in the very presence of William -and the Allies at the head of a hundred thousand men. He ordered medals -to be struck to commemorate this success, which his flatterers, and -amongst them Boileau himself, declared was more glorious than the -mastery of Troy by the Greeks. _Te Deum_ was sung in Paris; the French -nation was in ecstasies, and Louis returned to Versailles to enjoy the -incense of his elated courtiers and mistresses. But he did not return -without a sting to his triumph. The news of a signal defeat of his -fleet at La Hogue reached him even as he lay before Namur, and the -thunder of William's artillery at the great intelligence wounded his -vanity though it could not reach his army. - -Louis having quitted the Netherlands, Luxemburg strongly garrisoned -Namur, despatched the Marquis of Boufflers to La Bassière, and -himself encamped at Soignies. William posted himself at Genappe, sent -detachments to Ghent and Liége, and determined to attack Luxemburg. -This general shifted his ground to a position between Steinkirk and -Enghien, and William then encamped at Lambeque. Here he discovered that -all his movements had been previously betrayed to Luxemburg by the -private secretary of the Elector of Bavaria, one Millevoix, a letter -of whose to the French general had been picked up by a peasant, and -brought to the camp. William seized on the circumstance to mislead -Luxemburg. The detected spy was compelled to write a letter to the -French general, informing him that the next day William was intending -to send out a foraging party, and, to prevent it from being surprised, -would draw out a large body of troops to protect it. The letter being -despatched to the French camp, William took immediate measures for the -engagement. His object was to surprise the camp of Luxemburg, and the -story of the foraging party was to prevent his alarm on the approach of -the troops. He sent his heavy baggage across the Seine, and by four in -the morning his troops were on the march towards Luxemburg's position. -The Duke of Würtemberg led the van with ten battalions of English, -Dutch, and Danish infantry, supported by a large body of horse and foot -under the command of General Mackay, and Count Solmes followed with the -reserve. - -William's forces reached the outposts of Luxemburg's army about -two o'clock in the afternoon, and drove them in with a sudden and -unlooked-for onset. A regiment from the Bourbonnais was put to instant -flight, and William, who had been informed that he should have to march -through a country of hedges, ditches, and narrow lanes, but that, -on approaching Luxemburg's army, he would find it open plain, now -calculated that he had nothing to do but to dash into the surprised -camp and produce universal confusion. He had indeed had to pick his way -through hedges and ditches, but now, instead of the open plain, there -lay still a network of hedges and ditches between him and the enemy. -This caused so much delay, that the enemy soon became aware of the real -fact, that William was upon them with his whole army. There was an -instant hurrying to standards, and William found himself face to face -with a body sufficient to dispute the ground with him till the whole -was in order. - -Luxemburg had been deceived by the forced letter of Millevoix. He -had relied on it as being as correct as usual; and, though scout -after scout brought intelligence of the English approaching, he -deemed it only the foraging party and their supporters, and sat -coolly at cards till it was nearly too late. Then he mounted his -horse, reconnoitred the enemy, threw forward the Swiss regiments and -the far-famed Household Troops of Louis, and encouraged his men to -fight with their usual bravery. The young princes put themselves at -the head of the Household Troops, and displayed an enthusiasm which -communicated itself to the whole line. They found as vigorous opponents -in the Duke of Würtemberg and the gallant and pious Mackay. The -conflict was maintained at the muzzles of the muskets, and Luxemburg -afterwards declared that he never saw so fierce a struggle. The Duke -of Würtemberg had already seized one of the enemy's batteries, and -penetrated within their entrenchments, but the immense weight of troops -that kept pouring on against them at length bore them back. Mackay -sent messenger after messenger to bid Solmes hasten up his reserve, -but, from cowardice or treachery, Solmes would not move. He said -coolly, "Let us see what sport these English bulldogs will make." At -length William sent an express order for him to move up; whereupon he -trotted his horse forward a little, but never advanced his infantry. -When, therefore, Mackay saw that his soldiers were being hewed down -by hundreds, and no succour came, he said, "God's will be done," and -fought on till he fell. The contest was not, however, decided till the -detachment of Boufflers appeared upon the field. Luxemburg sent off an -express to hasten him to his assistance; but Boufflers, unlike Solmes, -had not waited for that--he had heard the firing, and was already on -the way. Then William was compelled to order his troops to draw off; -and this retreat he managed with his accustomed skill. He was, however, -roused out of his usual stoicism by the infamous conduct of Solmes; -and the whole army declared that they would not have been repulsed but -for his base desertion of them. The French claimed the victory, though -William retired to his camp in good order, and both armies continued -to occupy their former position. The fame of William as a general in -the field was greatly injured. He was acknowledged to be admirable at -a retreat; but it was said that a first-rate general seldom practised -that portion of the art of war. But his enemies, by their very joy at -this rebuff, acknowledged their sense of his power. - -After this nothing of consequence distinguished the campaign in the -Netherlands. On the 26th of September William left the army under -command of the Elector of Bavaria, and retired to his hunting seat at -Loo. The camp was broken up, and the infantry marched to Marienkirke, -and the horse to Caure. But hearing that Boufflers had invested -Charleroi and Luxemburg, he sent troops under the Elector of Bavaria to -raise the siege of those towns. Boufflers retired, and then the Elector -distributed his troops into winter quarters; and Luxemburg on his side -left the army under Boufflers, and went to Paris. - -Besides this there had been an attempt on the part of England to -besiege Dunkirk. The Duke of Leinster was sent over with troops, -which were joined by others from William's camp; but they thought -the attempt too hazardous, and returned, having done nothing. William -quitted Holland, and on the 18th of October arrived in England. The -result of this expensive campaign, where such unexampled preparations -had been followed only by defeat and the loss of five thousand men, -excited deep dissatisfaction; and the abortive attempt to recover -Dunkirk increased it. The public complained that William had lain -inactive at Grammont whilst Louis took Namur, and that if he could not -cross the Scheldt in the face of the French army, he might have crossed -it higher up, and taken Louis in the flank; that he might, instead of -lying inert to witness his enemy's triumph, have boldly marched into -France and laid waste Louis's own territories, which would have quickly -drawn him away from Namur. Such, indeed, might have been the decisive -movements of a great military genius, but there is no reason to think -that William was such a genius. His most striking qualities were dogged -perseverance and insensibility to defeat. - -During William's absence, a variety of circumstances had taken place -which threw a dark shade upon his fame, which threatened almost to -shake his throne, and which gratified the naval pride of the country. - -The horrible event which had occurred in Scotland, still properly -styled the Massacre of Glencoe, had just become known to the English -as William left for the Continental campaign, and threw no little -odium upon him. The dissatisfaction which William felt at his Bill of -Toleration for Scotland having been refused by the Scottish Parliament, -induced him to remove Lord Melville, who had suffered the liberal views -of the king to be swamped by the Presbyterians, as William thought, -too easily. He therefore appointed Sir James Dalrymple, whom he had -created Viscount Stair, Lord President of the Court of Session; and his -son, Sir John--called then, according to the custom of Scotland, the -Master of Stair--as Lord Advocate, took the lead in the management of -Scottish affairs. One of the matters which came under his notice was -that of the settling of the Highlands; and it was resolved by William's -Cabinet, where Lord Stair and the Earl of Argyll were consulted as the -great authorities on Scottish measures, that twelve thousand pounds -should be distributed amongst the Highland chiefs, to secure their -goodwill. Unfortunately, the agent that was chosen for the distribution -of this money was one of the hated tribe of Campbell. It was the Earl -of Breadalbane, who had deadly feuds with some of the clans; and, as -they regarded him with aversion and suspicion, the most insurmountable -obstacles arose to any reasonable arrangement. Besides that every chief -wanted more money than Breadalbane thought he ought to have, the Earl -of Argyll contended that these chiefs owed him large sums, and that -their quotas should be paid over to him in liquidation of those debts. -To this the chiefs would not consent, and when the money was not paid -over, they loudly avowed their conviction that Breadalbane meant to -appropriate it to himself. - -Amongst the chiefs, Macdonald of Glencoe was especially obnoxious -to Breadalbane. Glencoe is a peculiarly wild and gloomy glen in -Argyllshire. The English meaning of the word is "the glen of weeping," -a name singularly appropriate from its being frequently enveloped in -dense mists and drizzling rains. It was too barren and rugged for -agriculture, and, accordingly, its little section of the clan Donald -were noted for their predatory habits, common, indeed, to all the -Highlanders, and deemed as actually honourable. They had committed -frequent raids on the lands of Breadalbane, and therefore, when the -old chief presented himself amongst the other chiefs at the castle -of Breadalbane, he was rudely insulted, and was called upon to make -reparation for his damages done to the Campbells. Macdonald--or, as he -was commonly styled, Mac Ian--was glad to get away in safety. Incensed -at his treatment, he exerted all his arts and influence amongst the -other chiefs to embarrass and frustrate the attempts of Breadalbane -towards a settlement. - -Whilst these things were in agitation, the English Government issued a -proclamation, that every rebel who did not come in and take the oaths -to William and Mary before the 1st of January, 1692, should be held to -be a traitor, and treated accordingly. Notwithstanding considerable -delay, all the chiefs took care to come in before the appointed day -except Mac Ian. In his stubborn rage against Breadalbane he deferred -his submission to the last moment. On the 31st of December, however, -he presented himself at Fort William to take the oaths; but Colonel -Hill, the Governor, refused to administer the oaths, on the plea that -he was not a magistrate, and told Mac Ian that it was necessary that -he should go to Inverary and swear before the sheriff. The old chief -was confounded; this was the last day of grace, and it was impossible -to reach Inverary in the depth of winter in time. Hill, however, gave -him a letter to the sheriff expressing a hope that, as Mac Ian had -presented himself in time to take the oaths, though under an error as -to the authority, he would allow him to take them. Mac Ian did not -reach Inverary till the 6th of January, and the sheriff, after much -entreaty and many tears from the old chief, consented to administer the -oaths, and dispatch information of the circumstances to the Council in -Edinburgh. - -[Illustration: GLENCOE: SCENE OF THE MASSACRE. (_From a Photograph by -G. W. Wilson and Co., Aberdeen._)] - -The news did not reach Breadalbane and Argyll in Edinburgh, but in -London, whither they had gone to represent the state of these affairs; -and both they and the Master of Stair, who was there too, instead of -being glad that all the chiefs had come in, were exceedingly rejoiced -that Mac Ian had not submitted till after the prescribed time. They -agreed to suppress the fact that Mac Ian had come in, though after the -date, and only laid before William's Council the circumstance that -he had not come in at the expiry of the limited time. A proposal was -therefore made by them that this "nest of robbers," as they termed the -people of Glencoe, should be utterly routed out, without which, they -declared, there could be no peace in the Highlands. William therefore -signed a warrant laid before him for that purpose, putting his -signature both at top and bottom. - -With this fatal instrument in their hands, these worthless men -instantly took measures to wreak their vengeance on this little horde -of people, and to root them completely out. An order was sent to -Governor Hill to dispatch a sufficient force to Glencoe to kill every -man, woman, and child in it. Whether Hill was deemed too humane or too -dignified for the office of wholesale butcher, does not appear; but -he was directed to send Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton on the errand. -Hamilton, however, to make all sure by studying the place, sent, on the -1st of February, a Captain Campbell--better known as Glenlyon, from -the place of his residence. Glenlyon took with him one hundred and -twenty men, part of a regiment of Campbells, and marched to Glencoe; -and then appeared the full diabolism of the scheme of Mr. Secretary -Stair and his associates, Argyll and Breadalbane. He was not to fall -on the Macdonalds and put them to the sword as open and proscribed -enemies, but to secure the completion of the barbarous design by a plan -of the most revolting treachery on record. He was to profess to come -as a friend, only to seek temporary quarters on his wintry march, and -especially to visit a niece of his married to one of the sons of Mac -Ian. He was to feign friendship, to live with the poor people some time -in familiarity till all suspicion was laid to rest, and then to murder -them in cold blood. - -Accordingly, when this band of soldiers was seen approaching, a son of -the chief and some of the people went out to learn the cause of the -visit. The reply was, "All in friendship, and only to seek quarters." -The traitors were welcomed, and lodged amongst the different families. -Glenlyon and some of his men were accommodated by a man called -Inverriggen; Lindsay, the lieutenant, accepted the hospitality of old -Mac Ian; and a sergeant named Barbour was received by a leading man -called Auchintriater. For nearly a fortnight this air of friendship -was kept up. Glenlyon professed much attachment to his niece and -her husband. He and Lindsay played at cards with the chief and his -sons, and all went gaily, as far as whisky, and French brandy, and -blithe spirits on the part of the hosts, could make it so. But all -this time Glenlyon was studying how the more completely to secure the -destruction of every soul in the glen. He and his men noted carefully -every outlet, and the result of the observations was sent to Hamilton. -All being considered ready, Hamilton fixed the 13th of February for -the slaughter, and appointed to be there before five o'clock in the -morning, and to stop all the earths to which the "old fox and his -cubs," as he termed Mac Ian and his sons, could flee. That night, as -he was marching with four hundred men through the snows to do this -butcherly deed, Glenlyon was spending the evening with Mac Ian, and -engaged to dine the next day with "his murdered man." - -But with all the Judas-like deceit with which he carried on his hellish -design, that evening two men were heard lamenting they had something -to do that they did not relish. A suspicion was awakened, and one of -the sons of Mac Ian went at midnight to Glenlyon's lodgings to see if -he could discover anything. In confirmation of his worst suspicions -he found him and his men all up and armed. Yet he suffered himself to -be persuaded by the villain that they were called to a sudden march -to chastise some of the Glengarry clan for marauding; and the young -man returned home and went to bed. Glenlyon had said, "Do you think I -would do anything against my own niece and her husband?" - -At five in the morning, though Hamilton had not arrived, the -bloodthirsty Glenlyon commenced the massacre by murdering his host and -all his family. Lindsay did the same by his host, old Mac Ian and his -family; and Barbour shot down his host and family in the same manner. -Then the soldiers at every hut imitated their example, and speedily -there was a hewing and shooting down of victims flying from the huts to -the defiles for escape. Men, women, children, pleading most piteously, -were ruthlessly murdered. But, fortunately, the sound of the fire-arms -aroused the whole glen at once, and the rush of the affrighted people -was too simultaneous to allow of their being killed. The greater part -of them escaped in the darkness to the hills, for Hamilton had not -arrived to blockade the defiles. The sanguinary haste of Glenlyon had -saved the majority. The two sons of Mac Ian were amongst the number -who escaped. Above thirty people, however, were massacred, and an old -man of seventy, unable to fly, was brutally stabbed. But those who had -escaped the sword and musket only escaped to the snow-covered rocks to -perish, many of them of cold and famine, for the wretches set fire to -everything in the valley, and left it one black and hideous desert. - -When the news of this terrible affair at length spread, the public -could scarcely believe that so demoniacal a deed could have been -done in a Christian country. The Jacobites did not fail to dilate -on its infamy with emphasis. The whole frightful particulars were -gleaned up industriously by the non-jurors from the soldiers of the -regiment, which happened the next summer to be quartered in England. -All the execration due to such a deed was liberally showered on the -courtiers, on the actors of the brutal butchery, and on the king who -had sanctioned it. Terror, if not conscience seized on the chief -movers in it. Breadalbane sent his steward to Glencoe, to induce the -miserable inhabitants who had returned to their burnt-up valley to sign -a paper asserting that they did not charge him with any participation -in the crime, promising in return to use his influence with the king -to obtain a full pardon and immunity from forfeiture for them all. -Glenlyon was shunned as a monster wherever he appeared; but Stair, so -far from showing any shame or remorse, seemed to glory in the deed. As -for William, there was a zealous attempt to make it appear that he did -not know of what had been done; and when his warrant was produced, -then that he was deceived as to the circumstances of the case. -Unfortunately for William's reputation there was a searching inquiry -into the facts of the affair, and when he did know these in all their -atrocity, he failed to punish the perpetrators. Stair was for the time -dismissed, but very soon restored to William's service; and after this -all attempts would be futile to absolve him from gross want of feeling -and of justice in the case. It is a black spot on his fame, and must -remain so. Burnet, who is always anxious to defend William, says that, -from the letters and documents produced which he himself read, so many -persons were concerned in the business that "the king's gentleness -prevailed to a fault," and so he did not proceed against them--a -singular kind of gentleness! At the very least, the blood-guiltiness of -Breadalbane, Stair, and Glenlyon, was so prominent, and they were so -few, that they ought to have been made examples of; and such a mark of -the sense of the atrocity of the crime would have wiped from William's -reputation the clinging stain. - -Scarcely had William left England in the spring, when the country was -menaced by an invasion; and whilst he was contending with Luxemburg in -Flanders, the queen and her ministers had been as actively contending -with real and imaginary plots, and with the French fleet at La Hogue. -The Papists of Lancashire had for some time been particularly active in -encouraging in King James the idea that he would be welcomed again in -England by his subjects. One Lant, a carpenter, had been despatched to -St. Germains, and brought back assurances that his Majesty would, in -the course of the spring, certainly land in England. He also sent over -Colonel Parker, one of the parties engaged to assassinate William, to -concert the necessary measures with the Catholics and Jacobites for the -invasion. Parker assured them that James would embark at La Hogue with -thirty thousand men. Johnson, a priest, was said to be associated with -Parker to murder William before his departure if possible; but the king -had gone already when they arrived. - -The great minister of Louis, Louvois, was dead. He had always opposed -these ideas of invasion of England as absurd and impracticable. His -removal enabled James to persuade Louis to attempt the enterprise. It -was determined to muster a fleet of eighty sail. The Count de Tourville -commanded five-and-forty of them, and under him the Count D'Estrées -thirty-five more. The most active preparations were making for the -completion of all things necessary for the equipment of this fleet, -and the army which it was to carry over. The ships under Tourville lay -at Brest, those of D'Estrées at Toulon; they were to meet at Ushant, -and take on board the army at La Hogue. James was in high spirits; he -was puffed up by the invitations which the Catholic emissaries had -brought him; he had, he believed, firmly won over the admirals of the -fleet, Russell, Carter, Delaval, and Killigrew. Whilst in this elation -of mind he sent over invitations to many Protestant ladies of quality -to attend the expected _accouchement_ of his queen. He said many base -aspersions had been cast on the birth of his son, and he desired now -to prevent a recurrence of such slanders; he therefore offered to all -the distinguished persons invited safe conducts both for going and -returning from the French monarch. No one accepted the invitation; and -a daughter was born to James about whom no one in England was very much -concerned. - -But the preparations of James and Louis occasioned similar preparations -in England. The militia was called out; London was strongly guarded by -troops; the train-bands of the southern counties appeared in arms on -the coasts; the beacons were all vigilantly watched, and the fleet was -manned and equipped with all possible speed and strength. - -The invitation of James to the birth of his daughter was speedily -followed by a proclamation to his subjects in England. James had always -done himself more harm by his Declarations than all the efforts of -his friends and allies could do him good; and this was precisely of -that character. He expressed no regret for any of his past actions or -measures; he betrayed no suspicion, even, that he might have governed -more wisely. On the contrary, he represented himself as having always -been right, good, and gracious, and his subjects wrong, captious, -and unreasonable. He had always meant and done well, but he had been -shamefully maligned. He now promised to maintain the Church indeed; -but people had had too recent a proof of how he had maintained it in -Ireland. He meant to pardon many of his enemies; but, at the same time, -added such a list of proscriptions as made it look more like a massacre -than an amnesty. Amongst those excepted from all pardon were the Duke -of Ormond, the Marquis of Winchester, the Earls of Sunderland, Danby, -and Nottingham, the Lords Delamere, Wiltshire, Colchester, Cornbury, -and Dunblane; the Bishop of St. Asaph; Drs. Tillotson and Burnet. He -excepted even the poor fishermen who at Faversham had mistaken him -for a Jesuit priest on his flight, and called him "hatchet-face." All -judges, magistrates, sheriffs, jurymen, gaolers, turnkeys, constables, -and every one who had acted under William in securing and condemning -any Jacobite; all justices and other authorities who should not -immediately on his landing abandon the Government and support him; -and all gaolers who should not at once set at liberty all prisoners -confined for any conspiracy in favour of James, or for any political -deed on that side, all were alike condemned. In short, such was the -Draconian rigour with which the Declaration was drawn that there was -hardly a man who was not a downright Jacobite who did not tremble at -the belief that it might include him. - -The queen and her ministers no sooner read the Declaration than they -saw the whole effect of it. They had it printed and circulated all over -the kingdom, with a clever running commentary. Parliament was summoned -for the 24th of May, and a number of persons, charged with being -concerned in a plot for bringing in James, were arrested, and others -absconded. Amongst those seized were Marlborough and Lord Huntingdon, -who were sent to the Tower; Mr. Ridley, Mr. Knevitt, Mr. Hastings, -and Mr. Ferguson, were sent to Newgate; the Bishop of Rochester was -confined to his own house; the Lords Brudenel and Fanshawe, the Earls -of Dunmore and Middleton, and Sir Andrew Forrester, were next secured. -The Earls of Scarsdale, Lichfield, and Newborough, the Lords Griffin, -Forbes, Sir John Fenwick, Sir Theophilus Oglethorpe, and others, -escaped. The princess Anne expected arrest. - -On the 11th of May, a week after Marlborough was sent to the Tower, -Russell sailed from the Downs in quest of the French fleet. He was at -the head of ninety-nine sail of the line, the greatest force which had -ever descended the English Channel. Off Beachy Head he had met Carter -and Delaval, who had been watching the French ports, and a fine fleet -of Dutchmen were also in conjunction with him. There were between -thirty and forty thousand sailors, Dutch and English, on board, and -he was supported by the Admirals Delaval, Ashley, Cloudesley Shovel, -Carter, and Rooke. Van Almonde was in command of the Dutch squadron, -with Callemberg and Vandergoes. James meanwhile was at La Hogue with -the army, anxiously awaiting the fleet of De Tourville to carry it -over. James confidently calculated on the disaffection of the English -admirals, Russell, Delaval, Carter, and others. He sent an emissary -to remind Russell of his promises, and to promise him and the other -admirals high rewards in return. But Lloyd, the emissary, had found -Russell wonderfully changed. The fatal Declaration had produced the -same effect on him as on others. He told the man that he was desirous -to serve James, but that he must first grant a general pardon; and -besides, if he met the French fleet, though James was aboard of it, he -would never allow himself to be beaten by the French. - -In London the terror of this known disaffection had been great. The -queen and her ministers consulted deeply what should be done. Should -they send and arrest the traitors? The effect, they foresaw, would be -to scatter terror through the whole fleet. They adopted a far more -politic plan. On the 15th of May, as the combined fleet lay off St. -Helens, Russell called together the officers on board his own ship, -and informed them that he had a letter from the queen to read them. -In this she stated that she had heard rumours of disaffection amongst -the officers, but would not believe it. She knew they would fight as -became Englishmen for their country. The letter had an instant and -wondrous effect. They immediately signed unanimously a declaration that -they would live and die for the Crown, the Protestant religion, and -the freedom of England. On the 18th the fleet sailed for the coast of -France, and next day the fleet of Tourville was descried. Tourville -had only forty-five ships of the line, and he had orders, if he met -the English fleet, to engage. But Louis had since learned the junction -of the Dutch with the English, and despatched messengers to warn him, -but they were intercepted. Tourville, however, notwithstanding the -preponderance of the enemy, determined to engage. He had been upbraided -after the fight at Beachy Head as timid; his blood was roused, and, -besides, he confidently believed that three-fourths of the English -fleet were secretly for James, and would at the first brush come over -to him. As he lay off Barfleur on the morning of the 19th he saw the -long line of the enemy before him, and bore down upon them for battle. - -At eleven o'clock the French admiral opened fire on part of the English -fleet, the rest not being able to get up from the wind being contrary. -The spirit with which the English received him at once dissipated -Tourville's hopes of defection amongst them. The conflict continued -with uncommon fury till one o'clock, when Russell was compelled to -allow his flag-ship, the _Rising Sun_, carrying a hundred and four -guns, to be towed out of the line from the damage she had received. But -the fight continued furiously till three o'clock, when a fog parted -the enemies. Soon after, however, a wind favourable to the English -sprang up, and, at the same time, dispersed the fog. Fresh ships of -the English came up, and the conflict continued to rage till eight in -the evening. During this time Carter, who had been one of the most -deeply pledged to James, but who had fought like a lion, fell mortally -wounded, but as he was carried down to his cabin, he cried to his -men to fight the ship as long as she could swim. Tourville, who was -now contending hopelessly against numbers, drew off, but was closely -pursued, and the most terrible carnage was made of the men on board his -great ship, the _Royal Sun_, the pride of the French navy. He fought, -however, stoutly so long as the light continued; and then the whole -French fleet made all sail for the French ports. - -The next morning the English gave chase, and Russell's vessel was -retarded for some time by the falling of her topmast, but soon they -were once more in full pursuit. About twenty of the French ships -escaped through the perilous Race of Alderney, between that island -and the coast of Cotentin, where the English dared not pursue them; -and these vessels, by their desperate courage, escaped to St. Malo. -Tourville had shifted his flag to the _Ambitious_, and the _Royal Sun_, -battered and drenched in blood, made its way, and, with the _Admiral_ -and the _Conquerant_, managed to reach Cherbourg, whither Delaval -pursued and burnt them, with several other vessels. Tourville himself -and the rest of the fleet escaped into the harbour of La Hogue, where -they drew themselves up in shallow water, close under the guns of the -Forts De Lisset and St. Vaast. - -Here they flattered themselves that they were in safety. The army -destined to invade England lay close at hand, and James, his son the -Duke of Berwick, the Marshal Bellefond, and other great officers, -were in the forts. But Sir George Rooke, by the orders of Russell, -embarked his men in all the light frigates and open boats that could -be procured, and advanced boldly upon the French men-of-war as they -lay drawn up upon the beach. Regardless of the fire from the forts and -the ships, the English rushed to the attack with loud hurrahs, proud -to beard the French under the eyes of the very army of French and -renegade Irish which dared to dream of invading England. The daring -of the deed struck such a panic into the French sailors, that they -quickly abandoned the vessels which lay under Fort Lisset. The fort -and batteries seemed paralysed by the same event, and the English set -fire to the vessels. In vain Tourville manned his boats, and attempted -to drive back the English sailors; his mariners jumped to land again. -In vain the soldiers ashore hurried down and poured in a volley on the -British seamen; they successfully burnt all the six vessels lying under -Lisset, and returned to their ships without the loss of a man. - -The next morning Rooke was again afloat with the tide, and leading his -fleet of boats and his brave sailors against the vessels lying under -the Fort St. Vaast. The fort did more execution than the other fort the -day before; but all was in vain. The British sailors climbed up the -vessels; the French fled precipitately out of them, and they were all -burnt to the water's edge, except a few smaller ones, which were towed -away to the English fleet. When James saw these surprising acts he is -said to have involuntarily exclaimed, "See my brave English sailors." -But guns of the exploding vessels going off killed some of the people -standing near him, and he then, coming to a more sober reflection, -said, "Heaven fights against me," and retired. There was an end of all -hope of ever invading England, and he hastened back to St. Germains in -deep dejection. - -The news of this most brilliant and most important battle, which gave -such a blow to the power and _prestige_ of Louis, was received in -London with transports of delight. England was once more safe; France -was humbled; invasion at an end. Sixteen of the finest ships of France -had been destroyed, and on the part of England only one fire-ship. The -glory was England's, for, though the Dutch had fought well, it was the -English who had borne the brunt and done the miracles of bravery at La -Hogue. The tidings were borne to William's camp at Grammont, and set -all the cannon roaring the exultation into the ears of Luxemburg and -his army. - -At home there was now time to inquire into the particulars of the plot -for which Marlborough and others had been detained. Luckily for them -there was found to have been a sham conspiracy got up by one Young, a -debauched clergyman, who had been imprisoned for bigamy and for many -other crimes. Like Oates and his compeers, and the more recent Fuller, -he hoped to make money, and, therefore, had accused Marlborough, Sprat -the Bishop of Rochester, and the rest, of being in it. On examination, -the plot was found to be a mere barefaced forgery, got up by Young and -another miscreant named Blackhead. They had written an engagement to -bring in King James, and seize William, and forged to it the names of -Marlborough, Cornbury, Sancroft the ex-Primate, and Sprat, Bishop of -Rochester. This document they had contrived to hide in a flower-pot at -the bishop's house at Bromley. The bishop was arrested, but denied all -knowledge of the plot, and then Blackhead confessed. Young, however, -feigned another plot, and endeavoured to inveigle into it a poor man -of the name of Holland, who also informed the Earl of Nottingham. -Young was imprisoned and pilloried, and ministers were glad to admit -the accused to bail. For Marlborough and others this false plot was a -genuine godsend. They were deep in real treason, and this sham treason -screened their reputations just at the moment when the power of James -was being annihilated, and that of William rising in fresh vigour. - -But the Government was not satisfied with the success of the battle -of La Hogue. It was too decisive to be left, they thought, in barren -glory; it ought to be followed up by a more severe blow to France. Amid -the public rejoicings, Sidney, Portland, and Rochester went down to -Portsmouth to congratulate the fleet on its success. They distributed -twenty-seven thousand pounds amongst the seamen, and gold medals were -bestowed on the officers; and, to mark the sense of the king and queen -of this great achievement of the sailors, it was announced that the -wounded should be tended at the public charge in the hospitals of -St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew; and, still more, that the palace of -Greenwich, begun by Charles II., should be finished and appropriated -for ever as the home of superannuated sailors. Thus originated this -noble institution, this home for maimed and declining mariners. - -But for this honour conferred on the fleet fresh exploits were demanded -of it--that it should sail to St. Malo, bombard the town, and destroy -the remainder of Tourville's fleet, which had taken shelter there. -Accordingly, Rooke was dispatched to take soundings on the dangerous -shores of Brittany, and Russell mustered his fleet, which, having -taken on board transports of fourteen thousand troops under young -Schomberg--now Duke of Leinster--accompanied by Ruvigny--now Earl of -Galway--and his Huguenots, and the Earl of Argyll, with his regiment, -part of which had committed the melancholy massacre of Glencoe, stood -out to sea. Off Portland, however, a council of war was called, and it -was contended, by a majority of both naval and military officers, that -it was too late in the season--it was only the 28th of July--to attempt -such an enterprise amid the dangerous rocks and under the guns of the -forts and batteries of St. Malo. The fleet, therefore, returned to -St. Helens, much to the astonishment and disgust of the whole nation. -High words arose between the Earl of Nottingham, First Lord of the -Admiralty, and Russell. The Minister accused the Admiral of cowardice -and breach of duty in thus tamely giving up the enterprise against -France. - -Nottingham's hands were wonderfully strengthened by the deep discontent -of the merchants, who complained that they were almost ruined by the -so-much-vaunted victory of La Hogue; that before, we had a fleet in the -Mediterranean and another out in the Channel protecting the traders; -but that now the fleet had been concentrated to fight Tourville, -and then, instead of taking up proper positions to check the French -ships of war and privateers, had contemptibly returned to port; that -the French, embittered by the defeat of La Hogue, had now sent out -their men-of-war in every direction, and, finding our merchantmen -defenceless, had committed the most awful havoc amongst them. Fifty -vessels alone, belonging to London and Bristol, had been taken by them. -More than a hundred of our trading vessels had been carried into St. -Malo, which Russell, by destroying that port, could have prevented -or avenged; while Bart, of Dunkirk, had scoured the Baltic and the -northern coasts of Britain, and Trouin had actually ascended the -Shannon, and committed frightful mischief in Clare. - -Amid such expressions of discontent King William returned from Holland -to England. He landed on the 18th of October. He had had little -success in his campaign; La Hogue was the only bright spot of the -year, and the scene which now met him on his return was lowering and -depressing. There had been an earthquake in Jamaica, which, in three -minutes, had converted Port Royal, the most flourishing city of the -West Indies, into a heap of ruins, burying one thousand five hundred of -the inhabitants, and extending the calamity to the merchants of London -and Bristol. The distress in England itself was general and severe. A -rainy season had ruined the harvest, and reduced the people to a state -of extreme misery. Bread riots were frequent, and the complaints of the -excessive burthen of taxation were loud and general. Burglaries and -highway robberies were of the most audacious kind. William, however, -was not a man to sit and brood over such things. He at once sent -out parties of cavalry into the districts where the robberies were -frequent, and, by bribing some of the thieves, got information of the -rest, whom his police hunted out industriously. Their chief captain, -one Whitney, was taken and hanged, and the highways and domestic -hearths were soon as secure as ever. - -He called together Parliament on the 4th of November, where there was -every reason to expect no little faction and difficulties. Parliament -was not merely divided into Ministerialists and Opposition, it was -broken into sundry parties, all exasperated by one cause or another. -The Whigs were sore with their loss of office to a great extent; the -Lords were nettled at the Commons refusing their claims put forward in -the Lord High Steward's Court Bill, and were urged to contention by -Marlborough and the other lords who had been imprisoned, and who were -loud in denouncing the proceeding as a breach of their privileges. -There was a great jealousy of William's employment of so many Dutch in -preference to Englishmen, and the Commons were discontented with the -manner in which public business was conducted. - -William was aware of the difficult part he had to play, and in his -opening speech he took care to put La Hogue in the foreground, and -to congratulate them on this glorious victory gained by Englishmen. -He confessed that the success of the campaign on land had been but -moderate, but he praised in the highest terms the valour of the British -soldiers. He expatiated on the power and the designs of France, told -them that the cause of Protestantism was the cause of England, that -Louis must be humbled, and that for that purpose there must be still -liberal supplies. He threw out a hint of carrying the war into France -itself, and assured them that his own aims were identical with theirs, -and that he would willingly sacrifice his life for the honour and -welfare of the nation. To conciliate both Houses, he condescended to -ask their advice and assistance in putting the national affairs into -the best possible condition--a piece of candour of which he speedily -found reason to repent. Both Houses voted him thanks for his gracious -speech, and, immediately seizing on his request for advice, began to -offer it in good earnest. - -The Lords at once took up the case of Marlborough, Huntingdon, and -Scarsdale. They complained that in ungratefully persecuting Marlborough -the Court had gone the full length of treating the Princess of Denmark -with severity and indignity. Her guards had been taken away; when -she went to Bath, the magistrates had orders to omit the honours due -to royalty, and the Church to omit her name in the prayers; and -this simply because she had shown her attachment to the Countess of -Marlborough. Marlborough, thus supported by the Lords, who had their -own cause of pique about the Lord High Steward's Court Bill, and by the -disrespect shown to the Princess, was loud in his complaints of the -harshness with which he had been treated, and of being kept in prison -with his friends in defiance of Habeas Corpus. The Earl of Shrewsbury, -the Marquis of Halifax, the Earls of Mulgrave, Devonshire, Montague, -Bradford, Stamford, Monmouth, and Warrington, supported him from -various motives, many of them being Whigs; and the Jacobites fanned -the flame, hoping for a rupture. Lord Lucas, Constable of the Tower, -was ordered to produce the warrants of commitment, and the Clerk of -the King's Bench to lay before them the affidavit of Aaron Smith, the -Solicitor of the Treasury, on which they had been remanded; and Smith -was sharply cross-examined. The judges were ordered to attend, and the -Lords passed a resolution that the law had been violated in the case -of the noble prisoners. They then consulted on the best mode of fully -discharging them. The debate was so violent that the Ministers were -alarmed, and proposed to the King to adjourn Parliament till the 17th -of the month, and in the meanwhile to liberate the noblemen from their -bail. Accordingly, on the reassembling of the Lords, they were informed -that the King had discharged the recognisances of the accused nobles, -and the Lords sullenly dropped the question. - -But though disappointed here, the Lords immediately fastened on the -king's request of advice. They moved that a committee of both Houses -should be appointed for preparing this advice. The motion, however, -was rejected by a majority of twelve. Nevertheless, they determined to -give the king advice themselves. They agreed to an Address, praying -his Majesty to appoint an Englishman commander of the forces, and that -English officers should take precedence of all in the confederate army, -except the officers of Crowned heads. This was meant to affect the -Dutch, who were only the subjects of a Stadtholder. They also desired -that the forces left in England should be all English, commanded by -an English general; that such officers as pressed men for the fleet -should be cashiered, and that no foreigner should sit at the Board of -Ordnance. All those matters, aimed at the king's favoured countrymen, -William received coldly, returning only short and dry answers. - -The Lords next attacked Russell for his neglect to make the descent -intended on the coast of France. They ordered books and papers -concerning that matter to be laid before them. A committee was -appointed, and the substance of the charge was communicated to the -Commons as concerning a member of that House. - -[Illustration: GREENWICH HOSPITAL.] - -The Commons on their part took up the charge against Russell as a -charge against themselves. They informed the Lords that they found that -Russell had conducted himself at the head of the fleet with fidelity, -courage, and ability. Russell made his defence, and accused Nottingham -of being the cause of the non-descent. He declared that above twenty -days had elapsed between his writing to Nottingham and receiving an -answer; that therefore the expedition had become abortive from not -receiving timely and necessary information and orders. Nottingham's -friends in the Commons warmly took up his defence; the Lords demanded a -conference; the Commons refused it, and, amid this noise and animosity, -the important subject was left undecided. - -The Commons then proceeded to give the King the advice and the -assistance which he had so unluckily asked. They demanded that books -and papers should be laid before them necessary to enable them to -inquire into the management of the Government offices; but they soon -came to a stand, for, inquiring into the abuses of the Admiralty, the -merits or demerits of Nottingham and Russell came again into question. -One or both of them had been guilty of gross mismanagement, but each -House defended its own member, and the only result was a motion in -the Commons, which, whilst it acquitted Russell, seemed to reflect on -Nottingham. The Lords resenting, made severe reprisals on the character -and conduct of Russell, and then the incident ended. - -The Commons were more generally united in condemning the failure of -the battle of Steinkirk and the conduct of Solmes. Some officers in -the House, however, defended the behaviour of the Dutch officers on -that occasion, and especially of Overkirk in bringing the remains -of Mackay's troops out of the battle. But they said not a word in -vindication of Solmes, and William, to his disgrace, still continued -this insolent foreigner, who had wilfully sacrificed the lives of the -brave English soldiers, in his command. - -[Illustration: BURNING OF BLOUNT'S PAMPHLET BY THE COMMON HANGMAN. -(_See p._ 466.)] - -The Commons now went into the question of supplies. They were fully -prepared to sustain the king in his exertions to check the arms of -France, though they protested against a fact which they had discovered -by examinations of the treaty between the Allies, that the English paid -two-thirds of the expense of the war. After grumbling, however, they -voted fifty-four thousand men for the army, twenty thousand of them -to remain at home, and thirty-three thousand men for the navy. They -voted two millions for the army, and two millions for the navy, besides -seven hundred and fifty thousand pounds to supply the deficiency -of the quarterly poll. Still there was likely to be a deficiency. -Notwithstanding the large grants of the previous year, the expenditure -had far exceeded them; it was, therefore, proposed to resort to a land -tax--the first imposed since the Restoration, and the grand transfer -of taxation from the aristocracy to the nation at large. The Peers -made a violent opposition, not to the tax, but to their estates being -valued and assessed by any but commissioners of their own body. But -they finally gave way, and a land tax of four shillings in the pound -was carried. When Louis heard of these unusual supplies, he could not -restrain his amazement. "My little cousin, the Prince of Orange," he -said, "seems to be firm in the saddle; but no matter, the last louis -d'or must carry it." - -Little did Louis know the condition of England when he said that. If -the last piece of gold was to carry it, the chance lay much on the -side of England. Whilst France was fast sinking in exhaustion from -his enormous wars and lavish luxury, whilst his people were sunk in -destitution, and trade and agriculture were languishing, England was -fast rising in wealth from commerce, colonies, and internal industry, -and was capable of maintaining the struggle for an indefinite period. - -Yet it was at this moment that the National Debt assumed its -determinate shape. It had existed, indeed, since the fraud of Charles -I. on the London merchants by the shutting of the exchequer. It was now -said to be suggested by Burnet that there were heaps of money hidden -away in chests and behind wainscots for want of safe and convenient -public security, and that, by Government giving that security at a -fixed percentage, it might command any amount of money by incurring -only a slight increase of annual taxation for the interest. The idea -itself, however, was familiar to William, for the Dutch had long had a -debt of five million pounds, which was regarded by the people as the -very best security for their money. Accordingly, a Bill was passed on -the 3rd of January, 1693, for raising a million by loan, and another -million by annuities, which were to be paid by a new duty on beer and -other liquors; and thus, with a formal establishment of the National -Debt, closed the year 1692. - -The opening of 1693 was distinguished by a warm debate on the liberty -of the press. The licensing, which was about to expire, was proposed -for renewal. The eloquent appeal of Milton, in his "Areopagitica," -that all books which bore the names of the author or publisher should -be exempt from the power of the licensers, had hitherto produced no -effect; but now circumstances occurred which drew the subject into -notice, and raised many other voices in favour of such exemption. In -the Lords, Halifax, Mulgrave, and Shrewsbury warmly advocated the -principles of Milton; but though the Bill passed, it was only by a -slight majority, and with a protest against it, signed by eleven -peers; nor was it to pass for more than two years. The circumstance -which roused this strong feeling was, that Burnet had published a -pastoral letter to the clergy of his diocese, recommending them to -take the oaths to William and Mary, in which, amongst their claims to -the throne, he had unfortunately mentioned that of conquest. This had -escaped general attention till the Royal Licenser, Edmund Bohun, a high -Tory, who had taken the oaths on this very plea that the king and queen -had won the throne by conquest, fell into the trap of one Blount, whose -works he had refused to license. This man wrote an anonymous pamphlet -with the title, "King William and Queen Mary Conquerors." The unlucky -censor fell into the trap, and licensed it. Then the storm of Whig -indignation broke over his head. He was summoned before Parliament and -committed to custody. The book was ordered to be burnt by the hangman, -and the House unanimously passed a resolution praying his Majesty -to dismiss him from his office. The unfortunate licenser was then -discharged on his own petition, after having been reprimanded on his -knees by the Speaker. Burnet's pastoral letter was likewise ordered to -be burnt by the hangman, much to the bishop's shame and mortification. -But the liberty of the press was achieved. When the Two Years Act -maintaining the censorship expired, the Commons refused to renew it. -William prorogued Parliament on the 14th of March, and prepared to set -out for the Continental campaign. - -William, on his part, had more than his usual difficulty in bringing -his Allies into the field. Indeed, they were far more occupied in -their petty feuds than thinking of presenting a sufficient front to -the great enemy who, if successful, would tread them all down in their -own territories as Buonaparte afterwards crushed their posterity. The -Courts of Baden, of Saxony, of Austria, and of the lesser Powers, were -all quarrelling amongst themselves. The Northern Powers were still -trying to weaken the Allies, and so form a third party; and on the -side of Italy, Savoy was menaced by numerous forces of France, and -ill-supported by Austria. The Prince of Hesse had neglected to furnish -his quota, and yet wanted a chief command. The Prince of Baden and the -Elector of Saxony were at strife for the command of the army of the -Rhine. When William had brought all these wretched and provoking Allies -into some degree of order, he mustered seventy thousand men in the -field, and Louis came against him with a hundred and twenty thousand. - -Louis marched himself with his army with all the pomp and splendour -that he could assume. He brought all his Court with him, as if his -officers should be stimulated to the utmost by having to fight under -the very eyes of their king and the courtiers and ladies, Madame de -Maintenon amongst them. Louis's plan of action was precisely what it -had been in the two previous campaigns. As he had suddenly invested -Mons and Namur by overwhelming forces, before his enemy could approach, -he now proposed to surprise and take Brussels or Liége, and so carry -off the glory of the exploit both from the Allies and his own general, -Luxemburg. This was a cheap and easy way of securing fame without -danger; but this time William was too quick for him. Louis arrived at -the commencement of June at Namur, where his ladies held a brilliant -court. But William had taken up a strong position at Parke, near -Louvain, and thrown reinforcements into Maestricht, Huy, and Charleroi. -Louis perceived that he was checkmated, and his desire of acquiring -still more martial honours suddenly evaporated. Nothing but hard -fighting could make an impression on his stubborn antagonist, and -for that Louis had no fancy. He determined, therefore, to return to -Versailles with his ladies and his Court, and leave Luxemburg to fight -it out. The alarm at this proposal in the camp was intense. Luxemburg -represented to Louis that it would have the certain effect of damping -the spirits of the soldiers, and raise those of the enemy. He reminded -him that now he had nothing to do but to bear down upon the Allies with -all his powers, and sweep them away by mere momentum, and put an end -to the war. But all his entreaties were lost on the Grand Monarque, -who had rather steal a victory than win one. He not only persisted -in going, but he weakened the forces of Luxemburg by dispatching the -division of Boufflers, amounting to twenty thousand men, which he -had taken under his own especial command, under Boufflers and the -Dauphin, to join Marshal de Lorges, who had orders again to ravage the -Palatinate. - -But, in reality, Luxemburg was better without the pompous and -voluptuous king. He had no one now to come between himself and his -real military genius, in which he infinitely excelled William; and he -immediately brought his skill into play. Before attacking the Allies -he resolved to divide them on the true Macchiavellian principle, -"divide et impera." He therefore made a feint of marching upon Liége. -Liége was one of the places that it was expected that the French -would aim at securing this campaign, and the inhabitants had very -cavalierly declined to take any measures for defending themselves, -saying it was the business of the Allies. William, therefore, put his -forces in motion to prevent this catastrophe. He had advanced as far -as Neer-Hespen; there, however, he heard that Luxemburg had obtained -possession of Huy, which had been defended by a body of troops from -Liége and Count Tilly, but which, though supported by another division -under the Duke of Würtemberg, had been compelled to return to Liége. - -William now dispatched twenty thousand men to reinforce Liége, and -thus accomplish the very thing at which Luxemburg was aiming. The -moment he learnt that William had reduced his force by this detachment, -he marched from Huy on the 28th of July, and passed the Jaar near -its source with an army exceeding that of the Allies by thirty-five -thousand men. William, now aware of Luxemburg's design, committed one -of those blunders in strategy, which, except for his indomitable -tenacity of purpose, would long ago have ruined him. He could have put -the deep river Gerte between him and the enemy; it was just in the -rear. His generals strongly urged him to do this, where he might have -maintained his position till he had recalled his forces from Liége. -But he would not listen to them. He was afraid of having to retreat -before Luxemburg, and discouraging his men. He set about, therefore, -instantly to strengthen his then position. It was naturally strong; -on his right hand lay the village of Neer-Winden amongst a network of -hedges, and deep lanes, with a small stream winding through it; on his -right lay the village of Romsdorff, on a brook named the Landen, whence -the battle took its name. William ordered an entrenchment to be thrown -up from one village to the other, and mounted with a formidable rampart -of stakes. Batteries were raised along this breastwork, and the two -villages were made as strong as the time would allow. - -The Allies commenced immediately a cannonade with a hundred pieces of -cannon on the ramparts, which did great execution; but the French soon -returned the compliment, and about eight o'clock made a furious attack -on the villages of Lare and Neer-Winden. These places were several -times lost and regained. In one of the assaults the Duke of Berwick -was taken prisoner. Perceiving himself surrounded by the English, -he plucked off his white cockade, and endeavoured to pass himself -off as an English officer. His English tongue might have served him, -but he had fallen under the eye of his uncle, Brigadier Churchill, -who received him affectionately, and conducted him to William, who -addressed him with courtesy, but never saw him again, as he was -immediately after the battle exchanged for the Duke of Ormond, who was -wounded and taken prisoner in the action. Meanwhile the battle was -raging fiercely all along the line. The French repeatedly rushed up to -the breastworks, and were as often driven back by the slaughtering fire -of the infantry. A fresh attack was made on Neer-Winden, supported by -the division under the Duke of Bourbon, but which was repulsed with -terrible carnage. Then Luxemburg called together his staff to consult, -and it was resolved to try one more assault on Neer-Winden with the -famous Household Troops, which had carried the day at Mons and Namur. -William met them at the head of several English regiments, which -charged the Household Troops with such impetuosity that, for the first -time, they were forced to give way. But whilst William was exerting -himself on the right, with a desperation and a risking of his person -which astonished everyone, the centre had become much weakened, and a -murderous fight was going on at Romsdorff, or Neer-Landen, on the left. -There the Prince of Conti renewed the flagging contest by bringing up -some of the finest regiments of the French infantry, whilst Villeroi -there encountered the Bavarian cavalry, under Count D'Arco. In this -_mêlée_ the Duke of Chartres narrowly escaped being taken. Whilst the -battle was thus obstinately disputed, the Marquis D'Harcourt brought up -two-and-twenty fresh squadrons from Huy, which falling on the English, -Dutch, and Hanoverians struggling against the united onslaught of -Luxemburg, Marsin, and Marshal de Joyeuse, bore them down by actual -numbers. The whole line gave way; and now was seen the folly of William -leaving the river in his rear instead of having it in front. The -confusion became terrible to escape over the bridge, and a frightful -carnage must have followed had not William, with the regiments of -Wyndham, Lumley, and Galway, borne the brunt of the pursuing host till -the rest of his army got over the bridge of Neer-Hespen. As it was, -the rout and disorder were dreadful; numbers flung themselves into the -river, but found it too deep, and were drowned. The Duke of Ormond was -here severely wounded. Here, too, Solmes, mortally wounded, was seized -by the enemy. The "English bulldogs" did not mourn his loss. If William -by his want of judgment had led his troops into this trap, he did his -best to get them out of it. He repeatedly dismounted to encourage his -men, inciting them by voice and example to stand up to the enemy. He -had two led horses shot close behind him; one bullet passed through -his hat, another through his sleeve, and a third carried away the knot -of his sash. At length he got his army over the bridge, and encamped -on the other bank of the river. The French did not attempt to pursue; -they were worn out with their violent exertion, and passed the night on -the field of battle amongst the heaps of slain and wounded. The next -morning presented the most appalling scene of butchery, unequalled by -any battle of that epoch, except that of Malplaquet. Twenty thousand -men are said to have perished in this bloody struggle, about an equal -number on each side. On the French side fell Count Montchevreuil and -the Duke D'Uzes, the premier peer of France. Luxemburg, exhausted with -this effort, remained fifteen days at Waren, reorganising his shattered -forces; and William employed the time in a similar manner, recalling -the troops from Liége and from other places; so that in a short time he -was again ready for action, his headquarters being Louvain. - -The battle of Landen was the great event of the campaign of 1693. -When Luxemburg was rejoined by Boufflers from the Rhine, he invested -Charleroi, and that with so much adroitness that William was not able -to prevent him. Charleroi capitulated on the 11th of October, and -Louis ordered a _Te Deum_ and other rejoicings for this fresh triumph. -But though he professed to triumph, he had little cause to do so. He -had formerly overrun Holland, Flanders, or Franche-Comté in a single -campaign, and sometimes without a battle; now he had beaten the Allies -at Fleurus, Steinkirk, and Landen, and yet here they were as ready to -fight him as ever. His country was sinking into the very depths of -misery and destitution, the campaign had cost him ten thousand men, -and though he had taken sixty cannon, nine mortars, and a great number -of colours and standards, he could not advance twenty miles in the -direction of the United Provinces without running the risk of a similar -decimation of his troops. It was a humiliating position, after all. -After the surrender of Charleroi both armies went into winter quarters. - -If the affairs of England had been unsuccessful by land, they had been -most disastrous by sea. Before leaving for Holland William ordered that -Killigrew and Delaval should, with their whole fleet, amounting to -nearly a hundred sail, get out to sea early, and blockade the French -fleets in their ports, so as to allow our merchantmen to pursue their -voyages with security. Our ports were crowded with trading vessels, -which had long been waiting to sail to the Mediterranean and other -seas with cargoes. About the middle of May the admirals united their -squadrons at St. Helens, and, being joined by a considerable number -of Dutch men-of-war, they took on board five regiments of soldiers, -intending to make a descent on Brest. No less than four hundred -merchantmen were ready to start, and on the 6th of June the united -fleet put out from St. Helens to convoy them so far as to be out of -danger of the French fleets, when Sir George Rooke was to take them -forward to the Mediterranean under guard of twenty sail. But the French -appear to have been perfectly informed of all the intentions of the -English Government from the traitors about the Court, and the English -to have been perfectly ignorant of the motions of the French. Instead -of Tourville allowing himself to be blockaded in Brest, and D'Estrées -in Toulon, they were already out and sailing down towards Gibraltar, -where they meant to lie in wait for the English. - -[Illustration: LOUIS XIV.] - -The united fleet of the Allies having, therefore, accompanied Rooke and -the merchantmen about two hundred miles beyond Ushant, returned. Rooke -did not think they were by any means certain of their enemies being -behind them, and earnestly entreated the admirals to go on farther, but -in vain. They not only turned back, but went home, without making the -slightest attempt to carry out the attack on Brest. When they reached -England it was well known that Tourville had recently quitted Brest, -and was pursuing his course south to join D'Estrées. The consternation -and indignation were beyond bounds. A swift vessel was despatched to -overtake and recall Rooke and the merchant vessels if possible. But it -is proverbial that a stern chase is a long chase. It was impossible to -come up with Rooke; he had reached Cape St. Vincent, and there learnt -that a French fleet was lying in the Bay of Lagos; but, imagining that -it was only a detached squadron, he went on, till on the 16th of June -he perceived before him the whole French fleet, amounting to eighty -vessels. - -As to engaging such an unequal force, that would have been a wilful -sacrifice of himself and his charge. The Dutch Admiral Vandergoes -agreed with him that the best thing was for the merchant vessels to -run into the Spanish ports Faro, San Lucar, or Cadiz, as best served -them, others were too far out at sea; these he stood out to protect as -long as he could, and they made, some for Ireland, some for Corunna and -Lisbon. He himself then made all sail for Madeira, which he reached -in safety. Two of the Dutch ships, being overtaken by the French, ran -in shore, and thus drawing the French after them, helped the others -to get off. Captains Schrijver and Vander Poel fought stoutly as long -as they could, and then surrendered. The French commander Coetlegon -took seven of the Smyrna merchantmen, and sank four under the rocks -of Gibraltar. The loss to the merchants was fearful. The news of this -great calamity spread a gloom over the City of London, and many were -loud in attributing disloyalty to Killigrew and Delaval, probably not -without cause, for that they were in correspondence with St. Germains -is only too certain. - -Sir George Rooke returned from Madeira to Cork, which he reached on the -3rd of August, his ships of war and the traders which had followed him -for safety numbering fifty vessels. Leaving the rest of his ships to -convoy the merchantmen to Kinsale, he returned to the fleet, which was -cruising in the Channel, and which now returned to St. Helens, where -they had already landed the soldiers. About the same time a squadron, -which had gone out to seize the island of Martinique, under Sir Francis -Wheeler, after coasting Newfoundland and Canada, returned totally -unsuccessful. The Dutch set sail for Holland on the 19th of September, -and thus terminated this inglorious naval campaign. - -On the 7th of November Parliament met. William had a poor story of -his campaign to relate, but he attributed his defeat to the enormous -exertions which Louis had made, and on that plea demanded still greater -efforts from England. He asked that the army should be raised to a -hundred and ten thousand men, and the navy proportionably augmented. -He complained bitterly of the mismanagement of the fleet, and the -Commons immediately proceeded to inquire into the cause of it. The -Whigs made a vehement charge of treachery and neglect against Delaval -and Killigrew; the Tories, to defend them, threw the blame on the -Admiralty. Lord Falkland, who was Chief Commissioner, was proved by -Rainsford, the Receiver of the Navy, to have embezzled a large sum, -and it was moved that he be committed to the Tower. This, however, was -overruled, but he was reprimanded in his place. The Lords then took up -the same examination, and endeavoured to turn the blame from the Earl -of Nottingham to Sir John Trenchard, the Whig secretary. Nottingham -declared that early in June he received a list of the French fleet -from Paris, and the time of their sailing, and handed it to Trenchard, -whose duty it was to send the orders to the admirals. But Trenchard -was in his turn screened by the Whigs. The matter was again taken -up by the Commons, and Lord Falkland was declared guilty of a high -misdemeanour and committed to the Tower, whence, however, in two days -he was released on his own petition. Robert Harley--destined to make a -great figure in the succeeding reign--Foley, and Harcourt, all of whom -from being Whigs had become Tories, presented to the House a statement -of the receipts and disbursements of the revenue, which displayed the -grossest mismanagement. But the farther the inquiry went, the more -flagrant became the discoveries of the corruption of both Ministers -and members of Parliament, through bounties, grants, places, pensions, -and secret-service money; so that it was clear that Parliament was so -managed that Ministers could baffle any Bill, quash any grievance, -and prepare any fictitious statement of account. The result was that -William was compelled to dismiss Nottingham, and to place Russell at -the head of the Admiralty. The seals which Nottingham resigned were -offered to Shrewsbury, but were not at once accepted. - -Having expressed their feelings on the mismanagement and treachery -of the past year, the Commons proceeded to vote the supplies for the -next, and in this they showed no want of confidence in the king. They -did not, indeed, vote him his hundred and ten thousand troops, but -they voted eighty-three thousand one hundred and twenty-one, but not -till they had called for the treaties existing between William and -his Allies, and the quota which every one was to furnish. To defray -the charge, they voted five millions and a half, in nearly equal -proportions between the army and the navy, including four hundred -thousand pounds to pay the arrears of the Session; and this they -ordered to be raised by a land tax of four shillings in the pound, -and a further excise on beer, a duty on salt, and a lottery. This was -a profusion which would have made the country stand aghast under the -abhorrent rule of James, and the force was nearly double that with -which Cromwell had made himself the dread of Europe. - -[Illustration: THE FOUNDING OF THE BANK OF ENGLAND, 1694. - -FROM THE ORIGINAL DESIGN BY GEORGE HARCOURT FOR THE WALL PANEL IN THE -ROYAL EXCHANGE.] - -These matters being settled, the Commons considered the popular -questions of the Bill for Regulating the Trials for High Treason, the -Triennial Bill, and the Place Bill. None of these Bills were made law. -The Triennial Bill and the Bill for Regulating the Trials for High -Treason were lost; the Place Bill was carried, but William refused -to ratify it, under the idea that it was intended to abridge his -prerogative. The excitement in the Commons was intense. It was resolved -to address his Majesty, and such an address was drawn up and presented -by the whole House. William received them very graciously, but conceded -nothing, and Harley declared, on returning to the House, that the -king's answer was no answer at all. Menaces of showing their power on -the next occasion by stopping the supplies were thrown out, and it -was proposed to go up to his Majesty again to demand a more explicit -answer; but the Whigs represented the danger of thus encouraging the -hopes of the Jacobites by the prospect of a breach between King and -Parliament, and the matter dropped. - -The question of the charter of the East India Company was again warmly -debated. The feud between the old and the new Company had grown so -violent that the old Company, fearing Government might be induced to -grant a charter to the new Company, had put forth all its powers of -bribery, and had succeeded. But the former had somehow neglected the -payment of the tax on joint-stock companies, by which, according to -the terms of the Act, their charter was forfeited. The new Company -eagerly seized on this circumstance to prevent a renewal of the -charter; but the old Company put nearly one hundred thousand pounds at -the disposal of Sir Thomas Cook, one of their members, and also member -of Parliament, and by a skilful distribution of this sum amongst the -king's Ministers, Caermarthen and Seymour coming in for a large share, -they succeeded in getting their charter renewed. - -The new Company and the merchants of London were exasperated at this -proceeding. They published an account of the whole transaction; they -represented that the old Company was guilty of the grossest oppression -and the most scandalous acts of violence and injustice in India and -its seas; they asserted that two of their own ships had exported -in one year more cloths than the old Company had exported in three -years; and they offered to send more the next year of both cloths and -other merchandise than the Company had sent in five; but the bribes -prevailed, and the old Company obtained its charter--not very definite -in its terms, however, as regarded its monopoly, and subject to such -alterations and restrictions within a given time as the king should -see fit. At this juncture the old Company were imprudent enough to -obtain an order from the Admiralty to restrain a valuable ship called -the _Redbridge_, lying in the Thames, from sailing. Her papers were -made out for Alicante, but it was well known that she was bound for -the Indies. The owners appealed to Parliament, and Parliament declared -the detention of the vessel illegal, and, moreover, that all subjects -of England had a right to trade to the Indies, unless prohibited by -Act of Parliament. Encouraged by this decision, the new Company prayed -the Commons to grant them a direct sanction to trade thither, and the -old Company, on their part, prayed for a Parliamentary sanction to -their charter; but no decision in either case was come to, and for some -years scenes of strange contention continued to be enacted between the -rival Companies and free traders in the seas and ports of those distant -regions. - -The last Act of this Parliamentary session proved the most important of -all; it was the establishment of the Bank of England. Banking, now so -universal, was but of very recent introduction to England. The Lombard -Jews had a bank in Italy as early as 808; Venice had its bank in 1157; -Geneva in 1345; Barcelona in 1401. In Genoa, Stockholm, Amsterdam, -Hamburg, and Rotterdam there had long been banks, but in England men -had continued, till within a very short time previous to this period, -to hoard and pay out their own money from their own strong boxes. The -goldsmiths of Lombard Street had of late become bankers, and people -began to pay by orders on them, and travellers to take orders from -them on foreign banks. It was now beginning to be strongly agitated -to establish joint-stock banks, and there were various speculative -heads at work with plans for them. One Hugh Chamberlayne and his -coadjutor, John Briscoe, published a scheme of a land bank, by which -gentlemen were to give security for their notes on their land; on the -principle that land was as real and substantial property as gold. But -the extravagant and unsound views as to the actual value of land which -they promulgated ruined their credit. Because an estate was worth -twenty thousand pounds at twenty years' purchase, they argued that it -was worth that every twenty years, and, therefore, could be immediately -convertible at the same rate for any number of years--as if they could -put a hundred years' purchase in the first twenty, and raise the -hundred years' value, or one hundred thousand pounds, on it at once. - -There was, however, a more sober and shrewd projector, William -Paterson, a calculating Scotsman, who in 1691 had laid before -Government a plan for a national bank on sound and feasible principles. -His scheme had received little attention, but now, though a million -of money was raised by the lottery, another million was needed, and -Paterson secured the attention of Charles Montague, a rising statesman, -to his scheme. Paterson represented that the Government might easily -relieve itself of the difficulty of raising this money, and of all -future similar difficulties, by establishing a national bank, at the -same time that it conferred the most important advantages on the public -at large. He had already firmly impressed Michael Godfrey, an eminent -London merchant, and the brother of the unfortunate Sir Edmundsbury -Godfrey, with the immense merits of his scheme. They now submitted -these merits, and the particularly attractive one to a young politician -of raising himself by a happy mode of serving the Government, and -acquiring immediate distinction for practical sagacity. Montague was a -young man of high family, but a younger brother's younger son--poor, -clever, accomplished, and intensely ambitious. At Cambridge he had -distinguished himself as a wit and a versifier; but he was now in the -Commons, and had made a rapid reputation as an orator and statesman -by his management of the Bill for Regulating the Trials for High -Treason. This man--vain, ostentatious, not too nice in his means of -climbing, but with talents equal to the most daring enterprise, and -who afterwards became better known as the Earl of Halifax--saw the -substantial character of Paterson's scheme, and took it up. Whilst he -worked the affair in Parliament, Godfrey was to prepare the City for it. - -Montague submitted the scheme to the Committee of Ways and Means, -and as they were at their wits' end to raise the required million, -they caught at it eagerly. The proposed plan was to grant a charter -to a company of capitalists, under the name of the Governor and -Company of the Bank of England. This company was to have authority -to issue promissory notes, discount bills of Exchange, and to deal -in bullion and foreign securities. Their first act was to be to lend -the Government twelve hundred thousand pounds, at eight per cent., -and to receive, as means of repayment, the proceeds of a new duty on -tonnage, whence the bank at first received the name of the Tonnage -Bank. The Bill for establishing this bank was introduced ostensibly to -Parliament as a Bill for imposing this new duty on tonnage; the charter -of the proposed bank being granted in consideration of its making an -immediate advance on the tonnage duty. In the Commons it underwent many -sallies of wit and sarcasm, as one of the thousand speculations of the -time; but in the City, where its real character was at once perceived -by the Lombard Street money-dealers, it was instantly assailed by -a perfect storm of execration. It was declared to be a scheme for -enabling the Government to raise money at any moment and to any extent, -independently of Parliament, and thus to accomplish all that the -Charleses and Jameses had ever aimed at. To silence this suspicion, -Montague introduced a clause making it illegal, and amounting to -forfeiture of its charter, for the bank to lend any money to Government -without the consent of the Parliament. This, however, did not lay the -tempest. It was now denounced as a Republican institution borrowed -from Holland and Genoa, and meant to undermine the monarchy; it was a -great fact, the objectors urged, that banks and kings had never existed -together. - -Notwithstanding all opposition, however, the Bill passed the Commons; -and though it met with fresh and determined opposition in the Lords, -where it was declared to be a scheme of the usurers to enrich -themselves at the expense of the aristocracy, on Caermarthen coolly -asking them, if they threw out this Bill, how they meant to pay the -Channel fleet, they passed it; and such was its success in the City, -that in less than ten days the whole sum required by Government was -subscribed. Such was the origin of that wonderful institution, the -Bank of England. One other measure of importance was carried by this -Parliament, namely, the Triennial Act, limiting Parliament to three -years. - -Immediately that the Bank of England Bill had received the royal -assent, William prorogued Parliament, and rewarded Montague for his -introduction of the scheme of the bank, by making him Chancellor of -the Exchequer. Shrewsbury was now induced to accept the Seals. William -having shown him that he was aware of his being tampered with by the -agents of James, demanded his acceptance of them as a pledge of his -fidelity. To secure him effectually--for William knew well that nothing -but interest would secure Whigs--he conferred on him the vacant Garter -and a dukedom. Seymour was dismissed, and his place as a Lord of the -Treasury was given to John Smith, a zealous Whig, so that excepting -Caermarthen, Lord President, and Godolphin, First Lord of the Treasury, -the Cabinet was purely Whig. The old plan of mixed Ministries was being -rapidly abandoned. - -William had closed the session of Parliament on the 25th of April, -1694, and in a few days he was sailing for Rotterdam. Before going, -however, he had ventured to refuse offers of peace from Louis. This -ambitious monarch, by his enormous efforts to vanquish the Allies, had -greatly exhausted his kingdom. Scarcely ever had France, in the worst -times of her history, been reduced so low, and a succession of bad -seasons and consequent famine had completed the misery of his people. -He therefore employed the King of Denmark to make advances for a peace. -He offered to surrender all pretensions to the Netherlands, and to -agree to the Duke of Bavaria succeeding to Flanders on the death of the -King of Spain; but he made no offer of acknowledging William and Mary -as rightful sovereigns of England. Many thought that William ought, on -such conditions, to have made peace, and thus saved the money and men -annually consumed in Flanders. But Parliament and the English people -both knew Louis far too well to suppose that the moment that he had -recruited his finances he would not break through all his engagements -and renew the war with redoubled energy. His people were now reduced in -many places to feed on nettles, and his enemies deemed it the surest -policy to press him whilst in his extremity. - -[Illustration: COSTUMES OF THE TIME OF WILLIAM AND MARY.] - -Finding that he did not succeed in obtaining peace, Louis resolved to -act on the defensive in the coming campaign in every quarter except in -Catalonia, where his whole fleet could co-operate with the Count de -Noailles, the commander of his land forces. William, who had received -intelligence of this plan of the campaign, before his departure, -ordered the British fleet under Russell to prevent the union of the -French squadrons from Brest and Toulon. Russell was then to proceed -to the Mediterranean to drive the French from the coast of Catalonia, -and co-operate with the Spaniards on land. Meanwhile, the Earl of -Berkeley, with another detachment of the fleet, was to take on board a -strong force under the command of General Talmash, and bombard Brest -in the absence of Tourville. All this was ably planned, but the whole -scheme was defeated by the treachery of his courtiers: by Godolphin, -his own First Lord of the Treasury, and by Marlborough, against whom -the most damning evidence exists. Macpherson and Dalrymple, in the -State papers discovered by them at Versailles, have shown that the -whole of William's plans on this occasion were communicated to James by -Godolphin, Marlborough, and Colonel Sackville, and have given us the -strongest reasons for believing that the preparations of the fleet were -purposely delayed by Caermarthen, the new Duke of Leeds, Shrewsbury, -Godolphin, and others, letters for that purpose being discovered -addressed to them by James through the Countess of Shrewsbury. - -But of all the infamous persons thus plotting against the sovereign -they had sworn to serve, and from whom they had many of them just -received the highest honours that the Government could bestow, none -equalled in infamy the detestable Marlborough. This man, who was -professing allegiance at the same time to both William and James, -and who would have betrayed either of them for his own purposes, was -indefatigable in hunting out the king's secrets, and dispatching -them with all haste, enforcing the disgrace of his own country and -the massacre of his own countrymen with all his eloquence--the sole -object being his own aggrandisement. Talmash was the only general who -could be compared with him in military talent. Talmash betrayed and -disgraced, Marlborough, who was suspected and rejected by William for -his treason, felt sure he himself must be employed. Accordingly, he -importuned Russell for a knowledge of the destination of the fleet; but -Russell, who probably by this time had found it his interest to be true -to his sovereign, refused to enlighten him. But Marlborough was not to -be thus defeated in his traitorous designs. He was on most intimate -terms with Godolphin, and most likely obtained the real facts from him. -Godolphin, indeed, had already warned the French through James of the -intended blow, and Marlborough followed up the intelligence by a letter -dated the 2nd of May, in which he informed James that twelve regiments -of infantry and two regiments of marines were about to embark under -command of Talmash, in order to destroy Brest. - -This diabolical treason had its full effect. Tourville had already -sailed. He left Brest on the 25th of April, and was at this moment in -the Straits of Gibraltar, which he passed on the 4th of May. Brest was -defenceless; but Louis, thus apprised of his danger, instantly sent -the great engineer of the age, Vauban, to put the port into the best -possible state of defence, and dispatched after him a powerful body of -troops. The weather favoured the traitors and the French. The English -fleet was detained by contrary winds; it did not quit St. Helens till -the 29th of May. On the 5th of June the fleet was off Cape Finisterre, -where a council of war was held, and the next day Russell sailed for -the Mediterranean with the greater part of the fleet. Lord Berkeley -with the remainder, having on board General Talmash and his six -thousand troops, turned his prows towards Brest. But by this time the -town was in full occupation by a great body of soldiers, and Vauban had -planted batteries commanding the port in every direction, in addition -to eight large rafts in the harbour well supplied with mortars. In -fact, there were no less than ninety mortars and three hundred cannons; -all the passages under the castle were made bomb-proof, and there -were at least five thousand infantry and a regiment of dragoons in -the place. The English had no friendly traitors amongst the French -to act the Marlborough and apprise them of all these preparations; -and they rushed blindly on the destruction which their own perfidious -countrymen had organised for them. The greater part of the unhappy -men were slaughtered, and Talmash was shot through the thigh, and -borne off to the ships. Talmash died in a few days, exclaiming that he -had been betrayed by his own countrymen. He was so, more absolutely -than he or even most of his contemporaries were aware of. The object -of Marlborough was accomplished more completely than he could have -anticipated. His rival was not disgraced, but destroyed--taken out of -his way; and the hypocritical monster went to Whitehall to condole with -the queen over this national dishonour and calamity, and to offer what -he truly called "his own unworthy sword." When the offer was forwarded -to William in Holland, he bluntly rejected it; but Marlborough -ultimately achieved his end, and we ought never to forget, when we -remember Ramillies, Blenheim, and Malplaquet, that amongst the acts by -which he rose to a dukedom was the massacre of Camaret Bay. - -On the 9th of November William landed at Margate, where the queen met -him, and their journey to the capital was like an ovation. On the 12th -the king met his Parliament, and congratulated it on having decidedly -given a check to the arms of the French. This was true, though it had -not been done by any battle during the campaign. Russell by relieving -Barcelona, which had been blockaded by two French fleets, had effaced -the defeat of Camaret Bay, and in the Netherlands, if there had been -no battle, there had been no repulse, as in every former campaign. -He had now no Mons, no Fleurus, no Namur, no Landen to deplore; on -the contrary, he had driven the French to their own frontiers without -the loss of a man. But he still deemed it necessary to continue their -exertions, and completely to reduce the French arrogance, and he called -for supplies as liberal as in the preceding year. The Customs Act was -about to expire, and he desired its renewal. - -The Commons adjourned for a week, and before they met again Archbishop -Tillotson was taken suddenly ill whilst performing service in the -chapel at Whitehall, and died on the 22nd of November. With the -exception of the most violent Jacobites, who could not forgive him -taking the primacy whilst Sancroft was living, the archbishop was -universally and justly beloved and venerated. In the City especially, -where he had preached at St. Lawrence in the Jewry for nearly thirty -years, and where, as we have seen, his friend Firmin took care to have -his pulpit supplied with the most distinguished preachers during his -absence at Canterbury, he was enthusiastically admired as a preacher -and beloved as a man. The king and queen were greatly attached to him, -and William pronounced him, at his death, the best friend he ever had, -and the best man he ever knew. - -Tillotson was succeeded by Dr. Tenison, Bishop of Lincoln. Mary was -very earnest for Stillingfleet; but even Stillingfleet was too High -Church for William. Could he, however, have foreseen that it was the -last request that the queen would ever make, he would, no doubt, have -complied with it. In a few weeks Mary herself was seized with illness. -She had been worn down by the anxieties of governing amid the feuds -of parties and the plottings of traitors during the King's absence, -and had now not strength to combat with a strong disease. The disease -was, moreover, the most fatal which then attacked the human frame--the -small-pox. No means had yet been discovered to arrest its ravages, -and in her case the physicians were for a time divided in opinion as -to its real character. One thought it measles, one scarlet fever, -another spotted fever, a fourth erysipelas. The famous Radcliffe at -once pronounced it small-pox. It was soon perceived that it would -prove fatal, and Dr. Tenison was selected to break the intelligence to -her. She received the solemn announcement with great fortitude and -composure. She instantly issued orders that no person, not even the -ladies of her bedchamber, should approach her if they had not already -had the complaint. She shut herself up for several hours in her closet, -during which she was busy burning papers and arranging others. Her -sister Anne, on being apprised of her danger, sent a message, offering -to come and see her; but she thanked her, and replied that she thought -she had better not. But Mary sent her a friendly message, expressing -her forgiveness of whatever she might have thought unkindness in Anne. - -In everything else the very enemies of Mary were compelled to praise -her. She was tall, handsome, and dignified in person, yet of the most -mild and amiable manners; strong in her judgment, quick in perceiving -the right, anxious to do it, warm in her attachment to her friends, -and most lenient towards her enemies. To her husband she was devotedly -attached; had the most profound confidence in his abilities, and was -more happy in regarding herself as his faithful wife than as joint -sovereign of the realm. William, on his part, had not avoided giving -her the mortification of seeing a mistress in his Court in the person -of Mrs. Villiers, yet she had borne it with a quiet dignity which did -her much credit; and now William showed that, cold as he was outwardly, -he was passionately attached to her. His grief was so excessive -that, when he knew that he must lose her, he fainted many times in -succession, and his own life even began to be despaired of. He would -not quit her bedside for a moment day or night till he was borne away -in a sinking state a short time before she expired. After her death he -shut himself up for some weeks, and scarcely saw any one, and attended -to no business, till it was feared that he would lose his reason. -During his illness he had called Burnet into his closet, and, bursting -into a passion of tears, he said, "he had been the happiest, and now he -was going to be the most miserable of men; that during the whole course -of their marriage he had never known a single fault in her. There was a -worth in her that no one knew beside himself." - -Mary died on the 28th of December in the utmost peace after taking -the Sacrament, and William, deprived of his unselfish wife's support, -was left to carry on his great work alone. But apart from the loss of -popularity entailed by the death of so able and beloved a consort, it -cannot be said that William's position was altered by the death of his -wife; so completely was he the master-spirit. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -REIGN OF WILLIAM III. (_continued_). - - Rising Hopes of the Jacobites--Expulsion of Trevor for - Venality--Examination of the Books of the East India - Company--Impeachment of Leeds--The Glencoe Inquiry--The Darien - Scheme--Marlborough's Reconciliation with William--Campaign of - 1695--Surrender of Namur--William's Triumphant Return--General - Election and Victory of the Whigs--New Parliament--Re-establishment - of the Currency--Treasons Bill passed--A Double Jacobite - Plot--Barclay's Preparations--Failure of Berwick's Insurrection - Scheme--William Avoids the Snare--Warnings and Arrests--Sensation - in the House of Commons--Trial and Execution of the - Conspirators--The Association Bill becomes Law--Land Bank - Established--Commercial Crisis--Failure of the Land Bank--The - Bank of England supplies William with Money--Arrest of Sir John - Fenwick--His Confession--William ignores it--Good Temper of the - Commons--They take up Fenwick's Confession--His Silence--A Bill of - Attainder passes both Houses--Execution of Fenwick--Ministerial - Changes--Louis desires Peace--Opposition of the Allies--French - Successes--Terms of Peace--Treaty of Ryswick--Enthusiasm in England. - - -The death of Queen Mary raised marvellously the hopes of the Jacobites -and the Court of St. Germains. Though the Jacobites had charged Mary -with ascending the throne contrary to the order of succession, they -now asserted that William had no right thereto, and that Mary's claim, -however weak, had been his only colourable plea for his usurpation. -Mary it was whose amiability and courtesy had reconciled the public -to the government of her husband. His gloomy and morose character and -manners, and his attachment to nothing but Holland and Dutchmen, they -said, had thoroughly disgusted the whole nation, and would now speedily -bring his reign to an end. He spent a great part of the year on the -Continent; Mary had managed affairs admirably in his absence, but who -was to manage them now? They must soon go into confusion, and the -people be glad to bring back their old monarch. - -And truly the wholesale corruption of his Parliament and ministers -served to give some force to their anticipations. Hardly ever was -there a time when dishonesty and peculation, hideous as they have -been in some periods of our Government were more gross, general, and -unblushing than amongst the boasted Whigs who had brought about the -Revolution. From the highest to the lowest they were insatiably greedy, -unprincipled, and unpatriotic--if want of patriotism is evidenced by -abusing the institutions and betraying the honour of the nation. One -of the best of them died in April, 1695--George Saville, Marquis of -Halifax. He bore the name of "the Trimmer," but rather because parties -had changed than that he himself had changed. He had discouraged -extreme measures, especially such as were bloody and vindictive. He -had endeavoured to save the heads of both Stafford and Russell; he had -opposed the virulence of the Whigs in the days of the Popish plot, and -of the Tories in that of the Rye House Plot. But even he had not kept -himself free from intriguing with St. Germains. Compared, however, with -the unclean beasts that he left behind, he was a saint. - -The tide of inquiry was now, however, flowing fast, and higher -delinquents were reached by it every day. In 1695 there was a charge -made against Sir John Trevor, Speaker of the House of Commons, for -receiving a bribe of one thousand guineas to ensure the passing of the -City Orphans Bill. This was a Bill to enable the Corporation of London -to make a sort of funded debt of the money of the orphans of freemen -which had been left in their charge, and which they had spent. To carry -this Bill, and cover their criminality, bribes had been given, not only -to Trevor, but to Hungerford, Chairman of the Grand Committee, and many -others. Trevor--who had been one of Judge Jeffreys' creatures--was -ejected from the Chair of the House, where he had long made a trade -of selling his influence to the amount of at least six thousand -pounds per annum, besides his salary of four thousand pounds. For his -insolence and greed he had become universally hated, and there was -great rejoicing over his exposure and expulsion from the House. Paul -Foley, the Chairman of the Committee of Inquiry, was elected Speaker -of the House in his stead; Hungerford was also expelled; Seymour came -into question. His overbearing manners had created him plenty of -enemies; and on his remarking on the irregular conduct of a member, -the indignant individual replied that it was "certainly wrong to talk -during a discussion, but it was far worse to take money for getting a -Bill passed." The hint thrown out was quickly seized, and on examining -the books of the East India Company, to which enormous bribery also -was traced, it was found that Seymour had received a bribe of ten -thousand pounds, but under the artful cover of selling him two hundred -tons of saltpetre for much less than its value. It was, moreover, sold -ostensibly to a man named Colston, but really to Seymour, so that -the House could not expel him, but a public mark was stamped on his -character. - -[Illustration: WILLIAM PATERSON. (_Facsimile of the only known -Engraving._)] - -But the examination of the books of the East India Company laid bare a -series of bribes of Ministers and Parliament men, which made all the -rest dwindle into insignificance. In previous years there were found -items in the books of one thousand two hundred and eighty-four pounds -and two thousand and ninety-six pounds; but in the past year, during -the great contest with the new Company, Sir Thomas Cook, who had been -empowered to bribe at his discretion, had expended on Ministers and -Members no less a sum than one hundred and sixty-seven thousand pounds. -Wharton, himself a most profligate man, pursued these inquiries on -the part of the Commons with untiring avidity. In order to damp this -inquiry, the guilty parties caused it to be whispered about that it -was best not to press the matter too far, as a large part of the money -might have been given to the King through Portland. But nothing could -stop the inquest, and it turned out that large sums had been offered to -the King but had been refused, and that fifty thousand pounds offered -to Portland had also been refused. Nottingham, too, had refused ten -thousand pounds, but others had not been so scrupulous. Cook declined -at first to disclose the names of those who had received the money, -but he was threatened with a Bill to compel him on terms which, had he -persisted, would have ruined him. He then offered to disclose all on -condition that a clause in the Bill should indemnify him against the -consequences of his disclosures. This was done, and Sir Basil Firebrace -was named as receiving a sum of forty thousand pounds. When pressed -to explain what had become of this money, the worthy knight fell into -great confusion and loss of memory; but he was obliged to account for -the cash, and then it came out that he had, through a Mr. Bates, paid -five thousand five hundred guineas to Caermarthen, now Duke of Leeds. -The duke denied having had the money, and then Bates said he had left -it with one Robarts, a foreign servant of the duke's, to count it out -for him, and this with the duke's permission. Robarts, however, was so -bad at counting coin, that he had taken half a year to do it in, and -only brought it back on the very morning that the Committee of Inquiry -was formed. - -The duke did not deny that he had got all the money that he could -through Bates from the Company for others; but this, according to the -morals of that age, was considered quite pardonable. To take a bribe -himself was criminal if found out, to assist others in selling their -votes was venial. The Commons impeached the duke, but then his servant -Robarts was missing, and as Leeds insisted on his presence as evidence -for him, the impeachment remained uncarried out. In fact, William, who, -though suffering perpetually from the gross corruption all around him, -was always the first to screen great offenders, now hastened Parliament -to a conclusion. - -In the following week the Scottish Parliament commenced its session -after an interval of two years. The Duke of Hamilton was dead, and -John Hay, Marquis of Tweeddale, was appointed Lord High Commissioner, -a man in years, and of fair character. The question which immediately -seized the attention of the Estates was the massacre of Glencoe. That -sanguinary affair had now come to the public knowledge in all its -perfidy and barbarity, and there was a vehement demand for inquiry and -for justice on the perpetrators. The facts which had reached the queen -long ago regarding this dark transaction had greatly shocked her, and -she had been earnest for a searching investigation; but William, who -must now have been aware that the matter would not bear the light very -well, had not been too desirous to urge it on. The Jacobites, however, -never ceased to declaim on the fearful theme; and the Presbyterians, -who hated the Master of Stair, who under James had been one of their -worst persecutors, and was a man without any real religion, were not -the less importunate for its unveiling. Seeing that the Parliament -would now have it dragged to the light, William made haste to make the -movement his own. He signed a Commission appointing Tweeddale its head, -and sent it down with all haste to Edinburgh. The Parliament expressed -great thanks to the king for this act of justice, but it deceived -nobody, for it was felt at once that no Commission would have issued -but for the public outcry, and it was now meant to take it out of the -earnest hands of the Estates, and defeat it as far as possible; and -this turned out to be the case. The report of the Commission was long -in appearing, and had not the Estates been very firm, it might have -been longer, and have been effectually emasculated, for the Lord High -Commissioner was on the point of sending it to William, who was now in -the Netherlands, and deeply immersed in the affairs of the campaign. -The Estates insisted on its immediate production, and Tweeddale was -compelled to obey. It then appeared that several of the Macdonalds -had been admitted to give their evidence on the atrocities committed -in their glen: and the conclusion was come to that it was a barbarous -murder. The king's warrant, however, was declared to have authorised -no such butchery, and the main blame was thrown on the Master of Stair -and the Earl of Breadalbane. Undoubtedly Sir John Dalrymple, the -Master of Stair, had urged on by his letter the massacre of the clan -with unflinching cruelty; but William contented himself with merely -dismissing him from his office. - -To put the Scots Parliament into good humour, William promised them -through the Marquis of Tweeddale, that if they would pass an Act -establishing a colony in Africa, America, or any other part of the -world where it was open to the English rightfully to plant a colony, he -would grant them a charter with as full powers as he had done to the -subjects of his other dominions. This was, no doubt, in consequence of -a scheme agitated by Paterson, the originator of the Bank of England, -for founding a colony on the Isthmus of Darien, for trading between -the Atlantic and Pacific--forming, in fact, a link of commerce between -China and India, as well as the Spanish States on the Pacific coasts -and Europe. The Act, supposed to be drawn by Paterson himself, was -passed, and preparations begun for carrying the scheme into effect, -but the expedition did not sail till 1698. Parliament granted some -indulgence to the Episcopalians, by which seventy of their clergy -retained their livings, and voted a hundred and twenty thousand pounds -for the services of the State. - -At the moment that William was about to set out for the Continent, a -plot for his assassination was discovered, but the conspirators were -not brought to trial till the following year. - -William embarked on the 12th of May for Holland. Before going he -had appointed as Lords Justices to carry on the government in his -absence--Archbishop Tenison; Somers, Keeper of the Great Seal; -Pembroke, Keeper of the Privy Seal; Devonshire, the Lord Steward; -Dorset, the Lord Chamberlain; Shrewsbury, the Secretary of State; and -Godolphin, First Lord of the Treasury. There had also been a formal -reconciliation between him and the Princess Anne. Marlborough and his -wife were now all anxiety for this reconciliation. The queen being -gone, and William, from his infirmities, not being expected to reach -a long life, Marlborough saw Anne at once brought many degrees nearer -the throne. Instead of James ever returning, the crafty Marlborough -felt sure that, even if William did not succeed in retaining his -popularity, any change would seat, not James, but Anne on the throne. -It was his interest, therefore, to promote by all means Anne's chance -of succession, because, once on the throne, he felt that he should be -the ruling power. Anne was, therefore, induced by him and his countess -to write a conciliatory letter to William, proposing to wait on him -and endeavour to console him in his distress. This had not been done -without some difficulty and delay, but, when once effected, William -received the princess very cordially; gave her the greater part of the -late queen's jewels, restored all her honours, her name was once more -united in the prayers for the royal family, and the foreign ambassadors -presented themselves at her house. In one thing, however, Marlborough -was disappointed. William did not appoint Anne regent during his -absence, as he had hoped, because he knew that that would be simply -making Marlborough viceroy. The King still retained his dislike to -the Marlboroughs, and though he permitted them to reside again under -the same roof with the princess, he refused for some time to admit -Marlborough to kiss his hand in the circle at Kensington, and offered -him no renewal of his offices and command. - -William entered on the campaign of 1695 under unusual advantages. -Louis of France had reduced his country to such distress that he -was now obliged to stand on the defensive. The people were loud in -their complaints all over France of the merciless exactions for the -continuance of the war. They were actually perishing of famine. -Barbessieux, the minister, was not able to devise resources like the -able Louvois, who was gone; and now Louis had lost by death the great -Marshal Luxemburg, who had won for him almost all his martial renown. -The forces in Flanders, deprived of their heroic and experienced head, -were badly supplied with provisions, badly recruited, and to make all -worse, Louis, as he had chosen his prime minister, now selected his -general--not from the men of real military talent, but from a courtier -and man of pleasure--Villeroi. He was a tall, handsome man, much -admired by the ladies, and a reckless gambler, but totally unfit to -cope with William in the field. Boufflers was still at the head of a -division of the army, but under Villeroi. - -Louis was apprehensive that the Allies would make a push at Dunkirk. -He therefore ordered a new line to be drawn between the Lys and the -Scheldt, and every means to be taken to cover Dunkirk, Ypres, Tournai, -and Namur. William arrived in the camp of the Allies on the 5th of -July, and immediately marched against Villeroi, who retired behind -his lines between Ypres and Menin. He, however, detached ten thousand -men to support Boufflers, who had advanced as far as Pont d'Espières. -William then sent forward the Elector of Bavaria to confront Boufflers, -who also retired behind his lines, and the Elector passed the Scheldt, -and posted himself at Kirk. William, having thus driven the French to -the frontiers of Flanders, then despatched the Baron von Heyden from -the camp of the Elector of Bavaria, along with Ginkell, to invest -Namur. At the same time, leaving Vaudemont to confront the army of -Villeroi on the border of Flanders, William suddenly marched also -for Namur, the Brandenburgers having orders to advance from another -quarter. William's hope was, by this ably concerted plan, completely -to invest Namur before any fresh troops could be poured into it; but -Boufflers, perceiving his design, managed to throw himself into the -city with seven regiments of dragoons, by which the garrison was raised -to fifteen thousand men. Immediately on the heels of Boufflers arrived -William and the Elector, and encamped on both sides of the Sambre and -Meuse, thus investing the whole place. - -They began to throw up their entrenchments on the 6th of July, under -the direction of the celebrated engineer, Cohorn. The city had always -been strong; it had been of late years made much stronger by Cohorn, -and since then the French had added to its defences. Its castle was -deemed impregnable; the town was full of provisions and of brave -soldiers, and it was regarded as a somewhat rash act in William to -attempt so formidable a fortress, with the chance of being taken in the -rear by Villeroi at the head of eighty thousand men. The moment that -Villeroi saw the object of William he began to put himself in motion -to attack Vaudemont, and, having beaten him, to, advance on Namur. -Vaudemont, however, began to fortify his camp, and Villeroi's vanguard -appearing at Dentreghem, he entrenched himself on both sides. Villeroi -made sure, nevertheless, of a complete victory over him, having such a -superiority of force, and he sent word to Louis that he would speedily -hear of a victory. But Vaudemont, perceiving another body of French -advancing from the Scheldt so as to enclose him, very adroitly drew -back, and made a retreat, much admired by military judges, to Ghent. -This he was able to effect through the cowardice of Louis's natural -son, the Duke of Maine. Villeroi accordingly advanced unopposed and -brutally bombarded Brussels. - -[Illustration: FIVE-GUINEA PIECE OF WILLIAM.] - -William was all this time--except for a few days when he was anxiously -observing the French proceedings before Brussels--prosecuting the -siege of Namur with a determined ardour which cost a terrible amount -of human lives. The trenches had been first opened on the 11th of -July, and the batteries on both sides commenced a furious fire. This -continued for a week, and on the 18th a storming party, headed by Lord -Cutts, consisting of five battalions of English, Scots, and Dutch, -attacked the works on the right of the counterscarp, supported by six -English battalions under General Fitzpatrick, whilst nine thousand -pioneers advanced on the left under General Salisch. Twelve hundred of -the Allies fell in this bloody action, whilst William, looking on in -exultation, thought not of their destruction, but of the bulldog valour -of the British soldiers, exclaiming to the Elector of Bavaria, "See my -brave English! See my brave English!" They drove in the enemy, though -at a terrible sacrifice. - -On the 30th of July the Elector of Bavaria attacked Vauban's line -that surrounded the defences of the castle, and broke through it, -and reached even Cohorn's celebrated fort, under the eyes of Cohorn -himself, but could not effect a lodgment in it. On the 2nd of August -another party of grenadiers, headed by the dare-devil Lord Cutts, -attacked and lodged themselves on the second counterscarp. The -governor, Count Guiscard, now engaged to give up the town, time being -allowed for the garrison to retire into the citadel. This being done, -and the Allies having engaged to give up the one thousand five hundred -wounded men left below, on the 13th the bombardment of the fort -commenced with renewed fury. Both sides fought with the fanaticism of -courage, and committed great havoc on each other. Boufflers at length -attempted to cut his way through the besiegers in a headlong sally, but -was repulsed, and shut up again. - -[Illustration: HALF-CROWN OF WILLIAM.] - -At this crisis Villeroi's army had reached Fleurus, and fired ninety -pieces of cannon to apprise the besieged of their vicinity. William -immediately left the conduct of the siege to the Elector of Bavaria, -and drew out a strong force to confront Villeroi, who was reinforced by -a large body of troops from Germany. This was a most anxious moment to -the people of both England and France. The armies of the two nations -were drawn out against each other, and covered the plains of the Sambre -and the Meuse. Boufflers was urging Villeroi to strike a decisive -stroke for his deliverance and the rescue of Namur, and William had -Boufflers in the rear if he was beaten by Villeroi. - -[Illustration: SURRENDER OF BOUFFLERS. (_See p._ 481.)] - -At Versailles Louis was imploring heaven for victory, with all his -Court on their knees, confessing and receiving the Eucharist; and -in London the Jacobites, frantic with confident expectation that -now William would be annihilated, filled the town with all sorts of -horrible rumours and alarms. But after having faced each other for -three days, Villeroi saw that the position and numbers of the Allies -were too formidable, and he quietly decamped along the river Mehaigne -to Boneffe. As Boufflers was now left without hope of succour, the -Allies informed him of the retreat of Villeroi and summoned him to -surrender without occasioning more slaughter. But there was a tradition -in the French army that no marshal of France had ever capitulated, and -he stood out until the English, at the cost of two thousand men, had -effected a lodgment in the place. - -Boufflers now demanded forty-eight hours to bury his dead, which was -granted him; and, in truth, he had need of it, for his trenches were -choked with the fallen, and his force was already reduced to about -one-third its original strength. When he entered the town, the garrison -mustered fifteen thousand men; now it was only about five thousand. -When the dead were buried, Boufflers offered to surrender in ten days -if he were not relieved before; but the Allies would not listen to -anything but an immediate surrender, and he complied, on condition -that the garrison should be allowed to march out with the honours -of war, but leaving the artillery and stores to the conquerors. The -Allies announced the surrender to Villeroi by the discharge of their -artillery, and by a running fire of all their musketry three times -repeated. He knew the meaning of it, and retreated towards Mons. - -Accordingly, on the 26th of August, Boufflers marched forth with drums -beating and flags flying, William, the Elector of Bavaria, and all -the officers being assembled to witness this gratifying spectacle. -Boufflers lowered his sword in token of submission to the Elector of -Bavaria, and the troops marched on. Before Boufflers, however, passed -out of the trenches, Dykvelt informed him that he was the prisoner of -the King of England. Boufflers was highly enraged at what he regarded -as an act of gross perfidy; but he was informed that he was detained -in consequence of his sovereign having broken the cartel, and refused -to deliver up the captured garrisons of Dixmude and Deynze, and that -he was held as a hostage for the faithful discharge of the articles -agreed upon. There was no denying the perfidy of his king, which -had caused this incident, and Boufflers sent an express to inform -Louis, who immediately returned a promise that the garrisons should -be sent back, and Boufflers was forthwith released. On his return to -Fontainebleau, he was received by Louis as if he were a conqueror, and -created a duke, with a grant of money to enable him to support his new -rank. The capture of Namur was the great event of the campaign, and -spread exultation throughout all the countries of the Allies. It seemed -to wipe out the successive defeats of Mons, Fleurus, Landen, and the -former loss of Namur; it showed the Allies at length victorious, and -Louis discomfited and on the wane. - -William arrived in London from Holland on the 20th of October. He -was received with acclamations, illuminations, and ringing of bells. -His progress through London and to Kensington was like that of a -conqueror. As if he were destined to take no rest, that very day the -Council was assembled, and it was concluded to dissolve Parliament. -William, however, had been enjoying relaxation at Loo, and no doubt -this question of the dissolution of Parliament had been discussed -and arranged prior to his arrival. It was deemed wiser to take the -nation at this moment when it was in a good humour, than to defer -the dissolution till the 25th of next March, when, by the Triennial -Act, Parliament must expire, and the public mind might be different. -Another motive was said to operate with William--the impeachment of -Leeds. William was always very reluctant to bring great delinquents to -justice; but in the case of Leeds there were causes for this reluctance -which we must respect. It was to Leeds, when he was yet Lord Danby, -that William owed his match with Mary, and Mary had ever had the -greatest regard for Leeds, who, on his part, had served her assiduously -during the king's absences. A new Parliament would not be likely to -take up again his impeachment, and, accordingly, the old one was -dissolved, and the new one called for the 22nd of November. - -This announcement threw into full activity the newly acquired liberty -of the press. Since the Revolution, despite the restrictions of the -censorship, the press had been extremely busy, and when it was -obliged to work in secret, it had been all the more venomous. The -Jacobites had employed it to spread sedition and lies, but it now -came forward in favour of the king and the Constitution. There were -tracts on the election, and besides the old news-letters, there were -regular newspapers which advocated their own views, but with a decency -and moderation which surprised all parties. Amongst the pamphlets -was one--the last literary effort of Halifax--called, "Some Cautions -Offered to those who are to Choose Members," which gave some good -advice, especially not to choose lawyers, because they were in the -habit of pleading on both sides, and were sure to look after their own -advancement more than that of the country; nor officers in the army, -who, the writer thought, were out of place in Parliament, attempting -to do what no man ever can do--serve two masters. He also warned them -against pensioners and dependents on the Crown, who do not make good -representatives of the people; and against those who, for reasons best -known to themselves, had opposed the Triennial Bill. Finally, he bade -them seek honest Englishmen, but warned them that they were not very -easy to find. The constituencies followed his advice, and the Whig -party were victorious. Some of the members of the late Parliament -most opposed to Government were not returned--as Sir John Knight, for -Bristol, who had been so furious against William's favourite Dutchmen, -and Seymour, for Exeter. Neither could John Hampden, who had saved -his neck in the Rye House Plot by the loss of character, and had -since shown as much insolence in Parliament as he did meanness then, -get returned, and in his mortification he committed suicide--to such -degeneracy had fallen the grandson of the illustrious patriot. - -When Parliament met on the 22nd, they chose Paul Foley as Speaker of -the Commons. The king, in his speech, again demanded large supplies for -the continuance of the war, and informed them that the funds granted -last Session had fallen far short of the expenses. This was by no -means agreeable news, and William well knew that there was a large -party in the country which complained loudly of this system of foreign -warfare, which, like a bottomless gulf, swallowed up all the resources -of the country. But he took care to flatter the national vanity by -praising the valour of the English soldiers, and by expressing his -confidence that England would never consent to the French king making -himself master of Europe, and that nothing but the power and bravery -of England could prevent it. He complained that his Civil List was -fixed so low that he could not live upon it; and, passing from his own -affairs, he recommended to their consideration the deplorable state of -the coinage. - -When the address came to be considered, some strong speeches were -delivered against the enormous demands made by the king for this -continual war. Musgrave and Howe represented the nation as bleeding to -death under this Dutch vampyrism; but William had touched the right -chord in the national character, and an address of thanks and zealously -promised support was carried. The Commons likewise voted again above -five millions for the services of the year. - -The first business which occupied the attention of the Commons was -the state of the currency. The old silver coin had become so clipped -and sweated that, on an average, it now possessed little more than -half its proper weight. The consequence was, all transactions in the -country were in a state of confusion, and the most oppressive frauds -were practised, especially on the poor. They were paid in this nominal -coin, but, when they offered it for the purchase of the articles of -life, the vendors refused to receive it at more than its intrinsic -worth, by which means the price of everything was nearly doubled. The -old hammered money was easily imitated, and whilst the clippers went on -diminishing the weight of the coin, the forgers were as busy producing -spurious imitations of it. The most terrible examples were made of such -coiners, till juries refused to send such numbers of them to be hanged. -All money-dealers received the coin only at its value by weight, but -paid it out by tale, and thus made enormous fortunes. The house of -Duncombe, Earls of Feversham, is said to have thus raised itself from -insignificance to a coronet. - -The House of Lords, therefore, took up the subject of recoinage, -and invited the Commons to unite with them in it; but the Commons, -considering it a matter more properly belonging to them, went into a -committee of the whole House on the subject. The debate continued for -several days. There was a strong party opposed to recoinage, on the -ground that, if the silver coin were called in, there would be no money -to pay the soldiers abroad, nor for merchants to take up their bills -of exchange with; that the consequence would be universal stagnation -and misery. But at this rate the old coin must have stayed out so long -that literally there would none of it be left. It was resolved to have -a new coinage; but Lowndes, the Secretary of the Treasury, proposed -that the standard should be lowered--in fact, that a nominal instead -of a real value should be impressed upon it; that ninepence should be -called a shilling--as if thereby any greater value could be given to -it. This mode of raising the price of everything by lowering the value -of the coinage, which would now be laughed at by the merest tyro in -political economy, had then its partisans; but John Locke exploded -the whole delusion in a little tract written at the desire of Somers, -which showed all the inconveniences and injustice which would flow -from a lowered standard. There were, however, other difficulties to -be met, and these were, whether the Government or the public should -bear the loss of the clipped coin, and by what means it could best be -called in. If the Government bore the loss, and ordered all persons to -bring in their clipped coin and receive full-weighted coin instead, -that would be a direct premium on clipping, and all the coin would be -clipped before it was paid in. Somers proposed as a remedy to proclaim -that all the hammered coins should henceforth be taken by Government -only by weight; but that, after having been weighed within three days, -every one should take it back with a note authorising him to receive -the difference between the deficiency of weight and the full weight at -a future time. By this means Government would have suffered the loss. - -Locke, on the contrary, proposed that Government should receive all -clipped coin up to a day to be announced, at full value; after that day -only at its value by weight; and something of this kind was carried -by Montague after a debate in the House. It was ordered that, after a -certain day, no clipped money should pass except in payment of taxes, -or as loans to Government. After another fixed day, no clipped money -should pass in any payment whatsoever; and that, on a third day, all -persons should bring in all their clipped money to be recoined, making -just what it would, and after that time clipped money should not be a -legal tender at any value, or be received at the Mint. - -By this plan the holders of clipped money suffered part of the loss -where they could not be in time; but the public eventually bore the -greatest part of it, for a Bill was brought in to indemnify Government -for its share of the loss, by a duty on glass windows, which was -calculated to raise twelve hundred thousand pounds. This was the origin -of that window-tax which under William Pitt's Government grew to such a -nuisance. - -In order to meet the demand for milled and unclipped coin to be given -in exchange for the clipped coin to be brought in, premiums were -offered of five per cent. on good milled money, and of threepence per -pound on all plate that should be brought in to be melted into the new -coins. The 4th of May, 1696, was fixed as the last day for receiving -the clipped money in payment of taxes; and early in February furnaces -were at work melting down the old coin into ingots, which were sent to -the Tower in readiness, and the coining began. Ten of these furnaces -were erected in a garden behind the Treasury; yet, in spite of every -endeavour to prevent inconvenience, the Jacobites managed to excite -great alarm in the minds of the people. There was a widespread panic -that there would be grave personal losses and wrongs, and that all -receipts of money would be stopped, and that there would be general -distress. The malcontents attacked Montague and the other ministers -in the House; the merchants demanded indemnification for the rise -which guineas had taken, namely, from twenty shillings and sixpence to -thirty shillings, in consequence of the scarcity of the silver coinage; -for a guinea now, instead of purchasing twenty shillings' worth of -their goods, would purchase one-third more; so that their stocks were -reduced one-third in value till the silver coinage was again plentiful. -Parliament, to remove this cause of complaint, inserted a clause in -the Bill, offering a premium on plate, fixing the price of a guinea at -two-and-twenty shillings. Still, however, people imagined that guineas -would be scarce, and so gold would rise, and hoarded them up, which -made them scarce. But Government worked manfully at the recoining. -Mints were set up at York, Bristol, Exeter, and Chester as well as in -London, and in less than twelve months the coinage was produced with -such success that the English currency, which had been the worst, was -now the best in Europe. - -The Bill for regulating the trials for high treason was again brought -in, and, being still steadily refused by the Lords unless with their -clause for granting them the privilege of trying any of their order -by the whole House of Peers instead of by the Court of the Lord High -Steward, the Commons now gave way, allowed the clause, and the Bill -passed. It was ordered to come into force on the 25th of March next, -1696. - -The year 1696 opened with a great Jacobite plot. James had tried the -effect of declarations proposing to protect the liberties of the -subject and the rights of the Established Church, and nobody believed -him, and with good reason. Seeing, therefore, that empty pretences -availed nothing, he thought seriously of invasion, and of something -worse--of preparing his way by the assassination of William. During the -winter of 1695-6 Louis fell into his schemes. In 1694 two emissaries, -Crosley and Parker, had been sent over from St. Germains to London to -excite the Jacobites to insurrection; but they had been discovered and -imprisoned. Parker contrived to escape out of the Tower, but Crosley -was examined; but, nothing being positively proved against him, he -was liberated on bail. It was now resolved to send over fresh and -more important agents--one of these no less a person than the Duke of -Berwick, James's son, and Sir George Barclay, a Scottish refugee. - -The fact was that there were two parts of the scheme. As in the -conspiracy of Grey and Raleigh in the time of James I., there was "the -main plot" and "the bye plot," so there was here a general scheme for -an invasion, and a particular scheme for the assassination of the king. -This assassination was to come off first, and an army and transports -were to be ready on the French coast, to take advantage of the -consternation occasioned by the murder. The management of the general -plot was confided to Berwick, and of the murder plot to Barclay. -Berwick must be supposed to have been well aware of the assassination -scheme from the first, for both James and Louis were, and the whole -movements of the army and navy were dependent on it. But if Berwick did -not know of it at first, he was made acquainted with it in London, as -we shall see; but it was the policy of both Louis, James, and Berwick, -to avoid all appearance of a knowledge which would have covered them -with infamy;--this was to fall on the lesser tools of their diabolical -scheme, and they were to reap the benefit of it. - -A mode of communication between the Court of St. Germains and the -Jacobites in England had long been established through a man named -Hunt, who was a noted smuggler. This man had a house about half a mile -from the Sussex coast, on Romney Marsh. The whole country round was a -boggy and dreary waste, and therefore, having scarcely an inhabitant, -was admirably adapted to the smuggling in of French goods and French -plots. There Barclay landed in January and proceeded to London. He -was followed in a few days by the Duke of Berwick, and very soon by -about twenty coadjutors, some of whom were troopers of James's guard, -amongst them one named Cassels, another brigadier Ambrose Rookwood, one -of a family which had been in almost every plot since the Gunpowder -Plot, and a Major John Bernardi, a man of Italian origin. - -[Illustration: CONSPIRATORS LANDING AT ROMNEY MARSH. (_See p._ 484.)] - -James saw and instructed many of these men himself before they left St. -Germains, and furnished them with funds. He had given Barclay eight -hundred pounds to pay expenses and engage assistants, which Barclay -complained of as a miserable and insufficient sum. These men were now -informed that they must put themselves under the orders of Barclay, -and they would easily discover him at evening walking in the piazza -of Covent Garden, and might recognise him by his white handkerchief -hanging from his pocket. Meanwhile, Barclay had begun to open -communication with the most determined Jacobites. The first of these -were Charnock--who had originally been a fellow of Magdalen College, -Oxford, but had apostatised, become a violent papistical agitator, and -finally an officer in James's army--and Sir William Parkyns, a lawyer -and officer of the Court of Chancery, for whilst plotting against the -king, he had sworn fidelity to him, and was receiving his pay. These -men most gladly united with Barclay, for they had been engaged in the -very same design for some time. They assured him that there was no -chance of effecting an invasion without preceding it by dispatching -William. But to do this they wanted first an authority from James, and -to be assured that it would be followed up. Hereupon Barclay showed -them his commission from James. - -As Barclay's myrmidons arrived from France his hopes grew high; he -called them his Janissaries, and said he trusted they would win a Star -and Garter for him. He wanted forty for his purposes, and these men -made up at once half the number. Fresh desperadoes rapidly joined the -band, until it was evident that the number of conspirators was getting -far too numerous, and far too indiscriminate in character for safety. -It was necessary to use haste, and Barclay tells us he was constantly -studying how and where best to accomplish their object. He set two of -his gang to haunt the neighbourhood of the Palace, and to learn what -they could of the king's movements. They went to Kensington and to -every place which William frequented, to find out the most suitable -spot and opportunity. - -At last the conspirators fixed on Turnham Green as the best for their -detestable purpose. They learned that when William returned from -hunting he crossed the Thames there by the ferry-boat, not getting out -of his carriage, and that he did not wait for his Guards, but drove on -from the water side till they overtook him. It was a low, swampy place, -hidden amongst bushes at the western end of the Green. The conspirators -were now thirty-five, while the King had rarely more than twenty-five -Guards with him. The day fixed was Saturday, the 15th of February, -for it was on Saturdays that William made these hunting excursions. -As soon as they knew that the king had started, the conspirators were -to follow in different bodies, and from different directions, so as -to avoid observation. They were to remain at small public-houses near -the crossing-place, and as soon as their scouts gave them notice of -the king's party approaching the Surrey side of the river, they were -to put themselves in bylanes, to be ready to intercept him. They were -to be divided into four sets, one headed by Porter, one by Charnock, a -third by Rookwood, and the fourth by Barclay himself. Two parties were -simultaneously to rush upon the coach as it passed a cross road, one -from each side; Rookwood was to come from his hiding-place in the rear, -and Barclay to appear in front, and to him the death of the King was -assigned. Horses and arms were purchased by Barclay for the occasion, -and the horses were kept in different stables, so as to excite no -suspicion. - -All was now in readiness. The Duke of Berwick had remained in London -till matters were in this position. He had been equally busy in -endeavouring to induce the Jacobite leaders to rise in arms. He told -them that his father, with ten thousand soldiers, was lying at Calais -ready to cross when this movement was made, but that the King of -France would not consent to the army crossing till the English had -given proof of their being in earnest to receive King James in arms. -Nor could they think this unreasonable; he had twice sent expeditions -to co-operate with them, once in 1690, when De Tourville landed in -Devonshire, and again in 1692, when his fleet had come up to the very -shore in expectation of being joined by the English fleet, but, on the -contrary, had been attacked by that fleet, and the losses at La Hogue -suffered in consequence. They could not expect Louis to venture his -ships and troops again till he saw a real demonstration for James in -England; then his army would cross at once. But these representations -were all lost on the Jacobites; they continued to say, "Only let James -land with an army, and we shall be ready to join him." Berwick returned -to France, and hastened to inform James, whom he met on the way to -Calais to join the invading army, that there was no chance of a rising -in England till a French army landed, but that he had a confident hope -that the conspirators would succeed in dispatching William, and then -would be the time to cross over. James went on to Calais to the army -which Boufflers was called from Flanders to command, and Berwick went -on to Versailles to communicate to Louis the state of affairs, and all -parties waited for the falling of the blow in England. - -Such was now the position of these two monarchs and the Duke of -Berwick, whom the Jacobite writers have so confidently endeavoured -to clear of the crime of participating in this base scheme of -assassination. True, Berwick, whilst in England, would have nothing -to do with the conspiracy itself, because, he declared, it was--not -criminal, no, that was not his objection--but it was too dangerous, and -would probably cause all engaged in it to be hanged. On the safe side -of the water, therefore, whilst the humbler ruffians were risking their -necks for them, these three arch assassins waited for the signal that -the deed was done--a fire which was to be lit on one of the Kentish -hills. - -Meanwhile the conspiracy was suffering, as might have been expected, -from the admission of too many colleagues. As the time approached, -Fisher, who had boasted that he would himself kill one of the king's -coach-horses, went and informed Portland that there was a design of -taking the king's life. Portland at first paid little attention to this -information, but it was soon confirmed in a manner which left him no -alternative but to apprise the king of it. On the evening of the 14th a -Mr. Pendergrass, a Catholic gentleman of Hampshire, waited on Portland, -and assured him that if the king went on the morrow to hunt he was -certain to be assassinated. Pendergrass said the king was the enemy of -his religion, but that his religion would not permit him to see such -a thing done without giving him a warning, and he entreated Portland -to induce the king not to go out on any account. When pressed to name -his accomplices, he declined, saying they were his friends, and one -of them his benefactor; he would not betray them. The fact was, that -Porter had sent for Pendergrass up from the country to take part in the -assassination; but, though he was under great obligations to Porter, he -refused. He would have been ready to unite in an invasion, but not in a -murder. - -The king was with difficulty prevented by Portland from going, but he -did stay, and when it was announced to the conspirators that the king -had given up hunting for that day, they were a good deal startled; but, -as the weather was assigned as the cause, they imagined they were still -unbetrayed, and waited for the next Saturday; one of them, Chambers, -a great ruffian, who had been severely wounded at the battle of the -Boyne, and had a savage malice against William, vowing to have his life -yet or lose his own. - -Between this day and the next Saturday, however, De la Rue had grown -afraid, and went and gave a warning similar to Pendergrass's. On the -Friday Pendergrass was sent for to the king's closet, where William -was alone with Portland and Lord Cutts, who had fought so bravely at -Namur. William was very courteous to Pendergrass, and thanked him for -his information, complimented him as a man of honour, but desired him -to name the conspirators. Pendergrass persisted in his refusal, except -he had the king's assurance that his information should not cause the -destruction of these men, but only be used to prevent the commission -of the crime. This assurance being solemnly given, he named them. It -does not, however, appear that this solemn assurance was kept, for -undoubtedly Pendergrass's information was used for the arrest of the -conspirators, and though he himself was not brought openly forward -in court against them, they were condemned and executed through that -means, so that not using his evidence openly was a mere quibble; and -even this was laid aside as soon as, at Pendergrass's demand, they had -engaged to use Porter's evidence on condition of his safety. - -Ignorant of the mine ready charged under their feet, the conspirators -anxiously awaited Saturday, the 22nd. This time all outwardly bade -fair for success; the usual preparations were made at the palace for -the hunting. There had been during the week no sign of any agitation -or bustle, nor word dropped which could give the slightest suspicion -that their design was known. The Guards were sent off to go round -by Kingston Bridge to Richmond, as there was then no bridge nearer. -The king's coach came out to take him away, and the conspirators were -breakfasting at Porter's lodgings when word was hurriedly brought -to them that the coach had been sent back to the stables, and the -Guards had come galloping back, saying that a discovery of something -terrible had been made. If the men had not been infatuated by their -zeal for the assassination, as is very general in such cases, they -would now have made the best of their way into some place of security. -The return of the Guards in such hurry, and with such rash words, was -not very skilful on the part of the Government if they meant to take -the conspirators; and, as the arrests were delayed till night, there -was ample time for them to have all got off. But they still flattered -themselves that, though some whisper of the design had reached the -Palace, the actual conspirators were unknown, and they were only the -more bent on seizing some instant mode of accomplishing their object. - -That night the king's officers were upon them, and Charnock, Rookwood, -and Bernardi were taken in their beds. The next day seventeen more -were arrested, and three of the Blues also. Barclay had had more -cunning than the rest; he had absconded and got safe to France. The -Lord Mayor was sent for to Whitehall, and desired to put the City -into a perfect state of readiness for action. A council was held; it -was agreed to send for some regiments from Flanders in consequence of -the preparations at Calais; the Earl of Dorset was sent down to his -lieutenancy of Sussex; Sidney, Lord Romney, Warden of the Cinque Ports, -was also despatched for the guard of the coast of Kent; and Russell -hastened to assume the command of the fleet. On Monday, the 24th, the -king went to the House of Lords, sent for the Commons, and announced -to the assembled Parliament the discovery of the plot, and the arrest -of a number of the traitors. The sensation was intense. The two Houses -united in an address of congratulation for the king's safety, with -which they went in a body to Kensington, and the same day the Commons -passed two Bills, one suspending the Habeas Corpus, and the other -declaring that Parliament should not be dissolved by the king's death -in case any such conspiracy should succeed. Sir Rowland Gwyn moved -that the House should enrol itself as an Association for the defence -of the king and country. The idea was instantly seized by Montague, -who saw how immensely it would strengthen the Whigs, and the deed -was immediately drawn, and ordered to be ready for signature the next -morning. In this the House bound itself to defend the king with their -own lives against James and his adherents, and to avenge him on his -murderers in case of such an assassination, and to maintain the order -of succession as fixed by the Bill of Rights. - -The next morning the members hurried in to sign the form of -Association; and, as some were not present, it was ordered that all -who had not signed it within sixteen days should be called upon to -do so or formally to refuse. They resolved that any one who declared -the Association illegal should be held to be a promoter of the wicked -designs of James, and an enemy to the laws and liberties of the -country. They prayed the king to banish by proclamation all Papists to -a distance of ten miles from the cities of London and Westminster, and -to order the judges to put the laws in force throughout the country -against Roman Catholics and non-jurors. - -The forms of the Association and the address of the two Houses were -immediately printed and published, along with a proclamation offering -one thousand pounds reward for the discovery and apprehension of each -of the conspirators, and one thousand pounds, with a free pardon, -to each of the accomplices who should deliver himself up and reveal -what he knew. One after another the miscreants were dragged from -their hiding-places, or gave themselves up as king's evidence for the -thousand pounds and free pardon. - -On the 11th of March, Charnock and two others were placed at the bar -of the Old Bailey before Lord Chief Justice Holt and other judges. The -prisoners demanded that their trials should be postponed till after the -25th of the month, when the new Act for trials for treason came into -force, and which allowed counsel to the accused; but the counsel for -the Crown would not consent to it--a circumstance which does no honour -to William and his ministers, for from them the order to proceed must -now have been given. All the accused denied that James knew of or had -done anything to sanction the attempt to assassinate the king; but -this assertion neither agrees with the depositions made by the other -conspirators admitted as evidence, nor with the facts of the case; and, -indeed, Charnock left a paper, still in the Bodleian Library of Oxford, -in which he declares that the attempt would not have been justifiable -had it not been sanctioned by James; that his Majesty's commission did -fully justify it, and that it was just as proper to attempt to kill -the Prince of Orange at the head of his Guards, serving as they did the -king whose throne he had usurped, and who was at war with him, as if -he had been at the head of twenty thousand men. They had their king's -commission for it, and their king being at declared war, it was quite -legitimate to attack and kill William wherever they could meet with -him. Despite this high assumption, Charnock, after conviction, offered, -if they would pardon him, to reveal the whole particulars of the plot, -and the names of every one concerned in it; but there was evidence -enough; his offer was not accepted, and the three were executed at -Tyburn on the 24th. - -The Association into which the Commons had entered for the defence -of the king had not yet been made law, but a Bill was now brought in -for that purpose. Out of the five hundred and thirteen members of the -Commons, four hundred had signed it; but on its reaching the Lords -exception was made by the Tories to the words "rightful and lawful -sovereign" as applied to William. Even Nottingham, who had so long and -faithfully served William, declared that he could not accept them; -that William was king _de facto_ he admitted, but not king by rightful -succession. He was supported by Rochester, Normanby, and others; but on -the Duke of Leeds proposing that the words "rightful and lawful" should -be altered to "having right by law," and no other person having such -right, singularly enough the Tories acquiesced in the change, though -it would not be easy for minds in general to perceive a distinction -between being a rightful and lawful sovereign and a sovereign who had -a full and, indeed, exclusive right by law. The Commons retained their -own form and the Lords theirs. The Bill of the Commons was passed on -the 4th of April. It provided that all such persons as refused the -oaths to his Majesty should be liable to the forfeitures and penalties -of Papist recusants; that all who questioned William's being "a lawful -and rightful sovereign" should be subject to heavy penalties; that no -person refusing to sign this Association should be capable of holding -any office, civil or military, of sitting in Parliament, or being -admitted into the service of the Prince or Princess of Denmark. All -magistrates, of course, were included in the requirements, and some who -refused to sign were dismissed. The Lords were to use their own form, -and with this understanding it passed their House without delay. The -bishops drew up a form for themselves, and, according to Burnet, not -above a hundred clergymen all over England refused to sign. The people -everywhere signed the bond with almost universal enthusiasm, even in -the most Papist districts, as Lancashire and Cheshire. - -[Illustration: BISHOP BURNET.] - -Before this remarkable session closed, a Bill was brought in to check -the corruption of elections. It had now become common for moneyed men -to go down to country boroughs and buy their way into Parliament by -liberal distribution of their gold. It was, therefore, proposed to -introduce a property qualification for members of Parliament; that a -member for a county should be required to possess five hundred pounds -a year in land, and a member for a town three hundred pounds a year in -land. It was even proposed to adopt the ballot, but that was rejected. -The Bill itself was carried through both Houses, but William declined -to ratify it. The towns abounded with Whigs, and had stood stoutly by -him, and it appeared to be a sweeping infringement on their privileges -to debar them from electing men in whom they had confidence because -they were not landed proprietors, though they might otherwise be -wealthy as well as duly qualified for such duties. - -He ratified, however, another Bill intended for the benefit of the -landed gentry. This was for the establishment of Hugh Chamberlayne's -Land Bank. Unsound and delusive as the principles of this scheme -were, it had the great attraction to the landowners of offering them -extensive accommodation and a fancied accession of wealth, and to -William the further advance of a large sum for his wars. The Bank of -England had only furnished him with one million at eight per cent.; -this Land Bank was to lend him two millions and a half at seven per -cent. It was ratified by William, and the Parliament was prorogued the -same day, April the 27th. - -At home the confusion and distress were indescribable, and lasted all -the year. In the spring and till autumn it was a complete national -agony. The last day for the payment of the clipped coin into the -Treasury was the 4th of May. As that day approached there was a violent -rush to the Exchequer to pay in the old coin and get new. But there -was very little new ready, and all old coin that was not clipped was -compelled to be allowed to remain out some time longer. Notwithstanding -this, the deficiency of circulating medium was so great that even men -of large estate had to give promissory notes for paying old debts, and -take credit for procuring the necessaries of life. The notes of the -new Bank of England and of the Lombard Street money-changers gave also -considerable relief; but the whole amount of notes and coin did not -suffice to carry on the business of the nation. Numbers of work-people -of all kinds were turned off because their employers had not money to -pay them with. The shopkeepers could not afford to give credit to every -one, and, as their trade stagnated in consequence, they were compelled -to sacrifice their commodities to raise the necessary sums to satisfy -their own creditors. There was a heavy demand on the poor rates, and -the magistrates had orders to have sufficient force in readiness to -keep down rioting. This distress was aggravated by those who had new -milled money, hoarding it up lest they should get no more of it, or in -expectation that its scarcity would raise its value enormously, and -that they could pay their debts to a great advantage, or purchase what -they wanted at still greater advantage. - -The Jacobites were delighted with this state of things, and did all -they could to inflame the people against the Government, which they -said had thus needlessly plunged the nation in such extreme suffering. -There were numbers of exciting tracts issued for this purpose, and -especially by a depraved priest named Grascombe, who urged the people -to kill the members of Parliament who had advocated the calling in -of the silver coin. To make the calamity perfect, the Land Bank had -proved as complete a bubble as Montague and other men of discernment -had declared it would. The landed gentry wanted to borrow from it, not -to invest in it; its shares remained untaken; and it found, when the -Government demanded the two million six hundred thousand pounds which -it had pledged itself to advance, that its coffers were empty; and it -ceased to exist, or rather to pretend to have any life. - -The bursting of the Land Bank bubble was severely trying to the new -Bank of England. The failure of the one alarmed the public as to the -stability of the other, and the Jacobites and the Lombard Street rival -money-lenders lent their cordial aid to increase the panic. The Lombard -Street bankers made a vigorous run upon the bank. They collected all -its paper that they could lay hands on, and demanded instant payment -in hard cash. Immediately after the 4th of May, when the Government -had taken in the bulk of the money, and had issued out very little, -they made a dead set against the bank. One goldsmith alone presented -thirty thousand pounds in notes. The bank resolved to refuse the -payment of the notes thus obviously presented in order to ruin it, and -then the Lombard Street bankers exultingly announced everywhere that -the boasted new institution was insolvent. But the bank, leaving the -Lombard Street goldsmiths to seek a remedy at law, continued to give -cash for all notes presented by the fair creditors, and the public -steadily supported them in this system, and condemned the selfish -money-dealers. Montague also contrived to relieve the tightness to a -considerable extent by availing himself of a clause in the Act of the -Land Bank, empowering Government to issue a new species of promissory -notes, bearing interest on security of the annual taxes. These bills, -called now and henceforward Exchequer Bills, were issued from a hundred -pounds to five pounds, and were everywhere received with avidity. They -also urged on the mints in the production of the new coinage, and to -facilitate this they made Sir Isaac Newton Master of the Mint, who -exerted himself in his important office with extraordinary zeal and -patriotism. - -In August, William sent Portland over from Flanders, where the campaign -was almost wholly barren of events, to bring him money for the -subsistence of his troops by some means. The failure of the Land Bank -made his demand appear hopeless; but the Government applied to the Bank -of England, and, notwithstanding it's own embarrassments, it advanced -to the Government two hundred thousand pounds on the 15th of August, -and that in hard cash, for it was plainly told that its paper was of -no use in Flanders. Yet to such extremities was the bank reduced that -at the same time it was obliged to pay its demands by three-fourths -the value of its notes in cash, marking that amount as paid on the -notes, and returning them into circulation reduced to one-fourth of -their original value. As the bank, however, so bravely supported the -Government, the Government determined as firmly to support the bank; -and the public confidence, which had never entirely failed it, from -this moment grew stronger and stronger. As the year drew towards a -close, the rapidly increasing issue of the new coin began to reduce -the intensity of the distress, and the forbearance of creditors of all -kinds enabled the nation to bear up wonderfully, much to the chagrin of -its enemies both at home and abroad, where the most ridiculous stories -of English poverty and ruin were circulated. - -But, except the trouble arising from the coinage, the great event -during William's absence had been the capture of Sir John Fenwick, and -his examination, with the view of tracing the further ramifications of -the conspiracy in which he had been engaged. Fenwick, if not engaged in -the assassination scheme, was charged by Porter and the other king's -evidence with being fully privy to it, and deep in the plot for the -invasion. He was a man of high birth, high connections, being married -to a sister of the Earl of Carlisle, had held high office in the state, -and was a most indefatigable and zealous traitor. During the king's -absence, and when the Jacobites were in great spirits, hoping to drive -out William, he had shown the most marked and unmanly disrespect to -the queen. It was not, therefore, likely that he would escape the just -punishment of his treason if he were caught. For a long time he managed -to conceal himself, and during his concealment he and his friends were -hard at work to remove the only witnesses that he dreaded. These were -Porter and a person named Goodman. The Earl of Aylesbury, who was -also in the Tower on a similar charge, was equally anxious to have -these two men out of the way, and the friends of both plotters united -to get rid of them by bribery. For this purpose, besides the active -personal exertions of Lady Fenwick, they employed two Irishmen of their -party--one Clancey, a barber, and Donelagh, a disbanded captain. - -Clancey met Porter at a tavern, and offered him three hundred guineas -down, three hundred more as soon as he landed in France, and an -annuity of one hundred pounds a year. Porter was greatly tempted by -the offer, and at length consented to accept it. A day was fixed for -the payment of the first three hundred guineas at the tavern, but, on -reflection in the interval, he did not like the prospect of having to -face at St. Germains the king whose agents he had betrayed to death, -and the friends and associates of those agents. He saw that nothing -could obtain their forgiveness, or prevent them from taking mortal -revenge on him. He therefore posted to the Secretary of State, and -revealed the whole affair. The necessary measures were taken, and -Porter attended punctually at the meeting with Clancey. He received -the three hundred guineas, and then, giving a concerted signal, the -officers of Government rushed in and secured Clancey, who was tried for -subornation, convicted, and set in the pillory. - -This discovery, through the double treachery of Porter, alarmed -Fenwick for his personal safety. He no longer deemed himself secure -in the kingdom, for he had taken such part in the attempt to win over -Porter--writing a letter for him to take with him to St. Germains -to secure his good reception there--that it was too obvious that he -was not far off. Porter was indemnified for his loss of the promised -annuity by a much better one from William's government--no less -than two hundred and fifty pounds a year--and would undoubtedly, -if possible, hunt out Fenwick. Sir John, therefore, made prompt -arrangements for his own escape to France. There was no time to be -lost; he was indicted at the next sessions in the City for treason. -Porter and Goodman gave evidence before the grand jury, who returned -a true bill. Sir John managed to escape to near Romney Marsh, where a -vessel was to take him off, but, unfortunately, on the way he met an -officer, who had been apprehending two smugglers. The man knew him, and -offered the smugglers a pardon and reward to assist in seizing him. Sir -John fled, and they pursued; and he is said to have been taken in the -end near Slyfield Mill, between Stoke Dabernon and Bookham, in Surrey. - -Sir John had contrived, after being taken, to write a letter to his -wife, by one Webber who was with him, in which he declared that all -was now over unless she could get her relatives, the Howards, to -intercede for him. They might promise for him that he would spend his -life abroad, and would pledge himself never to draw a sword against the -present government. If that could not be done, the only chance left was -to bribe a juryman to starve out the jury. - -This letter was intercepted, and when Sir John was brought before the -Lords Justices at Whitehall, and he appeared very high, and denied the -charges against him indignantly, it was laid before him to his sudden -terror and confusion. He saw how completely he had committed himself by -his confession, and he turned pale, and seemed half inclined to admit -his guilt. In the silence of his prison he revolved another scheme, and -on the 10th of August, two months after his apprehension, he presented -a memorial to the Duke of Devonshire, offering to disclose to the king -all that he knew of the plots, with every one concerned in them, and -throwing himself on the mercy of the king. Having so fully betrayed his -own guilt, this seemed the only chance of obtaining a lenient judgment. -Devonshire sent over the memorial to William in Holland, and was -desired by him to receive Fenwick's confession. - -[Illustration: OLD MERCERS' HALL, WHERE THE BANK OF ENGLAND WAS FIRST -ESTABLISHED.] - -This was in due time written down and delivered, and, had it been a -real revelation of the plots and their agents, would have probably -obtained considerable indulgence for him. But it disclosed nothing -that was not already well known to William. Passing over all the other -parties who were secretly engaged in labouring for the overthrow of -William's government and the restoration of James--persons whose names -and doings would have been of the utmost value to the Government--he -merely accused Marlborough, Russell, Godolphin, and Shrewsbury. The -intrigues of all these were far more familiar to William and his -intimate friends than they were to Fenwick. William and Devonshire -were disappointed. The whole thing had the air of a ruse to hide the -still undiscovered delinquents, and make a merit of a stale and useless -piece of information. Devonshire, on forwarding the list, observed -that, whatever these noblemen had been, they were, to all appearance, -very firm to the king now. William, on reading Fenwick's paper, was -incensed. "I am astonished," he wrote to Shrewsbury, "at the fellow's -effrontery. Observe this honest man's sincerity: he has nothing to say, -except against my friends. Not a word about the plans of his brother -Jacobites." He ordered the prisoner to be brought to trial without -delay. - -Fenwick, in fact, had only insured his own doom. He probably thought -William was not aware of the double-dealing of his own ministers, -and that he should be able to throw a bombshell into the Whig camp, -while he screened his own fellow-seditionists; but he found he had -to deal with a man much more sagacious than himself. William ordered -the confession of Sir John to be laid before the Lords Justices, and -himself acquainted some of the accused of what it contained, and -expressed his contempt of it. Marlborough and Russell, if they had not -before made up their minds to avoid any further tampering with St. -Germains, seem from this moment to have done so. It was clear their -secret was not only well known to William, but, pretty generally, to -the agents of James. Marlborough, however, took it calmly; Russell made -a great pretence of innocence, and demanded inquiry. Shrewsbury alone -seemed dismayed and overcome by it. He wrote to William, admitting that -Lord Middleton, James's secretary, had been over several times, and -had visited him, but this he attributed to their nearness of kinship. -He said--"One night at supper, when he was pretty well in drink, he -told me he intended to go beyond seas, and asked me if I could command -him no service. I then told him, by the course he was taking, it would -never be in his power to do himself or his friends service; and if the -time should come that he expected, I looked upon myself as an offender -not to be forgiven." Shrewsbury added that perhaps these accusations -"might render him incapable of serving William"--meaning that he might -not think him fit to retain the Seals under such a suspicion by the -public, but that, if he could not answer for the generality of the -world, yet the noble and frank manner in which his Majesty had used him -on that occasion would ever be acknowledged by him with all gratitude. - -[Illustration: LADY FENWICK INTERCEDING FOR HER HUSBAND. (_See p._ -496.)] - -Fenwick, perceiving the fatal blunder that he had made, sent in a -second confession; but this appeared rather to absolve James and his -adherents from any knowledge of the baser plan of assassination, and -from having sanctioned the scheme of seizing William's person, than -to throw any new light on the real workers in the treason. Things -were in this position when William returned on the 6th of October. The -courtiers at once flocked to Kensington to pay their respects to his -majesty, and amongst them the noblemen who had been so deeply accused -by Fenwick, with the single exception of Shrewsbury. William received -them all most graciously, and asked where Shrewsbury was. He was -informed that he was ill, and the next day the duke himself wrote to -say that he had had a fall from his horse, had received considerable -injury, and was incapable of travelling. But the king and the other -ministers well knew that the real cause was his extreme sensitiveness, -which made him ashamed to face his sovereign after the discovery of his -delinquency; and both they and William wrote to urge his appearance at -Court as soon as possible. William said--"You are much wanted here. I -am impatient to embrace you, and to assure you that my esteem for you -is undiminished." Somers wrote to him that unless he appeared in his -place at Court it would convince the public that he felt the justice of -Fenwick's charge. - -But Shrewsbury, whose mind so readily preyed on itself, could not bring -himself to face the king, and sent to request leave to resign the -Seals. With a magnanimity wonderfully different to that of Henry VIII., -who would have had all these nobles' heads off in a few days, William -would not hear of his resignation, telling the duke that it would bring -the worst suspicions on him; and, more on Shrewsbury's account than his -own, he insisted on his keeping the Seals. At length he consented, but -still dared not go to town, but remained in the seclusion of his home -amongst the wilds of Gloucestershire. - -On the 20th of October William opened the session of Parliament with -a speech in which he reviewed the troubles and difficulties of the -past year. He admitted the distress which the endeavours to restore -the coinage to a healthy state had occasioned; the pressure caused by -the limited coinage being yet only partly relieved. He avowed that -the liberal funds voted in the last session had fallen far short of -the public needs, and that the Civil List could not be maintained -without further aid; but, on the other hand, he contended that they -had many causes of congratulation. Abroad the enemy had obtained no -advantage, and at home the fortitude and temper with which the nation -had struggled through the hardships attending the recoinage--increased -as these had been by the fears or selfishness of those who had hoarded -their money--were admirable. A little time must bear them through this, -and he had to inform them that he had received overtures of peace from -France. He should be prepared to accept proper terms, but the way to -obtain them was to treat sword in hand. He therefore recommended them -to be at once liberal and prompt in voting the supplies. He recommended -to their sympathy the French Protestants, who were in a most miserable -condition, and he trusted to their taking efficient measures for the -maintenance of the public credit. - -The Commons, on retiring to their House, at the instance of Montague, -the Chancellor of the Exchequer, passed three resolutions, which -demonstrated the confidence of the country in the Government, and -constituted in themselves the most absolute defeat of all the grumblers -and malcontents possible. Montague had advocated the Bank of England; -that had succeeded. He had denounced the scheme of the Land Bank; -that had proved, as he declared it to be, a delusion, and had brought -ruin on its projectors. He had carried the plans of Government for -the restoration of the coinage stoutly through the most unexampled -crises. When the paper of the Bank of England was fluctuating in value, -the enemies of Government casting suspicion on it, so that it would -occasionally sink one-fourth of its value in the course of a single -day; when both the Allies and the enemies of England fancied that her -credit was gone and her resources exhausted, Montague knew better, -and by his spirit and eloquence kept the machine of Government going, -and now he reached a point of unquestionable triumph. The credit of -the country was no longer falling, but rising; the coinage was fast -assuming a position which it had never enjoyed for ages, and the -confidence of Parliament displayed itself in its votes. The resolutions -which confounded the adversaries of William's Government, and which -have often been referred to as motives for encouragement in periods -of Governmental distress, were these:--First, that the Commons would -support the king against all foreign and domestic enemies; secondly, -that the standard of gold and silver should not be altered; thirdly, -that they would make good all Parliamentary funds established since -the king's succession. An address was passed on the basis of these -resolutions, which was followed by another from the Lords, and the -Commons proceeded in the same spirit to vote six millions for the -current expenses of the year. - -The great topic of the remainder of the session was the inquiry into -the guilt of Sir John Fenwick. In denouncing the noblemen named in his -confession, he had made them and their adherents his mortal enemies. -The Whigs were deeply incensed through the accusation of Russell and -Shrewsbury, and the Whigs were now more influential than ever. Instead -of damaging them and embarrassing William, Fenwick had fatally damaged -himself. As for Godolphin, who was the only Tory in the Ministry, they -contrived to get him to offer his resignation, which, unlike that of -Shrewsbury, was accepted, so that the Whigs had now a ministry wholly -of their party. Russell was loud in his demands of vengeance, and -William, at the suggestion of the Whigs, sent for Fenwick, and insisted -that he should supply further information as to the real conspirators, -whom he had evidently purposely screened. Fenwick declined, and William -gave him to understand that he had nothing more to expect from him. - -The stubbornness of Fenwick soon received an explanation. His wife had -managed to corrupt Goodman, the second witness against him. An annuity -of five hundred pounds had been offered him to abscond, accompanied by -the menace of assassination if he refused. He consented to flee, and -was accompanied by an agent, named O'Brien, to St. Germains. Fenwick -now believed himself safe, as no man could be condemned on a charge of -high treason upon the evidence of one witness. But the vengeance of his -enemies was not thus to be defeated. Sir John might have recollected -how often the end in such cases had been secured by a Bill of -Attainder. Fenwick himself had been a zealous advocate for such a Bill -against Monmouth. When it became known that Goodman was spirited away, -the exasperation of the Commons was extreme. On the 6th of November -Russell vehemently demanded of the House that it should examine -and decide whether the accused parties were guilty or not. Before -proceeding to extremities the Commons, however, called Sir John before -them, and offered to intercede with the king on his behalf if he made -a full and immediate confession. But he would not consent to become -the informer against his own party, and was remanded. It was then -resolved, by a hundred and seventy-nine votes to sixty-one that a Bill -of Attainder should be brought in. The two parties put forth all their -strength, and the Bill was not carried till the 26th. For twenty days -the eloquence and influence of the House were in violent agitation. -The Tories were seen contending for the liberty of the subject, which -they had so often overridden by such bills, and the Whigs as vehemently -pressed on the measure as they had formerly denounced similar ones when -directed against those of their own party. - -During the debates the depositions of Goodman made before the Grand -Jury, fully implicating Sir John in the conspiracy, were laid before -the House in support of the evidence of Porter. Goodman's absence -was proved, to the satisfaction of the House, to be owing to the -inducements and exertions of Fenwick's friends; and two of the grand -jurymen were examined, and detailed the evidence received by them -from Goodman on his examination, fully agreeing with that sent in in -writing. Some petty jurymen, also, who had decided the case of another -conspirator, confirmed this evidence. The Commons had proof enough -of his guilt, though it might want the legal formality of two direct -witnesses. - -In the Lords the Earl of Monmouth made an adroit movement in favour -of Sir John. He defended him warmly, at the same time that he sent to -him in prison, through the Duchess of Norfolk, his cousin, a scheme -for defeating his enemies. He advised him to maintain the truth of -his confession, to declare that he derived his information from high -quarters, and to beg the king to demand of the Earls of Portland and -Romney whether the information in their possession against the noblemen -implicated did not correspond with his own; the king, moreover, should -be urged to lay before Parliament the evidence on which he had suddenly -dismissed Marlborough, and any letters intercepted on their way from -St. Germains to these parties. This would have been a thunderbolt to -the Government, and Monmouth awaited in exultation its effect. But Sir -John disappointed him. He feared to exasperate further the king and his -judges the Lords, to whom the accused belonged, and did not take the -hint. Monmouth, incensed, then turned against him himself. Marlborough -exerted himself with all his power to condemn him, even getting the -Prince of Denmark to go and vote against him. The bishops remained, -and voted, eight of them, against the passing of the Bill. Burnet and -Tenison, however, both spoke and voted for it, with little regard -to the practice that the prelates should take no part in advocating -measures of blood. The Lords Godolphin and Bath, though both amongst -those accused by Fenwick, voted in his favour, and Shrewsbury absented -himself from the debate. The Duke of Devonshire, too, to whom he had -carried his confession, voted against the Bill. Sir John offered to -make a full disclosure on condition of receiving a full pardon, but -this was not accorded him, and he refused further confession on any -other terms. At length, on the 27th of December, the Bill was carried, -but only by a majority of seven--sixty-eight votes to sixty-one. -Forty-one lords, including eight bishops, entered a protest on the -journal against the decision. - -Unfortunately for Monmouth, the friends of Sir John were so incensed -at his turning round against him, that the Earl of Carlisle, Lady -Fenwick's brother, produced to the House the papers which he had sent -to Sir John in prison, and stated the censures on the king with which -he had accompanied them. A tempest suddenly burst over his head, of -indescribable fury. The Whigs were exasperated at his endeavouring to -sacrifice Russell and Shrewsbury to save Fenwick, and the Tories at -his endeavouring to sacrifice Marlborough and Godolphin, and at his -treacherously deserting Sir John for not following his advice. He was -committed to the Tower, deprived of all his places, and his name erased -from the list of privy councillors. - -Parliament having passed this Act, adjourned for the Christmas -holidays, and every exertion was made to obtain a pardon for Sir John. -His wife threw herself at the feet of William, but he only replied -that he must consult his ministers before he could give an answer. -On the 11th of January, 1697, he put his signature to the Bill. When -Parliament met again she presented a petition to the House of Lords, -praying them to intercede with the king to commute the sentence to -perpetual banishment, but without success. On the 28th of January -Fenwick was conducted to execution on Tower Hill. On the scaffold he -delivered to the sheriff a sealed paper, in which he complained of the -irregularity of the proceeding against him, denied any participation in -the plan of assassination, but confessed his attachment to James, and -his belief in the right of the Prince of Wales after him. - -After an abortive attempt to pass a Bill establishing a property -qualification for the Commons, another to put the press again under the -licensing system, and another to abolish those dens of protected crime, -the Savoy and Whitefriars, Parliament was prorogued on the 16th of -April. - -Whilst this desperate conflict had been going on between Whig and Tory -in England, in Scotland a most useful measure had passed the Scottish -Parliament, namely, an Act establishing a school and schoolmaster in -every parish, and to this admirable Act it is that Scotland owes the -superior intelligence of its working classes. At the same time the -rigid bigotry of the clergy perpetrated one of the most revolting acts -in history. A youth of eighteen, named Thomas Aikenhead, had picked up -some of the sceptical notions of Hobbes and Tindal, and was arrested, -tried, and hanged for blasphemy between Leith and Edinburgh. It was -in vain that he expressed the utmost repentance for his errors, the -ministers were impatient for his death, and he died accordingly, to the -disgrace of the Presbyterian Church and the whole country. - -William embarked for Holland on the 26th of April, having before his -departure made several promotions. To the disgust of many, Sunderland -was appointed one of the Lords Justices and Lord Chamberlain. The -Protestants wondered that a man who had apostatised when there was -a Popish king, should find such favour with a Presbyterian one; and -the honourable-minded that a man who had stooped to so many dirty -acts and arts should be thus exalted by a prince of sober morals. -But William's only excuse was that his ministers were so bad that -there was little to choose in their principles, and that he employed -them not for their virtues but their abilities. Russell was rewarded -for running down Fenwick with the title of Earl of Orford; the Lord -Keeper Somers was elevated to the full dignity of Lord Chancellor, and -created Baron Somers of Evesham. Montague was made First Lord of the -Treasury, in place of Godolphin; Lord Wharton, in addition to his post -of Comptroller of the Household, was appointed Chief Justice in Eyre, -south of the Trent; and his brother, Godwin Wharton, became a Lord of -the Admiralty. - -The campaign in Flanders was commenced by the French with an activity -apparently intended to impress upon the Allies their ample ability to -carry on the war, although, in fact, never had France more need of -peace. Its finances were exhausted, its people were miserable; but far -more than the sufferings of his subjects to Louis were the ambitious -projects which he was now particularly cherishing. John Sobieski, -the brave deliverer of Vienna from the Turks, the King of Poland, -was dead, and Louis was anxious to place the Prince of Conti on the -throne of that kingdom. He had, however, a still more weighty motive -for peace. The King of Spain, the sickly and imbecile Charles II., -was fast hastening to the tomb. He was childless; no provision was -made by the Spanish Government for filling the throne, and Louis of -France was watching for his death. Louis himself was married to the -elder sister of the Spanish king, and the Dauphin was thus next in -succession, but the marriage had been attended by a renunciation of -rights. The question was one of great intricacy; and we will postpone -for the present a discussion of the rights of the Dauphin and the -rival claimants--the Archduke Charles and the Electoral Prince. But if -the throne of Spain fell vacant during the alliance, the Allies, and -William amongst them, would support the Emperor's claims. Accordingly, -it was to the interest of the Emperor to prolong the war, and to the -interest of Louis to end it. - -[Illustration: LORD SOMERS. (_After the Portrait by Sir Godfrey -Kneller._)] - -Spain and Germany, therefore, were averse from peace. William and -Louis were the only parties, each for his own purposes, really anxious -for it. Louis, early in the spring, had made overtures to Dykvelt -through Cailleres, which were really surprising. They were no less -than to relinquish all the conquests made by him during the war, to -restore Lorraine to its duke, Luxemburg to Spain, Strasburg to the -Empire, and to acknowledge William's title to the crown of England -without condition or reserve. Such terms the Allies never could have -expected. They were a renunciation by the ambitious Louis of all that -he had been fighting for during so many years--of all that he had -drained his kingdom of its life and wealth to accomplish. That he -contemplated maintaining the peace any longer than till he had secured -Spain and Poland is not to be supposed. If he obtained peace now, these -objects would become more feasible, and he knew that William, his -most formidable enemy, would have disbanded his army, and would have -to create a new one and a new alliance before he could take the field -again to oppose him. - -These undoubtedly were Louis's notions, and it was plausibly urged by -Spain and Austria that it was better now to press him as he was sinking -till he was perfectly prostrate, and then bind him effectually. But, -on the other hand, William felt that England and Holland had to bear -the brunt of the war; that it was all very well for Spain and Germany -to cry "Keep on," but the fact was, they did little or nothing towards -keeping on. The Germans had no union, and, therefore, no strength. -They sent excuses instead of their contingents and instead of money to -pay their share of the cost of the war. When they did rise, they were -nearly always behind their time and divided in their counsels. As for -Spain, it literally did nothing to defend its own territories. The -whole of Flanders would have been lost but for William and his Dutch -and English troops. Catalonia would have been lost but for Russell and -his fleet. Moreover, without consulting the Allies, Spain had joined in -a treaty with Savoy and France to save its Milanese territory, and to -the extreme prejudice of the Allies, it had, by releasing the French -armies from Italy, increased the force in Flanders. William was greatly -incensed by the endeavours of these Powers to continue the war; and -Louis, as the best spur to their backwardness, determined to seize -Brussels, and conduct himself as if bent on active aggression. - -Catinat, relieved from his command in Savoy, had now joined Villeroi -and Boufflers in Flanders, and these generals determined to surprise -Brussels. They first advanced on the little town of Ath, and William, -who was but just recovering from an attack of illness, uniting his -forces with those of the Elector of Bavaria, endeavoured to prevent -them. He was, however, too late; but he marched hastily towards -Brussels to defend it against Villeroi and Boufflers. He passed over -the very ground on which the battle of Waterloo was long afterwards -fought, and posted himself on the height whence Villeroi had bombarded -the city two years before. Neither side, however, was anxious to engage -and incur all the miseries of a great battle, with the prospect of a -near peace. They therefore entrenched themselves and continued to lie -there for the rest of the summer, awaiting the course of events. Louis, -however, assailed the King of Spain in another quarter--Catalonia. -There Vendôme attacked the viceroy and defeated him, and invested -Barcelona, which, though bravely defended by the Prince of -Hesse-Darmstadt, was obliged to capitulate. At the same time came the -news of another blow. Louis had sent out a squadron under Admiral -Pointes to attack the Spanish settlements in the West Indies, and he -had sacked and plundered the town of Carthagena, and carried home an -immense treasure. These disasters made Spain as eager for peace as she -had before been averse, and the Emperor of Germany was obliged to cease -talking of returning to the position of the Treaty of Westphalia--a -state of things totally out of the power of the Allies to restore. - -The Plenipotentiaries of the different Powers now at last were -ordered to meet; the only question was, Where? The Emperor proposed -Aix-la-Chapelle or Frankfort, but Louis objected to any German town, -but was willing that the place should be the Hague. It was at length -settled to be the Hague. The Ambassadors of the Allies were to occupy -the Hague itself; and the French, Delft, about five miles distant. -Midway between these towns lies the village of Ryswick, and close to -it a palace belonging then to William, called Neubourg House. There it -was determined that the Plenipotentiaries should meet for business. The -palace was admirably adapted, by its different entrances and alleys, -for the approach of the different bodies of diplomatists without -any confusion, and there was a fine, large, central hall for their -deliberations. There appeared for England the Earl of Pembroke, the -Viscount Villiers, Sir Joseph Williamson, and Matthew Prior, the poet, -as their secretary. For the Emperor, the gruff Kaunitz, the celebrated -Imperial Minister, was at the head of the German referees. For France -came Harlay, Crecy, and Cailleres. Don Quiros was the Minister of -Spain, and there were whole throngs of the representatives of the -lesser Powers. The Minister of Sweden, Count Lilienroth, was appointed -mediator, and, after various arrangements regarding precedence, on -the 9th of May the Plenipotentiaries met; but, it seemed, only to -entangle themselves in a multitude of absurd difficulties regarding -their respective ranks and titles. The Ambassadors of Spain and of -the Emperor were the most ridiculous in their punctilios. Then came -the news of the death of the King of Sweden (Charles XI.), and the -waiting of the mediator for a renewal of his powers, and for putting -himself into mourning, and it was the middle of June before any real -business had been done. William grew out of patience, and determined -to take a shorter cut to the object in view. He empowered Portland -to arrange with Boufflers, with whom he had become acquainted at the -time of the latter's arrest at Namur, the preliminaries of a peace -between France, England, and Holland. Portland and Boufflers met at -a country house near Hal, about ten miles from Brussels on the road -to Mons, and within sight of the hostile armies. The questions to be -settled between these two plain and straightforward negotiators were -these:--William demanded that Louis should bind himself not to assist -James, directly or indirectly, in any attempt on the throne of England, -and that James should no longer be permitted to reside in France. These -demands being sent by express to Paris, Louis at once agreed to the -first requisition, that he should engage never to assist James in any -attempt on England; but as to the second, he replied that he could not, -from honour and hospitality, banish James from France, but he would -undertake to induce him to remove to Avignon, if he did not voluntarily -prefer going to Italy. William accepted this modified acquiescence. -On the other hand, Louis demanded from William that he should give -an amnesty to all the Jacobites, and should allow Mary of Modena her -jointure of fifty thousand pounds a year. - -William peremptorily refused to grant the amnesty--that was an -interference with the prerogative of his crown which he could permit -to no foreign Power. The jointure he was willing to pay, on condition -that the money should not be employed in designs against his crown or -life, and that James, his queen, and Court, should remove to Avignon -and continue to reside there. Neither the residence of the exiled -family nor the matter of the jointure was to be mentioned in the -treaty, but William authorised his Plenipotentiaries at the Congress -to say that Mary of Modena should have everything which on examination -should be found to be lawfully her due. This, indeed, may be considered -an ambiguous phrase, for Mary, as well as James, being deposed, all -her legal rights connected with the Crown had lapsed. William was -afterwards much blamed for the non-payment of this jointure; but those -who charged him with breach of faith knew very well that the jointure -was only conditionally offered, and that the conditions were altogether -disregarded. - -The ceremonious and do-nothing Plenipotentiaries were greatly startled -by the news that Portland and Boufflers were continually meeting, -and were supposed to be actually making a treaty without them. A -thing so irregular, so undiplomatic, was unheard of; but William was -a man of business, and, in spite of forms and ceremonies, pushed on -the treaty and concluded it. Spain, which had arranged a separate -treaty in Savoy, was especially scandalised. But still more was James -alarmed and incensed. He addressed two memorials to the princes of the -confederacy--one to the Catholic Princes, entreating them to unite with -him against England for his rights, reminding them that his case was -theirs, and that the English revolution was setting a fatal precedent -for them; the other was to the princes at large, warning them against -infringing his inalienable rights by entering into any agreement with -the usurper to transfer his crown and dignity to him. These producing -no effect, he issued a third, protesting against any engagements they -might enter into to his prejudice, or the prejudice of his son; and -declaring that he should himself never feel bound by any of them. - -If Louis was not moved by his entreaties and remonstrances, it was -not likely that the princes who had for eight years been fighting in -alliance with his rival would. Perhaps, however, James felt it only his -duty to put in his disclaimer. The negotiations went on. Besides the -terms offered by France to William and his Allies being accepted by all -except the Emperor, it was agreed that Commissioners should meet in -London from France to settle the respective pretensions of France and -England to the territories of Hudson's Bay. The Dutch made a separate -treaty of commerce with France. France surrendered all conquests made -since the Treaty of Nimeguen, and placed the chief fortresses in the -Low Countries in the hands of Dutch garrisons; except eighty towns and -villages, which the French claimed from longer possession, and the -right to which was to be determined by commissioners, with a power -of appeal to the States-General. A demand of toleration was made on -behalf of the French Protestants, but was refused on the same ground -as William refused the amnesty to the Jacobites--interference with -the prerogative of Louis. On the 10th of July the representatives of -the Emperor were asked by the French to sign, but, on declining, the -21st of August was fixed as the last day on which France would be -bound by its offer. William and the rest of the Allies were greatly -exasperated at this refusal of the Emperor. The 21st arrived, and, -the Commissioners not signing, the representatives of France declared -his most Christian Majesty had now withdrawn Strasburg from his offer, -and would annex it for ever to his realm; and, moreover, if the treaty -were not signed on or before the 10th of September, he should not hold -himself bound by the rest of his engagements. - -[Illustration: WILLIAM'S TRIUMPHANT PROCESSION TO WHITEHALL. (_See p._ -501.)] - -On the 10th the rest of the Allies signed the treaty, but the Emperor -still held out, and a further time was allowed him, namely, till the -1st of November. On the 11th of September an event occurred which made -the resistance of the Emperor the more obstinate for a time. Prince -Eugene fought a great battle at Zenta against the Sultan in person, -completely routed the Turks, and killed or caused to be drowned in -the Theiss the Grand Vizier, the Aga of the Janissaries, and thirty -thousand of the enemy. There were six thousand more wounded or taken -prisoners, with their artillery, baggage, tents, ammunition, and -provisions. The Grand Seignior himself escaped with difficulty, whilst -the Imperialists lost only about one thousand men in the action. The -Emperor hoped that such a brilliant victory would induce the Allies to -prolong the war; but, as it produced no such effect, he was obliged -to comply. The petty princes, who had done nothing during the war -but create delays and embarrassments, stood out to the very last on -the demand that the Lutheran religion should be restored in Louis's -territories, where it had been put down; but they stood out in vain. -The treaty was duly signed and ratified at the time fixed. - -The new treaty produced very different sensations in France and -England. In France there was much murmuring. For what, it was asked, -had the king been fighting all these years? He had given up everything, -and could only have done that under defeat. The Court of St. Germains -and James's adherents were in despair. In England the most riotous -joy broke forth. There were all the usual demonstrations of such -occasions--bonfires, drinking, and firing of guns. The bells rang out -from every steeple, and the Bank of England stocks, which were at -twenty per cent. below par, rose to par. The Jacobites cursed Louis -for a traitor to the cause of James, and fled to hide themselves. The -rejoicings were equally enthusiastic all over the kingdom. - -When William entered his capital it was a regular triumph. From -Greenwich to Whitehall it was one dense crowd of hurrahing people; -troops of militia and train-bands, the City authorities attending -him in all their paraphernalia, the Foot Guards standing under arms -at Whitehall, and the windows all the way crowded with handsome or -excited faces. The 2nd of December was appointed as a day of public -thanksgiving, and the new cathedral of St. Paul's was crowded by its -first great assemblage on the occasion. There were deputations bringing -zealous addresses to the foot of the Throne, and foremost and most -loyal in language amongst them was that of the University of Oxford, -which had so long distinguished itself by its Toryism and devotion to -the Stuarts. - -There was cause, indeed, for joy; for the country was for a time freed -from the most exhausting war in which it had ever been engaged. It had -passed through it with credit, though its armies and navies were in a -great measure commanded by traitors. Its wealth and credit were higher -than ever; and, above all, the tone and temper of the nation were sure -guarantees that the return of James or his son was the most impossible -of things. Still, had the Allies on the Continent been true to each -other, and to the principles for which they professed to contend, they -might have inflicted a far more complete punishment on the heartless -ambition of Louis, and thus prevented the speedy recurrence of the -horrors which they now hoped were for a long time at an end. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -REIGN OF WILLIAM III. (_concluded_). - - William Meets his Parliament--Reduction of the Standing - Army--Visit of Peter the Great--Schemes of Louis--The East - India Company--Spanish Partition Scheme--Its Inception and - Progress--Somers's Hesitation--The Treaty is Signed--New - Parliament--Tory Reaction--Dismissal of the Dutch - Guards--William forms an Intention of Quitting England--Attack - on the late Ministry--Jobbery in the Admiralty--Paterson's - Darien Scheme--Douglas's Reasons against It--Enthusiasm - of the Scots--Departure of the First Expedition and - its Miserable Failure--The Untimely End of the Second - Expedition--Second Partition Scheme--Double-dealing of the - French--New Parliament--Attack on Somers--Report on the Irish - Grants--Resumption Bill passed--William's Unpopularity--Death of - the Duke of Gloucester--Conclusion of the New Partition Treaty - and its Results--Charles makes over his Dominions to the French - Candidate--His Death--Disgust of William at Louis's Duplicity--Tory - Temper of the House--The Succession Question--Debates on Foreign - Policy--The Succession Act passed--New Negotiations with - France--Attack on the Whig Ministers--Acknowledgment of the Spanish - King--Impeachment of the Whigs--The Kentish Petition--Its Reception - by the House--The Legion Memorial--Panic in the House--Violent - Struggle between the two Houses--The Impeachments dropped--William - goes Abroad--The Grand Alliance and its Objects--Beginning of the - War--Death of James II.--Louis acknowledges the Pretender--Reaction - in England--New Parliament and Ministry--The King's Speech--British - Patriotism is Roused--Voting of Supplies--The Bills of Attainder - and Abjuration--Illness and Death of William--His Character. - - -William met his Parliament on the 3rd of December. He congratulated -it on the achievement of a peace in which the Confederates had -accomplished all they had fought for--the repression of the ambitious -attempts of France to bring under its yoke the rest of the kingdoms -on the Continent. She had been compelled to yield up everything which -she had seized from the commencement of the war. But he reminded them -that this had not been accomplished except at a heavy cost. They had -supported him nobly in furnishing that cost, and he trusted they would -not now be less prompt to discharge the remaining unpaid claims, -and in taking measures to liquidate by degrees the debts incurred. -He expressed his hope that they would provide him for life with a -sufficient Civil List to maintain the necessary dignity of the Crown. -Though the war was over, he reminded them that there were many reasons -why the army and navy should yet be maintained on a respectable footing. - -The Commons voted him an address, in which they united in the -congratulations on the restoration of peace, but passed over the -subject of the army. William noticed the omission, and felt it deeply. -Nobody was more aware than himself that, though they had bound France -by the treaty of Ryswick, no bonds of that kind ever held Louis -XIV. any longer than it suited his necessities or his schemes of -aggrandisement. He observed that Louis still kept on foot his large -armies, and that he still retained James and his Court at St. Germains, -in open violation of the treaty; and the circumstances of Spain, whose -king was gradually dying childless, with Louis intently watching to -pounce on his dominions, filled him, as it did every far-seeing man, -with deep anxiety. Though no king ever less sought to infringe the -liberties of his subjects, yet William, naturally fond of an army and -of military affairs, was especially anxious at this crisis for the -retention of a respectable force. He knew that Europe, though freed -from actual war, was, through the restless ambition of Louis, still -living only in an armed peace. - -The Commons did not leave him long in suspense. In a few days they -went into the subject of the proposal to keep up the army. The spirit -of the House was high against a standing army. All the old arguments -were produced--that a standing army was totally inconsistent with -the liberties of the people; that the moment you put the sword into -the hands of mercenaries, the king became the master of the rights -of the nation, and a despot. They asked, "If a standing army were -to be maintained, what should they have gained by the revolution?" -The Tories, who were anxious to damage the Whigs, and the Jacobites, -who were anxious to damage William's government altogether, were -particularly eloquent on these topics. The true patriots, and they -were few, were eloquent from principle. It was in vain that the -friends of William represented that it was a very different thing to -maintain an army in particular circumstances which depended on the -will of Parliament, from maintaining one at the sole pleasure of the -king. The opponents of a standing army contended that a militia was -the natural force for internal defence, which could be brought to -nearly as much perfection as regular troops, and could be called out -when wanted; and that the navy was our proper army, and that if kept -in due efficiency it was able, not only to protect us and our trade, -but to render all such assistance to other nations as became a generous -and Christian nation. By a division of a hundred and eighty-five votes -against a hundred and forty-eight, the House resolved that all the -forces raised since 1686 should be disbanded. - -[Illustration: PETER THE GREAT AT DEPTFORD DOCKYARD. - -FROM THE PAINTING BY DANIEL MACLISE, R.A. IN THE ROYAL HOLLOWAY -COLLEGE, EGHAM.] - -This fell with an appalling shock on William. All his army of brave -mercenaries, his Dutch guards, his Huguenot cavalry, must be sent away. -He would, it was found, be left only with about eight thousand regular -troops. Never was there such a stripping of a martial monarch, who had -figured at the head of upwards of a hundred thousand men against the -greatest military power of Europe. He made little remark publicly, but -he poured out his grief to his great correspondent the Dutch Grand -Pensionary, Heinsius, and to Burnet. To them he said that it would -make his alliance of so little value, his state so contemptible, that -he did not see how he was to carry on the government; that he never -could have imagined, after what he had done for the nation, that they -would treat him thus; and that, had he imagined it, he would never have -meddled with the affairs of England; that he was weary of governing a -country which had rather lay itself open to its enemies than trust him, -who had acted all his life so faithfully for them. But it was useless -complaining; the country was resolved on having no standing army, and -every attempt of Ministers to modify or enlarge the resolution was -disregarded. They proposed that the Bill should be committed, because -it would leave the king in the hands of the old Tory regiments; and, -again, that five hundred thousand pounds per annum should be granted -for the maintenance of Guards and garrisons. Both motions were -negatived. There was a strong feeling excited against Sunderland, on -the supposition that he had encouraged the king in his desire for a -large army, because he warmly argued for it; and that minister, equally -odious to both parties, felt it safest to retire. He therefore resigned -his post of Lord Chamberlain, though William did all he could to -dissuade him from doing so, and sought the seclusion of his princely -abode of Althorp. - -These were the last transactions of the English Government in 1697; but -there was at this moment a person residing in England who was destined -to produce greater changes in the face of Europe, and in its relations, -than any who had gone before him. This was Peter the Czar of Muscovy, -who was at this time residing at Sayes Court, a house of the celebrated -John Evelyn, at Deptford, and studying the fleet and shipbuilding of -England, in order to create a naval power for himself. He was only a -youth of five-and-twenty, and was the monarch of a country then sunk -in barbarism, which was unrepresented at the Courts of Europe, was -little heard of by the rest of the Continent, and whose merchants were -forbidden, on pain of death, to trade with other countries. Yet already -Peter had raised a regular army, and something of a navy, putting -them under the management of Scottish and French officers. By means -of these, in 1696, he had besieged and taken Azov. He had put himself -through all the ranks of the army, beginning as a common soldier; and -he had then determined to see personally the chief maritime nations, -Holland and England, and learn what he could of the arts that made them -so powerful. He set out with only twelve attendants, amongst whom were -his two chief princes, Menschikoff, who had been originally a pieman, -and Galitzin. These were to act as his ambassadors to the Courts of -Holland and England, he himself remaining _incognito_. He first settled -at Zaandam, in Holland, where he lived in a small lodging, dressed -and worked with his attendants as ship-carpenters, learning to forge -the ironwork of ships, as well as to prepare their woodwork. He had -a yacht on the Zuyder Zee, and practised its management, and studied -rope-making and sail-making. He found himself too much crowded about -and stared at on his removal to London, where he spent his time chiefly -in the dockyards of Deptford, Woolwich, and Chatham. William used to -go and see him at Sayes Court, and sent the Marquis of Caermarthen -to attend upon him, where they are said to have drunk brandy and -pepper together during the long winter evenings. In the ensuing April -disturbances at home called him away, but not before he had destroyed -Evelyn's fine holly hedges by driving over them in the deep snows in -his sledge, to Evelyn's great mortification. - -At the opening of the year 1698, all appeared peace in Europe, -but it was the quiet only which lies in the bosom of a volcano. -Enormous expenditure of blood and treasure had been made to repel the -unprincipled schemes of Louis XIV. Europe seemed to have triumphed over -him. He had suddenly surrendered all that he had striven for, as if -he perceived the impossibility of his aspirations. Nothing was less -the fact. Never had he been so daring in his plans of aggrandisement -as at this moment. Why should he continue to drain his kingdom of its -population and its substance to grasp merely at Flanders, when, by -exerting the arts of diplomacy, he might possess himself, not only -of Flanders, but of all Spain, the north of Italy, the Sicilies, the -South American and Indian dependencies? This grand scheme Louis now -resolved to compass. He had married, as we have said, the Infanta, -Maria Theresa, the sister of Charles II. of Spain, and had children -by her. On marrying her he had sworn to renounce all claims to the -Spanish throne through her; but this weighed nothing with Louis. He -resolved that a son of the Dauphin--that is, his grandson through Maria -Theresa--should be put forward as the French candidate in lieu of his -father. Against him was the Emperor of Germany, the first cousin of -Charles II., but he had resigned his claims in favour of his son by a -second marriage--the Archduke Charles. By his first marriage with a -younger sister of Charles II. he was the grandfather of the Electoral -Prince of Bavaria. But the rights of this claimant, like those of the -Dauphin's son Philip, were somewhat discountenanced by the fact that -his grandfather's marriage had been accompanied by a renunciation of -rights. It will be seen, therefore, that the question was one of some -intricacy, and it was complicated by doubts as to the validity of the -renunciations. Louis determined that the House of Austria should be -set aside, and his own issue occupy the Spanish throne, when France, -in fact, stretching from Gibraltar to Flanders, and including a large -share of Italy, would be able to give law to the Continent, and swallow -up Flanders and Holland, if not Germany too. This was the danger which -wrought on the anxious heart of William at this moment. - -Montague, in the height of his popularity, undertook and carried a -measure which eventually, however, did the Whigs infinite mischief. -Ministers had applied to the East India Company for a loan. The -Company offered to lend them seven hundred thousand pounds, to be -repaid out of the supplies at the convenience of Government. The new -Company, which had so long been striving after a charter, hearing of -the proposal, immediately outbade the old Company, offering to lend -the Government two million pounds at eight per cent. The bait was too -tempting to resist; a Bill was brought into the Commons, and passed -its first reading by a large majority. The old Company, alarmed, -petitioned the House, stating the claims it possessed, from having -been encouraged by many royal charters to invest its capital, and to -create a trade with India. It begged the House to consider that a -thousand families depended on the stock, and that the property of the -Company in India, producing an annual revenue of forty-four thousand -pounds, would all be destroyed or reduced to trifling value. They -deposed that they had expended a million of money in fortifications -alone; that during the war they had lost twelve ships and cargoes worth -fifteen hundred thousand pounds; that since the last subscription they -had paid two hundred and ninety-five thousand pounds for customs, -and above eighty-five thousand pounds in taxes. They had furnished -ten thousand barrels of gunpowder when the Government was greatly -pressed for it, and taken eighty thousand pounds' worth of Exchequer -Bills. The House weighed the proposal, but was persuaded by Montague -to give the preference to the new Company. On this the old Company -offered, notwithstanding their great losses, to advance two millions -to Government, on condition that the charter to the new Company was -not granted. The offer came too late; the Bill for the new Company -was passed, and carried also in the Lords, but with considerable -opposition, and a protest from one-and-twenty peers. This Act was, -notwithstanding, deemed a very unjust and arbitrary measure; and the -arguments of the Whigs for a standing army, and their embezzlements -in the Government offices and by most flagrant contracts, seriously -affected their popularity. - -Towards the end of July William went to Holland, and having addressed -the States-General, and given audience to a number of ambassadors at -the Hague, he betook himself to his favourite seat at Loo, where, -in August, he was joined by Portland, the Pensionary Heinsius, and -the Count Tallard, an emissary from Louis XIV. In this retirement -they discussed one of the boldest projects which could possibly be -entertained by statesmen, namely, a partition of the Spanish dominions. -That the scheme was Louis XIV.'s there can be no question, and, daring -as it was, served but as the blinding manœuvre which covered still -more daring ones. The ultimate object of Louis was the seizure of the -crown and territories of Spain, to which we have already alluded, but -William, with great address, at once set to work to countermine him. - -This plan of dividing the empire of Spain amongst such parties as -should suit the views of William and Louis had been suggested by -France, apparently very soon after the peace of Ryswick, and had been -going on all the spring in England in profound secrecy. One of the -motives for sending Portland to Paris in January had been to learn the -full particulars of this scheme, which had been somewhat mysteriously -opened to William. In writing to Heinsius on the 3rd of January, -when Portland was about to start for France, William expressed his -surprise as to the real meaning of "something that was proposed to be -done by the Republic, France, and England, towards the maintenance of -the peace," and imagined it might relate to their position with the -Emperor. However, he added, "the earl of Portland will readily be able -to get at the bottom of this affair in France, and that is another -reason for hastening his departure as much as possible." - -[Illustration: VIEW IN THE HAGUE: OLD GATE IN THE BINNENHOF, WITH THE -ARMS OF THE COUNTY OF HOLLAND.] - -Portland was scarcely settled in his diplomatic position in Paris when -the scheme was broached to him, but at first cautiously. On the 15th -of March he wrote to William that the Ministers Pomponne and De Torcy -had communicated to him, but in the profoundest secrecy, that the -king their master desired to make him the medium of a most important -negotiation with the king of England. The impending death of the king -of Spain was likely to throw the whole of Europe into war again, unless -this were prevented by engagements entered into by the kings of France -and England to prevent it. For if the Emperor were allowed to succeed -to Spain with its dependencies, Flanders, Italy, and the colonies, he -would become so powerful that he would be dangerous to all Europe. -Portland declared that he could give no opinion, nor could the king -his master give an answer, so far as he could see, until he had the -full views of the king of France on the subject; and that the naval and -maritime interests of England and Holland might be greatly affected by -any arrangement regarding the succession of the Spanish territories. -The French Ministers said it would be easy to order matters regarding -the Low Countries to the satisfaction of England and Holland, and that -France would guarantee that the crown of Spain should not be annexed to -that of France; but as to the Indies, or the security of English trade -in the Mediterranean, Portland could draw nothing from them. The views -of France were so far not very clear; but Portland added the important -piece of information that the Count de Tallard was at that very moment -setting out for London, ostensibly to congratulate William, but really -to prosecute this negotiation. - -Accordingly, Tallard arrived in London on the 19th of March, and -he and William, in strict secrecy, admitting no one else to their -confidence, discussed this scheme of Louis. This was no other than that -the crown of Spain, with the Spanish Netherlands and colonies, should -not be allowed to pass to the Emperor, but should be settled on the -Electoral Prince of Bavaria, the third claimant; that Naples, Sicily, -Sardinia, the province of Guipuzcoa on the French side of the Pyrenees, -Fontarabia, San Sebastian, Ferrol, and some towns on the Tuscan coast -then owned by Spain, and called Presidii, should be settled by a mutual -treaty between them on the Dauphin; and that Milan should be settled -on the Archduke Charles, the second son of the Emperor, to whom he had -resigned his rights. - -The negotiations were carried on in England in closest secrecy between -William and Tallard, William entering into engagements which most -momentously affected England as well as all Europe, without taking a -particle of advice from his Council, much less seeking the advice of -Parliament--a proceeding which we should now consider unconstitutional, -but which was then by no means unusual. When he quitted England after -the dissolution of Parliament, it was only the more unobservedly to -complete this extraordinary business. Tallard followed him to Loo, and -they were soon after joined by Portland. It was now about the middle -of August, and William wrote to Somers, desiring him to send him full -powers under the Great Seal to complete the negotiation, leaving the -names in blanks. He said he had ordered Portland to write to Vernon, -the Secretary of State, to draw out the commission with his own hand, -so that no creature should know anything of it except Somers and one -or two of the other most trusted Ministers. He told Somers that it was -confidently believed that the King of Spain could not outlive the month -of October--might die much sooner, and, therefore, not a moment was to -be lost. - -In consequence of this communication, Somers, who was seeking health at -Tunbridge Wells, immediately called into his counsels Russell (now Lord -Orford), Montague, and Shrewsbury. He informed William that Montague -and Secretary Vernon had come down to him at Tunbridge; they had -seriously discussed this very momentous question, and that it seemed -to them that it might be attended with very many ill consequences if -the French did not act a sincere part; that the people of England would -undoubtedly resent being drawn into any fresh war; and that it required -deep consideration what would be the condition of Europe should this -proposed partition be carried out. To them it seemed that if Sicily -were in French hands, they would become entire masters of the Levant -trade; that if they obtained any of the Spanish ports on the Tuscan -coast, Milan would be so entirely shut in from independent intercourse -or commerce by sea and land that it would be utterly powerless; that if -France had Guipuzcoa and the other Spanish places on the French side of -the Pyrenees, the rest of Spain would be as completely open to French -invasion as Catalonia now was; and, finally, if this negotiation was -concluded, what guarantee had William for the king of France's faithful -execution of it? Were England and Holland to sit still and see France -enforce this partition? "If that be so," says Somers, "what security -ought we to expect from the French that, while we are neuter, they will -confine themselves to the terms of the treaty, and not attempt to take -further advantage?" These considerations were sound, but William had -certainly chosen the lesser of two evils, for the placing of the French -candidate on the throne of Spain would have entirely overturned the -European balance. - -In obedience to the king's orders, Somers sent the _carte blanche_ -with the Great Seal affixed; but he had failed in inducing Vernon to -give him a warrant for affixing the Seal. The Secretary was too well -aware of the unconstitutional character of this proceeding to issue -such a warrant, and Somers was obliged to content himself with keeping -the king's letter as his authority for the act. Undeterred by the -plain suggestions of Somers and the other Ministers as to the total -want of security which he had for Louis's observance of this treaty, -and the dangerous power it conferred on France, William was in such -haste to conclude the treaty, that the Earl of Portland and Sir Joseph -Williamson had signed a rough draft before Somers's _carte blanche_ -arrived; and on the 11th of October, or about six weeks after its -receipt, the formal treaty was signed by Portland, Williamson, Tallard, -and Heinsius. - -William returned to England in the beginning of December. He arrived on -the 4th, and opened his new Parliament on the 6th. It had been obliged -to be prorogued owing to his prolonged stay, having been called for -August. The Ministers in William's absence had not taken much pains to -influence the elections, and it soon appeared that a very independent -body of gentlemen had been sent up. Not only had the electors put -forward men of free principles, but the press had warmly urged the -selection of a Liberal Speaker as essential to the full exercise of -Parliamentary freedom. There were three candidates for the Speakership -more particularly in view--Sir Edward Seymour, Sir Thomas Littleton, -and Harley, the one supported by the Tories. - -A paper on the choice of a Speaker had been actively circulated, which -said that the great Lord Burleigh declared "that England could never -be undone except by a Parliament," and that whenever we were enslaved -like our Continental neighbours, it would be by the joint influence of -a corrupt Parliament and a standing army. It cried down Seymour as a -man who had constantly been bargaining with the Court since the days of -the Pension Parliament of Charles II.; and it declared that men holding -office under the Crown were most unfit for the office of Speaker. This -was aimed at Littleton, which seemed a good omen for the Court, but, as -it soon appeared, was no sound indication, for Harley was not elected, -but Littleton. - -In his opening speech William told the Commons that, notwithstanding -the state of peace, it would be necessary for them to consider well the -strength which they ought to maintain both at sea and on land; that the -honour and even safety of the nation depended on not stripping it too -much of its forces in the eyes of foreign nations. It was necessary, -he contended, that Europe should be impressed with the idea that they -would not be wanting to themselves. They had acquired a great position -among the nations, and it was their duty to preserve it. He recommended -them to make some progress in the discharge of the debts incurred in -this long and expensive war, for an English Parliament could never, -he imagined, neglect the sacred obligations which it had assumed. He -also suggested to them some measures for the improvement of trade and -for the discouragement of profaneness, and he begged them to act with -unanimity. - -The remarks on the necessity of maintaining more troops than the last -Parliament had determined on, and on defraying the debts incurred -by the war, seemed to rouse an extraordinary spirit of anger and -disrespect in the new House. It neglected the ordinary courtesy of -an Address. Before leaving for Holland in the summer, William left a -sealed paper, ordering Ministers not to reduce the army in compliance -to less than sixteen thousand men. Probably this was become known, -and there had got abroad a persuasion that the king meant to resist -the will of the Parliament in this respect; no other cause appeared -sufficient to explain the animus which now manifested itself. The House -resounded with speeches against standing armies, and on the waste of -the people's substance on foreign wars, and it resolved that all the -land forces of England in English pay should not exceed seven thousand, -and that these should all be natural-born subjects; that not more -than twelve thousand should be maintained in Ireland--these, too, all -natural-born subjects, and to be supported by the revenue of Ireland. -The Ministers had told the king before the meeting of Parliament that -they thought they could obtain a grant of ten or twelve thousand in -England, and William had replied that they might as well leave none as -so few. But now that this storm broke out, the Ministers, seeing no -possibility of carrying the number they had hoped for, sat silent, to -the great disgust of the king. - -This resolution went to strip William of his Dutch Guards whom he had -brought with him, and who had attended him in so many actions, and -of the brave Huguenots, who had done such signal service in Ireland. -The spirit of the Commons, instead of being merely economical, was -in this instance petty and miserable. It was neither grateful nor -becoming to its dignity, to make so sweeping a reduction of the -army, to begrudge the king who had rescued them from the miserable -race of the Stuarts, and had so nobly acquiesced in everything which -regarded their liberties, the small satisfaction of a few Dutch and -Huguenot troops. The Huguenots especially, it might have been expected, -would have experienced some sympathy from the Parliament, not only -in return for their own gallant services, but because their friends -and fellow-religionists were at this moment suffering the severest -persecution. But a deep dislike of foreigners had seized the nation, -and this had been rendered the more intense from the lavish wealth -which William heaped on Portland and others, and from his retiring -every year to spend the summer months in Holland. They had never been -accustomed to have their monarch passing a large portion of his time -abroad, and they regarded it as an evidence that he only had any -regard for the Dutch. The Commons, without considering his feelings, -introduced a Bill founded on their resolution, carried it briskly -through the House, and sent it up to the Lords, where it also passed. - -Deeply annoyed, William is said to have walked to and fro on learning -that the Commons insisted on his dismissing the Dutch Guards, and to -have muttered, "By God, if I had a son, these Guards should not quit -me." He wrote to Lord Galway, one of his foreign friends, "There is a -spirit of ignorance and malice prevails here beyond conception." To -Heinsius he wrote in a similar strain, "that he was so chagrined at the -conduct of the Commons, that he was scarcely master of his thoughts, -and hinted at coming to extremities, and being in Holland sooner than -he had thought." In fact, he was so much excited as to menace again -throwing up the government. He sat down and penned a speech which -he proposed to address to the two Houses; it is still preserved in -the British Museum. It ran:--"My Lords and Gentlemen,--I came into -this kingdom, at the desire of the nation, to save it from ruin, and -to preserve your religion, laws, and liberties; and for this object -I have been obliged to sustain a long and burthensome war for this -kingdom, which, by the grace of God and the bravery of this nation, is -at present terminated by a good peace; in which you may live happily -and in repose if you would contribute to your own security, as I -recommended at the opening of the Session. But seeing, on the contrary, -that you have so little regard for my advice, and take so very little -care of your own safety, and that you expose yourselves to evident ruin -in depriving yourselves of the only means for your defence, it would -neither be just nor reasonable for me to be witness of your ruin, not -being able on my part to avoid it, being in no condition to defend and -protect you, which was the only view I had in coming to this country." -And it then went on to desire them to name proper persons to take -charge of the government, promising, however, to come again whenever -they would put him in his proper place, with proper power to defend -them. The entreaties of Somers, however, induced him to abandon his -purpose. - -The mischief which the Whigs had done themselves by granting a charter -to the new East India Company, in violation of the existing charter of -the old Company, merely because the former Company had offered them a -large money bait, encouraged the Tories greatly in their endeavours -to regain power. They exhorted the old Company to petition that means -should be taken to enable it to maintain its trade and property against -the new Company for the remaining portion of the twenty-one years of -its charter; and there were not wanting some in the House who declared -that the new charter, granted in violation of an existing one, and -from such corrupt motives, should be abolished. Montague, however, -who had passed the Act for this charter, was able to protect it, but -not to prevent fresh onslaughts on the unpopular Whigs. They were -charged with gross corruption, and with embezzlement of the public -revenue, for the purchase of great estates for themselves, and the -grievous burthen of the people by taxation. Russell, Earl of Orford, -was specially singled out by the Commons. He was both First Lord of the -Admiralty and Treasurer of the Navy, as well as Admiral, and assumed -great authority, forgetful of the humble station from which he had -risen. He was charged with keeping large sums of public money for his -own private use, instead of paying the officers and seamen when their -pay was due. They called for his accounts, and there appeared to be -four hundred and sixty thousand pounds in his hands. In his defence -he represented that this was actually in course of payment, and that -part of the sum was yet in tallies, which must be converted into cash -before it could be distributed. But this did not satisfy the Commons. -They voted an address to the king, complaining of the impropriety of -one and the same person being Lord High Admiral, Chief Commissioner of -the Board of Admiralty, and Treasurer; of gross misapplication of the -public money; of many unnecessary changes introduced into the navy; of -delays in granting convoys; and of favouritism to particular officers. -Orford was prudent enough to retire from his offices before the storm -which was gathering burst in all its fury upon him. The Tories, elated -by this success, endeavoured to get Sir George Rooke put into Orford's -place; but the Whigs were yet strong enough and imprudent enough to get -the Earl of Bridgewater named First Lord of the Admiralty--a man almost -wholly unacquainted with naval affairs; and Lord Haversham, another of -the "land admirals," as the sailors called these unprofessional men, -succeeded to Priestman, one of the Junior Lords, who retired. - -[Illustration: CHARLES MONTAGUE, EARL OF HALIFAX. (_After the Portrait -by Sir Godfrey Kneller._)] - -Those matters being settled, the House voted fifteen thousand pounds -for sailors for the year, the vote expressly stipulating for sailors -only, lest the king should include some land forces under the name of -marines. They also granted one million four hundred and eighty-four -thousand pounds for the service of the year, to be raised by a land -and income tax of three shillings in the pound. To this Act, availing -themselves of their sole right to introduce money Bills, they also -"tacked" a clause appointing commissioners to take an account of the -estates forfeited in Ireland by the last rebellion, in order to their -being applied in ease of the subjects in England. This was another -sharp reminder of the king's proceedings. It had been promised by him -that he would not bestow the forfeited estates without the sanction -of the House, but in disregard of this he had given large estates to -his favourites. William was deeply mortified by this clause, and some -of the Lords entered a protest against it, on the ground that the -clause was foreign to the contents of the Bill, and was contrary to the -practice of Parliament. The king, however, did not venture to refuse -his signature to the Act, which he passed on the 4th of May, 1699, and -at the same time prorogued the Parliament. - -Before quitting England, William was obliged to almost entirely remodel -his Ministry. The Duke of Leeds retired from the Presidency of the -Council; his influence had expired with the discovery of his bribe from -the East India Company. The Earl of Pembroke, a moderate Tory, who -performed his official duties with zeal and integrity, was put in his -place. Villiers, Earl of Jersey, having returned from his embassy to -France, was made Secretary of State in place of the Duke of Shrewsbury, -who became Lord Chamberlain. The Earl of Manchester went as ambassador -to France in place of Jersey, and Lord Lonsdale, another Tory, obtained -the Privy Seal. On the 2nd of June, William, having appointed a -regency, embarked for Holland, where he retired to Loo, but not to -peace of mind, for he saw events marching to an ominous result. The -forces of England and of the Continent were disbanded, except those of -Louis, which were rapidly increased; and not only the Spanish monarchy, -but all Europe, appeared at his mercy. But before following these -movements, we must trace some nearer home. - -Ireland was quiet. The Parliament of that kingdom had voted one hundred -and twenty thousand pounds for the maintenance of the twelve thousand -troops ordered by the English Parliament to be quartered in that -country, and the Duke of Bolton and the Earls of Berkeley and Galway -were appointed Lords Justices. - -In Scotland far different was the state of things. There excitement -raged against the Ministry of England, and not the less against the -king, who disowned their Company, organised to carry out the Act -granted for trading to Africa and the Indies. The charter for this -Company was granted by the Scottish Parliament, and ratified by William -in 1695. Its professed object was to trade with the East and West -Indies and Africa; but there was a plan for carrying out these objects, -which does not seem to have been made known to the Government, or made -public generally, till after the acquisition of the charter. This was -to seize on the Isthmus of Darien, to establish a strong colony there, -and not only to grow rich through possession of the gold mines, but to -found ports both on the Atlantic and on the Pacific, so that a great -carrying trade might be prosecuted between Europe and China and the -East Indies by that route. - -William Paterson, the projector of this scheme, was the same man -who had projected and carried into being, through the influence of -Montague, the Bank of England. He has been generally represented as -a visionary speculator and schemer, and has not unfrequently been -confounded with John Law, of Lauriston, the author of the famous South -Sea Bubble and Mississippi Scheme, which spread such ruin through -both France and England. Paterson, however, was a very different -man. Undoubtedly he was a most speculative genius, but in his -speculations there was something grand, substantial, and based, for -the most part, on the purest moral principles. The Bank of England -is a lasting memorial of his real sagacity and acute talents. It was -well devised, and immediately rose to entire success. Through some -disagreement in the mode of management Paterson sold out his stock, -and proposed the erection of an Orphan Bank, connected with the Orphan -Fund established by the Corporation of London already mentioned. This -was not entertained, and he then projected his grand scheme for the -Scottish Company to trade to the Indies. This scheme, so far from being -visionary, had all the elements of a great and far-seeing reality. -The unsound portion of Paterson's project was the not sufficiently -taking into account these political obstacles:--Spain possessed, or -rather claimed to possess, the Isthmus of Darien. Louis of France was -contemplating the seizure of Spain, and its American territories. -William was under treaty of peace with both Spain and Louis. It was -impossible, therefore, to obtain possession of the Isthmus of Darien -without producing a fresh European war. To attempt it by treaty was -useless, for Spain would never consent to permit England, of which -she was in the highest degree jealous, thus to establish a great -mercantile colony in the midst of her most valuable Transatlantic -colonies, from which she was annually drawing her cargoes of gold and -other valuable products. Louis of France, who was resolved to succeed -to the Spanish Empire, was as little likely to permit such a thing. To -obtain possession of Darien, then, could only be done by invasion, and -that invasion must produce immediate war, for which William was not -prepared. - -But the scheme was got up ostensibly to trade to the East and West -Indies and Africa. There was no mention of Panama; and its prospects -were so fair that they seized on the imaginations of the English and -Scottish public. The Company was to have the monopoly of trade with -Asia, Africa, and America for thirty-one years. Paterson had spent -ten years in the West Indies, and, as it is supposed, in Panama. At -all events, he had the reputation of being intimately acquainted with -those regions and their resources. His proposals of the Company were -eagerly accepted both in London and Edinburgh. Though it was intended -to raise only three hundred and sixty thousand pounds as the original -stock for both countries, three hundred thousand pounds were subscribed -in London alone in a few days. But this remarkable success excited all -the vindictive feelings of Companies whose interests this new league -appeared likely to affect. The East India Companies, new and old, -immediately were on the alert, and raised such a feeling in the House -of Commons that it resolved to impeach Paterson and the bankers, Coutts -and Cohen, for the commission of an illegal act in daring to levy money -in England without the sanction of the English Legislature. In the -meantime a subscription list had been opened at Hamburg, and by this -the Dutch East India Company was equally alarmed, and the influence -both of the Dutch and of the English Companies was made to bear on -the king. William, who had been too much absorbed by his warfare with -Louis to perceive the hostile feelings which he was exciting by passing -the Scottish Act, now made haste to condemn his own precipitancy. He -complained that he had been deceived by the Scottish Government, and at -once gave orders to prohibit the scheme, and sent similar orders to his -consul at Hamburg to forbid the subscription there. The senate of the -city of Hamburg was induced to prohibit the canvassing of the Company's -agents; and the English subscribers, alarmed at the menaces of the -king and Commons, withdrew their names. Nor were these all the enemies -of this scheme. There were Scottish traders united for commerce with -India by the ordinary route, and these joined in the cry. One of these, -Mr. Robert Douglas, attacked the scheme in a very able letter. In this -letter we are first let into the secret that the real destination is -not so much the West Indies as Darien, on the mainland. It is not, -however, from Paterson having mentioned expressly Darien that Douglas -declares it to be that place, but he infers it from the fact that the -locality darkly hinted at by Paterson is at once near the Caribbean -isles, and at the same time so situated "that it will alter the whole -method of trade in Europe, and effectually ruin both the English and -Dutch East Indian Companies, because it opens a shorter, safer, and -more convenient way to the East Indies by the Pacific from England and -Holland." - -Douglas then points out that it is not nearer or more convenient than -the old way to the western or Bombay coast of the Indian peninsula; -that it was then a very dangerous route, because our merchant vessels -on that track would have to pass the Dutch, Batavian, and Spice Island -settlements, which would show the utmost hostility to such a traffic; -but still more, that it was impossible, because this Isthmus of Panama -was the track by which Spain conveyed her treasure from Peru to -Portobello; that as to the rightful possession of the country by Spain, -the city of Darien, called Santa Maria, was one of the first cities -built by them on the mainland of America, as the province was the first -province possessed by them. These were sound reasons why the king could -not consent to any such invasion of the territory of Spain, and why -Spain was not likely to concede it by treaty. These reasons should have -made Paterson and the Scots pause. - -Unwarned by the great outcry, the firm opposition, and insurmountable -obstacles, Paterson and the Scots went on. The Scottish people, who -conceived the idea of achieving enormous wealth in the golden regions -of Central America, regarded themselves as victims of the jealousy of -William's favourite Dutch, and of the haughty monopolising spirit of -the English, and the whole country was in a ferment. They considered -themselves insulted and most perfidiously treated by the king, who had -freely sanctioned the Company, and then as unceremoniously disowned -and trampled on it. They went on with the subscriptions, and speedily -the amount rose to four hundred thousand pounds. The highest and most -intelligent of the Scottish nobility, as well as the people generally, -were sanguine contributors. Their younger sons saw a new highway to -opulence and distinction suddenly opened. Many lords mortgaged all that -they could to secure an ample share of the expected benefits. Their -tenantry and servants were enthusiastic in their adhesion to it; and -the officers whom the peace had left at large, prepared for fresh -campaigns and adventures in the golden regions. - -The Company had a number of stout ships built in Holland to convey -the emigrants and their stores. On the 25th of July, 1698, four of -these ships--the _St. Andrew_, the _Unicorn_, the _Caledonia_, and -the _Endeavour_--containing one thousand two hundred men, set sail -from Leith. Such was the excitement that all Edinburgh seemed to have -poured out to see the departure of the colonists, and hundreds of -soldiers and sailors who could not be engaged clamoured to be taken on -board. Many contrived to get into the vessels and endeavour to conceal -themselves in the hold, and when discovered they clung to the timbers -and riggings, offering service without pay. - -When the vessels had sailed, the Scottish Parliament unanimously -addressed the king on behalf of the Company and the validity of the -charter. The Lord President, Sir Hugh Dalrymple, the brother of -Lord Stair, and Sir James Stuart, the Lord Advocate, also presented -memorials defending the rights of the Company. Paterson committed the -error of sailing in the fleet as a private individual. He had incurred -the resentment of the Company by having remitted twenty thousand pounds -to Hamburg for stores, part of which, through no fault of his own, was -embezzled by the agent. The Company, therefore, refused to give him -the command of the colony, but appointed a council of seven members -without a head. This was certain to entail want of unity of purpose, -and consequent failure. Paterson was the only man qualified by his -abilities, his experience, and his knowledge of the country to take -the command. He is said to have seen and conversed with the celebrated -buccaneer Dampier and his surgeon Lionel Wafer on the statistics of -Darien; and, if the expedition was sent at all, it should have been -under his entire control. Nothing, in the political circumstances, -could have insured the establishment of the colony; but Paterson's -guidance would have prevented the dire calamities which ensued. He was -certain that the vessels were not properly furnished with provisions -and stores before setting out, and he in vain urged an examination. -When out at sea a few days, he was enabled to get an examination, when -there was discovered to be a serious deficiency, but then it was too -late. They next sailed for Madeira, where their sealed orders were -opened, and they then bore away for the West Indies. They put into St. -Thomas's, and there might have obtained plenty of provisions from a -ship-captain but for the perverseness of the council. The advice of -Paterson was uniformly rejected out of jealousy. On the 30th of October -they landed in a fine bay on the coast of Darien, capable of holding -one thousand ships, and about four miles east of Golden Island. - -The incapable council, in spite of Paterson's advice, would plant their -new town in a bog, but the effects on their health soon forced them to -remove to higher ground. They erected a fort and threw up defences at -Acta, which they named New St. Andrews; and on a hill opposite made a -signal-station, where they placed a corps of Highlanders to keep a good -look-out for the approach of any enemy. - -But the miserable management of the council brought speedy misfortune -on the infant colony. The people were suffering from want of -everything. Paterson soon lost his wife, and numbers sank under -disappointment, insufficient food, and the climate. The natives were -friendly to them, but wanted them to go and fight the Spaniards. It was -soon found that the mountains and forests offered enormous obstacles -to a transit to the shores of the Pacific. The different leaders of -the expedition fell to quarrelling, and Paterson endeavoured in vain -to reconcile them. They sent out vessels to the West Indian islands -for provisions. One they lost, and another endeavouring to get to -New York, after beating about for a month, was driven back. Amid the -rapidly-sinking colonists and the fatal feuds of the leaders, they -received on the 18th of May, 1699, the stunning news that the king had -issued a proclamation denouncing the act of the colonists as having -infringed his treaty with Spain by forcibly entering the Spanish -territory of Panama, and forbidding any of the English governors of the -West Indian islands to furnish them with provisions or any necessaries. - -The moment Louis XIV. heard of their settling in Darien he had offered -to the king of Spain to send ships and forces and drive them out for -him. The Spanish Minister at London, the Marquis de Canales, on the 3rd -of May presented a remonstrance against this breach of the peace with -his master. Dalrymple, who has left much information on this expedition -in his "Memoirs," says the Dutch and English opponents were at the -bottom of this remonstrance; that Spain had let the affair go on a long -time without noticing it; and that the rights of the Company had been -debated before William, in presence of the Spanish ambassador, before -the colony sailed. All this may be true, for the real destination -of the expedition was kept secret till the fleet arrived at Madeira, -and Spain protested as soon as she discovered whither it had gone. -William, who was just now making treaties with Louis, and anxious to be -on good terms with Spain, strictly enforced the orders to deprive the -suffering colony of all means of remaining. These measures of the king -produced the most fatal consequences in the colony. Every one, says -Paterson, was in haste to be gone from it. In vain he tried to persuade -them to stay for more positive orders. Pennicook, the captain of the -fleet, was reported to be intending to steal away with his ship, on the -supposition that they had all been proclaimed pirates, and would be -hanged. The poor colonists continued to die off rapidly, and news now -came that the Spaniards were marching against them with a strong force. - -[Illustration: SCENE AT THE DEPARTURE FROM LEITH OF THE DARIEN -EXPEDITION. (_See p._ 512.)] - -Famine, sickness, and the fear of being massacred in their weakness by -the enemy, compelled the colonists to evacuate the place. On the 18th -of June, 1699, the _Unicorn_, _St. Andrew_, and _Caledonia_ sailed from -Golden Island for New York. On the voyage they met the sloop which they -had sent to Jamaica for provisions. It had got none, owing to the royal -proclamation, and they all proceeded on their route. They lost one -hundred and fifty out of two hundred and fifty of their number on the -voyage, and arrived at New York in October, more like skeletons than -living men. On the 13th of November Paterson and his companions reached -England in the _Caledonia_. The indignation of the Scots at their -treatment was beyond bounds, and the more so because, unacquainted with -the real facts of the case, they had sent out a second expedition of -one thousand three hundred men. - -The history of this second expedition was as miserable as that of the -first. On arriving, the new adventurers, instead of a flourishing -colony, found the place deserted, and only a few miserable Indians -to tell them the fate of their predecessors. With this new arrival -came four Presbyterian clergymen, who assumed the command, and seemed -to think of nothing but establishing a presbytery in all its rigour -and uncharitableness. Paterson, like Penn in Pennsylvania, and Lord -Baltimore in Baltimore, had proclaimed perfect civil and religious -liberty to men of all creeds and nations. This was now reversed; there -was nothing but the most harsh and senseless Phariseeism. Instead of a -comfort, these men proved one of the worst curses of this unfortunate -colony, thwarting and damping the exertions of the people, and -continually threatening them with hell fire. Two of these ministers -perished. - -In the midst of these miseries arrived Captain Campbell, of Ferrol, -with a force of his own men. He attacked and dispersed a body of one -thousand Spaniards sent against him; but this was only a fresh offence -against Spain, and, therefore, against William. They were soon, -however, assailed by a more powerful Spanish squadron. Campbell got -away to New York, the rest of the colony capitulated, and there was an -end of the unhappy expedition to Darien. The Spaniards humanely allowed -the remnant of this wretched company to embark in one of their vessels, -the _Rising Sun_; but as the British authorities at all the islands -refused them any succour or stores whatever, only eighty of them -arrived alive in England. - -Scotland was in a frenzy of indignation at this cold-blooded conduct -of the king, who, if he had visited the projectors with severity, -ought to have had some compassion for the poor deluded sufferers. The -exasperated Scots called on the king to withdraw his proclamation -against a Company which had an undoubted right by charter to trade -to the West Indies, if not to the mainland. They demanded that the -Scottish Parliament should be summoned; but William only sent evasive -answers, and the fury of the people rose to such a height that nothing -was talked of but that the king had forfeited his right to the -allegiance of Scotland by his conduct, and of war with England. - -Meanwhile the partition treaty had become known to the Court at Madrid, -and William's share in it excited great indignation. At the same time -the agents of Louis had prevailed on the dying king to nominate the -Electoral Prince of Bavaria his heir to the crown. Scarcely, however, -was this done when this young prince died, being only eight years of -age. Louis still kept up the farce of disinterestedness, and persuaded -William to enter into a second treaty, mentioned later on, settling -the crown of Spain on the Archduke Charles, but leaving the Italian -States to the Dauphin. Again were William, Portland, and Tallard, -with an agent of the Emperor, busy on the new partition at Loo. But -whilst they were busy there, the French ambassador was equally busy at -Madrid, inflaming the mind of the imbecile king against William and -the Emperor, and prevailed on him, as we shall see, to leave the whole -Spanish monarchy to the Dauphin's son Philip. The king of Spain was -also induced to send a strong remonstrance against the interference -of William in the affairs of the Spanish monarchy to Mr. Stanhope, -the English Minister at Madrid. Similar remonstrances were presented -for form's sake to the Ministers of France and Holland. The Spanish -Minister in London, Canales, was ordered to present a still stronger -remonstrance to the Lords Justices in London, in which the Court of -Spain informed them that his Spanish Majesty would take the necessary -measures himself for the succession of his crown; adding that if these -proceedings, these machinations and projects, were not speedily put an -end to, there would undoubtedly commence a terrible war, in which the -English, who had felt what the last war had brought upon them, would -have the worst of it. Canales, who had a high personal resentment -against William, who had forbidden him the Court for the insolence -of appearing covered, announced haughtily that on the meeting of -Parliament he should appeal to it against the king's proceedings. - -No sooner was this paper transmitted to Loo than William sent orders -to the Spanish ambassador to quit England in eighteen days, and -during that period to confine himself to his house. He was informed -that no communication whatever would be received from him or any of -his servants. Mr. Stanhope was instructed at the Court of Madrid to -complain of this conduct of Canales, as an attempt to excite sedition -in the kingdom by appealing to the people and Parliament against -the king. Mr. Stanhope was then instructed to cease all diplomatic -intercourse with the Court and to return home. The Spanish Court, on -its part, justified the act of its Minister, and Mr. Stanhope took his -leave. The Spanish ambassador at the Hague delivered a similar memorial -to that delivered in London, which the States-General refused to read. -In these circumstances William returned to England about the middle of -October. - -The temper of his people had not improved during his absence. The -Tories were bent on driving every Whig from office. They even now -compelled the lately all-powerful Montague to resign his seat at -the Treasury Board as well as the Chancellorship of the Exchequer. -Montague was well aware of the humour of the present House of Commons, -and anticipated an attack on his two offices by his resignation. -Lord Tankerville, formerly Lord Grey of Wark, took his place at the -Treasury, and Smith, another member of that Board, became Chancellor. -At the same time William gave the office of Lord Chamberlain to the -Duke of Shrewsbury, vacant since the retirement of Sunderland. Besides -Shrewsbury, there remained no other Whig in office except Somers, and -the Tories were at this moment endeavouring to spring a mine under his -feet. - -William met his Parliament on the 16th of November. He addressed them -with much studied care to avoid topics of offence, but he found it -impossible. He recommended them to take further measures, both by -sea and land, for the safety of the kingdom, to punish unlawful and -clandestine trading, and to devise, if possible, measures for the -employment of the poor. He expressed his resolution to discourage vice, -and declared that he would do anything in his power towards the welfare -of the nation. "And to conclude," he said, "since our aims are only for -the general good, let us act with confidence in each other; which will -not fail, with God's blessing, to make me a happy king, and you a great -and flourishing people." - -The very words "let us act with confidence" roused up this captious -Parliament. They sent him a remonstrance instead of an Address of -thanks, complaining of there being some who endeavoured to sow -distrust and dissension between them and the king. It was in vain that -William protested that this supposition was totally unfounded, and -that if any should presume to bring to him any calumnies against his -faithful Commons, he would treat them as his worst enemies; they were -unappeased. They wanted, in fact, occasion to drive Somers from his -councils, and they soon found a plea. - -During the war, piracy had grown to a great height upon the coasts -of North America, and the colonists were themselves deep in it. Lord -Bellamont, the Governor of New York, had recommended that a man-of-war -should be sent to clear the pirates away; but the Admiralty objected -that they had not sailors enough to spare for such a service. It was -then determined by the Lord Chancellor Somers, the Duke of Shrewsbury, -the Earls of Romney, Orford, and Bellamont, with a few private -individuals, to send out a vessel at their own expense. This the king -approved of, and promised to contribute one-half of the expense, and -stipulated for one-tenth of the profits. Besides the usual letters of -marque given to privateers, the captain was furnished with a warrant -under the Great Seal, authorising him to make war on the pirates -and the French, both in those and other seas. Unfortunately, this -commission was given to a man who was himself a notorious pirate--one -Captain Kidd, whose fame still lives on the American coasts, and is the -theme of popular ballads. The man promptly showed in his true colours. - -The old East India Company complained bitterly of Kidd's outrages in -the Indian seas, declaring that they would bring it into trouble with -the Great Mogul. In the beginning of December a motion was made in the -Commons that "the letters patent granted to the Earl of Bellamont and -others of pirates' goods were dishonourable to the king, and contrary -to the laws of nations and the laws and statutes of the realm, invasive -of property, and destructive of trade and commerce." There was a -violent debate, in which the Tories contended that the Lord Chancellor -Somers had knowingly affixed the Great Seal to the commission to -enrich himself, his colleagues, and the king, out of the plunder of -unfortunate merchants. The motion was rejected by a large majority; the -character of Somers stood too high for such a charge to reach him. But -the Opposition did not rest here; it was determined to wound the king -and his Government in every possible quarter. - -There lay a cause in Ireland much more dangerous to the king and his -Chancellor than the affairs of Captain Kidd. William had promised -not to bestow any of the confiscated lands there without consent of -Parliament. In disregard of his word he had conferred immense estates -on his Dutch favourites, Portland, Albemarle, Athlone, and his French -one, Lord Galway (Ruvigny), as well as on his mistress, Mrs. Villiers. -The Commons, therefore, appointed Commissioners to inquire into the -royal grants there. These Commissioners were the Earl of Drogheda, Sir -Francis Brewster, Sir Richard Leving, Hamilton, Annesley, Trenchard, -and Langford. The four last-named Commissioners were earnest supporters -of the Commons' inquiry; but it was soon perceived by them that the -Earl of Drogheda, Brewster, and Leving were in the interest of the -Government. When they came to draw up their report, those three -Commissioners vehemently dissented, and made an appeal to each House -of Parliament, declaring that the report had not their concurrence, -and that it was not borne out by the evidence laid before them. They -complained that the other Commissioners had endeavoured to overbear -them in a most arbitrary manner, trying to influence them by letters -and instructions which they alleged they had received from members of -the Commons. The Commons, however, regarding Drogheda, Brewster, and -Leving as tools of the Court, paid no attention to their remonstrance. -They received the report signed by the other four, who, on their -part, complained that in the prosecution of their inquiry they had -been greatly hindered by the backwardness of the people of Ireland to -give information for fear of the vengeance of the grantees, and from -reports industriously spread that the inquiry, through the influence -of the Crown and the new grantees, would come to nothing. The three -dissentient Commissioners agreed to much of this, but attributed the -fear of the people to the grantees at large, and not to those recently -favoured by Government. They affirmed that John Burke, commonly called -Lord Bophin, had agreed to pay to Lord Albemarle seven thousand five -hundred pounds for procuring from the king letters patent restoring -him to his honours and estates. They gave amazing details of the -wholesale plunder of cattle, horses, sheep, etc., from the Catholics, -which had never been accounted for to the Crown. The report stated the -persons who had been outlawed since the 13th of February, 1689, for -participation in the rebellion amounted in England to fifty-seven, but -in Ireland to 3,921; that the lands confiscated in Ireland since that -period amounted to 1,060,792 acres, with a rental of £211,623; which, -at twenty years' purchase were of the value of over £4,000,000; that -some of these lands had been restored to their ancient proprietors, but -chiefly by heavy bribes to the persons who had betrayed his Majesty's -trust in them. They then gave a list of seventy-six grants under the -Great Seal, amongst which stood prominent those to Lord Romney, who as -Lord Sidney had been Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, consisting of 49,517 -acres; two to the king's recent favourite, Keppel of Guelderland, made -by William Earl of Albemarle, amounting to 106,633 acres; to William -Bentinck, Lord Woodstock, the son of Portland, 135,820 acres; to -Ginkell, Earl of Athlone, 26,480 acres; and to Ruvigny, the Huguenot, -Earl of Galway, 36,148 acres. After all the deductions and allowances, -they valued the estates forfeited since the 13th of February, 1689, and -not restored at £2,699,343--a ridiculous over-estimate. - -The Commons instantly set themselves to frame a Bill of Resumption -of all the grants. They ordered the report of the Commissioners, the -speeches and promises of the king regarding these forfeited estates, -and their former resolutions regarding them, to be printed, that the -whole country might judge of this matter for itself. And they resolved -that any member of the Privy Council who should procure or be concerned -in procuring grants from the Crown for their own purposes, should be -deemed guilty of a high crime and misdemeanour. As the Tories were -the means of carrying this Resumption Bill, the Whigs, to avenge -themselves, moved by way of amendment that all grants made since the -6th of February, 1684, should be resumed, and the Tories were caught in -their own snare, for they could not with any show of consistency oppose -a measure of their own originating. Therefore the Bill passed, and they -were compelled to disgorge all the Crown property they had settled on -themselves from the accession of James. Ministers proposed to insert a -clause to reserve one third of the forfeited property for the king's -own disposal; but the Commons would not listen to it, and resolved not -to receive any petition from any person whatever concerning the grants. -That justice might be done to purchasers and creditors in the Act of -Resumption, they appointed thirteen trustees to hear and determine all -claims, to sell to the highest purchasers, and to appropriate the money -to pay the arrears of the army. The Lords introduced some alterations, -but the Commons rejected them, and to prevent the Bill from being lost -in the Lords they consolidated it with a money Bill for the service of -the year. The Lords demanded a conference, and the Commons, exasperated -at their interference in a money Bill, prepared to go greater lengths. -They assumed the aspect of the Commons in Charles I.'s time. They -ordered the doors to be closed, and called for a list of the Privy -Councillors. They then moved that John, Lord Somers, should be expelled -from the service of the king for ever. The resolution was not carried, -but the temper of the House was such as made wise men tremble for an -approaching crisis. The king was disposed to refuse to pass the Bill -even if the Lords did; but when the Commons left the Bill in the hands -of the Lords, and that House was warned on all sides that they would -have to pass the Bill, or the consequences might be fatal, he gave way, -though with undisguised resentment. The Commons were proceeding with a -fresh resolution for an address to his Majesty, praying that not any -foreigner, except Prince George of Denmark, should be admitted to his -Majesty's Council in England or Ireland, the resolution being aimed at -Portland, Albemarle, and Galway, when the king sent a private message -to the peers, desiring them to pass the Resumption Bill, and on the -11th of April he went down to the House, and gave it the royal assent. -He then ordered the Earl of Bridgewater, in the absence of Somers, who -was ill, to prorogue Parliament, and it was accordingly prorogued to -the 23rd of May without any speech. - -William left England in the beginning of July, but before his departure -he endeavoured to persuade Somers to give way to the rancour of the -Commons, and resign the Seals. Somers refused to resign voluntarily, -arguing that it would imply a fear of his enemies, or a consciousness -of guilt; but William, who knew the necessity of leaving a better -feeling behind him if possible, sent Lord Jersey to Somers for the -Seals, and offered them successively to Chief Justice Holt, and to -Treby the Attorney-General; both declined, however, what would have -turned the enmity of Parliament on them, and William was eventually -obliged to bestow them on Nathan Wright, one of the Serjeants-at-Law, -a man of no mark and very indifferent qualifications for the office. -William offered the government of Ireland to Shrewsbury; but he, too, -declined the office, and set out for Italy. Every one seemed afraid of -engaging in his Government, so bitter was the Parliament against him. -Even his trusty Portland, now absolutely groaning under the weight of -riches which William had heaped upon him, retired from his place in his -household, and Lord Jersey was appointed Chamberlain, and Lord Romney, -Groom of the Stole. William had never left the kingdom in circumstances -of so much unpopularity, and scarcely had he gone when the Duke of -Gloucester, the only child of the Princess Anne, died at the age of -eleven (July 30, 1700). This gave fresh hopes to the Jacobites. They -sent a messenger to St. Germains with the news, and began to bestir -themselves all over the kingdom. In truth, the outlook was very gloomy -for the Protestant succession. No such successor was as yet appointed. -The health and spirits of William were fast sinking. His person and -government were extremely unpopular. The House of Brunswick had -treated his advances with marked contempt, but they now came forward, -urged by the critical state of things, and made their first visit of -acknowledgment to the king. The Princess Sophia, Electress Dowager -of Hanover, was the person on whom the eyes of the Protestants were -now turned; but the nation was in a state of much uncertainty. It was -rumoured that even Anne had sent a conciliatory letter to her father, -and the public mind was disturbed by fears of a disputed succession, -and of the reviving chances of a Stuart king. - -William during this year had been busy concluding the new treaty -of partition. Tallard, Portland, and Jersey had assisted in it. It -was signed by them in London early in March, and by Briord and the -Plenipotentiaries of the States at the Hague on the 25th of October. -It had substituted the Archduke Charles, the second son of the -Emperor, for the deceased Electoral Prince of Bavaria, as heir to -Spain with the Spanish Flanders and colonies; but the Dauphin was -still to possess Naples and the other Italian States, with Lorraine -and Bar, which the Duke of Lorraine was to exchange for Milan. In case -of the archduke dying, some other son of the Emperor was to succeed, -but not the king of the Romans, for it was stipulated that Spain and -the Empire, or France and Spain, were never to be united under one -crown. The first treaty was made known to the different Powers, and -excited much astonishment and disapprobation. The Emperor of Germany, -notwithstanding his son was made successor to the Spanish monarchy, -Flanders, America, and the Indies, was not conciliated. He expressed -his amazement that the kings of other countries should take it upon -them to carve up the Spanish monarchy without the consent of the -present possessor and the Estates of the kingdom. He denied the right -of these Powers to compel him to accept a part when he was heir to the -whole, and to pronounce his forfeiture of even that part if within -three months he did not consent to this unwarrantable proceeding. -The other princes of Germany were unwilling to excite the enmity of -the House of Austria by expressing their approval of the scheme, and -Brandenburg, which was just now in treaty with the Emperor for the -acknowledgment of Prussia as a kingdom, which was signed on the 16th of -November, of course united with him. The Italian States were alarmed at -the prospects of being handed over to France, and the Swiss declined to -sanction the treaty. In Spain the aristocracy, who had vast estates in -Sicily, Naples, and the other Italian provinces, and who enjoyed the -viceroyalties, and governorships, and other good offices there, were -greatly incensed at the idea of all these passing to the French. - -The miserable and dying king was in agonies. He had already made a -will, leaving the crown and all its dependencies to the Emperor, but -neither he nor the Emperor had taken the precaution of securing the -Italian provinces by marching a strong army thither--probably from -fear of arousing Louis to a premature war. He now called a Council -of State to deliberate on the succession; but the unfortunate prince -had to deliberate with a Council which had long been bought over by -the French. Only two of the Council had the patriotism to vote that -the question should be submitted to the Cortes; they were overborne -by the voices of the rest, who had been corrupted by Harcourt, the -French Minister. Amongst them were prominent the Marquis de Monterey -and Cardinal Portocarrero. They advised that they should consult -the faculties of law and theology, and these faculties were already -bribed by France. The French faction persuaded further the starving -people that all their troubles had been produced by the partisans of -Austria; and the enraged mob surrounded the palace and demanded to -see the king, who was compelled to show himself, though he was too -weak to stand without help. All this time the condition of the king of -Spain was frightful. His conscience, accustomed to be swayed by his -religious advisers, was torn to and fro by the contending exertions of -Portocarrero and the queen. Portocarrero was a man of vast influence; -he was not only cardinal but Archbishop of Toledo, and affected a deep -concern for the king. Charles, intensely attached to his own family, -and having a strong persuasion that its claims were the claims of the -nation, was yet so tortured by the arguments of the priests of the -opposite factions, and the entreaties of the queen, that no poor soul -was ever in so dreadful a purgatory. At length, after the most violent -contests, he sank in passive weakness, and on the 2nd of October he -signed the will dictated by France. Having done it, he burst into -tears, and sighed out "Now I am nothing!" - -But this signing was effected in deepest secrecy; neither the queen -nor any one but a small junto of the French faction was aware of it. -As Charles, however, still lingered between life and death for a month -yet, the French made every preparation for the event, and Portocarrero -took possession of the Great Seals, and dispersed all his agents, so as -to secure the transfer of the crown to France. On the 1st of November, -1700, the unhappy monarch died, at the age of thirty-nine, and the will -was made known, to the consternation of the queen and the Austrian and -English ambassadors, who were till that moment in profound ignorance of -it. As soon as the news reached Paris, Count Zinzendorf, the Imperial -ambassador, presented himself at Versailles, and inquired whether the -king meant to abide by the treaty of partition or accept the will. The -Marquis de Torcy answered for Louis that he meant certainly to abide by -the treaty. But this was only to gain time. Louis had long made up his -mind, and when he heard that Charles was dead, he exclaimed, "There are -no longer any Pyrenees." William's statesmanlike plans had been foiled -by his confederate's treachery. - -William had returned to England towards the end of October, a few days -before the death of the King of Spain. He was deeply chagrined at this -unexpected event, but, in the present temper of England--disgusted -with his proceedings with Louis for the partition of Spain--he could -not openly complain. Not the less, however, did he unburthen his -feelings to his friend the Pensionary Heinsius. Writing to him, he -said, "I never relied much on the engagements with France, but I must -confess that I did not think they would on this occasion have broken, -in the face of the whole world, a solemn treaty before it was well -accomplished." He confessed that he had been duped, and that he felt it -the more because his English subjects did not disguise their opinion -that the will was better than the partition, against which one party -had complained because of the large amount given to France, the other -at the injustice of forestalling the wishes of the French, and both -at the secrecy with which the negotiations had been conducted. He -expressed his deep anxiety regarding the Spanish Netherlands, which, it -seemed, must fall into the hands of France, and as to what barrier was -to be set up between them and Holland; and he concluded by saying that -he should bear all the blame for having trusted to France after his -experience that no trust was to be put in it. - -But, besides his health and the mortification of Louis's triumphant -deceit, William had plenty of troubles from the temper of his -Parliament, and the state of the factions which harassed his -Government. With such gloomy auspices came in the year 1701. The king -had now replaced the retiring Whigs of his Ministry by Tories. Lord -Godolphin was made First Commissioner of the Treasury; Lord Tankerville -succeeded Lord Lonsdale, deceased, as Privy Seal; Lord Rochester -was sent as Lord-Lieutenant to Ireland; and Sir Charles Hedges was -appointed Secretary of State. By their advice Parliament was dissolved, -and writs were issued for the meeting of the new one on the 6th of -February. - -When Parliament met, it was found that the late Speaker, Sir Thomas -Littleton, had absented himself from the House, and the Tories proposed -in his stead Robert Harley, who was now fast rising into favour with -that party. The king had requested Littleton, in fact, to withdraw, -that the Tories might get in their man; but there was such a ferment -in the House that it was obliged to be adjourned till the 20th. Then -the Whigs brought forward Sir Richard Onslow, but he was defeated by a -majority of two hundred and forty-nine to one hundred and twenty-five. -This showed that a strong Tory Commons had been returned, and yet it -was not true that all the Tories were unanimous. There was, indeed, a -considerable breach in the party. Those of them who had been passed -over in the selection of the Ministry, or had other causes of pique -against the Government, remained in opposition, and occasioned the -king and their own party no little embarrassment. Amongst these were -the Duke of Leeds, the Marquis of Normanby, the Earl of Nottingham, -Seymour, Musgrave, Howe, Finch, and Showers. It was strongly suspected, -too, that Louis had made use of Tallard to bribe some members of -Parliament and of the Government to an awful extent to oppose any -measures for war and Continental combinations. - -In his opening speech William informed the Parliament that the death -of the Duke of Gloucester had rendered it necessary that they should -take into consideration the succession to the Crown after him and the -Princess Anne, who had now no heir; for the happiness of the nation -and the security of the Protestant religion made it the subject of the -highest moment. The subject of next importance, and scarcely inferior, -he said, was the death of the late King of Spain, and the succession -arranged by his will, which had made so great an alteration in affairs -abroad as demanded their most serious consideration for the interests -and safety of England, and the preservation of the peace of Europe -and of the Protestant religion. That these great topics might have -due consideration, he had desired that they should receive it in a -new Parliament. He next referred to the necessity for making a proper -provision for the current expenditure, and for the reduction of the -debt, and recommended them to put the fleet into effective condition. - -The Electress Sophia of Hanover, the next in succession to Anne, was -the daughter of Frederick the Prince Palatine, and Elizabeth Queen -of Bohemia, therefore granddaughter of James I. No sooner did Sophia -hear of the death of the Duke of Gloucester than she took with her her -daughter, the Electress of Brandenburg, and made a visit to William -at Loo. She had a twofold object, to obtain his promise of favouring -her succession to the crown of England, and his acknowledgment of -Brandenburg as a kingdom under the name of Prussia, a favour which the -Emperor, as we have seen, had already conceded. William seems to have -assured the Electress of his intention to support both her claim to -the English crown, and that of her daughter to the title of Queen of -Prussia, and immediately left for England. - -[Illustration: THE ROYAL PALACE OF WHITEHALL FROM THE THAMES, IN THE -BEGINNING OF THE 17TH CENTURY.] - -At the same time, the Court of St. Germains was on the alert to get the -Prince of Wales accepted, and the English Jacobites sent Mr. F. Graham, -a brother of the late Lord Preston, to James, to make certain proposals -regarding the succession of the Prince of Wales. It was proposed that -he should be sent to England and there educated in Protestantism; but -this condition James was certain not to agree to, and accordingly the -whole scheme fell to the ground. It is said that the Princess Anne was -favourable to the prince's succession could he have been brought up a -Protestant; but his parents declared that they would rather see him -dead. - -The Tories, who were averse from a Continental war, appear to have -held a large meeting, to propose an address to his Majesty, praying -him to acknowledge the new King of Spain; and had they done this, they -would probably have found the king ready to listen to them, for the -States were urging him to do the same thing. But though the proposition -was warmly advocated, Mr. Monckton, happening to say that if they -carried this motion, the next he supposed would be to recommend the -acknowledgment of the Prince of Wales, the idea appeared to startle -the meeting, and the matter was dropped. But the Whig party was -still inclined to war. They had been the advocates and supporters of -the former one; they knew that William was strongly disposed to it, -and that to support him was the way to regain his favour. Besides, -Marlborough was anxious to distinguish himself at the head of an army; -in that respect he was at one with the Whigs, and had their support. -The Whigs saw the fast-failing health of William, and looked towards -the Princess Anne with whom the Marlboroughs were everything. A strong -spirit of war, therefore, manifested itself in the Commons, in spite of -the inclinations of Ministers. Secretary Vernon, writing to the Earl -of Manchester at Paris, told him that so great a spirit had rarely -been seen in the House of Commons for supporting the interests of -England and Holland; and this was fully borne out by a unanimous vote -of the House on the 24th of February, declaring that it would stand -by the king, and support him in all such measures as went to maintain -the independence of England, the security of the Protestant religion, -and the peace of Europe. The question, however, of the best mode of -maintaining peace, whether by conceding the French claims on Spain, or -arming to resist them, was warmly debated by the different factions. -William was agreeably surprised at the tone of the House, and on the -17th he informed them of his satisfaction at their assurances, which -he took to be important for the honour and safety of England. He then -handed to them the pressing memorial of the States-General to him, to -acknowledge the Duke of Anjou as the king of Spain. They had themselves -agreed to do this, in terror lest the French should march over their -defenceless frontiers; yet they told William that they would do nothing -without his consent and approbation. They counted, however, fully on -this, and painted earnestly the dangers to which they were exposed -by any opposition to France, and called on him to supply the English -aid secured to them by treaty. But they did not seem inclined to vote -supplies for the purpose. - -Parliament now entered on the great deliberation of the Session, -the appointment of the successor to the crown after the Princess of -Denmark. It was a subject which the king had recommended from the -throne at the commencement of the Session, and which the failing health -of William and the prospect of agitations all over Europe warned them -not to defer. This important business, however, was set about in an -extraordinary manner. Roger Coke says a Whig member meant to bring in -a Bill to fix the succession on the House of Brunswick, but that the -Tories, becoming aware of it, set Sir John Bowles, one of their own -party, to bring one in. This Bowles was a half-crazy man, and in the -end became altogether insane; and the Bill being put into his hands -looked as though the Tories meant to cast contempt upon it. The Bill -was sent into Committee, and Bowles was put in the chair; but whenever -the discussion was brought in the members hastened out of the House, -and the matter seemed to hang for several weeks as though no one would -proceed with it under the present management. But at length Harley took -it up in earnest, and remarked that there were some very necessary -preliminary questions to be settled before they proceeded to vote the -different clauses of the Bill; that the nation had been in too great -haste when it settled the Government on the previous occasion, and had -consequently overlooked many securities to the liberties of the nation -which might have been obtained; that now they were under no immediate -pressure, and it would be inexcusable to fall into the same error. -Before, therefore, they proceeded to nominate the person who should -succeed, they ought to settle the conditions under which he and his -descendants should succeed. This advice was taken, much to the surprise -of William, who found the Tories, now in the ascendant, endeavouring to -curtail the royal prerogative, and by every one of their restrictions -casting a decided censure upon him. The public, likewise, were so -much puzzled by this conduct that they suspected that the motion of -Harley was intended to defeat the Brunswick succession altogether. But -the terms on which William and Mary had been admitted to the throne -were the work of the Whigs, and the Tories could not let slip this -opportunity of showing how negligent they had been of the rights of the -nation. - -Accordingly, after great discussions carried on for about three -months, the following resolutions were agreed to and embodied in the -Bill:--"That whoever should hereafter come to the possession of this -Crown shall join in communion with the Church of England as by law -established; that in case the Crown and dignity of this realm shall -hereafter come to any person not being a native of this kingdom of -England, this nation be not obliged to engage in any war for the -defence of any dominions or territories which do not belong to the -Crown of England without the consent of Parliament; that no person -who shall hereafter come to the possession of the Crown shall go out -of the dominions of England, Scotland, or Ireland without consent of -Parliament; that from and after the time that further limitations by -this Act shall take effect, all matters and things relating to the -well-governing of this kingdom, which are properly cognisable in the -Privy Council by the laws and customs of the realm, shall be transacted -there, and all resolutions taken thereupon shall be signed by such -of the Privy Council as shall advise and consent to the same; that -after the limitations shall take effect, no person born out of the -kingdom of England, Scotland, or Ireland, or the dominions thereunto -belonging, although he be naturalised and made a denizen, except such -as are born of English parents, shall be capable to be of the Privy -Council, or a member of either House of Parliament, or to enjoy any -office or place of trust, either civil or military, or to have any -grant of lands, tenements, or hereditaments from the Crown to himself, -or to any other in trust for him; that no person who has an office or -place of profit under the King, or receives a pension from the Crown, -shall be capable of serving as a member of the House of Commons; that -after the limitation shall take effect, judges' commissions shall be -made _quamdiu se bene gesserint_,[A] and their salaries ascertained and -established, but, upon the address of both Houses of Parliament, it -may be lawful to remove them; that no pardon under the Great Seal of -England be pleadable to an impeachment by the Commons in Parliament." -Having settled these preliminaries, the Bill provided that the Princess -Sophia, Duchess Dowager of Hanover, be declared the next in succession -to the Crown of England in the Protestant line after his Majesty and -the Princess Anne, and the heirs of their bodies respectively; and that -the further limitation of the Crown be to the said Princess Sophia and -the heirs of her body, being Protestants. - -When this extraordinary Bill was sent up to the Lords, it was not -expected to pass there without much opposition and cutting down. There -was, in fact, an evident reluctance there, as well as in the Commons, -to enter on the question. Many lords absented themselves, and others, -as the Marquis of Normanby, the Earls of Huntingdon and Plymouth, and -the Lords Guildford and Jeffreys, opposed it. Burnet attempted to -move some amendments; but some lords crying out "No amendments! no -amendments!" none were further attempted, and the Bill was sent down to -the Commons as it went up. - -Had such a sweeping Bill as this passed the Houses some years ago, -William would have refused to ratify it, as he refused so long to -ratify the Triennial Bill. Certainly it was from beginning to end the -most trenchant piece of censure on his conduct. - -During these transactions negotiations were going on at the Hague -between England, France, Holland, and Spain. Mr. Stanhope, Envoy -Extraordinary to the States-General, was empowered to treat, in union -with Holland, for a continuation of the peace on certain conditions. -These conditions were, that Louis should withdraw all his troops from -the Spanish Netherlands, and engage to send no fresh ones into any of -the Flemish towns; that no troops but native-born troops of Flanders or -Spain should be kept there, except in Nieuport and Ostend, which should -be given up to king William as cautionary towns, and in Luxemburg, -Namur, and Mons, which should be garrisoned by the States-General, for -the security of their frontiers, but without prejudice to the rights -and revenues of the Crown of Spain; that no towns in the Spanish -Netherlands, nor any port belonging to Spain, should be given up to -or exchanged with France on any pretence whatever; that the subjects -of England should enjoy the same liberties and privileges as they did -on the demise of the late king of Spain, and in as ample a manner as -the French or any other nation, in all parts of the Spanish dominions, -whether by land or sea; that the Emperor should be invited to join, -and that any other princes or States who desired to unite for the -preservation of the peace of Europe should be admitted to the treaty. - -D'Avaux, the French Minister, received these demands with an air of -the utmost astonishment, and declared that they could not have been -higher if his master had lost four successive battles. That the French -troops would be removed from Flanders as soon as Spain could send -forces to replace them, he said was certain; but for the rest of the -Articles, he could only send them to Versailles for the consideration -of the king. Louis expressed the utmost indignation at these demands, -which he declared to be most insolent, and could only be put forward -by William with a desire to provoke a war. He said that he would -renew the treaty of Ryswick, which was all that could be reasonably -expected. In fact, though the demands were no more than were necessary -for the security of Holland, William, knowing the nature of Louis, -and that he was now at the head of France, Spain, and a great part -of Italy, could not seriously have expected that he would accede to -them. Perhaps William intended him to reject them, as that would -furnish a good _casus belli_, and would enable him to rouse the spirit -of the English people to a martial tone. Accordingly he communicated -the refusal of the French Court to accede to the terms offered; but -the Commons, feeling that the object was to engage them in support of -a Continental Congress, which might lead them into another war more -oppressive than the former one, they thanked his Majesty in an address -for his communication, but called for copies of the Partition Treaty, -that they might inform themselves on the precise terms agreed upon -in that treaty with France. The Tories, however much they might be -disposed to maintain the same course themselves, would by no means omit -the opportunity of damaging the Whig Ministers who had been concerned -in that business. They had already agreed to send ten thousand men to -the aid of the States-General in support of the treaty of 1677, and -they now set to work to establish by this inquiry a plea against Lord -Somers, Portland, and the others engaged in the treaty. - -The Lords, not to be behind, also called for copies of the two -treaties. They appointed a Committee to examine them, and placed -Nottingham, a thorough Tory, in the chair. There was a sprinkling of -Whigs in the Committee to give it an air of fairness, and a strong -contest went on between the two parties. On the fourth resolution, that -there were no instructions in writing given to the Plenipotentiaries -of England, and that, if verbal orders were given, they were given -without being submitted to the Council, Portland, who had been almost -the sole manager of these treaties, in conjunction with William, by -permission of the king informed them that he had, by the king's order, -laid the matter before six of the king's Ministers--namely, Pembroke, -Marlborough, Lonsdale, Somers, Halifax, and Secretary Vernon. These -lords then endeavoured to excuse themselves by admitting that, the -Earl of Jersey having read the first treaty to them, they had objected -to various particulars, but being informed that the king had already -carried the matter as far as possible, and could get no better terms, -and that, in fact, everything was settled, they had nothing for it but -to desist from their objections. Various protests were entered against -the resolutions in Committee, but the Report, when brought up, was to -this effect:--That the lords spiritual and temporal had found, to their -great sorrow, that the treaty made with the French king had been very -prejudicial to the peace and safety of Europe; that it had probably -given occasion to the late king of Spain to make his will in favour of -the Duke of Anjou; that the sanction of France having possession of -Sicily, Naples, several ports in the Mediterranean, the province of -Guipuzcoa, and the Duchy of Lorraine, was not only very injurious to -the interests of Europe, but contrary to the pretence of the treaty -itself, which was to prevent too many territories being united under -one crown; that it appeared that this treaty never was submitted to the -consideration of the Council, or the Committee of the Council [in our -phrase, the Cabinet], and they prayed his Majesty in future to take -the advice of his natural-born subjects, whose interest and natural -affection to their country would induce them to seek its welfare and -prosperity. This last observation was aimed at Portland. - -The Ministers, such as were admitted to the secret of the treaty, as -well as the king, had undoubtedly violated the Constitution; and had -the Tories been honest, they might have rendered essential service to -the country by punishing them. But their object was too apparently to -crush Portland and Somers, and to let the rest go, whom they quietly -passed over. The new Lord Keeper carried up the address to the king, -but the members at large, not relishing the unpleasant office, took -care not to accompany him, and he found himself at the palace almost -alone. Two or three of the lords-in-waiting were all that served to -represent the House of Peers. On its being read, William endeavoured -to conceal his chagrin, and merely replied that the address contained -matter of grave moment, and that he would always take care that all -treaties should be made so as to contribute to the honour and safety of -England. - -The debates in the Commons were in the meantime still more vehement on -the same subject. Sir Edward Seymour declared that the Partition Treaty -was as infamous as a highway robbery, and Howe went further, denouncing -it as a felonious treaty; an expression which so exasperated the king -that he protested, if the disparity of condition between him and that -member had not been too great, he would have demanded satisfaction by -his sword. These discussions in the two Houses excited out of doors -a general condemnation of the treaty, and threw fresh odium on the -Government. - -On the last day of March a message was communicated to both Houses -by Secretary Hedges, that no further negotiation appeared possible -with France, from its decided rejection of the terms offered, and its -continuing to concede only the renewal of the treaty of Ryswick. The -Commons, instead of an immediate answer, adjourned to the 2nd of April, -and then resolved unanimously to desire his Majesty to carry on the -negotiations with the States-General, and take such measures as should -conduce to the safety of the kingdom. In reply to two resolutions from -the States-General, and a memorial presented by their envoy in England, -which the king laid before them, they assured him that they would -support him, supplying the twenty ships and ten thousand men which they -were bound to find by the treaty of 1677. This gave no sanction to any -negotiations for a fresh alliance with the Powers formerly combined -against France; and William was deeply mortified, but he merely thanked -them for their assurances of aid, and informed them that he had sent -orders to his Ambassador at the Hague still to endeavour to come to -terms with France and Spain. - -On the 19th of April the Marquis de Torcy handed to the Earl of -Manchester, at Paris, a letter from the new king of Spain to the king -of England, announcing his accession to the throne, and expressing a -desire to cultivate terms of friendship with him. This announcement had -been made long before to the other European Powers, and it might well -have been doubted whether William would now acknowledge his right. To -do that was to admit the validity of the late king of Spain's will, -and there could then be no real reason to refuse the conditions of the -treaty of Ryswick. William was from this cause in a state of great -perplexity; but the Earl of Rochester and the new Ministers urged him -to reply and admit the Duke of Anjou's right. The States-General had -already done it, and, in fact, unless England and the old allies of -the Emperor were prepared to dispute it with efficient arms, it was -useless to refuse. Accordingly, after a severe struggle with himself, -William wrote to "the Most Serene and Potent Prince, Brother, and -Cousin," congratulating him on his happy arrival in his kingdom of -Spain, and expressing his assurance that the ancient friendship between -the two Crowns would remain inviolate, to the mutual advantage and -prosperity of the two nations. With this was certainly ended every -right of England to dispute the possession of all the territories and -dependencies of the Spanish monarch by the new king; and there could -be no justifiable cause of war with France until she attempted to renew -her hostilities to neighbouring peoples. - -Whilst affairs were in this position abroad, the anxiety of William -was increased to the utmost by the war which was waging between the -two rival factions in Parliament. In endeavouring to damage the Whigs -to the utmost, the Tories damaged and tortured the king, who was -sufficiently miserable with the prospects on the Continent and his -fast-failing health. The Commons now determined to impeach Portland and -Somers on the ground of their concern in the second Partition Treaty, -contrary to the constitutional usages of the country. To procure -fresh matter against Somers and Orford, the pirate, Captain Kidd, was -brought from Newgate, where he was now lying, and examined at the bar -of the House; but nothing was got thereby. In the case of Portland -and Montague there were additional charges in reference to the grants -and dilapidations of the royal revenue for which they were said to be -answerable. - -At this juncture the men of Kent manifested their old public spirit by -sending in a petition, praying the House to endeavour to rise above -their party squabbles, and to combine for the furtherance of the -public business. The whole community were beginning to grow disgusted -with the dissensions, which had evidently more of party rancour than -patriotism at their bottom. This petition had been got up and signed -by grand jurors, magistrates, and freeholders of the county, assembled -at Maidstone, and confided to Sir Thomas Hales, one of their members. -But Sir Thomas, on looking over it, was so much alarmed that he handed -it to the other member, Mr. Meredith. Meredith, in his turn, was so -impressed with the hazardous nature of the petition that, on presenting -it, he informed the House that some of the supporters of it, five -gentlemen of fortune and distinction, were in the lobby, and ready to -attest their signatures. They were called in accordingly, and owned -their signatures, when they were ordered to withdraw, and the petition -was read. It concluded by saying, "that the experience of all ages made -it manifest that no nation can be great or happy without union. We hope -that no pretence whatever shall be able to create a misunderstanding -amongst ourselves, or the least distrust of His Most Sacred Majesty, -whose great actions for this nation are writ in the hearts of his -subjects, and can never, without the blackest ingratitude, be forgot. -We most humbly implore this honourable House to have regard to the -voice of the people, that our religion and safety may be effectually -provided for, that your addresses may be turned into Bills of Supply, -and that His Most Sacred Majesty, whose propitious and unblemished -reign over us we pray God long to continue, may be able powerfully to -assist his allies before it is too late." - -[Illustration: CAPTAIN KIDD BEFORE THE BAR OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS. -(_See p._ 524.)] - -In proportion to the excellence of the advice was the indignation with -which it was received by the angry Commons. When men are conscious -that they are acting from private motives of no very respectable kind -under the mask of patriotism, the discovery that they are seen through -invariably exasperates them. Accordingly, the House was furious at -this very seasonable petition. Some of the members went out to the -petitioners, and called upon them to make a proper submission to the -affronted House; but they strongly refused, maintaining that they had -only done their duty, whereupon the House voted that the petition was -scandalous, insolent, seditious, and tending to the destruction of -the Constitution; and they ordered the Sergeant-at-Arms to take the -petitioners into custody. But the stout men of Kent were not secured -without a vigorous resistance. They were then sent to the Gatehouse -prison; but their treatment only damaged the Commons, for the public -were greatly of the same opinion. Similar petitions were soon preparing -in different quarters, and these gentlemen were much visited in their -confinement, which continued till the prorogation. It was, moreover, -much questioned whether the Commons had not greatly outstripped their -real authority, and infringed the statute of the 13th of Charles II., -which guarantees the right of petition. - -The Tory party in the Commons then returned to their prosecutions -of the late Whig Ministers. But the day of strange things seemed to -have arrived. One day Harley, the Speaker of the Commons, received a -packet from the hands of a poor woman as he entered the House. Such -an incident could not take place now, the Commons having protected -themselves from such irregular missives by making it necessary that all -petitions should have the names of the places, as well as the persons -whence they came, clearly stated, and be confided to the care of a -member in good time for him to note its character and contents. This, -however, turned out to be no petition, but a command. "The enclosed -memorial," it was stated in a letter accompanying, "you are charged -with in behalf of many thousands of the good people of England. There -is neither Popish, Jacobite, seditious, Court, or party, interest -concerned in it, but honesty and truth. You are commanded by two -hundred thousand Englishmen to deliver it to the House of Commons, -and to inform them that it is no banter, but serious truth, and a -serious regard to it is expected. Nothing but justice and their duty is -required; and it is required by them who have both a right to require, -and power to compel it--namely, the people of England. We could have -come to the House strong enough to oblige you to hear us, but we have -avoided any tumults, not desiring to embroil, but to serve, our native -country. If you refuse to communicate it to them, you will find cause -in a short time to repent it." - -This strange memorial, which is known to have been written by Defoe, -was signed "Legion," and charged the House with unwarrantable practices -under fifteen heads. A new claim of right was arranged under seven -heads. Amongst the reprehensible proceedings of the Commons were -stated to be, the voting of the Partition Treaty fatal to Europe, -because it gave too much of the Spanish dominions to France, and not -concerning themselves to prevent them from taking possession of them -all. Deserting of the Dutch when the French were almost at their -doors, and till it was almost too late to help them, it declared to be -unjust to our treaties, unkind to our confederates, dishonourable to -the English nation, and negligent of the safety of both our neighbours -and ourselves. Addressing the king to displace his friends on base -surmises, before the legal trial or any article proven, was pronounced -illegal, contrary to the course of law, and putting execution before -judgment. It also declared the delaying of proceedings on impeachments -to blast the reputations of the accused without proving the charges, -to be illegal, oppressive, destructive of the liberties of Englishmen, -and a reproach to Parliaments. In the same strain it criticised the -attacks on the king's person, especially those of that "impudent rascal -John Howe," who had said openly that his Majesty had made a "felonious -treaty," insinuating that the Partition Treaty was a combination to rob -the king of Spain, when it was quite as just as to blow up one man's -house to save that of his neighbour. The Commons were admonished to -mend their ways, as shown to them in the memorial, on pain of incurring -the resentment of an injured nation; and the document concluded -thus, "for Englishmen are no more to be slaves to Parliament than to -kings--our name is Legion, and we are many." - -No sooner was this paper read than the blustering Commons were filled -with consternation. They summoned all the members of the House by the -Sergeant-at-Arms; anticipations of sedition and tumult were expressed, -and an address to his Majesty was drawn up in haste, calling on him -to take measures for the public peace. Howe, one of the noisiest -men in the House, and accustomed to say very bold things, and other -Tory members, declared their lives in danger; others got away into -the country, believing that "Legion" was on the point of attacking -the Parliament. A Committee was appointed to sit permanently in the -Speaker's chamber, to take every means for averting a catastrophe, with -power to call before them all persons necessary for throwing light on -the danger, and to examine papers. At length, however, as "Legion" did -not appear, and all remained quiet, the House began to recover its -senses; it began at the same time to dawn upon their apprehensions that -they had been hoaxed by some clever wag. This wag, as we have said, was -none other than the inimitable author of "Robinson Crusoe," one of the -shrewdest political writers of the time. - -The Lords now demanded that the trial of Somers and the other noblemen -should proceed without any further delay, but the Commons proposed that -it should be conducted before a Committee of both Houses. This they -did to bar the way of the trial, for they appeared rather to desire to -destroy the characters of the accused than to proceed to extremities. -They were aware that the accused nobles had a majority in their favour -in their own House, and that to impeach them there was to fail. They, -therefore, passed an unjustifiable address to the King, praying him to -dismiss the five peers from his Council, even before the impeachments -were heard. For the same reasons the Lords refused to admit the Commons -to a share in the trial, because in their House there was a majority -the other way. They replied, therefore, that such Committees were -contrary to custom in cases of impeachment for misdemeanour; that the -only exception was that in the case of the Earl of Danby and the five -Popish lords, and that the fate of it was sufficient warning to avoid -such a precedent, for the Committee could not proceed for altercations, -and the affair could only be got rid of by dissolving Parliament. The -Commons still argued for it, the Lords persisted in their refusal, and -at this moment the dispute was interrupted by the king calling on both -Houses to attend to the ratification of the new Succession Bill. - -After this the contest regarding the mode of trial of the impeached -nobles was renewed with unabated acrimony. In one of the conferences -on the subject Lord Haversham declared his opinion that the Commons -themselves really believed the accused lords innocent; "for there are," -he said, "various other lords implicated in the very same business, -and yet the Commons make no charge against them, but leave them at -the head of affairs, near the King's person, to do any mischief they -are inclined to, and impeach others, when they are all alike guilty, -and concerned in the same facts." This was a hard hit, for it was the -simple truth, and the delegates of the Commons, as they could not deny -it, could only affect to take violent offence at it. There was fresh -correspondence, but the Lords cut the matter short by deciding that -there should be no Committee of both Houses for regulating the trials -of the impeached nobles. The Commons, however, on the 14th of June sent -up their charges against the Earl of Halifax, declining to proceed -against Portland, as they said, out of respect to his Majesty. - -The Lords now gave notice that they would proceed with the trials of -the accused nobles, beginning with that of Lord Somers first, as the -Commons had proposed, and called on the Commons to make good their -charge. On the other hand, the Commons, still insisting on their right -to have a voice in regulating the trials, made an order that no member -of their House should appear at the "pretended" trial of the Lord -Somers. Notwithstanding, the Lords gave notice that they would proceed -on the 17th of June to the trial of Somers, in Westminster Hall. The -Commons refused to attend, declaring that they were the only judges, -and that the evidence was not yet prepared. This produced a violent -debate in the Lords, where the Tory Ministers supported their party -in the Commons; but the order for the trial was carried, followed by -strong protests against it. On the day of the trial the Lords sent a -message to the Commons to inform them that they were going to the Hall, -and the Commons not appearing there, the Lords again returned to their -own House, and settled the question to be put; and again returning to -Westminster Hall, the question was then put:--"That John Lord Somers -be acquitted of the articles of impeachment exhibited by the House of -Commons, and all things therein contained; and that the impeachment be -dismissed." This was carried by a majority of thirty-five. A similar -course was taken with regard to the other accused. - -It had been a miserable Session to the king. His health continued -to fail, and, amid his endeavours to conceal the decay of his -constitution, that his Allies might not be discouraged, he had found -his favourite Minister violently attacked, himself by no means spared, -and the Session almost wholly wasted in party feud. It had, however, -passed the Succession Bill, and now, to his agreeable surprise, -voted him unexpectedly liberal supplies, and sanctioned his forming -alliances against France. He now lost no time in appointing a regency; -and gave the command of the ten thousand troops, sent to Holland, to -Marlborough--an appointment, however despicable the man, the very best -he could have made in a military point of view. At the commencement -of July he sailed for Holland, accompanied by the Earls of Carlisle, -Romney, Albemarle, General Overkirk, and others, and landed on the -3rd of the month. The Scottish troops voted had arrived in Holland -before him, and the ten thousand men from England and Ireland were -just arriving, so that William appeared again amongst his countrymen -at the head of a respectable army of his new subjects. When he -presented himself, however, before the States-General the day after -his arrival, his appearance was such as to create great alarm in -all that saw him. In his energies they put the almost sole trust of -effectual resistance to France, and he was clearly fast sinking. He -was wasted, pale, and haggard. The last Session of Parliament, and the -fierce dissensions which had been carried on between the factions of -Whig and Tory, neither of which looked to anything but the indulgence -of their own malice, had done more to wear him out than a dozen -campaigns. He might well declare that that had been the most miserable -year of his existence. What strength he had left, however, he devoted -unshrinkingly to the grand object of his existence, the war for the -balance of power. He expressed his great joy to be once more amongst -his faithful countrymen; and, in truth, he must have felt it like a -cordial, for around him in England he saw nothing but unprincipled -strife of parties. William told the States that he had hoped, after -the peace of Ryswick, to have been able to pass his remaining days -in repose, but that the changes which had taken place in Europe were -such as no man could see the end of. He was still resolved, he said, -notwithstanding this, to pursue the great object of the peace of Europe -with unremitting zeal, whether it was to be achieved by negotiation or -war; and he assured them of the active support of his English subjects. -The States, in their reply, took care to express how much they depended -on the courage and power of the English, and to compliment them on the -splendid fame for valour which they had acquired in the late struggle. - -William then set out to survey the defences of the frontiers, and the -state of the garrisons; and having visited Bergen-op-Zoom, Sluys, -and other places, and taken such measures as appeared necessary, he -returned to the Hague, where the news met him that Louis had recalled -his Ambassador, D'Avaux, who left a memorial in a very insolent tone, -asserting that his royal master was convinced that no good could come -of the negotiations, but still declaring that it depended on themselves -whether there should be peace or war. This event by no means surprised -William, for both he and Marlborough had felt from the first that there -was no sincerity in the professions of D'Avaux, and that they were -meant only to gain time. The treaty between England, Holland, and the -Emperor was, therefore, urged forward, and was signed on the 7th of -September, being styled "The Second Grand Alliance." By this treaty it -was contracted that the three Allies should mutually exert themselves -to procure satisfaction for the Emperor for the Spanish succession, and -security for the peace and trade of the Allies. Two months were yet to -be allowed for obtaining the objects by negotiation. If this failed, -war was to be made to recover the Spanish Flanders, the kingdoms of -Sicily, Naples, and the other Spanish territories in Italy; moreover, -the States and England might seize and keep for themselves whatever -they could of the colonial possessions of Spain. No peace was to be -made by any one of the Allies until they had obtained security for the -absolute separation of France and Spain, and that France should not -hold the Spanish Indies. All kings, princes, and States were invited -to enter the alliance, and tempting offers of advantages were made -to induce them to do so. William had already secured the interest of -Denmark, and the promises of Sweden; but the young King of Sweden, -Charles XII., was too busily pursuing the war with Russia and Poland -to lend any real service to this cause. At the very moment that the -Allies were canvassing for confederates, this "Madman of the North," as -he was called, gave the Czar Peter a most terrible overthrow at Narva -on the 30th of November, 1700, killing thirty thousand of his men. -Holstein and the Palatinate came into the treaty, and the news from -Italy soon induced the German petty princes to profess their adhesion, -especially the Electors of Bavaria and Cologne, who had received -subsidies from France, and raised troops, with which they would have -declared for Louis had not the victories of Prince Eugene swayed their -mercenary minds the other way. - -Several months before the signing of the treaty at the Hague, Eugene, -at the head of the Emperor's troops in Italy, had opened the war. He -had entered Italy at Vicenza, and passed the Adige near Carpi, where, -being opposed by Catinat and the Duke of Savoy, he defeated them -with considerable slaughter, and forced them to retire into Mantuan -territory. Catinat and the French had excited the hatred of the -peasantry by their insolence and oppressions, and they flew to arms -and assisted Eugene, who was very popular with them, by harassing the -outposts of the French, cutting off their foragers, and obstructing -their supplies. Marshal Villeroi being sent to their aid, Catinat -retired in disgust. Villeroi marched towards Chiari, and attacked -Eugene in his camp, but was repulsed with the loss of five thousand -men. By the end of the campaign the Prince had reduced all the Mantuan -territory except Mantua itself and Goito, which he blockaded. He -reduced all the places on the Oglio, and continued in the field all -the winter, displaying a genius for war which greatly alarmed the -king of France. He despatched fresh reinforcements to Piedmont under -Marshal Vendôme, but he found the Duke of Savoy now cold and backward -in assisting him. The duke had got all that he could look for from -France; his second daughter was married to the new king of Spain, and, -satisfied with that, he was by no means ambitious of French domination -in his own territories. - -On the other hand, France endeavoured to distract Austria by sowing -insurrection in Hungary, and Louis's emissaries were busy all over -Europe. He managed to make an alliance with Portugal, though the king -himself was attached to the House of Austria, but was a weak prince, -and was betrayed by his Ministers, who were corrupted by France. -Meanwhile the English and Dutch fleets sailed in strong force along -the coasts of Spain, to overawe the French, and another fleet was -despatched to the West Indies, to be ready in case of hostilities. -In Spain itself both people and nobles began to repent bitterly of -their subjection to France. They felt greatly annoyed at the insolence -of the king's French Ministers and attendants, who treated the -highest grandees with very little consideration. The French dress was -introduced into the Court, and French manners also, and a formal edict -was issued, putting the French nobles on the same level with the proud -hidalgoes of Spain. The finances of Spain were at the lowest ebb, the -spirit of the nation was thoroughly demoralised, and the condition of -France was very little better. These circumstances, being universally -known, encouraged the Allies in their projects. Yet the Emperor, for -whose cause the Alliance was ostensibly created, was almost equally -poor. He had engaged to bring 90,000 troops into the field--66,000 -infantry and 24,000 horse; yet he was compelled to negotiate a loan -with Holland for 500,000 crowns. William, on his part, was to furnish -33,000 infantry and 7,000 horse; and the States-General 32,000 infantry -and 20,000 horse. - -[Illustration: THE PRETENDER PROCLAIMED KING OF ENGLAND BY ORDER OF -LOUIS XIV. (_See p._ 529.)] - -At this juncture James II. lay on his deathbed. Louis XIV. made three -successive visits to the dying king; and this strange monarch--who had -no feeling for human misery in the gross, who let loose his legions -to lay waste happy human homes in all the countries round him, to -ravage, massacre, and destroy the unoffending people by barbarities -which must have instructed the very devils in cruelty--shed tears -over the departure of this poor old man, whose life had been one vast -miserable blunder, and whose death was the best thing that could happen -to him. He promised the dying man that he would maintain the right of -his son to the English crown as he had maintained his, though he had -sworn at the treaty of Ryswick to do nothing to disturb the throne of -William; and (September 16, 1701), as soon as the breath was out of -James's body, he proclaimed the prince King of England by the title -of James III. This title was acknowledged by the King of Spain, the -Duke of Savoy, and the Pope. The moment William received the news of -Louis having proclaimed James's son King of England, he despatched a -messenger to inform the King of Sweden, who was guarantee of the peace -of Ryswick, of this flagrant breach of it. He ordered the Earl of -Manchester immediately to retire from Paris without taking leave, and -Poussin, the Secretary of Tallard, to quit London. Louis pretended that -his acknowledgment of the Prince of Wales was mere form; that he meant -no infraction of the treaty, and might justly complain of William's -declarations and preparations in favour of the Emperor. In fact, kings -never want pleas when they have a purpose, however unwarrantable it may -be. The people of England hastened to express their abhorrence of the -perfidy of the French king. Addresses of resentment were poured in from -London and from all parts of the kingdom, with declarations of a strong -determination to defend the king and his crown against all pretenders -or invaders. - -William was impatient to be in London to make the necessary -arrangements for a new Ministry and a new Parliament, and also for the -war which was now inevitable. But he was detained by a severe illness; -in fact, he was fast succumbing to the weakness of his constitution, -and the ravages made on it by his stupendous exertions in the wars he -had been constantly engaged in, and, still more, by the eternal war -and harass of the unprincipled factions which raged around his island -throne. He arrived in England on the 4th of November, where he found -the two factions raging against each other with unabated rancour, and -the public in a ferment of indignation at the proclamation of the king -of the French acknowledging the Pretender, and still more at an edict -which Louis had published on the 16th of September, prohibiting all -trade with England, except in beer, cider, glass bottles, and wool, -and the wearing of any article of English manufacture after the 1st of -November next. William closeted himself with some of his Ministry who, -he still hoped, might be disposed to different measures; but finding -them still as determined as ever to pursue their former course and to -insist on their impeachments, he dissolved Parliament on the 4th of -November, and called a new one for the 31st of December. - -The two parties went to the election for the new Parliament with the -same fierce bitterness with which they had fought through the last -Session. The bribery, corruption, and intimidation were of the most -open and shameless kind; but the Whigs, having the moneyed interest in -their favour, carried the day, having no doubt with them at the same -time the sentiment of the better part of the nation. - -The new Ministry was immediately arranged. On the 24th of December -Charles Howard, the Earl of Carlisle, was appointed First Lord of the -Treasury, in place of Lord Godolphin. On the 4th of January, 1702, -Charles Montague, Earl of Manchester, who had been ambassador at -Paris, was made Secretary of State in place of Sir Charles Hedges; on -the 18th the Earl of Pembroke was transferred from the Presidency of -the Council, and made Lord High Admiral; and Charles Seymour, Duke -of Somerset, took the Presidency. Henry Boyle, afterwards Earl of -Carleton, was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer; the Privy Seal, -having been in commission since the death of the Earl of Tankerville, -remained so. The Cabinet thus consisted of the personal friends of the -king, and the Whigs had strengthened their party, having carried the -elections in most of the counties and chief boroughs; yet they found -themselves so far from a commanding majority that they were immediately -defeated in the election of the Speaker. The king was desirous of -seeing Sir Thomas Littleton in the chair; but the Tories managed to -elect Harley; Henry St. John, afterwards Lord Bolingbroke, who was sent -up from Wootton Basset, seconding the motion for Harley. The speech, -which was drawn up by Somers according to Sunderland's advice, was then -read by William. - -In this speech, which was greatly admired, the king said that he -trusted that they had met together with a full sense of the common -danger of Europe, and of that resentment of the conduct of the French -king which had been so strongly and universally expressed in the loyal -addresses of the people; that in setting up the pretended Prince of -Wales as King of England they had offered to him and to the nation the -highest indignity, and put in jeopardy the Protestant religion, and the -peace and security of the realm, and he was sure they would take every -means to secure the Crown in the Protestant line, and to extinguish -the hopes of all pretenders and their abettors; that the French king, -by placing his grandson on the throne of Spain, had put himself in a -condition to oppress the rest of Europe, and, under the pretence of -maintaining it as a separate monarchy, had yet made himself master of -the dominions of Spain, placed it entirely under his control, and so -surrounded his neighbours that, though the name of peace continued, -they were put to the expense and inconvenience of war; that this -endangered the whole of our trade, and even our peace and safety at -home, and deprived us of that position which we ought to maintain for -the preservation of the liberties of Europe; that to obviate these -calamities he had entered into several alliances according to the -encouragement given him by both Houses of Parliament, and was still -forming others. And he then said emphatically, "It is fit I should tell -you that the eyes of all Europe are upon this Parliament. All matters -are at a stand till your resolutions are known; therefore no time -ought to be lost. You have yet an opportunity, by God's blessing, to -secure to you and your posterity the quiet enjoyment of your religion -and liberties if you are not wanting to yourselves, but will exert the -ancient vigour of the English nation; but I tell you plainly my opinion -is, if you do not lay hold on this occasion, you have no reason to hope -for another." - -He then recommended the Commons to take measures for the discharge of -the debt and for preserving public credit, by the sacred maxim that -they shall never be losers who trust to a Parliamentary security. In -asking them for the necessary aids he was only urging that they should -care for their safety and honour at a critical time. He reminded them -that in the late war he ordered yearly accounts of the expenditure to -be laid before them, and passed several Bills for securing a proper -examination of accounts. He was quite willing that any further measures -should be adopted for that end, so that it might appear whether -the debts had arisen from misapplication or mere deficiency of the -funds. He then finally touched on the sore point of the dissensions; -trusting that both Houses were determined to avoid all manner of -disputes and differences, and resolved to act with a general and hearty -concurrence for promoting the common cause which alone could insure a -happy Session. He should think it as great a blessing as could befall -England, if he could perceive them inclined to lay aside those unhappy -feuds which divided and weakened them, for that he himself was disposed -to make all his subjects easy as to even the highest offences committed -against him. He conjured them to disappoint the hopes of their enemies, -and let there be no other distinction amongst them for the future -but of those who were for the Protestant religion and the present -establishment, and those who were for a Popish prince and a French -Government. For his part, he desired to be the common father of his -people, and if they desired to see England placed at the head of the -Protestant interest and hold the balance of Europe, they had only to -improve the present opportunity. - -The effect of this speech was wonderful. It flew through the nation, -which was already worked up into a war-fever, with the rapidity of -lightning, and was everywhere received with enthusiasm. The zealous -supporters of the principles of the Revolution had it printed in -ornamental style, in English, Dutch, and French, and it was soon -translated into other languages and disseminated all over Europe. It -was the announcement of a determined war against the grasping ambition -of France, and the eyes of the whole world were truly fixed on England, -which volunteered to take the lead in this serious enterprise. As -for the supporters of William and the Protestant government, they -framed his speech and hung it in their houses as the last legacy of -the Protestant king to his people. The Lords immediately drew up a -zealous address, in which they echoed his resentment of the conduct of -the French king in acknowledging the pretended Prince of Wales, and -declared that they would not only support and defend him against the -pretended Prince of Wales and all other pretenders, but, should they -be deprived of his Majesty's protection, they would still defend the -crown of England, by virtue of the Acts of Parliament, against all but -the recognised successors. On the 5th of January the Commons presented -a similar address, and assured the king that they would enable him to -make good the alliances he had made and such as he should yet make -for the peace of Europe. The Lords, not to be behind the Commons, -presented a second and more explicit address, in which they not only -engaged to support the king in his alliances, but declared that Europe -could never be safe till the Emperor was restored to all his rights, -and the invaders of Spain should be expelled. And they, too, declared -their full approbation of the king's new alliances, and their full -determination to support him in them. - -William, warned by the resentment of the last House of Commons at the -concealment of the Partition Treaties, now laid his present treaties at -once before the new Parliament. On the 6th of January Secretary Vernon -laid before both Houses copies of the treaty with the King of Denmark -and the States-General, the secret Articles attached to this treaty, -the treaty between the King of Sweden, the States-General, and William, -and the separate treaty between William and the States-General, signed -in the month of November. The Commons were as prompt in expressing -their approbation of them, and on the 9th of January they proposed, -by an address to his Majesty, to take care that an article should be -introduced into the several treaties of alliance, binding the Allies -never to make peace with France until reparation was made for the -indignity offered by the French king in declaring the pretended Prince -of Wales King of England. They also resolved that a Bill should be -brought in for the abjuration of the pretended Prince of Wales. - -They then went into the question of the supplies, and voted unanimously -that £600,000 should be borrowed at six per cent. for the services of -the navy, and £50,000 for Guards and garrisons. They agreed to the -number of troops which the king had stipulated as his contingent in the -war, namely, 30,000 foot and 7,000 horse; and added 8,300 more English -soldiers to the 10,000 already sent to Holland, and voted 40,000 -seamen. His Majesty's Allies were to be invited to embark a certain -proportion of troops on board his Majesty's ships of war. All the -king's contracts for subsidising troops belonging to foreign princes -were confirmed, and to defray the charges of these naval and military -forces they imposed taxes with an alacrity almost unparalleled. They -imposed four shillings in the pound on all lands and incomes, including -annuities, pensions, and stipends, and on all the professional profits -of lawyers, doctors, surgeons, teachers of separate congregations, -brokers, factors, etc. Then an additional tax of two and a half per -cent. was put on all stock-in-trade and money out at interest, and of -five shillings in the pound on all salaries, fees, and perquisites. -They laid on a poll-tax of four shillings per head, so completely had -this generation come to tolerate this hated form of imposition, which -formerly roused the people to open rebellion. Besides this, they taxed -the capital stock of all corporations and public companies which should -be transferred in sale to the amount of one per cent., and, finally, -they placed sixpence a bushel on malt, and a further duty on mum, -cider, and perry. - -On the 15th of January they passed unanimously a Bill for the attainder -of the pretended Prince of Wales, and sent it up to the Lords, and -the Lords, exceeding them in zeal, added a clause attainting also the -ex-queen Mary of Modena as regent of the pretended Prince of Wales. The -Commons, however, objected to this amendment as calculated to sanction -a practice of attainting persons by added clauses instead of original -Bills, which they designated as a pernicious course, as not allowing -the full consideration due to so momentous a measure. They struck it -out, but the Lords demanded a conference, and pressed their amendment -on the ground that the Commons had themselves adopted that practice -so long ago as the 3rd of Henry VIII. The Commons were not likely to -pay much regard to the practice of either House in the reign of that -lawless monarch, and returned the Bill to the Lords without the clause, -and the Lords, on further reflection, passed it. - -This was followed in the Lords by the Bill so strongly recommended by -Sunderland for the abjuration of the pretended Prince of Wales, in -which was a clause introduced into the oath, acknowledging William -rightful and lawful sovereign. There was a violent debate on the -point whether this oath should be voluntary or compulsory. The Earl -of Nottingham strongly opposed its being compulsory, and he was -supported by other lords of the Tory party. They contended that the -Government was first settled with another oath, which had the value of -an original contract, and any other oath was unnecessary; that this -oath could do nothing more than that oath had done. All inclined to -keep that oath had kept it, and all inclined to break it had broken -it, and these would break this or any other oath. Whilst they were -in debate, Sir Charles Hedges introduced a clause which made it -obligatory on all persons enjoying appointments in Church and State, -and with an obligation to maintain the Government in King, Lords, and -Commons, and to maintain the Church of England, with toleration to the -Dissenters. After a sharp debate it passed the Commons, but only by a -majority of one. In this Bill it was made equally penal to compass or -imagine the death of the Princess of Denmark as it was the death of -the king. The Bill was strenuously opposed in the Lords, but it was -carried, and Nottingham and nineteen other peers entered their protest -against it. The Quakers had endeavoured to get themselves exempted -from the operation of the Bill, but in vain. This zeal of the Whigs in -Parliament for imposing fresh oaths did them no good, but tended to -revive the unpopularity which had so lately driven them from office. -Whilst these subjects were before Parliament, the Lords made a fresh -attempt, by a Bill of their own, to procure the attainder of Mary of -Modena, but the Commons let the Bill lie. - -In Scotland the clamour against the Government for its treatment of -the Darien scheme still continued. The Earl of Nottingham, therefore, -moved that the Scottish Parliament should be dissolved, and an attempt -be made to unite the two kingdoms, by which all causes of complaint -would be hereafter removed, since all parties would have a like -interest in the trade of the nation. The king was greatly bent on this -design, but he had met with an accident which prevented him from going -to the House of Lords to propose it. But he sent a message both to the -Lords and to the Commons, expressing his earnest desire that a union -should take place, and that Commissioners were already appointed in -Scotland to treat with such Commissioners as should be appointed in -England for that end. He represented that he was fully satisfied that -nothing could more contribute to the security and happiness of the two -kingdoms than such a union, and that he should esteem it a peculiar -felicity if, during his reign, so great an event should take place. - -[Illustration: VIEW IN THE HAGUE: CHAMBERS OF THE STATES-GENERAL IN THE -BINNENHOF.] - -But the accident alluded to was of a more serious nature than was -suspected, and, falling on a weak and exhausted frame, was about to -bring his reign to an abrupt close. In riding towards Hampton Court -on the 20th of February, on his accustomed Saturday's excursion to -hunt there, his horse fell with him and fractured his collar-bone, -besides doing him other serious injury. He was carried to Hampton -Court, where the bone was set; and though the surgeon remarked that -his pulse was feverish, he was deemed in too feeble a condition to -admit of benefit by bleeding. Contrary, moreover, to the advice of his -medical attendants, he would insist on returning that same evening to -Kensington, and was, accordingly, conveyed thither in a carriage; but -on arriving, it was found that the collar-bone, by the jolting of the -carriage, was again displaced. It was again set, and the king slept -well the night through after it. For several days no bad consequences -appeared; but on the 1st of March great pain and weakness were felt -in his knee. Ronjat, his surgeon, a Frenchman, who had re-set the -bone, had contended that he ought to have been bled; Bidloo, his Dutch -physician, had opposed it as injurious in his debilitated state. He -was now attended by Sir Thomas Millington, Sir Richard Blackmore, Sir -Theodore Colledon, Dr. Bidloo, and other eminent physicians. Again -he appeared to rally, and on the 4th of March he took several turns -in the gallery at Kensington; but, sitting down on a couch, he fell -asleep, and awoke shivering and in high fever. On this there was a -hurry to pass several Bills through the Lords that they might receive -his signature, in case of fatal termination of his illness. These were -the Malt-tax Bill, the Bill for the Prince of Wales's Attainder, and -one in favour of the Quakers, making their affirmation valid instead of -an oath. These being prepared, and the king not being able to use his -hand, the royal signature was affixed by a stamp made for the purpose. - -This took place on the 7th of March, and was not a moment too soon, -for the king's symptoms rapidly gained strength, and he died the -next day. The Earl of Albemarle, his great favourite, arrived from -Holland on the day preceding his death, and it was thought the good -news which he brought would cheer him, but William appeared to receive -his information with indifference, and merely replied, "_Je tire -vers ma fin_" ("I approach my end"). The news of the king's danger -filled the antechamber with such a throng of courtiers as is generally -witnessed at the expected moment of a monarch's decease; not prompted -by affection, but on the watch to seize the earliest moment to make -their court to his successor. Physicians, statesmen, and emissaries -of interested parties were there mingled, eagerly listening for the -reports of his state, and ready to fly with the news of his decease. -Amongst these were the messengers of the Princess Anne and of Lady -Marlborough, who, with her husband, now absent with the army in -Holland, had scarcely less to expect from the event. Yet even Lady -Marlborough, assuredly by no means sensitive where her ambition was -concerned, expresses her disgust at the scene. "When the king came to -die, I felt nothing of the satisfaction which I once thought I should -have had on this occasion; and my Lord and Lady Jersey's writing and -sending perpetually to give an account [to the Princess Anne] as his -breath grew shorter and shorter, filled me with horror." These Jerseys, -who were thus courting the favour of the heiress to the Crown by these -incessant messages of the advancing death of the king, had been amongst -those on whom he had heaped favours and benefits pre-eminently. Such -is the end of princes. The closing scene is thus detailed by Bishop -Burnet, who to the last showed himself one of the steadiest and most -grateful of his courtiers:--"The king's strength and pulse were still -sinking as the difficulty of breathing increased, so that no hope -was left. The Archbishop of Canterbury and I went to him on Saturday -morning, and did not stir from him till he died. The Archbishop prayed -on Saturday some time with him, but he was then so weak that he could -scarce speak, but gave him his hand, as a sign that he firmly believed -the truth of the Christian religion, and said he intended to receive -the Sacrament. His reason and all his senses were entire to the last -minute. About five in the morning he desired the Sacrament, and went -through the Office with great appearance of seriousness, but could -not express himself; when this was done, he called for the Earl of -Albemarle, and gave him a charge to take care of his papers. He thanked -M. Auverquerque for his long and faithful services. He took leave of -the Duke of Ormond, and called for the Earl of Portland, but before he -came his voice quite failed; so he took him by the hand and carried it -to his heart with great tenderness. He was often looking up to heaven -in many short ejaculations. Between seven and eight o'clock the rattle -began; the commendatory prayer was said to him, and as it ended he -died, on Sunday, the 8th of March, in the fifty-second year of his age, -having reigned thirteen years and a few days." - -It was found on opening the body that he had had an adhesion of the -lungs, which being torn from the side to which it had adhered by the -fall from his horse, was the cause of his death. His head and heart -were sound, but he had scarcely any blood in his body. - -In person William was of a spare frame, middle stature, and delicate -constitution, being subject to an asthma and cough from his childhood, -supposed to be the consequences of small-pox. He had an aquiline nose, -clear bright eyes, a finely-developed forehead, a grave aspect, and was -very taciturn, except amongst his immediate friends, who were almost -all his own countrymen. His reserved and repellent manner gave great -offence to his English courtiers and nobles, and the lavish wealth -which he heaped on his favourite Dutchmen heightened this feeling. -He never liked Englishmen, and they never liked him. For his neglect -to attach himself to the English there is, however, much excuse. The -men about his Court, and the very party who brought him in, were a -most selfish, rapacious, and unprincipled set. It is difficult to -point to a truly noble and genuinely patriotic man amongst them. -Perhaps the most unexceptionable were the Earl of Devonshire and Lord -Somers; but the greater part of them were men whose chief object was -self-aggrandisement; and the party fight which the two factions kept up -around the Throne made it anything but an enviable seat. The peculation -and jobbery in every department of the State were wholesale and -unblushing, and the greater part of those who were ostensibly serving -him and receiving his pay, were secretly engaged to his enemies, spies -upon all his actions and intentions, and traitors, in a perpetual -transmission of his projects to the Court of his deadly foes. The -forbearance which he constantly manifested towards those despicable men -was something admirable and almost superhuman. Though he was well aware -of their treason, he still employed and endeavoured to conciliate them. -With a cold exterior, William was far from destitute of affection. This -he showed in the confidence with which he entrusted the government to -his wife in his absence, and in his passionate grief for her death. It -was also manifested in his warm and unshaken attachment to the friends -who had shared his fortunes, who spoke his tongue, who knew his whole -mind and nature, and who served him with a fidelity, amid an age of -treachery and a Court of deep corruption, than which there is nothing -more beautiful in history. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[Footnote A: That is, during their good behaviour.] - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -THE REIGN OF ANNE. - - Accession of the Queen--Meeting of the Houses of - Parliament--Scotland and Ireland--Power of Marlborough--The - Revenue--Tory Colour of the Ministry--The Coronation--Declaration - of War--Marlborough goes to the Seat of War--General Aspect of - Affairs--Marlborough's Difficulties--His Campaign--Operations by - Sea--Meeting of Parliament--Supply--Marlborough's Dukedom--The - Occasional Conformity Bill--Dismissal of Rochester--Opening of the - Campaign of 1703--Fall of Bonn--Failure to take Antwerp--Savoy - and Portugal join the Allies--Visit of the Archduke Charles to - England--The Storm--Jacobite Conspiracy--Ashby versus White--Queen - Anne's Bounty--Marlborough's Great Plans--The States-General - hoodwinked--His March--Dismay of the French--Junction with - Eugene--Advance on the Danube--Assault of the Schellenberg--The - Prince of Baden's Conceit--Approach of Tallard--The Eve of - Blenheim--The Battle--Conclusion of the Campaign--Marlborough's - Diplomacy--Capture of Gibraltar--Battle of Malaga--Proceedings - in Parliament--The Campaign of 1705--Attempt to recover - Gibraltar--Peterborough's Exploits in Spain--Proposal to Invite - the Electress Sophia to England--Consequent Legislation--Battle - of Ramillies--Eugene relieves Turin--Disasters in Spain--Meeting - of the Commissioners for the Union--Condition of the - Treaty--Opposition in Scotland--Riots in Edinburgh--Conduct of the - Opposition--The Measure carried by Bribery--Its Discussion in the - English Parliament--The Royal Assent given. - - -When Anne succeeded to the throne she was in her thirty-eighth year. -She was fat, indolent, and good-natured. She had long been under the -complete management of the imperious Lady Marlborough, and through her -Marlborough expected to be the real ruler of the country. Through them -the queen had imbibed a deep-rooted hatred of the Whigs, whom they had -taught her to regard as the partisans of King William, and the real -authors of all the indignities and mortifications which she had endured -during his reign. The Tories therefore calculated confidently on -recovering full power under her, and had resolved to place Marlborough -at the head of the army. The queen, on her part, had a great leaning -towards the Tories, as the enemies of the Whigs and the friends of the -Church, to which she was strongly attached. The endeavours which had -been made in her father's time to make a Catholic of her, and in her -brother-in-law's time to level the distinctions between Church and -Dissent, had only rooted more deeply her predilection for the Church; -nor did the fact of her husband being a Lutheran, and maintaining -his Lutheran chapel and minister in the palace, at all diminish this -feeling. - -No sooner was the king dead than Lord Jersey and other courtiers who -had been eagerly watching the shortening of his breath hastened to -bring the news to Anne, who, with Lady Marlborough, sat on that Sunday -morning waiting for the message which should announce her queen; and -Bishop Burnet, among others, conveyed the sad tidings to her. Though -it was Sunday, both Houses of Parliament met, for they were empowered -still to sit by an Act passed in William's reign, and the death of -William was announced to the Commons by Mr. Secretary Vernon. There -was much speechifying, Mr. Granville saying, "We have lost a great -king, and got a most gracious queen." Both Houses then proceeded -to the palace with addresses of felicitation, and were graciously -received. The Privy Council also waited on the queen, who assured them -of her determination to maintain the laws, liberties, and religion -of the country, to secure the succession in the Protestant line, and -the Church and State as by law established. The Privy Council having -taken the oaths, she caused a proclamation to be issued, signifying -her pleasure that all persons in office should continue to hold their -respective posts till further orders. - -On the 11th of March she went in state to the House of Lords. -She was accompanied in her coach by her consort, the Prince of -Denmark, and Marlborough carried the Sword of State before her. Lady -Marlborough occupied the place close behind the queen. Anne had a -remarkably rich and touching voice, and it had been cultivated, at -the suggestion of her uncle, Charles II., for elocutionary delivery, -as especially important for a monarch. She concluded her speech with -these words:--"As I know my own heart to be entirely English, I can -sincerely assure you that there is not anything that you can expect -or desire from me which I shall not be ready to do for the happiness -and prosperity of England, and you shall always find me a strict and -religious observer of my word." Not only did she receive the thanks of -both Houses for her gracious assurances, but congratulatory addresses -from the City of London, from the bishop and clergy of London, from -the various bodies of Dissenters, and the different counties and chief -towns of the kingdom. - -Some difficulty had been expected in Scotland from the Jacobites, but -all passed over easily, the Jacobites thinking that as Anne had no -issue, the Stuarts would be sure to enjoy "their ain again" on her -death. The Secretaries of State for Scotland, and such of the Scottish -Privy Councillors who were in London, waited on her, read to her their -"Claim of Rights," and tendered her the Coronation Oath with many -professions of loyalty; and this ceremony being completed, the Earl -of Marchmont, the Chancellor of Scotland, was dispatched to represent -the queen in the General Assembly of the Kirk which was about to meet. -In Ireland the natives were so rigorously ruled that they excited no -alarm. - -The queen announced the coronation for the 23rd of April, and took up -her abode at Windsor, as St. James's was completely hung with black, -and was too gloomy for living in. She also took immediate possession of -William's favourite residence at Kensington, which George of Denmark -had always coveted. William's remains were unceremoniously transferred -to "the Prince's Chamber" at Westminster, and the Dutch colony, as the -attendants of William were called, were routed out, to their great -indignation. Before a week had expired Anne accomplished what she had -so often attempted in vain--she conferred the Order of the Garter on -Marlborough. He was appointed Captain-General of the English army, both -at home and abroad, and, soon after, Master of the Ordnance. The Prince -of Denmark was made Lord High Admiral, with the title of Generalissimo -of the Forces; but as he was both ignorant of and indisposed to the -management of both naval and military affairs, Marlborough was the real -Commander-in-Chief of the forces. - -The Commons voted her Majesty the same revenue as King William had -enjoyed, and pledged themselves to the repudiation of the pretended -Prince of Wales, and to the defence of her Majesty's person and the -Protestant succession. On the 30th of March the queen went to the House -of Lords and ratified the Act for the revenue and for her household, -and generously relinquished one hundred thousand pounds of the income -granted. At the same time she passed a Bill continuing the Commission -for examination of the public accounts; but these necessary inquiries -were always defeated by the principal persons who were deep in the -corruption. The villainy was almost universal, and, therefore, was -carefully screened from efficient search. - -In naming her Ministers the Tory bias of the queen at once showed -itself. Godolphin, the family ally of the Marlboroughs, was appointed -Lord Treasurer; Nottingham was made principal Secretary of State, -and was allowed to name Sir Charles Hedges as the other Secretary -in place of Mr. Vernon; Rochester, the queen's uncle, was made -Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland; the Duke of Somerset, Lord President of -the Council, was dismissed to make way for the Earl of Pembroke, who -could scarcely rank as a Tory, but disclaimed being a Whig: the Earl -of Bradford was made Treasurer of the Household through the influence -of Rochester; the Marquis of Normanby received the Privy Seal--a -reward for his happy flattery; and the Earl of Jersey retained his -post of Chamberlain for his assiduous transmission of the news of -William's "shortening breath." Sir Nathaniel Wright remained Lord -Keeper; and Sharp, Archbishop of York, became the queen's adviser in -all ecclesiastical matters. The only Whigs who retained office were -the Duke of Devonshire, Lord High Steward, and Mr. Boyle, Chancellor -of the Exchequer; and, on Shrewsbury's refusing the post of Master of -the Horse, the Duke of Somerset, though displaced as Lord President, -was induced to accept that office. The Prince of Denmark appointed a -council for himself, into which he introduced none but Tories. At the -head of this board, which was deemed wholly illegal, but which was not -called in question by Parliament from respect to the queen, he placed -Sir George Rooke, a most decided antagonist to the Whigs, and made him -President of the Commission for Managing the Fleet. - -[Illustration: BISHOP BURNET ANNOUNCING HER ACCESSION TO ANNE. (_See -p._ 535.)] - -On the 23rd of April the coronation took place, being St. George's Day. -The queen was so corpulent and so afflicted with gout that she could -not stand more than a few minutes at a time, and was obliged to be -removed from one situation to another during this fatiguing ceremony in -an open chair. Tenison, the Archbishop of Canterbury, officiated, and -the whole ceremony and banquet did not end till eight in the evening. -Everybody, say the newspapers, was satisfied, even the thieves, who -managed to carry off the whole of the plate used at the banquet in -Westminster Hall, together with a rich booty of table-linen and pewter. - -During March and April there was a continual arrival of -ambassadors-extraordinary to congratulate her Majesty on her accession. -Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, most of the German States, and particularly -those of Zell and Hanover, sent their envoys; and there was a strong -discussion in the Council on the necessity of declaring war against -France. Marlborough and his faction were, of course, for war, in -which he hoped to win both glory and affluence; but Rochester and the -majority of the Council, including the Dukes of Somerset and Devon, -and the Earl of Pembroke, strongly opposed it, on the ground that the -quarrel really concerned the Continental States and not us, and that -it was sufficient on our part to act as auxiliaries, and not as the -principal. The queen, however, being determined by the Marlborough -influence to declare war, laid her intentions before Parliament, which -supported her, and accordingly war was proclaimed on the 4th of May, -the Emperor and the States-General issuing their proclamations at the -same time. Louis was charged with having seized on the greater part of -the Spanish dominions, with the design of destroying the liberties of -Europe, and with grossly insulting the queen by declaring the pretended -Prince of Wales the real king of Great Britain and Ireland. When -these charges were read over by De Torcy to Louis, he broke out into -keen reproaches against the Queen of England, and vowed that he would -"make Messieurs the Dutch repent of their presumption." He delayed his -counter-declaration till the 3rd of July. The Commons presented an -address to her Majesty, praying her Majesty to unite with the Emperor -and the States to prohibit all intercourse with France and Spain, and -at the same time to promote commerce in other directions; and the Lords -addressed her, praying her to sanction the fitting out of privateers to -make reprisals on the enemies' ships, which interrupted our trade, and -also to grant charters to all persons who should seize on any of the -French and Spanish territories in the Indies. The queen thanked them -for their zeal, and prorogued Parliament on the 25th of May. - -We may now turn our attention to the progress of the war. When the -States-General received the news of the death of William, they were -struck with the utmost consternation. They appeared to be absolutely -paralysed with terror and dismay. There was much weeping, and amid -vows and embraces they passed a resolution to defend their country -with their lives. The arrival of the address of the Queen of England -to her Privy Council roused their spirits, and this was followed by -a letter from the Earl of Marlborough, addressed to the Pensionary -Fagel, assuring the States of the queen's determination to continue the -alliance and assistance against the common enemy. The queen herself -addressed to the States a letter confirming these assurances, and -despatched it by Mr. Stanhope, who was again appointed Ambassador at -the Hague. Marlborough himself, who left England on the 12th of May -to assume his foreign command, arriving directly afterwards in the -character not only of Commander-in-Chief of the British forces, with a -salary of ten thousand pounds a year, but of Ambassador Extraordinary -and Plenipotentiary, assured the States that the Queen of England was -resolved to maintain all the alliances, and resist the encroachments of -the French in the same spirit as the late king. - -War had been going on some time on the Rhine before Marlborough arrived -there, and still longer before he was prepared to join in it. In -Germany many negotiations had been going on to induce the petty States -to act as contingents of the Empire, or to keep them from joining the -French against their own nation. The House of Brunswick had engaged -to bring to the allied army ten thousand men; Prussia had engaged to -co-operate, and Saxe-Gotha and Wolfenbüttel to abandon the French. The -Electors of Bavaria and Cologne, who had, most traitorously to the -Empire, aided France in her attempts to enslave Germany, pretended now -to stand neutral, but the neutrality was hollow; and the position of -affairs in Poland effectually prevented the northern Powers of Germany -from sending assistance to the Allies in Flanders. Charles XII., still -pursuing the Elector of Saxony as King of Poland, threatened to invade -Saxony. He marched first to Warsaw, and ordered the Cardinal-Primate -to summon a Diet to choose another king, and Augustus, the Saxon King, -posted himself at Cracow. This state of affairs overawed Prussia, and -beyond the Alps the condition of Savoy and Milan, where the French -were strong, tended to prevent a full concentration of force in the -Netherlands against France. - -The position of the contending forces on the Rhine and in the -Netherlands was this:--The Prince of Saarbrück, at the head of -twenty-five thousand men, Dutch, Prussians, and Badenese, was besieging -Kaiserwerth. Athlone and Cohorn were covering the siege of Kaiserwerth, -Athlone (Ginkell) lying between the Rhine and the Meuse, Cohorn with -ten thousand at the mouth of the Scheldt. On the other hand, Tallard, -with thirteen thousand men on the opposite side of the Rhine, annoyed -the besiegers of Kaiserwerth with his artillery, and managed to throw -into the town fresh troops, ammunition, and supplies. Count Delamotte -and the Spanish Marquis of Bedmar covered the western frontier of the -Spanish Netherlands, and the Prince of Baden was posted on the Upper -Rhine. - -Whilst in this position Cohorn marched into the Netherlands, destroyed -the French lines between the forts of Donat and Isabella, and levied -contributions on the chatellany of Bruges; but Bedmar and Delamotte -advancing, he cut the dykes, inundated the country, and retired under -the walls of Sluys. Meanwhile the Duke of Burgundy, taking the command -of the army of Boufflers at Zanten, near Cleves, formed a design to -surprise Nimeguen in conjunction with Tallard, who suddenly quitted -his post near Kaiserwerth, and joined Burgundy. Nimeguen was without -a garrison, and ill supplied with artillery, and must have fallen an -easy prey, had not Athlone, perceiving the object of the enemy, by a -masterly march got the start of them, and posted himself under the -walls of the town before the arrival of the French guards. - -Marlborough all this time was undergoing his first experience of the -difficulties of acting at the head of a miscellaneous body of allies, -and with the caution of Dutch burgomasters. He had blamed William -severely for his slow movements, and now he was himself hampered by -the same obstructions. It was the end of June before he could bring -into order the necessary arrangements for taking the field. Nor could -he have effected this so soon had not the near surprise of Nimeguen -alarmed the Dutch for their frontiers, and quickened their movements. -The fall of Kaiserwerth was another circumstance in his favour. He -collected the forces which had been engaged there, marched the English -troops up from Breda, and in the beginning of July found himself at -Nimeguen at the head of sixty thousand men. Even then he did not -find himself clear of difficulties. His bold plans were checked by -the presence of two field deputies which the Dutch always sent along -with their generals, and who would not permit him to undertake any -movement until they had informed the States-General of it and received -their sanction. Thus it was not the general in the field, but the -States-General at a distance, who really directed the evolutions -of the war; and the only wonder is, that a general in such absurd -leading-strings could effect anything at all. Besides this standing -nuisance, Marlborough found Athlone, the Prince of Saarbrück, and the -other chief generals, all contending for equal authority with him, -and refusing to submit to his commands; and when the States-General -freed him, by a positive order, from this difficulty, the Hanoverians -refused to march without an order from Bothmar, their Ambassador at the -Hague. Instead of sending to Bothmar, Marlborough summoned him to the -camp, as the proper place for him if he was to direct the movements of -the Hanoverian troops, and got rid of this obstacle only to find the -Prussians raising the same difficulties. - -It was not till the 7th of July that he crossed the Waal and encamped -at Druckenburg, a little south of Nimeguen. It was the 16th when -he crossed the Meuse and posted himself at Overhasselt, with the -French forces in front at the distance of two leagues and a half, -entrenched between Goch and Gedap. Here, in a letter to Godolphin, he -complained that still the fears of the Dutch hampered his movements. -He then recrossed the river at Grave, and reached Gravenbroek, where -he was joined by the British train of artillery from Holland. Thus -prepared, he advanced on the French; on the 2nd of August was at Petit -Brugel in their front; but they retired before him, leaving Spanish -Guelderland in his power. He determined to bring the French to an -engagement, but was restrained by the fears of the Dutch deputies; -but, fortunately for him, the French generals had their fears too, and -the Duke of Burgundy, finding Marlborough pressing on him in spite -of his obstructions, resigned his command rather than risk a defeat, -and returned to Versailles, leaving the command to Boufflers. The -deputies of the States, encouraged by these symptoms, recommended -Marlborough to clear the French from Spanish Guelderland, where the -places which they still held on the Meuse interrupted the commerce of -that river. Though the Dutch were merely looking at their own interests -in this design, Marlborough was glad to attack the enemy anywhere. He -despatched General Schultz to reduce the town and castle of Werk, and -in the beginning of September laid siege to Venloo, which, on the 28th -of the month, surrendered. Fort St. Michael, at Venloo, was stormed by -the impetuous Lord Cutts, unrivalled at that work, at the head of the -English volunteers, amongst whom the young Earl of Huntingdon greatly -distinguished himself. He next invested and reduced Ruremond and the -fort of Stevensweert; and Boufflers, confounded by the rapid successes -of Marlborough, retiring on Liége, the English general followed -him, reduced the place, stormed the citadel, and seized in it three -hundred thousand florins in gold, and a million florins in bills on -the substantial merchants of the city, who promptly paid the money. -This terminated the campaign. Marlborough had wonderfully raised his -reputation, won the entire confidence of the States, and, having seen -the French retire behind their lines, he distributed his troops into -winter quarters, and projected his journey homewards. - -The operations at sea had not been so decisive as those of Marlborough -on land. On the 12th of May Sir John Munden, sent out to intercept the -French fleet convoying the Viceroy of Mexico from Corunna to the West -Indies, chased fourteen sail of French ships into Corunna, but, judging -the fortifications too strong to attack them there, put out to sea, and -soon afterwards returned home for provisions, to the great indignation -of the people. Munden was tried by court-martial and acquitted, but -the Prince of Denmark dismissed him from the service notwithstanding. -King William having planned the reduction of Cadiz, the queen was now -advised to put the project into execution. Sir George Rooke was sent -out with a squadron of fifty ships of the line, besides frigates, -fire-ships, and smaller vessels, and carrying the Duke of Ormond with a -land force of fourteen thousand men. The fleet sailed from St. Helens -near the end of June, and anchored on the 12th of August within two -leagues of Cadiz. The governor of fort St. Catherine was summoned to -surrender, but he refused; and on the 15th the Duke of Ormond landed -under a fire from the batteries, and soon took the forts of St. -Catherine and St. Mary. He issued a proclamation declaring that they -came, not to make war on the Spaniards, but to free Spain from the yoke -of France, and that the people and their property should be protected. -But the English soldiers paid no regard to the proclamation, but got -drunk in the wine stores and committed great excesses. Some of the -general officers were found as eager as the soldiers for pillaging; and -the inhabitants, resenting their sufferings, held aloof. To complete -the mischief, the land and sea commanders, as has been too commonly the -case, fell to quarrelling. Ormond wanted to storm the Isla de Leon; -Rooke deemed it too hazardous. An attempt was made to batter Matagorda -fort, but failed, and the troops were re-embarked. - -As the fleet was returning from its inglorious enterprise, it was met -by Captain Hardy, who informed the commander that the galleons from the -West Indies had entered Vigo Bay under convoy of a French squadron. A -council of war was immediately summoned, and it was resolved to tack -about and proceed to Vigo. They appeared before the place on the 11th -of October. The passage into the harbour they found strongly defended -by forts and batteries on both sides, and the passage closed by a -strong boom of iron chains, topmasts, and cables. The admirals shifted -their flags into smaller vessels, for neither first nor second rates -could enter. Five-and-twenty English and Dutch ships of the line of -lesser size, with their frigates, fire-ships, and ketches, now prepared -to make the attempt to force the boom and burn the fleet, and the Duke -of Ormond prepared the way by landing two thousand eight hundred men -six miles from Vigo, and marching on the harbour, where he attacked and -carried a strong fort and a platform of forty pieces of cannon at its -mouth. The moment the British colours were seen flying on the fort the -fleet put itself in motion. Admiral Hopson led the way in the _Torbay_, -and, running with all sail set, dashed against the boom and burst -through it. He was followed by the whole squadron under a tremendous -fire from the ships and batteries; but both ships and batteries were -soon silenced, the batteries by the soldiers on land, the ships by the -fleet. They captured eight ships of war and six galleons; the rest -were set fire to by themselves or the French, to prevent them from -falling into the hands of the English. The Spaniards had lost no time -in removing as much of the plate and merchandise as they could; but the -Allies seized on seven millions of pieces of eight in plate and other -goods, and the Spaniards are supposed to have saved twice as much. Sir -George Rooke left Sir Cloudesley Shovel, who had just arrived, to bring -home the prizes, and sailed for England with the rest of the fleet and -troops in triumph, complaining that Cadiz, too, might have been taken -had Ormond done his duty, and Ormond retorting the blame upon him. - -[Illustration: LORD GODOLPHIN. (_After the Portrait by Sir Godfrey -Kneller._)] - -Had this terminated the usual campaign it might have been considered, -to a certain extent, a success; but an expedition, sent out to cruise -in the waters of the West Indies, under the brave old Benbow, had a -worse fate. He came up with a French fleet under Du Casse, steering -along the shore of Santa Martha, and though he had ten sail of the -line, and the enemy only the same, he found himself deserted by most -of his captains, under the plea that the enemy was too strong. Benbow, -upbraiding their cowardice, attacked the whole fleet with only two -vessels. The battle lasted, off and on, from the 19th of August to -the 24th, some others of the ships occasionally joining him. On the -last day his leg was shattered by a chain-shot, and he was wounded in -the face and in the arm; yet he caused himself to be placed on the -quarter-deck in a cradle, and continued issuing his orders to the -last. Seeing it in vain to contend longer, he returned to Jamaica, -and ordered a court-martial to be held. The reason assigned for the -disobedience of the officers was the rough conduct of Benbow, who was -one of the old boisterous school of seamen, but brave and honest. The -disgrace thus inflicted on his command, combining with his shattered -condition, soon also brought him to his grave. - -Marlborough returned to England in November, and was received with -great applause. Notwithstanding some sharp criticisms on his campaign, -the public saw clearly enough that he was a far superior general to -William, and augured great things from his future command. The queen -met her new Parliament on the 20th of October, which turned out to be -so completely Tory as to carry all before it in that direction. The -Government had no occasion to make much exertion to obtain that result; -it was enough that the queen's decided leaning to the Tories was known. -Addresses of congratulation on the brilliant success of the British -arms under Marlborough were presented by both Houses, which, they said, -"retrieved" the ancient honour and glory of the English nation. This -word "retrieved" roused all the spleen of the Whigs, who knew that it -was meant as a censure on them and King William, who, they contended, -had maintained the honour of the English nation by joining the great -confederacy by which the security of the queen's throne at that moment -was established, and by training our soldiers to their ancient pitch of -discipline and valour. They moved that the word "maintained" should be -substituted for "retrieved," but it was carried against them, amid the -most unmeasured abuse of the memory of the late king, Marlborough being -cried to the skies at his expense. - -The Tories next showed their strength in calling in question various -elections of Whig members, and carried the inquiry against them with -the most open and impudent partiality. - -The Commons then voted the supplies, and in practice justified the -Whigs, by being as lavish for the war as they had been. They voted -forty thousand seamen, and the same number of land forces, to act along -with the Allies. They granted eight hundred and thirty-three thousand -eight hundred and twenty-six pounds for their maintenance; three -hundred and fifty thousand pounds for Guards and garrisons; seventy -thousand nine hundred and seventy-three pounds for ordnance; and -fifty-one thousand eight hundred and forty-three pounds for subsidies -to the Allies--altogether, one million three hundred and six thousand -six hundred and forty-two pounds for the war alone, independent of -the usual national expenses, and these soon required an increase. The -queen demanded of the Commons a further provision for her husband, -the Prince of Denmark, in case of her decease. Howe moved that one -hundred thousand pounds a year should be settled on the prince in case -he should be the survivor. No objection was offered to the amount, but -strenuous opposition was given to a clause in the Bill exempting the -prince from the provision in the Act of Settlement, which prevented any -foreigner, even though naturalised, from holding any employments under -the Crown; but the Court was bent on carrying this, and did so. - -Having secured her husband, Anne then sent a message to the Commons to -inform them that she had created the Earl of Marlborough a duke for -his eminent services, and praying them to settle five thousand pounds -a year on him to enable him to maintain his new dignity. This was so -glaring a case of favouritism that the Commons, with all their loyalty, -expressed their decided disapprobation. The outcry was so great that -the Marlboroughs declined what they saw no means of getting--the -grant--and the queen intimated that fact to the House; but she -immediately offered her favourites two thousand pounds a year out of -her privy purse, which, with affected magnanimity, they also declined, -hoping yet to obtain, at some more favourable crisis, the Parliamentary -grant; and, after that really happened, they then claimed the queen's -offer too. But the opposition of the Tories, whom Marlborough had been -serving with all his influence in Parliament, alienated him from that -party, and he went over to the Whigs. - -What galled Marlborough as much as anything was that he had been in the -House of Lords strongly supporting one of the most illiberal attempts -of the Tories to destroy the effect of the Act of Toleration. The -extreme Tories regarded the Church as entitled to confer all favours, -and they were determined to give it a power by which all corporations -and elections should be thrown into the hands of the Government. For -this purpose Mr. Bromley, Mr. Annesley, and Mr. St. John, who, as a -man of notoriously unorthodox principles, ought at least to have been -tolerant, brought in the Occasional Conformity Bill. They complained -that Dissenters and other disaffected persons took the oaths, and often -went again to the Dissenting meetings; that this was a gross piece of -hypocrisy, and left the Church exposed to much danger from them. They -proposed, therefore, to insist that all who had taken the Sacrament -and test for offices of trust, or for the magistracy of corporations, -and afterwards went to any meeting of the Dissenters, should forfeit -their employments, pay a fine of one hundred pounds, and five pounds -for every day that they continued to hold their office after having -been at a Dissenters' meeting, as well as be disabled from holding any -other employment till after a year's conformity. The Bill was carried -in the Tory Commons by an overwhelming majority; but it was as strongly -opposed in the Lords, where the Whigs were not disposed to pull down -the greatest trophy of their legislation. The Bishops generally voted -against the Bill, and Burnet was extremely active against it. Probably -few of them were actuated by a sense of the monstrosity of the Test and -Corporation Acts, which compelled all to take the Sacrament, whether -opposed to it in that form or not, and thus shut out the honest and -pious, and let in those who had neither honesty nor religion. But they -saw that it would again let loose all the detestable race of spies -and informers from which the country was now happily free, and would, -in reality, only injure instead of benefiting the Church, by making -her an object of general hatred. The Tories themselves affected great -veneration for the Toleration Act, whilst they would thus have stifled -all toleration. - -The queen and the whole Court exerted themselves to force the Bill -through the Upper House, as they had done that for the prince's salary. -Marlborough argued vehemently for it, but the Whig lords hit upon a way -of defeating it by seeming to comply. They agreed to its passing on -condition that all who took the test, and then went to conventicles, -should simply be deprived of their employments and be fined twenty -pounds. They knew that the Commons would not allow the slightest -interference of the Lords with the money part of the Bill, and this -proved to be the case. The Lords searched their rolls, and showed -numerous cases in which they had altered fines, but the Commons refused -to admit any such power. A conference in the Painted Chamber was held, -but with a like result, and after long contention the Bill was, happily -for the nation, dropped. - -A Bill was next brought in to allow another year of grace to all who -had not taken the oath abjuring the pretended Prince of Wales. The -Tories contended that the Jacobite party had now come over to the -queen; but it was shown on the other side that this was but a specious -deception; that the agents of St. Germains were in as full activity as -ever; were constantly coming and going; and whilst they appeared to -favour the queen, it was only to get as strong a party as possible into -the House, eventually to abolish both the abjuration and the Protestant -Succession Bill: that to this end they now advised all persons to take -the Abjuration Bill, and to be able to get into Parliament or power. -The Bill was carried in the Commons; but the Lords again tacked two -clauses to it, one declaring it high treason to endeavour to alter -the succession as settled in the Princess Sophia, and the other to -impose the oath on the Irish. These were not money clauses; whoever -refused them must appear disinclined to the Protestant succession. The -Commons were completely entrapped, and, to the surprise of everybody, -they accepted the clauses, and thus the Bill, which was originally -favourable to the Jacobites, became much more rigid against them. The -queen sent the Lord Keeper, on the 27th of February, 1703, to prorogue -Parliament. - -Lord Rochester was now entirely removed from the queen's councils. His -near relationship to the queen, and his being accounted the champion of -the Church, made him presume in the Council, where he was blustering -and overbearing. He was disappointed in not being placed at the head -of the Treasury, and quarrelled continually with Lord Godolphin. He -had now voted against Marlborough's grant of five thousand pounds a -year, and thus incurred the mortal hatred of the all-powerful Lady -Marlborough. It was clear that Rochester must give way, or the Council -must be rent by continual feuds. He was opposed to the war--another -cause of hostility from the Marlboroughs--to whom it was money, fame, -and everything. He received such intimations from the queen as caused -him to retire into the country in disgust. As he refused all summonses -to attend the Council, her Majesty ordered him to proceed to his -government in Ireland, where his presence was much needed. He replied -with great insolence that he would not go to Ireland, and the post of -Lord-Lieutenant was conferred on the Duke of Ormond. Still declining -to attend the Council, the queen ordered that he should no more be -summoned, and thus terminated Anne's connection with her relatives by -the mother's side. The elder brother of Rochester, Lord Clarendon, had -been excluded the Court for refusing the abjuration of the pretended -Prince of Wales, and his son, Lord Cornbury, little better than an -idiot, was sent to govern the North American colonies, that he might be -out of the way, a system of colonial management by which these colonies -were at length entirely estranged. Rochester survived this disgrace but -a very few weeks. - -It was proposed between the Emperor of Germany and the Allies that the -campaign of 1703 should be opened with effect, and by measures which -should go far to paralyse France. The Archduke Charles, the Emperor's -second son, was to declare himself King of Spain, to propose for -the hand of the Infanta of Portugal, and to proceed to that country -to prosecute his claims on Spain by the assistance of the English -and Dutch fleets. Meanwhile the Emperor promised to take the field -with such a force as to drive the Elector of Bavaria, the active and -able ally of France, out of his dominions. But Louis, as usual, was -too rapid in his movements for the slow Germans. He ordered Marshal -Villars, who lay with thirty thousand men at Strasburg, to pass the -Rhine, and advance into Bavaria to the support of the Elector. The -war was thus skilfully diverted by Louis from the Rhine into the very -neighbourhood of the Emperor. On the other hand, Marlborough, who -was the soul of the war on the Lower Rhine, had been detained by his -exertions to counteract the efforts of Louis XIV. in another quarter. -Insurrections had broken out amongst Louis's Protestant subjects in -the Cevennes, who had been barbarously oppressed. Marlborough, who -cared more for the paralysing of Louis than for the interests of -Protestantism, strongly proposed in the Council that assistance should -be sent to the mountaineers of the Cevennes. This was fighting Louis -with his own weapons, who was exciting insurrection in Hungary and -Bohemia amongst the subjects of the Emperor. Nottingham and others of -the Council as strongly opposed this measure, on the principle of not -exciting subjects against their legitimate sovereign; but Marlborough -prevailed. Arms and ammunition were forwarded to the Cevennes, and -direct communications were ordered to be opened with the insurgents, -which would have compelled Louis to detain a large force for the -subjugation of these rebels, which otherwise would have gone to the -Rhine; but these aids never reached the unfortunate mountaineers. - -Marlborough reached the Hague on the 17th of March, much earlier still -than William used to arrive there. Nor had the war paused for his -arrival. He had stimulated the Prussians to be in action much earlier. -In February they had reduced the fortress of the Rhineberg, and then -proceeded to blockade Guelders, the last place in the power of France -on the frontiers of Spanish Guelderland. It was fortunate, for the -unity of command, that Athlone and Saarbrück, Marlborough's jealous -rivals, were both dead; so that now Marlborough had only the Dutch camp -deputies as clogs on his movements, but they were quite sufficient -often to neutralise his most spirited projects. He found Villeroi and -Boufflers posted on the frontiers of the Spanish Netherlands, and his -design was to attack and drive them out of Flanders and Brabant. But -here, in the very commencement, he was obliged by the States-General -to give up his own views to theirs. They desired an immediate attack -on Bonn, persuading themselves that the Elector of Cologne would -rather capitulate than risk the ruin of the town. Marlborough went -reluctantly but not inertly into this plan, foreseeing that it would -waste much precious time, and prevent him from falling on Villeroi and -Boufflers at the right moment, when the attempt to support the Elector -of Bavaria had drawn many of their forces away into Germany. He was the -more chagrined the more he saw of the want of energy in the Allies. -He proceeded to Nimeguen to arrange with Cohorn the plan of the siege -of Bonn. He visited and inspected the garrisons at Venloo, Ruremond, -Maestricht, and the other places which he took in the previous campaign -on the Meuse. Arriving at Cologne, he found preparations made for a -siege, but in a most negligent manner; and Cohorn especially excited -his disgust by proposing to defer the siege of this place till the end -of summer. But Marlborough knew too well the necessity of preventing -an attack from that quarter; ordered the place to be invested, and -then marched on Bonn with forty battalions, sixty squadrons, and a -hundred pieces of artillery. The trenches were opened on the 3rd of -May, and it was assaulted from three different quarters at once; on one -side by the forces under the hereditary prince of Hesse-Cassel, on -another by those under Cohorn, and on the third by Lieutenant-General -Fagel. The city capitulated on the 15th, and the commander, the Marquis -D'Allegré, and his garrison were conducted to Luxemburg. During the -siege continually arrived the news of the successes of the Elector of -Bavaria, and the failures of the Imperial troops; and Villeroi and -Boufflers advanced, took Tongres, and menaced the Allies from that -quarter with forty thousand men. - -[Illustration: H.R.H. THE PRINCESS ANNE OF DENMARK, AFTERWARDS QUEEN OF -ENGLAND. - -FROM THE PAINTING BY W. WISSING AND J. VANDERVAART.] - -No sooner was Bonn reduced than Marlborough determined to prosecute his -original plan of driving the French from Flanders. He now dispatched -Cohorn, Spaar, and Opdam to commence operations at Bergen-op-Zoom, -whilst he addressed himself to dislodge Villeroi and Boufflers from -Tongres. In order to divide the energies of the French, a part -of his plan was that the powerful English and Dutch fleet was to -keep the coast of that country in alarm from Calais to Dieppe, and -actually to make a descent on the land near the latter port. But the -French resolved to cut off the division of Opdam from the main army. -Boufflers, with twenty thousand men, surprised him, and the Dutch -falling into confusion, Opdam believed the day lost, and fled to Breda. - -[Illustration: VIEW IN LISBON: THE PRÁÇA DE DOM PEDRO.] - -Opdam's miscarriage had greatly deranged Marlborough's plan of attack -on Antwerp. Spaar and Cohorn were already near Antwerp with their -united forces, but the check received by Opdam's division delayed the -simultaneous advance. Villeroi lay in the path of Marlborough near St. -Job, and declared that he would wait for him; but the moment the duke -advanced to Hoogstraat to give him battle, he set fire to his camp and -retreated within his lines with all haste. Boufflers had joined Bedmar -in Antwerp, and Marlborough advanced and laid siege to Huy, which -surrendered on the 27th of August. He now called a council of war to -decide the plan of attack on Antwerp, and was well supported by the -Danish, Hanoverian, and Hessian generals, but again found opposition -from the Dutch officers and the deputies of the States, who deemed the -attempt too dangerous. They recommended him to attempt the reduction of -Limburg, by which they would acquire a whole province; and despairing -now of accomplishing his great object, the reduction of Antwerp, this -campaign--having the Dutch officers, the Dutch deputies, and the Dutch -Louvestein faction all working against him--he turned aside to Limburg, -and reduced it in a couple of days. This acquisition put into the power -of the Allies the whole country from Cologne, including Liége; and -Guelders being afterwards stormed by the Prussian General Lottum, the -whole of Spanish Guelderland remained theirs. - -Elsewhere the war went in favour of the French, and the affairs of -the Emperor never appeared more gloomy; instead of recovering Spain, -Louis was fast depriving him of his Empire. He was supporting against -him the rebellious Hungarians, who were in arms under Prince Ragotski, -and who had plenty of oppressions to complain of. Suddenly, however, -some gleams of light shot across his gloom. The Duke of Savoy, who -seldom remained true to one side long, grew alarmed at the French -being masters of the Milanese, and was induced to open communications -with the Emperor. But the secret negotiations were speedily discovered -by the French, and the Duke of Vendôme received orders to disarm the -Savoyards who were in his army; to demand that the troops of Savoy -should be reduced to the scale of 1696, and that four principal -fortresses should be put into the hands of France. But the Duke of -Savoy was by no means inclined to submit to these demands. He treated -them as insults to an ally, and ordered the arrest of the French -ambassador and several officers of his nation. Louis, astonished at -the decision of these proceedings, wrote the duke a most menacing -letter, informing him that as neither honour, interest, religion, nor -the oaths of alliance were regarded by him, he should leave the Duke -of Vendôme to deal with him, who would give him four-and-twenty hours -to determine his course in. This imperious letter only hastened the -duke's alienation. He concluded the treaty with Vienna, and answered -Louis's letter by a defiance. He acknowledged the Archduke Charles -King of Spain, and despatched envoys to Holland and England. Queen -Anne immediately sent an ambassador to Turin; and a body of Imperial -horse under Visconti, followed by fifteen thousand foot under Count -Staremberg, issued from the Modenese, and in the midst of the most -stormy weather and through miry roads marched to join the Duke of Savoy -at Canelli. The French harassed them fearfully on the march, but could -not prevent their junction, by which Piedmont was placed in security. - -In the same way, Portugal had declared for the Emperor. The fear of -having Louis in possession of Spain had operated with Portugal, as -similar causes had operated with Savoy. The King of Portugal agreed to -give his daughter to the Archduke Charles, on condition that the right -to the throne of Spain was transferred to him. England and Holland were -to support the Portuguese and the new King of Spain from the sea. -The treaty was concluded at Lisbon, and a fleet of forty-nine sail, -under Sir Cloudesley Shovel, lay off Lisbon to protect the coasts from -the French. Charles was to be conveyed to Lisbon by a powerful fleet, -having on board twelve thousand soldiers, who were, on landing, to be -joined by twenty-eight thousand Portuguese. The allied fleets had done -nothing of importance during this summer. - -The Archduke Charles, having assumed the title of King of Spain, set -out from Vienna about the middle of September, and reached Düsseldorf -on the 16th of October, where he was met by the Elector Palatine and -the Duke of Marlborough, who was commissioned by Queen Anne to offer -his congratulations. Marlborough accompanied Charles of Austria to -the Hague, where they were both received with high honours by the -States-General. Marlborough then hastened over to England to be -ready to receive the royal guest on his way to Portugal. On the 26th -of December the new King of Spain arrived at Spithead in the Dutch -squadron sent to convey him. The queen dispatched the Dukes of Somerset -and Marlborough to conduct him to Windsor, and Prince George met him on -the way at Petworth, the seat of the Duke of Somerset, and conducted -him to Windsor on the 29th. The king was entertained in great state -for three days at Windsor, during which time he was politic enough to -ingratiate himself with the Duchess of Marlborough. When the duchess -presented the bason and napkin after supper to the queen for her to -wash her hands, the king gallantly took the napkin and held it himself, -and on returning it to the queen's great favourite, he presented her -with a superb diamond ring. - -After three days the king returned to Portsmouth, and on the 4th of -January, 1704, he embarked on board the fleet commanded by Sir George -Rooke, for Portugal, accompanied by a body of land forces under the -Duke of Schomberg. The voyage was, however, a most stormy one, and when -the fleet had nearly reached Cape Finisterre, it was compelled to put -back to Spithead, where it remained till the middle of February. His -next attempt was more successful, and he landed in Lisbon amid much -popular demonstration, though the Court itself was sunk in sorrow by -the death of the Infanta, whom he went to marry. - -Before the arrival of Charles in England, it had been visited by one -of the most terrible storms on record. The tempest began on the 27th -of November, 1703, attended by such thunder and lightning as had never -been experienced by living man. The Thames overflowed its banks, and -was several feet deep in Westminster Hall. The houses in London seemed -shaken from their foundations, and many actually fell, burying the -inhabitants in their ruins. The loss in London alone was estimated -at a million sterling, and the storm raged with equal fury in other -places. Bristol was a great sufferer; but the greatest destruction fell -on the fleet. Thirteen ships of war were lost, and fifteen hundred -seamen, including Rear-Admiral Beaumont, who foundered in the Downs. -Many of the oldest trees in the parks were torn up, and the lead on the -churches was rolled up in scrolls. This unparalleled storm raged most -fiercely along the southern and western counties, being scarcely felt -in the northern ones. The Bishop of Bath and Wells, with his wife, was -killed in the episcopal palace by the fall of a stack of chimneys. - -The queen opened Parliament on the 9th of November. She spoke of -the new treaties with the Duke of Savoy and the King of Portugal as -subjects of congratulation; and on the 12th the Lords presented an -address to the queen, expressing their satisfaction at her having -entered into these treaties, and even displayed a zeal beyond them. The -Commons on their part voted fifty-eight thousand soldiers and forty -thousand sailors as the standard of the army and navy, and they granted -the requisite supplies with the utmost readiness. No sooner was this -patriotic demonstration made, than the Commons again introduced the -Occasional Conformity Bill, and carried it by a large majority, on -pretence that the Church was in danger; but the Lords attacked it with -greater animosity than ever, and threw it out. - -At this moment the nation became alarmed with the rumour of a -conspiracy amongst the Jacobites in Scotland. When the queen, on -the 17th of December, went to the Lords to give her assent to the -Land Tax Bill, she informed them that she had made discoveries of a -seditious nature in Scotland, which, as soon as it could be done with -prudence, she assured them should be laid before them. The Lords, in -their loyalty, were not disposed to wait for these disclosures, but -appointed a Committee to inquire into the plot, and even went so far as -to take some of the parties implicated out of the hands of the queen's -messengers, to examine them themselves. - -The year 1704 opened amid these inquiries. The Queen laid before the -House of Lords the papers concerning the Highland plot, with one -exception, which the Earl of Nottingham asserted could not yet be -made public without tending to prevent further discovery. This only -stimulated the Lords, who addressed the queen, praying that the whole -of the papers might be submitted to them. The queen replied that she -did not expect to be pressed in this manner, but she ordered the papers -in question to be delivered to them under seal. The Peers pursued the -inquiry with renewed vigour, and soon issued a report that it appeared -to them that there had been a dangerous conspiracy, instigated by Simon -Fraser, Lord Lovat, carried on for raising a rebellion in Scotland, -and invading that kingdom with French forces, in order to subvert her -Majesty's Government and bring in the pretended Prince of Wales, and -that they were of opinion that nothing had given so much encouragement -to this conspiracy as the Scots not coming into the Hanover succession -as fixed in England. They therefore besought the queen to procure the -settlement of the Crown of Scotland on the Princess Sophia, and when -that was done they would use all their influence for a union of the two -kingdoms. - -Anne expressed her entire concurrence in these views, and the Lords -then presented another address in answer to the second address of the -Commons. They charged the Commons with manifesting a want of zeal for -the queen's safety, and with showing a strange reluctance that the -particulars of the plot should be brought to light, obstructing all -through, as much as in them lay, the necessary inquiry; and fresh fuel -was immediately furnished to the flame already blazing between the two -Houses. One Matthew Ashby, a freeman of Aylesbury, brought an action -against William White and others, the constables of Aylesbury, for -preventing him from exercising his franchise at the last election. -This was an unheard-of proceeding, all matters relating to elections -being from time immemorial referred to the House of Commons itself. -The circumstances of the case, however, furnished some reason for this -departure from the rule. It appeared that four constables made the -return, who were known to have bargained with a particular candidate, -and to have so managed that the election should be his. In appeals -to the Commons the party which happened to be in power had in a most -barefaced manner always decided in favour of the man of their own side. -Ashby, therefore, sought what he hoped would prove a more impartial -tribunal. He tried the cause at the assizes, and won it; but it was -then moved in the Queen's Bench to quash these proceedings as novel and -contrary to all custom. Three of the judges were opposed to hearing the -case, the matter belonging notoriously to the House of Commons; and -they argued that, if this practice were introduced, it would occasion -a world of suits, and make the office of returning members a very -dangerous one. The Lord Chief Justice Holt alone was in favour of it. -He contended that there was a great difference between the election of -a member and a right to vote. The decision of the election undoubtedly -belonged to the Commons, but the right to vote being founded upon a -forty-shilling freehold, upon burgage land, upon a prescription, or the -charter of a borough, was clearly establishable by a court of law. The -judges at length permitted the trial, but, being three against one, -the decision was for the constables. This aroused the indignation of -the whole Whig party, and the cause was removed by a writ of error to -the House of Lords. The Lords, after a full hearing, and taking the -opinions of the judges, confirmed the judgment given in favour of Ashby -at the assizes. - -The Commons now took up the affair with great warmth. They passed -five resolutions--namely, that all matters relating to elections and -the right of examining and determining the qualifications of electors -belonged solely to them; that Ashby was guilty of a breach of their -privileges, and they denounced the utmost weight of their resentment -against all persons who should follow his example and bring any such -suit into a court of law, as well as against all counsel, attorneys, or -others who should assist in such suit. They ordered these resolutions -to be affixed to the gates of Westminster Hall. The Lords took instant -measures to rebut these charges. They appointed a committee to draw -up a statement of the case, and resolved upon its Report "that every -person being wilfully hindered from exercising his right of voting -might seek for justice and redress in common courts of law against -the officer by whom his vote had been refused; that any assertion to -the contrary was destructive of the property of the subject, against -the freedom of election, and manifestly tending to the encouragement -of bribery and corruption; and finally that the declaring Matthew -Ashby guilty of a breach of privilege of the House of Commons was an -unprecedented attempt upon the Judicature of Parliament in the House -of Lords, and an attempt to subject the law of England to the will and -votes of the Commons." - -They ordered the Lord-Keeper to send copies of the case and their -votes to all the Sheriffs of England, to be by them communicated to -the boroughs in their respective counties. The House of Commons was -greatly enraged at this, but it had no power to prevent it, and it had -the mortification to see that the public feeling went entirely with the -Lords, who certainly were the defenders of the rights of the subject, -whilst the Commons, corruptly refusing a just redress to such appeals, -endeavoured to prevent the sufferers from obtaining it anywhere else. - -One of the most striking acts of this reign was the grant of the -first-fruits and tenths of church livings to the poor clergy. The -tenths were about eleven thousand pounds a year, and the first-fruits -about five thousand pounds. These moneys had been collected by the -bishops since the Reformation and paid to the Crown. They had never, -says Burnet, "been applied to any good use, but were still obtained -by favourites for themselves and friends, and in King Charles's time -went chiefly amongst his women and children. It seemed strange that, -whilst the clergy had much credit at Court, they had never resented -this as sacrilege unless it were applied to some religious purpose, -and that during Archbishop Laud's favour with King Charles I., or at -the restoration of King Charles II., no endeavours had been used to -appropriate this to better uses; sacrilege was charged on other things -on very slight grounds, but this, which was more visible, was always -forgot." But the fund was too convenient a fund for favourites to -get grants upon. It is much to the credit of Burnet that he managed -to divert this misused fund from the greedy clutches of courtiers -and mistresses, to the amelioration of the condition of the unhappy -working clergy. He proposed the scheme first to William, who listened -to it readily, being assured by Burnet that nothing would tend to -draw the hearts of the clergy so much towards him, and put a stop to -the groundless clamour that he was the enemy of the clergy. Somers -and Halifax heartily concurred in the plan; but the avaricious old -Sunderland got a grant of it upon two dioceses for two thousand pounds -a year for two lives, which frustrated the aims of the reformers. -Burnet, however, succeeded better with Anne. He represented that there -were hundreds of cures that had not twenty pounds a year, and some -thousands that had not thirty pounds, and asked what could the clergy -be or do under such circumstances? Therefore, on the 7th of February, -1704, Sir Charles Hedges, the Secretary of State, announced to the -Commons that her Majesty had remitted the arrears of the tenths to the -poor clergy, and had resolved to grant in future the whole of the -first-fruits and tenths for the augmentation of small livings. The -Commons replied in an address, expressing their sense of her pious -care for the Church, and brought in a Bill to enable her to alienate -this branch of the revenue, and to create a corporation by charter, -to apply the money, according to the queen's intention, in increasing -the wretched stipends of the poorer clergy. There was an attempt made -to relieve the clergy altogether from the payment of first-fruits and -tenths, and to devote some other fund to the relief of the poor clergy; -but as Anne's intention was not to relieve the rich but to comfort the -poor, she would not listen to it. The Statute of Mortmain was also -relaxed by a provision of the Bill, so far as to allow individuals to -make augmentations to benefices by deed of gift or by bequest. The -Bishops were unanimous for the Bill, and addresses of thanks from all -the clergy of England were presented to Anne on the occasion of this -noble gift of what has been ever since known as Queen Anne's Bounty. -However, Anne was far from being so generous to Dissenters, or to any -other sect in the kingdom. On the contrary, she had just before allowed -the Parliament of Ireland to stop the poor sum of twelve hundred -pounds per annum, which had been paid by the late king to the indigent -Presbyterian ministers of Ulster, who had so manfully defended the -north of Ireland against James. - -[Illustration: THE KING OF SPAIN AT WINDSOR: HIS GALLANTRY TO THE -DUCHESS OF MARLBOROUGH. (_See p._ 546.)] - -On the 3rd of April the queen prorogued Parliament till the 4th -of July. The Convocation had during this time kept up its bitter -controversy, and had done nothing more except thank the queen for -the grant of the first-fruits and tenths, and the Commons for having -espoused their cause. - -Marlborough had left London for the Hague on the 15th of January whilst -Parliament was sitting. He was promised fifty thousand British troops -under his own immediate command, and he was planning a campaign which -gave the first evidence of a real military genius being at the head -of the Allied forces, since these Dutch wars began. He saw that the -Elector of Bavaria, by his alliance with the French, was striking at -the very heart of the Empire, and that, if permitted to continue his -plans, he would soon, with his French allies, be in possession of -Vienna. Nothing could be more deplorable than the condition of Austria. -Besides the successes of the Elector of Bavaria, the insurgents of -Hungary were triumphant, and between the two the Empire was on the -verge of ruin. The Elector of Bavaria had possessed himself of all -the places on the Danube as far as Passau, and should he come to act -in concert with the Hungarians, Vienna would be lost. Prince Eugene -put himself into communication with Marlborough, and these two great -generals determined on striking a blow which should at once free -Austria from its dangers. This was no other than a bold march of a -powerful army to the Danube, and the destruction of the Elector of -Bavaria. - -This was a design so far out of the mediocre range of Dutch campaigns -that it was determined not to let its real character become known -till it could be instantly put in execution, certain that the -States-General, terrified at so daring a scheme, would prohibit it at -once. To go securely to work, therefore, by the advice of Eugene, the -Emperor applied to the Queen of England to send an army to his rescue. -Marlborough supported the application with all his energy, and, having -procured the queen's consent, he left England on the 15th of January, -was in the Hague on the 19th, and put himself into secret communication -with the Grand Pensionary Heinsius. He fully approved of the scheme, -and promised to give it his most strenuous support. It was thought, -however, imprudent to confide the real extent of the plan to other -persons, not only because it was sure to alarm the States-General, -but because it had been all along observed that every proposal, as -soon as it became known to the Government or heads of the army, was -immediately treacherously conveyed to the French. The proposal made to -the States-General, therefore, was merely that the next campaign should -be made on the Moselle, as if the design were to penetrate into France -along that river. - -The States-General, as was expected, appeared thunderstruck by even -the proposal of carrying the war to the Moselle, and it was only by -the zeal of Heinsius that they were brought to consent to it. That -accomplished, they were induced to grant a subsidy to the Prince of -Baden, and another to the Circle of Suabia, and to take into pay -four thousand Würtembergers instead of the same number of Dutch and -English despatched to Portugal. There was a promise of money given to -the Prince of Savoy, with an assurance of so vigorous a campaign on -this side of the Alps that the French should not be able to send many -troops against him. Similar assurances of co-operation were given to -the Elector Palatine and to the new King of Prussia. These matters -being arranged, Marlborough hastened back to England, and persuaded -the queen to remit a hundred thousand crowns to Suabia, and to make a -large remittance to the Prince of Baden out of the privy purse. He then -put himself on a good understanding with the now partly Whig Ministry, -himself as well as his indefatigable duchess coming out in Whig -colours. He then returned to the Netherlands in the beginning of April. -He found in his absence that the terms of his design, little of it as -was known, had been actively operating in the cautious Dutch mind, -and the States of Zealand and Friesland in particular were vehemently -opposed to so bold a measure as carrying the war to the Moselle. -Marlborough, who had brought with him to support him in command his -brother General Churchill, Lieutenant-General Lumley, the Earl of -Orkney, and other officers of distinction, told the States plainly -that he had the authority of his queen for taking such measures as he -thought best for the common cause, and that he was determined to march -with his forty thousand men to the Moselle. This struck with silence -the opposers of the measure: the States consented with a good grace to -the proposition, and gave him such powers as they never would have done -had they any idea to what an extent he meant to use them. Prince Eugene -alone, who was commanding the Allied army on the Upper Danube, was in -the secret. Leaving Overkirk with a strong force to guard the frontiers -of Holland, he commenced at once his march to Utrecht, where he spent a -few days with Albemarle, thence to Ruremond, and so to Maestricht, and -on the 8th of May advanced to Bedburg, in the Duchy of Juliers, which -had been appointed as the place of rendezvous. There he found General -Churchill with fifty-one battalions, and ninety-two squadrons of horse. - -Being joined by various detachments of Prussians, Hessians, -Lüneburgers, and others, and also by eleven Dutch battalions, -Marlborough, on the 19th of May, commenced his great expedition into -the heart of Germany. On the 26th he was at Coblentz, and from the -grand old fortress of Ehrenbreitstein he watched the passage of his -army over the Moselle and the Rhine. He wrote to the States-General for -fresh reinforcements in order to secure his most important movement, -and marched along the banks of the Rhine to Broubach. There he also -wrote to the King of Prussia, praising the Prussian troops, and -entreating him to send him more of them. While he was at Mainz, he -halted a day to rest his troops, and there received the agreeable news -that the States were sending after him twenty squadrons, and eight -battalions of Danish auxiliaries; but at the same time he was mortified -to find that the Prince of Baden had managed so badly as to allow the -ten thousand troops forwarded by Tallard to join the Elector of Bavaria -without molestation, and had lost the most tempting opportunities, -whilst the Elector was marching through narrow defiles, of cutting off -his march and reducing him to extremities. - -The French were filled with wonder at this march of Marlborough, far -out from the usual scene of the English operations, and could not for -some time realise the object of it. At one time they expected only an -attack on the Moselle, but that river and the Rhine being crossed, -they apprehended that his design was to raise the siege of Landau, -and this was confirmed by the advance of the Landgrave of Hesse to -Mannheim. But when he crossed the Neckar and advanced on Erpingen, and -was continually strengthened by fresh junctions of Prussians, Hessians, -and Palatines, they began to comprehend his real object. He waited at -Erpingen for the coming up of General Churchill with the artillery and -part of the infantry, and he employed the time in sending a despatch -to warn the Prince of Baden that Tallard and Villeroi were about to -unite their armies, pass the Rhine, and hasten to the support of the -Elector of Bavaria. He pressed on the prince the extreme importance of -preventing this passage of the French army. He told him that they must -not trouble themselves about any damage that Villeroi might do on the -left bank of the Rhine, if he could only be kept there, as in that case -he felt assured that six weeks would see the army of the Elector of -Bavaria annihilated, and the Empire saved. - -Marlborough was anxious to keep the Prince of Baden engaged on the -Rhine, so that he might himself have the co-operation of the far abler -Eugene on the Danube. On the 9th of June he crossed the Neckar again, -marched to Mondelsheim, and on the 10th met for the first time Prince -Eugene, who was destined to be for ever connected with his name in -military glory. At Hippach Marlborough reviewed his cavalry in the -presence of Eugene, who expressed his utmost admiration at their -appearance and discipline. He was equally struck with the lively and -ardent expression of the countenances of the English soldiers, which -Marlborough handsomely assured him was caused by their pleasure in -seeing so renowned a commander. To the intense mortification of Eugene -and Marlborough, the Prince of Baden, whom they were anxious to detain -on the Rhine, quitted the post where his presence was so much required, -and came up and joined them. He was determined to be in the quarter -where the greatest share of reputation was to be won, and from his -princely rank he did not hesitate to claim the chief command. - -This notion of their princely claims, combined with their mediocrity of -military talent, has always been the mischief of a campaign in alliance -with the small princes of Germany. The whole plan of Marlborough and -Eugene was in danger of defeat, and Eugene was compelled to go to the -Rhine, and Marlborough to admit of the Prince of Baden taking the -command on alternate days. He secretly resolved, however, that any -actions of consequence should be entered upon only on his own day. -Eugene had now taken his departure, and on the 15th of June was at -Philippsburg, on the Rhine, and Marlborough felt it time to press on, -for the States-General were now continually sending to him alarming -accounts of the French, and entreating him to send back part of his -army for their defence. Accordingly, on the 20th, he set forward, and -passed successfully the narrow, dangerous, and troublesome pass of -Geislingen, lying amongst the mountains which separated him from the -plains of the Danube. This pass was two miles long, heavy with the -deepest mud, and abounding with torrents swollen by the rains. Once -through, he came into contact with the forces of the Prince of Baden, -which were posted at Wertersteppen. On the 24th the united armies -reached Elchingen, near the Danube. The Elector of Bavaria, who was -posted at Ulm, retired, at his approach, along the banks of the Danube -to a former encampment of himself and his French allies, in a low and -swampy place between Lauingen and Dillingen. Marlborough advanced to -the little river Brenz, and encamped within two leagues of the enemy, -with his right at Amerdighem and his left at Onderingen. There he -waited till the 27th, when his brother, General Churchill, came up -with the artillery and part of the infantry. The army now amounted to -ninety-six battalions, two hundred and two squadrons, with forty-eight -pieces of artillery, pontoons, etc. He still, however, judged it -prudent to wait for the Danish horse under the Duke of Würtemberg, -which were daily expected. - -During this delay the Elector forestalled the Allies in securing the -fortress of the Schellenberg, situated on a lofty hill overhanging the -town of Donauwörth. Marlborough saw the immense advantage thus gained, -and determined, cost what it might, to drive them from this stronghold. -It was held by the General Count D'Arco, with twelve thousand men; -and it was clear that it could not be forced without great loss. But -there was no time to delay. So long as the Elector held Schellenberg he -kept them in check, and was enabled to wait for the arrival of French -forces sent to relieve him. The Prince of Baden was confounded at the -daring of such an undertaking, and strongly opposed it; but Marlborough -told him that every day's delay only enabled the enemy to strengthen -himself by fresh entrenchments both there and in their swampy camp. On -the 1st of July Marlborough, having the command for the day, ordered -the assault of the Schellenberg. At three o'clock in the morning this -hardy attempt began. The picked troops advanced to the front of the -Schellenberg, crossing, on bridges prepared for the occasion, the -deep and rapid stream called the Wernitz, about noon. The Austrian -grenadiers were far in the rear, and it was five in the afternoon -before the order was given for the column to ascend. It was a murderous -prospect for the assailants. The hill was steep and rugged; the ascent -was rendered additionally difficult by a wood, a rivulet, and a deep -ravine; whilst the summit of the hill was covered with soldiers -ready to pour down the most destructive storm of shot, and that with -the prospect of an unlimited supply of soldiers and ammunition from -Donauwörth and the camp on the other side of the Danube, which was -connected with this side by a bridge. Lord Mordaunt with fifty English -grenadiers led the way as a forlorn hope. The officers of the attacking -column were nearly all killed, and it appeared likely to be swept down -the hill, but a battalion of English Guards stood its ground firmly, -and restored the courage of the rest, and once more they advanced. -D'Arco then gathered in his flanks and threw the whole weight of -his soldiery upon them to annihilate them, still pouring murderous -discharges of grape into them. It appeared impossible that any body of -men could exist under such disadvantages, and the whole column seemed -giving way, when General Lumley rushed forward at the head of a body of -horse, rallied the failing ranks, and led them again to the charge. -During this terrible conflict the assailants had not been sacrificed -unavenged. They had exterminated their enemies almost as fast as they -came, and at this moment a powder magazine exploding in the camp of the -Bavarians, spread such consternation that the Allies, taking advantage -of the panic, rushed forward, burst into the entrenchments, and threw -the whole force into confusion. This confusion was put to the climax by -the Bavarians observing the Prince of Baden ascending the hill from the -side of Donauwörth, at the head of the Imperial troops. The panic was -complete; the French and Bavarians broke in every direction, and made -the best of their way down the hill to secure the passage of the bridge -over the Danube. The Allies gave chase, and made a fearful carnage -amongst the fugitives. By the time they reached the bridge, such was -the rush and crush to cross it that it gave way. Numbers were plunged -into the stream and perished; numbers were driven by the force behind -over the banks; numbers were massacred on the spot. Of the twelve -thousand troops who had ascended the Schellenberg, only three thousand -ever rejoined the Elector of Bavaria, but many came in as stragglers -and joined the Allies. There were seven or eight thousand destroyed on -that bloody evening. - -What was to be expected from the particular spirit which the Prince -of Baden had shown, took place. Though he deprecated the attack of -the Schellenberg at all, and though he allowed the English to bear -the terrible brunt of the ascent, and came up in the rear of the -engagement, because he reached the entrenchments before Marlborough -himself came up, he claimed the honour of the victory. Had he headed -the attacking column, he would have had no other claim but that of a -brave officer, for the whole plan of the campaign and the whole plan of -the attack of the Schellenberg were Marlborough's. Had the prince had -his way, there would have been no battle at all. Marlborough repelled -the mean attempt to steal his victory with contempt, and spoke some -homely truths to the Prince. It served the Louvestein faction in the -Netherlands, however, with a pretext to injure Marlborough, by casting -a medal bearing the portrait of the Prince, and on the reverse the -lines of Schellenberg. But all over the world, not excepting Germany, -justice was done to Marlborough, and from that moment his name became -famous, celebrated in songs even by the French, dreaded by French -children, whose mothers stilled them with the terrible word "Malbrouk." - -But the French were hastening to prevent the destruction of their -Bavarian ally. Marlborough received the news that they had promised to -send to the Elector, under Tallard, fifty battalions of foot, and sixty -squadrons of horse of the best troops in France, which should make him -stronger than the Confederates. These troops had already crossed the -Rhine, and were making their way through the Black Forest. At the same -time Eugene, though obliged to divide his forces, at once to watch -Villeroi on the Rhine and to check the march of Tallard, promised -Marlborough that he would do his uttermost to retard the junction. -Meanwhile the Elector, in too dangerous a proximity to the victorious -army, abandoned Donauwörth, broke up his camp, and retreated towards -Augsburg, leaving his own dominions open to the incursions of the -Allies. Marlborough lost no time in availing himself of the chance. He -prepared to cross the deep and rapid river Lech, which was effected on -the 7th of July at Gunderkingen. - -[Illustration: PRINCE EUGINE OF SAVOY. (_After the Portrait by Sir -Godfrey Kneller._)] - -Marlborough was now in Bavaria, and the garrison at Neuburg retreating -to Ingolstadt, he had the whole of the country at his mercy. He posted -his camp at Mittelstetten on the 10th, and sent word to the Elector -that if he did not choose to come to terms he would do his best to -ruin his country; but the Elector, strongly encamped under the walls -of Augsburg, and promised early succour by the French, made no sign of -treating. Marlborough suffered his troops to levy contributions on the -country round, and his army lived luxuriously at the expense of the -unfortunate Bavarians. The true policy of the Allies was to march on -the Elector, and dispose of him before the French could come up; but -for this the Prince of Baden was in too ill a humour. In fact, the -two generals were on the worst possible terms with each other, and the -consequence was, the obvious interests of the campaign were sacrificed -to the feud and jealousy of the leaders. Marlborough proposed to march -on Munich, the capital, and take it, but the Prince would not furnish -the necessary artillery, and the thing was impossible. Marlborough -spent five days in taking Rain, a fortress of little consequence. He -also dispatched thirty squadrons to assist Eugene in obstructing the -march of the French to join the Elector. He contrived also to open -negotiations with the Elector of Bavaria. The envoy of the Emperor -offered to the Elector to restore all his dominions, and pay him a -subsidy of two hundred thousand crowns, on condition of his breaking -with the French and assisting the Emperor with twelve thousand men. But -the negotiation came to nothing, for Tallard was now rapidly advancing -with his army, and the Elector, instead of keeping an appointment with -the Emperor's envoy, sent him word that since the King of France had -made such powerful exertions to support him, he thought himself in -honour obliged to remain firm to his alliance. The Allied generals were -so much exasperated at this result that they gave up the whole country, -as far as the walls of Munich, to the ravages of the soldiery, and -three hundred burning towns, villages, and castles marked the terrible -fury of the Allies, and left an indelible stain on the glories of that -campaign. - -Scarcely had Marlborough removed from before Augsburg when the Elector -quitted his camp and marched to Biberach, and there effected a junction -with Tallard. - -On the 6th of August Prince Eugene galloped into Marlborough's camp to -announce this fact, and to take measures for competing with them. It -was resolved between them to get rid of the fatal incubus of the Prince -of Baden, with his pride and his jealousy, by leaving him to continue -the siege of Ingolstadt, for which purpose they left him twenty-three -battalions and thirty-one squadrons. Marlborough then prepared again -to cross the Lech and the Danube, and advance to Exheim. Here Prince -Eugene, who had set out to bring up his force to form a junction with -Marlborough, galloped back to inform him that the united French and -Bavarian army was in full march towards Dillingen, evidently intending -to attack the little army of Eugene. It was, therefore, agreed that -the troops of Eugene should fall back, and those of Marlborough should -cross the Danube to make a speedy junction with them. Eugene took -possession of the strong camp on the Schellenberg, and had his main -position at Donauwörth. On the evening of the 10th Marlborough began -to throw detachments of his army across the Danube--an operation of no -little difficulty, owing to his having to cross the Aicha, the Lech, -and the Wernitz, as well as the Danube, and all these floods were -swollen by the rains. The whole of the army, however, was got over at -different points on the 11th, and on the 12th Marlborough's baggage and -artillery came up. - -The English Guards were pushed forward towards Schwenningen, and -Marlborough and Eugene ascended together the tower of a village church -to get a view of the country. There they discovered the French and -Bavarians busy marking out a camp between Blenheim and Lutzingen. They -saw at once the great advantage they should have by falling on the -enemy before they had strongly entrenched themselves, and whilst in -the confusion of encamping themselves. No sooner, however, did they -issue their orders, than some of the general officers demurred as to -the danger of attacking the foe in so strong a position as the one they -had chosen. But Marlborough told them that circumstances compelled them -to fight, and the sooner the better. Marlborough and Eugene were busy -planning the order of the battle, and at two o'clock of the morning -of the 13th of August, the forces were in full advance. In another -hour they were across the Kessell, with a combined force of fifty-two -thousand men and fifty-two pieces of artillery. - -Tallard saw the march of the Allied army with great satisfaction. -He thought it would now be easy for him to interpose a strong force -between Marlborough and the army of the Prince of Baden before -Ingolstadt. But the Allies did not mean to give him any time for that. -They pushed briskly forward over very difficult ground, intersected by -rivulets and ditches; and as they were seen at seven in the morning -steadily advancing, the French and Bavarians hastily abandoned the -new lines which they were forming, and retreated towards their old -camp. On still went Marlborough and Eugene, accompanied in advance -by a Prussian officer who had fought there the preceding year, and -knew the country well. They found the enemy posted along the rising -ground from Blenheim to Lutzingen, with a gap between the villages, -which they had endeavoured to render secure by posting there a strong -body of cavalry. At the same time, between Blenheim and the Danube, -was made a strong barricade of waggons, behind which were stationed -a brigade of dismounted dragoons. Three brigades of cavalry took up -their stand in the village, and barricaded all entrances or openings -with waggons, felled trees, planks, or whatever could be found. Tallard -was in command at Blenheim, the Elector of Bavaria and General Marsin -at Lutzingen. The castle and church-tower at Blenheim were filled with -soldiers, and the Count Clerambault was ordered to defend the village -of Blenheim by his artillery to the last. - -Against this position, defended by fifty-seven thousand men, or about -five thousand more than the Allies, advanced the Confederate army. In -front of the enemy also ran the little river Nebel, which was deep, and -the bottom muddy. Marlborough led on the left wing against Blenheim, -and Eugene the right against Lutzingen. The first of the army to cross -the Nebel and advance against Blenheim was a body of English and -Hessians under Major-General Wilkes and Lord Cutts. Cutts, who was -famous for a storm, was ordered to make an impetuous attack on the -village; and, getting across the Nebel by means of fascines, he led -his horse under a terrible fire of grape right against the palisadoes -and barricades. The French poured into the assailants, however, such -a storm of grape as mowed down great numbers of officers and men, -amongst whom was General Rowe, who had advanced to the very face of -the palisadoes with his lieutenant-colonel and major. The English in -the van were thrown into confusion and assailed by three squadrons -of gendarmes; but the Hessians advanced to their aid, and the French -were driven back to their lines. Lord Cutts then led on his horse, and -maintained a desperate fight under the fire of the protected French. -Whilst they were engaged in this deadly _mélée_ the brigades of Hudson -and Ferguson had crossed the stream, and marched right up to the -village, silencing some batteries which commanded the fords of the -river. The fight was maintained hand to hand, the opponents thrusting -at each other through the interstices of the palisadoes; but the -contest was too unequal between the covered and uncovered, and with the -soldiers from the old castle and the church-tops pouring down showers -of musket-balls on the Allies. - -During this time Marlborough had been leading another body of troops -along the banks of the Nebel, and joining them under a terrible -fire of grape opposite to the gap between the villages, and only -waiting, to bear on this point, for the artillery, under the Prince of -Holstein-Beck, getting over the river. The Prince no sooner had got -partly across the stream than his advance was furiously attacked by the -Irish Brigade, which was in the pay of Louis XIV. They cut the advance -nearly to pieces, and would have effectually prevented the transit of -artillery had not Marlborough himself hastened to the spot and beaten -them off, as well as heavy bodies of French and Bavarian cavalry. He -then posted a body of horse along the river to protect the crossing of -the forces. - -Lord Cutts during this had fallen back from the entrenchments of -the village, finding it impossible to clear a way into it without -artillery. But the artillery over, Marlborough united his forces with -those of Eugene, which were bearing on Lutzingen, and was preparing -for his grand design of cutting the French and Bavarians asunder, by -throwing his whole weight on the cavalry posted between the villages. -It was not, however, till five in the afternoon that he was able to -lead on the attack, consisting of two columns of horse supported by -infantry. He dashed rapidly up the hill towards the important point, -on which was concentrated Tallard's cavalry, and part of the infantry -from the village. Marlborough gained the summit of the hill under heavy -loss, but there the enemy stood in such solid force that he was driven -back for a hundred paces. The heat of the battle was at this point, and -if Marlborough had been compelled to give way, there was little chance -of succeeding against the enemy; but he returned with all his vigour to -the charge, by this time his artillery had gained the summit, and after -a desperate struggle the fire of the French began to slacken. As soon -as he perceived that, he made a grand charge, broke the horse, and cut -to pieces or made prisoners of seven regiments of infantry. - -Tallard, seeing his cavalry in flight, and his infantry fast being -overpowered, sent messengers to call the Elector to his aid, and to -order up the rest of the infantry from Blenheim. But the Elector was -in full engagement with Eugene, and found enough to do to maintain -possession of Lutzingen. Nor did Marlborough allow time for the coming -up of fresh enemies. He attacked Tallard with such impetuosity, -and such an overwhelming force of cavalry, that he was completely -disorganised, and, turning his horse, galloped off towards Sonderheim, -another part of his cavalry making for Hochstadt. Marlborough pursued -Tallard at full speed, slaughtering his men all down the declivity -towards the Danube, where they had thrown over a bridge between -Hochstadt and Blenheim; but being so pressed, and at the same time -attacked in the flank, numbers were forced into the river and perished. -Tallard, being surrounded, and his son killed, was compelled to -surrender near a mill behind the village of Sonderheim, together with -the Marquis of Montperous, General of Horse, the Majors-General de -Seppeville, De Silly, De la Valiere, and many other officers. Those who -fled towards Hochstadt fared little better. They became entangled in a -morass, where they were cut to pieces, drowned in the Danube, or made -prisoners, except the celebrated brigade of Grignan, and some of the -gendarmes, who regained the heights of Hochstadt. - -Meanwhile Prince Eugene had been sharply engaged with the Elector -of Bavaria at Lutzingen, and after receiving several repulses had -succeeded in driving the Elector out of Lutzingen; and, turning his -flank, he posted himself on the edge of a ravine to mark the condition -of the field in general. He there received a message from Marlborough -to say that he was now able to come to his assistance if he needed it; -but the prince replied that he had no need of it, for the forces of -Marsin and the Elector were driven out of Lutzingen and Oberclau, and -that his cavalry were pursuing them to Morselingen and Teissenhoven, -whence they retreated to Dillingen and Lauingen. Marlborough despatched -a body of cavalry to Eugene near the blazing village of Lutzingen; -but the darkness now settling down, the commander, amid the smoke of -powder and of the burning village, mistook the troops of Eugene for -the Bavarians and wheeled round, so that the opportunity was lost of -inflicting fresh injury on the fugitives. - -There were still twelve thousand men unsubdued in Blenheim, and -Marlborough began to surround the place. These forces had lost their -commander, Clerambault, who had been carried away in the rush down the -hill and was drowned in the Danube; but the men still made a vigorous -resistance. Every minute, however, they were getting more hemmed in -by troops and artillery. Fire was set to the buildings, and every -chance of escape was cut off. For some time they maintained a killing -fire from the walls and houses; but as the flames advanced, they -made several attempts at cutting through their assailants, but were -driven back at every point. They finally offered to capitulate, but -Marlborough would hear of nothing but an unconditional surrender, to -which they were obliged to assent. Besides these, whole regiments had -laid down their arms, and begged for quarter. Thus was annihilated -at a blow the invincible army of France, which was to have seized on -Vienna, destroyed the Empire, and placed all Germany and the Continent -under the feet of Louis. The event had fully justified the bold -design of Marlborough; instead of fighting the enemy in detail, he -attacked him at his very heart, and closed the campaign by a single -master-stroke. - -Soon after the battle three thousand Germans, who had been serving in -the French army, joined the Allies; and on the 19th of August, six days -after the battle, Marlborough and Eugene began their march towards -Ulm. Three days before that, the garrison of Augsburg had quitted that -city, and Marlborough and Eugene called on the Prince of Baden to leave -a few troops at Ingolstadt to invest it, as it must now necessarily -surrender, and to join them with the rest of his forces, that they -might sweep the enemy completely out of Germany. Marshal Tallard was -sent under a guard of dragoons to Frankfort, and Marlborough encamped -at Sefillingen, near Ulm. There he and Eugene were joined by Louis of -Baden, and, leaving a sufficient force to reduce Ulm, the combined army -marched towards the Rhine. At Bruchsal, near Philippsburg, the Prince -of Baden insisted that they should all stay and compel the surrender of -Landau. This was opposed to the whole plans of Marlborough and Eugene, -which were to give the French no time to reflect, but to drive them -over their own frontiers. The Prince was now more than ever obstinate. -The glory which Marlborough had won, and part of which he had tried -to filch from him, was extremely galling to him, and especially that -so much honour should fall to the lot of a heretic. The generals were -obliged to follow his fancy; they allowed the Prince to sit down before -the town, and Marlborough and Eugene encamped at Croon-Weissingen to -support him. This took place on the 12th of September, and Landau held -out till the 23rd of November, when it capitulated on honourable terms, -and the King of the Romans characteristically came into the camp to -have the honour of taking the place--so fond are these German princes -of stepping into other people's honours instead of winning them for -themselves. By this delay the precious remainder of the campaign was -lost, and the French had time given them to recover their spirits, and -to take measures for holding what was yet left them. After this the -Confederate army sat down before Trarbach, which surrendered to the -hereditary Prince of Hesse-Cassel in the middle of December, which -closed the campaign. - -[Illustration: BATTLE OF BLENHEIM: CHARGE OF MARLBOROUGH'S HORSE. (_See -p._ 555.)] - -Marlborough had not waited for these insignificant operations, but -had proceeded to Berlin to engage the King of Prussia to suspend his -claims on the Dutch, and to enter more zealously into the alliance for -the perfect clearance of the French from Germany. He prevailed on the -king to promise eight thousand troops for the assistance of the Duke of -Savoy, and to be commanded by the Prince Eugene; and he exerted himself -with the Emperor to effect a settlement with the insurgents in Hungary, -but his own triumphs stood in the way of his success. The Emperor, -since Marlborough's victories, was so elated that he would listen to -no reasonable terms. From Berlin Marlborough proceeded to Hanover, -and paid his court to the family which was to succeed to the Crown of -England. Thence he went to the Hague, where he was received with high -honours by the States-General on account of the victories which he -would never have achieved could they have restrained him. He arrived in -England in the middle of December, carrying with him Marshal Tallard -and the rest of the distinguished officers, with the standards and -other trophies of his victories. He was received with acclaim by all -classes except a few ultra-Tories, who threatened to impeach him for -his rash march to the Danube. As Parliament had assembled, Marlborough -took his seat in the House of Peers the day after his arrival, where he -was complimented on his magnificent success by the Lord Keeper. This -was followed by a deputation with a vote of thanks from the Commons, -and by similar honours from the City. But perhaps the most palpable -triumph of Marlborough was the transferring of the military trophies -which he had taken, from the Tower, where they were first deposited, -to Westminster Hall. This was done by each soldier carrying a standard -or other trophy, amid the thunders of artillery and the hurrahs of the -people; such a spectacle never having been witnessed since the days of -the Spanish Armada. The royal manor of Woodstock was granted him, and -Blenheim Mansion erected at the cost of the nation. - -Besides the victories of Marlborough, there had been successes at -sea, and one of them of far more consequence than was at the time -imagined--namely, the conquest of Gibraltar. - -Sir George Rooke, having landed King Charles at Lisbon, sent -Rear-Admiral Dilkes with a squadron to cruise off Cape Spartel, and -himself, by order of the queen, sailed for the relief of Nice and -Villafranca, which were supposed to be in danger from the French under -the Duke of Vendôme. King Charles at the same time desired him to make -a demonstration in his favour before Barcelona, for he was assured -that a force had only to appear on that coast and the whole population -would declare for him. Rooke, accordingly, taking on board the Prince -of Hesse-Darmstadt, who had formerly been Viceroy of Catalonia, sailed -for Barcelona, and invited the governor to declare for his rightful -sovereign, King Charles. The governor replied that Philip V. was his -lawful sovereign. The Prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, however, assured the -admiral that there were five to one in the city in favour of King -Charles, and Rooke allowed the prince to land with two thousand men; -but there was no sign of any movement in favour of Austria. The Dutch -ketches then bombarded the place with little effect, and the troops -were re-embarked, lest they should be fallen upon by superior numbers. -On the 16th of June, Rooke being joined by Sir Cloudesley Shovel, -they sailed to Nice, but found it in no danger; and they then went -in quest of the French fleet, which Rooke in the preceding month had -caught sight of on their way to Toulon. On the 17th of July a council -of war was held in the road of Tetuan, and it was resolved to make an -attempt on Gibraltar, which was represented to have only a slender -garrison. On the 21st the fleet came to anchor before Gibraltar, and -the marines, under the command of the Prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, landed -on the narrow sandy isthmus which connects the celebrated rock with -the mainland, and called on the governor to surrender. Though cut off -from relief from the land, and with a formidable fleet in the bay, the -governor stoutly replied that he would defend the place to the last -extremity. - -The next day Rooke gave orders for cannonading the town. On the 23rd, -soon after daybreak, the cannonading commenced with terrible effect. -Fifteen thousand shots were discharged in five or six hours; the -South Mole Head was demolished, and the Spaniards driven in every -quarter from their guns. Captain Whitaker was then ordered to arm all -the boats, and assault that quarter. Captains Hicks and Jumper, who -were nearest the Mole, immediately manned their pinnaces, and entered -the fortifications sword in hand. They were soon, however, treading -on a mine, which the Spaniards exploded, killing or wounding two -lieutenants and about a hundred men. But Hicks and Jumper seized a -platform, and kept their ground till they were supported by Captain -Whitaker with the rest of the seamen, who took by storm a redoubt -between the town and the Mole. Then the governor capitulated, and the -Prince of Hesse entered the place with his marines, amazed at once at -the strength of the place and the ease with which it had been taken. In -fact, this key of the Mediterranean, which has since defied the united -powers of Christendom, was taken in three days, one day of which was -rendered almost useless by the fierceness of the wind. - -Rooke left the Prince of Hesse-Darmstadt and the marines to hold the -fortress, and returned to Tetuan to take in wood and water, and again -sailed up the Mediterranean. On the 9th of August he came in sight -of the French fleet lying off Malaga, and ready to receive him. It -consisted of fifty-two great ships and four-and-twenty galleys, under -the Count de Toulouse, High Admiral of France, and all clean and in -the best condition; Rooke's fleet of fifty-three ships of the line, -exclusive of frigates, was inferior to the French in guns and men, as -well as in weight of metal; and, what was worse, the ships were very -foul in their bottoms, and many of them ill provided with ammunition. -Nevertheless, Rooke determined to engage; and on Sunday, the 13th, at -ten o'clock in the morning, the battle began, and raged till two in -the afternoon, when the van of the French gave way. This result would -have been much earlier arrived at, had not several of the English ships -soon exhausted their powder, and been forced to draw out of the line. -During the afternoon firing at longer distances was kept up, but at -night Toulouse bore away to leeward. The next morning the wind favoured -the French, but they did not avail themselves of it, but bore away for -Toulon, pursued by Rooke as well as the foulness of his ships would let -him. Not a ship was lost or taken by either side in the battle, but -the loss in killed and wounded was great. On the part of the English -the killed and wounded amounted to three thousand; on the French side -it was supposed to reach four thousand, including two hundred officers -killed. Sir Cloudesley Shovel, who led the van, said that he had never -seen a sea-fight so furiously contested. The effect of the battle was -to render the French shy of coming to any great engagement on the sea -during the remainder of the war. - -The Parliament of England met on the 29th of October, and the queen -congratulated the two Houses on the remarkable success which had -attended her arms, and trusted that it would enable her to secure -the great object for which they fought--the liberty of Europe. She -encouraged them to carry on their debates without contentions, and -avowed her determination to be indulgent to all her subjects. But -nothing could prevent the animosity which raged between the Whig -and Tory factions from showing itself. The Lords congratulated her -Majesty on the glorious victories of Marlborough, without noticing -those of Sir George Rooke; and the Commons, to whose party Rooke, an -old Tory, belonged, exalted his exploits to an equality with those of -Marlborough. Notwithstanding the queen's promise of being kind and -indulgent to all her subjects, a strenuous attempt was again made to -carry the Occasional Conformity Bill. At the suggestion of Mr. William -Bromley it was tacked to the Land Tax Bill, and was so sent up to the -Peers. The queen went to the House of Lords to listen to the debate, -where she heard Tenison, the Archbishop of Canterbury, honestly -denounce the illiberal and persecuting spirit which had suggested such -a Bill. This praiseworthy language was strongly echoed out of doors by -De Foe, whose pen was never idle on such occasions, and the Court now -seemed to be convinced that it had gone too far. Godolphin, who had on -former occasions voted for it, now opposed it, and the Lords threw it -out by a majority of one-and-twenty votes. - -The two Houses of Parliament continued fighting out the remainder of -the Session with the case of the Aylesbury election. Encouraged by -the conduct of the Lords and the declaration of Lord Chief Justice -Holt--that if any messengers of the Commons dared to enter Westminster -Hall to seize any lawyer who had pleaded in favour of the Aylesbury -electors, he would commit them to Newgate,--five fresh electors sued -the constables, on the ground of their having been impeded in the -exercise of their franchise. The Commons committed these five persons -to Newgate, and they thereupon applied to the Court of Queen's Bench -for a Habeas Corpus. The Court refused to interfere. Two of the -prisoners then petitioned the queen to bring their case before her in -Parliament. The Commons immediately prayed the queen not to interfere -with their privileges by granting a Writ of Error in this case. She -replied that she would not willingly do anything to give them just -cause of offence, but that this matter relating to judicial proceedings -was of such high importance to the subject that she thought herself -bound to weigh and consider everything relating to it. The Commons, -fearing from this answer that the queen might be induced to grant the -prisoners a Writ of Error, sent and took them from Newgate, and kept -them in the custody of their Serjeant-at-Arms, at the same time voting -all the lawyers who had pleaded in favour of the prisoners guilty of a -breach of privilege. The prisoners then appealed to the Lords, and the -Lords, after seeking a conference with the Commons to arrive at some -conclusion as to the right in this case, but with no result, appealed -to the queen, declaring that the Commons were assailing the birthright -of every subject, and violating Magna Charta by refusing these citizens -the right of appealing to a court of justice; and they prayed her -to give orders for the immediate issue of the Writs of Error. Her -Majesty assured them that she would have complied with their request, -but that it was now absolutely necessary to prorogue Parliament, and -therefore further proceedings, they would see, must be useless. The -Lords considered this as a triumph, the queen's words implying that -they had right on their side, and thus equally implying a censure on -the Commons. In fact, the queen was glad to get rid of the dilemma and -of this troublesome Tory Parliament at the same time. The same day -that the Lords waited on her she went to their House and prorogued -Parliament till the 1st of May, 1705; but on the 5th of April she -dissolved it by proclamation, and writs were issued for calling a new -one. - -Marlborough in 1705 went early to the Continent. On the 13th of March -he embarked for the Hague. He had a splendid plan of operations for -this campaign on the Moselle, but he found, notwithstanding his now -grand reputation, the usual obstacles to daring action in the Dutch -phlegm. Having conquered this, and obtained leave to convey the troops -to the Moselle, he was met by a still more mortifying difficulty in -the conduct of the Prince of Baden, who was at the head of the German -contingents. This man had never been cordial since the first successes -of Marlborough. He was consumed with a deadly jealousy of his fame, and -thought it no use fighting in company with him, as Marlborough would be -sure to get all the honours. He therefore hung back from co-operation -in Marlborough's plan, pretending illness; which, had the illness -been real, should, at such a crisis for his country, have induced him -to delegate the command of the forces for its defence to some other -general. To add to the difficulties of Marlborough, the inferior French -generals, Villeroi and others, who had risen into prominence through -the interest of Madame de Maintenon and her priests and Jesuits, were -removed from this quarter, and Villars, the most able commander now -of the French, sent instead. The intention was to besiege Saar-Louis, -but the wretched Prince of Baden did not keep his engagement. He had -advanced, not with a strong army but only a small body of Imperial -troops, to Kreutznach, where he again feigned illness, went off to the -baths at Schlangenbad, and left the troops in the command of the Count -Friez. The defection was so barefaced that many began to suspect him of -being corrupted by the French; but he was really sick--of Marlborough's -renown. - -The duke, thus deceived, was unable to carry out his enterprise, and -fell back instead of attacking Villars. In his contempt of the Prince -of Baden, before retreating he sent a trumpet to Villars, saying, -"Do me the justice to believe that my retreat is entirely owing to -the failure of the Prince of Baden; but my esteem for you is still -greater than my resentment of his conduct." But though forced to this -mortifying expedient, Marlborough saw that he could quickly vindicate -his reputation by uniting with the army of the Netherlands, and -carrying operations against the enemy there. General Overkirk had not -been able to stand his ground. The French had invested and taken Huy, -and Villars had commenced the siege of Liége. Marlborough marched to -Treves, where he called a council of war, and it was resolved to drive -Villars from the walls of Liége. On the 19th of June the army commenced -its march, and proceeded with such expedition that it passed the Meuse -on the 1st of July. Villars, on Marlborough's approach, abandoned Liége -and retired to Tongres, and thence retreated behind his lines, which -extended to Marche aux Dames on the Meuse, along the Mehaigne as far -as Lenuève. No sooner did Marlborough come up with Overkirk than he -determined to recover Huy, and sent General Scholten, who reduced it in -a few days. To wipe out as quickly the impression of his retreat from -the Moselle, he despatched General Hompesch to the States-General to -demand permission to attack the French lines, which was granted him. - -[Illustration: ANNE.] - -Marlborough then detailed his plan of operation in two successive -councils of war, where it was generally approved, but still opposed -as rash by some of the Dutch generals. The enemy had manned his lines -with a hundred battalions and forty-six squadrons; the forces of the -Confederates were something more than that in amount; and in order -to weaken the enemy on the point where he contemplated his attack, -the duke directed Overkirk to make a feint, as though he were about -to attack the lines on the Mehaigne. The ruse succeeded. The French -weakened their lines where Marlborough really contemplated the attack, -in order to strengthen them in the direction of Namur. All being ready. -Marlborough marched in the night between the 17th and 18th of July, to -force the lines at Heyselem, the castle of Wauge, and the villages of -Wauge, Neerhespen, and Oostmalen. This succeeded, and after some hard -fighting the duke extended his forces within a portion of the French -lines, capturing the Marquis D'Alègre, Count Horne, a major-general, -two brigadier-generals, and many other officers, besides ten cannon -and numerous standards and colours. In consequence of this defeat the -Elector of Bavaria and Marshal Villeroi retreated across the Geete and -the Dyle in all haste. Marlborough marched after them, capturing twelve -hundred prisoners who could not keep up with the retreating force, and -on the 15th was at Mildert, whence he marched the next day to Genappe, -and thence to Fischermont, driving in the enemy's post as he advanced. -He was now on ground destined to become much more famous in our time. -On the 17th Overkirk had his headquarters at Waterloo, the enemy -lying in their front across the roads to Brussels and Louvain, near -the wood of Soignies. Here Marlborough proposed to come to a general -engagement with them, but again he was thwarted by the Dutch officers -and deputies, and most determinedly by General Schlangenburg. The -duke, indignant at this dastardly obstruction of his operations, wrote -very plainly to the States-General, complaining of the uselessness of -pursuing the campaign if they had yet no confidence in his prudence -and military talent. In order that the Dutch people should know of his -complaints, he took care to have the letter published in the papers -at the Hague, and that similar complaints should reach his own Court. -These being made public, roused a storm of indignation against the -meddling Dutch field-deputies, who presumed to justify their conduct to -the States-General in several letters. But the anger of both England -and Holland soon roused the States-General to a sense of their folly. -Hearing that the queen was about to despatch the Earl of Pembroke, -the President of the Council, as Envoy Extraordinary to the Hague, to -remonstrate on their suicidal conduct, the States-General hastened to -apologise to the duke, and to remove Schlangenburg from his command. -The opportunity, however, of a decisive blow on the French had been -missed, and little was achieved this campaign. - -Meanwhile the Spaniards were making a desperate effort for the recovery -of Gibraltar. Marshal Tessé laid siege to it, whilst De Pointes -blockaded it by sea. These French officers pushed on the siege with -vigour, and the Prince of Hesse-Darmstadt sent a despatch to Lisbon, -desiring Sir John Leake to hasten to his assistance. Sir John set -sail at once with five ships of the line and a body of troops, and on -the 10th of March came in sight of five ships of De Pointes, who was -evidently aware of him and getting out of the way. Leake gave chase, -took one, and drove the rest on shore to the west of Marbella. The rest -of the French ships in the bay of Malaga made the best of their way to -Toulon. Gibraltar being thus again open from the sea, the Marquis de -Tessé withdrew the greater part of his forces, leaving only sufficient -to maintain the blockade on land. - -But a far more striking demonstration was made from another quarter. -This was made on Valencia and Catalonia by the witty and accomplished, -and equally unscrupulous, Earl of Peterborough, formerly known as -Lord Mordaunt. This dashing nobleman, become Earl of Peterborough by -the death of his uncle, was despatched with reinforcements amounting -to five thousand soldiers and a strong fleet under command of Sir -Cloudesley Shovel. On the 20th of June they arrived at Lisbon, where -they were joined by Sir John Leake and the Dutch Admiral Allemonde. -They proposed to put to sea with eight-and-forty ships of the line, -and cruise between Cape Spartel and the Bay of Cadiz to prevent -the junction of the Toulon and Brest fleets. But the Prince of -Hesse-Darmstadt, who had arrived from Gibraltar, assured them that -the people of Catalonia and Valencia were strongly attached to King -Charles, and only required the presence of a sufficient force to -declare themselves. The adventure was just of the kind to charm the -active spirit of Lord Peterborough. It was proposed that King Charles -should sail with them on board the fleet, and that they should make a -descent on Barcelona. On the 11th of August they anchored in the Bay -of Altea, and issued a proclamation in the Spanish language, and found -that the people flocked in to acknowledge King Charles. They took the -town of Denia and garrisoned it for Charles with four hundred men under -Major Ramos. - -Such was the enthusiasm of the inhabitants that Peterborough proposed -to make a forced march right for Madrid at once, and set Charles on -the throne without further delay, declaring that he was confident of -taking the capital by a _coup de main_; and there is little doubt but -he would have succeeded had he had the sole command. But such daring -projects, the flashes of genius, only confound matter-of-fact men; -the plan was looked on as little short of madness, the adventure was -overruled, the fleet sailed, and on the 22nd arrived in the bay of -Barcelona. There was a garrison of five thousand men within the town -and castle of Barcelona, and the English force amounted to little -more than six thousand. But the inhabitants displayed the utmost -loyalty to the new king; they received him with acclamations, and the -English landed and invested the town. Here again, however, the erratic -genius of Lord Peterborough startled more orthodox commanders. By all -the rules of war the town ought to be taken first, and the castle -afterwards; but Peterborough saw that the castle commanded the town, -and must be continually inflicting injury on them in the course of -the siege. He determined, therefore, not by the laws of war, but of -common sense, to take the castle first. None but the brave Prince of -Hesse-Darmstadt held his view of the matter, and to him alone did he, -therefore, communicate his plans; but he took a close survey of this -strong castle of Montjuich, convinced himself that it was not so well -garrisoned as was represented, and that it might be taken by address -and promptitude. He instantly began to re-embark some of his troops, as -if about to abandon the enterprise, so as to throw the Spaniards off -their guard, and then suddenly, on the night of the 3rd of December, -sent about fourteen hundred men by two different routes to attack the -castle. He himself, accompanied by the Prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, led -the first of these bodies, General Stanhope the other. It was not -till about daybreak that the earl made his attack on the outworks of -the castle, and established himself on a platform with a few small -field-pieces and mortars. There they awaited the coming up of General -Stanhope; but he had missed his way, and did not arrive in time. The -governor of the castle, seeing the small number of the assailants, made -a headlong sally from the castle, thinking to sweep the rash detachment -down the hill, but he found himself mistaken; and whilst Lord -Peterborough was in close engagement with him, General Stanhope came -up, and the governor withdrew within the walls. The English then began -to throw bombshells into the castle, and one of these speedily ignited -a magazine, and blew it up with a tremendous explosion. The governor -himself was killed by it, and the garrison in consternation surrendered. - -Lord Peterborough could now not only invest the city without -annoyance from the castle, but could turn the guns of the castle on -the Spaniards, showing the correctness of his ideas in opposition -to the red-tape of war. He pursued the siege with such effect that -Velasquez, the governor, agreed to surrender in four days if he did -not receive relief in that time; but he was not able to hold out even -these four days, for the country swarmed with Miquelets, a sort of -lawless Catalans, who declared for the Austrians. Numbers of these, -who had assisted the seamen in throwing bombs from the ketches into -the city, and in other operations against the town, now clambered -over the walls, and began plundering the inhabitants and violating -the women. The governor and his troops were unable to put them down. -They threatened to throw open the gates and let in whole hordes of the -like rabble, to massacre the people and sack the place. Velasquez was -therefore compelled, before the expiration of the four days, to call in -the assistance of the Earl of Peterborough himself, who rode into the -city at the head of a body of troops with General Stanhope and other -officers, and amid the random firing of the Miquelets, by his commands -and by the occasional use of the flat of their swords, the marauders -were reduced to quiet. Having quelled this frightful riot, Lord -Peterborough and his attendants again quitted the city, and awaited -the rest of the four days, much to the astonishment of the Spaniards, -who had been taught to look on the English as a species of lawless and -heretical barbarians. Barcelona surrendered on the day appointed, and -immediately the whole of Catalonia, and every fortified place in it, -except Rosas, declared for Charles. - -The Earl of Peterborough did not, however, pause in his movements. He -marched for San Matteo, at a distance of thirty leagues, to raise the -siege carried on by the forces of King Philip. Through roads such as -Spain has always been famous for down to the campaigns of Wellington, -he plunged and dragged along his cannon, appeared before San Matteo -in a week, raised the siege, and again set forward towards the city -of Valencia, which he speedily reduced, and took in it the Marquis -de Villagarcia, the Viceroy, and the Archbishop. Soon every place in -Catalonia and Valencia acknowledged the authority of King Charles -except the seaport of Alicante. The whole campaign resembled more a -piece of romance than a reality. The earl's own officers could scarcely -believe their senses; and as for the Spaniards, they said he had a -devil in him, and was master of all magic and necromancy. - -When the Parliament met on the 25th of October, it was found that a -strong majority of Whigs had been returned; and, in the struggle for -the Speakership, the nominee of the Tories, Mr. Bromley, was rejected, -and the nominee of the Whigs, Mr. John Smith, chosen by a majority -of two hundred and fifty to two hundred and seven. The speech of the -queen was said to be the composition of the new Lord Keeper, Cowper, -but to have undergone considerable revision in the Council. In this the -Whig policy shone strongly forth. She expressed her determination to -continue the war till the Bourbon prince was driven from the throne of -Spain, and the Austrian prince established. - -In the House of Lords, Lord Haversham proposed that, for the security -of the Protestant succession and of the Church, the House should -address the queen, praying her to invite over the heir-presumptive to -the Crown--that is, the Electress Sophia of Hanover. The Tories trusted -that if they could get over the Princess Sophia and her son George, -they would be able to play off one Court against the other; that, -though the Whigs had got possession of the queen, they should then be -able to ingratiate themselves with her successor, and thus prepare to -supersede the Whigs altogether in the new reign. At the same time -they should be supporting the popular feeling regarding the Protestant -succession, and annoying the queen, who had dismissed them from her -favour. There had been for some time a party called the Hanoverian -Tories, who were bent on securing their interest with that House; and -the Jacobites joined this party, hoping, under cover of a pretence -for the Protestant succession, they might yet find an occasion for -promoting the hopes of the Pretender. But this was a hazardous policy -for both parties; for, as Anne was mortally jealous of her successor, -as is generally the case with princes, the Tories only more completely -lost all chance of regaining her favour; and as the Electress Sophia, -knowing Anne's feeling, was obliged to disclaim any wish to come to -England during the queen's life, she was thus, in fact, obliged to -disown the efforts of the Tories. Sophia, indeed, wrote to the queen -herself, informing her that an agent from the discontented party in -England had come to her Court to invite herself and the Electoral -Prince, her son George, into England, assuring them that a party there -was ready to propose it; but that she had caused the said person to -be acquainted that she judged the message to come from such as were -enemies to her family, that she would never hearken to such a proposal -but when it came from the queen herself, and that she had discouraged -the attempt so much that it was believed nothing more would be heard of -it. - -The Tories thought that they had now placed the Whigs on the horns -of a dilemma; that they must either offend the House of Hanover and -the popular feeling of the country by opposing the motion, or lose -the favour of the queen by conceding this specious measure; for Anne -would have resented above everything the slightest suggestion that -her successors were waiting for her throne in England, and courted by -whichever party was in opposition. - -But the Whigs had weighed all the dangers of the dilemma, and were -prepared with special remedies for them. So far did they profess -themselves from wishing to weaken the certainty of the Protestant -succession that, without adopting the very dubious measure recommended, -they proposed to appoint a regency to hold the government, in case -of the death of her present Majesty, for the successor, till he or -she should arrive in this country. By this adroit measure the queen -was spared the annoyance of seeing her successor converted into a -rival, and yet the prospects of this succession were strengthened. -Accordingly, a Bill was brought in, appointing the seven persons who -should at the time possess the offices of Archbishop of Canterbury, -Lord Chancellor or Lord Keeper, Lord Treasurer, Lord President, -Lord Privy Seal, Lord High Admiral, and Lord Chief Justice of the -Queen's Bench, as a regency, who should proclaim the next successor -throughout the kingdom, and join with a certain number of persons, -named also regents by the successor, in three lists, to be sealed up -and deposited with the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Lord Keeper, and -the Minister residentiary at Hanover. These regents were to conduct the -administration; and the last Parliament, even though dissolved, should -reassemble and continue to sit for six months after the decease of her -Majesty. This Bill, notwithstanding the opposition of the Tories, was -carried through both Houses. - -To prevent any unpleasant feeling at Hanover, the Whigs immediately -passed another Bill, naturalising not only the Princess Sophia but -all her descendants, wheresoever or whensoever born, and they sent -over to Hanover the Earl of Halifax, with letters from Lord Somers, -Lord Cowper, and other leading Whigs, but, above all, from the Duke of -Marlborough, and conveying to the Prince George the Order of the Garter -from the queen. By these measures the Whigs completely turned the Tory -stratagems against that party itself, whose attempts to damage them -they thus rendered the means of a perfect triumph, not only retaining -the warm favour of the queen, but establishing an alliance with the -House of Hanover which, with few interruptions, continued to the -commencement of the reign of George III. - -On the 19th of March, 1706, the queen prorogued Parliament till the -21st of May. Towards the end of April Marlborough proceeded to Holland -to commence the campaign. The severe defeat which the troops of Louis -had received in Germany the last year nerved him to fresh exertions. He -had little fear of dealing with the Prince of Baden on the Upper Rhine; -but Marlborough in the Netherlands, Eugene in Savoy, and Peterborough -in Spain, demanded his whole vigour, and he determined to act with -decision on all points, and especially against Marlborough. He heard -that the Danes and Prussians had not yet joined the Confederate army, -and he ordered Villeroi to attack it before these reinforcements -could come up. In consequence of this order Villeroi and the Elector -of Bavaria--who, in spite of his severe chastisement, still adhered -to France against his own country--passed the Dyle, and posted -themselves, on the 19th of May, at Tirlemont. They were there joined by -the cavalry under Marshal Marsin, and encamped between Tirlemont and -Judoigne. - -Marlborough assembled his army between Borschloen and Groswaren, and -found it to consist of seventy-four battalions of foot, and one hundred -and twenty-three squadrons of horse and dragoons, well supplied with -artillery and pontoons. Hearing that the French were advancing towards -him, Marlborough, being now joined by the Danes, set forward and -appeared in eight columns before the village of Ramillies. The French, -who had already taken possession of Ramillies, and strongly fortified -it, entrenched themselves in a strong camp, the right extending to the -Mehaigne, and covered by the villages of Tavière and Ramillies, and -their left to Autre-Église. The duke posted his right wing near Foltz, -on the brook of Yause, and his left at the village of Franquenies. -Villeroi had committed the capital blunder of leaving his wings -sundered by impassable ground, so that they could not act in support of -each other. - -It was about half-past one o'clock when Marlborough ordered General -Schulz, with twelve battalions, to attack Ramillies, whilst Overkirk -attacked Autre-Église on the left. Schulz, who had twenty pieces of -cannon, opened fire on Ramillies, but met with so warm a reception that -he had great difficulty in maintaining his ground; but Marlborough -supported him with column after column, and the fight there was raging -terribly. In the midst of it Marlborough, seeing some of the men driven -from the guns, galloped up to encourage them. He was recognised by the -French, who made a dash and surrounded him. He broke through them, -however, by a desperate effort; but in endeavouring to regain his own -ranks, his horse fell in leaping a ditch, and the duke was thrown. As -the French were hotly upon them, another moment and he must have been -taken, but Captain Molesworth, one of his aide-de-camps, mounted him -on his own horse. As he was in the act of springing into the saddle, -a cannon-ball took off the head of Colonel Brenfield, who held the -stirrup; but Marlborough himself escaped, and regained the main body -unhurt, except for a few bruises. Meanwhile Overkirk, with the Dutch -guards, and by help of the Danes, had succeeded in driving the French -from the enclosures of Autre-Église, cutting off the communication -between the two wings, and driving numbers of the French into the -Mehaigne. The Bavarians under the Elector fought bravely; more so -than the French, for these were become dispirited by their repeated -defeats, and especially the rout of Blenheim. Their veteran troops were -extremely reduced in numbers; and Louis, to fill the ranks, had forced -the unwilling peasantry into the army, sending them even in chains to -the campaign to prevent them from deserting on the way. Such troops -could not do much against the victorious Allies under a general like -Marlborough. - -On Marlborough regaining the ranks, he led up the attack with fresh -vigour. The village of Ramillies was carried and most of the French -who defended it were cut to pieces. The Prince of Würtemberg and the -Prince of Hesse-Cassel got into the rear of Villeroi, and the panic -became general. The infantry began to retreat--at first in tolerable -order, protected by the cavalry, which were posted between Ossuz and -Autre-Église; but the English cavalry, under General Wyndham and -General Ward, having managed to get over a rivulet which separated -them, fell on them with such spirit near the farm of Chaintrain that -they were thrown into confusion. The Bavarians suffered severely, and -the Elector had a narrow escape for his life. Villeroi himself with -difficulty made good his flight. In the midst of the rout a narrow -pass, through which the French were flying, suddenly became obstructed -by the breakdown of some baggage waggons. The cavalry, pressing on -in their rear, then made terrible havoc amongst them. The flight was -continued all the way to Judoigne, and Lord Orkney, with some squadrons -of light horse, never drew bit till they had chased the fugitives into -Louvain, nearly seven leagues from Ramillies. The baggage, cannon, -colours--everything fell into the hands of the Allies. There were one -hundred and twenty colours, six hundred officers, and six thousand -private soldiers captured. - -Besides these, it was calculated that eight thousand were killed and -wounded. Of the Allies, Marlborough declared that only one thousand -fell, and two thousand were wounded. The Prince Maximilian of Bavaria -and Prince Monbason were among the slain; amongst the prisoners were -Major-Generals Palavicini and Mezières, the Marquises De Bar, De -Nonant, and De la Baume (the son of Marshal Tallard), Montmorency -(nephew of the Duke of Luxemburg), and many other persons of rank. - -Villeroi had fled to Brussels, but Marlborough was soon at the gates; -the French general took his departure, and Marlborough entered that -city in triumph, amid the acclamations of the people. The whole of -the Spanish Netherlands was recovered by the battle of Ramillies; -Louvain, Mechlin, Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Bruges, threw open their -gates. Ostend, Menin, Dendermonde, and Ath, made some resistance, but -successively surrendered and acknowledged King Charles. The delighted -Emperor and King Charles offered to make Marlborough Governor of -Flanders, which he willingly accepted, but was compelled to relinquish -the honour by the indomitable jealousy of the Dutch. At the beginning -of November Marlborough sent his army into winter quarters--the -English at Ghent, the Danes at Bruges, and the Germans along the River -Demer--and betook himself to the Hague, to hold consultations on the -plan of the next campaign, and to receive proposals from Louis, which, -however, ended in nothing. - -On the heels of Ramillies came the tidings of a still less expected -defeat in Savoy. The Duke de Vendôme was recalled from Piedmont after -the defeat of Ramillies to supersede Villeroi, and the Duke of Orleans, -under the direction of Marshal de Marsin, was sent to Piedmont, with -orders to besiege Turin. This siege was carried on through the summer; -and when the Duke of Savoy had refused all offers of accommodation -made by France, the Duke de Feuillade, having completed his lines of -circumvallation, made the last offer of courtesy to the impassive -Duke of Savoy. Eugene was beyond the Adige, and knew the formidable -obstacles in his path; but at the call of the distressed duke he forced -his way in the face of every opposition, crossed river after river, -threaded his way between the lines, and at length formed a junction -with the Duke of Savoy. After this union they advanced undauntedly on -Turin, and reached its vicinity on the 13th of August. They crossed -the Po between Montcalier and Cavignan, and on the 5th of September -captured a convoy of eight hundred loaded mules. They then crossed the -Doria, and encamped with their right wing on that river, and their -left on the Stura. The entrenchments of the foe had the convent of -the Capuchins, called Notre Dame, in their centre opposite. The Duke -of Orleans proposed to march out of their entrenchments and attack -the army of Savoy, but Marsin showed him an order from the Court -of Versailles forbidding so much hazard. The Prince did not leave -them long to deliberate, but attacked them in their entrenchments, -he himself leading up the left wing, and the duke the centre. After -some hard fighting both commanders forced the entrenchments, and -drove the French in precipitation over the Po. The Savoyards had -about three thousand men killed and wounded. Prince Eugene pursued -the Duke of Orleans and the Duke de Feuillade to the very borders of -Dauphiné. Unbroken gloom now hung over Versailles. Louis affected to -bear his reverses with indifference; but the violent restraint he put -upon himself so much endangered his health that his physicians were -compelled frequently to bleed him. The only gleams of comfort which -broke through the ominous silence of the gay Court of France were -afforded by an advantage gained by the Count de Medavi-Grancey over -the Prince of Hesse-Cassel in the neighbourhood of Castiglione, and -the forcing him to the Adige, with a loss of two thousand men. Besides -this, the mismanagement of King Charles in Spain, which prevented the -success of the Earl of Peterborough, was calculated in some degree to -solace the confounded French. - -King Philip had made a great effort to recover the city of Barcelona. -Early in the spring he appeared before that city with a considerable -army of French and Spaniards, and invested it. He was supported by -a fleet under the Count de Toulouse, and succeeded in re-taking the -castle of Montjuich; and King Charles, who was cooped up in the town, -sent urgent despatches to Lord Peterborough at Valencia to come to his -assistance. Peterborough immediately marched to his relief with two -thousand men, but found Philip's besieging army too numerous to engage -with. On the 8th of May, however, Sir John Leake, who had sailed from -Lisbon with thirty ships of the line, showed himself in the bay, and -the Count de Toulouse sailed away for Toulon without attempting to -strike a blow; and Philip no sooner saw himself abandoned by the French -fleet, and in danger of an attack from both land and sea, than he made -as hasty a retreat, leaving his tents with the sick and wounded behind -him. - -Philip had recalled to his service the Duke of Berwick, who had only -been dismissed because he was no favourite with the queen, and he was -posted on the Portuguese frontiers. But, notwithstanding this, the Earl -of Galway crossed these frontiers with an army of twenty thousand men, -took Alcantara, and made prisoners of the garrison, numbering four -thousand men. He then advanced on Madrid, Lord Peterborough engaging -to meet him, with King Charles, at the capital. At his approach Philip -fled with his queen to Burgos, carrying with him all the valuables -he could convey, and destroying what he could not take. About the -end of June the Earl of Galway entered Madrid without resistance; -and had the Earl of Peterborough, with the king, met him, according -to agreement, the war would have been at an end. But Peterborough, -who, had he been at liberty to act as he pleased, would have soon -been in Madrid, was sorely hampered by the king. Charles had reached -Saragossa, and been acknowledged sovereign of Aragon and Valencia; but -he was afraid of advancing towards the capital, lest they should be -cut off by the enemy. In vain did Peterborough urge and entreat, and -show the necessity of despatch to meet Galway. The wretched monarch -had made his chief councillor the Prince of Lichtenstein, who had -none of the brilliant dashing qualities of Peterborough, and against -that dead German weight Peterborough strove in vain. The timid stupid -king was immovable, till Galway--finding that he was unsupported in -Madrid, and that the Spaniards looked with indignation on an army of -Portuguese with a heretic general in possession of their capital--took -his departure. Meanwhile King Philip and the Duke of Berwick had -met, and, on the frontier, had received fresh reinforcements from -France. They therefore returned and availed themselves of Galway's -unfortunate position to recover the capital. Galway evacuated the -place on their approach without a blow, and retreated towards Aragon -to form a junction with Peterborough and the king. On the 6th of -August Charles and Peterborough came up with Galway at Guadalaxara; -but, notwithstanding this increase of force, nothing could persuade -the dastard Austrian prince to advance. Peterborough, who had all the -fiery temperament of a hero of romance, instead of the patience of -Marlborough, which had so often triumphed over German pride and Dutch -phlegm, lost all patience and gave up the enterprise. He returned to -the coast of the Mediterranean, and with him went all chance of Charles -of Austria securing the Spanish throne. Peterborough set sail with a -squadron to endeavour to aid the Duke of Savoy, the victory of Eugene -not yet having occurred. - -When Peterborough was gone, nothing but distraction raged in the camp -of the confederates. Lord Galway could assert no supreme command -against the Prince of Lichtenstein and the Portuguese general; every -one was at variance with his fellow-officer, and all were disgusted -with the Austrian counsellors of Charles, and with his inert and -hopeless character. The Duke of Berwick, availing himself of their -divisions, marched down upon them, and they made a hasty retreat -towards Valencia and the mountains of New Castile. After incredible -sufferings they reached Requena, the last town of New Castile, where, -considering themselves secure, from the nature of the country, they -went into winter quarters at the end of September, and Charles and -his attendants proceeded to Valencia, where he wrote to the Duke -of Marlborough, recounting his misfortunes--the result of his own -incapacity--and vehemently entreating for fresh forces and supplies -from England and Holland. Could a large army have been sent under the -Earl of Peterborough, with authority for his undisputed command, there -is no doubt but that he would very speedily have cleared Spain of the -French; but against this was supposed to operate the influence of -Marlborough himself, who did not wish to see another English general -raised to a rivalry of glory with him. - -The victory of Prince Eugene rendering the presence of the Earl of -Peterborough unnecessary in Piedmont, he made a second voyage to -Genoa, to induce that republic to lend King Charles and his Allies -money for his establishment. The English fleet in the Mediterranean -continued sailing from place to place with six or eight thousand men -on board, seeking some occasion to annoy the coast of France, whilst -these men might have been of the utmost service in Spain if commanded -by Peterborough. As it was, half of them are said to have perished in -this objectless cruise; and another squadron under the Earl of Rivers, -sent to join Lord Galway at the siege of Alicante, suffered as much. -In short, no campaign ever appears to have combined more mismanagement -than this in Spain, including the movements of the fleet to support it. - -But whilst these various fortunes of war were taking place on the -Continent, a victory greater than that of Ramillies or of Turin was -achieved at home. This was the accomplishment of the Union of the two -kingdoms of Scotland and England, and with it the extinction of those -heartburnings and embarrassments which were continually arising out -of the jealousies of Scotland of the overbearing power of England. In -the last Session nothing appeared farther off; nay, a Bill--the Bill -of Security--had passed, which threatened to erect again two thrones -in the island, with all the rivalries and bloodshed of former years. -The provisions of this Bill, which practically excluded the House of -Hanover from the throne of Scotland, were much resented in England, and -the two nations seemed to be on the brink of war. The Commissioners, -however, appointed by England and Scotland to decide the terms of -this agreement, met on the 16th of April in the council-chamber of -the Cockpit, near Whitehall, and continued their labours till the -22nd of July, when they had agreed upon the conditions, and on that -day mutually signed them. In discussing the proposed plans of this -Union, the Scots were found to incline to a federal Union, like that -of Holland; but the English were resolved that, if made at all, the -Union of the two kingdoms should be complete--a perfect incorporation -of Scotland, so that there should be for ever an end of the troubles -and annoyances of the Scottish Parliament. The last reign, and the -present, had shown too clearly the inconveniences of that Parliament, -the means it gave to disaffected men--and especially to such as were -disappointed of their ambitious aims by the Government--of fanning up -feuds and stopping the business of the country; nay, of threatening, -as of late, to establish again their own independent state, and their -own king. Therefore the English Commissioners would listen to nothing -but a thorough amalgamation. The Lord Keeper proposed that the two -kingdoms should for ever be united into one realm by the name of Great -Britain; that this realm should be represented by one and the same -Parliament; and that the succession to the Crown should be such as was -already determined by the Act of Parliament passed in the late reign, -called "An Act for the Further Limitation of the Crown and the Better -Securing the Rights and Liberties of the Subject." The Scots, whilst -seeming to comply with this proposal, endeavoured to introduce various -clauses about the rights and privileges of the people of Scotland in -England, and of the English in Scotland, and that the Crown should be -established in the same persons as those mentioned in the Act referred -to; but the Lord Keeper declined to enter into any consideration of any -proposals, but simply for a full and complete Union of the two kingdoms -into one, with the same universal rights, declaring that nothing but -such solidification would effect perfect and lasting harmony. The Scots -gave way, and the terms agreed upon were mutually signed on the 22nd of -July, 1706. - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF ANNE.] - -The conditions of this famous treaty were--That the succession to -the throne of Great Britain should be vested in the Princess Sophia -and her heirs, according to the Act passed by the English Parliament -for that purpose; that there should be but one Parliament for the -whole kingdom; that all the subjects should enjoy the same rights and -privileges; that they should have the same allowances, encouragements, -and drawbacks, and lie under the same regulations and restrictions as -to trade and commerce; that Scotland should not be charged with the -temporary duties on certain commodities; that the sum of three hundred -and ninety-eight thousand one hundred and three pounds should be -granted to the Scots as an equivalent for such parts of the customs and -excise charged upon that kingdom in consequence of the Union as would -be applicable to the payment of the debts of England, according to the -proportions which the customs and excise of Scotland bore to those -of England; that as the revenues of Scotland should increase, a fair -equivalent should be allowed for such proportion of the said increase -as should be applicable to payment of the debts of England; that -the sums to be thus paid should be employed in reducing the coin of -Scotland to the standard and value of the English coin, in paying off -the capital, stock, and interest due to the proprietors of the African -Company, which should be immediately dissolved, in discharging all the -public debts of the kingdom of Scotland, in promoting and encouraging -manufactures and fisheries under the direction of Commissioners to be -appointed by her Majesty, and accountable to the Parliament of Great -Britain; that the laws relating to public right, policy, and civil -government, should be alike throughout the whole kingdom; that no -alteration should be made in laws which concerned private right, except -for the evident benefit of the people of Scotland; that the Court of -Session and all other courts of judicature in Scotland should remain -as constituted, with all authority and privileges as before the Union, -subject only to the power of the Parliament of the United Kingdom; -that all heritable offices, superiorities, heritable jurisdictions, -offices for life, and jurisdictions for life, should remain the same as -rights and properties as then enjoyed by the laws of Scotland; that the -rights and privileges of the royal boroughs in Scotland were to remain -unaltered; that Scotland should be represented in Parliament by sixteen -peers and forty-five commoners, to be elected in a manner to be settled -by the present Parliament of Scotland; that all peers of Scotland and -the successors to their honours and dignities should, from and after -the Union, take rank and precedency next and immediately after the -English peers of the like orders and degrees at the time of the Union, -and before all English peers of the like orders and degrees as should -be created after the Union; that they should be tried as peers of Great -Britain, and enjoy all privileges of peers of England, except that of -sitting in the House of Lords and the privileges depending thereon, and -particularly the right of sitting upon the trials of peers; that the -crown, sceptre, and sword of State, the records of Parliament, and all -other records, rolls, and registers whatsoever, should still remain as -they were in Scotland; that all laws and statutes in either kingdom -inconsistent with these terms of Union should cease and be declared -void by the Parliaments of the two kingdoms. - -[Illustration: THE PEOPLE OF EDINBURGH ESCORTING THE DUKE OF HAMILTON -TO HOLYROOD PALACE. (_See p._ 571.)] - -But though the Articles of the Union had received the sanction of -the Commissioners, they had yet to receive that of the Scottish and -English Parliaments, and no sooner did the matter come before the -Scottish one than a storm broke out in Scotland against the Union, -which convulsed the whole country, and threatened to annihilate the -measure. The Jacobites and discontented, because unemployed, nobles set -to work in every direction to operate on the national pride, telling -the people they would be reduced to insignificance and to slavery to -the proud and overbearing English, and arousing the _odium theologicum_ -by representing that no sooner would the Union be complete than the -English hierarchy would, through the English Parliament, put down the -Presbyterian religion and set up Episcopacy again, and that the small -minority of Scottish members in each House would be unable to prevent -it. - -On the 3rd of October the Duke of Queensberry, as Lord Commissioner -for the queen, opened the last Session of the Scottish Parliament. -Queensberry, who with the Earl of Stair, had been on the Commission, -and had laboured hard to bring it to a satisfactory issue, now laid the -Treaty before the Parliament, expressing his conviction that the queen -would have it carried out with the utmost impartiality and care for -the rights of all her subjects. He read a letter from Anne, assuring -them that the only way to secure their present and future happiness, -and to disappoint the designs of their enemies and her Majesty's, who -would do all in their power to prevent or delay the Union, was to -adopt it with as little delay as possible. The Commissioner then said, -to appease any fears on account of the Kirk, that not only were the -laws already in existence for its security maintained, but that he was -empowered to consent to anything which they should think necessary -for that object. He then read the Treaty, and it was ordered to be -printed, and put into the hands of all the members of Parliament. No -sooner were the printed copies in the hands of the public than the -tempest broke. The Dukes of Athol and of Hamilton, the Lords Annandale -and Belhaven, and other Jacobites, represented that the project was -most injurious and disgraceful to Scotland; that it had at one blow -destroyed the independence and dignity of the kingdom, which for two -thousand years had defended her liberties against all the armies and -intrigues of England; that now it was delivered over by these traitors, -the Commissioners, bound hand and foot, to the English; that the few -members who were to represent Scotland in the English Parliament would -be just so many slaves or machines, and have no influence whatever; -that all Scotland did, by this arrangement, but send one more member -to the House of Commons than Cornwall, a single county of England; and -that the Scots must expect to see their sacred Kirk again ridden over -rough-shod by the English troopers, and the priests of Baal installed -in their pulpits. - -Defoe, who had the curiosity to go to Scotland and watch the -circumstances attending the adoption of this great measure, has left -us a very lively account of the fury to which the people were worked -up by these representations. Mobs paraded the streets of Edinburgh, -crying that they "were Scotsmen, and would be Scotsmen still." They -hooted, hissed, and pursued all whom they knew to be friendly to the -Treaty, and there was little safety for them in the streets. "Parties," -he says, "whose interests and principles differed as much as light -and darkness, who were contrary in opinion, and as far asunder in -everything as the poles, seemed to draw together here. It was the most -monstrous sight in the world to see the Jacobite and the Presbyterian, -the persecuting prelatic Nonjuror and the Cameronian, the Papist and -the Reformed Protestant, parley together, join interests, and concert -measures together; to see the Jacobites at Glasgow huzzahing the mob, -and encouraging them to have a care of the Church; the high-flying -Episcopal Dissenter crying out the overture was not a sufficient -security for the Kirk." - -From the 3rd of October, when the Parliament opened, to the 1st of -November, the fury of the people continued to increase, and the utmost -was done to rouse the old Cameronian spirit in the West of Scotland by -alarming rumours of the intention of England to restore Episcopacy by -force. The whole country was in a flame. Under such circumstances the -Articles of the Treaty had to be discussed in the Scottish Parliament. -The opponents did not venture to denounce any Union at all, but -they insisted that it ought only to be a federal one, by which they -contended Scotland would still, whilst co-operating with England in -everything necessary for the good of the realm at large, maintain her -ancient dignity, retain her Parliament, her constitution, and ancient -sovereignty. When they found themselves in a minority even on this -point they contended that it was not in the power of Parliament to -settle so momentous a question; that the Session ought to be adjourned -for a short time, in order that members might go down to their -constituents, and thus learn what was really the mind of the nation. -Failing in this, they exerted themselves to get a host of petitions -sent up from the boroughs, claiming to have a right on the part of the -constituents to instruct and limit their representatives, and warning -them, above all things, to go no further than a federal Union. - -In order to lead to a popular demonstration, the opponents moved that -there should be a day set apart for public prayer and fast, therein -seeking the will of God as to the Union. The Parliament did not oppose -this, and the 18th of October was settled for this purpose; but it -passed off very well both in town and country, and the incendiaries -were disappointed. Another mode of overawing the Parliament was then -resorted to. Rumours were set afloat that the people would turn out all -together, and come to the Parliament House and cry, "No Union!" They -would seize on the regalia, and carry them to the castle for safety. -And in fact a great mob followed the Duke of Hamilton, who was carried -to and from the House in a chair, owing to some temporary lameness; -but the Guards stopped them at the gates of Holyrood, whereupon they -declared that they would return the next day a thousand times stronger, -and pull the traitors out of their Houses, and so put an end to the -Union in their own way. And the next day, the 23rd of October, they did -assemble in dense crowds, filling the Parliament Close, and crowding -the door, so that members had much difficulty in getting out at the -close of the sitting. As soon as the Duke of Hamilton entered his -chair, they raised loud hurrahs, and followed his chair in a body. But -the alarm was given, a troop of soldiers appeared, cleared the street, -and seized half a dozen of the ringleaders. More soldiers were obliged -to be called out, and a rumour being abroad that a thousand seamen were -coming up from Leith to join the rioters, the City Guard was marched -into the Parliament Close, and took possession of all the avenues. A -battalion of Guards was also stationed at the palace, the garrison in -the castle was kept in readiness for action, and a troop of dragoons -accompanied the Ministers wherever they went. - -Defeated in their object of overawing the Parliament, the opposition -now cried mightily that the Parliament was overawed by soldiers, -and that the Treaty was being rammed down the throat of the public -by bayonets; that this was the beginning of that slavery to which -the country was about to be reduced. But Queensberry and his friends -replied that there was much greater danger of coercion from an ignorant -and violent mob than from the orderly soldiery, who made no attempt -whatever to influence the deliberations. Every Article indeed was -resisted _seriatim_. Hamilton, Athol, Fletcher of Saltoun, Belhaven, -were vehement and persevering in their opposition; but still, with -some modifications, the Articles were carried one after another. In -the midst of the contention Hamilton was confounded by receiving a -letter from Lord Middleton, at the Court of St. Germains, desiring, -in the name of the Pretender, that the opposition to the Union should -cease; for that his Grace (the Pretender) had it much at heart to give -his sister this proof of his ready compliance with her wishes, nothing -doubting but that he should one day have it in his power to restore -Scotland to its ancient weight and independence. Hamilton was desired -to keep this matter, however, a profound secret, as the knowledge of -it at this time might greatly prejudice the cause and the interests of -his master both in Scotland and England. Hamilton was thus thoroughly -paralysed in his opposition, and at the same time was in the awkward -position of not being able to explain his sudden subsidence into -inaction. - -On the other hand, the English Government saw the advantage of -distributing a liberal sum of money amongst the patriots of Scotland; -and the grossest bribery and corruption were unblushingly resorted to. -Twenty thousand pounds were sent down for this purpose, and the passage -of the Union aided by a still more profuse distribution of promises of -places, honours, and of compensation to those who had been sufferers -in the Darien scheme. By these means the opposition was sufficiently -soothed down to enable the Ministers to carry the Treaty by a majority -of one hundred and ten. An Act was prepared for regulating the election -of the sixteen peers and forty-five commoners to represent Scotland -in the British Parliament; and on the 25th of the following March, -1707, the Scottish Parliament suspended its sittings. Amongst those -who contributed mainly to the carrying of this great measure, and -that against an opposition which at one time appeared likely to sweep -everything before it, were the Dukes of Queensberry and Argyll, the -Earls of Montrose, Seafield, and Stair, assisted by the Earls of -Roxburgh and Marchmont, who had come over from the opposite party -through promises of favour and distinction. - -[Illustration: COSTUMES OF THE REIGN OF ANNE.] - -So ended the year 1706; and the English Parliament was informed by the -queen, on the 28th of January, 1707, that the Articles of the Treaty, -with some alterations and additions, were agreed upon by the Scottish -Parliament, and should now be laid before them. She said, "You have now -an opportunity before you of putting the last hand to a happy Union -of the two kingdoms, which, I hope, will be a lasting blessing to the -whole island, a great addition to its wealth and power, and a firm -security to the Protestant religion. The advantages which will accrue -to us all from a Union are so apparent that I will add no more but -that I will look upon it as a particular happiness if this great work, -which has been so often attempted without success, can be brought to -perfection in my reign." - -But the Tories did not mean to let it pass without a sharp attack. They -saw the immense accession of strength which the Whigs, the authors -of the measure under King William, would obtain from it. Seymour and -others denounced it, not merely with vehemence, but with indecency. The -High Churchmen took particular offence at Presbytery being established -in Scotland, and insisted much on the contradiction of maintaining one -religion in Scotland and another in England, and the scandal of the -queen, who was a Churchwoman, being sworn to maintain Presbyterianism -in opposition to it. The Lords Grey, North, Stowell, Rochester, Howard, -Leigh, and Guildford, protested against the low rate of the land-tax -charged in Scotland, complaining, with great reason, that it was fixed -at only forty-eight thousand pounds, which was never to be increased, -however the value of property might rise in that country; and Lord -Nottingham said that it was highly unreasonable that the Scots, who -were by the Treaty let into all the branches of the English trade, and -paid so little towards the expense of the government, should, moreover, -have such a round sum by way of equivalent. The Lords North, Grey, -Guernsey, Granville, Abingdon, and others, supported that view. - -But the discussions on the various Articles were cut short by a clever -stratagem adopted by Government in the House of Commons. There, as the -same arguments were being urged, and Sir John Packington was declaring -that this forced incorporation, carried against the Scottish people by -corruption and bribery within doors, by force and violence without, -was like marrying a woman against her consent, Sir Simon Harcourt, -the Solicitor-General, introduced a Bill of ratification, in which he -enumerated the various Articles in the preamble, together with the -Acts made in both Parliaments for the security of the two Churches, -and, in conclusion, wound up with a single clause, by which the whole -was ratified and enacted into a law. The Opposition was thus taken -by surprise. They had not objected to the recital of the Articles, -which was a bare matter of fact; and when they found themselves called -upon to argue merely on the concluding and ratifying clause, they -were thrown out of their concerted plan of action of arguing on each -point in detail, and lost their presence of mind. The Whigs, on the -other hand, pressed the voting on the clause of ratification with -such vehemence that it was carried by a majority of one hundred and -fourteen before the Opposition could recover from their surprise, -occasioned by the novel structure of the Bill. Being then hurried -up to the Lords, the fact that it had passed the Commons seemed to -take the edge off their hostility. The Duke of Buckingham, indeed, -expressed his apprehensions that sixteen Scottish peers, thrown into -a House where there were rarely a hundred peers in attendance, might -have occasionally a very mischievous effect on English interests. -Lord North also proposed a rider, purporting that nothing in the -ratification of the Union should be construed to extend to an -approbation or acknowledgment of Presbyterianism as the true Protestant -religion; but this was rejected by a majority of fifty-five. The Bill -passed, but under protests from Nottingham, Buckingham, and seventeen -other lords. - -On the 4th of March Anne gave the Royal Assent to the Bill, and -expressed, as well she might, her satisfaction at the completion of -this great measure, the greatest of her reign or of many reigns. On the -11th of March both Houses waited on her Majesty to congratulate her on -the "conclusion of a work that, after so many fruitless endeavours, -seemed designed by Providence to add new lustre to the glories of her -Majesty's reign." No man had more contributed, by his wise suggestions -and zealous exertions, to the completion of this great national act -than Lord Somers. - -As the Act did not come into effect till the 1st of May, numbers of -traders in both kingdoms were on the alert to reap advantages from -it. The English prepared to carry quantities of such commodities into -Scotland as would entitle them to a drawback, intending to bring them -back after the 1st of May; and the Scots, as their duties were much -lower than those of England, intended to import large quantities of -wine, brandy, and similar articles, to sell them into England after -the Union. Some of the Ministers were found to have embarked in these -fraudulent schemes, which so alarmed the English merchants that -they presented a remonstrance to the Commons. The Commons began to -prepare a Bill on the subject, but it was discovered that the previous -resolutions of the House sufficiently provided against these practices; -and, as the 1st of May was now so near, the matter dropped. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -THE REIGN OF QUEEN ANNE (_continued_). - - Negotiations for Peace--The Ministry becomes - Whig--Harley--Marlborough and Charles of Sweden--The Allies in - Spain--Battle of Almanza--The French Triumphant in Spain--Attack - on Toulon--Destruction of Shovel's Fleet--Jacobitism in - Scotland--First Parliament of Great Britain--Abigail - Hill--The Gregg Affair--Retirement of Harley and St. John - from the Ministry--Attempted Invasion of Scotland--Campaign - of 1708--Battle of Oudenarde--Capture of Lille--Leake takes - Sardinia and Minorca--Death of Prince George of Denmark--The - Junto--Terrible Plight of France--Marlborough's Plans for - 1709--Louis Negotiates with Holland--Torcy's Terms--Ultimatum - of the Allies--Rejection of the Terms--Patriotism of the French - Nation--Fall of Tournay--Battle of Malplaquet--Meeting of - Parliament--Dr. Sacheverell's Sermons--His Impeachment resolved - upon--Attitude of the Court--The Trial and Sacheverell's - Defence--The Riots--Dispersal of the Rabble--The Sentence--Bias - of the Queen--The Tories in Power--Renewed Overtures for - Peace--Their Failure--The Campaigns in the Netherlands and in - Spain--Brihuega and its Consequence--Marlborough's Reign at an - End--Unpopularity of Marlborough--Dismissal of the Duchess--Triumph - of the Tories--Guiscard's Attack on Harley--Popularity of - Harley--Marlborough's Last Campaign--Failure of the Attack on - Quebec--The Ministry determine to make Peace--Overtures to - the Pretender--He refuses to Change his Religion--Gualtier's - Mission to Versailles--Indignation of the Dutch--The Basis of - Negotiations--Signing of the Preliminaries--Excitement Abroad - and at Home--Prorogation of Parliament--Strengthening of the - Ministry--Debates in the two Houses--The Whigs adopt the Occasional - Conformity Bill--Creation of Peers--Dismissal of Marlborough from - his Employments--Walpole expelled the House. - - -The great event of the Union of the kingdoms has carried us somewhat -past the course of general events. After the last disastrous campaign -Louis XIV., humbled to a degree that he was hitherto unacquainted -with, employed the Elector of Bavaria to propose a congress to the -Duke of Marlborough and the States-General. He had already presented -a memorial to the Dutch Government through the Marquis D'Alègre, and -he besought the Pope to use his influence to this end. The terms which -Louis offered in the moment of his alarm were such as well merited -the attention of the Allies. He proposed to cede either Spain and the -West Indies to King Charles, or Milan, Naples, and Sicily; to grant -to the Dutch a barrier of fortified towns on the frontiers of the -Spanish Netherlands; and to indemnify the Duke of Savoy for the ravages -committed on his territories. Never since the commencement of the war -had the Allies such an opportunity of closing the war triumphantly. -They could thus balance the powers of France and Austria by dividing -the Spanish monarchy, and give to the Dutch all they asked--a secure -frontier. But the great doubt was whether Louis was in earnest, or -only seeking to gain time during which he might continue to divide -the Allies. And the Allies were by no means eager to accept Louis's -offers. The Dutch were greatly elated by Marlborough's astonishing -victories, and Marlborough himself was in no humour to stop in -the mid-career of his glory. He is said to have induced the Grand -Pensionary Heinsius--who was now as much devoted to him as he had -formerly been to King William--to keep the Dutch high in their demands, -whilst Marlborough induced the English Court to demand indemnity for -the immense sums which England had expended in these wars. In these -circumstances the offers of France were declined on the plea that -England could not enter into any negotiations except in concert with -the Allies. Had the English people known of the offers, there would -have probably been a loud demand for peace; but they were kept secret, -and the attention of the nation being then engrossed by the question of -the Union, the matter was passed over,--not, however, without exciting -fresh resentment against Marlborough amongst the Tory leaders. - -During the Session of 1706-1707 the Ministry grew more completely Whig. -Through the influence of Lady Marlborough rather than of the Duke, -who was much averse from the free principles and free language of his -son-in-law the Earl of Sunderland, that nobleman was made one of the -Secretaries of State in the place of Sir Charles Hedges. This change -was equally repugnant to Harley, the other Secretary, who was now the -only Tory Minister left in the Cabinet. The three Tory Commissioners of -the Board of Trade--Prior the poet being one--were removed, and three -Whigs were introduced. Sir James Montague, the brother of the Earl of -Halifax, was made Solicitor-General; and Sir George Rooke and the few -remaining Tory Privy Councillors had their names erased. Harley was -thus left, apparently without support, a Tory in a Cabinet all except -himself Whig. But Harley was that kind of man that he not only managed -to maintain his place, but eventually ruined and scattered the whole -Whig party. He was by no means a man of genius, though he affected -the company of such men. Pope, Swift, Bolingbroke, Arbuthnot, and -Prior, were his friends and associates. His intellect was narrow and -commonplace, but it was persevering; and though he was a wretched and -confused speaker, yet he continually acquired more and more influence -in the House of Commons, and ultimately raised himself to the peerage, -and for many years to the chief direction of the national affairs. The -secret of this was that he had made himself master of the laws and -practices of Parliament, and on all disputed questions could clear up -the point past dispute, so that he came to be regarded as far more -profound than he was. - -The Duke of Marlborough, relying on the support of the Whig Cabinet, -which the influence of his contriving wife had created, set out in the -month of April for the Continent. The condition to which his successes -had reduced France was such that the Allies were in the highest -spirits. The French Treasury was exhausted; and, in the absence of -real money, Louis endeavoured to supply the deficiency by mint bills, -in imitation of the Bank of England bills; but they were already -at a discount of fifty-three per cent. The lands lay uncultivated, -manufacturers were at a pause for want of capital, the people were -perishing with famine, and nothing could be more deplorable than the -state of France. Nothing could have saved Louis at this crisis but want -of unity amongst the Allies, and already the artful Louis had contrived -to get in the wedge of disunion. The Emperor, allured by the prospect -of the evacuation of Italy, and of seizing Naples for himself, had -come to a secret understanding with the French king, which was equally -treacherous and suicidal; for the direct result, as any man but the -stolid Emperor would have foreseen, was to liberate the French forces -from the North of Italy to reinforce those in the Netherlands and those -endeavouring to drive his brother Charles from Spain. - -Marlborough, on his part, did everything that he could to keep the -Allies together, and to combine them into a victorious strength; but -it had always been his misfortune, as it had been that of William, to -have to suffer from their regard to their own petty jealousies rather -than to the grand object in view. He set out directly from the Hague to -visit Hanover, and stimulate the young Elector to active assistance. -He then set out to pay a visit to Charles XII. of Sweden, who was -encamped at Alt Ranstadt, only a few marches from the Court of Hanover. -The Swedish military madman, neglecting the Czar Peter, who was making -continual inroads on his Finnish and Esthonian territories, and was now -actually laying the foundations of a new capital and seaport on the -shores of the Baltic, had pursued, with blind and inveterate hatred, -Augustus, the Elector of Saxony, who had presumed to allow himself, in -spite of the Swedish king, to be elected King of Poland. Marlborough's -flattery appeared to produce the intended effect. The rough Swede -assured him that he had a great regard for the Queen of England, and -for the objects of the Grand Alliance, and should do nothing contrary -to it; that he detested the domineering spirit of the French, and that -no good need be expected till they were reduced to the condition they -were in at the peace of Westphalia; that he had come into Saxony to -demand certain satisfaction, and that when he had obtained it he should -go away, and not sooner. But notwithstanding Charles's profession, he -continued to harass and alarm the Emperor until he had obtained from -him all that he chose to demand, when he marched away into Poland to -encounter the Czar. Marlborough himself returned by way of the Courts -of Prussia and Hanover to the Hague, giving everywhere the utmost -satisfaction by his arrangements with Charles XII., who had made every -neighbouring Court uneasy lest he might turn his erratic arms against -them. - -But the campaign in the Netherlands this year bore no relation to the -great expectations formed of it. No grand action was fought there; and -in Spain the adroit manœuvre of Louis, by which, through his treaty -with the selfish and short-sighted Emperor, he had liberated his troops -from Italy to throw them upon that country, and the want of unity -between Charles and his auxiliaries, quite changed the face of affairs. -The Whigs had studiously left the reinforcements in Spain insufficient, -from the idea that it was better to continue to distract the attention -of Louis in that direction than by a bold and vigorous effort to drive -him from the country. They had a vain idea of conquering France, and -thought this more easy to achieve while the French arms were demanded -in various quarters. But the astute Louis was not so readily dealt -with. He contrived, as we have seen, to amuse the Allies in Flanders -without coming to blows. He coped without difficulty with the Germans -on the Rhine; and, though fiercely attacked at Toulon by the Savoyards, -he defeated the Allies in Spain, to the great astonishment of Europe. - -By this time the opinion formed of King Charles when he was in England -by those who had opportunity of observing him, was now become that of -all who had come near him in Spain--that he was a very poor creature. -The Earl of Peterborough, who had been travelling about with little -success to borrow money for such a contest, and had returned to Spain, -but without any command, did not hesitate to say that people were -great fools to fight for such a couple of simpletons as Charles and -Philip. Charles was surrounded by a set of Austrians who were utterly -incapable of commanding, and who made it equally impossible for any one -else to command. The great plan of the campaign was to march boldly -on Madrid; but Charles was, as before, too timid to venture on such a -step. He remained in Catalonia, and ordered the Earl of Galway with -the Dutch and English forces, and Das Minas, with the Portuguese, to -defend the frontiers of Aragon and Valencia; and thus he contrived to -wait for fresh troops from England, or from Italy, where they were no -longer wanted. Whilst Das Minas and Galway, who was only second in -command, were laying siege to Velina, in Valencia, and were in want -of almost everything--food, clothes, and ammunition--they heard that -the Duke of Berwick was hastening, by forced marches, to attack them. -They therefore drew off towards the town of Almanza, and there fell in -with the enemy, who proved to be considerably stronger than themselves. -They came to an engagement, however, on the 14th of April. The battle -began about two in the afternoon, and the whole force of each army was -engaged. The centre of the Allies, consisting of Dutch and English, -fought most valiantly, and repeatedly threw back the forces of the Duke -of Berwick. For six long and bloody hours they maintained the fight; -but the two wings were beaten and dispersed; the Portuguese horse on -the right at the first charge, but the Dutch and English on the left, -only after a brave but unequal resistance. When the gallant centre was -thus exposed on both flanks, they formed themselves into a square, and -retired from the field, fighting doggedly as they went. But at length -their ammunition was spent, they were worn out with fatigue, and they -surrendered, to the extent of thirteen battalions. The Portuguese, -part of the English horse, and the infantry who guarded the baggage, -retreated to Alcira, where the Earl of Galway joined them with about -two thousand five hundred horse, and they escaped. It was a complete -triumph for the French and Spaniards. The Allies lost five thousand -men, besides the wounded and the large force which surrendered. - -Nothing now could stop Berwick, who won great reputation by this -decisive action. He marched into Valencia, taking town after town, -whilst Saragossa at the same time surrendered, without a shot, to the -Duke of Orleans. Berwick marched for the Ebro, which he crossed on the -4th of June, and at length pursued and shut up the flying confederates -in Lerida. Charles was too inert or too dastardly to lead his troops -thither, though they lay at no great distance; and the place was taken -by storm, and given up to all the licence of the soldiery. After this -Manilla surrendered so late as the 17th of December, and with that the -campaign closed. The Duke of Orleans returned to Paris, and the Duke of -Berwick remained with the army till towards spring, when Louis sent for -him in haste into France, ordering him to quit Spain unknown to Philip, -lest he should endeavour to detain him. The Earl of Galway and Das -Minas embarked at Barcelona for Lisbon, leaving General Carpenter with -the English forces remaining in Catalonia, the only portion of Spain -now left to the pusillanimous Charles. - -The operation, however, which most alarmed the French Court was -that of the Duke of Savoy against Provence. This had been planned -by Marlborough and Prince Eugene, and would undoubtedly have had a -brilliant success had not the Emperor been secretly planning his -attempt on Naples, instead of sending all his forces into Italy to -the support of this enterprise. The Duke of Savoy and Prince Eugene, -though abandoned by this selfish and small-souled Emperor, on whose -account the great Powers of Europe were expending so much life and -wealth, crossed the Alps by the Col de Tende with twenty thousand men, -whilst Sir Cloudesley Shovel appeared on the coast of Provence with the -united fleet of England and Holland to support them. Eugene crossed -the Var on the 10th of July, Sir John Norris and his English sailors -clearing the way for him in their gunboats. But the French were fast -marching towards Toulon from various quarters, Villars having been -despatched with a large force, as we have stated, from the army of -Flanders. The Duke of Savoy, on the other hand, instead of pushing on -to Toulon with all speed, halted his army to rest, and then marched -leisurely forward. By this means, not only had the French been able to -collect a very powerful army, but had had time to strengthen greatly -the fortifications of Toulon. When the practised eye of Prince Eugene -took a survey of the formidable heights of Toulon, and of the great -force on the outworks, with the power of the batteries, he advised -the duke not to attempt the siege of the place with the forces at his -command. The duke, however, would persist, and an assault was made on -the outworks on the hill of St. Catherine, and on two small forts near -the harbour. These were carried, but at a great cost of life, including -that of the gallant Prince of Saxe-Gotha. But fresh French troops -kept pouring in; it was impossible to maintain even this advantage. -On the 15th of August the hill of St. Catherine was recovered by the -French, and the Savoyards were even attacked in their own camp. On -this an order was given to bombard the place, both from sea and land, -in retaliation for the ravages committed by the French on Turin; the -bombardment, especially from the sea, was made with terrible effect. -A great part of the city was demolished, and the English and Dutch -sailors destroyed eight ships of the line in the harbours, and utterly -ruined two batteries. In the night of the 25th of August the army of -Savoy retired; on the 31st it crossed the Var without any pursuit of -the French, and then laid siege to Susa, an old and strong town at the -foot of the Alps, which surrendered after a fortnight's investment. - -[Illustration: WRECK OF SIR CLOUDESLEY SHOVEL'S FLEET. (_See p._ 577.)] - -Sir Cloudesley Shovel, leaving a squadron with Sir Thomas Dilkes in -the Mediterranean, sailed for England, and on the night of the 22nd of -October, 1707, closed his career in a sudden and melancholy manner. -By some miscalculation his vessels got amongst the rocks of Scilly. -His own ship struck on a rock about eight o'clock at night, and went -down, drowning him and every soul on board. Three other vessels shared -the same fate, only the captain and twenty-four men of one of them -escaping. Sir Cloudesley Shovel had risen from a humble origin in -Suffolk, had raised himself to the head of the maritime service of -his country by his bravery, skill, and integrity. His body, when cast -ashore, was stripped by the wreckers and buried in the sand, but was -afterwards discovered and interred in Westminster Abbey. - -Meanwhile disaffection was rife in Scotland, where there had been -for some time a very zealous emissary of the Court of St. Germains, -one Colonel Hooke. Colonel Hooke transmitted to Chamillard, the -Minister of Louis XIV., flaming accounts of this state of things -in Scotland, and represented that never was there so auspicious an -opportunity of introducing the king of England (the Pretender) again -to his ancient throne of Scotland--a circumstance than which nothing -could be more advantageous to France. A civil war created in Great -Britain must completely prevent the English from longer impeding the -affairs of Louis on the Continent. All the power of England would be -needed at home; and on the Elder Pretender succeeding in establishing -himself on the throne of the United Kingdom, France would be for -ever relieved from the harassing antagonism of England--the only -real obstacle to the amplest completion of all France's plans for -Continental dominion. These accounts were very highly coloured, as -from most quarters, particularly from the Duke of Hamilton, Hooke only -met with discouragement. From others, however, Hooke received more -encouragement. He obtained a memorial to Louis XIV., signed by the -Lord High Constable the Earl of Errol, by the Lords Stormont, Panmure, -Kinnaird, and Drummond, and by some men of smaller note. The leading -men did not sign. They were not willing to endanger their necks without -some nearer prospect of invasion. Hooke, indeed, pretended that the -lords who did sign, signed as proxies for many others, such as the -Earls of Caithness, Eglintoun, Aberdeen, and Buchan, Lord Saltoun, -and others. With this memorial Hooke went back to St. Germains, and -what the document wanted in weight he made up by verbal assurances of -the impatience of all Scotland for the arrival of the king. But the -truth appears to be that France expected a stronger demonstration on -the part of Scotland, and Scotland on the part of France, and so the -adventure hung fire. It was not till the following year that sufficient -spirit could be aroused to send out an armament, and not till upwards -of twenty of the Jacobite lords and gentlemen, including the Duke of -Hamilton, in spite of all his caution, had been arrested. - -The first Parliament of Great Britain met on the 23rd of October, -1707. The queen, in her speech, endeavoured to make the best of the -last unfortunate summer's military operations. The retreat of the -Imperialist troops on the Rhine was freely admitted, but it was -considered an encouraging circumstance that the command there was now -in the hands of the Elector of Hanover, and it was announced that -measures were taken for strengthening the forces in that quarter. -Little could be said of the proceedings in the Netherlands, and less of -those in Spain, including the fatal battle of Almanza; but the most was -made of the attack upon, and the bombardment of, Toulon. But the speech -promised renewed vigour in every quarter, and called for augmented -supplies. The deficiencies of military and naval action--for we had -also suffered a considerable defeat at sea from the celebrated French -Admiral, Du Guai Trouin, off the Lizard Point, in which two ships of -the line were taken and a third was blown up--an endeavour was made to -cover by allusions to the happy event of the Union. The Commons, in -their Address, seized on this point of congratulation, and declared -it a "mark of the Divine goodness that her Majesty had been made the -glorious instrument of this happy Union, which would so strengthen the -kingdom as to make it a terror to all its enemies." The Lords joined -with the Commons in an affectionate Address to her Majesty, declaring -that the only means of obtaining an honourable peace was the entire -recovery of Spain. To support these assurances by deeds the Commons -voted the enormous sum of six millions for the supplies. - -Meanwhile the influence of the Marlboroughs at Court was on the wane, -and that partly through their own shortsightedness. The Duchess of -Marlborough had introduced into the palace, when she was Groom of -the Stole, Mistress of the Robes, and more queen than the queen -herself, a poor relation of her own, one Abigail Hill. Abigail, from -whose position as a bedchamber woman, and from whose singular rise -and fortunes all women of low degree and intriguing character have -derived the name of Abigails, being placed so near the queen, soon -caught her eye, took her fancy, and speedily became prime favourite. -Harley, the Tory Minister, being also her cousin, as was the Duchess -of Marlborough, with equal tact discovered her to be a useful tool for -him. The Duchess of Marlborough, trusting to her long absolute sway -over the mind of Queen Anne, begun when she was a princess; to the -firm establishment of the Whig faction in power, her own work, because -the Tories had opposed the five thousand pounds a year which the queen, -at the instigation of the duchess, demanded for Marlborough before he -had even won the battle of Blenheim; and finally, relying on the great -services which Marlborough had now rendered, had become intolerable -in her tyranny over the queen. The Marlboroughs all this time were -making use, not only of their position to enjoy power, but to scrape -up money with an insatiable and unblushing avarice. The time was now -approaching, however, for the queen's liberation from the heavy yoke of -Sarah Marlborough. The duchess, in the midst of power and pride, had -still for some time felt the ground mysteriously gliding from under her -feet. - -She found that Abigail Hill was, in reality, no longer Abigail Hill; -that she had for a whole year been privately married to Mr. Masham, -Groom of the Bedchamber to the Prince of Denmark; and that the queen -herself had honoured this secret marriage by her presence at Dr. -Arbuthnot's lodgings, at which time Anne, the duchess now remembered, -had called for a round sum from the privy purse. In short, the duchess -herself tells us that in less than a week after the inquiries she -discovered that her cousin "was become an absolute favourite." - -At this crisis an unlucky incident for the cunning Harley occurred. -He had in his office one William Gregg, a clerk, who was detected in -a treasonable correspondence with Chamillard the French Minister. -He was arrested and thrown into the Old Bailey. The Whigs hoped to -be able to implicate Harley himself in this secret correspondence. -There had just been an attempt to get Lord Godolphin dismissed from -his office, and he, the Duke of Marlborough, Sunderland, and their -party, now seized eagerly on this chance to expel Harley and his acute -coadjutor, St. John, from the Cabinet. Seven lords, including these, -and all Whigs, were deputed to examine Gregg in prison, and are said -to have laboured hard to induce Gregg to accuse Harley; but they were -disappointed. Gregg remained firm, was tried, condemned, and hanged. -Alexander Valiere, John Bara, and Claude Baude, the secretary of the -ambassador to the Duke of Savoy, with that Minister's consent, were -also imprisoned on the charge of carrying Gregg's correspondence to -the governor and commissioners of Calais and Boulogne. On the scaffold -Gregg was said to have delivered a paper to the ordinary, clearing -Harley altogether; but this was not produced till Harley was once more -in the ascendant. The lords deputed to examine Gregg and the smugglers -Bara and Valiere, declared that Gregg had informed them that Harley had -employed these men to carry correspondence, and that all the papers in -the office of Harley lay about so openly that any one might read them. -Both these assertions, and the paper said to have been left by Gregg, -had much that is doubtful about them. The one statement proceeded from -the Whigs, evidently to destroy Harley; the Gregg paper, on the other -hand, not being produced till Harley was out of danger, was quite as -evidently the work of Harley to clear his character. The charges, -however, were sufficient to drive Harley and St. John from office for -the time. When the Council next met, the Duke of Somerset rose, and -pointing to Harley said rudely to the queen that if she suffered that -fellow to treat of affairs in the absence of Marlborough and Godolphin, -he could not serve her. Marlborough and Godolphin continued to absent -themselves from the Council, and the queen was compelled to dismiss -Harley. With him went out St. John, the Secretary of War; and Mr. -Robert Walpole, a young man whose name was destined to fill a large -space of history under the Georges, was put into his place. - -Whilst things were on this footing, the nation was alarmed by an -attempt at invasion. Louis XIV. had at length been persuaded that -a diversion in Scotland would have a very advantageous effect by -preventing England from sending so many troops and supplies against -him to the Continent. Early in February, therefore, an emissary was -sent over to Scotland in the person of Charles Fleming, brother of -the Earl of Wigtown. He was to see the leading Jacobites, and assure -them that their king was coming; and that as soon as the French fleet -appeared in sight they were to proclaim the king everywhere, raise the -country, seize arms, and open up again their previous communications -with persons within the different forts and garrisons--thus proving -that they had tampered with the troops and garrisons of Scotland, and -that, as asserted by different historians, the regular troops in that -country, about two thousand five hundred, were not to be trusted by -the English. They were also to seize the equivalent money, which was -still lying in the Castle of Edinburgh. On the earliest intimation of -these designs, the suspected Scottish nobles, including the Duke of -Hamilton and twenty-one others, lords or gentlemen, were secured. The -Habeas Corpus Act was suspended; the Pretender and his abettors were -declared traitors; and all Popish recusants were ordered to remove ten -miles from the cities of London and Westminster. The alarm was not an -empty one. The Pretender, who had now assumed the name of the Chevalier -de St. George, was furnished with a fleet and army, which assembled at -Dunkirk. The fleet, under the command of Admiral Forbin, consisted of -five ships of the line and twenty frigates. It was to carry over five -thousand troops, under the command of General de Gace, afterwards known -as Marshal de Matignon. Before the expedition, however, could sail, -the Chevalier was taken ill of the measles, and the postponement of -the expedition ruined its chances. A powerful fleet under the command -of Admiral Sir George Byng, with squadrons under Sir John Leake and -Lord Dursley, was sent to blockade the port of Dunkirk, and prevent -the sailing of the French expedition. The French were astonished at -the appearance of so large a fleet, imagining that Leake had gone -to Lisbon with his squadron; and Count de Forbin represented to the -French Court the improbability of their being able to sail. A storm, -however, drove the English ships from their station. The French fleet -then ventured out on the 17th of March, but was soon driven back by the -same tempest. On the 19th, however, it again put out, and made for the -coast of Scotland. But Sir George Byng had stretched his ships along -the whole coast, to the very Firth of Forth; and on the French squadron -approaching the Forth, it perceived the English ships there before -it, and stood off again. Byng gave chase and took the _Salisbury_, a -ship of the line, having on board old Lord Griffin, two sons of Lord -Middleton, a French lieutenant-general, various other French and Irish -officers, and five companies of French soldiers. In the night Forbin -altered his course, and thus in the morning was out of the reach of -the English. The Chevalier was impatient that Forbin should proceed -to Inverness, and there land him and the troops; but the wind was so -violent and dead against them that Forbin contended that they would -all be lost if they continued the attempt, and the Chevalier, having -entered the Firth of Forth, reluctantly returned to Dunkirk. - -Such was the alarm in London owing to these circumstances that there -was a heavy run on the Bank, increased to the utmost by all who were -disaffected to the Government. The Commons also suspended the Habeas -Corpus Act, and the country was alive with military preparations. - -The Allies and France prepared for a vigorous campaign in the -Netherlands. Notwithstanding the low state of Louis XIV.'s funds and a -series of severe disasters which had attended his arms, he put forth -wonderful energies for the maintenance of his designs. He assembled at -least one hundred thousand men in the Netherlands, under the command -of the Duke of Burgundy, the Duke of Vendôme, the Duke of Berwick--who -had been so suddenly called from Spain--Marshal Boufflers, and the -Old Pretender, who sought here to learn martial skill, which he -might employ in attempting to regain his crown. On the other hand, -Marlborough went to the Hague towards the end of March, where he was -met by Prince Eugene, and the plan of the campaign was concerted -between them, the Pensionary Heinsius, and the States-General. Eugene -then returned to Vienna to bring up reinforcements, and Marlborough -proceeded to Flanders to assemble the army, and be in readiness for the -junction of Eugene. Before Eugene and Marlborough parted, however, they -had gone together to Hanover, and persuaded the Elector to be contented -with merely acting on the defensive, so that he might spare a part -of his forces for the projected operations in Flanders. His son, the -Electoral Prince--afterwards George II. of England--took a command of -cavalry in the Imperial army under Marlborough. - -[Illustration: SARAH DUCHESS OF MARLBOROUGH. (_After the Portrait by -Sir Peter Lely._)] - -The Duke of Vendôme, on the 25th of May, posted his army at Soignies, -whilst Marlborough was encamped at Billinghen and Halle, only three -leagues distant. The French then moved towards Braine-la-Leuvre, and -Marlborough, supposing that they meant to occupy the banks of the Dyle -and cut him off from Louvain, made a rapid night march, and on the 3rd -of June was at Terbank, Overkirk occupying the suburbs of Louvain. -There, as the Allies were yet far inferior in numbers, they imagined -the French would give them battle; but such were not the French plans. -They had advanced only to Genappe and Braine-la-Leuvre, and now sought -by stratagem to regain the towns they had lost in Flanders. They knew -that the Allies had drawn out all their forces, and that few of these -towns had any competent garrisons. The inhabitants of many of these -places had a leaning to France, from the heavy exactions of the Dutch, -and the popularity of the Elector of Bavaria and the Count de Bergeyck, -who was a warm adherent of the Bourbons. The French, therefore, -resolving to profit by these circumstances, despatched troops to -Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres, and were soon admitted to these places. -They next invested Oudenarde; but Marlborough, being now joined by -Eugene, made a rapid march to that town, and took up a strong position -before it. The French, however, unwilling to come to an engagement, -passed the Scheldt, and attempted to defeat the Allies by attacking -them whilst they were in the act of passing it after them. The Allies, -however, effected their transit, and came to an engagement with the -enemy between the Scheldt and the Lys on the 11th of July. The French -amounted to one hundred thousand, the Allies to little more than -eighty thousand. The latter, however, had this great advantage--that -the commanders of the Allies were united, those of the French were -of contrary views. The Duke of Vendôme was prevented from attacking -the Allies during their passage of the river by the remissness of the -Duke of Burgundy. When it was already three o'clock in the afternoon, -and the Allies were safe over, then Burgundy was eager for an attack, -and the Duke of Vendôme as averse from it, the proper opportunity -having been lost. The wiser general was eventually overruled, and -Major-General Grimaldi was ordered to attack Count Rantzau, who was -posted on a marshy plain near the village of Eyne, with a muddy rivulet -in front of him, with the king's Household Troops. But these troops, -when they saw the nature of the rivulet, would not charge, and filed -off to the right. Rantzau then crossed the rivulet himself, and, whilst -General Cadogan assaulted the village of Eyne, attacked and drove -before him several squadrons of the enemy. In this attack the Electoral -Prince of Hanover greatly distinguished himself by his gallant charge -at the head of Bülow's dragoons. He had his horse killed under him, -and Colonel Laschky killed at his side. Several French regiments were -completely broken, and many officers and standards were taken by the -Hanoverians. The general engagement, however, did not take place till -about five o'clock, when the Duke of Argyll came up with the infantry. -Overkirk and Tilly, who led on the left of the Allies, were the first -to make the French give way, when they were attacked in flank by the -Dutch infantry under the Prince of Orange and Count Oxenstjerna, and -completely routed their right. After that the whole line gave way. In -vain Vendôme exerted himself to check their flight and reform them; -they fled in wild confusion along the road from Oudenarde towards -Ghent, and Vendôme could do nothing but protect their rear. Their -greatest protector, however, was the night, which stopped the pursuit -of the Allies. As soon as it was light the pursuit was resumed; but -this was checked by the French grenadiers, who were posted behind the -hedges that skirted the road, and the French army reached Ghent at -eight in the morning, and encamped on the canal on the other side of -the city at Lovendegen, after one of the most thorough defeats that -they had ever sustained. They lost three thousand men, were deserted by -two thousand more, and had seven thousand taken, besides ten pieces of -cannon, more than a hundred colours and standards, and four thousand -horses. The loss of the Allies was not inconsiderable, amounting to -nearly two thousand men. - -After resting a couple of days on the field of battle, a detachment -was sent to level the French lines between Ypres and the Lys; another -to lay the country under contributions as far as Arras, which ravaged -the country and greatly alarmed Paris itself by carrying the war -into France. This alarm was heightened by the Allies next advancing -upon the city of Lille, which was considered the key to Paris and to -half of France. Lille was very strongly defended by batteries and -entrenchments, and by a garrison of twenty-one battalions of the best -troops in France, commanded by Boufflers. This daring act combined -all the skill and chief leaders on each side for the attack or the -defence. The Dukes of Burgundy, Vendôme, and Berwick hastened to -the relief of the place. Marlborough, Eugene, the Prince of Orange, -Augustus, King of Poland, and the Landgrave of Hesse, were engaged in -the siege. All the art and valour on both sides were put forth. The -French endeavoured to cut off the supplies of the Allies coming from -Ostend; but Major-General Webbe, who guarded these supplies with a body -of six thousand men, defeated an attacking party of twenty-two thousand -French under the Count de la Motte, near Wynendale, killing six -thousand of them, and accomplishing one of the most brilliant exploits -of the whole war. After a stubborn and destructive defence Boufflers -capitulated for the town on the 22nd of October, but contrived to hold -the citadel till the 9th of December. - -Lille, important as it was, was not won, it is said, without a loss of -at least twelve thousand of the Allies, whilst Boufflers was reckoned -to have lost half his garrison. During the siege Eugene had to hasten -to the rescue of Brussels. After the fall of Lille the Allies reduced -Ghent, Bruges, and all the towns they had lost; and the French, greatly -humiliated, abandoned Flanders, and retired into their own territories, -the French Court being filled with consternation at these terrible -reverses. The Duke of Berwick was highly incensed at the management of -the campaign by Vendôme and Burgundy. He states that during the siege -of Lille Marlborough, through him, made propositions for peace, which -were, however, haughtily rejected by the not yet sufficiently humbled -Louis. Marlborough would probably have been glad to have procured peace -now, that he might watch the critical state of affairs at home, where -Harley and Mrs. Masham were steadily driving their mines beneath the -feet of the Whigs, and where the whole body of Tories were constantly -endeavouring to misrepresent his proceedings in the war, continually -prognosticating defeats from alleged blunders, which, nevertheless, -were as regularly refuted by the most brilliant successes. - -The campaign in Catalonia had begun in favour of the French, but -there, too, had ended decidedly in favour of the Allies. There the -Earl of Galway was superseded by General Stanhope, an able and active -officer; and Count Stahremberg, the Imperial general, was a man of -like stamp. But before the Imperial troops had arrived in the English -fleet commanded by Sir John Leake, the Duke of Orleans had besieged -and taken Tortosa and Denia, the garrison of the latter place being -detained prisoners, contrary to the articles of capitulation. No -sooner, however, did Generals Stanhope and Stahremberg get into the -scene of action than they put a stop to the progress of the French, -and maintained the rest of the province intact. They soon, moreover, -planned a striking enterprise. Sir John Leake carried over to Sardinia -a small body of troops under the command of the Marquis D'Alconzel, -assaulted and took Cagliari, and received the submission of the whole -island, which acknowledged King Charles, and sent a very timely supply -of thirty thousand sacks of corn to the army in Catalonia, where it -was extremely needed. General Stanhope then, with the consent of -Count Stahremberg, set sail for Minorca with a few battalions of -Spaniards, Italians, and Portuguese, accompanied by a fine train of -British artillery directed by Brigadier Wade and Colonel Petit. They -landed on the 26th of August at Port Mahon, and invested St. Philip, -its chief fortress. They so disposed their forces that the garrison, -which consisted only of one thousand Spaniards and six hundred French -marines, under Colonel Jonquiere, imagined that there were at least -twenty thousand invaders, and, in consequence, surrendered after some -sharp fighting, in which Brigadier Wade, at the head of a party of -grenadiers, stormed a redoubt with such fury as amazed the garrison. On -the 30th of September not only Port Mahon but the whole island was in -the hands of the English, the garrison of Port Fornelles having also -submitted to the attack of Admirals Leake and Whitaker. The inhabitants -were delighted with the change, King Philip having so heavily oppressed -them and deprived them of their privileges. - -On the 28th of October the Prince of Denmark, the husband of the queen, -died at Kensington Palace, in his fifty-fifth year. George of Denmark -was a man not destitute of sense, but of no distinguished ability. He -was a good-natured _bon-vivant_, who was, however, fond of the queen, -who was very much attached to him. They lived together in great harmony -and affection, having no jars or jealousies. They had several children, -who all died early, their son, the Duke of Gloucester, arriving at -the greatest age. Anne was supposed to have a strong conviction that -the death of all her children was a judgment on her for her desertion -of her father and the repudiation of her brother the Prince of Wales, -whom, though she was the first to brand as a supposititious child, she -came to recognise as her own brother. - -On the death of the prince his offices were quickly divided amongst -the expectant Whigs. The Earl of Pembroke took his office of Lord High -Admiral, resigning the Lord-Lieutenancy of Ireland and the Presidency -of the Council. But he soon found the business of the Admiralty too -arduous for him, and it was put into commission, the Chief Commissioner -being Lord Orford, that mercenary Russell whom the Whigs had so long -been endeavouring to restore to that post. The post of Warden of the -Cinque Ports and Constable of Dover Castle was separated from that of -Admiral to accommodate Lord Dorset. Lord Somers was again brought into -the Cabinet as President of the Council. Even the witty and wicked Lord -Wharton was promoted to the Lord-Lieutenancy of Ireland. As Marlborough -and Godolphin had a great fear and distrust of Wharton, this astonished -many, but was accounted for by those more in the secrets of Court by -Wharton being in possession of an autograph letter of Godolphin's -to the Court of St. Germains, by which that Minister, and probably -Marlborough, too, was greatly in his power. - -But though the Whig Junto, as it was called, were now apparently -omnipotent in the Government, that was far from being the case. -Harley and Mrs. Masham had the ear of the queen as much or more than -ever. They were continually closeted with her, and laboured hard to -disconcert all the measures of the Whigs; the fierce and implacable -Duchess of Marlborough, raging with jealousy of the influence of Mrs. -Masham, who had supplanted her, did perhaps still more than Harley -himself, by her impolitic anger and insolence, to render the queen only -the more desirous to be rid of the Marlborough pest. Nothing but the -duke's continued victories made the countenance of the duchess at Court -possible. - -Dreadful as was the condition to which the fiendish ambition of Louis -XIV. had reduced Flanders, Spain, the North of Italy, and many parts -of Germany, that of his own country and subjects was still more -deplorable. Trade, agriculture, everything had been shrivelled up by -the perpetual demands of these incessant wars. The wealthy classes were -become as poor as the rest; the middle classes were ruined; the common -people were drained off to the army if men, and sank into beggary if -women, children, or old people. All credit was at an end; the Treasury -of the king was empty; and his chief banker, Bernard, was bankrupt, as -were hundreds of the same class of men. The most violent and spasmodic -exertions had been made to raise the supplies for the armies in the -different fields, and still of late nothing had come but tidings -after tidings of disastrous and murderous defeats. The farmers of the -taxes were out in all parts of France endeavouring to extort those -levies which the ordinary tax-gatherers had demanded and distrained -for in vain. The people of France were under a perpetual visitation -of these officers; and though they were ill prepared to pay once, had -frequently to pay more than once, the same taxes being demanded by -different officers, the regular tax-collector, or the agents of those -to whom they were farmed out. The Ministers themselves, Chamillard, -Pontchartrain, and others of the proud servants of the Grand Monarque, -were compelled to make journeys through the provinces to raise money -for the necessities of the State in any way that could be devised. Such -was the terrible condition of France: the people starving, ruined, -and hopeless, and yet the daily victims of an incessant visitation of -tax-gatherers, who, whilst they failed to procure the necessary sums -for the war, were actively plundering and embezzling on their own -account. Nothing but the immeasurable pride of the haughty but now -defeated king could cause him to hold out; and even this chance seemed -scarcely left him, for the enemy was on the frontiers of France--had, -in fact, already crossed them, and laid the country under contribution -in Picardy, and another campaign might see them in full march on Paris. - -The Duke of Marlborough had not, as usual, visited England at the end -of the campaign in 1708, which did not terminate till actual winter. -He continued at the Hague, his enemies said, merely to look after his -own interests; for, by various modes which we have already mentioned, -he was making immense sums by his command. But although we may be quite -satisfied that Marlborough would never neglect his own interests, these -interests equally, or perhaps more pressingly, demanded his presence in -England. Harley and the Tories, he knew, were actively though secretly -engaged in ruining his credit with the queen, and the conduct of his -wife was not of a kind to counteract these efforts. But Marlborough's -interests were inseparably linked to his reputation, and that -reputation now demanded his most vigilant attention at the Hague. He -saw the triumphant position of the Allies, and the miserable condition -of France. It is asserted, therefore, that he and Prince Eugene had -planned boldly to march, on the opening of the next campaign, into -France, and carry the war to the gates of Paris. There is no more doubt -that they could have done this than that the Allies did it in 1814, -and again in 1815. The whole of the wars against France had been too -timidly carried on. With the forces which were at William's command, -the war might have been made offensive instead of defensive, and Louis -have found his own territories subjected to the ravages which he had -committed on those of the States and the German Empire. Now there was -nothing to prevent the victorious arms of Marlborough from penetrating -to the French capital and humbling the troubler of Europe, or to -prevent the Allies from there dictating their own terms of peace. -Nothing, indeed, but the subtle acts of Louis, and the timid policy of -the Dutch. - -And already Marlborough was aware that Louis, compelled to open his -eyes to his critical situation, was beginning to tamper with the -Dutch for a separate peace. Some of his own nearest kinsmen, and -especially his grandson the Duke of Burgundy, had spoken very plainly -to Louis. They had asked him whether he meant irretrievably to ruin -France in order to establish his grandson on the throne of Spain. -They had laid fully before him the wasted condition of France, and -the rapidly-growing ascendency of the Allies. The pride of the old -king was forced to stoop, and he consented to sue for peace. He could -not, however, bring himself to seek this of the Allies all together, -but from Holland, whom he hoped by his arts to detach from the -Confederation. He despatched Bouillé, the President of the Council, to -Holland, who met Buys and Vanderdussen, the Pensionaries of Amsterdam -and Gouda, at Woerden, between Leyden and Utrecht, and Bouillé offered -to make terms with the Dutch very advantageous to them. Vanderdussen -and Buys replied that he must first of all put into their hands certain -fortified towns necessary for the security of their frontier. To this -Bouillé would not listen. The Dutch communicated the French proposals -to their Allies, and told the French Minister that they could enter -into no negotiations without them. Prince Eugene hastened from Vienna -to the Hague, and he and Marlborough consulted on the propositions with -Heinsius, Buys, and Vanderdussen; and it was unanimously decided that -they could not be accepted. - -It was now near the end of April, and the Allies saw that it would -not do to allow Louis to amuse them with offers which came to -nothing, when they should be marching towards his capital. Whilst, -therefore, Bouillé despatched the news of the rejection of his offers -to Versailles, Marlborough made a hasty journey to England, to take -the opinion of his Government as to the terms of the treaty. The -receipt of Bouillé's despatch at the French Court produced the utmost -consternation. The king was fixed in his proud determination to offer -no ampler terms; his Minister represented that it was impossible to -carry on the war. There was no alternative, and at length Bouillé was -instructed to amuse the Allies with the proposal to repurchase Lille -and to yield up Tournay, till the Marquis de Torcy could arrive to -his assistance. De Torcy, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, set off -for the Hague, not openly as the French Plenipotentiary, but merely -furnished with a courier's passport, and ran many risks of being seized -on the way. At Brussels he had a narrow escape, but he reached the -Hague late at night on the 6th of May. De Torcy now offered much more -enlarged terms. Louis was willing to destroy the fortifications of -Dunkirk at the instance of the Allies; to engage to send the Pretender -out of France, and also not to aid him in any attempt on the throne -of Great Britain, provided that provision was made for his security -and maintenance. He would give up Sicily, but would retain Naples--a -country entirely gone out of his power for more than two years, and -in possession of Austria. He even proposed that Philip should resign -Spain and the Indies; but his allies, the Electors of Bavaria and -Cologne, must be provided for, as they had sacrificed their own -territories in his alliance. The main difficulties appeared to be the -frontier towns of Lille, New Brisac, and Hermingen, in Flanders, De -Torcy contending that the surrender of Ypres, Menin, Condé, and a few -inferior fortresses, would be sufficient for frontier defences. As they -would give up Spain, the only obstacle in the south appeared the demand -on Naples. These terms would have been received with exultation by the -Allies some time ago, but they were now in a different position, and -their demands were proportionate. - -[Illustration: LONDON COFFEE-HOUSE IN THE REIGN OF ANNE.] - -As De Torcy could not bring the Dutch Ministers to concede anything, -he consented to meet Prince Eugene and Marlborough, who had now -returned from England with Lord Townshend. To these was added Count -Zinzendorf, as Minister for the Emperor. The French Minister, assisted -by Bouillé, though he was treating in a condition of the deepest -anxiety, yet maintained all the high pretensions which his Court had -so long assumed. He offered the surrender of Spain, but he would give -no guarantee for its evacuation. He contended that the word of his -king was enough---as if the word of any king could be accepted in such -a case, and especially of Louis, who had broken his a thousand times. -He pleaded that the king's great age, his earnest desire for peace and -repose in his declining years, and the situation of his affairs, were -of themselves ample guarantees for the fulfilment of that Article of -the treaty; and he even melted into tears in his earnestness to bring -the ambassadors to accept the word of the Grand Monarque. This was all -mere child's play in a treaty which was to be the result of such a war, -and to establish the future peace of Europe. As time was going on, -the representatives of the Allies, at the end of May, presented their -_ultimatum_, in forty Articles, the chief of which were these:--That -Philip should within two months totally evacuate Spain and Sicily, -which with the Indies were to be made over to Charles; that if Philip -refused to evacuate Spain and Sicily, the King of France, so far -from helping him, should assist the Allies to expel him; that Spain -should never, nor any part of it, be united to the crown of France; -that the Dutch should receive, as a barrier to their States, Furnes, -Fort Kenoq, Menin, Saverge, Ypres, Warneton, Comines, Vervick, Lille, -Condé, Tournay, and Maubeuge; that the French should deliver up all the -towns, cities, and fortresses which they had taken in the Netherlands; -that the fortifications of Dunkirk should be destroyed and never again -be restored; that the Pretender should quit France; that the Queen -of England's title and that of the Protestant succession should be -acknowledged; that the interests of the Electors of Bavaria and Cologne -should be settled by the congress which should settle this peace; and -that the Duke of Savoy should receive back everything taken from him, -and should also retain Exilles, Feneshelles, Chaumont, and the valley -of Pragelas. Strasburg and Kehl were to be given up by Louis, but -Alsace itself retained. The new King of Prussia and the new Elector -of Hanover should both be acknowledged, and all these preliminaries -should be adopted and the treaty completed within two months. - -De Torcy, who could not expect for a moment that Louis would consent -to any such terms, to gain time, however, engaged to send them to -Versailles. He set off for Paris, but at Douay he saw Marshal Villars, -showed him the conditions of peace, and told him to put his army in -order, for they would never be accepted. Villars replied that he should -be prepared, but that the army was on the point of utter starvation, -and such was the destitution of the country that he had no conception -how the troops were to exist. No sooner did De Torcy reach Paris than -it was announced to the Allies that Louis would never accept such -terms. Bouillé was recalled, and was commissioned by the Allies to -assure the king that no others would be offered; and that, if they were -not accepted by the 15th of June, they should take the field. But the -French king had gained one great object by the negotiation--it enabled -him to represent to his subjects his earnest efforts for peace, and the -arrogant obstinacy of the Allies. He had letters circulated all over -France representing the anxious endeavours he had made to put an end to -bloodshed and to the miseries of Europe; that he had offered to make -unheard-of sacrifices, but to no purpose; everything had been rejected -by the Allies but a fresh carnage and spoliation. He represented that -the more he had conceded, the more they had risen in their demands; -that he found it impossible to satisfy their inordinate demands, except -at the cost of the ruin and the eternal infamy of France. - -The effect of this representation was wonderful. The whole of France -was so roused by indignation at the supposed treatment of their king, -the insolent rejection of his peaceful desires, that they execrated -the selfish arrogance of the Allies, for Louis had insinuated that -they were carrying on the war only for their own personal interests. -The kingdom, impoverished and reduced as it was, determined to support -the ill-used monarch with the last remnant of its substance; and such -exertions were made for the continued struggle as astonished the world. -Nor was the effect of Louis's representations lost on Marlborough's -enemies in England. They declaimed on the unreasonableness of the -Allies almost as loudly as the French, and they particularly denounced -the demand that Louis should help to dethrone and expatriate his own -grandson, as the most astounding piece of assumption that had ever -been heard of. - -On the 21st of June Marlborough and Prince Eugene crossed the frontiers -of France, and with a force of one hundred and ten thousand men drew -up in a plain near Lille. Marshal Villars, considered now the ablest -general of France, encamped his army on the plain of Sens, between -two impassable morasses, and began to entrench himself. The Allies -reconnoitred his position, but found it too strong to attack him in -it; and as they could not advance towards Paris, leaving such an enemy -behind them, they made a feint of attacking Ypres; and then, suddenly -marching on Tournay in the night of the 27th of June, they presented -themselves before it on the 7th of July. The place was strong, but the -garrison was weak. It consisted of only twelve battalions of infantry -and four squadrons of horse, in very inefficient condition. Villars -endeavoured to throw into the place seven thousand fresh troops, but -he could not effect it. The governor, Lieutenant de Surville, was a -man of great military skill and determination, and he maintained the -siege with such vigour that the Allies were not only detained before -the place for a long and invaluable time, but lost many men. The town -capitulated on the 28th of July, when the Allies were about to carry -it by storm, but the citadel held out till the 3rd of September. The -same day, leaving a detachment under the Earl of Albemarle to level -the defences, the Allies crossed the Scheldt and determined to besiege -Mons. They sent forward a detachment under the Prince of Hesse to -attack the French lines from the Haine to the Sambre, which were -abandoned at his approach. At this juncture Marshal Boufflers arrived -to support Villars, and, though his superior in command, agreed to -serve under him. Marlborough, hearing that Villars had quitted his -camp, and that the French were on the march to attack the Prince of -Hesse and cut off the approaches to Mons, made a rapid movement, which -brought him face to face with the French army, which consisted of one -hundred and twenty thousand men--ten thousand more than the army of the -Allies. Villars and Boufflers were encamped behind the woods of Lanière -and Tasnière, in the neighbourhood of Malplaquet. The Allies encamped -with their right near Sart and Bleron, and the left on the edge of -the wood of Lanière, the headquarters being at Blaregines. On the 9th -of September the outposts of the two armies began to skirmish; but -the French fell back on an encampment near Malplaquet, and spent the -night in fortifying their position. Had the Allies immediately attacked -them the battle would have been less obstinate; but Marlborough was -waiting for the coming up of eighteen battalions, left to rase the -fortifications of Tournay. For the two days that he thus continued -to wait, the French, with unremitting activity, proceeded to cast up -triple entrenchments; and were, in fact, so completely covered with -lines, hedges, entrenchments, cannon, and trees laid across, that the -Dutch field-deputies declared that it would be madness to attack them -in such a situation. But on the 10th, when the expected battalions had -arrived, Marlborough and Eugene determined to give battle. - -Early on the morning of the 11th of September they availed themselves -of a thick fog to erect batteries on each wing, and, the day clearing -about eight o'clock, the engagement began. The battle began on the -right by eighty-six battalions, commanded by General Schuylemberg and -the Duke of Argyll, supported by two-and-twenty battalions under Count -Lottum, who broke through the French lines, and fought with such fury -that, notwithstanding their strong barricades, the French in less than -an hour were forced from their entrenchments, and compelled to seek -refuge in the woods of Sart and Tasnière. The contest was far more -desperate on the left, where the Prince of Orange and Baron Fagel, with -six-and-thirty battalions, attacked the right of the enemy, posted -in the woods of Lanière, and covered with three entrenchments. The -Prince of Orange led on the charge with wonderful bravery, having two -horses killed under him, and the greater part of his officers killed -around him. The engagement was now general, and the French continued -to fight with the fury of despair from eight in the morning till three -in the afternoon, when, seeing all their lines forced, their left -being utterly routed, and the centre under Villars giving way, Villars -himself being dangerously wounded, they began to retreat towards -Bavay, under the direction of Boufflers, and retired to a position -between Quesnoy and Valenciennes. The forest of Ardennes served to -protect the French from the pursuit of their enemies, and enabled -them to carry off most of their cannon and standards. About forty -colours and standards, and sixteen pieces of cannon, were taken by the -Allies, with a considerable number of prisoners. But on surveying the -field of battle they found that this was the dearest victory which -they had ever purchased. About twenty thousand of their soldiers lay -slain, and about ten thousand of the enemy. Thirty thousand lives -sacrificed in one battle! Neither Blenheim nor Ramillies could compare -with Malplaquet in monstrosity of carnage. Nor was the impression -produced equal to the destruction. The French, under the able command -of Villars, notwithstanding their defeat, felt rather reassured than -depressed. They had inflicted far more damage than they had received; -and Villars declared that, had he not been so severely wounded, he -would not have left the field without the victory. The French having -retired into Valenciennes, the Allies continued the siege of Mons, -which capitulated on the 23rd of October, and the armies then retired -into winter quarters, after which some resultless negotiations ensued. - -[Illustration: FIVE-GUINEA PIECE OF ANNE.] - -The Parliament of Great Britain met on the 15th of November, and the -queen, opening it in person, announced in her speech that France -had been endeavouring, by false and hollow artifices, to amuse the -Allies with a prospect of peace, but with the real intent to sow -jealousies amongst them; that the Allies had wisely rejected the -insidious overtures; that our arms had been as successful as in any -former campaign, and had now laid France open to the advance of the -confederate troops; and that if they granted her, as she trusted they -would, liberal supplies, she believed that she would now soon reduce -that exorbitant and oppressive power which had so long threatened the -liberties of Europe. Both Lords and Commons presented addresses fully -approving of the rejection of the king of France's delusive overtures. -They thanked the Duke of Marlborough for his splendid victory at -Malplaquet. The Commons voted six million two hundred thousand pounds -for the services of the year, and established the lottery and other -schemes for raising this heavy sum. - -The great topic, however, which engrossed almost the whole attention -this Session, not only of Parliament, but of the whole nation, was not -foreign affairs, not the general war, but a party war at home, which -was carried on with the most extraordinary furor, and put the whole -public into a flame. The ostensible cause of this vehement conflict -was the publication of a couple of sermons by a clergyman, hitherto of -no mark; the real cause was the determination of Harley and the Tories -to damage the Whigs irremediably, and to drive them at once from the -service of the State and the support of the people. They therefore -seized with consummate tact on these sermons, which were, as printed, -stupid though rabid performances; and which, had they not been adroitly -steeped in party spirit--the most inflammable of all spirits--and set -fire to, might soon have slept forgotten in the linings of trunks, or -as wrappers of butter and cheese. - -[Illustration: FARTHING OF ANNE.] - -[Illustration: TWO-GUINEA PIECE OF ANNE.] - -On the 13th of December, 1709, Mr. Dolben, the son of the Archbishop -of York, denounced, in the House of Commons, two sermons preached -and published by Dr. Henry Sacheverell, Rector of St. Saviour's, in -Southwark. The first of these sermons had been preached, on the 15th -of August, at the assizes at Derby, before the Judge and Sheriff. The -second had been preached, on the 5th of November, before the Lord Mayor -and Corporation in St. Paul's Cathedral. In both these sermons he had -made an attack, if not avowedly on the Government, on the principles -on which the Throne and the whole Government were established. He -professed the most entire doctrines of non-resistance and passive -obedience, which, at the same time that they made him appear incapable, -if he had the power, of over-turning any Government, led him to -entirely sap and undermine the Government and title of the queen, by -representing the resistance which had been made to the encroachments -of the Stuarts, and especially to James II., as perfectly impious and -treasonable, contrary to the laws of God and the political institutions -of men. He reprobated the Revolution and all that flowed from it; -and thus, pretending to passive obedience, he was, in the fullest -sense, preaching resistance and a counter-revolution. Whilst crying -non-resistance, he was, as far as in him lay, arming all those who -were hostilely inclined to overturn the throne of Anne, as built only -on rebellion and on maxims subversive of the divine right of kings. -In his second sermon, which he called "Perils of False Brethren," he -preached flamingly against the danger to the Church; danger from the -false and democratic bishops who had been put in by the usurper William -of Orange; danger from the Dissenters, whom he had by law tolerated, -and made powerful in the State and against the true Church. With such a -jubilant avidity was this war-note responded to by High Church clergy, -High Church zealots of all sorts, and the Tories ready to rush to the -assault on any promising occasion, that no less than forty thousand -copies of these sermons are said to have been sold. "Nothing," says Dr. -Johnson, "ever sold like it, except 'The Whole Duty of Man.'" - -[Illustration: ROBERT HARLEY, EARL OF OXFORD. (_After the Portrait by -Sir Godfrey Kneller._)] - -The motion made by Mr. Dolben in regard to Sacheverell in the House -of Commons was seconded by Sir Peter King, one of the Aldermen of -London, who had listened to the sermon in St. Paul's with astonishment -and indignation. He denounced it as abounding with matter false, -injurious, impious, and tending to sedition and schism in the Church. -This had not been the case with all the City dignitaries on that -occasion. Sir Gilbert Heathcote had indeed been equally astonished at -it, and declared that the preacher ought to be called to account for -it; but the Lord Mayor, Sir Samuel Garrard, had applauded it, and had -allowed it to be published with his sanction. Neither was it the first -of the kind which had been preached in London. One Francis Higgins -had been haranguing on the same topics in the pulpits all over the -metropolis, with the most outrageous declamations on the dangers of the -Church. Sacheverell, however, had brought the fever to a crisis. The -most violent paragraphs were read in the House of Commons, and voted -scandalous and seditious libels. The doctor was summoned to the bar -of the House, and, having acknowledged the authorship of the sermons, -pleaded the encouragement which he had received from the Lord Mayor to -print the one on "The Perils of False Brethren." Sir Samuel Garrard, -who was a member of the House, now repudiated his encouragement, and -the doctor being ordered to withdraw, it was resolved that he should -be impeached of high crimes and misdemeanours at the bar of the Lords, -and Mr. Dolben was ordered to conduct his impeachment. A committee -was appointed to prepare the Articles, and Sacheverell was taken into -custody. - -When the impeachment was carried up to the Lords, Sacheverell -petitioned to be admitted to bail, but this was refused. The Commons -committed him to the custody of the Deputy-Usher of the Black Rod, but -the Lords afterwards admitted him to bail. The Articles were carried -up to the Lords on the 13th of January, 1710, and Sacheverell drew -up an answer, in which he wholly denied some of the Articles, and -endeavoured to justify himself in respect to the rest. The Commons -made a reply, and declared themselves ready to prove the charge. A -long delay, however, took place before the day of trial could be -fixed. The queen was more than suspected of being favourable to -Sacheverell, as influenced by Harley, Mrs. Masham, and the Tories. -When the doctor appeared before the Commons, he was attended by Dr. -Lancaster, the Vice-Chancellor of Oxford, and above a hundred of the -most distinguished clergymen of London and other towns, conspicuous -amongst them being several of the queen's own chaplains. From the -moment that Sacheverell was taken into custody by the Commons, the -Church and Tory party had set all their engines to work to raise the -populace. These agents were everywhere, distributing money, treating -the mob to ale, and spreading the most alarming rumours--that the -Puritans, the Presbyterians, and the Dissenters were all combined to -pull down the Church and restore the old republican practices, and -that the prosecution of Sacheverell was a trial of their strength. The -pulpits resounded in all quarters with these alarms, with the intention -of working up the people to a pitch of desperation, and they succeeded. -The mob became furious, and paraded the streets and round the palace, -crying, "God save the Queen and Dr. Sacheverell! Queen and High Church!" - -Marlborough took his departure for Holland, and the trial of -Sacheverell was fixed for the 27th of February in Westminster Hall. The -managers for the Commons were the Lords William Paulet and Coningsby, -Sir Thomas Parker, Sir Joseph Jekyl, Sir John Hollis, Sir John Holland, -Sir James Montague, Sir Peter King (Recorder of London), Mr. Robert -Eyre (Solicitor-General), Mr. James Stanhope, Mr. Robert Walpole, -Mr. Spencer Cowper, Mr. John Smith, Mr. John Dolben, and Mr. William -Thompson. The prisoner was defended by Sir Simon Harcourt and Mr. -Constantine Phipps, and was attended by Drs. Smallridge and Atterbury. -The Lord Chancellor Cowper demanded of the Lords whether it was their -pleasure that Dr. Sacheverell should be called before them; and the -answer being in the affirmative, he was placed at the bar, his friends -Atterbury and Smallridge standing at his side. Silence being ordered, -the doctor was asked whether he was ready to take his trial; to which -he answered with great confidence that he was, and should always be -ready to obey the laws of the land. The Articles of Impeachment were -then read. They accused him of having publicly reflected on the late -Revolution; of having suggested that it was brought about by odious and -unjustifiable means; of having defamed the Act of Toleration, and cast -scurrilous reflections on those who advocated religious toleration; -of asserting that the Church was in great peril from her Majesty's -Administration; of maintaining that the civil Constitution of the -country was also in danger; of stigmatising many of the dignitaries -of the Church--some of whom the queen herself had placed in their -posts--as false brethren; and of libelling her Majesty's Ministers, -and especially of branding the Lord High Treasurer with the name of -"Volpone;" and, finally, with having, in discharge of his sacred -office, wickedly wrested and perverted the Holy Scriptures. - -These charges were well supported by various members of the Commons, -and amongst them Robert Walpole particularly distinguished himself. -The counsel for the doctor then pleaded in his behalf, and endeavoured -to answer the arguments adduced against him. Sacheverell, however, -was not contented with this; he delivered a defence himself which -has been generally considered to be the work of the high Tory divine -Atterbury, and probably with good reason. In this he dwelt much on -his responsibility as a clergyman, and represented the interests of -all his brethren and of the Church as involved in this attack made -upon them through his person. He expressed the utmost loyalty towards -the queen and the Constitution; denied having called in question the -Revolution, though he had certainly condemned in the strongest terms -the resistance by which it was achieved. He declared himself in favour -of the Protestant succession, and asserted that, as his principle was -that of non-resistance in all cases, he could not by any word or act of -his own endanger the Government as by law established; as if his very -declaration of the principle of non-resistance and passive obedience -did not condemn _in toto_ the Revolution, the means by which the queen -came to the throne, and encourage all those who were seeking to restore -Popery and the Stuarts as the rightful religion and rightful possessors -of the throne, both of which had been, according to his doctrines, -forced from their legitimate place by ungodly and un-Christian -violence; and he concluded by calling on God and His holy angels to -witness that he had never been guilty of the wicked, seditious, or -malicious acts imputed to him in the impeachment. - -As the doctor went to and from the Hall, his chair was thronged round -by dense crowds, which attended him to his lodgings in the Temple, or -thence to Westminster Hall. Numbers pressed forward to kiss his hand; -they lifted their hats to him with the utmost reverence. The windows -were crowded by ladies and gentlemen, who cheered him vociferously, and -many flung down presents to him. The doctor returned the salutations -by continual bows and smiles, and seemed wonderfully elated by his -sudden consequence. His chairmen seemed to partake of his glory, and -stepped on as proudly as if they had been carrying the queen. "This -huzzaing," says Defoe, "made the doctor so popular that the ladies -began to talk of falling in love with him; but this was only a prelude -to the High Church affair. An essay was to be made on the mob, and -the huzzaing of the rabble was to be artfully improved." Accordingly -after the trial the next day, February 28th, the mob assembled in -dense masses--sweeps, link-boys, butchers, by a sturdy guard of whom -the doctor was always escorted to and from the Hall--collected in the -City and began to cry "Down with the Dissenters! High Church for ever!" -And they soon put their cries in practice by assaulting the Dissenting -chapels, and sacking their interiors. The Tory writers of the time -pretend that the rioters did this of their own accord, as the mobs had -destroyed the Catholic chapels in 1688; but this was not the case. The -proceedings of the mob were stimulated and directed by gentlemen, who -followed them in hackney coaches, according to Cunningham, who is the -only writer who has furnished us with full details of these outrages. -They then directed their rage against the house of Bishop Burnet, which -stood on the other side of St. John's Square, and attempted to demolish -it. This they must have done under instructions from their disguised -instigators, for Burnet was hated by the High Church and Tory party for -the distinguished part which he had borne in the Revolution, for his -constant attachment to King William and his measures, and especially -for his advocacy of toleration. They vowed they would put the Low -Church Bishop to death if they could catch him; but the respectable -inhabitants vigorously interposed in defence of the Bishop's house and -life, and the mob were compelled to desist. - -So long as the rioters were only burning and ruining the Dissenting -chapels, the Court remained most calmly quiescent; but when the -news came that they were beginning to attack "Low Church as by law -established," there was a bustle and a fright at St. James's. This -fright was wonderfully increased when Sunderland rushed into the -presence of the queen and announced that the mob was on the march to -pull down and rifle the Bank of England in honour of "High Church -and Dr. Sacheverell." At this news the queen turned deadly pale, and -trembled. She bade Sunderland send instantly the Horse and Foot Guards -and disperse the rioters. Captain Horsey, the officer on duty at St. -James's, was at once summoned into the royal presence, and Sunderland -delivered to him the queen's order to disperse the mob, but to use -discretion, and not to proceed to extremities. Horsey was one of the -anti-Marlborough faction, and received the command in evident dudgeon. -"Am I to preach to the mob, or am I to fight them?" he asked. "If you -want preaching, please to send some one with me who is a better hand -at holding forth than I am; if you want fighting, it is my trade, and -I will do my best." Sunderland could only repeat the order. Horsey -easily dispersed the rabble, who were more valiant against peaceable -Dissenters than against soldiers. In one or two places they seemed as -though they would make a stand; but on any attempt of the Guards to -charge them they flew like leaves before the wind. - -[Illustration: DRINKING TO THE HEALTH OF DR. SACHEVERELL. (_See p._ -593.)] - -The trial lasted for three weeks, and every day the same crowds -assembled, the same hurraing of Sacheverell, the same appeals to the -queen on behalf of the Church and Dr. Sacheverell were shouted by -the enthusiastic mob. No one scarcely dared to appear abroad without -an artificial oak-leaf in his hat, which was considered the badge of -restored monarchy, and all the time the doctor carried the air of a -conqueror. At length, on the 10th of March, the Lords adjourned to -their own House to consider this point, raised by the counsel for -Sacheverell--whether in prosecutions by impeachments the particular -words supposed to be criminal should be expressly specified in such -impeachments. The question was referred to the judges, who decided that -the particular words ought to be so specified. It was objected that the -judges had decided according to the rules of Westminster Hall, and not -according to the usages of Parliament, and it was resolved to adhere -to the usages of Parliament, lest it should become a practice for the -judges to decide on questions of Parliamentary right and privilege. -On the 16th of March the Lords came to the consideration of their -judgment, and the queen attended _incognita_ to hear the debate, which -was long and earnest. In the end Sacheverell was pronounced guilty by -a majority of seventeen; but four-and-thirty peers entered a protest -against the judgment, and his sentence bore no proportion to the usual -ones in such cases. He was merely suspended from preaching for three -years, and his sermons were condemned to be burnt by the common hangman. - -[Illustration: MAKING FRIENDS WITH MRS. MASHAM. (_See p._ 594.)] - -This gentle sentence was regarded by the people and the Tories as a -real triumph. It was proof of the decline of the Whig party, and of the -fear of offending the public. The event was celebrated by Sacheverell's -mob-friends by bonfires, and by the inhabitants of London and -Westminster by illuminations. There was plenty of beer supplied to the -populace from some quarter, and every one passing along was compelled -to drink the health of Dr. Sacheverell, the "champion of the Church." -Sacheverell himself went from house to house in a state of triumph -to thank the lords and gentlemen who had taken his side. From some -of these, as the Duke of Argyll, he met with a rebuff; but the great -doctor, with a roaring mob at his heels, was generally flatteringly -received, and he took care to boast that after his sentence it was -clear that the Whigs were down and the Church was saved. The University -of Oxford, which had received a snub from the Lords by their ordering -its famous decree asserting the absolute authority and indefeasible -right of princes, to be burnt with Sacheverell's sermons, was loud in -professed triumph and sympathy with the doctor. The House of Commons -was indignant at the lenity of his treatment, and declared that his -sentence was an actual benefit to him, by exempting him from the duties -of his living, and enabling him to go about fomenting sedition. - -The queen prorogued Parliament on the 5th of April, expressing her -concern for the occasion which had occupied so much of the Session. -She declared that no prince could have a more zealous desire for the -welfare of the Church than she had, and that it was mischievous in -wicked and malicious libels to pretend that the Church was in danger; -and she trusted that men would now study to be quiet, and mind their -own business, instead of busying themselves to revive questions of a -very high nature, and which could only be with an ill intention. But -every one knew all the while that Anne was only too pleased at the -demonstrations which had been made through Sacheverell; that they had -damaged the Whigs essentially, and brought the day near when she could -safely send them adrift, and liberate herself for ever from them and -the Marlboroughs. Mrs. Masham now ruled triumphantly, and disposed of -commissions and offices as royally as ever the duchess had done. It was -openly said in the army that fighting was not the road to promotion, -but carrying Mrs. Masham's lapdogs, or putting a heavy purse into the -hand of Mrs. Abigail Earwig. The Duchess of Marlborough did not abate -her exertions to recover favour, but they were in vain; and the great -Marlborough complained in a letter to the queen that all his victories -for her Majesty's honour could not shield him from the malice of a -bedchamber-woman. - -Indeed, the display of the queen's bias now became rapid and open. -The Duke of Shrewsbury, who had now joined the Tories, returned from -his long residence at Rome, where he had married an Italian lady, and -had taken the part of Sacheverell in the trial. The queen immediately -dismissed the Marquis of Kent, a staunch Whig, from the office of -Lord Chamberlain, and, much to the grief and consternation of the -Lord Treasurer, Godolphin, bestowed it on Shrewsbury. There was great -alarm among the Whigs, and Walpole recommended the instant and entire -resignation of the whole Cabinet as the only means to intimidate the -queen and her secret advisers; but Harley is said to have persuaded -the rest of the Ministers that the only object was to get rid of -Godolphin, Marlborough, and his son-in-law Sunderland. The rumour of -Sunderland's dismissal became general, and not without foundation. -The queen had an extreme dislike to him, not only because of his -belonging to Marlborough's clique, but on account of his blunt and -outspoken manners. He was perfectly undisguised in his expressions of -dislike for Mrs. Masham, and of his resolve, if possible, to turn her -out of the palace; but, with the queen's devotion to that lady, he -could have taken no surer way of getting himself out. The Duchess of -Marlborough, who could not now obtain access to the queen, yet wrote to -her, imploring her to defer any intention of removing Lord Sunderland -till the duke's return; but the queen forthwith gave Sunderland his -dismissal, and appointed Lord Dartmouth, an actual Jacobite, in his -place. Anne endeavoured to qualify Lord Sunderland's dismissal by -offering him a retiring pension, but he rejected it with disdain; -and such was the fear that the Duke of Marlborough, on this act of -disrespect to him, would throw up the command of the army, that all -the leading Ministers--including Cowper, Somers, Halifax, Devonshire, -Godolphin, and Orford--wrote to him, imploring him to retain his -command, as well for the security of the Whig Government as for his -own glory and the good of the country. The Allies on the Continent -were equally alarmed at this indication of the declining favour of -Marlborough, and France was just as elated at it. But nothing could now -stay the fall of the Whigs. Anne, indeed, ordered Mr. Secretary Boyle -to write to the Allied sovereigns and to the States-General to assure -them that nothing was farther from her thoughts than the removal of -the Duke of Marlborough from his command, and that she still proposed -to conduct her government by the same party. The hollowness of these -assurances was immediately shown by her also dismissing Godolphin from -the Treasury, and appointing Harley Chancellor of the Exchequer. Harley -thereupon proposed to Lord Chancellor Cowper and Walpole to make a -coalition, but they rejected the overture; and as a Tory Cabinet could -not expect to carry on with a Whig House of Commons, a dissolution was -determined upon, and Parliament was dissolved accordingly, and writs -were issued for a new election. - -The nomination of the Tory Cabinet immediately followed. Lord -Rochester, the queen's High Church and deep-drinking uncle, was made -President of the Council in place of Somers; the Duke of Buckingham -succeeded the Duke of Devonshire as Lord Steward; St. John succeeded -Mr. Secretary Boyle; Sir Simon Harcourt, as Lord Chancellor, superseded -Lord Cowper; the Duke of Ormonde took the Lord-Lieutenancy of Ireland -from Lord Wharton; the Duke of Somerset had anticipated these changes -by throwing up his post of Master of the Horse, and the Earl of Orford -was removed from the Admiralty, and that office was put in commission. -In the room of Walpole, George Granville was made Secretary at War. -Here was a clean sweep of all the Whigs, except some subordinate -officials, who clung to office as long as it was permitted. Dr. -Sacheverell had done a mighty work for the Tories, and, having a living -in Wales conferred on him, he made quite a triumphant progress thither -in May, during all the heat and violence of the elections, still -labouring in his vocation of self-glorification, and of damaging the -Whig cause as much as he could, in which he was energetically supported -by his patrons. - -On the Continent war and negotiation were going on at the same time -whilst the Sacheverell fever had been raging at home. Early in the -spring Louis XIV., sensible of the miserable condition of his kingdom, -had again made overtures for peace. The Ministers of the two parties -met at first on board a yacht at Maardyk, but the French preferred -the wretched little town of Gertruydenberg for their sojourn, where -they complained of the miserable accommodations they obtained. The -Dutch States-General had sent a pressing request that Marlborough -might be allowed to go to Holland in time to give his advice in these -negotiations, and the two Houses of Parliament seconded this request. -The queen readily consented, though it was suspected the whole was -done at the suggestion of Marlborough himself, to show how essential -his services were deemed by the Allies. Though Marlborough hastened -to the Hague in consequence, he did not in any way appear openly in -the matter, but appeared busy with Prince Eugene in setting early on -foot the campaign. The French ambassadors represented themselves as -being not only most meanly entertained, but as meanly and narrowly -watched--their letters being opened, and their propositions met by -haughty discourtesy. Certainly, if we were to regard the concessions -made by Louis XIV. on this occasion as honestly offered, the Allies -had never a fairer opportunity of closing the war triumphantly, and -were most culpable in refusing them. Louis offered to give up all -Spain, and the Indies, East and West; to acknowledge Charles king of -undivided Spain; to give no support to Philip, but to claim for him -only Sicily and Naples. When it was objected that Naples was already in -the possession of Austria, and could not be given up, the ambassadors -waived the claim of Naples, and contented themselves with Sicily and -Sardinia for Philip. As a security for Philip evacuating Spain, they -offered to give up four cautionary towns in Flanders; to restore -Strasburg and Brisac; to destroy all their fortifications on the Rhine -from Basle to Philippsburg; to level all the fortifications of Dunkirk; -and to surrender to the Dutch Maubeuge, Condé, Furnes, Menin, Ypres, -Tournai, and Lille. - -Surely nothing could be more complete. By gaining all these advantages -the Allies gained everything they had been fighting for. They wanted -not only an agreement for the surrender of Spain, but a sufficient -guarantee for it; and this guarantee they demanded in the shape of an -engagement that Louis should help them with actual money and arms -to expel Philip from Spain if he refused to evacuate it, and really -to place Austria in possession of it. This was certainly putting the -sincerity of Louis to sufficient test, and Louis failed under it. -He contended that it would be monstrous and unnatural to take arms -against his own grandson, but that he would contribute money for this -purpose--which, to ordinary intellects, looks quite as monstrous. He -offered, according to his able Prime Minister De Torcy, to pay five -hundred thousand livres a month towards this object, or even to raise -it to a million of money if the Allies would not be satisfied with -less. But as the Allies, in the first place, knew that Louis had not -money to meet the demands of his own Government, and, in the second -place, that Philip had sent an express declaration to the Allies, when -this question was mooted before, that he stood on his rightful claim -through the will of Charles II., the late King of Spain, and would -recognise no pretensions of any party to deal with his patrimony--they -declined the offer, and declared they would be contented with nothing -less than the actual possession of the country. They knew that at the -very time that these negotiations were going on, Philip was making -fresh and strenuous exertions to drive Charles from Spain; that he had -appealed to Louis to send him the Duc de Vendôme to take the command -in that country, with which request Louis promptly complied. They knew -that France had only to close the passes of the Pyrenees, and, under -the pretence of protecting her own frontiers from the armies in Spain, -shut out all attack on Philip, except by sea. - -On this rock, therefore, the whole negotiation was wrecked. Louis had -flattered himself that Marlborough, distracted by the state of affairs -in England, would be anxious to make peace, in order that he might be -on the spot to resist the fall of the Whig party at home, and with it -of his influence. But the wiser De Torcy reasoned very differently. He -saw that the party of Marlborough was already ruined, and for him to -return home would be to return to insignificance, mortification, and -insult. His only safety and strength lay in the continuance of the war; -on the chance of reaping new victories, and, therefore, new humiliation -to his enemies. And in this De Torcy was correct. Marlborough did not -appear in the matter. Lord Townshend for England, and Count Zinzendorff -for the Emperor, were consulted by the States-General on all the points -of the treaty; but the Pensionary Heinsius, the devoted friend of -Marlborough and Eugene, kept them _au fait_ on the whole subject, and -influenced the States-General as they dictated. The result was that, -after the negotiations had continued from the 19th of March to the 21st -of July, during which there was a rapid and frequent interchange of -messages with Versailles, the conference broke up. - -The campaign had not paused for the issue of the conference. Eugene and -Marlborough left the Hague on the 15th of March, and assembled their -troops, which quartered on the Meuse, at Tournai. The confederate army -amounted to sixty thousand men, with which they invested Douay, and, -Eugene remaining to carry on the siege, Marlborough advanced to Vitry, -where he encamped. Marshal Villars--at the head of an army numerous and -well appointed, considering the distresses of France, and all the more -numerous because men, destitute of the means of livelihood, flocked -to the royal banners--passed the Scheldt and encamped at Bouchain, -declaring that he would engage the Allies; but he thought better of -it. His aim was to embarrass the siege of Douay, in which there was a -strong French garrison, commanded by General Albergotti. The defence -was vigorous, Albergotti making frequent sallies, and altogether the -Allies suffered severely before the town. It was compelled, however, -to capitulate on the 26th of June. Eugene and Marlborough, being -again united, contemplated forcing the lines of the enemy between -Arras and Miramont, but finding them too strong, they resolved to -besiege Béthune, which in spite of the menacing attitude of Marshal -Villars, who marched out of his entrenchments as if going to attack -them, surrendered on the 29th of August. They afterwards took also the -inconsiderable towns of Aire and Verrant, and there the campaign ended. -The armies broke up and retired to winter quarters. - -This was a poor result after the grand schemes of storming Boulogne -and marching upon Paris. The fact was, that the anxious condition of -affairs at home completely paralysed Marlborough. He was no longer -the man he had been. His mind was dragged different ways, and was -harassed with anxieties. He could no longer concentrate his attention -on one great plan of warfare, and the consequence was, that his action -was spiritless and indecisive. He seemed to have lost the secret of -success, and met with annoyances which his vigilance and promptitude -had hitherto prevented. On one occasion a great supply of powder and -other stores was intercepted by the enemy, though under the guard of -twelve hundred foot and four hundred and eighty horse. In a word he -was discouraged, divided in his own mind, and the spell of victory, or -rather of high enterprise, was broken. - -In other quarters the scene was not more encouraging. Nothing of -consequence was effected on the Rhine, and in Piedmont the Duke of -Savoy, still out of humour with the Emperor, did nothing. The Imperial -forces were commanded by Count Daun, who endeavoured to cross the Alps -and penetrate into Dauphiné, but was effectually kept back by the Duke -of Berwick, who held the mountain passes. In Spain, after a brilliant -commencement of the campaign, everything went to ruin. General -Stanhope, having passed in his Parliamentary character through the -Sacheverell campaign, joined the Imperial general, Count Stahremberg, -in Catalonia, in May. On the 10th of July they encountered the army of -King Philip at Almenara. Stanhope had the charge of the cavalry, killed -with his own hand the commander of Philip's guards, General Amessaga, -and routed the whole body of horse, upon which the infantry retired -precipitately on Lerida. General Stahremberg pursued the flying army to -Saragossa, where King Philip made a stand, but was again defeated, with -a loss of five thousand men, seven thousand taken prisoners, with all -his artillery, and a great number of colours and standards. Charles and -his confederates entered Saragossa in triumph, and Philip continued his -flight to Madrid. Whilst victory was with them, General Stanhope urged -King Charles to push on to Madrid, drive Philip into the Pyrenees, and -secure the pass of Pampeluna, the only one by which Louis could send -reinforcements. But the inert Austrian loitered away a whole month at -Saragossa, and it was not till the middle of September that Stanhope -could induce him to advance. On the 21st of that month Stanhope, still -leading the way, entered Madrid without opposition, Philip and all the -grandees having retreated to Valladolid. On the 28th Charles himself -made his entry into Madrid, but General Stanhope soon perceived that he -had no welcome. The Castilians to a man were for Philip, and did the -army of Charles all the mischief they could, cutting off his supplies, -attacking his outposts, and destroying all the stragglers and foragers -that they could meet with. Stanhope still urged Charles to send on a -detachment to secure Toledo, and to keep open the passage of the Tagus -to facilitate an expected advance of Portuguese troops in his favour. -The Portuguese, however, did not make their appearance; provisions -failed in Madrid, for the peasantry held back the supply, and the -whole army marched to Toledo, where it found itself still worse off. -Philip, meanwhile, had sent in haste to request reinforcements from -Louis under the command of the Duc de Vendôme, and these approaching, -the timid Charles hastened back into Catalonia as the only place of -security. - -[Illustration: THE DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH'S INTERVIEW WITH ANNE. (_See p._ -599.)] - -Such was continually the fluctuating condition of the war in Spain. -The Spaniards had no inclination to support Charles, and the Allies -only sent troops sufficient to win victories, but not to maintain -them, still less to secure the passes in the Pyrenees and keep back -fresh French armies. It was another of our futile attempts to support -a man who, unless he could support himself, had no business there. -At this juncture the Tories, having risen into power, withheld fresh -reinforcements. They were not hearty in the war, and our small army -there was left to contend with impossibilities. The English and -Imperialists unwillingly following in the track of the king towards -Catalonia, for the sake of better procuring provisions on the route, -had separated and marched at some distance from each other, though -in parallel lines. In this condition they were suddenly overtaken by -Vendôme on the 8th of December, and Stanhope, with his five thousand -men, found himself surrounded by the main army of the French. This -was an instance of want of circumspection which was not anticipated -in General Stanhope after his vigorous and able operations hitherto, -and procured him severe blame. He managed to despatch a messenger to -Stahremberg for help; but his powder was nearly exhausted, and after -courageously defending himself till the next day, he was compelled -to surrender himself in the little town of Brihuega. Stahremberg -was accused of tardy movement for the relief of Stanhope, but he -was probably prevented from coming up by the forces of Vendôme, who -attacked him also on the 10th at Villaviciosa. Vendôme's troops are -said to have doubled in number those of Stahremberg. Stahremberg's left -wing was routed, and great slaughter made of them; but Stahremberg -himself maintained the fight with his right wing till night, when the -French retreated, having suffered equally severely with the troops -of Stahremberg. The Imperial general, however, found himself unable -to pursue the advantage; he ordered all the guns to be spiked, and -retreated as fast as possible into Catalonia. Vendôme pursued him, -took Balaguer on the way, in which he left a garrison, and followed -Stahremberg to the very walls of Barcelona. About the same time the -Duc de Noailles invested Gironne, and took it in the severity of the -winter weather; and thus was Charles, after a few months' campaign, -which began so splendidly, stripped of the whole Spanish monarchy, with -the exception of Catalonia, which was itself greatly exposed and very -inefficiently defended. - -At home the new Parliament met on the 25th of November. There was a -strong infusion of Tories sent up, but there was still also a strong -party of Whigs. The Tories, however, carried the Speakership in the -person of Mr. Bromley, in the place of the late Whig Speaker, Onslow; -but the chief managers of the Sacheverell trial had managed to secure -their own return. The queen, on the other hand, showed her prejudice -by knighting Mr. Constantine Phipps, Sacheverell's counsel, and making -him Lord Chancellor of Ireland, and giving other promotions to marked -Tories. In her Speech, Anne declared that she would support the Church -of England, maintain the Constitution, and grant the indulgence allowed -by law to scrupulous consciences. The word was no longer "toleration," -but "indulgence," the very phrase used by Sacheverell--another proof -of the queen's leaning towards the doctor. And this phrase now became -general in the High Church, the doctrine being that whatever liberty -the Dissenters enjoyed was of indulgence, and not of right. In the -House of Lords the Earl of Scarborough moved the usual vote of thanks -to the Duke of Marlborough, but the Duke of Argyll opposed it; and -the duke's friends let the matter drop, hoping to carry it when the -duke returned. Other signs of the great change which had taken place -in the domestic policy of the nation quickly followed. The Earl of -Peterborough, who had so long suffered from the overwhelming shade of -Marlborough, was appointed Ambassador-Extraordinary to the Imperial -Court. The Earl of Rivers was appointed Ambassador to Hanover; and -Richard Hill, a kinsman of Mrs. Masham, Ambassador-Extraordinary -to the States-General, and also to the Council of State appointed -for the government of the Spanish Netherlands, in the place of -Lieutenant-General Cadogan. Colonels Meredith, Macartney, and -Honeywood, were deprived of their regiments for drinking confusion to -the enemies of the Duke of Marlborough. The Marlborough reign was at an -end. - -The Tories being now in power, there was an entire revolution of -opinion and of measures. Everything which had been applauded and -encouraged under the Whigs was now to be decried; everything which had -been kept down was to be set on high. When Marlborough, therefore, -arrived during the Christmas holidays, it was to a most cold reception. -There were no longer popular acclamations, nor Lords and Commons -hurrying to offer him thanks and eulogies for his eminent services. -The public mind had been carefully indoctrinated on this point, and -the great commander landed in a most expressive silence. He waited, -as was his duty, on the queen, was admitted to about half an hours -audience, and the next morning attended a meeting of the Privy Council. -But both in the Presence and the Council Chamber the same ominous and -freezing silence reigned. The queen plainly told him that he was now -no longer to expect the thanks of Parliament as formerly; and she -added that, notwithstanding, she trusted he would act in harmony with -her Ministers. Marlborough showed no outward signs of resentment. He -was anxious still to continue the command of the army, and to put the -finish to his successes by compelling a satisfactory peace from Louis, -now reduced to the most terrible straits. - -The duke saw that it was time for the duchess to resign her offices. -The queen had repeatedly insisted to Marlborough that the duchess -should deliver up the gold keys, the token of her offices of Groom of -the Stole and Mistress of the Robes; but that resolute woman refused -to comply. Marlborough, unable to obtain the keys, endeavoured to -mollify the queen's anger at the delay. His appeal, however, did not -decrease the queen's impatience, and Marlborough imperatively demanded -the keys from his wife. For some time she vehemently refused to part -with them, but after a violent and stormy altercation (according -to Cunningham) she finished by flinging them at his head. The duke -snatched them up and hurried to the palace with them, where, says the -same authority, the Queen received them with far greater pleasure than -if he had brought her the spoils of the army; at which, he says, "the -duchess flew about the town in a rage, and with eyes and words full of -vengeance." - -There was no doubt that the queen's exultation was great at being at -length liberated from the heavy and imperious yoke of the Marlboroughs. -People who had absented themselves from Court for years, now presented -themselves there to pay their respects, and, amongst them, the Duke -of Beaufort congratulated Anne that he could now salute his queen in -reality. The duchess's places were immediately given to the Duchess -of Somerset and Mrs. Masham. The Tory raid against the Whigs was -pursued with unpausing ardour. An inquiry was set on foot in the -Lords into the conduct of the war in Spain. The Earl of Peterborough's -turn was now come. He was examined before a committee, and imputed -the mismanagement of the war in Spain to Galway and General Stanhope. -Galway made an able defence, but the House, notwithstanding, passed a -resolution that Lord Peterborough had most honourably distinguished -himself by his able counsels and active services in Spain; and that -Galway, Lord Tyrawley, and General Stanhope had been very culpable -in advising an offensive war in Spain, which had caused all our -misfortunes, and especially the battle of Almanza. But in blaming the -generals they blamed also the Ministers who sanctioned the war, and -then so badly supported it. The failure of the attempt on Toulon was -attributed to the same cause. Thanks were voted to Lord Peterborough; -and in rendering them it was not forgotten to make some caustic -criticisms on Marlborough. - -To increase the power of the Tory landlords in the House of Commons, -and diminish that of the Whig supporters in the boroughs, an Act was -introduced--and the Commons were weak enough to pass it--making it -necessary that every candidate for Parliament in the counties should -possess six hundred a year in real property, and for a borough seat -three hundred; and this law lasted to our time, when, however, it was -repealed. - -But in spite of the triumphant position of the Tories, Harley found his -individual position far from enviable. His caution made him inimical -to the more violent Tories, who were impatient to exercise their power -without restraint; of which his colleague St. John, at once ambitious -and unprincipled, artfully availed himself to undermine the man by -whom he had risen. But an incident occurred to excite a fresh interest -in Harley, and give a new impetus to his power. Amongst the horde of -foreigners--Germans, Italians, French, and Poles--who contrived to -draw English money by acting as spies on their own governments, and -very frequently on the English one too, was the so-called Marquis of -Guiscard. This man had been in receipt of five hundred pounds a year. -He had obtained the salary, it is said, through St. John, being a -devoted companion of that accomplished scoundrel in his dissipations. -Harley doubted the value of his services, and reduced the pension -to four hundred pounds a year; and St. John is also said to have -suffered him to endure the curtailment without much remonstrance, -and then, to avoid Guiscard's importunities, refused to see him. -Guiscard immediately offered his services to the French Government as -a spy on the English Court, through a letter to one Moreau, a banker -of Paris. The letter was intercepted, and Guiscard arrested. On being -brought before the Privy Council he desired to speak in private to St. -John, whom, it is suspected, he intended to assassinate, but St. John -refused his demand. He then exclaimed, "That is hard! not one word!" -and suddenly stepping up to Harley, he cried, "Have at thee, then!" -and stabbed him with his penknife. The knife, striking against the -breastbone, broke near the handle; but the excited foreigner struck -him again with such force that Harley fell to the ground covered with -blood. St. John, seeing Harley fall, exclaimed, "The villain has killed -Mr. Harley!" drew his sword, and ran him through. The whole Council was -up and in confusion. All drew their swords and surrounded the murderous -prisoner. He was wounded in various places, and knocked down by blows -from the hands of others. The doorkeepers and messengers rushed in at -the noise, and Guiscard was dragged to prison. He died in Newgate of -his wounds; and such was the curiosity of the populace to see his body -that the turnkey kept it in pickle, and made a good sum by showing him -for several days. - -Harley's wound was not serious, but it served to make a political -hero and martyr of him; Guiscard being represented as a Papist, -and instigated from France to destroy this champion of England and -the Church. On Harley's appearance in the House of Commons he was -congratulated on his happy escape in a most eulogistic speech by the -Speaker; and an Act was passed, making it felony without benefit of -clergy to attempt the life of a Privy Councillor. The Earl of Rochester -dying at this juncture, left Harley entirely at the head of the -Cabinet, and he was immediately raised to the peerage, first as Baron -Wigmore, and then as Earl of Oxford and Mortimer. He was, moreover, -appointed Lord Treasurer, much to his own gratification and glory, -but little to the furtherance of the national business, for he was -naturally inert and indecisive, whilst all around him was a scandalous -scene of corruption, intrigue, and neglect. - -Marlborough had set out for Holland in the month of February. He -assembled his army at Orchies, between Lisle and Douay, about the -middle of April, and Marshal Villars encamped between Cambray and -Arras. The duke soon after passed the Scarpe, and took post between -Douay and Bouchain, where he was joined by his faithful comrade-in-arms -Prince Eugene; but that great general was soon compelled to leave -him to repel the French forces which were directed against Germany -on the Upper Rhine. The army of Marshal Villars was a very numerous -one, and he had defended his lines with redoubts and other works so -formidably that he thought he would at last checkmate Marlborough. -These lines extended from Bouchain, on the Scheldt, along the Sanset -and the Scarpe to Arras, and thence along the Upper Scarpe to Cambray. -But Marlborough did not despair of entering them by stratagem, if not -by force. He ordered a great quantity of fascines to be prepared, and -made a pretence of a direct attack on the lines where he was; but he -at the same time secretly despatched Generals Cadogan and Hompesch to -surprise the passage of the Sanset at Arleux. Brigadier Sutton was -also despatched with the artillery and pontoons to lay bridges over -the canals near Goulezen, and over the Scarpe at Vitry. By the time -that these operations could be effected, Marlborough suddenly quitted -his position at nine in the evening, marched the whole of his army -through the night, and by five in the morning had crossed the Scarpe -at Vitry. There, receiving the information that Hompesch had secured -the passes of the Sanset and the Scheldt, Marlborough continued his -march on Arleux; and, after a march of ten leagues without halting, -was encamped on the Scheldt between Estrun and Ois. Thus, by this -unexampled dexterity and exertion, he was completely within the boasted -impregnable lines of Villars. This general, on becoming aware of his -opponent's motions, pursued him with headlong haste, but he arrived too -late to prevent his design; and, whilst the Duke of Marlborough was -extolled as a general of consummate ability, Villars was ridiculed even -by his own officers for suffering himself to be outwitted. - -The Dutch deputies this time, so far from retarding the duke's -enterprise, were desirous that he should at once attack Villars; but -he would not hazard a battle whilst his men were fatigued by their -enormous march. He determined, on the contrary, to commence the siege -of Bouchain. The place was remarkably strong, and difficult of access -from its situation in a marsh; yet, by the 10th of August, 1711, he -had compelled it to surrender, the garrison of six thousand becoming -prisoners of war. With this exploit Marlborough closed his brilliant -career. His enemies at home--Oxford, St. John, Dartmouth, and the -Tories in general--had fondly hoped that this campaign he was going to -certain defeat and disgrace; but, in spite of all his disadvantages, -he had placed the Allied armies, by this conquest of Bouchain, on the -highway to Paris. The Allies were in possession of the Meuse, almost -as far as the Sambre; of the Scheldt from Tournai; and of the Lys as -far as it was navigable. They had reduced Spanish Guelderland, Limburg, -Brabant, and Flanders, with the greatest part of Hainault, and were in -a position, by one more vigorous campaign, to carry the war to the very -gates of Louis's capital. Such a triumph, however, the malice of the -Tories had determined that Britain and the world should not witness. -After the capture of Bouchain, the Allied armies went into quarters in -the frontier towns, ready for the campaign of the spring; and in the -middle of November Marlborough returned to England. - -[Illustration: THE FRACAS IN THE PRIVY COUNCIL. (_See p._ 600.)] - -In Spain, whither the Duke of Argyll had been sent to command the -English forces, nothing had been done, from the want of everything to -carry on the war, and the expedition of Mrs. Masham's brother Jack -Hill to Quebec had met with the fate which might have been expected. -This expedition had been planned by Colonel Nicholson, who had taken -possession of Nova Scotia and garrisoned Port Royal. He had brought -to England four American Indians to excite attention, and represented -the great advantages which would accrue from the conquest of Canada -and the expulsion of the French from that part of the world. The idea -was excellent, and, had it been carried out with ability, might have -anticipated the policy of Lord Chatham and the victory of Wolfe; -but the Ministers were not hearty in the cause. Harley is said to -have been averse from it, and St. John to have advocated it because -he saw that it would gratify Mrs. Masham. In an ill-advised hour, -therefore, the command of this important expedition was confided -to a man against whose total unfitness for command of every sort -Marlborough had earnestly warned them. At Boston, in New England, the -expedition was joined by two regiments of colonists and about four -thousand men, consisting of American planters, Palatines, and Indians, -encamped at Albany, in order to march by land into Canada, whilst the -fleet advanced up the St. Lawrence. The squadron had already entered -the river when, on the 21st of August, it was assailed by a violent -tempest. Eight transports were driven aground and wrecked, and eight -hundred men perished--some by drowning, others by the tomahawks of the -Indians and the muskets of the French colonists. The damage, however, -was of no important extent to a really able commander; but the poor -witless Hill, thrust into responsibility by favouritism, was utterly -confounded. The fleet put back to Spanish River Bay, where a council -was held, and, as the forces were only victualled for six weeks, it was -determined to return home. - -But whilst Marlborough had been ably preparing the way in Flanders for -finishing the war in triumph, and compelling the King of France to make -such a peace as should secure the peace of Europe and indemnify England -for all that she had suffered and expended for that object, the Tory -Ministers and the queen had been as busy undermining and rendering -abortive his plans and exertions. They were determined to make peace at -any cost, so that the Whigs should receive nothing but reproaches from -the nation for having led it into so long and bloody a war without any -real results. The Tories were to render the war useless, and the Whigs -to bear the blame of it. - -St. John was clearly ready to admit the Pretender instead of the House -of Hanover, and had been in close correspondence with the Court of St. -Germains, and there is every reason to believe that it was with the -cognisance and approval of the queen, who hated the House of Hanover. -But Harley was bent on maintaining the Protestant succession, whilst -he was equally determined on the achievement of a peace damaging to -the Whigs. He knew too well that, however the queen might lean towards -the restoration of her brother, the Pretender, the nation would never -submit to it. He therefore entered into a secret negotiation with -France on another basis to that of St. John. - -Nothing is more certain than that the queen was strongly inclined to -admit the claims of her brother, James Stuart, the Old Pretender, -if he could be brought to renounce the Catholic religion, and that -she entered into a correspondence on this head. It is true that she -continued to express doubts of his being really her brother, yet she -every now and then let observations escape her which showed that she -really believed him to be so. It was on the ground of this conviction -that she corresponded with him regarding his succession to the Crown, -and was only compelled to give up his claim because she could not -bring him to abandon his attachment to his religion. Amongst those who -supported the claims of the Pretender were her uncle Rochester and -Marshal Tallard--still prisoner of war at Nottingham, and kept there by -Louis on the understanding that he was more useful there as a secret -negotiator than he would be anywhere else at the head of an army. - -After the disgrace of Guiscard the Abbé Gualtier became the agent of -Harley for carrying on the proposals for peace with France. Gualtier -was a man of very infamous life, but he was a more cautious and -diplomatic man than Guiscard. He and Tallard urged on the Pretender's -claims to the last moment. So late as May of the year 1711 the -Pretender addressed a long letter to Queen Anne, which is to be seen in -the Macpherson State Papers, in which, addressing her as his sister, -he appeals to her by the natural affection which he bears her, and -which he protests that their common father bore her till his death, to -see him righted. He reminds her of her promises which she had made to -her father on this head, and argues that, as he never would relinquish -his just claims, the only way to prevent the continual excitement, -disquietude, and wars injurious to the realm, is to admit his claim. -And he concludes thus:--"And now, madam, as you tender your own honour -and happiness, and the preservation and re-establishment of an ancient -royal family, the safety and welfare of a brave people, who are almost -sinking under present weights, and have reason to fear far greater, who -have no reason to complain of me, and whom I must still and do love as -my own, I conjure you to meet me in this friendly way of composing our -differences, by which only we can hope for those good effects which -will make us both happy, yourself more glorious than in all the other -parts of your life, and your memory dear to all posterity." - -The Pretender offered to give all liberty to the Church and to the -Dissenters, but he would not abandon his own religion. On reading this -letter the disappointed queen said to the Duke of Buckingham--who had -married her half-sister, James II.'s natural daughter Catherine, by -Catherine Sedley, and who was in her confidence--"How can I serve him, -my lord? You well know that a Papist cannot enjoy this crown in peace. -Why has the example of the father no weight with the son?" Here she -acknowledged that the Pretender was the son of James. But she added, -"He prefers his religious errors to the throne of a great kingdom; he -must thank himself, therefore, for his exclusion." Still she begged -Buckingham to try further to persuade him; it was in vain, and Anne -gave up the hope of his restoration, and turned her whole mind to the -conclusion of a peace including the Protestant succession. - -Gualtier was despatched to Versailles secretly, and, to avoid -detection, without any papers, but with full instructions relating -to the proposals for peace. He introduced himself to De Torcy, the -Prime Minister of Louis, and assured him that the English Government -was prepared to enter into negotiations for peace independently of -the Dutch, whom De Torcy had found so immovable. This was delightful -news to the French Minister, who was overwhelmed with the necessities -of France, which were come to that pass that peace on any terms, or -invasion, appeared inevitable. In his own memoirs De Torcy says that -"to ask a French Minister then whether he wished for peace, was like -asking a man suffering under a long and dangerous malady whether -he wished to be better." On being convinced that Gualtier was a -_bonâ-fide_ agent of the English Court, the French Court was thrown -into the most delightful astonishment. Gualtier told De Torcy that it -was not necessary to commit himself by written documents on the matter; -he had only to write a simple note to Lord Jersey, saying that he was -glad to have heard of his lordship's health through the Abbé, and had -charged him with his thanks; that this would give the English Ministers -to understand that their proposition had been favourably entertained, -and that the negotiation would be gone into in earnest. - -So far as the English Ministers were concerned, they now rushed on with -that reckless impetuosity of which wily politicians like Louis and De -Torcy were sure to take advantage. Gualtier was authorised to write -to De Torcy in the name of the English Ministry, requesting his most -Christian Majesty to communicate to them the terms on which he would -feel disposed to make a general peace--just as if England, and not -France, were at an extremity, and in a condition not to dictate, but -only to accept of terms. Louis was so general in his answer that it -was necessary for Gualtier to make another journey to Versailles--thus -giving the idea that it was England rather than France which was all -anxiety for a peace. Gualtier returned with certain propositions, but -Marlborough was now driving Villars before him, and was in possession -of Bouchain, and prepared to make himself master of Paris in another -campaign. We were entitled to make the amplest demands, and our Allies -were entitled to know what they were, and to enjoy the benefit of -circumstances. Our Ministers continued to negotiate without the Dutch -and Germans, because they meant to accept terms which they knew their -allies would not condescend to. But the intelligence of our proceedings -soon reached the Hague, and the States-General quickly demanded an -explanation, and at the same time announced again to De Torcy, that -they were prepared to treat in co-operation with England. The English -Ministers were thereupon compelled to communicate the French memorial -to the States-General. Lord Raby, the British ambassador at the Hague, -wrote urging the necessity of keeping faith with the Dutch, who were -greatly incensed at our taking measures for a peace without them, and -apprising them that every letter received from France conveyed the -delight of the French in the prospect of being able to sow discord -amongst the Allies. The States soon informed the Ministers of England -that they were quite prepared to go along with them in the treaty -for peace, but they would insist on the conditions being ample and -satisfactory. In order to convert Lord Raby into a devoted advocate of -a disgraceful and undignified policy, St. John wrote to inform him that -it was her Majesty's pleasure that he should come over to England, in -order to make himself perfect master of the important subjects about to -be discussed. Lord Raby was a Wentworth, nearly allied in descent to -the Earl of Strafford who was beheaded in the time of Charles I., and -he had long been soliciting for himself the renewal of that title. St. -John therefore adroitly announced to him that, on his reaching London, -it was her Majesty's gracious intention to confer that honour upon him. -This intimation at once threw Raby into a fever of gratitude, and he -made the most ardent professions of doing all in his power to serve her -Majesty. - -[Illustration: MARLBOROUGH HOUSE IN THE TIME OF ANNE.] - -These obstacles to their entering into a dishonourable peace being -removed, Gualtier was once more despatched to Versailles, and this -time accompanied by Matthew Prior, a poet of some pretension and much -popularity, but much more distinguished as a diplomatist. He had lived -in France, knew the French and French Court well, having been secretary -to the embassies of the Earls of Portland and Jersey. Prior was a man -of courtly and insinuating manners, and devoted to Harley and the Tory -interest. The propositions which he brought from the queen as the -basis of the peace were--that the Dutch should have a barrier in the -Netherlands; that the German Empire should have another on the Rhine; -that the Duke of Savoy should receive back all towns or territories -taken during the war; that proper protection should be obtained for -the trade of England and Holland; that France should acknowledge the -title of Anne and the Protestant succession; that the fortifications -of Dunkirk should be destroyed; that Gibraltar and Port Mahon should -continue in British possession; that Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay -should also be acknowledged as British, but that the French should be -allowed to trade to Hudson's Bay; that in other respects France and -England should retain their possessions in America as they did before -the war; that the Assiento, or contract for supplying the Spanish -Colonies of South America with slaves--which had formerly been held by -the Portuguese, but, since 1702, by the French--should be made over -to England, with four towns on the Spanish Main, anywhere between the -Straits of Magellan and California, as depôts for the slaves when -first brought over. The terms might have been better, but they were -substantial. As Prior and Gualtier had no powers to accept terms from -France, M. Mesnager, an expert diplomatist, deputy from Rouen to the -Board of Trade in Paris, was despatched to London with the English -envoys. They were to return in all secrecy, and Mesnager was furnished -with certain instructions wholly unknown to Prior and Gualtier. These -were, that an equivalent for the destruction of the fortifications of -Dunkirk was to be demanded; and that some towns in Flanders which the -French had lost, particularly Lille and Tournay, should be restored. -These demands he was to keep very close, and only cautiously but -firmly open to the principal negotiators. But the secret was out that -a treaty was on foot with France, and the general opinion was that -the Ministers were bent on making peace on any terms. The Government, -nevertheless, kept the matter as much out of sight as possible. The -queen sent Prior to apologise to Mesnager for his being received in -so secret a manner, and Oxford, St. John, Jersey, and Shrewsbury were -appointed to confer with him privately. On the 8th of October the -English Commissioners and Mesnager had agreed upon the preliminaries -and signed them. Mesnager was then privately introduced to the queen -at Windsor, who made no secret of her anxiety for peace, telling him -she would do all in her power to complete the treaty and live in -good-fellowship with the King of France, to whom she was so closely -allied in blood. At supper she said publicly that she had agreed to -treat with France. The Ministers were just as incautious, for Swift -was invited by St. John the same evening to sup with him and a small -party in his apartments in Windsor Castle. This party consisted of no -other persons than Mesnager himself, Gualtier, and the infamous Abbé -Dubois, tutor to the young Duke of Orleans, this profligate having also -been engaged in assisting Mesnager in the treaty. With them was Prior. -All these particulars Swift wrote, as he wrote everything, to Stella -in Ireland. Yet when the preliminaries were handed to Count Gallas, -the Imperial ambassador, who, in his indignation, immediately had them -translated and inserted in one of the daily papers, the queen was so -angry that she forbade his reappearing at Court, and informed him that -he could quit the kingdom as soon as he thought proper. He departed -immediately, and the queen, to prevent an explosion on the part of the -Allies, wrote to the Emperor to say that she should be happy to receive -any other person that he might send. Raby, now Earl of Strafford, was -hurried to the Hague to announce to the States the fact of her having -signed these preliminaries, and to desire them to appoint a spot -where the Plenipotentiaries of the Allies and France should meet to -discuss them. Both the Dutch and the Emperor were startled and greatly -confounded at the discovery of the nature of the terms accepted. They -used every means to persuade the queen to draw back and accept no terms -except those which had been offered to France after the battle of -Malplaquet, but rather to push on the war vigorously, certain that they -must very soon obtain all they demanded. - -[Illustration: HENRY ST. JOHN (AFTERWARDS VISCOUNT BOLINGBROKE).] - -Nor was the excitement less at home. The news was out--the -preliminaries were before the public by the act of the Imperial -ambassador, and the Whigs were in a fury of indignation. They accused -the Ministers of being about to sacrifice the country, its power, and -interests to a shameful cowardice at the very moment that the labours -and sufferings of years had brought it to the verge of triumph, and -when Louis XIV. was old and tottering into the grave, leaving his -kingdom exhausted and powerless. But notwithstanding the violent -opposition both at home and abroad, the Ministers persisted in their -course. The queen wrote to the Electress Sophia of Hanover, entreating -her and her son to use their exertions with the Allies for the peace -of Europe. She sent over the Earl of Rivers to further her appeal; but -the Electoral Prince, so far from dreading to endanger his succession, -sent back a letter by Earl Rivers to the queen, strongly condemning the -terms on which the peace was proposed, and he ordered his ambassador, -the Baron von Bothmar, to present a memorial to the queen, showing the -pernicious consequences to Europe of allowing Philip to retain Spain -and the Indies. This bold and independent act greatly exasperated the -queen and her Ministers, and was extolled by the Whigs. There had been -attempts to influence the Elector by offering him the command of the -army in Flanders, in case of the removal of Marlborough, but that also -he declined. - -Many of the Tories were as much opposed to the terms of the treaty -as the Whigs, and it was proposed to unite in a strong remonstrance -against the conduct of the Ministers in being willing to accept -them; but the intention getting wind, the queen suddenly prorogued -Parliament to the 7th of December, with the expectation of the arrival -of absent Scottish peers, who were all Tories, and a determination, if -necessary, to create a batch of English Tory peers. Notwithstanding -all resistance, it was finally settled with the Allies that their -representatives should meet those of England and France, to treat for a -general peace, at Utrecht, on the 1st of January, 1712. - -The Ministers, in the meantime, went on strengthening their position. -Sir Simon Harcourt was created Baron Harcourt, and was raised from -Lord Keeper of the Seal to Lord Chancellor; the Duke of Buckingham -was appointed President of the Council in place of Lord Rochester, -deceased, and was succeeded in his office of Steward of the Household -by Earl Paulet, who had quitted the Treasury to make way for Harley's -elevation to the Treasurership. The Duke of Newcastle dying, Robinson, -Bishop of Bristol, was made Lord Privy Seal, a new thing since the days -of Wolsey and Laud for a Churchman. In Scotland the Jacobites were so -much elated by the proceedings of the Tories, and by whispers of what -really took place, while Mesnager was in secret conference with the -queen--namely, a zealous advocacy on his part of the setting aside -the Protestant succession, and the re-admission of the Pretender's -claims--that they proceeded to great lengths. They were in the end so -daring as to induce the Faculty of Advocates of Edinburgh to receive a -medal of the Pretender from the same ardent Duchess of Gordon who had -sent him word to come when he pleased, and to what port he pleased, -and that he would be well received. This medal had on the obverse -side a head of the Pretender, with the words, "Cujus est?" and on -the reverse the island of Britain and the word "Reddite." This they -not only received, but sent hearty thanks to the duchess for it. The -Hanoverian Ambassador was made aware of this incident, and presented a -memorial on the subject, which, however, only served to bring Sir David -Dalrymple, a zealous Whig and advocate for the Protestant succession, -into trouble, on the plea that he ought to have prosecuted Mr. Dundas -of Arniston for returning public thanks for the medal, whilst Arniston -himself, who boldly published a vindication of his conduct, was -suffered to escape. - -On the opening of Parliament on the 7th of December, the queen -announced that "notwithstanding the arts of those who delighted in war, -both time and place were appointed for opening the treaty for a general -peace." This was carrying into the Royal Speech the animus which the -Tories had shown against the Whigs in all their speeches and pamphlets -lately. They had endeavoured to make the Whigs odious to the nation -as a faction bent on war solely for its own selfish interests, and -regardless of the interests of the nation or the sufferings of mankind. -Though the Speech contained other matters, everything else passed -without criticism or notice. This declaration produced a vehement -sensation, and roused all the party fire on both sides. The Ministers -were astonished to see the Earl of Nottingham, who had hitherto gone -with them, now adopt the Whig side in a very vigorous and telling -speech. He denounced the preliminaries as basely surrendering the great -objects of the war, and moved that a clause should be inserted in the -Address to the effect that no peace could be safe or honourable to -Great Britain or to Europe, if Spain and the Indies should be allotted -to any branch of the House of Bourbon. In the discussion it was shown -that the statement in the queen's Speech, that the Allies were all -prepared to adopt the preliminaries, was utterly untrue. The Earl of -Anglesey contended, on the other side, that it was high time to ease -the nation of the monstrous burthens of the war; and he aimed some -heavy blows at the Duke of Marlborough, affirming that a good peace -might have been effected after the battle of Ramillies, but for the -private interests of certain persons. - -This called up Marlborough in his own defence. He bowed towards the -place where the queen was listening to the debate _incognita_, and -appealed to her, much to her embarrassment, whether, when he had the -honour to serve her Majesty as plenipotentiary as well as general, -he had not always faithfully informed her and her Council of all the -proposals of peace which had been made, and had desired instructions -for his guidance in such affairs. He appealed also to Heaven, whether -he was not always anxious for a safe, honourable, and lasting peace, -and whether he was not always very far from entertaining any design -of prolonging the war for his own private advantage, as his enemies -had most falsely insinuated. When the question was put, the amendment -of the Earl of Nottingham was carried by a majority of sixty-two to -fifty-four--that is, of only eight--notwithstanding all the exertions -of the Court party, and much to its astonishment. In the Commons, -however, the Ministry had a stronger party, and there they assured -the queen in their Address that they would do all in their power to -disappoint as well the acts and designs of those who for private views -might delight in war, as the hopes of the enemy conceived from the -divisions amongst themselves. Walpole moved an amendment similar to -that of the Lords, and it was lost by a majority of two hundred and -thirty-two to one hundred and six. - -The Ministers were determined now to be rid of Marlborough. He not -only stood at the head of the Whigs at home, and threw his great -military reputation into the scale against the Tories in this question -of peace or war, but whilst he retained his command of the army, he -immensely strengthened the opposition of the Allies to the present -terms of pacification. It was resolved that he should be dismissed, a -measure which they felt would destroy much of his influence. The Whigs, -moreover, at this crisis fell into a snare laid for them by the Earl of -Nottingham, which extremely damaged them, and in the same proportion -benefited the Tories. He persuaded them that if they would only -consent to the passing of the Occasional Conformity Bill, there were -numerous persons of influence ready to quit the ranks of Oxford and -St. John; and though the Whigs were entirely opposed in principle to -this illiberal and unjust measure, they were weak enough, in the hope -of strengthening their party, to permit it to pass. The Dissenters, -greatly exasperated at this treachery, abandoned the Whig cause; the -promised proselytes did not come over, and Lord Dartmouth adds that -"Lord Nottingham himself had the mortification afterwards to see his -Bill repulsed with some scorn, and himself not much better treated." - -In this state of affairs closed the year 1711. During the Christmas -holiday the Ministry matured several measures for the advancement of -their party. They were still in a minority in the Lords, and they -sought to remedy this by inducing the queen to create twelve new peers. -Lord Dartmouth, in his notes to Burnet, expresses his astonishment -on seeing the queen suddenly take from her pocket a list of twelve -new lords, and ordering him to bring warrants for them. Dartmouth, -unprepared for so sweeping a measure, asked whether her Majesty -intended to have them all made at once; and Anne replied, "Certainly; -that the Whigs and Lord Marlborough did all they could to distress her; -that she had made fewer lords than any of her predecessors; and that -she must help herself as well as she could." Among these new peers were -again two Scotsmen, but not peers, only the sons of peers, and the -husband of her favourite, Mrs. Masham. The witty Lord Wharton did not -spare a joke upon them at the time, by asking one of them, when the -question was put, whether "they voted by their foreman?" as though they -had been a jury. - -The disgrace of Marlborough was now completed. On the 21st of December -he had been charged in the House of Commons with having made use of -his command of the army to make enormous sums of money at the expense -of the men; that he had appropriated one hundred and seventy-seven -thousand pounds by taking two and a half per cent. on all subsidies -for foreign troops maintained by England, and sixty-three thousand -pounds from Sir Solomon de Medina and Antonio Alvarez Machado, the Jew -contractors for bread for the army; that his secretary, Cardonnel, -had exacted five hundred gold ducats from the contractors each time a -new contract was signed, all which had to be taken out of the quality -of the food or clothing of the soldiers. The queen therefore wrote to -him, informing him that as there was a serious charge made against him -by the Commissioners of Accounts, she thought it best to dismiss him -from all his employments in order that the matter might be impartially -investigated. Nor did she neglect to add that the conduct of his wife -towards herself had made her more willing to adopt this measure. - -Marlborough, in defence, pleaded to the queen, as he had to the -Commissioners of Inquiry, that he had appropriated nothing which had -not been the established perquisites of the commander-in-chief of the -army in the Low Countries both before the Revolution and since; and -that, whatever sums he had received from those sources, he had employed -in the service of the public in keeping secret correspondence, and in -getting intelligence of the enemy's motions and designs; and that, and -he could certainly say it with justice, he had employed this money -so successfully, that he had on no occasion suffered himself to be -surprised, but had often been able to surprise and defeat the enemy. -To this cause, next to the blessing of God and the bravery of the -troops, he attributed most of the advantages of the war. There can be -little doubt that Marlborough made the best of the power granted him -for appropriating these sums; that was his weak point; but he does not -appear to have exceeded the letter of his warrant; and the truth is -that the system itself was more in fault than the general. - -But notwithstanding Marlborough's proofs that his appropriations were -according to long-established custom, the Commons admitted no such -plea. They voted that the two and a half per cent. deducted by him -from the pay of the foreign troops was public money, and that he ought -to account for it. They threatened to institute proceedings for its -recovery through the law officers of the Crown, and they expelled -Cardonnel, the duke's secretary, from the House for his receipt of the -fees mentioned in the contracts. They had the satisfaction, also, of -punishing Robert Walpole, one of Marlborough's most staunch defenders, -for taking, when Secretary of War, five hundred guineas, and a note -for five hundred more, on the signing of a contract for forage for her -Majesty's troops quartered in Scotland. The deed deserved punishment, -but it was one which all secretaries perpetrated equally with Walpole, -as he showed, and which would never have been noticed had Walpole -yielded to the Tory entreaties and carried his great abilities to their -side. They, however, voted the fact a high breach of trust, and of -notorious corruption, and ordered his expulsion from the House and his -committal to the Tower. The borough of Lynn, which Walpole represented, -immediately re-elected him; but the Commons pronounced him incapable of -sitting in that Parliament, and declared the election void. - - - - -INDEX - - - Abjuration Oath, The, 423. - - Adjutators, The, 62. - - "Agreement of the People," The, 84. - - Aghrim, Battle of, 446. - - Allegiance and Supremacy, Act of, 238. - - Allen, plot against Cromwell, 130. - - Almanza, Battle of, 576. - - Amboyna, the massacre of Englishmen by Dutch, 111. - - America, Rise of colonies in, 167. - - Anabaptists denounce Cromwell, 124; - outbreak among, 140. - - Anne, Queen, reconciled with William, 479; - succeeds to the throne, 535; - speech to Parliament, her Tory bias, 536; - coronation of, 538; - Jacobite plot against, 547; - "Bounty," 549; - the union between England and Scotland, 573; - letter from the Pretender, 602. - - Apprentices, London, petition the Commons, 5; - fight at Westminster, 6. - - Architecture during the Stuart period, 371. - - Argyll, Earl of, in conflict with Montrose, 42; - defeated by Montrose, 43. - - Argyll, Marquis of, Execution of, 202. - - Argyll, Earl of (9th Earl), accused of high treason, 272; - expedition against James II., 296; - capture and execution of, 297. - - Army, Reduction of the standing, 502-507. - - Arundel Marbles, The, 186. - - Ashburnham, Lord, 51. - - Assembly, The General, address to Charles I., 43. - - "Assize, The Bloody," 304-306; - trial of Lady Alice Lisle, interference of James II., 305; - at Exeter and Taunton, 306. - - Association for defence of the king, 488. - - Athlone, Capture of, 443-445. - - Ayscough, Admiral Sir George, the reduction of Barbadoes, - suspected of Royalist sympathies by Parliament, 112. - - - Baden, Prince of, the war against Louis XIV., 552; - jealousy of Marlborough, 552, 554. - - Bank of England established, 471. - - Barclay, plot against William III., 485. - - "Barebone's Parliament," 119. - - Baxter, Richard, 363. - - Beachy Head, Battle of, 434. - - Beaumont, Francis, 175. - - Bedloe, the informer, 254. - - Benbow, Admiral, 541. - - Berkeley, Sir John, 71, 72; - messenger between Charles I. and Cromwell, 74. - - Bishops, Trial of the Seven, 328-331; - public sympathy during, 330; - the acquittal, 331. - - Blake, Admiral Robert, siege of Lyme Regis, 30; - conflicts with Prince Rupert, 110; - encounters van Tromp, 112; - defeats the Dutch fleet, 123; - expedition against France, 134; - and expedition against Spain, 136; - battle of Santa Cruz, 143; - death of, 144. - - Blenheim, Battle of, 555. - - Bolingbroke, Lord, 594; - correspondence with the Pretender, 602. - - Borlase, Sir John, 2. - - Bothwell Brig, Battle of, 263. - - Boyd, Rev. Zachary, preaches against Cromwell, 105. - - Boyne, Battle of the, 430. - - Bradshaw, John, arraignment of Charles I., 86-88; - arguments against the absolutism of kings, 87. - - Breda, Charles II. at, 162; - Declaration of, 163. - - Bristol, Earl of, charge against Charles II., 211. - - Bristol, Siege of, 44. - - Browne, Sir Thomas, 183. - - Browne, William, 180. - - Buckingham, Lord, 227. - - Burnet, Bishop, memorial to William of Orange, 336; - on tithes, 548; - unpopularity with the Tories, 591. - - Butler, Samuel, 358. - - Byng, Admiral Sir George, 580. - - - Cabal, The, 227, 238. - - Cameronians, The, 271. - - Capel, Lord, impeached of high treason by the Commons, 12; - trial and execution of, 94. - - Carew, Thomas, 178. - - Carisbrooke Castle, Charles I. at, 73. - - "Case of the Army," The, 71. - - Catherine of Portugal, marriage to Charles II., 205. - - Catholics, Injunctions against, in Ireland, 2; - massacre of Protestants, resolution by Parliament, 3; - secret sympathy of Charles I. with, 286; - efforts of James II. in favour of, 311; - a Privy Council of, livings in the Church of England given to, 312; - triumph in England, riots in London, 314; - trial of "Julian" Johnson, crusade against Protestantism in - Scotland and Ireland, 315, 316; - dismissal of Rochester and Clarendon, 318; - the Declaration of Indulgence, 319; - policy of William of Orange, 320; - supremacy in the Universities, 325; - opposition to James II. by Protestant bishops, 327; - an army of Irish, 332; - memorial to William of Orange, concessions to Protestants by - James II., 336; - William's declaration, 338. - - Cevennes, Insurrections in the, 544. - - Chalgrove, Battle at, 20. - - Chapman, Thomas, 174. - - Charles I. receives a deputation of Catholics, 2; - chagrined at proceedings of the Commons, presented with the - "Remonstrance," speech to the Commons, 4; - prepares articles of high treason against five Commoners, visit - to the Houses of Parliament, 7; - decides on war, passes two important bills, 8; - receives declaration from Parliament, retires to York, 10; - fails in his attempt to enter Hull, 11; - insists on his demands, raises his standard at Nottingham, 14; - his inconsistency, Battle of Edgehill, 15; - scheme for the extinction of Parliament, 27; - defeats Parliamentary troops under Essex, 30; - tries accommodation, 35; - propositions from the Scots, 36; - battle of Naseby, 39, 40; - flight into Wales, 42; - endeavours to join Montrose, 44; - ruin virtually complete, 46; - proposals contemptuously treated by Parliament, 48; - disavowal of treaty with Irish Catholics, 49; - offer of negotiations to Parliament, 50; - flight from Oxford, 51; - surrenders to the Scots, 52; - endeavours to raise army from Ireland and France, discusses - Episcopacy and Presbytery, 55; - meditates escape from England, 57; - his stubbornness, 70; - escape from Hampton Court, at Carisbrooke Castle, 72; - a close prisoner, 74; - reaction in his favour, 75; - resolve regarding Presbyterianism, 80; - concessions, at Hurst Castle, 82; - his trial, 86-88; - execution, 90. - - Charles II. proclaimed king in Scotland, 92; - reception among the Scots, 101; - agrees to take the Covenant, 102; - demands by the Assembly, 108; - attempted flight, concessions by the Covenanters, 104; - crowned at Scone, invades England, defeated at Worcester, - escapes to Normandy, 106; - his proclamation from Paris, 124; - his life in France, 132; - rising in England in his favour, 154; - his character, 193; - first Privy Council, 194; - his marriage, 205; - loss of prestige to France, 210; - war with Holland, 214; - the Treaty of Dover, 231; - his embarrassments, 267; - described by Macaulay, 287; - his illness and death, 287, 288; - coins of, 373. - - Chancery, Reform of the Court of, 126. - - Chillingworth, 182. - - Churchill (_see_ Marlborough). - - Clarendon, Lord, supports Charles I., 12; - quoted, 52, 65, 149; - his view of Cromwell, 68; - reply to Parliament in favour of Charles I., 75; - influence at the Court of Charles II., 198, 206; - fall of, 225; - character of, 226. - - Claverhouse, Graham of, 264; - exertions in favour of James II., 407; - death at Killiecrankie, 408. - - Clonmel attacked by Cromwell, 100. - - Clotworthy, Sir John, on the Irish Papists, 2. - - Coaching in the time of Charles II., 381. - - Coins at the time of Charles II., 373; - in the reign of William and Mary, 483. - - Colepepper, Sir John, 12. - - Commerce under Cromwell, 384; - under the Stuarts, 386-388; - value with America and the West Indies, 391. - - Commonwealth, The, 90; - difficulties with Portugal, acknowledged by Spain, 110; - war with Holland, 110, 114; - treaties with Holland, France, Denmark, Portugal and Sweden, 123. - - Conformity Bill, The, 204. - - Conventicle Act, The, 212. - - Cooper, Sir Anthony Ashley, 122. - - Costumes in the Stuart period, 191, 377. - - Coventry, Lord, impeached of high treason by the Commons, 12. - - Coventry, Sir John, 233. - - Cowley, Abraham, popularity as a poet, 358. - - Crashaw, Thomas, 178. - - Cromwell, Henry, 154. - - Cromwell, Oliver, remarks on the "Remonstrance," 4; - takes a commission in the Parliamentary army, 13; - his military tact, 18; - his success as a General, 20; - Battle of Marston Moor, 29; - irritated by Parliament's inaction, 30; - charge against the Earl of Manchester, proposes the "Self-denying - Ordinance," his genius in War, 39; - victories, 47; - his character, 68; - defeats Royalists at Preston, invited to Edinburgh, 78; - war in Ireland, 97-100; - captures Dublin, 98; - deplorable fanaticism of, 99; - appointed commander-in-chief, invades Scotland, 103; - defeats Leslie, 104; - at Glasgow, 105; - victory at Worcester, 106; - arrival in London, 107; - meditates kingly power, 116; - dissolves the Long Parliament, 118; - constitutes a Parliament in his own name, 119; - becomes Lord Protector, 121; - installation as Protector, 122; - plan against Royalist outbreaks, 131; - dispute with Spain, 133; - great speech to Parliament, 136; - refuses the crown, 142; - inauguration at the head of the Government, makes war against - Spain, 144; - his last Parliament, 147; - last days of, 148; - death of, 150. - - Cromwell, Richard, succeeds to the Protectorate, difficulties - with the army, 150; - his power ceases, 152; - abdicates, 154. - - Cudworth, William, 182. - - Cutts, Lord, at the Battle of Blenheim, 555. - - - Dalrymple, Sir James, influence in Scottish affairs, 403. - - Danby, Earl, Impeachment of, 257; - imprisoned in the Tower, 259. - - Dangerfield, the informer, 266. - - Daniel, Samuel, 176. - - Darien expedition, The, 512; - its miserable end, 514. - - "Declaration of Indulgence," 319. - - Defoe denounces the Occasional Conformity Bill, 559; - quoted, 570. - - Delamere, Lord, Trial of, 309. - - Denbigh, Earl of, Commission to Charles I., 36. - - Denham, Sir John, 176, 361. - - Denmark, Prince George of, 583. - - De Ruyter, in command of the Dutch fleet, 111; - victory over the English, defeated by Blake, 112. - - De Torcy, French ambassador, 586. - - Devonshire, Earl of, impeached of high treason by the Commons, 12. - - De Witt, in command of the Dutch fleet, 111; - defeated by Blake, 112; - his "Interest of Holland," 387. - - Digby, Lord, 49; - letter from Charles I., 53. - - Donne, John, 177. - - Dorislaus, Dr., assassinated by Royalists, 96. - - Dover, Earl of, impeached of high treason by the Commons, 12. - - Dover, Treaty of, 231. - - Dramatic writing under the Stuarts, 361, 378. - - Drayton, Michael, 176. - - Drogheda, Storming of, by Cromwell, 98. - - Drumclog, Battle of, 263. - - Drummond of Hawthornden, 177. - - Dryden, John, 318; - poems of, 359; - prose, 362. - - Dublin, Capture by Cromwell, 98. - - Dunbar, Battle of, 104. - - Dundee, Viscount (_see_ Claverhouse). - - Dunkirk, Siege of, 147. - - Dutch, attack by fleet on the Thames, 223; - defeated at Southwold Bay, 235. - - Dykvelt, Dutch ambassador at the English court, 320; - efforts in behalf of the Prince of Orange, 321. - - - East India Company, Origin of the, 166; - bill for regulating the trade of, 450. - - Edgehill, Battle of, 15. - - "Engagement," The, 92. - - "Engagers," 96. - - Engraving at the time of Charles II., 373. - - Episcopacy, Charles I. discusses with Alexander Henderson, 55. - - Essex, Earl of, appointed commander of the Parliamentary army, 13; - victory at Edgehill, 15, 16; - rewarded by Parliament, 116; - his dilatory spirit, 19; - victories, receives overtures from Charles I., defeated, 30; - resignation of, 33. - - Eugene, Prince, in command with Marlborough, 554; - the battle of Lutzingen, 556. - - Evelyn, John, 363. - - Exclusion Bill, The, 261. - - - Fairfax, Lord, his Parliament sympathy, 14; - appointed commander-in-chief of the Parliament army, 32; - the battle of Naseby, 39; - mediates between the army and Parliament, 62; - enters London, 67; - attitude to the king, 68; - disturbances in London, 77; - trial of Charles I., 86; - resigns his command, 102; - re-appointed to leading command, resigns office, 103; - his Royalist leanings, 158. - - Falkland, Lord, his defection from the Parliament ranks, 12; - death of, character of, 23. - - Fenwick, Sir John, plot against William III., 491; - trial of, 495. - - Feversham, Lord, 300. - - Fifth-Monarchy men, 124; - Cromwell's speech in regard to the, 127; - rising at Mile-end, 140. - - Fire of London, The, 219. - - Firmin, Mr., benevolent scheme in regard to pauperism, 394. - - Flamsteed, the astronomer, 367. - - Fleetwood, General, appointed Cromwell's deputy in Ireland, 107; - policy of, 151. - - Fletcher, John, 175. - - Fletcher of Saltoun, 272, 295; - opposed to the union between England and Scotland, 571. - - Fox, George, 352. - - France, treaty with Cromwell, 135; - war in the Netherlands, 144; - opposition to William III., 425. - - Friends, The Society of, 229; - persecution in America, 354; - efforts in regard to the Abjuration Bill, 532. - - Fuller, Thomas, 183. - - - Galway, Earl of, in command against Louis XIV. in Spain, 567. - - Gaultier, Abbé, 602. - - "Gerard, Generous," 125. - - Germany, Emperor of, Agreement between, and the Allies, 544. - - Gibbons, Dr., music of, 183. - - Gibbons, Grinling, the sculptor, 372. - - Gibraltar, Capture of, 559; - efforts by Spain for its recovery, 562. - - Glamorgan, Earl of, commission from Charles I. to the Irish - Catholics, 48. - - Godfrey, Sir Edmundbury, Murder of, 250. - - Godolphin, Lord, appointed Lord Treasurer, 536. - - Gordon, Duke of, 404. - - Goring, Colonel, in command of Royalist troops, 76, 78; - trial of, 93. - - Graham, John, of Claverhouse (_see_ Claverhouse). - - Granville, Mr., speech at the accession of Queen Anne, 536. - - Gregg, William, executed for high treason, 579. - - Grenville, Sir Richard, 82. - - Guiscard, Marquis of, 600. - - - Habeas Corpus Act, Suspension of the, 401. - - Hague, Treaty of the, 243. - - Hale, Sir Matthew, 126. - - Halifax, Earl of, character of, 261; - his policy as "Trimmer," 282; - opposition from Duke of York, 285; - superseded by Rochester, 290; - pamphlet by, 482. - - Hamilton, Duke of, opposition to the union between England and - Scotland, 571. - - Hamilton, Marquis of, policy of the, his duplicity, 24; - leads a Scots army into England, 77; - defeated by Cromwell at Preston, 78; - executed by order of the Commonwealth, 94. - - Hammond, Colonel, 72. - - Hampden, John, his gentleness, 2; - impeached, 7; - takes a commission in the Parliamentary army, 13; - death at Chalgrove, character of, 20. - - Hampton Court, Charles I. at, 71. - - Harcourt, Sir Simon, Bill in regard to union between England - and Scotland, 573. - - Harley, Earl of Oxford, elected Speaker, 530; - accused of Jacobite sympathy, dismissed from office, 579; - efforts against the Whigs, 588; - raised to the Peerage, 600; - secret negotiations with France, 602. - - Harrison, Colonel, at the battle of Naseby, 39; - his fanaticism, 124; - imprisoned in the Tower, 128. - - Harvey, Dr. W., 366. - - Haversham, Lord, 563. - - Hazelrig, Impeachment of, by Charles I., 7. - - Heinsius, Dutch Chancellor, 550, 574. - - Henrietta, Queen, reception in Holland, 8; - her powers of fascination, 18; - flight to France, 30. - - Herbert, George, 179. - - Herrick, Robert, 178. - - Hill, Abigail, 578. - - Hobbes, Thomas, 362. - - Holland, Earl of, Royalist rising under, 78; - executed by order of the Commonwealth, 94. - - Holland, jealousy of the Commonwealth, 110; - birth of William III., maritime greatness, 111; - war with England, 111-114; - fleet defeated by Blake, treaty with England, 123. - - Holles, impeached by Charles I., 7. - - Holmby, Charles I. at, 59. - - Hooke, Colonel, Jacobite plot by, 378. - - Hotham, Sir John, defence of Hull against Charles I., 10; - proclaimed a traitor, 11. - - Howard, Lord, of Charlton, impeached of high treason by the Commons, 12. - - Hyde, Lawrence (_see_ Rochester). - - Hyde (_see_ Clarendon). - - - Incorporated companies, 167. - - Indemnity, Bill of, 195. - - Independents, difficulties with the Presbyterians, 59; - their hour of triumph, treatment of Charles I., 68. - - Indies, Expedition to the West, by fleet of Parliament, 135. - - Indulgence, The Declaration of, 318. - - Industries introduced by foreign refugees, 389. - - Inquiry, Bill for Commission of, 222. - - "Instrument of Government," The, 122. - - Ireland, Rebellion in, 1, 3; - massacre, 3; - Catholic confederacy, 26; - war in, 97-100; - claims under Charles II., 200; - government under James II., 316; - exertions of James II. against Protestantism, 410; - revolution under Tyrconnel, 411; - landing of James II., 412; - siege of Londonderry, 413-416; - James's Parliament, 417; - battle of the Boyne, 430; - defence of Limerick, 432; - capture of Athlone, 443-445. - - Ireton, General, at the battle of Naseby, 39; - his opinion regarding Charles I., 72; - the "Agreement of the People," 84; - his command in Ireland, death of, 107. - - - Jacobites, outcry against the Scottish union, 570; - great zeal in Scotland, 606. - - Jamaica, Capture of, 135. - - James I., commerce under, 165; - coinages by, 171; - costume during the reign of, 190; - prices, 192. - - James II., speech to the Privy Council, 289; - cabinet of, 290; - openly avows Roman Catholicism, 291, 310; - policy with Louis XIV., 291; - difficulties with Parliament, 307; - counsellors of, 310; - acts of opposition to the Church, 312-314; - religious persecution in Scotland, 316; - his government in Ireland, 316-318; - the Declaration of Indulgence, 318; - absolute power of, 319; - pays homage to the Papal Nuncio, outrages in army affairs, 323; - encroachments on the universities, 325; - a new Declaration of Indulgence, 327; - decay of power, 332; - his wrongheadedness, 334; - concessions on approach of William of Orange, 336; - utterly deserted, 343; - flight from London, 344; - capture and return, 346-347; - escape to France, 348; - coins of, 373; - letter to the Scottish Convention, 404; - landing in Ireland, forms a Privy Council, 412; - his Irish Parliament, 417; - his legislation in Ireland, 418; - his Irish army, 427; - defeat at the Boyne, 431; - declaration, 459; - death of, 529. - - Jeffreys, Lord, Chief Justice at Chester, 274; - gift from Charles II., 284; - brutal character of, 285; - the Bloody Assize, 304. - - Jermyn, Lord, 46. - - Jews, petition to Parliament for permitting them to live in England, 136. - - Johnson, "Julian," 315. - - Jonson, Ben, 175. - - Joyce, Cornet, seizes Charles I., 63. - - Junto, The Whig, 583. - - Juxon, Bishop, 55. - - - Killiecrankie, Battle of, 408. - - "Killing no Murder," 139. - - Kilsyth, Battle of, 44. - - Kimbolton, Lord, Impeachment of, 7. - - Kirby, the informer, 247. - - "Kirke's Lambs," 303. - - - La Hogue, Battle of, 460. - - Lambert, General, appointed deputy in Ireland, 107; - trial under Charles II., 207. - - Landen, Battle of, 467. - - Langdale, Sir Marmaduke, capture of Berwick, 77. - - Laud, Archbishop, impeachment of, executed, 34-35. - - Lauderdale, Earl of, 203. - - Lauzun, Marshal, 428. - - League and Covenant, The Solemn, 25. - - Leibnitz, 366. - - Leicester, Earl of, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, 3. - - Leighton, Archbishop, 203. - - Lely, the painter, 371. - - Lenthall, the Speaker, 7, 128. - - Leslie, General Sir David, in command of the Scottish cavalry, 44; - defeats Montrose, 46; - defeated by Cromwell at Cockburnspath, 104; - receives overtures from Charles I., 55; - defeat at Dunbar, 104. - - Levellers, The, vow against Cromwell and the king, 71; - turbulence of, 94. - - Leven, Earl of, 44, 103. - - Levesey, Sir Michael, 78. - - Lilburne, Colonel, Character of, 71; - advocates a Republic, 94; - tried for sedition, 120. - - Lille, Capture of, by the Allies, 582. - - "Lillibulero," 332. - - Lindsay, Lord, at the battle of Edgehill, 15, 16. - - Lisle, Sir George, shot by Parliamentary troops, 78. - - Literature in the Stuart period, 355 _et seqq._ - - Locke, John, proposal regarding coinage, 483. - - Lockhart, Sir William, Cromwell's ambassador at the Hague, 147. - - London, Defence against Charles I., 16; - growth of, 168; - moral condition under the Stuarts, 188, 379; - the Great Plague, 215-16; - the Great Fire, 219; - terror at the French invasion under Tourville, 434; - great storm of 1704, 547. - - Londonderry, Siege of, 413-416. - - Long Parliament, The, Cromwell's address to the, 118; - the _coup d'état_, 118-119. - - Louis XIV., in league with Cromwell against Spain, 144; - war with Holland, 235, 243; - joins with James II. against William of Orange, 334; - decay of power, 498; - designs in Spain, 505; - proclaims the son of James II. King of England, 529; - inroads on the German Empire, 546; - great exertions against the Allies, 564; - emissaries in Scotland in support of the Pretender, 579; - active operations on the Continent, 580; - capture of Lille, rejects propositions of peace, 582; - ruinous effects of his ambition, 583; - sues for peace with Holland, 584; - his terms of peace, 585; - the forty articles, refuses the ultimatum of the Allies, 586; - fall of Tournay, battle of Malplaquet, 587; - renews overtures for peace, 595. - - Lucas, Sir Charles, shot by Parliamentary troops, 78. - - Ludlow, Colonel, denounces Charles I., 80; - fanaticism of, dislike to Cromwell, 124. - - Lunsford, Colonel, appointed Lieutenant of the Tower, 5. - - - Macaulay quoted, 224. - - Mackay, General, in command in Scotland, 406; - battle of Killiecrankie, 408. - - Mackenzie, Sir George, 364. - - Maguire, Cornelius, Irish rebel leader, 1. - - Malplaquet, Battle of, 587. - - Manchester, Earl of, disputes with Cromwell, 30. - - Marlborough, Duke of, in command in Ireland, 437; - character of, 440, 451; - dismissed from office, 452; - imprisonment, 460; - receives the Order of the Garter from Queen Anne, appointed - Captain-General of the English army, 536; - influence of his party, commander-in-chief, 538; - in command on the Rhine, his bold plans, 539; - warm welcome in England, alienation from the Tories, 542; - the Toleration Act, 543; - campaign in Flanders, 544-545; - campaign on the Moselle, 550; - assault on Schellenberg, 552; - battle of Blenheim, 555; - third campaign against the French, 560; - battle of Ramillies, 565; - wane of his party influence, 578; - battle of Oudenarde, 580; - battle of Malplaquet, 587; - decline of power, 596; - end of his influence, 598; - in disgrace, 599; - opposition to his efforts by the Tories, 602; - his fall, 607; - the charges brought against him, his defence, 608. - - Marston Moor, Battle of, 28. - - Marten, Henry, 91. - - Marvell, Andrew, 360. - - Mary, Princess, at the Dutch Court, 8. - - Massinger, Philip, 175. - - Mayday, Celebration of, 383. - - Mazarin, 47, 133. - - Meal-Tub Plot, The, 266. - - Middleton, Thomas, 175. - - Mildmay, Sir Henry, 83. - - Militia Bill, Opposition of Charles I. to, 11. - - Milton, John, 91; - his prose, 182; - his Republican sympathy, 355; - _Paradise Lost_, 356. - - Ministers' Bill, The, 195. - - Monk, General, policy in Scotland, 108; - his reserve, 155; - march to London, 159; - proclaims a full and free Parliament, 160; - secretly working for the Restoration, 162; - receives Charles II. at Dover, 165; - commander-in-chief, 194. - - Monmouth, Duke of, 263; - popularity of, 266; - makes a royal progress through the provinces, 273; - proclamation for his apprehension, 277; - reconciliation with his father, 282; - at the Court of Holland, 286; - expelled from Holland, his reception in England, 298; - political blunder of, 299; - battle of Sedgemoor, 301; - death of, 303. - - Monmouth, Earl of, impeached by the Commons, 12. - - Mons captured by Louis XIV., 439. - - Montagu, Lord, 256. - - Montreuil, negotiation with Scots on behalf of Charles I., 50. - - Montrose, Marquis of, policy of, 24; - unfurls the royal standard at Dumfries, at Blair Athol, - defeats Elcho, 42; - attack on Argyleshire, defeats Argyll, defeats John Ury, 43; - a second victory over Baillie, 44; - fame of, rising in favour of Charles II., 101; - defeat in Ross-shire, betrayal of, execution, 102. - - Moore, Roger, incites the Irish against England, 2. - - Mountjoy, Lord, Treachery of James II. towards, 411. - - "Muggletonians," 355. - - Muscovy Company, The, 167. - - Music under the Puritans, 373; - in the time of Charles II., 374. - - - Namur, captured by Louis XIV., 454; - second siege, 480; - fall of, 481. - - Nantes, Edict of, revocation of by Louis XIV., 307. - - Napier, Lord, of Merchiston, 366. - - Naseby, Battle of, 39. - - Navigation Act, passed by Parliament, 111; - in operation, 388; - growth of trading companies, 390. - - Navy, English, in the Stuart period, 386. - - Netherlands, Disturbances in the, 147. - - "Neuters," 115. - - Newbury, Battle of, 22. - - Newcastle, Marquis of, in command of the Royalist army, 26; - Battle of Marston Moor, 28. - - Newmarket, meeting of Parliament soldiers, 62. - - Newport, Lord, controversy with the king, 6. - - Newton, Sir Isaac, 366. - - Nonconformists, The, 352. - - Non-Jurors, Rise of the faction of, 399. - - Northumberland, Earl of, Lord High Admiral, under Parliament, 10, 11. - - Nottingham, Charles I. raises his standard at, 14. - - "Novum Organum," The, 181. - - - Oates, Titus, the Popish plot, his story before the Council, 248; - imitators of, 250; - effect upon the people, 251; - his real character, 252; - his forgeries, 253; - impeachments by, 255; - convicted of perjury, 292. - - Oath, Coronation, of William and Mary, 403. - - Occasional Conformity Bill, The, 543, 547. - - O'Connelly, Sir John, 2. - - O'Neil, Sir Phelim, 2; - the Irish massacre of 1641, 3. - - Orange, Prince of, 587. - - Orange, William of (_see_ William III.). - - Ordinance, The Self-denying, 31. - - Ormond, Earl, makes terms with Parliament, 55; - leader of the Irish Royalists, 97; - secret visit to England on behalf of Charles I., 147; - unfair treatment by James II., 290. - - "Orrery Letters," The, 144. - - Oudenarde, Battle of, 580. - - Overton, Colonel, plot against Cromwell, 130. - - Owen, Sir John, Trial of, by Parliament, 93. - - Oxford, Charles I. at, 18; - Parliament at, 27, 268; - declaration by the University of, 279. - - - Pack, Sir Christopher, "Remonstrance" against Cromwell by, 139. - - Painting during the Stuart period, 371. - - Papal Nuncio, James II. pays homage to the, 323. - - Parker, Dr., effort of James II. to install him at Magdalen College, 324. - - Parliament, discussion with Charles I., 18; - makes a new Great Seal, 19; - further propositions to Charles I., 38; - treaties with the Scots regarding possession of Charles I., 54; - resolution in regard to the Constitution, 76; - condemns Charles I., 86-88; - dishonesty under Charles II., 242. - - Parliament, The Little, 119. - - Parsons, Sir William, 1. - - Partition Treaty, The, 523. - - Paterson, William, projector of the Bank of England, 510. - - Pauperism under the Stuarts, plan for decrease of, by Yarranton, 393; - benevolent scheme of Firmin, 394. - - Penn, William, 229. - - Pension Parliament, The, 258. - - Pepys, Samuel, 364. - - Peterborough, Earl of, his able generalship, assault of Barcelona, 562; - brilliant exploits in Spain, 563. - - Peters, Hugh, 97, 198. - - "Petition and Advice," The, 145; - legality of, debated in Parliament, 151. - - Petre, Father, Jesuit Provincial, at the court of James II., 311. - - Petty, Sir William, on mercantile shipping, 386. - - Philiphaugh, Battle of, 46. - - Plague, The Great, 215, 216. - - Plymouth Adventuress, The, 167. - - Poets during the Stuart period, 174. - - Post Office, Origin of the English, 388. - - Poynings' Act, 38. - - Presbyterians, difference from Independents, 59; - treaty with Charles I., 79; - condition under Charles II., 196; - assailed in Scotland, 212. - - Press, Liberty of the, 466, 482. - - Preston, Battle of, 78. - - "Pride's Purge," 83. - - Prose writers during the Stuart period, 362. - - Protestantism, declaration of William III., 397. - - Prynne, William, his efforts against Laud, 34. - - Purcell, Henry, 374. - - Pym, 26. - - - Quakers, The (_see_ Society of Friends). - - Quebec, Expedition to, 601. - - - Rainsborough, Colonel, revolt of fleet in favour of Charles I., 76. - - Raleigh, Sir Walter, 166. - - Ramillies, Battle of, 565. - - Remonstrance on the state of the kingdom, composition of, 4. - - Resumption Bill, The, 517. - - Revenue in the Stuart period, 385. - - Rights, Declaration of, 350; - Bill of, 423. - - Rochester, Earl of, Prime Minister, 310; - love of office, 317; - fall of, 318; - loyalty to James II., 344; - declares for William, 345. - - Rooke, Admiral Sir George, expedition to Cadiz, 540; - Battle of Vigo Bay, 541; - Capture of Gibraltar, 559. - - Rosen, General, at the siege of Londonderry, his savagery, 415. - - Royal Society, Founding of the, 365. - - Rubens, 186. - - Rullion Green, Battle of, 223. - - Rump, The, origin of the name, 83; - influence in political affairs, 152, 153. - - Rupert, Prince, his style of warfare, 16; - battle at Chalgrove, 19; - victories by, 27; - surrenders Bristol, character of, 44; - carries on the war by sea, 109. - - Russell, Lord William, 278; - trial and execution of, 279. - - Rye House Plot, The, 276. - - Ryswick, Treaty of, 501. - - - Sacheverell, Dr. Henry, accused of high treason, 588; - taken into custody, 590; - riots by partisans, 591; - trial of, 592, 593. - - Sales, Bill of, 195. - - Sancroft, Archbishop, Trial of, 328. - - Schomberg, Marshal, 416; - arrival in Ireland, 427; - death at the Battle of the Boyne, 430. - - Scone, Charles II. crowned at, 106. - - Scotland, dealings with the Parliament, invasion of England, 24; - army crosses the Tweed, 27; - propositions of leaders to Charles I., 35; - rising under Montrose, 101, 102; - invaded by Cromwell, Cromwell's military stations, 103; - Charles II. crowned at Scone, 106; - disaffection to Cromwell, 124; - claims under Charles II., 200, 201; - persecutions by Charles II., Presbyterianism assailed, 212; - the Covenanters, 222; - continued religious persecutions, 262, 283, 316; - meeting of Parliament, 292; - the triumph of Presbytery, meeting of the Convention, 403; - Jacobite rising, 407-410; - affairs under William and Mary, 435; - Massacre of Glencoe, 456; - Parliament of William and Mary, 478; - excitement against the Orange ministry, 510; - enthusiasm in the Darien expedition, 512; - indignation against William, 514; - union with England, 567. - - "Scourers, The," 379. - - Sedgemoor, Battle of, 301. - - "Seekers," The, 354. - - Self-denying Ordinance, The, 32. - - Sexby, Colonel, at the court of Madrid, 134; - attempt of Popish invasion, 137. - - Seymour, Sir Edward, 294. - - Shaftesbury, Earl of (First Earl), attacks on Popery, 261; - schemes of rebellion, 274; - death of, character of, 275. - - Shakespeare, 173. - - Sharp, Archbishop, 203; - murder of, 263. - - Sheldon. Dr., 55. - - Sherlock, Bishop, proposal in favour of James II. at the Revolution, 349. - - Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, 559; - in command of the English fleet, 576; - wreck and death of, 577. - - Sidney, Algernon, Trial and execution of, 280-282. - - Sindercomb, attempt to assassinate Cromwell, 138. - - Solemn League and Covenant, The, 25. - - Somers, Lord, 506; - forced to resign the Lord Chancellorship, 517; - trial of, 527; - integrity of, 535. - - Spain, acknowledges the Commonwealth, 110; - dispute with Cromwell, 133; - visit of king Charles to England, 546; - collapse of his power, 567. - - Spencer, Earl of Northampton, impeached of high treason by - the Commons, 12. - - Sport under Charles II., 380. - - Stafford, Lord, Trial and execution of, 267. - - Steam-engine introduced into England, 369. - - St. John, Oliver, chief justice under the Commonwealth, 91. - - Strode impeached, 7. - - Suckling, Sir John, 178. - - Sunderland, Earl of, Prime Minister under Charles II., character of, 259; - intrigues in behalf of James II., 310; - treason to James II., 338. - - - Tallard, Marshal, 554. - - Tangier, Settlement of, 207. - - Tarbet, Lord, advice to William III. regarding the Highlands, 140, 407. - - Tate, Mr., moves the self-denying ordinance, 32. - - Temple, Sir William, 261, 308. - - Test Act, Operation of the, 320. - - Thurloe, John, secretary for the Parliament, 37; - secretary of the Parliamentary Council, 122; - Secretary of State, 125; - his alertness, 140, 407. - - Tories, early conflicts with the Whigs, 420, 422; - efforts to gain power, 508; - rivalry with the Whigs under William III., 524; - influence under Queen Anne, Marlborough's alienation from the, 542. - - Treason, Bill for regulating trials in cases of high, 450, 484. - - Treaty of Ryswick, The, 501. - - Treaty, The Partition, 523. - - Triennial Act, The, 211. - - "Triers," 122. - - "Trimmers," The, 451. - - Tuam, Archbishop of, killed in a skirmish, 48. - - Turenne, Marshal, 144. - - Turkey merchants, The, 167. - - Tyrconnel, Earl of, appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 318; - plot with James II. to hand over Ireland to Louis XIV., 325; - treacherous character of, 411. - - - Union between England and Scotland, The, 573. - - Uxbridge, Meeting of Royalist and Parliamentary Commissioners at, 37. - - - Vane, Sir Harry, 83; - ability of, 207; - executed by Charles II., 208. - - Vaudois, Massacre of the, 134. - - Vaughan, Lord Chief Justice, the trial of Penn, noble defence of - the rights of juries, 231. - - Vendôme, Duke of, 580. - - Venner, rising of Fifth-Monarchy men under, 140. - - Verrio, Antonio, the painter, influence with Charles II., 371. - - Vigo Bay, Battle of, 541. - - Villeroi, Marshal, 565. - - - Waldenses, The, 439. - - Waller, Edmund, 22. - - Walton, Isaac, 363. - - Warner, William, 176. - - Warwick, Earl of, Admiral of the Parliamentary fleet, 78; - in league with the Royalists, 79. - - Webster, John, 175. - - Westminster Assembly, The, disagreement of Presbyterians and - Independents, 34. - - Wexford, capture by Cromwell, 99. - - Whigs, the name "Whiggamores," 84; - keen rivalry with the Tories, 508, 524; - triumph under William and Mary, 530. - - White, Robert, the engraver, 373. - - Whitelock, 116, 142. - - Wildman, Colonel, plot against Cromwell, 131. - - William III., dauntless spirit and ready resource of, 236; - arrival in England, 242; - marriage to his cousin Princess Mary, 243; - conquests in the Netherlands, 244-246; - visit to England, 271; - his opinion of the Declaration of Indulgence, popularity - in England, 320; - invited to expel James II., 331; - prepares to invade England, 332; - memorial in favour of, 335; - embarks for England, 338; - landing at Torbay, 339-342; - enters London, 348; - the succession difficulty, 349; - the Declaration of Rights, 350; - accession of, 396; - his first Ministry, 397; - settlement of the revenue, 399; - acknowledged king of Scotland, 406; - conflict with the Whigs, 419; - speech to Parliament, 423; - Irish campaign, 425; - his army in Ireland, 428; - battle of the Boyne, 430; - popularity with Parliament, 437; - with his army in the Netherlands, 452-456; - Continental campaign, 466; - reconciled with Anne, 479; - reception in London after capture of Namur, 482; - plot against, 485; - campaign in Flanders, 496; - triumphal entry into London, 501; - question as to the succession, 521; - illness, 530; - marks of the nation's confidence, 531; - fall from his horse, 533; - death of, 534; - appearance and character of, 402, 534. - - Williams, Archbishop, attacked by a Puritan mob, address to the king, 6. - - Winceby-on-the-Wolds, Battle at, 26. - - Windebank, Colonel, 39. - - Window tax, Origin of the, 483. - - Wither, George, 178. - - Worcester, Battle of, 106. - - Worcester, Marquis of, 370. - - Working classes, The, under the Stuarts, 391; - wages of artizans, enactments against free labour, 392. - - Wroth, Sir Thomas, 74. - - - Yarranton, Mr., plan for decrease of pauperism, 393. - - York, Duke of, in the custody of Parliament, 54; - escape to Holland, 75; - at the siege of Dunkirk, 148; - Admiral against the Dutch, 214; - victory at Southwold Bay, 235; - the Popish plot, 248; - opposes Monmouth, 264; - government in Scotland, 283 (_see_ also James II.). - - Young, Commodore, victory over the Dutch fleet, 111. - - - Zulestein, General, mission to England, 322; - messenger to James II. from William of Orange, 347. - - -PRINTED BY CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED, LA BELLE SAUVAGE, LONDON, E.C. - - * * * * * - - +--------------------------------------------------------------+ - | Transcriber notes: | - | | - | P.142. 'Greal' changed to 'Great. | - | P.156-7. added 'a' to 'a deputation'. | - | P.218. 'ts' changed to 'its'. | - | P.296. 'Inverrary' changed to 'Inverary'. | - | P.322. Added 'to', missing in 'to the Church of Rome'. | - | P.346. 'Winchilsea' changed to 'Winchelsea'. | - | P.490. 'it' changed to 'it's' | - | P.542. 'main ained' changed to 'maintained'. | - | P.550. 'of' added in 'of the Alps'. | - | P.610. 'de-defeated' changed to 'defeated'. | - | P,611. 'instal' changed to 'install'. | - | P.611. Added missing page number '174'. | - | Fixed various punctuation . | - +--------------------------------------------------------------+ - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Cassell's History of England. 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