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Hulbert - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The History of Korea (vol. 1 of 2) - -Author: Homer B. Hulbert - -Release Date: May 22, 2016 [EBook #52127] -[Last updated: August 2, 2016] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF KOREA (VOL. 1 OF 2) *** - - - - -Produced by KD Weeks, David Edwards and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class='tnotes'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>Transcriber’s Note:</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Illustrations have been moved to avoid falling within a paragraph.</p> - -<div class='htmlonly'> - -<p class='c000'>Errors, when reasonably attributable to the printer, have been corrected. -The corrections appear as words underlined with a light gray. -The original text will be shown when the mouse is over the word. Please -see the transcriber’s <a href='#endnote'>note</a> at the end of this text for details.</p> - -</div> - -<div class='epubonly'> - -<p class='c000'>Errors, when reasonably attributable to the printer, have been corrected. -The corrections are hyperlinked to an explanatory entry transcriber’s -<a href='#endnote'>note</a>. That note also includes an account of the approach taken -for addressing these issues.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The cover has been fabricated and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<div> - <h1 class='c001'><span class='small'>THE</span> <br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>History of Korea</span></span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div>HOMER B. HULBERT, A.M., F.R.G.S.</div> - <div>Editor of <span class='sc'>The Korea Review</span></div> - <div class='c003'><span class='large'>TWO VOLUMES</span></div> - <div class='c003'><span class='large'>ILLUSTRATED</span></div> - <div class='c003'><span class='small'><span class='sc'>Seoul, 1905</span></span></div> - <div><span class='small'><span class='sc'>The Methodist Publishing House</span></span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c002' /> -</div> - -<p class='c004'>CONTENTS.</p> - -<table class='table0' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='71%' /> -<col width='14%' /> -<col width='14%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Preface</span></td> - <td class='c005'> </td> - <td class='c006'><a href='#preface'>I</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Introductory note</span></td> - <td class='c005'> </td> - <td class='c006'><a href='#intro'>V</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Ancient Korea</span> 2257 B.C.-890 A.D.</td> - <td class='c005'>Vol. I</td> - <td class='c006'><a href='#part01'>1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Medieval Korea</span> 890-1392</td> - <td class='c005'>Vol. I</td> - <td class='c006'><a href='#part02'>127</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Modern Korea</span> 1392-1904</td> - <td class='c005'>Vol. I</td> - <td class='c006'><a href='#part03'>295</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_i'>i</span> - <h2 id='preface' class='c007'>Preface.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>The sources from which the following History of Korea -is drawn are almost purely Korean. For ancient and -medieval history the Tong-sa Kang-yo has been mainly -followed. This is an abstract in nine volumes of the four -great ancient histories of the country. The facts here -found were verified by reference to the Tong-guk Tong-gam, -the most complete of all existing ancient histories -of the country. Many other works on history, geography -and biography have been consulted, but in the -main the narrative in the works mentioned above has -been followed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A number of Chinese works have been consulted, -especially the Mun-hon Tong-go wherein we find the best -description of the wild tribes that occupied the peninsula -about the time of Christ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It has been far more difficult to obtain material for -compiling the history of the past five centuries. By unwritten -law the history of no dynasty in Korea has ever -been published until after its fall. Official records are -carefully kept in the government archives and when the -dynasty closes these are published by the new dynasty. -There is an official record which is published under the -name of the Kuk-cho Po-gam but it can in no sense be -called a history, for it can contain nothing that is not -complimentary to the ruling house and, moreover, it has -not been brought down even to the opening of the 19th -century. It has been necessary therefore to find private -<span class='pageno' id='Page_ii'>ii</span>manuscript histories of the dynasty and by uniting and -comparing them secure as accurate a delineation as possible -of the salient features of modern Korean history. -In this I have enjoyed the services of a Korean scholar -who has made the history of this dynasty a special study -for the past twenty-five years and who has had access -to a large number of private manuscripts. I withhold -his name by special request. By special courtesy I have -also been granted access to one of the largest and most -complete private libraries in the capital. Japanese records -have also been consulted in regard to special points -bearing on the relations between Korea and Japan.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A word must be said in regard to the authenticity -and credibility of native Korean historical sources. The -Chinese written character was introduced into Korea as -a permanent factor about the time of Christ, and with it -came the possibility of permanent historical records. -That such records were kept is quite apparent from the -fact that the dates of all solar eclipses have been carefully -preserved from the year 57 B.C. In the next place it is -worth noticing that the history of Korea is particularly -free from those great cataclysms such as result so often -in the destruction of libraries and records. Since the -whole peninsula was consolidated under one flag in the -days of ancient Sil-la no dynastic change has been effected -by force. We have no mention of any catastrophe to the -Sil-la records: and Sil-la merged into Koryŭ and Koryŭ -into Cho-sŭn without the show of arms, and in each -case the historical records were kept intact. To be sure, -there have been three great invasions of Korea, by the -Mongols, Manchus and Japanese respectively, but though -much vandalism was committed by each of these, we -have reason to believe that the records were not tampered -with. The argument is three-fold. In the first place -histories formed the great bulk of the literature in vogue -among the people and it was so widely disseminated that -it could not have been seriously injured without annihilating -the entire population.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the second place these invasions were made by -peoples who, though not literary themselves, had a somewhat -<span class='pageno' id='Page_iii'>iii</span>high regard for literature, and there could have -been no such reason for destroying histories as might -exist where one dynasty was forcibly ejected by another -hostile one. In the third place the monasteries were the -great literary centers during the centuries preceding the -rise of the present dynasty, and we may well believe that -the Mongols would not seriously molest these sacred repositories. -On the whole then we may conclude that -from the year 57 B.C. Korean histories are fairly accurate. -Whatever comes before that is largely traditional -and therefore more or less apocryphal.</p> - -<p class='c000'>One of the greatest difficulties encountered is the selection -of a system of romanisation which shall steer a middle -course between the Scilla of extreme accuracy and the -Charybdis of extreme simplicity. I have adopted the rule -of spelling all proper names in a purely phonetic way -without reference to the way they are spelled in native -Korean. In this way alone can the reader arrive at anything -like the actual pronunciation as found in Korea. -The simple vowels have their continental sounds: <em>a</em> as in -“father,” <em>i</em> as in “ravine,” <em>o</em> as in “rope” and <em>u</em> as in -“rule.” The vowel <em>e</em> is used only with the grave accent -and is pronounced as in the French <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“<em>recit</em>.”</span> When a -vowel has the short mark over it, it is to be given the flat -sound: <em>ă</em> as in “fat,” <em>ŏ</em> as in “hot,” <em>ŭ</em> as in “nut.” The -umlaut <em>ö</em> is used but it has a slightly more open sound -<a id='corriii_26'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='thang'>than</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_iii_26'><ins class='correction' title='thang'>than</ins></a></span> in German. It is the “unrounded o” where the -vowel is pronounced without protruding the lips. The -pure Korean sound represented by <em>oé</em> is a pure diphthong -and is pronounced by letting the lips assume the position -of pronouncing <em>o</em> while the tongue is thrown forward as -if to pronounce the short <em>e</em> in “met.” Eu is nearly the -French eu but with a slightly more open sound. As for -consonants they have their usual sounds, but when the -surds <em>k</em>, <em>p</em> or <em>t</em> in the body of a word are immediately preceded -by an open syllable or a syllable ending with a -sonant, they change to their corresponding sonants: <em>k</em> -to <em>g</em>, <em>p</em> to <em>b</em> and <em>t</em> to <em>d</em>. For instance, in the word <em>Pak-tu</em>, -the <em>t</em> of the <em>tu</em> would be <em>d</em> if the first syllable were open. -No word begins with the sonants <em>g</em>, <em>b</em> or <em>d</em>.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_iv'>iv</span>In Korean we have the long and short quantity in -vowels. <em>Han</em> may be pronounced either simply <em>han</em> or -longer <em>haan</em>, but the distinction is not of enough importance -to compensate for encumbering the system with -additional diacritical marks.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In writing proper names I have adopted the plan -most in use by sinologues. The patronymic stands alone -and is followed by the two given names with a hyphen -between them. All geographical names have hyphens -between the syllables. To run the name all together -would often lead to serious difficulty, for who would -know, for instance, whether <em>Songak</em> were pronounced <em>Son-gak</em> -or <em>Song-ak</em>?</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the spelling of some of the names of places there -will be found to be a slight inconsistency because part of -the work was printed before the Korea Branch of the -Royal Asiatic Society had determined upon a system of -romanization, but in the main the system here used corresponds -to that of the Society.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This is the first attempt, so far as I am aware, to -give to the English reading public a history of Korea -based on native records, and I trust that in spite of all -errors and infelicities it may add something to the general -fund of information about the people of Korea.</p> - -<div class='c009'>H.B.H.</div> -<p class='c010'><span class='sc'>Seoul, Korea, 1905.</span></p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span> - <h2 id='intro' class='c007'>Introductory Note.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>Geography is the canvas on which history is painted. -Topography means as much to the historian as to the -general. A word, therefore, about the position of Korea -will not be out of place.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The peninsula of Korea, containing approximately -80,000 square miles, lies between 33° and 43° north -latitude, and between 124° 30′ and 130° 30′ east longitude. -It is about nine hundred miles long from north to -south and has an average width from east to west of -about 240 miles. It is separated from Manchuria on the -northwest by the Yalu or Am-nok River, and from Asiatic -Russia on the northeast by the Tu-man River. <a id='corrv_13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='between'>Between</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_v_13'><ins class='correction' title='between'>Between</ins></a></span> -the sources of these streams rise the lofty peaks of -White Head Mountain, called by the Chinese Ever-white -or Long-white Mountain. From this mountain whorl -emanates a range which passes irregularly southward -through the peninsula until it loses itself in the waters of -the Yellow Sea, thus giving birth to the almost countless -islands of the Korean archipelago. The main watershed -of the country is near the eastern coast and consequently -the streams that flow into the Japan Sea are neither -long nor navigable, while on the western side and in the -extreme south we find considerable streams that are -navigable for small craft a hundred miles or more. While -the eastern coast is almost entirely lacking in good harbors -the western coast is one labyrinth of estuaries, bays -and gulfs which furnish innumerable harbors. It is on -the western watershed of the country that we will find -<span class='pageno' id='Page_vi'>vi</span>most of the arable land and by far the greater portion of -the population.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We see then that, geographically, Korea’s face is toward -China and her back toward Japan. It may be that -this in part has moulded her history. During all the -centuries her face has been politically, socially and religiously -toward China rather than toward Japan.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The climate of Korea is the same as that of eastern -North America between the same latitudes, the only difference -being that in Korea the month of July brings the -“rainy season” which renders nearly all roads in the interior -impassable. This rainy season, by cutting in two -the warmer portion of the year, has had a powerful influence -on the history of the country; for military operations -were necessarily suspended during this period and -combatants usually withdrew to their own respective -territories upon its approach.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The interior of Korea is fairly well wooded, although -there are no very extensive tracts of timber land. A species -of pine largely predominates but there is also a large -variety of other trees both deciduous and evergreen.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Rice is the staple article of food throughout most of -the country. Among the mountain districts in the north -where rice cannot be grown potatoes and millet are -largely used. An enormous amount of pulse is raised, almost -solely for fodder, and other grains are also grown. -The bamboo grows sparsely and only in the south. Ginseng -is an important product of the country.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The fauna of Korea includes several species of deer, -the tiger, leopard, wild pig, bear, wolf, fox and a large -number of fur bearing animals among which the sable -and sea-otter are the most valuable. The entire peninsula -is thoroughly stocked with cattle, horses, swine -and donkeys, but sheep are practically unknown. The -fisheries off the coast of Korea are especially valuable -and thousands of the people earn a livelihood on the -banks. Pearls of good quality are found. Game birds -of almost infinite variety exist and all the commoner -domestic birds abound.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As to the geology of the country we find that there is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span>a back bone of granite formation with frequent outcroppings -of various other forms of mineral life. Gold is extremely -abundant and there are few prefectures in the -country where traces of it are not found. Silver is also -common. Large deposits of coal both anthracite and -bituminous have been discovered, but until recently -little has been done to open up the minerals of the country -in a scientific manner.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ethnologically we may say that the people are of a -mixed Mongolian and Malay origin, although this question -has as yet hardly been touched upon. The language of -Korea is plainly agglutinative and may, without hesitation, -be placed in the great Turanian or Scythian group.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The population of Korea is variously estimated from -ten to twenty millions. We shall not be far from the -truth if we take a middle course and call the population -thirteen millions. Somewhat more than half of the people -live south of a line drawn east and west through the -capital of the country.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span> - <h2 id='part01' class='c007'><span class='xlarge'>PART I <br /> ANCIENT KOREA</span></h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter I.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Tan-gun.... his antecedents.... his origin.... he becomes king.... he -teaches the people.... his capital.... he retires.... extent of his -kingdom.... traditions.... monuments.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the primeval ages, so the story runs, there was a divine -being named Whan-in, or Che-Sŏ: “Creator.” His -son, Whan-ung, being affected by celestial <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>ennui</em></span>, obtained -permission to descend to earth and found a mundane kingdom. -Armed with this warrant, Whan-ung with three thousand spirit -companions descended upon Ta-băk Mountain, now known -as Myo-hyang San, in the province of P’yŭng-an, Korea. It -was in the twenty-fifth year of the Emperor Yao of China, -which corresponds to 2332 B.C.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He gathered his spirit friends beneath the shade of an -ancient <em>pak-tal</em> tree and there proclaimed himself King of the -Universe. He governed through his three <a id='corr1_17'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='vice-gerents'>vice-regents</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_1_17'><ins class='correction' title='vice-gerents'>vice-regents</ins></a></span>, the -“Wind General,” the “Rain Governor,” and the “Cloud -Teacher,” but as he had not yet taken human shape, he -found it difficult to assume control of a purely human kingdom. -Searching for means of incarnation he found it in the -following <ins class='correction' title='manner'>manner.</ins></p> - -<p class='c000'>At early dawn, a tiger and a bear met upon a mountain -side and held a colloquy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Would that we might become men” they said. Whan-ung -overheard them and a voice came from out the void saying, -“Here are twenty garlics and apiece of artemisia for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>each of you. Eat them and retire from the light of the sun -for thrice seven days and you will become men.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>They ate and retired into the recesses of a cave, but the -tiger, by reason of the fierceness of his nature, could not endure -the restraint and came forth before the allotted time; -but the bear, with greater faith and patience, waited the thrice -seven days and then stepped forth, a perfect woman.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first wish of her heart was maternity, and she cried, -“Give me a son.” Whan-ung, the Spirit King, passing on -the wind, beheld her sitting there beside the stream. He circled -round her, breathed upon her, and her cry was answered. -She cradled her babe in moss beneath that same <em>pak-tal</em> tree -and it was there that in after years the wild people of the -country found him sitting and made him their king.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This was the Tan-gun, “The Lord of the Pak-tal Tree.” -He is also, but less widely, known as Wang-gŭm. At that -time Korea and the territory immediately north was peopled -by the “nine wild tribes” commonly called the <em>Ku-i</em>. Tradition -names them respectively the Kyŭn, Pang, Whang, Făk, -Chŭk, Hyŭn, P‘ung, Yang and U. These, we are told, were -the aborigines, and were fond of drinking, dancing and singing. -They dressed in a fabric of woven grass and their food -was the natural fruits of the earth, such as nuts, roots, fruits -and berries. In summer they lived beneath the trees and in -winter they lived in a rudely covered hole in the ground. -When the Tan-gun became their king he taught them the relation -of king and subject, the rite of marriage, the art of cooking -and the science of house building. He taught them to -bind up the hair by tying a cloth about the head. He taught -them to cut down trees and till fields.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Tan-gun made P‘yŭng-yang the capital of his kingdom -and there, tradition says, he reigned until the coming of -Ki-ja, 1122 B.C. If any credence can be given this tradition -it will be by supposing that the word Tan-gun refers to a -line of native chieftains who may have antedated the coming -of Ki-ja.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is said that, upon the arrival of Ki-ja, the Tan-gun -retired to Ku-wŭl San (in pure Korean A-sa-dal) in the -present town of Mun-wha, Whang-hă Province, where he resumed -his spirit form and disappeared forever from the earth. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>His wife was a woman of Pi-sŏ-ap, whose location is unknown. -As to the size of the Tan-gun’s kingdom, it is generally -believed that it extended from the vicinity of the present town -of Mun-gyŭng on the south to the Heuk-yong River on the -north, and from the Japan Sea on the east to Yo-ha (now -Sŭng-gyŭng) on the west.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As to the events of the Tan-gun’s reign even tradition -tells us very little. We learn that in 2265 B.C. the Tan-gun -first offered sacrifice at Hyŭl-gu on the island of Kang-wha. -For this purpose he built an altar on Mari San which remains -to this day. We read that when the great Ha-u-si (The -Great Yü), who drained off the waters which covered the -interior of China, called to his court at To-san all the vassal -kings, the Tan-gun sent his son, Pu-ru, as an envoy. This -was supposed to be in 2187 B.C. Another work affirms that -when Ki-ja came to Korea Pu-ru fled northward and founded -the kingdom of North Pu-yŭ, which at a later date moved -to Ka-yŭp-wŭn, and became Eastern Pu-yŭ. These stories -show such enormous discrepancies in dates that they are -alike incredible, and yet it may be that the latter story has -some basis in fact, at any rate it gives us our only clue to the -founding of the Kingdom of Pu-yŭ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Late in the Tan-gun dynasty there was a minister named -P‘ăng-o who is said to have had as his special charge the making -of roads and the care of drainage. One authority says that -the Emperor of China ordered P‘ăng-o to cut a road between -Ye-măk, an eastern tribe, and Cho-sŭn. From this we see -that the word Cho-sŭn, according to some authorities, antedates -the coming of Ki-ja.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The remains of the Tan-gun dynasty, while not numerous, -are interesting. On the island of Kang-wha, on the top -of Mari San, is a stone platform or altar known as the “Tan-gun’s -Altar,” and, as before said, it is popularly believed to -have been used by the Tan-gun four thousand years ago. It -is called also the Ch’am-sŭng Altar. On Chŭn-dung San is a -fortress called Sam-nang which is believed to have been built by -the Tan-gun’s three sons. The town of Ch’un-ch’ŭn, fifty -miles east of Seoul, seems to have been an important place -during this period. It was known as U-su-ju, or “Ox-hair -Town,” and there is a curious confirmation of this tradition -<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>in the fact that in the vicinity there is today a plot of ground -called the U-du-bol, or “Ox-head Plain.” A stone tablet to -<a id='corr4_2'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='P’ang-o-is'>P’ang-o is</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_4_2'><ins class='correction' title='P’ang-o-is'>P’ang-o is</ins></a></span> erected there. At Mun-wha there is a shrine to -the Korean trinity, Whan-in, Whan-ung and Tan-gun. -Though the Tan-gun resumed the spirit form, his grave is -shown in Kang-dong and is 410 feet in circumference.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter II.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Ki-ja.... striking character.... origin.... corrupt Chu.... story of Tal-geui.... Shang -dynasty falls.... Ki-ja departs.... route.... destination.... allegience -to China.... condition of Korea.... Ki-ja’s companions.... reforms.... evidences -of genius.... arguments against -Korean theory.... details of history meager.... Cho-sun sides against -China.... delimitation of Cho-sun.... peace with Tsin dynasty.... Wi-man -finds asylum.... betrays Cho-sun.... Ki-jun’s flight.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Without doubt the most striking character in Korean history -is the sage Ki-ja, not only because of his connection with -its early history but because of the striking contrast between -him and his whole <a id='corr4_26'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='evironment'>environment</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_4_26'><ins class='correction' title='evironment'>environment</ins></a></span>. The singular wisdom which -he displayed is vouched for not in the euphemistic language -of a prejudiced historian but by what we can read between the -lines, of which the historian was unconscious.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Shang, or Yin, dynasty of China began 1766 B.C. -Its twenty-fifth representative was the Emperor Wu-yi whose -second son, Li, was the father of Ki-ja. His family name -was Cha and his surname Su-yu, but he is also known by the -name Sö-yŭ. The word Ki-ja is a title meaning “Lord of -Ki,” which we may imagine to be the feudal domain of the -family. The Emperor Chu, the “Nero of China” and the -last of the dynasty, was the grandson of Emperor T’ă-jŭng -and a second cousin of Ki-ja, but the latter is usually spoken -of as his uncle. Pi-gan, Mi-ja and Ki-ja formed the advisory -board to this corrupt emperor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>All that Chinese histories have to say by way of censure -against the hideous debaucheries of this emperor is repeated -in the Korean histories; his infatuation with the beautiful -concubine, Tal-geui; his compliance with her every whim; his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>making a pond of wine in which he placed an island of meat -and compelled nude men and women to walk about it, his torture -of innocent men at her request by tying them to heated -brazen pillars. All this is told in the Korean annals, but -they go still deeper into the dark problem of Tal-geui’s character -and profess to solve it. The legend, as given by Korean -<a id='corr5_7'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='traditon'>tradition</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_5_7'><ins class='correction' title='traditon'>tradition</ins></a></span>, is as follows.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The concubine Tal-geui was wonderfully beautiful, but -surpassingly so when she smiled. At such times the person -upon whom she smiled was fascinated as by a serpent and was -forced to comply with whatever request she made. Pondering -upon this, Pi-gan decided that she must be a fox in human -shape, for it is well known that if an animal tastes of water -that has lain for twenty years in a human skull it will acquire -the power to assume the human shape at will. He set inquiries -on foot and soon discovered that she made a monthly -visit to a certain mountain which she always ascended alone -leaving her train of attendants at the foot. Armed detectives -were put on her track and, following her unperceived, they saw -her enter a cave near the summit of the mountain. She presently -emerged, accompanied by a pack of foxes who leaped -about her and fawned upon her in evident delight. When -she left, the spies entered and put the foxes to the sword, -cutting from each dead body the piece of white fur which is -always found on the breast of the fox. When Tal-geui met -the emperor some days later and saw him dressed in a sumptuous -white fur robe she shuddered but did not as yet guess -the truth. A month later, however, it became plain to her -when she entered the mountain cave and beheld the festering -remains of her kindred.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On her way home she planned her revenge. Adorning -herself in all her finery, she entered the imperial presence and -exerted her power of fascination to the utmost. When the -net had been well woven about the royal dupe, <a id='corr5_34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='she said.'>she said,</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_5_34'><ins class='correction' title='she said.'>she said,</ins></a></span></p> - -<p class='c000'>“I hear that there are seven orifices in the heart of every -good man. I fain would put it to the test.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“But how can it be done?”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“I would that I might see the heart of Pi-gan;” and as -she said it she smiled upon her lord. His soul revolted from -the act and yet he had no power to refuse. Pi-gan was summoned -<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>and the executioner stood ready with the knife, but -at the moment when it was plunged into the victim’s breast -he cried,</p> - -<p class='c000'>“You are no woman; you are a fox in disguise, and I -charge you to resume your natural shape.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Instantly her face began to change; hair sprang forth -upon it, her nails grew long, and, bursting forth from her -garments, she stood revealed in her true character—a white -fox with nine tails. With one parting snarl at the assembled -court, she leaped from the window and made good her escape.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But it was too late to save the dynasty. Pal, the son of -Mun-wang, a feudal baron, at the head of an army, was already -thundering at the gates, and in a few days, a new dynasty assumed -the yellow and Pal, under the title Mu-wang, became -its first emperor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Pi-gan and Mi-ja had both perished and Ki-ja, the sole -survivor of the great trio of statesmen, had saved his life only -by feigning madness. He was now in prison, but Mu-wang -came to his door and besought him to assume the office of -Prime Minister. Loyalty to the fallen dynasty compelled him -to refuse. He secured the Emperor’s consent to his plan of -emigrating to Cho-sŭn or “Morning Freshness,” but before -setting out he presented the Emperor with that great work, -the Hong-bŭm or “Great-Law,” which had been found inscribed -upon the back of the fabled tortoise which came up -out of the waters of the Nak River in the days of Ha-u-si -over a thousand years before, but which no one had been able -to decipher till Ki-ja took it in hand. Then with his five -thousand followers he passed eastward into the peninsula of -Korea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Whether he came to Korea by boat or by land cannot be -certainly determined. It is improbable that he brought such -a large company by water and yet one tradition says that he -came first to Su-wŭn, which is somewhat south of Chemulpo. -This would argue an approach by sea. The theory which has -been broached that the Shantung promontory at one time -joined the projection of Whang-hă Province on the Korean -coast cannot be true, for the formation of the Yellow Sea must -have been too far back in the past to help us to solve this -question. It is said that from Su-wŭn he went northward to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>the island Ch’ŭl-do, off Whang-hă Province, where today they -point out a “Ki-ja Well.” From there he went to P‘yŭng-yang. -His going to an island off Whang-hă Province argues -against the theory of the connection between Korea and the -Shantung promontory.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i006.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>A TABLET TO KI-JA.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>In whatever way he came, he finally settled at the town -of P‘yŭng-yang which had already been the capital of the Tan-gun -dynasty. Seven cities claimed the honor of being Homer’s -birth place and about as many claim to be the burial spot of -Ki-ja. The various authorities differ so widely as to the -boundaries of his kingdom, the site of his capital and the place -of his interment that some doubt is cast even upon the existence -of this remarkable man; but the consensus of opinion -points clearly to P‘yŭng-yang as being the scene of his labors.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It should be noticed that from the very first Korea was an -independent kingdom. It was certainly so in the days of the -Tan-gun and it remained so when Ki-ja came, for it is distinctly -stated that though the Emperor Mu-wang made him King -of Cho-sŭn he neither demanded nor received his allegience as -vassal at that time. He even allowed Ki-ja to send envoys to -worship at the tombs of the fallen dynasty. It is said that Ki-ja -himself visited the site of the ancient Shang capital, but when -he found it sown with barley he wept and composed an elegy -on the occasion, after which he went and swore allegience to -the new Emperor. The work entitled Cho-sŏ says that when -Ki-ja saw the site of the former capital sown with barley he -mounted a white cart drawn by a white horse and went to the -new capital and swore allegience to the Emperor; and it adds -that in this he showed his weakness for he had sworn never -to do so.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ki-ja, we may believe, found Korea in a semi-barbarous -condition. To this the reforms which he instituted give -abundant evidence. He found at least a kingdom possessed -of some degree of homogeneity, probably a uniform language -and certainly ready communication <a id='corr7_35'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='beween'>between</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_7_35'><ins class='correction' title='beween'>between</ins></a></span> its parts. It is -difficult to believe that the Tan-gun’s influence reached far -beyond the Amnok River, wherever the nominal boundaries -of his kingdom were. We are inclined to limit his actual power -to the territory now included in the two provinces of P‘yŭng-an -and Whang-hă.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>We must now inquire of what material was Ki-ja’s company -of five thousand men made up. We are told that he -brought from China the two great works called the <em>Si-jun</em> and -the <em>So-jun</em>, which by liberal interpretation mean the books on -history and poetry. The books which bear these names were -not written until centuries after Ki-ja’s time, but the Koreans -mean by them the list of aphorisms or principles which later -made up these books. It is probable, therefore, that this -company included men who were able to teach and expound -the principles thus introduced. Ki-ja also brought the sciences -of manners (well named a science), music, medicine, sorcery -and incantation. He brought also men capable of teaching one -hundred of the useful trades, amongst which silk culture and -weaving are the only two specifically named. When, therefore, -we make allowance for a small military escort we find -that five thousand men were few enough to undertake the -carrying out of the greatest individual plan for colonization -which history has ever seen brought to a successful issue.</p> - -<p class='c000'>These careful preparations on the part of the self-exiled -Ki-ja admit of but one conclusion. They were made with -direct reference to the people among whom he had elected to -cast his lot. He was a genuine civilizer. His genius was of -the highest order in that, in an age when the sword was the -only arbiter, he hammered his into a pruning-hook and carved -out with it a kingdom which stood almost a thousand years. -He was the ideal colonizer, for he carried with him all the elements -of successful colonization which, while sufficing for the -reclamation of the semi-barbarous tribes of the peninsula, would -still have left him self-sufficient in the event of their contumacy. -His method was brilliant when compared with even -the best attempts of modern times.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His penal code was short, and clearly indicated the failings -of the people among whom he had cast his lot. Murder -was to be punished with death inflicted in the same manner in -which the crime had been committed. Brawling was punished -by a fine to be paid in grain. Theft was punished by enslaving -the offender, but he could regain his freedom by the payment -of a heavy fine. There were five other laws which are -not mentioned specifically. Many have surmised, and perhaps -rightly, that they were of the nature of the <em>o-hang</em> or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>“five precepts” which inculcate right relations between king -and subject, parent and child, husband and wife, friend and -friend, old and young. It is stated, apocryphally however, -that to prevent quarreling Ki-ja compelled all males to wear -a broad-brimmed hat made of clay pasted on a framework. If -this hat was either doffed or broken the offender was severely -punished. This is said to have effectually kept them at arms -length.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Another evidence of Ki-ja’s genius is his immediate recognition -of the fact that he must govern the Korean people by -means of men selected from their own number. For this purpose -he picked out a large number of men from the various -districts and gave them special training in the duties of government -and he soon had a working corps of officials and -prefects without resorting to the dangerous expedient of filling -all these positions from the company that came with him. He -recognised that in order to gain any lasting influence with the -people of Korea he and his followers must adapt themselves -to the language of their adopted country rather than make -the Koreans conform to their form of speech. We are told that -he reduced the language of the people to writing and through -this medium taught the people the arts and sciences which he -had brought. If this is true, the method by which the writing -was done and the style of the characters have entirely disappeared. -Nothing remains to give evidence of such a written -language. We are told that it took three years to teach it to -the people.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The important matter of revenue received early attention. -A novel method was adopted. All arable land was divided into -squares and each square was subdivided into nine equal parts; -eight squares about a central one. Whoever cultivated the -eight surrounding squares must also cultivate the central one -for the benefit of the government. The latter therefore received -a ninth part of the produce of the land. Prosperity was -seen on every side and the people called the Ta-dong River -the Yellow River of Korea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As a sign that his kingdom was founded in peace and as -a constant reminder to his people he planted a long line of -willows along the bank of the river opposite the city, so -P‘yung-yang is sometimes called The Willow Capital.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>It is contended by not a few that Ki-ja never came to -Korea at all and they base their belief upon the following -facts. When the Han Emperor Mu-je overcame northern -Korea and divided it into four parts he called the people savages, -which could not be if Ki-ja civilized them. The Chinese histories -of the Tang dynasty affirm that Ki-ja’s kingdom was in -Liao-tung. The histories of the Kin dynasty and the Yuan -or Mongol dynasty say that Ki-ja had his capital at Kwang-nyŭng -in Liao-tung, and there is a Ki-ja well there today and -a shrine to him. There was a picture of him there but it was -burned in the days of Emperor Se-jong of the Ming dynasty. -A Korean work entitled Sok-mun Heun-t’ong-go says that -Ki-ja’s capital was at Ham-pyŭng-no in Liao-tung. The -Chinese work Il-t’ong-ji of the time of the Ming dynasty says -that the scholars of Liao-tung compiled a work called Söng-gyŭng-ji -which treated of this question. That book said that -Cho-sŭn included Sim-yang (Muk-den), Pong-ch’ŭn-bu, Eui-ju -and Kwang-nyŭng; so that half of Liao-tung belonged to -Cho-sun. The work entitled Kang-mok says that his capital -was at P’yŭng-yang and that the kingdom gradually broadened -until the scholar O Si-un said of it that it stretched from -the Liao River to the Han. This last is the commonly accepted -theory and so far as Korean evidence goes there seems -to be little room for doubt.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ki-ja was fifty-three years old when he came to Korea -and he reigned here forty years. His grave may be seen to-day -at To-san near the city which was the scene of his labors. -Some other places that claim the honor of containing Ki-ja’s -tomb are Mong-hyŭn, Pak-sung and Sang-gu-hyun in northern -China.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was not till thirty-six generations later that Ki-ja received -the posthumous title of T’ă-jo Mun-sŭng Tă-wang.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The details of the history of K-ja’s dynasty are very meager -and can be given here only in the most condensed form.<a id='rA' /><a href='#fA' class='c013'><sup>[A]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote' id='fA'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#rA'>A</a>. The following details of the Ki-ja dynasty are taken from a work -recently compiled in P’yung-yang and claiming to be based on private -family records of the descendants of Ki-ja. It is difficult to say whether -any reliance can be placed upon it but as it is the only source of information -obtainable it seems best to give it. The dates are of course all -B.C.</p> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span> -<img src='images/i010.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>THE TOMB OF KI-JA.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>In 1083 Ki-ja died and was succeeded by his son Song. -Of his reign of twenty-five years we know little beyond the -fact that he built an Ancestral Temple. His successor, Sun, -was a man of such filial piety that when his father died he -went mad. The next king, Iăk, adopted for his officials the -court garments of the Sang Kingdom in China. His son, -Ch’un, who ascended the throne in 997 raised fifty-nine -regiments of soldiers containing in all 7300 men. The flag of -the army was blue. In 943 the reigning king, Cho, feeling -the need of cavalry, appointed a special commission to attend -to the breeding of horses, and with such success that in a few -years horses were abundant. In 890 King Săk hung a drum -in the palace gate and ordained that anyone having a grievance -might strike the drum and obtain an audience. In 843 a law was -promulgated by which the government undertook to support -the hopelessly destitute. In 773 King Wŭl forbade the practice -of sorcery and incantation. In 748 naval matters received -attention and a number of war vessels were launched. The -first day of the fifth moon of 722 is memorable as marking the -first solar eclipse that is recorded in Korean history. A great -famine occurred in 710. King Kwŭl selected a number of -men who could speak Chinese and who knew Chinese customs. -These he dressed in Chinese clothes which were white and -sent them across the Yellow Sea with a large fleet of boats -loaded with fish, salt and copper. With these they purchased -rice for the starving Koreans. At this time all official -salaries were reduced one half. In 702 King Whe ordered -the making of fifteen kinds of musical instruments. He also -executed a sorceress of An-ju who claimed to be the daughter -of the Sea King and deceived many of the people. In 670 -King Cho sent an envoy and made friends with the King of -Che in China. He also revised the penal code and made the -theft of a hundred million cash from the government or of a -hundred and fifty millions from the people a capital crime. -He ordered the construction of a building of 500 <em>kan</em> for an -asylum for widows, orphans and aged people who were <ins class='correction' title='childless,'>childless.</ins> -In 664 one of the wild tribes of the north sent their -chief, Kil-i-do-du, to swear allegiance to Cho-sŭn. In 659 -there came to Korea from the Chu Kingdom in China a man -by the name of Pak Il-jŭng, who brought with him a medicine -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>called <em>myun-dan-bang</em> which he claimed was the elixir of -youth. By his arts he succeeded in gaining the ear of the -king and for many years was virtually ruler of the country. -At last a king came to the throne who had the wisdom and -nerve to order his <ins class='correction' title='execution'>execution.</ins> At this the whole land rejoiced. -Banished men were recalled and prisoners were liberated. In -593 King Ch’am came to the throne at the age of five. His -uncle acted as regent. But a powerful courtier Kong Son-gang -secured the regent’s assassination and himself became -virtual ruler. He imprisoned the king in a small pavilion and -tried to make him abdicate, but in this was unsuccessful and -himself met the assassin’s steel. In 560 the Ha tribe, inhabiting -the northern Japanese island of I-so, sent their chief, -Wha-ma-gyŭn-hu-ri, to swear allegiance to Cho-sŭn. In 505 -the wild tribes to the north became restive and King Yŭ -gathered 3000 troops and invaded their territory, taking 1000 -heads and adding a wide strip of country to his realm. He -put teachers in each of the magistracies to teach the people -agriculture and sericulture. In 426, during the reign of King -Cheung, occurred a formidable rebellion. U Yi-ch’ung of -T’ă-an (now Cha-san) arose and said “I am the Heaven -Shaker.” With a powerful force he approached the capital -and besieged it. The king was forced to flee by boat and take -refuge at Hyŭl-gu (probably an island). But not long after -this the loyal troops rallied about the king and the rebel was -chased across the northern border. In 403 the king of <a id='corr12_26'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Yun'>Yŭn</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_12_26'><ins class='correction' title='Yun'>Yŭn</ins></a></span> -sent an envoy to Korea with greetings. This Yŭn kingdom -had its capital at Chik-ye-sŭng where Peking now stands, and -its territory was contiguous to Cho-sŭn on the west. But in -spite of these friendly greetings the king of Yŭn sent an army -in 380 and seized a district in western Cho-sun. They were -soon driven back. Fifteen years later a Yŭn general, Chin-ga, -came with 20,000 troops and delimited the western border of -Cho-sŭn but the Cho-sŭn general Wi Mun-ŭn gathered 30,000 -men and lying in ambush among the reeds beside the O-do River -surprised the enemy and put them to flight. In 346 a wild chieftain -of the north came and asked aid against Yŭn. It was -granted to the extent of 10,000 troops. These with 1000 cavalry -of the wild tribe attacked and took the border fortress of Sang-gok. -Soon after, Yun sued for peace and it was granted.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>This ends the apocryphal account of the Ki-ja dynasty. -Its contents are circumstantial enough to seem plausible yet -we cannot but doubt the authenticity of any records which -pretend to go back to such a remote period.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Chou dynasty in China had long been on the decline -and now, in 305 B.C. had reached a point of extreme weakness. -In view of this the governor of the tributary state of -Liao-tung who had always passed under the title of Hu or -“Marquis” dared to assume the title Wang or “King” and so -to defy the power of China. Cho-sŭn threw herself into the -balance in favor of her great patron and hastened to attack -Liao-tung in the rear. But before this course had become inevitable -a warning voice was raised and one of the councillors, -Ye, who was gifted with more knowledge of the signs of the -times than his fellows pointed out the inevitable overthrow of -the Chou dynasty, and he advised that Cho-sŭn make her -peace with the new “King” of the Yŏn kingdom of Liao-tung, -rather than brave his anger by siding against him. The advice -was followed and Cho-sŭn threw off the light reins of allegiance -to China and ranged herself alongside the new kingdom. -This we learn from the annals of the Wei dynasty of -China. But apparently Cho-sŭn, stretching as it did to and -beyond the Liao River, was too tempting a morsel for the -ambitious king of Yŭn to leave untasted. So he picked a -quarrel with the king of Cho-sŭn and delimited his territory -as far as the Yalu River, a stretch of 2,000 <em>li</em>, even to the -town of Pan-han whose identity is now lost. He followed up -this success by overcoming the wild tribes to the north and -added 1,000 <em>li</em> more to his domains, securing it from attack, -as he supposed, by building a wall from Cho-yang to Yang-p’yŭng.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Emperor Shih of the Tsin dynasty ascended the -throne of China in 221 B.C. and soon after began that tremendous -work the Great Wall of China, the fortieth descendant -of Ki-ja was swaying the scepter of Cho-sŭn under the -name Ki-bi, posthumous title Chong-t’ong Wang. As soon -as the news of this great undertaking reached the ears of this -monarch he hauled down his colors and surrendered at discretion, -sending an envoy to do obeisance for him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>King Ki-bi died and his son Ki-jun, the last of the dynasty -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>reigned in his stead. For some years all was quiet, but -at last the scepter was wrested from the hands of the short-lived -Tsin dynasty by the founder of the illustrious Han, and -across the border from Cho-sŭn all was turmoil and confusion. -Fugitives from the three states of Yun, Che and Cho were -seeking asylum anywhere, and thousands were hurrying across -the Yalu and craving the protection of Ki-jun. The only protection -he could give them from the victorious Han was remoteness -from the latter’s base of operations; so he allowed -them to settle along the valley of the Yalu and its southern -tributaries. This was in the twentieth year of his reign, 200 -B.C.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Unfortunately for Cho-sŭn, the Han emperor made No-gwan, -one of his generals, governor of Yŭn. This gentleman -had ideas of his own, and finding such good material for an -army among the half-wild people of his province he decided to -go on an empire hunt on his own account.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The story of his desperate fight and final defeat at the -hands of the Han forces, of his flight northward to the wild -tribe of Hyung-no, is interesting; but we must turn from it -to follow the fortunes of one of his lieutenants, a native of -the Yŭn, named Wi-man. Retreating eastward alone and in -disguise, according to some writers, or according to others -with an escort of 1,000 men, he eluded his pursuers and at -last crossed the P’ă-su (the Yalu of today) and was received -with open arms by his own kin who had already settled there. -In the days of the Han dynasty the word P’ă-su meant the -Yalu River, but in the days of the Tang dynasty it meant the -Ta-dong. Hence much confusion has arisen.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Wi-man threw himself upon the protection of Ki-jun who, -little knowing the nature of the man he was harboring, good-naturedly -consented and accompanied his welcome with the -substantial gift of a hundred <em>li</em> square of land in the north. -Wi-man, on his part, engaged to act as border guard and give -timely warning of the approach of an enemy. He was already -on good terms with the people of the Chin-bŭn tribe, and now -he began to cultivate their friendship more assiduously than -ever. In a short time he found himself at the head of a considerable -following composed partly of Yŭn refugees and partly -of Chin-bŭn adventurers.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>Being thus prepared and weighing all the chances, he -concluded to stake his whole fortune on a single throw. Sending -a swift messenger to the court of Ki-jun at P‘yŭng-yang, -he informed that peace loving monarch that an innumerable -army was advancing from China in four divisions and would -soon be at the doors of Cho-sŭn, and that he, Wi-man, must -hasten to the capital with all his force to act as body-guard of -the King. The ruse was successful and before Ki-jun and -his court had awakened to the situation Wi-man was on them. -An attempt was made to stop his advance when quite too late, -but it held the traitor in check long enough for Ki-jun and -his immediate court to load their treasure on boats; and as -the triumphal army of Wi-man entered the gates of P‘yŭng-yang -the last representative of the dynasty of Ki-ja slipped -quietly down the river, seeking for himself a more congenial -home in the south. This occurred, so far as we can judge -from conflicting documents, in the year 193 B.C.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This was an event of utmost importance in the history of -the peninsula. It opened up to the world the southern portion -of Korea, where there were stored up forces that were -destined to dominate the whole peninsula and impress upon it -a distinctive stamp. But before following Ki-jun southward -we must turn back and watch the outcome of Wi-man’s -treachery.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter III.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Wi-man.... establishes his <a id='corr15_26'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='kindgom'>kingdom</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_15_26'><ins class='correction' title='kindgom'>kingdom</ins></a></span>.... extent.... power soon waned.... ambitious -designs.... China aroused.... invasion of Korea.... U-gu -tries to make peace.... siege of P‘yŭng-yang.... it falls.... the land -redistributed.... the four provinces.... the two provinces.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Having secured possession of Ki-jun’s kingdom, Wi-man -set to work to establish himself firmly on the throne. He had -had some experience in dealing with the wild tribes and now -he exerted himself to the utmost in the task of securing the -allegiance of as many of them as possible. He was literally -surrounded by them, and this policy of friendliness was an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>absolute necessity. He succeeded so well that ere long he -had won over almost all the adjacent tribes whose chieftains -frequented his court and were there treated with such liberality -that more than once they found themselves accompanying -embassies to the court of China.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is said that when his kingdom was at its height it extended -far into Liao-tung over all northern and eastern Korea -and even across the Yellow Sea where it included Ch’ŭng-ju, -China. Its southern boundary was the Han River.</p> - -<p class='c000'>So long as Wi-man lived he held the kingdom together -with a strong hand, for he was possessed of that peculiar kind -of power which enabled him to retain the respect and esteem -of the surrounding tribes. He knew when to check them -and when to loosen the reins. But he did not bequeath this -power to his descendants. His grandson, U-gŭ, inherited all -his ambition without any of his tact. He did not realise that -it was the strong hand and quick wit of his grandfather that -had held the kingdom together and he soon began to plan a -still further independence from China. He collected about -him all the refugees and all the malcontents, most of whom -had much to gain and little to lose in any event. He then -cut off all friendly intercourse with the Han court and also -prevented the surrounding tribes from sending their little -embassies across the border. The Emperor could not brook -this insult, and sent an envoy, Sŭp-ha, to expostulate with -the headstrong U-gŭ; but as the latter would not listen, the -envoy went back across the Yalu and tried what he could do -by sending one of the older chiefs to ask what the king meant -by his conduct. U-gŭ was still stubborn and when the chief -returned to Sŭp-ha empty-handed he was put to death. Sŭp-ha -paid the penalty for this rash act, for not many days after -he had been installed governor of Liao-tung the tribe he had -injured fell upon him and killed him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This was not done at the instigation of U-gŭ, but unfortunately -it was all one to the Emperor. It was the “Eastern Barbarians” -who, all alike, merited punishment. It was in -107 B.C. that the imperial edict went forth commanding all -Chinese refugees in Korea to return at once, as U-gŭ was to -be put down by the stern hand of war.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>In the autumn of that year the two generals, Yang-bok -and Sun-ch’i, invaded Korea at the head of a strong force; -but U-gŭ was ready for them and in the first engagement scattered -the invading army, the remnants of which took refuge -among the mountains. It was ten days before they rallied -enough to make even a good retreat. U-gŭ was frightened by -his own good luck for he knew that this would still further -anger the Emperor; so when an envoy came from China the -king humbled himself, confessed his sins and sent his son to -China as hostage together with a gift of 5,000 horses. Ten -thousand troops accompanied him. As these troops were -armed, the Chinese envoy feared there might be trouble after -the Yalu had been crossed. He therefore asked the Prince to -have them disarmed. The latter thought he detected treachery -and so fled at night and did not stop until he reached -his father’s palace in P‘yŭng-yang. The envoy paid for this -piece of <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>gaucherie</em></span> with his head.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile Generals Yang-bok and Sun-ch’i had been -scouring Liao-tung and had collected a larger army than before. -With this they crossed the Ya-lu and marched on -P‘yŭng-yang. They met with no resistance, for U-gŭ had -collected all his forces at the capital, hoping perhaps that the -severity of the weather would tire out any force that might be -sent against him. The siege continued two months during -which time the two generals quarreled incessantly. When -the Emperor sent Gen. Kong Son-su to see what was the -matter, Gen. Sun-ch’i accused his colleague of treason and -had him sent back to China, where he lost his head. The -siege, continued by Gen. Sun-ch’i, dragged on till the following -summer and it would have continued longer had not a -traitor within the town assassinated the king and fled to the -Chinese camp. Still the people refused to make terms until -another traitor opened the gates to the enemy. Gen. Sun-ch’i’s -first act was to compel Prince Chang, the heir apparent, -to do obeisance. But the people had their revenge upon the -traitor who opened the gate for they fell upon him and tore -him to pieces before he could make good his escape to the -Chinese camp.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Such was the miserable end of Wi-man’s treachery. He -had cheated Ki-jun out of his kingdom which had lasted almost -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>a thousand years, while the one founded by himself lasted -only eighty-eight. It fell in the thirty-fourth year of the -Han Emperor Wu-ti, in the year 106 B.C.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Upon the downfall of Wi-man’s kingdom, the country -was divided by the Chinese into four provinces called respectively -Nang-nang, Im-dun, Hyŭn-do and Chin-bŭn. The first -of these, Nang-nang, is supposed to have covered that portion -of Korea now included in the three provinces of P‘yung-an, -Whang-hă and Kyŭng-geui. Im-dun, so far as we can learn, -was located about as the present province of Kang-wŭn, but it -may have exceeded these limits. Hyŭn-do was about coterminous -with the present province of Ham-gyŭng in the northeast. -Chin-bŭn lay beyond the Yalu River but its limits can -hardly be guessed at. It may have stretched to the Liao -River or beyond. It is exceedingly doubtful whether the -conquerors themselves had any definite idea of the shape or -extent of these four provinces. Twenty-five years later, in -the fifth year of Emperor Chao-ti 81 B.C. a change in administration -was made. Chin-bŭn and Hyŭn-do were united -to form a new province called P’yung-ju, while Im-dun and -Nang-nang were thrown together to form Tong-bu. In this -form the country remained until the founding of Ko-gu-ryŭ in -the twelfth year of Emperor Yuan-ti, 36 B.C.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is here a fitting place to pause and ask what was the -nature of these wild tribes that hung upon the flanks of civilization -and, like the North American Indians, were friendly -one day and on the war-path the next. Very little can be -gleaned from purely Korean sources, but a Chinese work -entitled the Mun-hön T’ong-go deals with them in some detail, -and while there is much that is quite fantastic and absurd the -main points tally so well with the little that Korean records -say, that in their essential features they are probably as nearly -correct as anything we are likely to find in regard to these -aborigines (shall we say) of north-eastern Asia.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter IV.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The wild tribes.... the “Nine Tribes” apocryphal.... Ye-mak.... position.... history.... customs.... Ye -and Mak perhaps two.... Ok-jo -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>.... position.... history.... customs.... North Ok-jo.... Eum-nu.... position.... customs.... the -western tribes.... the Mal-gal group.... position.... customs.... other -border tribes.</p> - -<p class='c008'>As we have already seen, tradition gives us nine original -wild tribes in the north named respectively the Kyŭn, Pang, -Whang, Păk, Chŭk, Hyŭn, P’ung, Yang, and U. These -we are told occupied the peninsula in the very earliest times. -But little credence can be placed in this enumeration, for -when it comes to the narration of events we find that these -tribes are largely ignored and numerous other names are introduced. -The tradition is that they lived in Yang-gok, “The -Place of the Rising Sun.” In the days of Emperor T’ai-k’an -of the Hsia dynasty, 2188 B.C. the wild tribes of the -east revolted. In the days of Emperor Wu-wang, 1122 B.C. -it is said that representatives from several of the wild tribes -came to China bringing rude musical instruments and performing -their queer dances. The Whe-i was another of the -tribes, for we are told that the brothers of Emperor Wu-wang -fled thither but were pursued and killed. Another tribe, the -So-i, proclaimed their independence of China but were utterly -destroyed by this same monarch.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is probable that all these tribes occupied the territory -north of the Yalu River and the Ever-white Mountains. Certain -it is that these names never occur in the pages of Korean -history proper. Doubtless there was more or less intermixture -and it is more than possible that their blood runs in the -veins of Koreans today, but of this we cannot be certain.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We must call attention to one more purely Chinese notice -of early Korea because it contains perhaps the earliest mention -of the word Cho-sŭn. It is said that in Cho-sŭn three -rivers, the Chŭn-su, Yŭl-su, and San-su, unite to form the -Yŭl-su, which flows by (or through) Nang-nang. This corresponds -somewhat with the description of the Yalu River.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We now come to the wild tribes actually resident in the -peninsula and whose existence can hardly be questioned, whatever -may be said about the details here given.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We begin with the tribe called Ye-măk, about which -there are full notices both in Chinese and Korean records. -The Chinese accounts deal with it as a single tribe but the -Korean accounts, which are more exact, tell us that Ye and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>Mak were two separate “kingdoms.” In all probability they -were of the same stock but separate in government.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ye-guk (<em>guk</em> meaning kingdom) is called by some Ye-wi-guk. -It is also know as Ch’ŭl. It was situated directly north -of the kingdom of Sil-la, which was practically the present -province of Kyŭng-sang, so its boundary must have been the -same as that of the present Kang-wŭn Province. On the north -was Ok-jŭ, on the east the Great Sea, and on the west Nang-nang. -We may say then that Ye-guk comprised the greater -portion of what is now Kang-wŭn Province. To this day the -ruins of its capital may be seen to the east of the town of -Kang-neung. In the palmy days of Ye-guk its capital was -called Tong-i and later, when overcome by Sil-la, a royal seal -was unearthed there and Hă-wang the king of Sil-la adopted -it as his royal seal. After this town was incorporated into -Sil-la it was known as Myŭng-ju.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the days of the Emperor Mu-je, 140 B.C., the king of -Ye-guk was Nam-nyŭ. He revolted from Wi-man’s rule and, -taking a great number of his people, estimated, fantastically -of course, at 380,000, removed to Liao-tung, where the Emperor -gave him a site for a settlement at Chang-hă-gun. Some -accounts say that this colony lasted three years. Others -say that after two years it revolted and was destroyed by the -Emperor. There are indications that the remnant joined the -kingdom of Pu-yŭ in the north-east for, according to one -writer, the seal of Pu-yŭ contained the words “Seal of the -King of Ye” and it was reported that the aged men of <a id='corr20_27'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Pu-yü'>Pu-yŭ</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_20_27'><ins class='correction' title='Pu-yü'>Pu-yŭ</ins></a></span> -used to say that in the days of the Han dynasty they were -fugitives. There was also in Pu-yŭ a fortress called the “Ye -Fortress.” From this some argue that Nam-nyŭ was not a -man of the east but of the north. Indeed it is difficult to see -how he could have taken so many people so far especially -across an enemy’s country.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the Chinese took the whole northern part of Korea, -the Ye country was incorporated into the province of Im-dun -and in the time of the Emperor Kwang-mu the governor -of the province resided at Kang-neung. The Emperor received -an annual tribute of grass-cloth, fruit and horses.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The people of Ye-guk were simple and credulous, and not -naturally inclined to warlike pursuits. They were modest -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>and unassuming, nor were they fond of jewels or finery. -Their peaceful disposition made them an easy prey to their -neighbors who frequently harassed them. In later times both -Ko-gu-ryŭ and Sil-la used Ye-guk soldiers in part in effecting -their conquests. People of the same family name did not intermarry. -If a person died of disease his house was deserted -and the family found a new place of abode. We infer from this -that their houses were of a very poor quality and easily built; -probably little more than a rude thatch covering a slight excavation -in a hill-side. The use of hemp was known as was -also that of silk, though this was probably at a much later -date. Cotton was also grown and woven. By observing the -stars they believed they could foretell a famine; from which -we infer that they were mainly an agricultural people. In -the tenth moon they worshipped the heavens, during which -ceremony they drank, sang and danced. They also worshipped -the “Tiger Spirit.” Robbery was punished by fining the -offender a horse or a cow. In fighting they used spears as -long as three men and not infrequently several men wielded -the same spear together. They fought entirely on foot. The -celebrated Nang-nang bows were in reality of Ye-guk make -and were cut out of <em>pak-tal</em> wood. The country was infested -with leopards. The horses were so small that mounted men -could ride under the branches of the fruit trees without difficulty. -They sold colored fish skins to the Chinese, the fish -being taken from the eastern sea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We are confronted by the singular statement that at the -time of the Wei dynasty in China, 220-294 A.D. Ye-guk -swore allegiance to China and despatched an envoy four times -a year. There was no Ye-mak in Korea at that time and this -must refer to some other Ye tribe in the north. It is said -they purchased exemption from military duty by paying a stipulated -annual sum. This is manifestly said of some tribe -more contiguous to China than the one we are here discussing.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Măk-guk, the other half of Ye-măk, had its seat of government -near the site of the present town of Ch’un-ch’ŭn. -Later, in the time of the Sil-la supremacy, it was known as -U-su-ju. It was called Ch’ŭn-ju in the time of the Ko-ryŭ -rule.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The ancient Chinese work, Su-jun, says that in the days -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>of Emperor Mu-song (antedating Ki-ja) the people of Wha-ha -Man-măk came and did obeisance to China. This may -have been the Korean Măk. Mencius also makes mention of -a greater Măk and a lesser Măk. In the time of the Han -dynasty they spoke of Cho-sün, Chin-bŭn and Ye-măk. Mencius’ -notice of a greater and lesser Măk is looked upon by -some as an insult to the memory of Ki-ja, as if he had called -Ki-ja’s kingdom a wild country; but the above mention of the -three separately is quoted to show that Mencius had no such -thought.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The annals of Emperor Mu-je state, in a commentary, -that Măk was north of Chin-han and south of Ko-gu-ryŭ and -Ok-jŭ and had the sea to the east, a description which exactly -suits Ye-măk as we know it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The wild tribe called Ok-jŭ occupied the territory east of -Kă-ma San and lay along the eastern sea-coast. It was narrow -and long, stretching a thousand <em>li</em> along the coast in the -form of a hook. This well describes the contour of the coast -from a point somewhat south of the present Wŭn-san northward -along the shore of Ham-gyŭng Province. On its south -was Ye-măk and on its north were the wild Eum-nu and Pu-yŭ -tribes. It consisted of five thousand houses grouped in separate -communities that were quite distinct from each other -politically, and a sort of patriarchal government prevailed. -The language was much like that of the people of Ko-gu-ryŭ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Wi-man took Ki-jun’s kingdom, the Ok-jŭ people -became subject to him, but later, when the Chinese made the -four provinces, Ok-jŭ was incorporated into Hyŭn-do. As -Ok-jŭ was the most remote of all the wild tribes from the -Chinese capital, a special governor was appointed over her, -called a Tong-bu To-wi, and his seat of government was at -Pul-lă fortress. The district was divided into seven parts, all -of which were east of Tan-dan Pass, perhaps the Tă-gwul -Pass of to-day. In the sixth year of the Emperor Kwang-mu, -31 A.D., it is said that the governorship was discontinued -and native magnates were put at the head of affairs in each -of the seven districts under the title Hu or Marquis. Three -of the seven districts were Wha-ye, Ok-jŭ and Pul-lă. It is -said that the people of Ye-guk were called in to build the government -houses in these seven centers.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>When Ko-gu-ryŭ took over all northern Korea, she placed -a single governor over all this territory with the title Tă-in. -Tribute was rendered in the form of grass-cloth, fish, salt and -other sea products. Handsome women were also requisitioned. -The land was fertile. It had a range of mountains at its -back and the sea in front. Cereals grew abundantly. The -people are described as being very vindictive. Spears were -the weapons mostly used in fighting. Horses and cattle were -scarce. The style of dress was the same as that of Ko-gu-ryŭ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When a girl reached the age of ten she was taken to the -home of her future husband and brought up there. Having -attained a marriageable age she returned home and her fiancé -then obtained her by paying the stipulated price.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Dead bodies were buried in a shallow grave and when -only the bones remained they were exhumed and thrust into -a huge hollowed tree trunk which formed the family “vault.” -Many generations were thus buried in a single tree trunk. -The opening was at the end of the trunk. A wooden image -of the dead was carved and set beside this coffin and with it a -bowl of grain.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The northern part of Ok-jŭ was called Puk Ok-jŭ or -“North Ok-jŭ.” The customs of these people were the same -as those of the south except for some differences caused by -the proximity of the Eum-nu tribe to the north, who were the -Apaches of Korea. Every year these fierce people made a -descent upon the villages of the peaceful Ok-jŭ, sweeping -everything before them. So regular were these incursions -that the Ok-jŭ people used to migrate to the mountains every -summer, where they lived in caves as best they could, returning -to their homes in the late autumn. The cold of winter held -their enemies in check.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We are told that a Chinese envoy once penetrated these -remote regions. He asked “Are there any people living beyond -this sea?” (meaning the Japan Sea.) They replied -“Sometimes when we go out to fish and a tempest strikes us -we are driven ten days toward the east until we reach islands -where men live whose language is strange and whose custom -it is each summer to drown a young girl <ins class='correction' title='in the sea.'>in the sea.”</ins> Another -said “Once some clothes floated here which were like ours -except that the sleeves were as long as the height of a man.” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>Another said “A boat once drifted here containing a man with -a double face, one above the other. We could not understand -his speech and as he refused to eat he soon expired.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The tribe of Ok-jŭ was finally absorbed in Ko-gu-ryŭ in -the fourth year of King T’ă-jo Wang.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Eum-nu tribe did not belong to Korea proper but as its -territory was adjacent to Korea a word may not be out of place. -It was originally called Suk-sin. It was north of Ok-jŭ and -stretched from the Tu-man river away north to the vicinity -of the Amur. Its most famous mountain was Pul-ham San, -It is said to have been a thousand <em>li</em> to the north-east of Pu-yŭ. -The country was mountainous and there were no cart -roads. The various cereals were grown, as well as hemp.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The native account of the people of Eum-nu is quite droll -and can hardly be accepted as credible. It tells us that the -people lived in the trees in summer and in holes in the ground -in winter. The higher a man’s rank the deeper he was allowed -to dig. The deepest holes were “nine rafters deep.” -Pigs were much in evidence. The flesh was eaten and the -skins were worn. In winter the people smeared themselves -an inch thick with grease. In summer they wore only a -breach-cloth. They were extremely filthy. In the center of -each of these winter excavations was a common cesspool about -which everything else was clustered. The extraordinary -statement is made that these people picked up pieces of meat -with their toes and ate them. They sat on frozen meat to -thaw it out. There was no king, but a sort of hereditary -chieftainship prevailed. If a man desired to marry he placed -a feather in the hair of the damsel of his choice and if she accepted -him she simply followed him home. Women did not -marry twice, but before marriage the extreme of latitude was -allowed. Young men were more respected than old men. -They buried their dead, placing a number of slaughtered pigs -beside the dead that he might have something to eat in the -land beyond the grave. The people were fierce and cruel, -and even though a parent died they did not weep. Death was -the penalty for small as well as great offences. They had no -form of writing and treaties were made only by word of mouth. -In the days of Emperor Yüan-ti of the Eastern Tsin dynasty, -an envoy from this tribe was seen in the Capital of China.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>We have described the tribes of eastern Korea. A word -now about the western part of the peninsula. All that portion -of Korea lying between the Han and Yalu rivers constituted -what was known as Nang-nang and included the present -provinces of P‘yŭng-an and Whang-hă together with a -portion of Kyŭng-geui. It was originally the name of a single -tribe whose position will probably never be exactly known; -but it was of such importance that when China divided northern -Korea into four provinces she gave this name of Nang-nang -to all that portion lying, as we have said, between the -Han and the Yalu. The only accounts of these people are -given under the head of the Kingdom of Ko-gu-ryŭ which we -shall consider later. But between Nang-nang and the extreme -eastern tribes of Ok-jŭ there was a large tract of country -including the eastern part of the present province of -<a id='corr25_16'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Py’ŭng-an'>P’yŭng-an</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_25_16'><ins class='correction' title='Py’ŭng-an'>P’yŭng-an</ins></a></span> and the western part of Ham-gyŭng. This was -called Hyŭn-do, and the Chinese gave this name to the whole -north-eastern part of Korea. No separate accounts of Hyŭn-do -seem to be now available.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Before passing to the account of the founding of the three -great kingdoms of Sil-la, Păk-je and Ko-gu-ryŭ, we must give -a passing glance at one or two of the great border tribes of the -north-west. They were not Koreans but exercised such influence -upon the life of Korea that they deserve passing notice.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In that vast tract of territory now known as Manchuria -there existed, at the time of Christ, a group of wild tribes -known under the common name Mal-gal. The group was composed -of seven separate tribes, named respectively—Songmal, -Păk-tol, An-gŭ-gol, Pul-lal, Ho-sil, Heuk-su (known also as the -<a id='corr25_29'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Mul-gil'>Mul-gil)</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_25_29'><ins class='correction' title='Mul-gil'>Mul-gil)</ins></a></span> and the Păk-san. Between these tribes there was probably -some strong affinity, although this is argued only from -the generic name Mal-gal which was usually appended to their -separate names, and the fact that Mal-gal is commonly spoken -of as one. The location of this group of tribes is determined -by the statement (1) that it was north of Ko-gu-ryŭ and (2) -that to the east of it was a tribe anciently called the Suk-sin -(the same as the Eum-nu,) and (3) that it was five thousand <em>li</em> -from Nak-yang the capital of China. We are also told that in -it was the great river Sog-mal which was three <em>li</em> wide referring -it would seem to the Amur River. These tribes, though -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>members of one family, were constantly fighting each other -and their neighbors and the ancient records say that of all the -wild tribes of the east the Mal-gal were the most feared by -their neighbors. But of all the Mal-gal tribes the Heuk-su -were the fiercest and most warlike. They lived by hunting -and fishing. The title of their chiefs was Tă-mak-pul-man-lol-guk. -The people honored their chiefs and stood in great -fear of them. It is said that they would not attend to the -duties of nature on a mountain, considering, it would seem, -that there is something sacred about a mountain. They -lived in excavations in the sides of earth banks, covering them -with a rough thatch. The entrance was from above. Horses -were used but there were no other domestic animals except -pigs. Their rude carts were pushed by men and their plows -were dragged by the same. They raised a little millet and -barley, and cultivated nine kinds of vegetables. The water -there, was brackish owing to the presence of a certain kind of -tree the bark of whose roots tinged the water like an infusion. -They made wine by chewing grain and then allowing it to -ferment. This was very intoxicating. For the marriage ceremony -the bride wore a hempen skirt and the groom a pig skin -with a tiger skin over his head. Both bride and groom washed -the face and hands in urine. They were the filthiest of all -the wild tribes. They were expert archers, their bows being -made of horn, and the arrows were twenty-three inches long. -In summer a poison was prepared in which the arrow heads -were dipped. A wound from one of these was almost instantly -fatal. The almost incredible statement is made in the native -accounts that the dead bodies of this people were not interred -but were used in baiting traps for wild animals.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Besides the Mal-gal tribes there were two others of considerable -note, namely the Pal-hă and the Kŭ-ran of which -special mention is not here necessary, though their names will -appear occasionally in the following pages. They lived somewhere -along the northern borders of Korea, within striking -distance. The last border tribe that we shall mention is the -Yŭ-jin whose history is closely interwoven with that of Ko-gu-ryŭ. -They were the direct descendants, or at least close -relatives, of the Eum-nu people. They were said to have -been the very lowest and weakest of all the wild tribes, in fact -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>a mongrel tribe, made up of the offscourings of all the others. -They are briefly described by the statement that if they took -up a handful of water it instantly turned black. They were -good archers and were skilful at mimicing the deer for the -purpose of decoying it. They ate deer flesh raw. A favorite -form of amusement was to make tame deer intoxicated with -wine and watch their antics. Pigs, cattle and donkeys abounded. -They used cattle for burden and the hides served for -covering. The houses were roofed with bark. Fine horses -were raised by them. It was in this tribe that the great conquerer -of China, A-gol-t’a, arose, who paved the way for the -founding of the great Kin dynasty a thousand years or more -after the beginning of our era.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter V.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Southern Korean.... Ki-jun’s arrival.... differences which he found.... three -groups.... Ma-han.... position.... peculiarities.... characteristics.... -worship.... tatooing.... numbers.... Chin-han.... Chinese -<a id='corr27_18'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='imigration'>immigration</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_27_18'><ins class='correction' title='imigration'>immigration</ins></a></span>.... customs.... Pyön-han.... position.... habits.... the -philological argument.... southern origin.... Ki-jun and his descendants.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We must now ask the reader to go with us to the southern -portion of the peninsula where we shall find a people differing -in many essential respects from the people of the north, -and evincing not merely such different but such opposite characteristics -from the people of the north that it is difficult to -believe that they are of the same origin.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When King Ki-jun, the last of the Ki-ja dynasty proper -was driven from P’yŭng-yang by the unscrupulous Wi-man, -he embarked, as we have already seen, upon the Ta-dong -River accompanied by a small retinue of officials and servants. -Faring southward along the coast, always within sight of land -and generally between the islands and mainland, he deemed it -safe at last to effect a landing. This he did at a place anciently -known as Keum-ma-gol or “Place of the Golden Horse,” -now Ik-san. It should be noticed that this rendering is simply -that of the Chinese characters that were used to represent -the word Keum-ma-gol. In all probability it was a mere -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>transliteration of the native name of the place by the use of -the Chinese, and the rendering here given was originally unthought -of.</p> - -<p class='c000'>They found the land inhabited, but by a people strange -in almost every particular. The explicitness with which all -native accounts describe the people whom Ki-jun found in the -south is in itself a striking argument in favor of the theory that -a different race of people was there encountered. The southern -part of the peninsula was divided between three groups of -peoples called respectively Ma-han, Chin-han and Pyön-han. -How these names originated can hardly be learned at this date, -but it would seem that they were native words; for the last of -the three, Pyön-han, was also called Pyön-jin, a word entering -into the composition of many of the names of the towns -peopled by the Pyön-han tribes. It is necessary for us now to -take a brief glance at each of these three groups, for in them -we shall find the solution of the most interesting and important -problem that Korea has to offer either to the historian or -ethnologist.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Ma-han people occupied the south-western part of -the peninsula, comprising the whole of the present province -of Ch’ung-ch’ŭng and the northern part of Chŭl-la. It may -have extended northward nearly to the Han river but of this -we cannot be sure. On its north was the tribe of Nang-nang, -on the south was probably a part of Pyön-han but one authority -says that to the south of Ma-han were the Japanese or -Wă-in. These Japanese are carefully described and much color -is given to this statement by certain coincidences which -will be brought out later. No Korean work mentions these -Japanese and it may be that the Japanese referred to were -those living on the islands between Korea and Japan. But -we can <a id='corr28_32'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='easly'>easily</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_28_32'><ins class='correction' title='easly'>easily</ins></a></span> imagine the thrifty islanders making settlements -of the southern coast of Korea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first striking peculiarity of the Ma-han people, and -one that differentiates them from the northern neighbors, was -the fact that they were not one tribe but a congeries of small -settlements each entirely independent of the others, each having -its own chief, its own army, its own laws. It is said that -they lived either among the mountains or along the coast, -which would point to the existence of two races, the one inland, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>indigenous, and the other, colonists from some other -country. The Ma-han people were acquainted with agriculture, -sericulture and the use of flax and hemp. Their fowls -had tails ninety-five inches long. Here is one of the interesting -coincidences that uphold the contention that the Japanese -were in the peninsula at that time. These peculiar fowls are -now extinct, but, within the memory of people now living, -such fowls were quite common in Japan and preserved specimens -in the museum at Tokyo show that the above measurements -are by no means unusual in that breed of fowl. It -would seem then that Japan procured them from Korea, or -else the Japanese colonists introduced them into Korea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Another point which differentiates the south from the -north was the fact that a walled town was a thing unknown in -the south; as the Korean writer puts it “There was no difference -between town and country.” Their houses were -rough thatched huts sunken a little below the surface of the -ground, as is indicated by the statement that the houses were -entered from the top. These people of Ma-han were strong -and fierce and were known by the loudness and vehemence of -their speech. This accords well with the further fact that -they were the virtual governors of all south Korea, for it was -Ma-han who furnished rulers for Chin-han. These people -did not kneel nor bow in salutation. There was no difference -in the treatment of people of different ages or sexes. All were -addressed alike.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Another marked difference between these people and those -of the north was that the Ma-han people held neither gold nor -silver in high repute. We may safely reckon upon the acquisitive -faculty as being the most keen and pervasive of all the -faculties of eastern as well as western peoples, and that the -north should have been acquainted with the uses and values -of these metals while the south was not, can argue nothing less -than a complete ignorance of each other. The southern people -loved beads strung about the head and face, a trait that -naturally points to the south and the tropics. In the summer -they worshipped spirits, at which time they consumed large -quantities of intoxicating beverages while they sang and danced, -several “tens of men” dancing together and keeping time -with their feet. In the autumn, after the harvest, they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>worshipped and feasted again. In each of the little settlements -there was a high priest whose business it was to worship -for the whole community. They had a kind of monastic system, -the devotees of which fastened iron drums to high posts -and beat upon them during their worship.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Another striking statement is that tatooing was common. -This is another powerful argument in favor of the theory of a -southern origin, for it is apparent that tatooing is a form of -dress and is most in vogue where the heat renders the use of -clothing uncomfortable. As might be expected, this habit -has died out in Korea, owing without doubt to the comparative -severity of the climate; but within the memory of living -men it has been practiced on a small scale, and today there is -one remnant of the custom in the drawing of a red colored -thread under the skin of the wrist in making certain kinds <a id='corr30_15'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='of of'>of</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_30_15'><ins class='correction' title='of of'>of</ins></a></span> -vow or promises.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the larger towns the ruler was called Sin-ji and in the -smaller ones Eup-ch’a. They had tests of endurance similar -to those used by North American Indians. One of them consisted -in drawing a cord through the skin of the back and being -hauled up and down by it without a murmur.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We are told that in Ma-han there were 100,000 houses, -each district containing, from 1,000 to 10,000 houses. This -would give an approximate population of 500,000. The names -of the fifty-four districts or kingdom included in Ma-han are -given in the appendix together with those of Chin-han and -Pyön-han.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We are told that the aged men of Chin-han held the tradition -that thousands of Chinese fled to Korea in the days of the -Tsin dynasty, 255-209 B.C., and that the people of Ma-han -gave them land in the east and enclosed them in a palisade, -and furnished them with a governor who transmitted the office -to his son. This could refer however only to a small portion -of Chin-han. There was a large and widely scattered -native population occupying <a id='corr30_35'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='approximaely'>approximately</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_30_35'><ins class='correction' title='approximaely'>approximately</ins></a></span> the territory covered -by the present Kyŭng-sang Province. It is probable that -these Chinese refugees exercised a great influence over them -and taught them many things. It is not improbable that it -was owing to this civilizing agency that Sil-la eventually became -master of the peninsula. But it should be carefully -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>noted that this Chin-han did not derive its name, from the -Chin (Tsin) dynasty of China through these Chinese refugees. -The character used in designating Chin-han is not the same -as that used for the Chin dynasty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The land was fertile. The mulberry flourished and silk -culture was a common employment. Horses and cattle were -used both under the saddle and as beasts of burden. Marriage -rites were scrupulously observed and the distinction between -the sexes was carefully preserved. When a body was interred -men followed the bier waving feathers in the air to help waft -the soul of the departed on its flight to heaven. The country -contained much mineral wealth. Ye-măk, Ma-han and the -Japanese all obtained metal from Chin-han. Iron was the -medium of exchange. They were fond of music and the dance. -Their music was made by means of a rude harp and an instrument -made by stretching wire back and forth inside a metal -cylinder which, when struck, caused the strings to vibrate. -When a child was born a stone was placed against its head to -flatten it. Tattooing was common in those parts contiguous to -the Japanese, which would imply that the custom was a borrowed -one. When two men met on the road it was considered good -form for each to stop and insist upon the others passing first.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is hardly necessary to dwell upon the characteristics of -the Pyön-han people, for they were nearly the same as those -of the people of Chin-han. Some say they were within the -territory of Chin-han, others that they were south both of -Ma-han and Chin-han, and nearest to the Japanese. They -tatooed a great deal. Beyond this fact little is known of them -excepting that their punishments were very severe, many offences -being punished with death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is difficult to say what was the nature of the bond between -the different districts which made up the whole body of -either Ma-han, Chin-han or Pyön-han. On the one hand we -are told that the districts were entirely separate and yet we -find Ma-han, as a whole, performing acts that imply some sort -of federation at least if not a fixed central government. In fact -one Chinese work states that a town named Cha-ji was the -capital of all three of the Hans. We must conclude therefore -from those and subsequent statements that some sort of central -government prevailed, at least in Ma-han.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>The names of the several kingdoms which composed the -three Hans are preserved to us, mutilated, in all probability, -by reason of Chinese transliteration, but still useful from a -philological and ethnological <ins class='correction' title='standpoint'>standpoint.</ins> If the reader will -glance but casually at the list of these separate districts as -given in the appendix, he will see that there was good cause -for the division into three Hans. We will point out only the -most striking peculiarities here, as this belongs rather to the -domain of philology than to that of history. In Ma-han we -find seven of the names ending <em>ro</em>. We find two or three of -the same in Pyön-han but none in Chin-hau. In Ma-han we -find fourteen names ending in <em>ri</em> but none in either of the -others. In Pyön-han we find ten names beginning with Pyön-jin -which is wholly unknown to the other two. In this we -also find three with the unique suffix <em>mi-dong</em>. In Chin-han -we find nine ending in <em>kan</em> and five in <em>kaye</em>, which are found -in neither of the others. It is hardly necessary to say that -these cannot be mere coincidences. In each group we find at -least one considerable set of endings entirely lacking in the -others. As our own ending <em>ton</em>, <em>ville</em>, <em>burgh</em>, <em>chester</em> and <em>coln</em> -have an original significance, so these ending <em>ro</em>, <em>ri</em>, <em>mi-dong</em>, -<em>kan</em> and <em>ka-ya</em> have a meaning which should supply us with -important clues to the origin of the people of southern Korea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The marked polysyllabism of these names makes it impossible -to imagine a Chinese origin for them. It is seldom -that a Manchu or Mongol name of a place exceeds two syllables. -On the other hand we find in Japan and Polynesia -common use of polysyllabic geographical names. A thorough -discussion of the subject here would be out of place, but this -much must be said, that several of these endings, as <em>ro</em>, <em>pin</em> -and <em>kan</em>, find their almost exact counterpart in the Dravidian -languages of southern India, where they mean <em>village</em>, <em>settlement</em> -and <em>kingdom</em>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The argument in favor of the southern origin of the people -of the three Hans is a cumulative one. The main points -are; the structure and vocabulary of the language, the nonintercourse -with the people of northern Korea, the custom of tattooing, -the diminutive size of the horses found nowhere else, -except in the Malay peninsula, the tradition of the southern -origin of the people of the island of Quelpart, the physiological -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>similarity between the people, especially the females, of -Quelpart and Formosa, the seafaring propensities of the people -of the three Hans, their ignorance of the value of gold and silver, -the continuous line of islands stretching along the whole -coast of China together with the powerful ocean current which -sweeps northward along the Asiatic coast, the tradition of the -Telugu origin of the ancient sultans of Anam and the love of -bead ornaments.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Such was the status of southern Korea when Ki-jun arrived -at Keum-ma-gol. By what means he obtained control of the -government is not related but the fact remains that he did so and -founded a new kingdom which was destined to survive nearly -two centuries. Ki-jun died the same year. No details are -given of the events that transpired during the next hundred -years or more excepting that one Chinese work states that during -the reign of Emperor Wu-ti 140-88 B.C. frequent envoys -went from Ma-han to the Chinese court. We are also told that -off the coast of Ma-han among the islands lived a tribe called the -Chu-ho, a people of smaller stature than the people of Ma-han, -and speaking a different language. They cut the hair and wore -skins for clothing but clothed only the upper part of the body. -They came frequently to Ma-han to barter cattle and pigs.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ki-jun’s seventh descendant was Hun, with the title of -Wŭn-wang. His reign began in 57 B.C. during the reign of -the Han Emperor Hsuan-ti and in the second year the great -kingdom of Sil-la was founded in Chin-han. In his twenty-second -year the great northern kingdom of <a id='corr33_27'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-gur-yŭ'>Ko-gu-ryŭ</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_33_27'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-gur-yŭ'>Ko-gu-ryŭ</ins></a></span> was -founded, 35 B.C., and nineteen years later the kingdom of -Ma-han fell before the forces of Păk-je.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter VI.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The founding of <a id='corr33_31'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Sil li, Ko-gur-yu'>Sil-la, Ko-gu-ryu</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_33_31'><ins class='correction' title='Sil li, Ko-gur-yu'>Sil-la, Ko-gu-ryu</ins></a></span>, and Pak-je.... Sil-la.... legend.... growth.... Tsushima -a vassal.... credibility of accounts.... Japanese -relations.... early vicissitudes.... <a id='corr33_33'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-gur-yu'>Ko-gu-ryu</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_33_33'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-gur-yu'>Ko-gu-ryu</ins></a></span>.... four Pu-yus.... legend.... location -of Pu-yu.... Chu-mong founds <a id='corr33_34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-gur-yu'>Ko-gu-ryu</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_33_34'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-gur-yu'>Ko-gu-ryu</ins></a></span>.... growth -and extent.... products.... customs.... religious rites.... official -grades.... punishments.... growth eastward.... Pak-je.... relations -between Sil-la and Pak-je.... tradition of founding of Pak-je.... opposition -of wide tribes.... the capital moved.... <a id='corr33_38'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='siiuation'>situation</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_33_38'><ins class='correction' title='siiuation'>situation</ins></a></span> of -the peninsula at the time of Christ.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>In the year 57 B.C. the chiefs of the six great Chin-han -states, Yŭn-jun-yang-san, Tol-san-go-hö, Cha-sa-jin-ji, Mu-san-dă-su, -Keum san-ga-ri and Myŭng-whal-san-go-ya held a -great council at <a id='corr34_4'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Yun-ehŭn-yang'>Yun-chŭn-yang</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_34_4'><ins class='correction' title='Yun-ehŭn-yang'>Yun-chŭn-yang</ins></a></span> and agreed to merge their -separate fiefs into a kingdom. They named the capital of the -new kingdom Sŭ-ya-bŭl, from which the present word Seoul -is probably derived, and it was situated where Kyöng-ju now -stands in Kyüng-sang Province. At first the name applied -both to the capital and to the kingdom.</p> - -<p class='c000'>They placed upon the throne a boy of thirteen years, -named Hyŭk-kŭ-se, with the royal title Kŭ-sŭ-gan. It is said -that his family name was Pak, but this was probably an afterthought -derived from a Chinese source. At any rate he is -generally known as Pak Hyŭk-kŭ-se. The story of his advent -is typically Korean. A company of revellers beheld upon a -mountain side a ball of light on which a horse was seated. -They approached it and as they did so the horse rose straight -in air and disappeared, leaving a great, luminous egg. This -soon opened of itself and disclosed a handsome boy. This -wonder was accompanied by vivid light and the noise of -thunder. Not long after this another wonder was seen. Beside -the Yŭn-yüng Spring a hen raised her wing and from her -side came forth a female child with a mouth like a bird’s bill, -but when they washed her in the spring the bill fell off and -left her like other children. For this reason the well was -named the Pal-ch’ŭn which refers to the falling of the bill. -Another tradition says that she was formed from the rib of a -dragon which inhabited the spring. In the fifth year of his -reign the youthful king espoused this girl and they typify to -all Koreans the perfect marriage.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As this kingdom included only six of the Chin-han states, -it would be difficult to give its exact boundaries. From the -very first it began to absorb the surrounding states, until at -last it was bounded on the east and south by the sea alone, -while it extended north to the vicinity of the Han River and -westward to the borders of Na-han, or to Chi-ri San. It took -her over four hundred years to complete these conquests, many -of which were bloodless while others were effected at the point -of the sword. It was not until the twenty-second generation -that the name Sil-la was adopted as the name of this kingdom.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>It is important to notice that the island of Tsushima, -whether actually conquered by Sil-la or not, became a dependency -of that Kingdom and on account of the sterility of the -soil the people of that island were annually aided by the government. -It was not until the year 500 A.D. or thereabouts -that the Japanese took charge of the island and placed their -magistrate there. From that time on, the island was not a -dependency of any Korean state but the relations between -them were very intimate, and there was a constant interchange -of goods, in a half commercial and half political manner. -There is nothing to show that the <em>daimyos</em> of Tsushima -ever had any control over any portion of the adjacent coast of -Korea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It gives one a strong sense of the trustworthiness of the -Korean records of these early days to note with what care the -date of every eclipse was recorded. At the beginning of each -reign the list of the dates of solar eclipses is given. For instance, -in the reign of Hyŭk-kŭ-se they occurred, so <a id='corr35_17'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='therecords'>the records</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_35_17'><ins class='correction' title='therecords'>the records</ins></a></span> -say, in the fourth, twenty-fourth, thirtieth, thirty-second, -forty-third, forty-fifth, fifty-sixth and fifty-ninth years of his -reign. According to the Gregorian calendar this would mean -the years 53, 31, 27, 25, 14, 12 B.C. and 2. A.D. If these annals -were later productions, intended to deceive posterity, they -would scarcely contain lists of solar eclipses. The marvelous -or incredible stories given in these records are given only as -such and often the reader is warned not to put faith in them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 48 B.C. gives us the first definite statement of -a historical fact regarding Japanese relations with Korea. In -that year the Japanese pirates stopped their incursions into -Korea for the time being. From this it would seem that even -at that early date the Japanese had become the vikings of the -East and were carrying fire and sword wherever there was -enough water to float their boats. It would also indicate <a id='corr35_34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='thae'>that</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_35_34'><ins class='correction' title='thae'>that</ins></a></span> -the extreme south of Korea was not settled by Japanese, for -it was here that the Japanese incursions took place.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 37 B.C. the power of the little <a id='corr35_37'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='kingdon'>kingdom</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_35_37'><ins class='correction' title='kingdon'>kingdom</ins></a></span> of Sil-la began -to be felt in surrounding districts and the towns of Pyön-han -joined her standards. It was probably a bloodless conquest, -the people of Pyön-han coming voluntarily into Sil-la. In 37 -B.C. the capital of Sil-la, which had received the secondary -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>name Keum-sŭng, was surrounded by a wall thirty-five <em>li</em>, -twelve miles, long. The city was 5,075 paces long and 3,018 -paces wide. The progress made by Sil-la and the evident tendency -toward centralisation of all power in a monarchy -aroused the suspicion of the king of Ma-han who, we must remember, -had considered Chin-han as in some sense a vassal of -Ma-han. For this reason the king of Sil-la, in 19 B.C., sent -an envoy to the court of Ma-han with rich presents in order -to allay the fears of that monarch. The constant and heavy -influx into Sil-la of the fugitive Chinese element also disturbed -the mind of that same king, for he foresaw that if this went -unchecked it might mean the supremacy of Sil-la instead of -that of Ma-han. This envoy from Sil-la was Ho-gong, said to -have been a native of Japan. He found the king of Ma-han -in an unenviable frame of mind and it required all his tact to -pacify him, and even then he succeeded so ill that had not the -Ma-han officials interfered the king would have had his life. -The following year the king of Ma-han died and a Sil-la embassy -went to attend the obsequies. They were anxious to -find opportunity to seize the helm of state in Ma-han and -bring her into the port of Sil-la, but this they were strictly -forbidden to do by their royal master who generously forebore -to take revenge for the insult of the preceding year.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As this was the year, 37 B.C., <a id='corr36_24'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='weich'>which</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_36_24'><ins class='correction' title='weich'>which</ins></a></span> marks the founding -of the powerful kingdom of Ko-gur-yŭ, we must turn our -eyes northward and examine that important event.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the founder of Ko-gur-yŭ originated in the kingdom -of <a id='corr36_28a'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Puyŭ'>Pu-yŭ</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_36_28a'><ins class='correction' title='Puyŭ'>Pu-yŭ</ins></a></span>, it will be necessary for us to examine <a id='corr36_28b'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='baiefly'>briefly</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_36_28b'><ins class='correction' title='baiefly'>briefly</ins></a></span> the -position and status of that tribe, whose name stands prominently -forth in Korean history and tradition. There were -four Pu-yŭs in all; North Pu-yŭ, East Pu-yŭ, Chŭl-bŭn Pu-yŭ -and South Pu-yŭ. We have already, under the head of -the Tan-gun, seen that tradition gives to Pu-ru his son, the -honor of having having been the founder of North Pu-yŭ, or -Puk Pu-yŭ as it is commonly called. This is quite apocryphal -but gives us at least a precarious starting point. This Puk -Pu-yŭ is said by some to have been far to the north in the -vicinity of the Amur River or on one of its tributaries, a belief -which is sustained to a certain extent by some inferences to -be deduced from the following legend.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>It must have been about fifty years before the beginning -of our era that King Hă-bu-ru sat upon the throne of North -Pu-yŭ. His great sorrow was that Providence had not given -him a son. Riding one day in the forest he reached the bank -of a swift rushing stream and there dismounting he besought -the Great Spirit to grant him a son. Turning to remount he -found the horse standing with bowed head before a great -boulder while tears were rolling down its face. He turned -the boulder over and found beneath it a child of the color of gold -but with a form resembling a toad. Thus was his prayer <a id='corr37_10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='answered'>answered.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_37_10'><ins class='correction' title='answered'>answered.</ins></a></span> -He took the curious child home and gave it the name -Keum-wa or “Golden Toad.” Soon after this the kingdom -removed to East Pu-yŭ, or Tong Pu-yŭ, somewhere near the -“White Head Mountain,” known as Păk-tu San.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Arriving at the age of manhood, Keum-wa looked about -for a wife. As he was walking along the shore of U-bal-su -(whether river or sea we do not know) he found a maiden crying. -Her name was Yu-wha, “Willow Catkin.” To his inquiries -she replied that she was daughter of the Sea King, -Ha-băk, but that she had been driven from home because she -had been enticed away and ravished by a spirit called Ha-mo-su. -Keum-wa took her home as his wife but shut her in a -room to which the sun-light had access only by a single minute -aperture. Marvelous to relate a ray of light entered and followed -her to whatever part of the room she went. By it she -conceived and in due time gave birth to an egg, as large as -five “measures.” Keum-wa in anger threw it to the pigs and -dogs but they would not touch it. Cattle and horses breathed -upon it to give it warmth. A stork from heaven settled down -upon it and warmed it beneath her feathers. Keum-wa relented -and allowed Yu-wha to bring it to the palace, where -she wrapped it in silk and cotton. At last it burst and disclosed -a fine boy. This precocious youth at seven years of -age was so expert with the bow that he won the name of Chu-mong, -“Skillful Archer.” He was not a favorite with the -people and they tried to compass his death but the king protected -him and made him keeper of the royal stables. Like -Jacob of Holy Writ he brought his wits to bear upon the -situation. By fattening the poorer horses and making the -good ones lean he succeeded in reserving for his own use the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>fleetest steeds. Thus in the hunt he always led the rout and -secured the lion’s share of the game. For this his seven -brothers hated him and determined upon his death. By night -his mother sought his bed-side and whispered the word of -warning. Chu-mong arose and with three trusty councillors, -O-i, Ma-ri and Hyŭp-pu, fled southward until he found his -path blocked by the Eum-ho River. There was neither boat, -bridge nor ford. Striking the surface of the water with his -bow he called upon the spirit of the river to aid him, for behind -him the plain smoked with the pursuing hoof-beats of his -brothers’ horses. Instantly there came up from the depths of -the river a shoal of fish and tortoises who lay their backs together -and thus bridged the stream.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Fantastic as this story seems, it may have an important -bearing upon the question of the location of Pu-yŭ. Can we -not see in this great shoal of fish a reference to the salmon -which, at certain seasons, run up the Amur and its tributaries -in such numbers that the water is literally crowded with -them? If there is any weight to this argument the kingdom -of Pu-yŭ, from which Chu-mong came, must have been, as -some believe, along the Sungari or some other tributary of the -Amur.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Leaving his brothers baffled on the northern bank, Chu-mong -fared southward till he reached Mo-tun-gok by the Po-sul -River where he met three men, Chă-sa, clothed in grass -cloth, Mu-gol in priestly garb and Muk-hŭ, in seaweed. They -joined his retinue and proceeded with him to Chŭl-bon, the -present town of Song-ch’ŭn, where he founded a kingdom. -He gave it the name of Ko-gu-ryŭ, from Ko, his family name, -and Ku-ryŭ, a mountain in his native Pu-yŭ. Some say the -Ko is from the Chinese <em>Kao</em>, “high,” referring to his origin. -This kingdom is also known by the name Chŭl-bon Pu-yu. -It is said that Pu-ryu River flowed by the capital. These -events occurred, if at all, in the year 37 B.C. This was all -Chinese land, for it was a part of the great province of Tong-bu -which had been erected by the Emperor So-je (Chao-ti) in -81 B.C. Only one authority mentions Chu-mong’s relations -with Tong-bu. This says that when he erected his capital -at Chŭl-bon he seized Tong-bu. China had probably held -these provinces with a very light hand and the founding of a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>vigorous native monarchy would be likely to attract the semi-barbarous -people of northern Korea. Besides, the young Ko-gu-ryŭ -did not seize the whole territory at once but gradually -absorbed it. It is not unlikely that China looked with complacency -upon a native ruler who, while recognising her suzerainty, -could at the same time hold in check the fierce denizens -of the peninsula.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We are told that the soil of Ko-gu-ryŭ was fertile and that -the cereals grew abundantly. The land was famous for its -fine horses and its red jade, its blue squirrel skins and its -pearls. Chu-mong inclosed his capital in a heavy stockade -and built store-houses and a prison. At its best the country -stretched a thousand <em>li</em> beyond the Yalu River and southward -to the banks of the Han. It comprised the Nang-nang tribe -from which Emperor Mu-je named the whole north-western -portion of Korea when he divided northern Korea into four -provinces. On the east was Ok-ju and on its north was Pu-yŭ. -It contained two races of people, one living among the -mountains and the other in the plains. It is said they had a -five-fold origin. There were the So-ro-bu, Chŭl-lo-bu, Sun-no-bu, -Kwan-no-bu and Kye-ro-bu. The kings at first came from -the So-ro-bu line but afterwards from the Kye-ro-bu. This -<a id='corr39_23'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='probable'>probably</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_39_23'><ins class='correction' title='probable'>probably</ins></a></span> refers to certain family clans or parties which existed -at the time of Chu-mong’s arrival and which were not discontinued. -Chu-mong is said to have married the daughter of -the king of Chŭl-bon and so he came into the control of affairs -in a peaceful way and the institutions of society were not particularly -disturbed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Agriculture was not extensively followed. In the matter -of food they were very frugal. Their manners and customs -were somewhat like those of Pu-yŭ but were not derived from -that kingdom. Though licentious they were fond of clean -clothes. At night both sexes gathered in a single apartment -and immorality abounded. Adultery, however, if discovered, -was severely punished. In bowing it was customary for these -people to throw out one leg behind. While travelling, men -more often ran than walked. The worship of spirits was universal. -In the autumn there was a great religious festival. -In the eastern part of the peninsula there was a famous cave -called Su-sin where a great religious gathering occurred each -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>autumn. Their religious rites included singing and drinking. -At the same time captives were set free. They worshipped -likewise on the eve of battle, slaughtering a bullock -and examining the body for omens.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Swords, arrows and spears were their common weapons. A -widow usually became the wife of her dead husband’s brother. -When a great man died it was common to bury one or more -men alive with his body. The statement that sometimes as -many as a hundred were killed is probably an exaggeration. -These characteristics were those of the Nang-nang people as -well as of the rest of Ko-gu-ryŭ. The highest official grades -were called Sang-ga-dă, No-p’ă, Ko-ju-dă. Some say their -official grades were called by the names of animals, as the -“horse grade” the “dog grade” the “cow grade.” There were -special court garments of silk embroidered with gold and silver. -The court hat was something like the present <em>kwan</em> or -skull-cap. There were few prisoners. If a man committed a -crime he was summarily tried and executed, and his wife and -children became slaves. Thieves restored twelve-fold. Marriage -always took place at the bride’s house. The dead were -wrapped in silks and interred, and commonly the entire fortune -of the deceased was <a id='corr40_22'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='exhaused'>exhausted</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_40_22'><ins class='correction' title='exhaused'>exhausted</ins></a></span> in the funeral ceremony. -The bodies of criminals were left unburied. The people were -fierce and violent and thieving was common. They rapidly -corrupted the simpler and cleaner people of the Ye-măk and -Ok-jŭ tribes.</p> - -<p class='c000'>No sooner had Chu-mong become firmly established in his -new capital than he began to extend the limits of his kingdom. -In 35 B.C. he began a series of conquests which resulted -in the establishment of a kingdom destined to defy the -power of China for three quarters of a millennium. His first -operations were against the wild people to the east of him. -The first year he took Pu-ryu on the Ya-lu, then in 29 B.C. -he took Hăng-in, a district near the present Myo-hyang San. -In 27 B.C. he took Ok-jŭ, thus extending his kingdom to the -shore of eastern Korea. In 23 B.C. he learned that his mother -had died in far off Pu-yŭ and he sent an embassy thither to do -honor to her.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 18 B.C. beheld the founding of the third of the -great kingdoms which held the triple sceptre of Korea, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>we must therefore turn southward and examine the events -which led up to the founding of the kingdom of Păk-je.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Chu-mong fled southward from Pu-yŭ he left behind -him a wife and son. The latter was named Yu-ri. -Tradition says that one day while playing with pebbles in the -street he accidentally broke a woman’s water jar. In anger -she exclaimed “You are a child without a father.” The boy -went sadly home and <a id='corr41_8'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='aked'>asked</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_41_8'><ins class='correction' title='aked'>asked</ins></a></span> his mother if it was true. She answered -yes, in order to see what the boy would do. He went -out and found a knife and was on the point of plunging it into -his body when she threw herself upon him saying “Your -father is living and is a great king in the south. Before he -left he hid a token under a tree, which you are to find and take -to him.” The boy searched every where but could not find -the tree. At last, wearied out, he sat down behind the house -in despair, when suddenly he heard a sound as of picking, and -noticing that it came from one of the posts of the house he -said “This is the tree and I shall now find the token.” Digging -beneath the post he unearthed the broken blade of a -sword. With this he started south and when he reached his -father’s palace he showed the token. His father produced the -other half of the broken blade and as the two matched he received -the boy and proclaimed him heir to the throne.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But he had two other sons by a wife whom he had taken -more recently. They were Pi-ryu and On-jo. When Yu-ri -appeared on the scene these two brothers, knowing how proverbially -unsafe the head of a king’s relative is, feared for their -lives and so fled southward. Ascending Sam-gak San, the -mountain immediately behind the present Seoul, they surveyed -the country southward. Pi-ryu the elder chose the country -to the westward along the sea. On-jo chose to go directly -south. So they separated, Pi-ryu going to Mi-ch’u-hol, now -In-ch’ŭn near Chemulpo, where he made a settlement. On-jo -struck southward into what is now Ch’ung-ch’ŭng Province -and settled at a place called Eui-rye-sŭng, now the district of -Chik-san. There he was given a generous tract of land by -the king of Ma-han; and he forthwith set up a little kingdom -which he named South Pu-yŭ. The origin of the name Păk-je -is not definitely known. Some say it was because a hundred -men constituted the whole of On-jo’s party. Others say -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>that it was at first called Sip-je and then changed to Păk-je -when their numbers were swelled by the arrival of Pi-ryu and -his party. The latter had found the land sterile and the -climate unhealthy at Mi-ch’u-hol and so was constrained to -join his brother again. On the other hand we find the name -Păk-je in the list of original districts of Ma-han and it is probable -that this new kingdom sprang up in the district called -Păk-je and this name became so connected with it that it has -came down in history as Păk-je, while in truth it was not called -so by its own people. It the same way Cho-sŭn is known -today by the medieval name Korea. Not long after Pi-ryu -rejoined his brother he died of chagrin at his own failure.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It must not be imagined that these three kingdoms of Sil-la, -Ko-gu-ryŭ and Păk-je, which represented so strongly the -centripetal idea in government, were allowed to proceed without -vigorous protests from the less civilized tribes about them. -The Mal-gal tribes in the north, the Suk-sin and North Ok-jŭ -tribe in the north-east and Ye-măk in the east made fierce attacks -upon them as opportunity presented. The Mal-gal -tribes in particular seem to have penetrated southward even -to the borders of Păk-je, probably after skirting the eastern -borders of Ko-gu-ryŭ. Nominally Ko-gu-ryŭ held sway even -to the Japan Sea but practically the wild tribes roamed as yet -at will all through the eastern part of the peninsula. In the -eighth year of On-jo’s reign, 10 B.C., the Mal-gal forces besieged -his capital and it was only after a most desperate fight -that they were driven back. On-jo found it necessary to -build the fortresses of Ma-su-sŭng and Ch’il-chung-sŭng to -guard against such inroads. At the same time the Sŭn-bi were -threatening Ko-gu-ryŭ on the north, but Gen. Pu Bun-no -lured them into an ambush and routed them completely. The -king rewarded him with land, horses and thirty pounds of -gold, but the last he refused.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The next year the wild men pulled down the fortresses -lately erected by King On-jo and the latter decided that he -must find a better site for his capital. So he moved it to the -present site of Nam-han, about twenty miles from the present -Seoul. At the same time he sent and informed the king of -Ma-han that he had found it necessary to move. The following -year he enclosed the town in a wall and set to work teaching -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>agriculture to the people throughout the valley of the Han -River which flowed near by.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the year which saw the birth of Christ the situation of -affairs in Korea was as follows. In the north, Ko-gu-ryŭ, a -vigorous, warlike kingdom, was making herself thoroughly -feared by her neighbors; in the central western portion was -the little kingdom of Păk-je, as yet without any claims to independence -but waiting patiently for the power of Ma-han so -to decline as to make it possible to play the serpent in the -bosom as Wi-man had done to Ki-ja’s kingdom. In the south -was Sil-la, known as a peaceful power, not needing the sword -because her rule was so mild and just that people from far and -near flocked to her borders and craved to become her citizens. -It is one of the compensations of history that Sil-la, the least -martial of them all, in an age when force seemed the only -arbiter, should have finally overcome them all and imposed -upon them her laws and her language.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter VII.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Change of Ko-gu-ryu capital.... Sil-la raided.... Legend of Suk-ta’l-ba.... fall -of Ma-han.... beginning of Chinese enmity against Ko-gu-ryu....the -three kingdoms differentiated.... King Yu-ri degraded.... extension -of Ko-gu-ryu.... Japanese corsairs... remnant of Ma-han -revolts.... fall of Pu-yu.... origin of <em>in-gum</em>.... siege of Ko-gu-ryu -capital raised.... Sil-la’s peaceful policy.... patronymics.... official -grades.... unoccupied territory.... kingdom of Ka-rak.... legends.... position.... dependencies.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We read that in 2 A.D. the king of Ko-gu-ryŭ was about -to sacrifice a pig to his gods, when the pig escaped and taking -to its heels was chased by the courtier Sŭl-chi into the district -of Kung-nă. He caught the animal near Wi-na Cliff, north -of the Ch’o-san of today. When he returned he described the -place to the king as being rough and consequently suitable for -the site of a capital. Deer, fish and turtles also abounded. -He gave such a glowing account that the king was fain to -move his capital to that place, where it remained for two <a id='corr43_34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='hunred'>hundred</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_43_34'><ins class='correction' title='hunred'>hundred</ins></a></span> -and six years.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 4 A.D. Hyuk-kŭ-se, the wise king of Sil-la died and -seven days later his queen followed him. It is said that they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>were so completely one that neither could live without the -other. Nam-hă his son, with the title of Ch’a-ch’a-ung, reigned -in his stead. A remnant of the Nang-nang tribe, hearing -of the death of King Hyŭk-kŭ-se, thought it a fitting time -to make a raid into Sil-la territory, but they were beaten back.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the third <a id='corr44_6'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='yrar'>year</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_44_6'><ins class='correction' title='yrar'>year</ins></a></span> of his reign, Nam-hă built a shrine to -his father and then put the management of the government -into the hands of a man named Sŭk-t’al-hă who had become -his son-in-law. This man is one of the noted men of Sil-la -and his origin and rise are among the cherished traditions of -the people.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Somewhere in north-eastern Japan there was a kingdom -known as Ta-p’a-ra and there a woman, pregnant for seven -years, brought forth an egg. The neighbors thought it a bad -omen and were minded to destroy it but the mother, aware of -their intentions, wrapped the egg in silk and cotton and placing -it in a strong chest committed it to the waters of the Japan -Sea. In time it drifted to A-jin Harbor on the coast of -Sil-la where an old fisherwoman drew it ashore and found upon -opening it that it contained a beautiful child. She adopted -him and reared him in her humble home. It was noticed that -wherever the child went the magpies followed him in flocks, -so they gave him the name of Sŭk, the first part of the Chinese -word for magpie. The second part of his name was T’al, -“to put off” referring to his having broken forth from the egg, -and the final syllable of his name was Hă meaning “to open” -for the fishwife opened the chest. This boy developed into a -giant both physically and mentally. His foster-mother saw in -him the making of a great man, and so gave him what educational -advantages she could afford. When he had exhausted -these she sent him to enter the service of the great statesman -Pyo-gong the same that had acted as envoy to Păk-je. Pyo-gong -recognised his merit and introduced him at court where -his rise was so rapid that ere long he married the king’s -daughter and became vicegerent of the realm, the king resigning -into his hands the greater part of the business of state.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 9 A.D. beheld the fall of the kingdom of Ma-han. -We remember that Ki-jun became king of Ma-han in -193 B.C. He died the same year and was succeeded by his -son Ki-t’ak with the title Kang-wang, who ruled four years. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>It was in 58 B.C. that Ki-jun’s descendant Ki-hun (Wun-wang) -ascended the throne. It was in the second year of his -reign that Sil-la was founded and in his twenty-second year -that Ko-gu-ryŭ was founded. After twenty-six years of rule -he died and left his son, Ki-jŭng, to hold the scepter. It -was this king who, in his sixteenth year gave On-jo the plot -of land which became the seat of the kingdom of Păk-je. -Twenty-six years had now passed since that act of generosity. -Păk-je had steadily been growing stronger and Ma-han had as -steadily dwindled, holding now only the two important towns -of Wŭn-san and Köm-hyŭn. In fact some authorities say that -Ma-han actually came to an end in 16 B.C. at the age of 177 -years but that a remnant still held the towns of Wŭn-san and -Köm-hyŭn. The balance of proof is however with the statement -that Ma-han kept up at least a semblance of a state until -9 A.D.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first sign of hostile intent on the part of Păk-je against -her host, Ma-han, had appeared some years before, -when Păk-je had thrown up a line of breast-works between -herself and the capital of Ma-han. The latter had no intention -of taking the offensive but Păk-je apparently feared that -Ma-han would divine her hostile intent. Ma-han hastened to -send a message saying “Did I not give you a hundred <em>li</em> of -land? Why do you then suspect me of hostile designs?” In -answer, Păk-je partly from shame and partly because she saw -that Ma-han was wholly unsuspicious of her ulterior designs, -tore down the barriers and things went on as before. But now -that Ma-han was utterly weak, the king of Păk-je decided to -settle the matter by one bold stroke. He organised a great -hunting expedition and under cover of this approached the -Ma-han capital and took it almost without resistance. Thus, -as Wi-man had paid back the kindness of Ki-jun by treachery -so now again On-jo paid back this last descendant of Ki-jun -in the same way.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Up to this time China had looked on with complacency at -the growth of Ko-gu-ryŭ but now Wang-mang the usurper -had seized the throne of the Han dynasty. His title was Hsin -Whang-ti. One of his first acts seems to have been directed -against the powerful little kingdom that had supplanted the -two provinces of Tong-bu and P‘yŭng-ju into which China had -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>divided northern Korea. He was probably suspicious of a -rapidly growing and thoroughly warlike power which might -at any time gather to its standards the wild hordes of the north -and sweep down into China.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Here was the beginning of a long struggle which lasted -with occasional intermissions until Ko-gu-ryŭ was finally destroyed -some eight centuries later. Ko-gu-ryŭ was uniformly -China’s foe and Sil-la was as uniformly her friend and ally. -Păk-je was now one and now the other. It may be in place -to say here that the three powers that divided the peninsula -between them were strongly differentiated. Ko-gu-ryŭ in the -north was a strong, energetic, fierce, unscrupulous military -power, the natural product of her constituent elements. Sil-la -was the very opposite; always inclined toward peace and willing -oftentimes to make very large concessions in order to -secure it. Her policy was always to conciliate, and it was -for this mainly that at the last China chose her as the one to -assume control of the whole peninsula. Păk-je differed from -both the others. She was as warlike as Ko-gu-ryŭ but as weak -in military resources as Sil-la. She therefore found her life -one scene of turmoil and strife and she was the first of the -three to succumb.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in 12 A.D. that Wang-mang sent an envoy to Yu-ri, -king of Ko-gu-ryŭ, demanding aid in the work of subduing -the wild tribes of the north. This was refused by the headstrong -Yu-ri, but the Emperor compelled him to send certain -troops to accompany the Chinese army. They however took -advantage of every opportunity to desert, and large numbers -of them formed a marauding band that penetrated the Liao-tung -territory and plundered and killed on every hand. For -this cause the Emperor sent against Ko-gu-ryŭ a strong force -under Gen. Om-u, who speedily brought the recalcitrant Yu-ri -to terms, took away his title of royalty and left him only the -lesser title of Hu or “Marquis.” From that day began the -policy of reprisals on Chinese territory which Ko-gu-ryŭ steadily -pursued until it cost her life.</p> - -<p class='c000'>These were stirring days in all three of the kingdoms of -the peninsula. In 14 A.D. Ko-gu-ryŭ extended her territory -northward by the conquest of the Yang-măk tribe and at the -same time she seized a strip of land beyond the Liao River -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>This shows that the castigation inflicted by Wang-mang had -not been very severe.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At the same time Sil-la was being harrassed along her -southern sea-board by Japanese corsairs, and while her small -army was busy driving these out the wild people of Nang-nang -attacked her on the north. It is said that one night a -meteor fell in their camp and frightened them back to their -own country and thus Sil-la was saved.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Two years later the king Yu-ri of Ko-gu-ryŭ died and -his son Mu-hyŭl ascended the throne, bestowing on his father -the title Tong-myŭng or “Eastern Brightness.” The same -year saw a remnant of the overthrown kingdom of Ma-han, -under the leadership of Captain Chu-geun, attempt to wrest -the scepter from Păk-je and restore the fallen house, but they -were defeated and together with their wives and children were -put to the sword. About this time an ancient royal seal was -unearthed in northern Sil-la, where Kang-neung now lies. -It became the royal seal of Sil-la.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The next year Ko-gu-ryŭ, ever on the lookout for aggrandisement, -made the conquest of Pu-yŭ, the land from -which Chu-mong had fled. The tradition is as follows. Ta-so -the king of Pu-yŭ, had become possessed of a red crow with -two bodies but only one head. The soothsayers said “Two -countries will be joined under one head”. The king replied -“Then it means that I shall conquer Ko-gu-ryŭ.” So he -sent the bird to the king of Ko-gu-ryŭ as a gage of war, but -that astute monarch replied “Red is the color of the south. -I shall therefore conquer you.” Thereupon he took the initiative -and sent a powerful army northward to make good -his threat. The story says that as the army entered Li-mul -forest the soldiers found swords clashing together but wielded -by invisible hands. These they seized and hastened on. -Soon they were joined by a gigantic warrior with a white face -who joined their party and gave his name as Kwe-yu.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Approaching the capital of Pu-yŭ, they brought up at -night before an extensive marsh. The Pu-yŭ king, thinking -to surprise them by a night attack, attempted to cross the -marsh, but became mired. The giant Kwe-yu dashed into -the swamp and brought to the Ko-gu-ryŭ king his rival’s -head. Upon this the Pu-yŭ forces surrendered; all but the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>brother of the fallen king who fled with a hundred followers -and settled near the Ya-lu River, calling the place Kal-sa. -This Ko-gu-ryŭ winked at.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 24 A.D. the king of Sil-la died, having nominated as -his successor not his son but Sŭk-t’al-hă his son-in-law. -After the obsequies had been performed Sŭk-t’al-hă insisted -that the prince assume the throne, but he in turn insisted that -the dead king’s orders be followed. As a compromise Sŭk-t’al-hă -proposed that they should find a man with sixteen teeth -in his upper jaw, as this was a sign of unusual wisdom, and -that upon him the throne should be bestowed. When it came -to the test, it was found that the prince himself was the man. -He could no longer refuse and ascended the throne under the -title of Yi-sa-geum, or “Sixteen Teeth.” The present word -In-gum which means “king” was doubtless derived from or -is a corruption of this Sil-la word.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile Ko-gu-ryŭ had been pushing her conquests -steadily. Kă-ma and Ku-da, two northern districts or “kingdoms” -were absorbed and other conquests were contemplated. -The Emperor beheld these enlargements of Ko-gu-ryŭ with -some concern and in 27 A.D. sent a strong force to bring -her to terms. At the first encounter the forces of Ko-gu-ryŭ -were routed and fell back toward the capital which, as we have -seen, was then at or near the present town of Eui-ju. The -king hastily summoned a council of war at which it was -decided to man the walls of the capital and try to hold out -until the enemy should be compelled by lack of food or the -severity of the weather to raise the siege. The Chinese knew -that there was little water within the wall and had high hopes -of compelling a speedy <a id='corr48_30'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='serrender'>surrender</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_48_30'><ins class='correction' title='serrender'>surrender</ins></a></span>. This was all too true and -there was soon much distress in the city; but a certain courtier -said “If you will give me all the fish in the city I will -undertake to make the enemy raise the siege or I will pay -the penalty with my life.” He was given permission and -soon he had the soldiers along the wall going through the -motions of a bath, using fish scales for water. The scales -glittered in the sun like drops of water and the enemy supposing -that there must therefore be a good store of water in the -city despaired of taking it by siege and so struck their tents -and returned to China.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>The marked difference between Ko-gu-ryŭ and Sil-la -was well illustrated by the events of this year. While Ko-gu-ryŭ -was reaching out covetous hands in every direction and -carrying fire and sword into the hamlets of inoffensive neighbors, -Sil-la was pursuing a course of such good will to all both -without and within her borders that natives of the wild tribes -to the north of her came in large numbers and settled on her -soil, glad to become citizens of so kind and generous a land. -The king himself made frequent tours of the country alleviating -the distress of widows, orphans and cripples. It was in -32 B.C. that he changed the name of the six original families -which united in founding Sil-la. The men of Yang-san, Ko-hŭ, -Tă-su, Ul-jin, Ka-ri, and of Myŭng-whal were named -respectively Yi, Ch’oé, Son, Chöng, Pă and Sŭl. These -names will be recognised at once as among the most common -patronymics in Korea at the present day, which adds confirmatory -evidence that Korea of to-day is essentially the Korea of -the south. When we add to this the fact that the names Pak, -Kim, An, Ko, Sŭk, Yang, So, Sŭ, Kwŭn, Pă, Im, Na, Hyŭn, -Kwak, Ho, Whang, Chang, Sim and Yu originated in southern -Korea the argument becomes well-nigh conclusive. The -only names of importance that did not originate in southern -Korea are Min, Song, Om, Cho, and Han; and many of -these originated in what must have been Ma-han territory. -At the same time the king established seventeen official grades -and called them respectively I-bŭl-son, I-ch’ŭk-son, I-son, -P’a-jin-son, Tă-a-son, A-son, Kil-son, Sa-son, etc.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It must be remembered that as yet neither of the “Three -Kingdoms” had begun to occupy all the territory that nominally -belonged to it or that lay within its “sphere of influence.” -Between them lay large tracts of land as yet unoccupied except -by wild tribes. It is more than probable that at no point did -any of these kingdoms actually touch each other. Ko-gu-ryŭ -was broadening out northwards, Păk-je was at a standstill -and Sil-la was growing rather by immigration than by occupation -of new territory. As yet Sil-la had taken but four districts -outside of the original six, and so we see that a large -part of the south was still in the hands of the original inhabitants -as given in the list of the settlements of the three -Hans. In 41 A.D. the nine districts whose names ended in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>kan, namely A-do-gan, Yö-do-gan, P’i-do-gan, O-do-gan, -Yu-su-gan, Yu-ch’ŭn-gan, Sin-ch’ŭn-gan, Sin-gwi-gan and -O-ch’ŭn-gan, formed a confederacy and called it the “Kingdom -of Ka-rak”. They placed their capital at Ka-rak, the present -town of Kim-hă, and made Keum Su-ro their king. Tradition -says that he obtained his Queen in the following way. -A boat approached the shore bearing a beautiful woman, -Queen Ho, whose ornamental name was Whang-ok or “Yellow -Jade”. She came from the far southern kingdom of A-yu-t’a, -otherwise known as Ch’ŭn-ch’uk. It is said that she lived a -hundred and fifty-seven years and that the king survived her -one year. All that is told us of the history of this rival of -Sil-la is the list of her kings which will be found in the -chronological tables. After an existence of 491 years it came -to an end in the reign of the Sil-la king Pŭp-heung. It is -also affirmed that when Sil-la fell in 935, some worthless -wretches who defiled the grave of Keum Su-ro were mysteriously -killed, one by the falling of a beam, one by an invisible -archer and nine others by a serpent eighteen feet long. The -records say that when the Japanese, at the time of the great -invasion three centuries ago, dug open this king’s grave they -found great store of gold and jade. The skull of the monarch -was of prodigious size, and beside his body lay two women -whose features were well preserved but which dissolved and -melted away when exposed to the air. It is barely possible -that we here have an indication that embalming was practiced, -but if so we have no other intimation of it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ka-rak extended eastward as far as Wang-san River, six -miles to the west of the present Yang-san; to the north-east -as far as Ka-ya San, the present Ko-ryŭng; to the south and -south-west as far as the coast and on the west to Chi-ri San. -From this we see that it was little inferior to Sil-la in size.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ka-rak had five dependencies, namely the districts known -under the common name of Ka-ya. They were So-ga-ya, -Ko-ryŭng-ga-ya, Song-san-ga-ya, Tă-ga-ya and A-ra-ga-ya. -They correspond respectively to the present towns of Ko-sŭng, -<a id='corr50_38'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Ham-ch’ang Ham-ch’ang, Sŭng-ju, Ko-ryŭng ahd'>Ham-ch’ang, Ham-ch’ang, Sŭng-ju, Ko-ryŭng and</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_50_38'><ins class='correction' title='Ham-ch’ang Ham-ch’ang, Sŭng-ju, Ko-ryŭng ahd'>Ham-ch’ang, Ham-ch’ang, Sŭng-ju, Ko-ryŭng and</ins></a></span> Ham-an. Tradition -says that one day when the chiefs of the nine tribes of -Ka-rak were banqueting they saw upon the slope of Sung-bong, -called also Ku-yii-bong, a singular cloud. From the sky -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>above it came a voice. They hastened up the mountain and -there found a golden box containing six golden eggs. These -opened and disclosed six boys. One of <a id='corr51_3'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='the was Keum-Su-ro'>them was Keum Su-ro</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_51_3'><ins class='correction' title='the was Keum-Su-ro'>them was Keum Su-ro</ins></a></span> -who became king of Ka-rak and the other five were made -chiefs of the five Ka-ya, subject to Ka-rak. Of these Ka-ya -states we know the founder of only one. He was descended -from Kyŏn-mo-ju, the female divinity of Ka-ya Mountain -who wedded a celestial being, Yi-ja-ga. Their off-spring was -Yi-i-a-si, who founded one of the Ka-ya states. The Ka-ya -states fell before Sil-la some five hundred years later in the -reign of King Chin-heung.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter VIII.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Vicissitudes of Ko-gu-ryu.... last Ma-han chief joins Sil-la.... Pak-je -and Sil-la become sworn enemies.... legend of Kye-rim.... Pak-je -worsted.... Ko-gu-ryu’s strength on the increase.... Sil-la’s rapid -growth.... Ka-ya attacks Sil-la.... Ko-gu-ryu make compact with -Ye-mak.... Su-sŭng’s evil reign.... roads in Sil-la.... Japanese raid.... legend.... an -epicurean.... Pak-je’s victory.... origin of government -loans.... Yun-u’s trickery.... capital of Ko-gu-ryu moved.... wild -tribes attack Sil-la.... democratic ideas in Sil-la.... Ko-gu-ryu -breaks with China.... and attacks Sil-la.... China invades Ko-gu-ryu.... the -king retreats.... relieved through treachery.... capital -of Ko-gu-ryu moved to P’yung-yang.... beginning of feud between -Korea and Japan.... reforms in Pak-je.... third century closes.... progress -of Sil-la.... how Eul-bul became king of <a id='corr51_32'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-gu-yu'>Ko-gu-ryu</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_51_32'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-gu-yu'>Ko-gu-ryu</ins></a></span>.... a -noble lady of Sil-la <a id='corr51_33'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='ia'>is</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_51_33'><ins class='correction' title='ia'>is</ins></a></span> sent to Japan.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Mu-hyŭl, the third king of Ko-gu-ryŭ died in 45, leaving -the kingdom to the tender mercies of his son a worthless -debauchee. Four years later he in turn made way for Hă-u, a -member of a collateral branch of the family. Following the -traditions <a id='corr51_38'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='of of'>of</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_51_38'><ins class='correction' title='of of'>of</ins></a></span> Ko-gu-ryŭ this ruler professed loyalty to China -on the one hand and <a id='corr51_39'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='siezed'>seized</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_51_39'><ins class='correction' title='siezed'>seized</ins></a></span> all the Chinese territory he could -lay hands on, on the other. In 54 he was assassinated by one -Tu-no and the seven year old grandson of king Yu-ri was -placed on the throne, a regent being appointed to carry on the -government until the boy reached his majority. The good -work continued. Ten forts were built in western Liao-tung -to guard against Chinese advances, which shows that she had -regained nearly all the territory she had lost at the hands of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>the parvenu Wang-mang. The following year she took formal -possession of the territory of Ok-jŭ on the eastern coast.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the year 58 Yu-ri, the third king of Sil-la died. He -must not be confounded with Yu-ri the second king of Ko-gu-ryŭ. -The sound is the same but the character is different. -It was he who had the difference of opinion with Sŭk-t’al-hă -in regard to the succession. As he died without issue the -reins of government naturally passed into the hands of the -aged statesman Sŭk-t’al-hă. He was sixty-two years old when -he assumed the cares of royalty. In his fifth year the one -remaining Ma-han chief, Măng-so, who had escaped the appetite -of Păk-je, went over to Sil-la, as he concluded it was no longer -possible to prolong a hopeless struggle <a id='corr52_13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sgainst'>against</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_52_13'><ins class='correction' title='sgainst'>against</ins></a></span> Păk-je. -Pok-am fortress thus passed into the hands of Sil-la. Strange -to say Păk-je not only did not resent this but even made -overtures to Sil-la for a friendly meeting of their respective -kings in the following year. Sil-la refused to sanction this, -and the rebuff was too much for the equanimity of Păk-je. -From that day the attitude of Păk-je toward Sil-la was one of -studied hostility, broken only by an occasional spasmodic attempt -at reconciliation. Among the three kingdoms, Sil-la was -the only one that preserved her dignity intact and kept herself -untainted by the charge either of avarice or <a id='corr52_24'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>pusilanimity</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_52_24'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>pusilanimity</ins></a></span>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 66 brought forth another of those wonders that -<a id='corr52_26'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='enbellish'>embellish</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_52_26'><ins class='correction' title='enbellish'>embellish</ins></a></span> the legendary lore of Korea. The king of Sil-la was -wakened one night by the loud cackling of a hen, which seemed -to come from a forest to the south. A messenger was -sent to see what was the cause of the disturbance and he -found a box hanging from the branch of a tree, while on the -ground beneath it there cluttered a white hen. When the -box was placed before the king and he had opened it a handsome -child was found. It received the name Keum Yun-ji. -Some say this Yŭn-ji was merely a part of the name while -others affirm that it is a pure Sil-la word meaning “baby”. -Up to this time the kingdom had been called Sŭ-ra-bŭl but -now the king changed it to Kye-rim, <em>kye</em> meaning “hen” -and <em>rim</em> meaning “woods.” So the kingdom was called -“Hen in the Woods”, not a very dignified name but one, -perhaps, that fitted well the military prowess of the kingdom.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 68 Păk-je deemed herself strong enough to undertake -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>operations against Sil-la. She began by seizing the fortress -of Wa-san. She enjoyed possession of it for nine years but in -the end she paid dear, for it was retaken by Sil-la and the -Păk-je garrison was put to the sword. This year also saw a -continuation of Ko-gu-ryŭ’s forward policy and the little settlement -of Kal-sa which had been make by Pu-yŭ fugitives -was absorbed. She followed this up by the conquest of Chu-ra -farther north. Her military strength seems to have been -on the rapid increase.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 80 the great Sŭk-t’al-hă died and was succeeded by the -son of King Nam-hă. He must have been of advanced age -and yet not so old as to prevent his becoming the greatest -conqueror that Sil-la ever produced. During the thirty-two -years of his reign he added to the Sil-la crown the districts of -Eum-jip-pŭl, Ap-to, Pi-ji, Ta-bŭl, Ch’o-p’al, and Sil-jik. -These together with U-si and Kŭ-ch’il, which and been added -the year before his accession, formed a considerable increase in -the territory of the kingdom and added not a little to Sil-la’s -reputation as a military power. This king, P’a-sa, was one -of those men who seem to take hold of affairs by the right end -and wring success from seeming failure. He was as great an -administrator as he was mild a conqueror. He attended so -carefully to the needs of the people that it is said that during -most of his reign food was so plentiful that the wayfarer needed -no money to pay for food or lodgings along the road.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The kingdom of Ka-ya, whose origin we noted in the -previous chapter, now assumed the offensive against Sil-la. -The first intimation we have of this is the fact that Sil-la in -88 built two forts named Ka-so and Ma-du, the first of which -was to guard against the encroachments of Păk-je and the -second to guard against those of Ka-ya. It was not till three -years later that Ka-ya actually opened hostilities by inaugurating -an expedition against Sil-la. As the event is not disclosed -by the annalists we may conclude that it was unsuccessful.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ko-gu-ryŭ now extended the field of her military operations. -She made friends with the people of Ye-măk, to the -east, and together with them began a series of raids into Chinese -territory beyond the northern borders. The sixth king of -Ko-gu-ryŭ, T’ă-jo Wang, had now reached the sixty-ninth -year of his reign so he turned over to his brother, Su-sŭng, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>the administration of affairs. This brother was as ambitious -as the king and continued the league with Ye-măk and the -encroachments upon China. But he was disloyal to his -brother and tried to form a combination against him. In this -he was not successful. The reign of this T’ă-jo Wang was -the longest one on record in Korean annals. He held the -scepter ninety-four years, thereby sorely trying the patience -of his heir apparent. That gentleman came to the throne at -the green old age of seventy-six, in the year 147 A.D. He -showed however that his memory had not yet failed him for -one of his first acts was <a id='corr54_10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='to a arrest'>to arrest</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_54_10'><ins class='correction' title='to a arrest'>to arrest</ins></a></span> and put to death all the -wise men who had chidden him for attempting to unseat his -brother. Ko Pok-chang a celebrated scholar of that day was so -overwhelmed in view of this barbarous act that he asked to be -destroyed with the rest of the wise men, a wish that was probably -granted. One day this singular monarch having seen a -white fox cross his path, an evil omen, asked a soothsayer -what it might portend. That individual suggested that if the -king should reform even the worst of omens would turn out -happily. The soothsayer lost his head as a result of his candor; -but from that day on, whenever the king wanted to consult -a soothsayer he found that they were all engaged in important -work at some distant point.</p> - -<p class='c000'>King Il-seung of Sil-la whose reign began 134 was the first -to pay attention to the building of good roads throughout the -country. In his fifth year he built a road from his capital to -Chuk-yŭn, now Pung-geui, and another one over Kye-ip Pass. -These became very important thoroughfares. We also find that -his successor continued this good work by opening roads <a id='corr54_29'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>thro</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_54_29'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>thro</ins></a></span> -to the north of the kingdom. These kings were not many -years behind the Romans in recognising the vast importance -of good roads both for administrative and military purposes.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The relations between Sil-la and Japan are graphically -described in the single statement that when someone circulated -in the capital the rumor that a company of Japanese were -coming the people fled precipitately from the city until it was -half depopulated. When the mistake was discovered they -gradually came back.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The interesting legend of Yŭng-o and Se-o belongs to the -year 158, though it scarcely merits the “once upon a time” of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>a nursery tale. Yŭng-o a poor fisherman lived with his wife -Se-o beside the waters of the Japan Sea on the eastern shore -of Sil-la. One day as Yŭng-o was seated on a great boulder -beside the water, fishing, he felt the rock tremble and then -rise straight in air. He was carried, to his great consternation, -eastward across the sea and deposited in a Japanese village. -The Japanese folk took him for a god and made him -their king at once. When his wife found that he did not return -from fishing she went in search of him. Ascending the -same rock that had carried him to Japan she experienced the -same novel extradition that had so surprised her spouse. She -found him metamorphosed into a king and was nothing loath -to become queen. But their departure brought disaster to -Sil-la for the sun and moon were darkened and the land was -shrouded in gloom. The sooth-sayers said it was because -someone had gone to Japan. An envoy was sent post haste to -those islands in search of the fugitives, but found to his dismay -that they had become king and queen of one of the kingdoms -there. He told his story and besought them to return, -but they seemed well satisfied with the change. Se-o however -brought out a roll of silk and gave it to the envoy saying that -if the king of Sil-la would spread it out and sacrifice upon it -the light would return. The event proved the truth of her -statement and when the king uttered the words of invocation -the sunlight burst forth again and all was well. It is an interesting -but melancholy fact that most of the arguments used -to show a Korean origin of things Japanese are based upon -evidence nearly if not quite as credible as this story. The -Japanese work entitled the Kojiki bears the same relation to the -carefully detailed history of Sil-la that the Niebelungenlied -bears to the works of Tacitus.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the time came for Su-sŭng, the sanguinary king of -Ko-gu-ryŭ to die a young scapegrace by the name of Ch’a-da -came to the throne. His idea of royalty was that it consisted -in one long orgie. He attempted to carry out his ideal but -was cut short within a year by the assassin’s knife. His motto, -in his own words, was “Who does not wish to enjoy life?” -Epicureanism may have existed in Korea before but it had -never had so frank a disciple. Păk-ko a relative of the -murdered king was called from a mountain fastness whither -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>he had fled for safety. They had to ask him three times before -they could convince him that it was not a mere decoy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>By the year 168 either Păk-je had grown so strong or Sil-la -so weak that the former deemed it a fit time to make a grand -demonstration all along Sil-la’s western border. It is said she -carried back a thousand captives to grace her triumph. Sil-la, -though filled with rage, was not in condition to return the -compliment in kind. She however sent an urgent letter pointing -out the advantages of peace and asking that the captives be -returned. We may imagine how this was received by the proud -army flushed as it must have been by an unwonted victory.</p> - -<p class='c000'>About this time was begun one of the ancient customs of -Korea that has ever since exerted an important influence upon -the life of the people. While hunting the king met a man -weeping bitterly and upon being asked what was the matter -replied that he had not a grain of food to give his parents. -Thereupon the king gave him an order on the government -granary with the understanding that when autumn came he -should pay it back. Thus originated the <em>whan-sang</em> or custom -of making government loans in the spring to be paid back with -interest in the autumn. When this king died he was succeeded -by the grandson of old Sŭk-t’al-hă. He took in hand the work -of instilling new life into the well-nigh dead bones of Sil-la. -His first action was to establish two military stations at the -capital so that it might not be at the mercy of the first adventurer -that might pass that way. He also ordered the people to -pay less attention to the construction of fine government -buildings and more to agriculture, the back bone of the state.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Nam-mu the tenth king of Ko-gu-ryŭ died at night and -the queen, desiring to gain an extension of her power, slipped -out of the palace and hastened to the house of the king’s oldest -brother Pal-gi. She stated the case and urged him to hasten -to the palace and assume the royal prerogative. He refused -to believe that the king was dead and accused her of immodesty. -She then hurried to the house of the younger brother Yŭn-u -and repeated the story. The young man accompanied her -and when morning broke it was found that he was established -in the palace and ready to meet all comers. Pal-gi raged -and cursed. He stormed the palace with his retainers, but -being unsuccessful, was fain to beat a retreat to Liao-tung.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>The dawn of the third century saw the three states of -Korea in the same relative position as before. Ko-gu-ryŭ -was still the same ambitious military power, Păk-je was still -her own worst enemy though flaunting for the time being in -the gay colors of a temporal triumph, Sil-la was plodding -along quietly paying more attention to internal improvements -and so earning the right which she afterward enjoyed of -holding sway over the whole peninsula. The first twenty-five -years of the century witnessed unusual activity on the -part of the surrounding savages who in view of the constantly -increasing power of the three states beheld their territories -diminishing. The wild people of Kol-p’o, Chil-p’o and Ko-p’o -ravaged the borders of Sil-la but were driven back. On -the south she attacked and burned a settlement of Japanese -corsairs who had apparently gained a foothold on the mainland. -Păk-je was also attacked on the east by the savages -and was obliged to build a wall at Sa-do to keep them back. -This period saw over a thousand Chinese refugees cross the -Yalu and find asylum in Ko-gu-ryŭ. It also saw U-wi-gŭ, -the fruit of a liaison between the eleventh king of Ko-gu-ryŭ -and a farmer girl whom he met while hunting, ascend the -throne of Ko-gu-ryŭ. It witnessed a remarkable exhibition -of democratic feeling in Sil-la when the people rejected Prince -Sa-ba-ni and in his place set up Ko-i-rŭ to be king.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 240 was an important one in the history of -Ko-gu-ryŭ. King U-wi-gŭ was a man of boundless ambition -and his temerity was as great as his ambition. Ko-gu-ryŭ -had been at peace with China for eight years when, without -warning, this U-wi-gŭ saw fit to cross the border and invade -the territory of his powerful neighbor. The town of An-p’yŭng-hyŭn -in western Liao-tung fell before the unexpected -assault. This unprovoked insult aroused the slumbering -giant of the Middle Kingdom and the hereditary feud that -had existed for many years between Ko-gu-ryŭ and China -was intensified. At the same time U-wi-gŭ turned his eyes -southward and contemplated the subjugation of Sil-la. To -this end he sent an expedition against her in the following -year. It was met on the Sil-la border by a defensive force -under Gen. Sŭk U-ro who withstood the invaders bravely -but was driven back as far as the “Palisades of Ma-du” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>where he took a firm stand. As he could not be dislodged -the invading army found itself checked. Meanwhile a dark -cloud was rapidly overspreading Ko-gu-ryŭ’s western horizon. -The great Chinese general, Mo Gu-geum, with a force of -10,000 men advanced upon the Ko-gu-ryŭ outposts and -penetrated the country as far as the present Sŭng-ch’ŭn -where he met the Ko-gu-ryŭ army under the direct command -of king U-wi-gŭ. The result was an overwhelming victory -for Ko-gu-ryŭ whose soldiers chased the flying columns of the -enemy to Yang-băk-kok where dreadful carnage ensued. -“Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad” proved -true in this case. U-wi-gŭ was so elated over the victory -that he declared that a handful of Ko-gu-ryŭ troops could -chase an army of Chinese. Taking five hundred picked -cavalry he continued the pursuit; but he had boasted too -soon. Gen. Mo Gu-geum’s reputation was at stake. Rallying -a handful of his braves the latter turned upon his pursuers -and handled them so severely that they turned and fled. -The Chinese followed up the timely victory and threw themselves -upon the army of Ko-gu-ryŭ so fiercely that the tables -were completely turned. It is said that in the engagement -that followed Ko-gu-ryŭ lost 18,000 men. King U-wi-gŭ, -seeing that all was lost, fled back to his capital and awaited -developments. But Gen. Wang-geui, Mo Gu-geum’s associate, -pursued the king across the Yalu and gave him no rest -until he had fled eastward to the territory of Ok-jŭ on the -eastern coast. On his way thither he crossed Chuk-nyŭng -Pass where all his remaining guard forsook him and fled. -One of his officials, Mil-u, said “I will go back and hold the -enemy at bay while you make good your escape”. So with -three or four soldiers he held the narrow pass while the king -found a retreat in a deep valley, where he succeeded in getting -together a little band of soldiers. He offered a reward to -anyone who should go and bring Mil-u safely to him. U Ok-ku -volunteered to go. Finding Mil-u wounded and lying on -the ground he took him in his arms and carried him to the -king. The latter was so delighted to recover his faithful -follower that he nursed him back to life by his own hand. A -few days later the pursuit continued and the king was again -hard pressed. A <a id='corr58_38'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='courter'>courtier</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_58_38'><ins class='correction' title='courter'>courtier</ins></a></span>, Yu-ryu, offered to go to the enemy’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>camp and in some way stop the pursuit. Taking some food -he went and boldly announced that the king desired to -surrender and had sent this gift ahead to announce his coming. -His words were believed and the general received the -gift. But Yu-ryu had concealed a short sword beneath the -dishes and when he approached the general he whipped out -the weapon and <a id='corr59_6'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='punged'>plunged</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_59_6'><ins class='correction' title='punged'>plunged</ins></a></span> it into the enemy’s breast. The -next moment he himself was cut down by the attendants. -When the king learned that the pursuers had lost their -general he rallied his little force, threw himself upon them -and put them to flight. The following year U-wi-gŭ, recognising -that his capital was too near the border, decided to -remove the court to P‘yŭng-yang which had been the capital -for so many centuries. Two years <a id='corr59_13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='latter be'>later he</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_59_13'><ins class='correction' title='latter be'>later he</ins></a></span> made a treaty -with Sil-la which remained unbroken for a century. He had -been cured of some of his over-ambitiousness. Yŭn-bul was -his successor.</p> - -<p class='c000'><a id='corr59_17'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='It'>In</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_59_17'><ins class='correction' title='It'>In</ins></a></span> the third year of King Ch’ŭm-hă of Sil-la, 249 A.D. -the first envoy ever received from Japan arrived at the shore -of Sil-la. He was met by Gen. Sŭk U-ro who addressed him -in the following unaccountable manner, “It would be well -if your king and queen should come and be slaves in the -kitchen of the king of Sil-la”. Without a word the envoy -turned about and posted back to Japan. An invasion of -Korea was determined upon and soon a powerful force -landed on the coast of that country. Gen. Sŭk U-ro was -filled with dismay and remorse. He confessed to the king -that he was the cause of this hostile display and begged to be -allowed to go alone and propitiate the advancing enemy. It -was granted and he walked straight into the Japanese camp -and confessed his crime and asked that he alone be punished. -The Japanese took him at his word, burned him alive in their -camp and returned to their own land without striking a blow. -The following year the same envoy came again and was well -received by the king, but the widow of Gen. Sŭk U-ro desiring -to avenge the blood of her husband, obtained permission -to work in the kitchen of the envoy’s place of entertainment. -There she found opportunity to poison his food and thus -accomplish her purpose. This of course put an end to all -hope of amity between the two countries and that event marks -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>the beginning of the feud which in spite of occasional periods -of apparent friendship, existed between the people of Japan -and Korea until the year 1868. Hostilities did not however -<a id='corr60_4'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='being'>begin</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_60_4'><ins class='correction' title='being'>begin</ins></a></span> at once.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The latter half of the third century beheld few events of -special interest in the peninsula. During this period Păk-je -seems to have made a spasmodic effort at reform, for we read -that she reorganised her official system and set a heavy penalty -for bribery, namely imprisonment for life. She also patched -up a shallow peace with Sil-la. In Ko-gu-ryŭ a concubine of -King Pong-sang tried to incense him against the queen by -showing him a leathern bag which she claimed the queen had -made to drown her in. The king saw through the trick and -to punish the crafty concubine had her killed in the very way -she had described. A chief of the Sŭn-bi tribe invaded -Ko-gu-ryŭ and desecrated the grave of the king’s father. -The wild men of Suk-sin attempted to overthrow Sil-la but the -king’s brother drove them back and succeeded in attaching -their territory to the crown of Sil-la. It is said that when -Sil-la was hard pressed by a band of savages strange warriors -suddenly appeared and after putting the savages to flight, as -suddenly disappeared. Each of these strange warriors had -ears like the leaves of the bamboo and when it was discovered -next day that the ground around the king’s father’s grave -was covered with bamboo leaves it was believed that he had -come forth from his grave with spirit warriors to aid his son.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With the opening of the fourth century the fifteenth king -of Sil-la, Ki-rim, made an extensive tour of his realm. He -passed northward as far as U-du-ju near the present Ch’un-ch’ŭn. -He also visited a little independent “kingdom” called -Pi-ryul, now An-byŭn, and made many presents, encouraged -agriculture and made himself generally agreeable. Not so -with the king of Ko-gu-ryŭ. He was made of sterner stuff. -He issued a proclamation that every man woman and child -above fifteen years old should lend their aid in building a -palace. Ko-gu-ryŭ had of late years passed through troublous -times and the people were in no mood to undertake -such a work. An influential courtier, Ch’ang Cho-ri, attempted -to dissuade the king but as he was not successful he settled -the question by assassinating the king. Eul-bul, who succeeded -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>him, had a chequered career before coming to the -throne. Being the king’s cousin he had to flee for his life. -He first became a common coolie in the house of one Eun-mo -in the town of Sil-la. By day he cut wood on the hill sides -and by night he made tiles or kept the frogs from croaking -while his master slept. Tiring of this he attached himself to -a salt merchant but being wrongfully accused he was dragged -before the magistrate and beaten almost to death. The -official Ch’ang Cho-ri and a few others knew his whereabouts -and, hunting him up, they brought him to the “Pul-yu water” -a hundred and ten li from P’yŭng-yang, and hid him in the -house of one O Măk-nam. When all was ripe for the final -move, Ch’ang Cho-ri inaugurated a great hunting party. -Those who were willing to aid in dethroning the king were -to wear a bunch of grass in the hat as a sign. The king was -seized and imprisoned, and there hanged himself. His sons -also killed themselves and Eul-bul was then elevated to the -perilous pinnacle of royalty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was about the beginning of this century also that the -Japanese, during one of those spasmodic periods of seeming -friendship asked the king of Sil-la to send a noble maiden of -Sil-la to be their queen. The king complied and sent the -daughter of one of his highest officials, A-son-geup-ri.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter IX.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Rise of Yŭn.... rebellion against China.... siege of Keuk Fortress -raised.... Ko-gu-ryŭ surrenders to Yŭn.... Ko-gu-ryŭ disarmed.... Japanese -attack Sil-la.... Păk-je’s victory over Ko-gu-ryŭ.... moves -her capital across the Han.... Păk-je people in Sil-la.... Yŭn is -punished.... Buddhism introduced into Ko-gu-ryŭ.... and into Păk-je.... amnesty -between Ko-gu-ryŭ and Păk-je.... but Ko-gu-ryŭ -continues the war.... Păk-je in danger.... envoy to Japan.... Ch’ŭm-nye -usurps the throne of Păk-je.... and is killed.... Sil-la princes -rescued.... Ko-gu-ryŭ and Păk-je receive investiture from China.... China’s -policy.... Nul-ji’s reign.... Ko-gu-ryŭ and Păk-je transfer -their allegience.... Yŭn extinct.... beginning of triangular war.... diplomatic -relations.... Ko-gu-ryŭ falls from grace.... first war -vessel.... diplomatic complications.... Păk-je humiliated.... her capital -moved.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>We have now come to the events which marked the rise of -the great Yŭn power in Liao-tung. They are so intimately -connected with the history of Ko-gu-ryŭ that we must give -them in detail. For many years there had been a Yŭn tribe -in the north but up to the year 320 it had not come into -prominence. It was a dependency of the Tsin dynasty of -China. Its chiefs were known by the general name Mo Yong. -In 320 Mo Yong-we was the acting chief of the tribe. He -conceived the ambitious design of overcoming China and -founding a new dynasty. The Emperor immediately despatched -an army under Gen. Ch’oe-bi to put down the incipient -rebellion. Ko-gu-ryŭ and the U-mun and Tan tribes were -called upon to render assistance against the rebels. All complied -and soon the recalcitrant chieftain found himself besieged -in Keuk Fortress and was on the point of surrendering -at discretion when an event occurred which, fortunately -for him, broke up the combination and raised the siege. It -was customary before surrendering to send a present of food -to the one who receives the overtures of surrender. Mo -Yong-we, in pursuance of this custom, sent out the present, -but for some reason it found its way only into the camp of -the U-mun forces while the others received none. When -this became known the forces of Ko-gu-ryŭ, believing that -Mo Yong-we had won over the U-mun people to his side, -retired in disgust and the Chinese forces, fearing perhaps a -hostile combination, likewise withdrew. The U-mun chiefs -resented this suspicion of treachery and vowed they would -take Mo Yong-we single-handed. But this they could not do, -for the latter poured out upon them with all his force and -scattered them right and left. From this point dates the -rise of Yŭn. Gen. Ch’oe-bi fearing the wrath of the Emperor -fled to Ko-gu-ryŭ where he found asylum. Here the affair -rested for a time. The kingdom of Yŭn forebore to attack -Ko-gu-ryŭ and she in turn was busy strengthening her own -position in view of future contingencies. Ten years passed -during which no events of importance transpired. In 331 -Eul-bul the king of Ko-gu-ryŭ died and his son Soé began his -reign by adopting an active policy of defense. He heightened -the walls of P’yŭng-yang and built a strong fortress in the -north, called Sin-sŭng. He followed this up by strengthening -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>his friendly relations with the court of China. These -facts did not escape the notice of the rising Yŭn power. Mo -Yong-whang, who had succeeded Mo <a id='corr63_3'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Wong-we'>Yong-we</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_63_3'><ins class='correction' title='Wong-we'>Yong-we</ins></a></span>, hurled an -expedition against the new Sin-sŭng Fortress and wrested it -from Ko-gu-ryŭ. The king was compelled, much against his -will, to go to Liao-tung and swear fealty to the Yŭn power. -Two years <a id='corr63_6'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='latter'>later</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_63_6'><ins class='correction' title='latter'>later</ins></a></span> the capital was moved northward to Wan-do, -in the vicinity of the Eui-ju of today. This was done probably -at the command of Yŭn who desired to have the capital of -Ko-gu-ryŭ within easy reach in case any complications might -arise.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mo Yong-whang desired to invade China without delay -but one of his relatives, Mo Yong-han, advised him to disarm -Ko-gu-ryŭ and the U-mun tribe so that no possible enemy -should be left in his rear when he marched into China. It -was decided to attack Ko-gu-ryŭ from the north and west, -but the latter route was to be the main one, for Ko-gu-ryŭ -would be expecting the attack from the north. The strategem -worked like a charm. Mo Yong-han and Mo Yong-p’ă led -a powerful army by way of the sea road while General Wang-u -led a decoy force by the northern route. The flower of the -Ko-gu-ryŭ army, 50,000 strong, marched northward under the -king’s brother Mu to meet an imaginary foe while the king -with a few undisciplined troops held the other approach. As -may be supposed, the capital fell speedily into the enemy’s -hands but the king escaped. The Ko-gu-ryŭ forces had been -successful in the north and might return any day, so the Yun -forces were forbidden to go in pursuit of the king. To insure -the good behavior of the king, however, they burned the -palace, looted the treasure, exhumed the body of the king’s -father and took it, together with the queen and her mother, -back to the capital of Yŭn. With such hostages as these -Yŭn was safe from that quarter. The next year the king -offered his humble apologies and made a complete surrender, -in view of which his father’s body and his queen were returned -to him but his mother-in-law was still held. The same -year Ko-gu-ryŭ moved her capital back to P’yŭng-yang. A -few years <a id='corr63_38'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='latter'>later</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_63_38'><ins class='correction' title='latter'>later</ins></a></span> by sending his son as substitute he got his -mother-in-law out of pawn.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 344 new complications grew up <a id='corr63_40'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='beween'>between</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_63_40'><ins class='correction' title='beween'>between</ins></a></span> Sil-la and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>Japan. The Japanese having already obtained one Sil-la -maiden for a queen made bold to ask for a royal princess to -be sent to wed their king. This was peremptorily refused -and of course war was the result. A Japanese force attacked -the Sil-la coastguard but being driven back they harried the -island of P‘ung-do and finally worked around until they were -able to approach the capital. Finding the gates fast shut -they laid siege to the city. But their provisions were soon -exhausted and they were compelled to retire. Then the Sil-la -forces swarmed out and attacked them in the rear and put -them to an ignominious flight. Some years later the Japanese -made a similar attempt but were outwitted by the Sil-la -soldiers who made manikins of grass to represent soldiers, and -the Japanese, seeing these, supposed that Sil-la had been -reinforced and so retired from the contest.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ko-gu-ryŭ had been so severely handled by her northern -neighbor that she gave up for the time being her plans of conquest -in that direction. Instead of this she turned her attention -toward her southern neighbor Păk-je whose territory was -a morsel not to be despised. About the year 360 she erected a -fort at Ch’i-yang not far from the Păk-je capital which was -<a id='corr64_22'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='than'>then</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_64_22'><ins class='correction' title='than'>then</ins></a></span> at Nam-han. Into this she threw a large force consisting -of 20,000 infantry and cavalry. They began a systematic -plundering of Păk-je. The army of the latter, under the -leadership of the Crown Prince, fell suddenly upon this fort -and gained a victory, for, when the Ko-gu-ryŭ forces retired, -they left 5,000 dead upon the field. Păk-je followed up this -victory by throwing up a line of breastworks along the southern -bank of the Han river to insure against a future surprise -on the part of her unscrupulous northern neighbor. But Păk-je’s -victories had shown her the weakness of Ko-gu-ryŭ and -reprisals were therefore in order. She equipped an army of -30,000 men and penetrated the country of the enemy. She -met no resistance until her army stood beneath the walls of -P‘yŭng-yang. An attempt was made to storm the town, during -which the king of Ko-gu-ryŭ was mortally wounded by an -<a id='corr64_37'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='iarrow'>arrow</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_64_37'><ins class='correction' title='iarrow'>arrow</ins></a></span>, but the assault failed and the Păk-je army withdrew in -good order. The king of Păk-je, elated over so many evidences -of his growing power, promptly moved his capital across -the Han River into Ko-gu-ryŭ territory. Some say he settled -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>at Puk-han the great mountain fortress back of Seoul while -others say he settled at Nam P’yŭng-yang or “South P’yŭng-yang,” -by which is meant the present city of Seoul. Others -still say it was at a point a short distance outside the east -gate of Seoul. But in spite of the apparent successes of Păk-je -it appears that the people were not satisfied. It may be -that military exactions had alienated their good will, or it may -be that they saw in these ambitious advances the sure presage -of speedy punishment at the hands of Ko-gu-ryŭ; but whatever -the cause may have been over a thousand people fled from -Păk-je and found asylum in Sil-la. The king set aside six -villages as their place of residence, and when Păk-je demanded -to have them sent back answer was returned that Sil-la -could not drive from her borders those who had sought asylum -from the ill-treatment of Păk-je.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Three years before this, <a id='corr65_16'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='In'>in</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_65_16'><ins class='correction' title='In'>in</ins></a></span> 372, the Chinese had gained -a signal victory over the Yŭn kingdom and its king, Mo Yong-p’ung, -had fled for safety to Ko-gu-ryŭ. It must have been -his last resource, for he was likely to find little sympathy -there. And so it proved for the king immediately seized him -and sent him a captive to China.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 372 beheld an event of prime importance in the -history of Ko-gu-ryŭ and of the whole peninsula. It was the -introduction of Buddhism. It is probable that before this -time some knowledge of Buddhism was current in Korea, but -as it is eminently a sacerdotal institution but little more than -indefinite reports could have been circulated previous to the -coming of the monks. We are not told whether this was done -at the request of Ko-gu-ryŭ or whether it was at the advice of -Pu-gyŭn, one of the petty kings who then divided between -them the north of China. Be that as it may, in 372 A.D. -images of Buddha were brought by a monk, Sun-do, and also -a Buddhist book called Pul-gyŭng. For this the king of Ko-gu-ryŭ -returned hearty thanks and forthwith set his son and -heir to learning the new doctrine. At the same time he gave -an impetus to the study of the Confucian code. It is quite -probable that to this new departure is due the fact that the -next year the laws of the country were overhauled and put in -proper shape for use. In 375 two great monasteries were -built in the capital of Ko-gu-ryŭ. They were called Cho-mun -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>and I-bul-lan. It should be noticed that the introduction of -Buddhism into Korea was a government affair. There had -been no propagation of the tenets of this cult through <a id='corr66_3'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic: emissaries'>emmisaries</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_66_3'><ins class='correction' title='sic: emissaries'>emmisaries</ins></a></span> -sent for the purpose, there was no call for it from the -people. In all probability the king and his court were pleased -at the idea of introducing the stately ceremonial of the new -faith. In fact it was a social event rather than a religious -one and from that date to this there has not been a time when -the people of Korea have entered heartily into the spirit of -Buddhism, nor have her most distinguished representatives -understood more than the mere forms and trappings of that -religion which among all pagan cults is the most mystical.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Păk-je was not long in following the example of her -powerful neighbor. In the year 384 a new king ascended the -throne of Păk-je. His name was Ch’im-yu. One of his first -acts was to send an envoy to China asking that a noted monk -named Mararanta be sent to Păk-je to introduce the Buddhist -ritual. We notice that this request was sent to the Emperor -Hyo-mu (Hsia-wu), the proper head of the Eastern Tsin -dynasty, while Ko-gu-ryŭ had received hers at the hands of -one of those petty kings who hung upon the skirts of the -weakening dynasty and waited patiently for its dissolution. -Each of these petty states, as well as the central government -of the Tsin, was on the lookout for promising allies and such -a request as this of Păk-je could scarcely be refused. Mararanta, -whose name smacks of the south and who certainly -cannot have been a Chinaman, was sent to the Păk-je capital. -He was received with open arms. His apartments were in -the palace where he soon erected a Buddhist shrine. Ten -more monks followed him and Buddhism was firmly established -in this second of the three Korean states. The greatest deference -was paid to these monks and they were addressed by the -honorific title To-seung. Sil-la received Buddhism some fifty -years later.</p> - -<p class='c000'>All this time fighting was almost continuous along the -Ko-gu-ryŭ-Păk-je border. The latter stood on the defensive -and found it necessary in 386 to build a line of breastworks -along the border, extending from Ch’ŭng-mok-yŭng northward -to P’al-gon-sung and thence westward to the sea. An -amnesty was brought about through a happy accident. A -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>groom who had accidentally broken the leg of a Păk-je prince’s -horse had fled to Ko-gu-ryŭ to escape punishment. Returning -now to Păk-je, he purchased pardon by informing the -king that if, in battle, the Păk-je forces should direct their -whole force against that part of the enemy’s line where they -should see a red flag flying they would surely be successful. -This turned out to be true and Păk-je was once more successful, -but followed up her success only to the extent of securing -a definite cessation of hostilities and the erection of a -boundary stone at Su-gok-sŭng to witness forever against him -who should dispute the point. But when King Ch’im-yu of -Ko-gu-ryŭ died in 392 and his son Tam-dok came into power -all previous obligations were swept away and he proceeded to -reopen the wound. He attacked Păk-je fiercely and took ten of -her towns. Then he turned northward and chastised the Kŭ-ran -tribe. When this was done he came back to the charge -again and seized Kwang-nu Fortress. This was an almost inaccessible -position on a high rock surrounded by the sea, but the -hardy soldiers of Ko-gu-ryŭ after twenty days of siege found -seven paths by which the wall could be reached, and they finally -took the place by a simultaneous assault at these various points. -When the court of Păk-je heard of this well-nigh impossible -feat, all hope of victory in the field was taken away, and they -could only bar the gates of the capital and await the turn of -events. This king, Tam-dok, was as enthusiastically Buddhistic -as his father. He made a decree that all the people of -Ko-gu-ryŭ should adopt the Buddhistic faith and a few years -later built nine more monasteries in P’yŭng-yang.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A year later King A-sin of Păk-je sent his son, Chön-ji, -to Japan as an envoy. It is likely, but not certain, that it -was a last resource of Păk-je to secure help against Ko-gu-ryŭ. -This is the more likely from the fact that he went not only as -an envoy but also as a hostage, or a guarantee of good faith. -If this was the hope of Păk-je it failed, for no Japanese army -was forthcoming. As another means of self-preservation King -A-sin formed a great school of archery, but the people did not -like it; for exercise in it was compulsory, and many of the -people ran away.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 399 Ko-gu-ryŭ sent an envoy to the Yŭn capital to pay -her respects, but the king of that country charged Ko-gu-ryŭ -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>with ambitious designs and sent an army of 30,000 men to -seize the fortresses of Sin-sŭng and Nam-so, thus delimiting -the frontier of Ko-gu-ryŭ to the extent of 700 <em>li</em>. They carried -back with them 5,000 “houses,” which means approximately -25,000 people, as captives. It is difficult to believe this -enumeration unless we conclude that it means that the people -living within the limit of the 700 <em>li</em> were taken to be citizens -of Yŭn.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The fifth century of our era dawned upon a troubled Korea. -The tension between the three rival powers was severe, -and every nerve was strained in the struggle for preeminence. -In 402 Nă-mul, the king of Sil-la, died and Sil-sŭng came to -the throne. He sent out feelers in two directions, one toward -Ko-gu-ryŭ in the shape of a hostage, called by euphemism an -envoy, and another of the same sort to Japan; which would -indicate that Sil-la was still suffering from the depredations of -the Japanese corsairs. The envoy to Ko-gu-ryŭ was the -king’s brother, Pok-ho, and the one to Japan was also his -brother, Mi-sa-heun. We remember that Păk-je already had -an envoy in Japan in the person of the king’s eldest son Chön-ji. -Now in 405 the king of Păk-je died. Chön-ji was the -rightful heir but as he was in Japan the second son should -have assumed the reins of government. As a fact the third -son Chŭng-nye killed his brother and seized the scepter. -Hearing of his father’s death, Chön-ji returned from Japan -with an escort of a hundred Japanese, but learning of his -brother’s murder he feared treachery against himself and so -landed on an island off the coast where he remained until the -people, with a fine sense of justice, drove <a id='corr68_28'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>Ch’ăm-nye</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_68_28'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>Ch’ăm-nye</ins></a></span> from the -throne and welcomed back the rightful heir.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile interesting events were transpiring in Sil-la. -In 403 Sil-sung, King of that land, fearing lest harm overtake -his two brothers whom he had sent the year before to -Ko-gu-ryŭ and Japan, was seeking for some means of getting -them back. This might not be an easy thing to do, for to -ask their return so soon would perhaps arouse the suspicion -of these neighbors, and precipitate a war. Ko-gu-ryŭ had -often taken up arms for a less affront than this. An official, -Pak Che-san, volunteered to undertake this delicate mission -even though it cost him his life. He went first to Ko-gu-ryŭ -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>and there proved so skillful a <a id='corr69_1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='dilpomat'>diplomat</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_69_1'><ins class='correction' title='dilpomat'>diplomat</ins></a></span> that he soon brought -Prince Pok-ho back to Sil-la. The mission to Japan was a -different matter, but he was equal to the occasion. Before -starting out he said to the king: “I will bring the Prince -back though it cost my life; only, before I go, I must ask you -to <em>imprison my family</em>; otherwise I cannot succeed.” The -king acceded to this strange request and Pak Che-san, starting -immediately as if in flight, without even changing his garments, -fled until he came to the Yul Harbor. Even his wife -he repulsed, exclaiming “I have determined to die.” He apparently -feared that the sight of her might shake his loyal -purpose. He arrived in Japan as a political fugitive, but the -king suspected him until news came that his family had been -imprisoned. This seemed to prove his statement and he was -received graciously. He pretended that he wished to lead a -Japanese force against Sil-la. Mi-sa-heun, the Prince whom -he had come to rescue, was in the secret and heartily seconded -the plan. The king made them joint leaders of an expedition. -The fleet arrived at a certain island and there Pak succeeded -in spiriting Mi-sa-heun away by night in a little boat -while he himself remained behind, to delay the inevitable pursuit. -Mi-sa-heun begged him with tears to accompany him -but he refused to jeopardise Mi-sa-heun’s chances of escape -by so doing. In the morning he pretended to sleep very late -and no one suspected the flight of the Prince until late in the -day when concealment was no longer possible. When the -Japanese found that they had been duped they were in a terrible -rage. They bound Pak and went in pursuit of the run-away. -But a heavy fog settled upon the sea and frustrated -their plan. Then they <a id='corr69_25'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='torturted'>tortured</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_69_25'><ins class='correction' title='torturted'>tortured</ins></a></span> their remaining victim and -to their inquiries he replied that he was a loyal subject of -Kye-rim (the name of Sil-la at that time) and that he would -rather be a Kye-rim pig than a subject of Japan; that he would -rather be whipped like a school-boy in Kye-rim than receive -office in Japan. By these taunts he escaped a lingering death -<a id='corr69_31'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='be'>by</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_69_31'><ins class='correction' title='be'>by</ins></a></span> torture. They burned him alive there on the island of -Mok-do. When the king of Sil-la heard of his brave end he -mourned for him and heaped upon him posthumous honors, -and Mi-sa-heun married his preserver’s daughter. The wife -of the devoted Pak ascended the pass of Ap-sul-yŭng whence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>she could obtain a distant view of the islands of Japan. There -she gave herself up to grief until death put an end to her -misery.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 413 a new king came to the throne of Ko-gu-ryŭ. -called Kö-ryŭn. As China and Ko-gu-ryŭ had been kept apart -by the intervening Yun, and had acquired some power of -sympathy through mutual fear of that power, we are not surprised -that the new king of Ko-gu-ryŭ condescended to receive -investiture from the Emperor, <a id='corr70_9'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='now'>nor</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_70_9'><ins class='correction' title='now'>nor</ins></a></span> that the latter condescended -in turn to grant it. It was formally done, and the -act of Ko-gu-ryŭ proclaimed her vassalage to China. From -that time on excepting when war existed between them, the -kings of Ko-gu-ryŭ were invested by the Emperor with the -insignia of royalty. Two years later the Emperor conferred -the same honor upon the king of Păk-je. It was always -China’s policy to keep the kingdoms at peace with each other -so long as they all wore the yoke of vassalage; but so soon as -one or the other cast it off it was her policy to keep them -at war.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 417 Nul-ji came to the throne of Sil-la and began a -reign that was to last well on toward half a century. He was -a regicide. He had been treated very harshly by the king -and had more than once narrowly escaped with his life. It is -therefore the less surprising, though none the less reprehensible, -that when the opportunity presented of paying off old -scores he succumbed to the temptation. He ascended the -throne not with the title of I-sa-geum, which had been the -royal title for centuries, but with the new title of Ma-rip-kan. -However doubtful may have been his title to the crown his -reign was a strong one. Among the far-reaching effects of -his reign the introduction of carts to be drawn by oxen was -the most important.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The friendly relations of Ko-gu-ryŭ with the Tsin dynasty -were cut short by the extinction of that dynasty in 419 but in -435 Ko-gu-ryŭ made friendly advances toward the Northern -Wei dynasty and, finding sufficient encouragement, she transferred -her allegience to that power. Meantime Păk-je had -transferred hers to the Sung dynasty which arose in 420.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in 436 that P’ung-hong, the “Emperor” of Yun, -found himself so weak that he could not withstand the pressure -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>from the Chinese side and asked the king of Ko-gu-ryŭ -to grant him asylum. Consent was given and an escort was -sent to conduct him to the Ko-gu-ryŭ capital. He found that -this sort of life had its drawbacks; for, to begin with, the king -did not address him as emperor but simply as king. This was -a great affront to his dignity and, though he was treated very -handsomely, he assumed such a supercillious bearing that the -king had to curtail his retinue and his income. He had been -given quarters in Puk-p’ung and from there the mendicant -emperor applied to the Sung Emperor for asylum. It was -granted, and seven thousand soldiers came to escort him; but -ere they arrived the king of Ko-gu-ryŭ sent two generals, -Son-su and Ko-gu, who killed the imperial refugee and nine -of his attendants. The Sung troops, arriving on the instant, -discovered the crime and caught and executed the two generals -who had perpetrated it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 449 a Ko-gu-ryŭ general was out on a hunting expedition -and the chase brought him into Sil-la territory near the -present town of Kang-neung. The prefect of the district, in -an excess of patriotic enthusiasm, seized him and put him to -death. An envoy came in haste to the Sil-la capital demanding -why this outrage had been committed. War would have -been declared on the spot had not Sil-la been profuse in apologies. -She might have spared herself this humiliation for -war was sure to break out soon in any case. When <a id='corr71_25'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Pă-gy'>ng</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_71_25'><ins class='correction' title='Pă-gy'>ng</ins></a></span> -came to the throne of Păk-je in 455, Ko-gu-ryŭ took advantage -of the confusion, consequent upon the change, to attack -her. Sil-la, who, though ordinarily a peaceful power, had -been perforce drawn into war-like operations and had acquired -some military skill, now sided with Păk-je. Sending a considerable -number of troops she reinforced Păk-je to the extent -of warding off the threatened invasion. But Păk-je, though -glad to find herself extricated from her position of danger, -would allow no feelings of gratitude to stand in the way of -her ancient feud against Sil-la; so this act of friendship not -only did not help toward peace but on the contrary, by showing -Sil-la the fickleness of Păk-je, made peace all the more -impossible. The middle of the fifth century marks the point -when all friendly relations between the three Korean states -were broken off and an actual state of war existed between -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>them from this time on, though active military operations -were not constant. This we may call the Triangular War.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The key to this great struggle, which resulted in the -advancement of Sil-la to the control of the whole peninsula, -lay not so much in the relative military strength of the three -rival kingdoms as in the skill which each developed in diplomacy. -Each was trying to gain the active support of China, -knowing very well that if China should once become thoroughly -interested in favor of any one of the three powers the other -two would be doomed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We will remember that <a id='corr72_11'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-ku-ryŭ had cultivated firiendly'>Ko-gu-ryŭ had cultivated friendly</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_72_11'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-ku-ryŭ had cultivated firiendly'>Ko-gu-ryŭ had cultivated friendly</ins></a></span> -relations with the Sung dynasty while Păk-je had made herself -agreeable to the Wei dynasty. In this Păk-je chose the -wiser part for the Wei power was nearer and more powerful. -In 466 Ko-gu-ryŭ lost a splendid opportunity to establish herself -in the good graces of the Wei Emperor, and so insure her -preeminence in the peninsula. The Emperor Hsien-wen made -friendly advances and requested the daughter of the king of -Ko-gu-ryŭ for his wife. With a short-sightedness that is -quite inexplicable this request was put off by the lame excuse -that his daughter was dead. This being easily proved a falsehood, -Ko-gu-ryŭ fell from the good graces of the very power -whose friendship she should have cultivated.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 467 witnessed an important innovation in Korea. -Sil-la took the lead in the construction of war vessels. The -one made at that time was doubtless intended for use against -the Japanese corsairs. That Sil-la had been gaining along -military lines is shown by her successful repulse of a Ko-gu-ryŭ -invasion in this year, in which the wild people of some -of the Mal-gal tribes assisted Ko-gu-ryŭ. After the latter -had been driven back, Sil-la built a fortress at Po-eun on her -northern border to guard against a repetition of this invasion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ko-gu-ryŭ and Păk-je were now exerting themselves to -the utmost to make capital out of their Chinese alliances. -Ko-gu-ryŭ sent rich presents and richer words to the Sung -capital and so won the confidence of that power. Păk-je, on -the other hand, sent word to the Wei Emperor that Ko-gu-ryŭ -was coquetting with the Sung court and with the wild -Mal-gal tribes, insinuating that this was all detrimental to -the interests of Păk-je’s patron.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>As this was without result, she sent and asked openly that -the Wei Emperor send <a id='corr73_2'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='at'>an</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_73_2'><ins class='correction' title='at'>an</ins></a></span> army and chastise Ko-gu-ryŭ. The -Emperor replied that until Ko-gu-ryŭ committed some overt -act of more hostile import than the mere cementing of peaceful -alliances no notice could be taken of her. In other words -the Wei power refused to be the aggressor, much to Păk-je’s -<a id='corr73_7'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='chargin'>chagrin</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_73_7'><ins class='correction' title='chargin'>chagrin</ins></a></span>. The Wei Emperor sent this answer by way of Ko-gu-ryŭ -and the king of that country was ordered to grant the -messenger a safe conduct through his territory. But Ko-gu-ryŭ, -as though bent on self-destruction, refused to let him pass, -and so the great northern kingdom approached one step nearer -the precipice which was to prove her destruction. Upon -learning the news of this affront the Emperor was highly incensed -and tried to send the messenger by way of a southern -port; but stress of weather rendered this impossible and Păk-je, -receiving no answer to her missive, took offense and would -have nothing more to do with China, for a time. By the -time she had recovered her temper, Ko-gu-ryŭ had in some -way patched up her difficulty with the Wei court and so -scored a point against Păk-je. And for a time she was on -friendly terms with both the Wei and Sung dynasties.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this point Ko-gu-ryŭ decided upon a bold attempt to -swallow Păk-je bodily. It was to be done partly by strategem -and partly by force. A monk of Ko-gu-ryŭ named To-rim, a -fellow of excellent craft, arrived at the Păk-je capital as if -seeking refuge. The king received him with open arms and, -finding him an excellent chess player, made him his trusty -councilor. This monk told the king that the palaces, walls, -tombs and public buildings ought to be thoroughly repaired, -and so induced him to drain the public treasury in this work, -and also in bringing a huge monolith from Uk-nyi to the -capital. This done the monk fled back to Ko-gu-ryŭ and -announced that the treasury of Păk-je was empty and it was -a good time to attack her. A large army was put in the field, -guided by one Kŭl-lu, a Păk-je fugitive from justice. Almost -before Păk-je was aware, her capital was surrounded. She -had applied to Sil-la for help, but too late. First the suburbs -were laid in ashes, and then access being gained, the palace -was fired. The king fled with ten attendants out the west -gate, but Kŭl-lu the renegade followed and overtook him. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>The king begged for mercy upon his knees but Kŭl-lu spit -thrice in his face, bound him and sent him to the fortress of -A-han where lie was killed. Then the Ko-gu-ryŭ army went -back north carrying with them 8,000 captives, men and -women.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile Prince Mun-ju had obtained help from Sil-la -and with 10,000 troops was hastening homewards. He found -the city in ashes, his father dead, the people mourning their -lost, who had been dragged away captive. He promptly -assumed control of affairs, moved the capital southward to -Ung-jin the present Kong-ju, took all the Păk-je people -away from Han-yang (Seoul) and moved them back across -the Han River and abandoned all the territory beyond that -natural barrier to Ko-gu-ryŭ to whom it had originally belonged. -The following year he tried to send a message to the -Sung Emperor by way of Ko-gu-ryŭ but the messenger was -intercepted and the message stopped.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter X.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Quelpart.... origin of T’am-na.... new alliances.... advances in Sil-la.... but -not in Păk-je nor Ko-gu-ryŭ.... temporary peace.... Buddhism -in Sil-la.... remnants of barbarism.... influence of Chinese -literature.... important reforms.... Ko-gu-ryŭ’s foreign relations.... conquest -of Dagelet Island.... posthumous titles.... colors in official -grades.... Wei displeased.... the “miracle” of Yi Cha-don.... end of -Ka-rak.... Sil-la rejects Chinese calendar.... confusion in China.... Păk-je -attempts reform.... history of Sil-la.... two alliances.... Păk-je -and Ko-gu-ryŭ envoys to China.... advance of Buddhism in Sil-la.... music -in Sil-la.... war between Păk-je and Sil-la.... retrogression -in Sil-la because of Buddhism.... Ko-gu-ryŭ and the Sui Emperor.... the -<em>Ondali</em>.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Tradition says that in the dawn of history when the -island of Che-ju (Quelpart) was covered only with a tangled -forest three sages arose from a crevice in the ground. This -spot is shown to this day by the people of Che-ju. These -three men were Ko-ŭlla, Yang-ŭlla and Pu-ŭlla. As they -stood upon the shore they saw three stout chests floating -in from the south-east. Drawing them to land and opening -them the three wise men discovered that each chest contained -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>a calf, a colt, <a id='corr75_1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='a dog'>a dog,</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_75_1'><ins class='correction' title='a dog'>a dog,</ins></a></span> a pig and a woman, together with -sundry seeds, such as beans, wheat, barley, millet and rice. -By the three families thus organised the island was populated. -During the early days of Sil-la a certain court astrologer -announced that the “Friend Star” was visible in the south -and that a distinguished visitor would soon arrive. Soon -after this three men came by boat from Quelpart, landing at -the harbor of T’am-jin, now Kang-jin. They came straight -to the court of Sil-la where they were hospitably entertained. -One of the visitors was <a id='corr75_10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-hu one was one was Ko-ch’ŭng but the the'>Ko-hu, one was Ko-ch’ŭng, but the</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_75_10'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-hu one was one was Ko-ch’ŭng but the the'>Ko-hu, one was Ko-ch’ŭng, but the</ins></a></span> -name of the third is lost. The king called the first Sŭng-ju -or “Lord of the Star,” the second Wang-ja or “King’s -Son” and the third To-nă or “The One who has Come.” -He named their country <em>T’am</em> from the name of the port -where they landed, and <em>na</em>, which seems to have meant -“Kingdom”, for we find that the last syllable of Sil-la is this -same <em>na</em> changed by euphonic laws to <em>la</em>. It is the root of the -present Korean word <em>na-ra</em> or “kingdom.” So the kingdom -was called T’am-na. The authorities are at a loss to tell the -date or even the reign during which these events transpired. -In the year 477 the little kingdom of T’am-na sent an envoy -to the court of Păk-je with gifts. This is the first really -authentic mention of the place. If tradition is of any value -it must be confessed that the story of the peopling of Quelpart -points toward a southern origin.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 479 the aged king of Ko-gu-ryŭ, Kö-ryŭn, now in the -sixty-eighth year of his reign, sought and obtained recognition -from Emperor Ko-je (Kao-ti) the founder of the Ch’i -dynasty in China. That this occurred in the very first year -after the founding of that dynasty shows how sedulously -Ko-gu-ryŭ was cultivating the good-will of the Chinese. -Păk-je was not far behind, for she swore allegiance to the -same Emperor only two years later.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During all these years it is to Sil-la that we must look -for any signs of internal improvement, any of those innovations -which are the mile-stones of progress. We saw above -how she introduced the use of the cart and so raised a great -burden from the shoulders of the people. The wheel is the -great burden bearer of history. And now we find her introducing -further reforms. The first was the horse relay -<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>system called the <em>yong-ma</em>. It did not bear so directly upon -the condition of the people but it afforded an opportunity for -the rapid transmission of official information and thus indirectly -had an important bearing upon the <a id='corr76_4'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='wellfare'>welfare</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_76_4'><ins class='correction' title='wellfare'>welfare</ins></a></span> of the -masses. In the next place, she organised a general market -where at stated intervals merchants from the various districts -could meet and exchange commodities. These are things -that we look upon as matters of course and we do not realise -their importance till we imagine ourselves deprived of the comforts -that spring from the possibility of rapid communication -and exchange of commodities. That Ko-gu-ryŭ had not -made similar advances in the line of industrial reform is -shown by the fact that when the Emperor of the Wei dynasty -sent to grant investiture to Na-un the twenty-first king of -Ko-gu-ryŭ in 499 he presented him with suits of clothes, -flags, a crown and a cart. This shows that carts were not as -yet in common use in Ko-gu-ryŭ. As for Păk-je, disaster -was following upon disaster. At one time a thousand people -were swept away in a flood. Then famine carried away three -thousand. A few years later ten thousand people passed -over into Sil-la to save themselves from starvation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The sixth century dawned upon a comparatively peaceful -Korea; for the time being the dogs of war were held in leash -and feuds seem to have been laid on the shelf. The three -kingdoms employed their time in different but characteristic -ways. The king of Păk-je built an enormous pleasure-house -and adorned it with all manner of curious flowers and animals. -To the expostulations of his ministers he turned a deaf ear. -A few years later he was murdered by one of his courtiers. -In truth, peace was nearly as bad for Păk-je as war.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In Sil-la Buddhism had been introduced during the reign -of Nul-ji, 417-458. A monk named Muk Ho-ja had been -well received and was lodged in the palace. But, at the -first, Buddhism did not find congenial soil in Sil-la. Tradition -gives the following account of the first set-back which it -suffered there. In 502 while the king was idling an hour -away in a favorite summer-house outside the city, a raven -appeared bearing in its beak a letter. It laid the missive at -the king’s feet and flew away. The superscription said “If -the king opens and reads this note two people will die; if he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>does not open it one will die”. He determined not to open -it, but one of his attendants said, “The one referred to is -Your Majesty and therefore you should open it even though -two lives are sacrificed”. He broke the seal and read the -strange words “Let the king take his trustiest bow, hasten -to the palace and shoot an arrow through the zither case”. -The king obeyed the mandate, hastened back to the palace by -a private gate, entered the queen’s apartments unannounced -and shot an arrow through a zither case that stood against the -wall. The arrow pierced the zither case and the High -Priest who was hidden behind it. The latter had taken -advantage of the king’s absence to attack his honor. He was -strangled together with the guilty queen.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With all her attempts at progress some evidences of the -grossest barbarity still lingered in Sil-la. It was not, so the -records tell us, until the year 503 that Sil-la discontinued the -horrible custom of burying people alive when a king’s body -was interred. It had been customary to bury five boys and -five girls alive on such occasions, but in 503 the king published -a decree forbidding the continuance of the custom. The -very barbarity of the custom renders its abolition the more -striking and places the name of king Chi-jeung, the twenty-second -of his line, among the names of Korea’s benefactors. -At the same time the custom of plowing with oxen was introduced, -an innovation that had a most far-reaching effect upon -society. It was in the beginning of the sixth century that -Sil-la began to show evidences of the influence of Chinese -literature and thought. In 504 she adopted the Chinese word -Wang as the title of her kings in place of the pure Korean -words I-sa-geum or Ma-rip-kan. She also changed the name -of the kingdom from Kye-rim to Sil-la. We have been speaking -of this kingdom under the name Sil-la but as a matter of -fact it was not so designated until the year 504 A.D. Before -that time it had been variously styled Sŭ-ya-bŭl, Sa-ro, and -Kye-rim. The word Sil-la is said to have been composed of -the Chinese words <em>Sin</em> and <em>ra</em>, which when united become Sil-la -according to Korean laws of euphony. It is more than -probable that it was merely an adaptation of Chinese characters -to pure Korean words, for the last syllable <em>la</em> or <em>na</em> is the -same as that used in other words, centuries before that time, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>in southern Korea. The <em>na</em> of T’am-na is the same character. -To the word Sil-la was added the word <em>Kuk</em> or “kingdom” -which put her in line with the other vassals of China. The -Confucian code must have been making headway too, for in -the following year the custom was adopted of assuming a -mourning garb for three years upon the death of a parent. -It was at this time that the influence of China upon Korea -began to bear its legitimate fruit. Chinese religion, literature, -government and art were beginning to mould the thought and -life of the Korean people. Many Chinese words had been introduced -into Korea before this time but the use of the Chinese -character had not been general.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the mean time Ko-gu-ryŭ had been paying attention -not so much to internal reforms as to external alliances. -She sent to the Wei Emperor begging him to remit the -revenue in gold and jade, as they were obtained, the one in -Pu-yŭ, which she claimed the Mal-gal savages had seized, and -the other in Sŭp-na which she averred the wicked Păk-je had -feloniously taken. But she added “Of course all that Ko-gu-ryŭ -has is yours”. The Emperor good-naturedly remitted -the revenue but urged his vassal to continue the good work -of subduing the wild tribes of the peninsula. It is said -that in a single year Ko-gu-ryŭ sent three separate embassies -to the Wei court. At the same time she was coquetting, -<span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><em>sub rosa</em></span>, with the new Liang power which had arisen -in 502. In this Păk-je of course followed suite. We thus -see that the three kingdoms spent their time in different -ways; Sil-la in internal improvement, Păk-je in self-gratification -and Ko-gu-ryŭ in strengthening her foreign relations.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the year 512 the kingdom of U-san was added to the -crown of Sil-la. This was the little island of Dagelet, off the -eastern coast of Korea, about opposite the prefecture of -Kang-neung. How Sil-la happened to branch out in a policy -of conquest we are not told, but having decided to do so she -did it very neatly. The expedition was led by Gen. Yi Sa-bu. -He ordered the construction of several lions with gaping -mouths and enormous fangs. They were carved from -wood. He placed one of these in the prow of each of the boats -and when the little flotilla approached the shores of the island -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>the natives were called upon to lay down their arms and -surrender, or the lions would be set loose among them and -would tear them to pieces. This, it is averred, brought the -trembling islanders to their knees at once and Sil-la won a -bloodless victory. This is among the most cherished traditions -of the Korean people.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With the accession of Wŭn-jong to the throne of Sil-la -in 514 the Chinese custom of conferring a posthumous title -upon a deceased king was introduced for the first time into -Korea. Long before this the custom had prevailed in Ko-gu-ryŭ -of naming a dead king after the place in which he was -buried but to the very last the Ko-gu-ryŭ kings did not -receive posthumous honorific titles. Păk-je however followed -Sil-la’s example ten years later.</p> - -<p class='c000'>King Pŭp-heung of Sil-la in 520 reorganised the official -list and indicated the different grades of rank by different -colors. The grades called <em>t’a-do</em>, <em>kak-kan</em> and <em>ta-a-son</em> wore -<a id='corr79_18'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='lavendar'>lavender</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_79_18'><ins class='correction' title='lavendar'>lavender</ins></a></span>. Those called <em>a-son</em> and <em>keup-son</em>, wore red, and -carried the ivory memo tablets that are common today. The -<em>ta-na-ma</em> and the <em>na-ma</em> wore blue. The <em>ta-sa</em> and <em>sun-jo-ji</em> -wore hats of silk, shaped like the broad-brimmed, round -crowned hats of the chair-coolie of the present day. The <em>pa-jin-son</em> -and the <em>ta-a-son</em> wore red silk hats. The <em>sang-dang</em>, -<em>chuk-wi</em> and <em>ta-sa</em> wore red hat strings. The kaleidoscopic -colors of a royal Korean procession of today indicate what a -prominent role the love of color plays in the oriental temperament.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Wei power in China was not pleased with the -friendship that was springing up between Ko-gu-ryŭ and the -Liang court. This came to a climax when she <a id='corr79_29'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='stopppd'>stopped</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_79_29'><ins class='correction' title='stopppd'>stopped</ins></a></span> a -Liang envoy who was on his way to Ko-gu-ryŭ to confer -investiture upon the king. It may be that Ko-gu-ryŭ realised -that the Wei dynasty was waning to its close and -that it was well to cultivate the good-will of the young -and rising Liang power; but if so the forecast was false -for the Liang power outlived the Wei only twenty-four -years.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 524 gave Sil-la Buddhism a new lease of life. -Its most celebrated representative was a monk named Muk -Ho-ja who lived about the middle of the fifth century. Coming -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>from Ko-gu-ryŭ he had settled at the town of Il-sŭng-gun -where a Sil-la citizen had made him a cave dwelling. The -king of Sil-la received a gift of incense from China, but did -not know how to use it till this monk Muk Ho-ja showed him -how. He told the king to burn it and ask anything of the -spirits, and they would grant it. The king’s daughter was -very ill at the time and the king burned the incense and asked -that his daughter be healed. The story says that she -immediately arose from her bed a well woman. This of -course gave Buddhism a long start. Since that time, as we -have seen, Buddhism had suffered a severe drawback in the -person of the wicked monk who was discovered in the act of -abusing his sacerdotal function. It had recovered from that -shock however and had again assumed large proportions in -the state of Sil-la. The king had come so completely under -the influence of the monks that now in 524 the courtiers -feared that their power would be seriously threatened. They -therefore used every means to induce the king to moderate -his views. The king gave his reluctant assent to the execution -of the high priest, Yi Cha-don. Tradition says that when -he was brought to execution he exclaimed “When you slay -me, my blood will flow not red like blood but white as milk -and then you will know that Buddhism is true.” And so it -proved, for when his head was severed from the trunk his -blood flowed white like milk. None could gainsay this -evidence and from that day Buddhism advanced with rapid -steps. The following year the king made a law against the -killing of animals.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The kingdom of Ka-rak had existed side by side with Sil-la -on terms of mutual friendship for four hundred and eighty-two -years, but in 527 her king, Kim Ku-hyŭng, gave up his -sovereign power and merged his kingdom into that of Sil-la. -He was however retained at the head of the Ka-rak state -under appointment by the king of Sil-la. It does not appear -from the scanty records that this was other than a peaceful -change. Ka-rak had long seen the growing power of Sil-la -and doubtless recognised that more was to be gained by -becoming part of that kingdom than by standing aloof and -running the chance of becoming disputed territory between -the rival powers of the peninsula. She had been founded in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>41 A.D. and now she came to an end in 527, so her lease of -life seems to have been four hundred and eighty-six years -rather than four hundred and eighty-two as the records state. -As the dates of her beginning and end are both taken from -the records the discrepancy must be laid at the door of the -recorder.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i080.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>READY FOR THE ROAD.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>About this time Sil-la discovered that it was useless to -cultivate the friendship of the Chinese powers. The Chinese -territory was divided into a number of petty kingdoms and -more were on the eve of being founded. None of them had -strength enough to hold her own against the others, much -less to be of any avail in case of trouble in the peninsula. -Perhaps it was for this reason that in 535 Sil-la rejected the -Chinese calendar and named the year according to a plan of -her own. In China the Liang dynasty, the Northern Wei, -and the Eastern Wei were all in the field, while the Ch’en, -the Northern Ch’i, the Northern Chu and the Sui dynasties -were just about to make their appearance and all to pass away -like summer clouds before the power of the mighty T’ang.</p> - -<p class='c000'>About the year 540 Păk-je moved her capital again; this -time it was to Sa-ja the site of the present prefecture of Pu-yŭ -in the province of Ch’ung-ch’ŭng. She seems to have had -some aspirations after better things, for in 541 she sent to the -Liang court asking that books of poetry, teachers of literature, -Buddhist books, artisans and picture painters be sent to -help in creating a taste for literature and art in that country. -The request was granted.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 543 marks an important event in the life of Sil-la. -The history of that country existed as yet only in the -form of notes, but now the king ordered that a congress of -the best scholars of the land set to work compiling a proper -history under the leadership of the great scholar Kim-gŭ -Ch’il-bu. We will notice that this was about two hundred -years before the earliest date that is set for the publication of -the Japanese work entitled the Kojiki. And it should be -noticed likewise that this history of Sil-la was not a collection -of myths and stories only, but a proper history, worked up -from government records which a certain degree of knowledge -of Chinese had rendered the officials capable of making and -transmitting. One needs but to compare the Kojiki with the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>Sam-guk-sa or “History of the Three Kingdoms” founded on -these records to see how immeasurably the latter excels the -former as a source of accurate historical evidence.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was about this time that the wild tribes of the Mal-gal -and Ye-măk began to realise that the continued progress of -Păk-je and Sil-la meant extinction for themselves. So in 547 -they joined Ko-gu-ryŭ in an attack upon Păk-je; but Sil-la -and Ka-ya rendered aid to Păk-je and the northern allies were -driven back. From this time on, during a period of several -years, Ko-gu-ryŭ, Ye-măk and Mal-gal were allies, and Sil-la, -Păk-je and Ka-ya were allies; a sort of dual arrangement, -which preserved a nice equilibrium in the peninsula.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 549 the king of Păk-je sent an envoy to present his -compliments to the Liang Emperor. When he arrived at the -capital of the Liang power he found the palace in ashes and -the reins of government in the hands of the usurper Hu-gyŭng; -so he took his stand before the Tan-mun (gate) and -wept aloud from morning till night. The passers-by, hearing -his story, stopped and wept with him. This of course did not -please the usurper, and the envoy was seized and thrown -into prison where he stayed until the rebellion was put down -and the Emperor returned. As the Ch’i dynasty arose in 550 -we are not surprised to learn that Ko-gu-ryŭ sent an envoy -immediately to do obeisance and get into the good graces of -the new power.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It must be confessed that meantime Buddhism had been -making rapid strides in Sil-la. Monasteries had been erected -and the new cult was winning its way into the hearts of the -people. In 551 the public teaching of the eight laws of -Buddhism against (1) the slaughter of animals, (2) theft. -(3) licentiousness, (4) lying, (5) drunkenness, (6) ambition, -(7) the eating of garlic, (8) levity, was decreed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is probable that the art of music was not highly developed -at this time but in 552 the king of Sil-la sent three men -to the Ka-ya country to learn music from a celebrated master -named U Reuk; but that learned man had come to realise -that Ka-ya was doomed and, taking his twelve-stringed instrument -under his arm he went with his disciple Ni Mun to -the court of Sil-la. The three men, Pŭp-ji, Kye-go and Man-dok, -whom the king had appointed to study music, entered -<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>upon their duties under this mail’s tutelage. One of them -studied singing, another the use of the instrument and a -third dancing. When they had perfected themselves in these -ornamental arts they proposed to alter some of the songs, on -the plea that they were too licentious, but old U Reuk -violently objected to expurgated editions of his works, and so -it was stopped. From that time music became very popular -and in many cases students of this great branch of art went -among the mountains and spent years in practice. The instrument -was called a <em>Ka-ya-geum</em> from Ka-ya where it -originated. It is now called the <em>ka-go</em> and is shaped like a -Korean zither but is smaller. Among the favorite songs that -have come down to the present time are “The Ascent of the -Mountain,” “The Descent of the Mountain,” “The Rustling -Bamboo,” “The Stork Dance,” “The Blowing Wind” -and “The Monastery on the Mountain.” But music was -not the only art that flourished, for we are gravely told that -an artist painted a tree on the wall of “Yellow Dragon -Monastery” with such skill that birds tried to alight on its -branches.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 555 war broke out between Sil-la and Păk-je. We -are not told its cause but Sil-la was victorious and added to -her territory a large tract of country along the eastern side of -Păk-je, which she erected into a prefecture under the name -of Wan-san-ju (now Chŭn-ju). One authority says that in -this war Păk-je lost one half of her territory to Sil-la. It -seems that Sil-la had by this time developed the taste for -diplomatic intercourse with China. Frequent embassies were -sent on the long and costly journey. Each of the three -powers sent two and three times a year to one or other of the -various Chinese courts. The Emperor of the Ch’i dynasty -sent Sil-la great store of Buddhistic books. It is said that -as many as 1700 volumes were sent at one time.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Păk-jong ascended the throne of Sil-la in 570 the -Buddhistic tendencies had begun to bear their legitimate -fruits. The king was so given over to it that he became a -monk and the queen became a nun. All thought of progress -seems to have been given up and the revenues were squandered -in sending useless embassies to China. The style of Buddhism -prevalent in Sil-la is illustrated by the fact that in the second -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>year of this reign the minister of war took the king severely -to task for spending so much time in the chase, though the -killing of animals is the first prohibition of the Buddhist law. -Tradition says that this faithful minister, Hu-jik, <a id='corr84_4'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic: pled'>plead</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_84_4'><ins class='correction' title='sic: pled'>plead</ins></a></span> in -vain, and finally, when dying, asked to be buried near the -road the king usually took when going to hunt. It was done -and the king when passing the grave heard a noise of warning -proceeding from it. When he was told that it was the -faithful but neglected Hu-jik, the king determined on the -spot that he would reform, and so the faithful minister did -more by his death than by his life.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in the year 586 that Ko-gu-ryŭ again moved her -capital northward to the old place near the present Eui-ju. -Soon after this the Tsin dynasty in China fell before the -victorious Sui, and Ko-gu-ryŭ, who had been friendly with -the Tsin but had never cultivated the Sui, was left in an -extremely delicate position. She immediately began preparations -for repelling a Sui invasion. The Emperor however -had no such intentions and sent a swift messenger chiding -the king for his unjust suspicions and opening the way for a -friendly understanding. This seemed a little strained to the -king and he feared treachery; so, while he greatly desired to -send an envoy, he hardly ventured to do so.</p> - -<p class='c000'>One of the famous traditions of Korea centers about this -king. His daughter when of tender years cried so much that -on one <a id='corr84_26'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='occasian'>occasion</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_84_26'><ins class='correction' title='occasian'>occasion</ins></a></span> the king impatiently exclaimed “When you -grow up you cannot marry a man of the nobility but we will -marry you to an <em>ondali</em>.” Now an <em>ondali</em> is a very ignorant, -foolish fellow, a boor. When the girl reached a marriageable -age the king who had <a id='corr84_30'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='forgetten'>forgotten</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_84_30'><ins class='correction' title='forgetten'>forgotten</ins></a></span> all about his threat was for -marrying her to a high noble but the girl called to his remembrance -the words he had spoken and said she would marry -no one but an <em>ondali</em>. The king bound ten golden hairpins to -her arm and drove <a id='corr84_34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic: her? the girl?'>the</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_84_34'><ins class='correction' title='sic: her? the girl?'>the</ins></a></span> away from the palace. She fled to the -hut of an <em>ondali</em> on the outskirts of the town but he was away -in the hills gathering elm bark to eat. His mother, old and -blind, said “You smell of perfume and your hands are soft -and smooth. My boy is only an ignorant <em>ondali</em> and no match -for you.” Without answering, the maiden hastened to the -hills and found the boy, but he thought her a spirit and took -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>to his heels and ran home as fast as he could go. She followed -and slept before his door that night. At last the youth -comprehended the situation and accepted the hand of the -princess. With the ten golden hairpins she set him up in the -horse-raising business. He bought the broken-down palace -ponies and by careful treatment made them sound and fleet -again. In the chase he always led the rout and when the -King asked who he might be the answer was “Only an -<em>ondali</em>.” From this the youth advanced until he became a -famous general and had the honor of defeating a Chinese -army in Liao-tung. He was killed during an invasion of Sil-la -but no one was able to lift his dead body till his wife came -and knelt beside it saying “The dead and living are separated.” -Then it was lifted and carried back to Ko-gu-ryŭ.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter XI.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Ko-gu-ryŭ relations with the Sui court.... Ko-gu-ryŭ suspected.... takes -the offensive.... submits.... the Emperor suspicious.... the great -Chinese invasion.... Chinese allies.... Ko-gu-ryŭ’s allies.... Chinese -cross the Liao.... go into camp.... naval expedition.... defeated at -P‘yŭng-yang.... routes of the Chinese army.... Ko-gu-ryŭ spy.... Ko-gu-ryŭ -lures the Chinese on.... pretense of surrender.... Chinese -retreat.... terrible slaughter.... Păk-je neutral.... second invasion.... siege -of Liao-tung fortress.... Chinese retire.... and give up -the contest.... treaty with the T’ang Emperor.... triangular war -renewed.... China neutral.... guerilla warfare.... first woman sovereign.... Păk-je -retrogrades.... attacks Sil-la.... Păk-je’s terrible -mistake.... Chinese spy.... rise of Hap So-mun.... the tortoise and -the rabbit.... Taoism introduced.... China finally sides with Sil-la.... and -announces her program.... preparations for war.... the -invasion.... siege of Liao-tung Fortress.... siege of An-si Fortress.... Chinese -retire.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We have seen that Ko-gu-ryŭ did not respond freely to -the friendly advances of the Sui power in China. Although -a Sui envoy came and conferred investiture upon the king in -590, yet the relations were not cordial. Something was -lacking. A mutual suspicion existed which kept them both -on the watch for signs of treachery. But two years later the -king did obeisance to the Emperor and was apparently taken -<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>into his good graces. And now the net began to be drawn -about Ko-gu-ryŭ. Her position had always been precarious. -She was the largest of the peninsular kingdoms and the -nearest to China. She was also nearest to the wild tribes -who periodically joined in an attempt to overthrow the Chinese -ruling dynasty. So Ko-gu-ryŭ was always more or less -suspected of ulterior designs and she seems to have realised -it, for she always sedulously cultivated the good-will of the -Emperors. She knew very well that with Sil-la and Păk-je, -hereditary enemies, at her back, the day when she fell under -the serious suspicion of any strong dynasty in China would -be her day of doom. And so it proved in the end. She had -now thoroughly alienated the good-will and aroused the -suspicions of the Sui Emperor; Sil-la and Păk-je were in his -good graces, and stirring times were at hand. These two -rival powers sent envoys to China urging the Emperor to -unite with them in invading Ko-gu-ryŭ and putting an end to -her once for all. To this the Emperor assented. Ko-gu-ryŭ -knew that the fight was on and, being the warlike power that -she was, she boldly determined to take the offensive. Drawing -on her faithful allies the Mal-gal for 10,000 troops she -despatched these, together with her own army, to western -Liao-tung and across the river Liao, where the town of Yŭng-ju -was attacked and taken. This was her declaration of war. -The Emperor in 598 proclaimed the royal title withdrawn -from the king of Ko-gu-ryŭ and an army of 300,000 men was -put in motion toward the frontier. At the same time a naval -expedition was fitted out. But reverses occurred; storms by -sea and bad management of the commissariat by land rendered -the expedition a failure. It opened the eyes of the Ko-gu-ryŭ -king however and he saw that the Emperor was fully determined -upon his destruction. He saw but one way to make -himself safe and that was by abject submission. He therefore -hastened to tell the Emperor, “I am a base and worthless -subject, vile as ordure,” which was received by the Emperor -with considerable complaisancy, and a show of pardon was -made; but it was probably done only to keep Ko-gu-ryŭ from -active preparations until China could equip a much larger -army and put it in the field. Păk-je, who did not like to see -affairs brought to a halt at this interesting juncture, sent an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>envoy to China offering to act as guide, to lead a Chinese -army against the foe. When Ko-gu-ryŭ learned of this her -anger knew no bounds and she began to make reprisals upon -Păk-je territory.</p> - -<p class='c000'>About this time the Sui Emperor had business in the -north. The Tol-gwŭl tribe needed chastisement. When the -Chinese forces entered the chief town of the humbled tribe -they found a Ko-gu-ryŭ emissary there. This fed the Emperor’s -suspicions for it looked as if Ko-gu-ryŭ were preparing -a league of the wild tribes for the purpose of conquest. -He therefore sent to Ko-gu-ryŭ saying “The king should not -be afraid of me. Let him come himself and do obeisance. If -not, I shall send and destroy him.” We may well imagine -that this pressing invitation was declined by the king.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The last year of the sixth century witnessed the compilation -of the first great history of Ko-gu-ryŭ, in 100 volumes. -It was named the Yu-geui or “Record of Remembrance.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>It took China some years to get ready for the carrying -out of her plan, but at last in 612 began one of the mightiest -military movements in history. China massed upon the -western bank of the Liao River an army of 1,130,000 men. -There were forty regiments of cavalry and eighty of infantry. -The army was divided into twenty-four battalions, marching -with an interval of forty <em>li</em> between each, so that the entire -army stretched for 960 <em>li</em> or 320 miles along the road. Eighty -<em>li</em> in the rear came the Emperor with his body-guard.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When this enormous army reached the banks of the Liao -they beheld on the farther bank the soldiers of Ko-gu-ryŭ. -Nothing can better prove the <a id='corr87_29'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='harihood'>hardihood</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_87_29'><ins class='correction' title='harihood'>hardihood</ins></a></span> of the Ko-gu-ryŭ soldiery -than that, when they saw this well-nigh innumerable host -approach, they dared to dispute the crossing of the river.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Chinese army was composed of Chinese regulars and -of allies from twenty-four of their dependencies whose names -are given as follows. Nu-bang, Chang-jam, Myŭng-hă, Kă-ma, -Kön-an, Nam-so, Yo-dong, Hyŭn-do, Pu-yŭ, Nang-nang, -Ok-jŭ, Chŭm-sŭn, Ham-ja, Hon-mi, Im-dun, Hu-sŭng, -Che-hă, Tap-don, Suk-sin, Kal-sŭk, Tong-i, Tă-bang and -Yang-p’yŭng. One would suppose from this long list that -there could be few left to act as allies to Ko-gu-ryŭ, but when -we remember that the Mal-gal group of tribes was by far the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>most powerful and warlike of all the northern hordes we will -see that Ko-gu-ryŭ was not without allies. In addition to -this, Ko-gu-ryŭ had two important factors in her favor; in -summer the rains made the greater part of Liao-tung impassable -either for advance or retreat, and in winter the severity -of the weather rendered military operations next to impossible. -Only two courses were <a id='corr88_7'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='therfore open to and'>therefore open to an</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_88_7'><ins class='correction' title='therfore open to and'>therefore open to an</ins></a></span> invading army; -either it must make a quick dash into Ko-gu-ryŭ in the spring -or autumn and retire before the summer rains or winter storms, -or else it must be prepared to go into camp and spend the inclement -season in an enemy’s country, cut off from its base of -supplies. It was in the spring that this invasion took place -and the Emperor was determined to carry it through to a -finish in spite of summer rains or winter storms.</p> - -<p class='c000'>No sooner had the Chinese army reached the Liao River -than the engineers set to work bridging the stream. So energetically -was the work done that in two days a double span -was thrown across. There had been a miscalculation however, -for it fell six feet short of reaching the eastern bank, -and the Ko-gu-ryŭ soldiers were there to give them a warm -welcome. The Chinese troops leaped from the unfinished end -of the bridge and tried to climb up the steep bank, but were -again and again driven back. The eastern bank was not -gained until Gen Măk Chŭl-jang leaped to the shore and mowed -a path for his followers with his sword. At this point the Ko-gu-ryŭ -generals Chön Sa-ung and Măng Keum-ch’a were killed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the whole army had effected a crossing the Emperor -sent 1200 troops to occupy the fortified town of Liao-tung -but the Ko-gu-ryŭ general, Eul-ji Mun-dŭk, hastened thither -and drove back this detachment of Chinese in confusion. The -Emperor learned of the retreat and proceeded toward the scene -of action. When he came up with the flying detachments of -his defeated force he severely reprimanded the generals in -charge and chided them for being lazy and afraid of death. -But it was now late in June and the rainy season was at hand, -so the Emperor with his whole army went into camp at Yuk-hap -Fortress a little to the west of the town of Liao-tung, to -await the end of the wet season.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He was unwilling however to let all this time pass without -any active work; so he sent a fleet of boats by sea to sail -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>up the Ta-dong River and attack P’yüng-yang. This was -under the leadership of Gen. Nă Ho-a. Landing his force on -the bank of the Ta-dong, sixty <em>li</em> below the city, he enjoyed -there a signal victory over a small force which had been -sent to head him off. This made the general over-confident -and in spite of the protests of his lieutenants he marched on -P‘yŭng-yang without an hour’s delay. With twenty thousand -troops he went straight into the town, the gates being -left wide open for him. This was a ruse on the part of the -Ko-gu-ryŭ forces. A strong body of Ko-gu-ryŭ troops had -hidden in a monastery in Nă-gwak Fort on the heights within -the city. The Chinese found themselves entrapped and -Gen. Nă was forced to beat a hasty retreat with what forces -he had left, and at last got back to Hă-p’o (harbor) in Liao-tung. -What the Emperor said to him is not known but it -could not have been flattering.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The rainy season had now come and gone and the main -plan of the invasion was ready to be worked out. It was -necessary for the Emperor to spread out his force over the -country in order to find forage, and so, in approaching the -borders of Ko-gu-ryŭ, it was decided that they should come -by several different routes. Gen. U Mun-sul led a detachment -by way of Pu-yŭ, Gen. U Chung-mun by way of Nang-nang, -Gen. Hyŭng Wŭn-hang by way of Yo-dong, Gen. Sŭl -Se-ung by way of Ok-jŭ, Gen. Sin Se-ung by way of Hyŭn-do, -Gen. Chang Keun by way of Yang-p’yăng, Gen. Cho Hyo-jă -by way of Kal-sŭk, Gen. Ch’oe Hong-seung by way of Su-sung, -Gen. Wi Mun-seung by way of Cheung-ji. It is said -that they all rendezvoused on the western bank of the Yalu -River, but if so there must have been great changes in the -position of these wild tribes. It is more than probable that -like the North American Indians they had moved further and -further back from their original lands until they were far beyond -the Yalu and Tumen rivers.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the early autumn of 612 the whole army lay just east -of the Yalu River.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king of Ko-gu-ryŭ sent Gen. Eul-ji Mun-dŭk to the -Chinese camp to tender the Emperor a pretense of surrender -but in reality to spy out his position and force. When he -appeared the Emperor was minded to kill him on the spot -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>but thought better of it and, after listening to what he had to -say, let him go. Not an hour after he had gotten beyond the -Chinese pickets the Emperor changed his mind again and sent -in pursuit of him; but the general had too good a start and -made too good use of his time to allow himself to be retaken.</p> - -<p class='c000'>And now appeared one of the disadvantages of being far -from one’s base of supplies, and in an enemy’s country. Some -weeks before this each Chinese soldier had been given three -bags of rice and told that he must carry them on the march, -besides his other necessary accoutrements. Death was to the -penalty of throwing any of it away. The result was that most -of them buried a large part of the rice in their tents and so -escaped detection. Now they were short of provisions, while -the generals thought their knapsacks were full of rice. The -Ko-gu-ryŭ Gen. Eul-ji, who had been in their camp, however, -knew about it. He entered upon a <a id='corr90_16'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>geurilla</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_90_16'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>geurilla</ins></a></span> warfare with the -object of luring the enemy far into Ko-gu-ryŭ territory and -then cutting them to pieces at leisure. To this end he made -a feigned retreat several times each day, thus giving the enemy -confidence and blinding them to his own strength. It was -decided that a Chinese force of 305,000 men under Gen. U -Chung-mun should proceed straight to P’yŭng-yang. It -seemed wholly unnecessary that the whole army of 1,130,000 -men should undergo that long march when only a pusillanimous -enemy barred the way.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On they came toward the capital without meeting anything -but a few skirmishers, until they reached the Sal-su, a -stream only thirty <em>li</em> from P’yŭng-yang. Crossing this the -Chinese went into camp for a few days to recover from the -fatigue of the rapid march before attacking the town.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this point Gen. Eul-ji began operations. He wrote a -very humble letter <a id='corr90_32'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>sueing</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_90_32'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>sueing</ins></a></span> for mercy. When the Chinese general -received this, his course of reasoning must have been -something as follows: “My forces are completely exhausted -by this long march; the provisions are almost gone; I shall -find the capital defended by desperate men; it may be that I -shall be handled as roughly as were the forces of Gen. Nă. I -will accept this submission and start back in time to reach the -Yalu before my provisions are entirely gone. I will thus -spare my army and gain the desired end as well.”</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>Whether this was his course of reasoning or not, sure it -is that he accepted the submission tendered him and put his -army in motion toward the Yalu. But before his forces had -gone a mile they found themselves attacked on all sides at -once by an unseen foe which seemed to fill the forests on -either side the road. When half the army had gotten across -the Sal-su the other half was fiercely attacked and cut to pieces -or driven like dumb cattle over the face of the country, where -they were butchered at leisure. The retreat became a flight, -the flight a rout, and still the Ko-gu-ryŭ soldiers hung on -their flanks like wolves and dragged them down by scores and -hundreds. It is said that in a single day and night the fugitive -Chinese covered four <a id='corr91_13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='hunderd'>hundred</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_91_13'><ins class='correction' title='hunderd'>hundred</ins></a></span> and fifty <em>li</em>, and when the -remnant of that noble army of 305,000 men that had swept -across the Yalu went back across that historic stream it was -just 2700 strong. Over 300,000 men had perished along the -hill-sides and among the forests of Ko-gu-ryŭ. The Emperor -in anger imprisoned the over-confident Gen. U Chung-mun.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile what of Păk-je? She had promised that she -would rise and strike Ko-gu-ryŭ simultaneously with the -Emperor, but when the moment for action came, like the <a id='corr91_21'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>paltroon</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_91_21'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>paltroon</ins></a></span> -that she was, she waited to see which side would be -most likely to win in the end. When the Chinese fled back to -the border in panic Păk-je quietly stacked her arms and said -nothing about attacking her neighbor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Winter was now at hand, or would be before another plan -could be perfected and carried out. The army was without -provisions. There was nothing left but to retreat. The -Chinese army, still a mighty host, moved slowly back across -the Liao River and Ko-gu-ryŭ was left to her own pleasant -musings. All that China gained was that portion of Ko-gu-ryŭ -lying west of the Liao River, which the Emperor erected -into three prefectures.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If Ko-gu-ryŭ flattered herself that her troubles were all -over she was wofully mistaken. With the opening of spring -the Emperor’s determination to humble her was as strong as -ever. All the courtiers urged him to give over the attempt. -They had seen enough of Ko-gu-ryŭ. The Emperor, however, -was firm in his determination, and in the fourth moon -another army was launched against the hardy little kingdom -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>to the east. It crossed the Liao without opposition but when -it arrived at Tong-whang Fortress, near the present Eui-ju, -it attempted in vain to take it. The Emperor decided -therefore to make a thorough conquest of all the Liao-tung -territory and delimit the possessions of Ko-gu-ryŭ as far as the -Yalu River, To this end siege was laid to the Fortress of -Liao-tung. After twenty days the town was still intact and -the Chinese seemingly as far from victory as ever. Ladders -were tried but without effect. A bank of earth was thrown -<a id='corr92_10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='uy'>up</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_92_10'><ins class='correction' title='uy'>up</ins></a></span> as high as the wall of the town, but this too failed. Platforms -of timber were erected and rolled up to the wall on -trucks of eight wheels each. This seemed to promise success -but just as the attempt was to be made fortune favored Ko-gu-ryŭ, -for news came to the Chinese that an insurrection had -arisen in China, headed by Yang Hyŭn-gam. The tents were -hastily struck and the army by forced marches moved rapidly -back towards China. At first the Ko-gu-ryŭ forces thought -this was a mere feint but when the truth was known they -rushed in pursuit and succeeded in putting several thousands -of the Chinese braves <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>hors de combat</em></span>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The following year the Emperor wanted to return to the -charge but an envoy came from Ko-gu-ryŭ offering the king’s -humble submission. To this the Emperor replied “Then let -him come in person and present it.” This he would not do.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Four years later the king of Ko-gu-ryŭ died and his -brother Kön-mu assumed control. It was in this same year -618 that the great T’ang dynasty was founded on the ruins of -the Sui and the fear of vengeance was lifted from Ko-gu-ryŭ. -She immediately sent an envoy to the T’ang court offering -her allegiance. Păk-je and Sil-la were only a year behind her -in paying their respects to the new Emperor. As a test of -Ko-gu-ryŭ sincerity, Emperor Kao-tsu demanded that she -send back the captives taken during the late war. As the -price of peace Ko-gu-ryŭ complied and sent back 10,000 men. -The next year the T’ang Emperor conferred the title of royalty -upon all the three kings of the peninsula which, instead of -settling the deadly feud between them, simply opened a new -and final scene of the fratricidal struggle. To Ko-gu-ryŭ the -Emperor sent books on the Shinto faith, of the introduction -of which into Korea we here have the first intimation.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>Now that danger from the west no longer threatened Ko-gu-ryŭ, -she turned to her neighbors and began to exercise her -arms upon them. Păk-je also attacked Sil-la fiercely and soon -a triangular war was being waged in the peninsula which -promised to be a war of extermination unless China should -interfere. Of course each wished the Emperor to interfere in -her behalf and each plied the throne of China with recriminations -of the others and with justifications of herself until the -Emperor was wholly at a loss to decide between them. Perhaps -it was not his policy to put an end to the war but let it -rage until the whole peninsula was exhausted, when it would -become an easy prey to his arms. At any rate he gave encouragement -to none of them but simply told them to stop -fighting. Ko-gu-ryŭ diplomatically added to her supplications -a request for Buddhist, Taoist and Shinto teachers.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The details of this series of hostilities between the three -Korean states form a tangled skein. First one border fort -was taken and then recovered, then the same was repeated at -another point; and so it went all along the line, now one being -victorious and now another. Large forces were not employed -at any one time or place, but it was a skirmish fire all along the -border, burning up brightly first at one spot and then at another. -One remarkable statement in the records, to the effect -that Ko-gu-ryŭ began the building of a wall straight -across the peninsula from Eui-ju to the Japan Sea to keep out -the people of the northern tribes, seems almost incredible. If -true it is another testimony to the great power of Ko-gu-ryŭ. -It is said the work was finished in sixteen years.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 632, after a reign of fifty years, King Chim-p’yŭng -died without male issue but his daughter Tong-man, a woman -of strong personality, ascended the throne of Sil-la, being the -first of her sex that ever sat on a Korean throne.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Many stories are told of her precocity. Once when she -was a mere child her father had received from the Emperor a -picture of the <em>mok-tan</em> flower together with some seeds of the -same. She immediately remarked that the flowers would -have no perfume. When asked why she thought so she replied -“Because there is no butterfly on them in the picture.” -While not a valid argument, it showed a power of observation -very uncommon in a child. This proved to be true, for when -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>the seeds sprouted and grew the blossoms had no fragrance. -The Emperor conferred upon her the title of royalty, the same -as upon a male sovereign.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first few years of her reign were peaceful ones for -Sil-la, and Păk-je, as usual when relieved of the stress of -war, fell back into her profligate ways again. The king built -gardens and miniature lakes, bringing water from a point -some twenty <em>li</em> away to supply them. Here he spent his time -in sport and debauchery while the country ruled itself.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the fifth year of her reign Queen Tong-man, while -walking in her palace grounds, passed a pond of water but -suddenly stopped and exclaimed “There is war on our western -border.” When asked her reasons for thinking so she pointed -to the frogs in the pond and said “See how red their eyes -are. It means that there is war on the border.” As if to -bear out her statement, swift messengers came the next day -announcing that Păk-je was again at work along the western -border. So runs the story.</p> - -<p class='c000'>And so the fight went on merrily all along the line, while -at the capitals of the three kingdoms things continued much -as usual. Each of the countries sent Princes to China to be -educated, and the diplomatic relations with China were as intimate -as ever; but in 642 Păk-je made the great mistake of -her life. After an unusually successful military campaign -against Sil-la during which she seized forty of her frontier -posts, she conceived the bright idea of cutting off Sil-la’s -communication with China. The plan was to block the -way of Sil-la envoys on their way to China. Thus she -thought that China’s good will would be withdrawn from her -rival, Sil-la. It was a brilliant plan but it had after effects -which worked ruin for Păk-je. Such a momentous undertaking -could not be kept from the ears of the Emperor nor -could Sil-la’s envoys be thus debarred from going to the -Emperor’s court. When the whole matter was therefore laid -before the Chinese court the Emperor immediately condemned -Păk-je in his own mind.</p> - -<p class='c000'>About this time a Chinese envoy named Chin Ta-t’ok arrived -on the borders of Ko-gu-ryŭ. On his way to the capital -he pretended to enjoy all the views along the way and he -gave costly presents to the prefects and gained from them accurate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>information about every part of the route. By this -means he spied out the land and carried a fund of important -information back to the Emperor. He advised that Ko-gu-ryŭ -be invaded both by land and sea, for she would not be -hard to conquer.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in this year 642 that a Ko-gu-ryŭ official named -Hap So-mun assassinated the king and set up the king’s nephew -Chang as king. He himself became of course the court -favorite. He was a man of powerful body and powerful mind. -He was as “sharp as a falcon.” He claimed to have risen -from the water by a miraculous birth. He was hated by the -people because of his cruelty and fierceness. Having by -specious promises so far <a id='corr95_13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='molified'>mollified</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_95_13'><ins class='correction' title='molified'>mollified</ins></a></span> the dislike of the officials as -to have gained a position under the government he became -worse than before and some of the officials had an understanding -with the king that he must be put out of the way. This -came to the ears of Hap So-mun and he gave a great feast, -during the course of which he fell upon and killed all those -who had advised against him. He then killed the -king in the palace, cut the body in two and threw it into a -ditch. Then, as we have seen, he set up Chang as king. -This Hap So-mun is said to have worn five swords on his person -all the time. All bowed their heads when he appeared -and when he rode in state he passed over the prostrate bodies -of men.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When an envoy, soon after this, came from Sil-la he was -thrown into prison as a spy and was told that he would be released -as soon as Sil-la should restore to Ko-gu-ryŭ the two -districts of Ma-hyŭn which had at one time belonged to Ko-gu-ryŭ. -This envoy had a friend among the Ko-gu-ryŭ officials -and to him he applied for help. That gentleman gave him -advice in the form of an allegory. It was as follows.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The daughter of the Sea King being ill, the physicians -said that she could not recover unless she should eat the liver -of a rabbit. This being a terrestrial animal it was of course -almost impossible to obtain, but finally a tortoise volunteered -<a id='corr95_39'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='so'>to</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_95_39'><ins class='correction' title='so'>to</ins></a></span> secure a rabbit and bring it to the king. Emerging from the -sea on the coast of Sil-la the tortoise entered a field and found -a rabbit sleeping under a covert. Awakening the animal he -began to tell of an island off the shore where there were neither -<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>hawks nor hunters—a rabbit’s paradise, and volunteered to -take the rabbit across to it upon his back. When well out at -sea the tortoise bade the rabbit prepare for death, for his liver -was needed by the Sea King. After a moment’s rapid thought -the rabbit exclaimed “You might have had it without all this -ado, for when the Creator made rabbits he made them with -detachable livers so that when they became too warm they -could take them out and wash them in cool water and then -put them back. When you found me I had just washed mine -and laid it on a rock to dry. You can have it if you wish, for -I have no special use for it.” The tortoise in great chagrin -turned about and paddled him back to the shore. Leaping to -the land the rabbit cried “Good day, my friend, my liver is -safe inside of me.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The imprisoned envoy pondered over this conundrum and -its application and finally solved it. Sending to the king he said -“You cannot get back the two districts by keeping me here. -If you will let me go and will provide me with an escort I will -induce the Sil-la government to restore the territory <a id='corr96_19'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='to you.'>to you.”</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_96_19'><ins class='correction' title='to you.'>to you.”</ins></a></span> -The king complied, but when the envoy had once gotten across -the border he sent back word that the restoration of territory -was not in his line of business and he must decline to discuss -the question at the court of Sil-la.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 643 the powerful and much dreaded Hap So-mun sent -to China asking the Emperor to send a teacher of the Shinto -religion; for he said that the three religions, Buddhism, -Taoism and Shintoism were like the three legs of a kettle, all -necessary. The Emperor complied and sent a teacher, Suk-da, -with eight others and with books to be used in the study -of the new cult.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The prowess of this Hap So-mun was well known at the -Chinese court and it kept the Emperor from attempting any -offensive operations. He said it would not do to drain China -of her soldiers at such a critical time, but that the Mal-gal -tribes must first be alienated from their fealty to Ko-gu-ryŭ and -be induced to attack her northern border. Others advised that -Hap So-mun be allowed free rein so that all suspicion of aggression -on the part of China should be removed and Ko-gu-ryŭ -would become careless of her defenses. This would in -time bring a good opportunity to strike the decisive blow. It -<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>was in pursuance of this policy that the Shinto teachers were -sent and that Hap So-mun’s creature, Chang, was given investiture. -At the same time a Sil-la <a id='corr97_3'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic: emissary'>emmissary</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_97_3'><ins class='correction' title='sic: emissary'>emmissary</ins></a></span> was on his -way to the Chinese court asking for aid against Ko-gu-ryŭ. -The Emperor could not comply but proposed three plans: -first, that China stir up the Mal-gal tribes to harry the northern -borders of Ko-gu-ryŭ and so relieve the strain on the -south; second, that China give Sil-la a large number of red -flags which she should use in battle. The Păk-je or Ko-gu-ryŭ -forces, seeing these, would think that Sil-la had Chinese -allies and would hasten to make peace; third, that China -should send an expedition against Păk-je, which should unite -with a Sil-la force and thus crush the Păk-je power once for -all and join her territory to that of Sil-la. This would prepare -the way for the subjugation of Ko-gu-ryŭ. But to this -advice the Emperor added that so long as Sil-la had a woman -on the throne she could not expect to undertake any large -operations. She ought to put a man on the throne and then, -after the war was over, restore the woman if she so wished. -The Sil-la envoy pondered these three plans but could come -to no decision. So the Emperor called him a fool and sent -him away. We see behind each of these schemes a fear of -Ko-gu-ryŭ. China was willing to do anything but meet the -hardy soldiers of Ko-gu-ryŭ in the field.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We see that the Emperor had virtually decided in favor -of Sil-la as against Păk-je and Ko-gu-ryŭ. The long expected -event had at last occurred. Tacitly but really China had -cast her vote for Sil-la and the future of the peninsula was -decided for so long as the Tang dynasty should last. That -the decision was a wise one a moment’s consideration will -show. Ko-gu-ryŭ never could be depended upon for six -months in advance and must be constantly watched; Păk-je, -being really a mixture of the northern and southern elements, -had neither the power of the one <a id='corr97_34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='now'>nor</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_97_34'><ins class='correction' title='now'>nor</ins></a></span> the peaceful disposition -of the other but was as unstable as a cloud. Sil-la on the -other hand was purely southern, excepting for a strain of -Chinese blood brought in by the refugees from the Tsin -dynasty. Her temperament was even, her instincts peaceful, -her tendencies toward improvement and reform. She was by -all means the best ally China could have in the peninsula. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>And so the die was cast and henceforth the main drift of -Chinese sympathy is to be Sil-la-ward.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 644 was a fateful one for Korea. The Emperor -sent an envoy to Ko-gu-ryŭ and Păk-je commanding them to -cease their depredations on Sil-la. Thus was the Chinese -policy announced. Păk-je hastened to comply but Hap So-mun -of Ko-gu-ryŭ replied that <a id='corr98_8'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='was this'>this was</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_98_8'><ins class='correction' title='was this'>this was</ins></a></span> an ancient feud with -Sil-la and could not be set aside until Ko-gu-ryŭ recovered 500 -<em>li</em> of territory that she had been despoiled of. The Emperor -in anger sent another envoy with the same demand, but Hap -So-mun threw him into prison and defied China. When he -heard however that the Emperor had determined upon an invasion -of Ko-gu-ryŭ he changed his mind and sent a present -of gold to the Chinese court. But he was too late. The gold -was returned and the envoy thrown into prison.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There were many at the Chinese court who could remember -the horrors of that retreat from P’yŭng-yang when China -left 300,000 dead upon the hills of Ko-gu-ryŭ, and the Emperor -was advised to move cautiously. He however felt that unless -Ko-go-ryŭ was chastised she might develop an ambition -towards imperialism and the throne of China itself might be -endangered. He therefore began to collect provisions on the -northern border, storing them at Tă-in Fortress. He called -into his counsels the old general, Chöng Wŭn-do, who had -been an eye-witness of the disasters of the late war with Ko-gu-ryŭ. -This man gave healthful advice, saying that the -subjugation of Ko-gu-ryŭ would be no easy task; first, because -the way was so long; second, because of the difficulty -of provisioning the army; third, because of the stubborn resistance -of Ko-gu-ryŭ’s soldiers. He gave the enemy their -due and did not minimize the difficulties of the situation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Emperor listened to and <a id='corr98_34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>profitted</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_98_34'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>profitted</ins></a></span> by this advice, for -during the events to be related his soldiers never suffered from -over-confidence, but in their advances made sure of every step -as they went along.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Active operations began by the sending of an army of -40,000 men in 501 boats to the harbor of Nă-ju where they -were joined by land forces to the number of 60,000, besides -large contingents from the wild tribes of the north. Large -numbers of ladders and other engines of war had been constructed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>and were ready for use. Before crossing the Liao -River the Emperor made proclamation far and wide saying -“Hap So-mun has killed our vassal, King of Ko-gu-ryŭ, and -we go to inquire into the matter. Let none of the prefects -along the way waste their revenues in doing us useless honors. -Let Sil-la, Păk-je and Kŭ-ran help us in this righteous war.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Crossing the Liao without resistance the Chinese forces -marched toward the fortress of Kön-an which soon fell into -their hands. Some thousands of heads fell here to show the -rest of <a id='corr99_10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-guryŭ'>Ko-gu-ryŭ</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_99_10'><ins class='correction' title='Ko-guryŭ'>Ko-gu-ryŭ</ins></a></span> what they might expect in case of contumacy. -Then Ham-mo Fortress fell an easy victim. Not -so the renowned fortress of Liao-tung. As the Emperor approached -the place he found his way obstructed by a morass -200 <em>li</em> in length. He built a road through it and then when -all his army had passed he destroyed the road behind him as -Pizarro burnt his ships behind him when he landed on the -shores of America to show his army that there was to be no -retreat. Approaching the town he laid siege to it and after a -hard fight, during which the Chinese soldiers lifted a man on -the end of a long piece of timber until he could reach and set -fire to the defences that surmounted the wall, an entrance -was finally effected and the town taken. In this battle the -Chinese were materially aided by armor which Păk-je had -sent as a gift to the Chinese Emperor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Chinese were destined to find still greater difficulty -in storming An-si Fortress which was to Ko-gu-ryŭ what -Metz is to Germany. It was in command of the two generals, -Ko Yŭn-su and Ko Hye-jin who had called to their aid 100,000 -warriors of the Mal-gal tribes. At first the Emperor tried -a ruse to draw the garrison out where he could give them -battle. The wise heads among the Ko-gu-ryŭ garrison strongly -opposed the sortie saying that it were better to await an -opportunity to cut off the Chinese from their base of supplies, -and so entrap them; but they were outvoted and the greater -part of the Ko-gu-ryŭ and allied forces marched out to engage -the enemy in the open field. The Emperor ascended an eminence -where he could obtain a view of the enemy and he beheld -the camp of the Mal-gal allies stretching out forty <em>li</em>, -twelve miles. He determined to exercise the utmost caution. -One of his generals, Wang Do-jong begged to be allowed to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>march on P‘yŭng-yang, which he deemed must be nearly -bare of defenses, and so bring the war to a speedy close; but -the Emperor, like Hannibal when begged by his generals to -march straight into Rome, made the mistake of over-caution -and so missed his great opportunity. To the Emperor this -sounded too much like a similar attempt that had once cost -China 300,000 men.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A messenger was sent to the Ko-gu-rŭ camp to say that -China did not want to fight but had only come to inquire into -the cause of the king’s death. As he intended, this put the -Ko-gu-ryŭ forces off their guard and that night he surrounded -the fortress and the forces which had come out to engage -him. This was done in such a way that but few of the surrounding -Chinese army were visible. Seeing these, the Ko-gu-ryŭ -forces made a fierce onslaught anticipating an easy -victory, instead of which they soon found themselves surrounded -by the flower of the Chinese army and their retreat -to the fortress cut off. It is said that in this fight 20,000 Ko-gu-ryŭ -troops were cut down and three thousand of the Mal-gal -allies, besides losing many through flight and capture. -These were all released and sent back to Ko-gu-ryŭ excepting -3,500 noblemen whom the Emperor sent to China as hostages. -This fight occurred outside the An-si Fortress and the Emperor -supposed the gates would now be thrown open; but not so, -for there was still a strong garrison within and plenty of provisions; -so they barred the gates and still defied the Chinese. -Upon hearing of the Chinese victory the neighboring Ko-gu-ryŭ -fortresses Ho-whang and Eui capitulated, not knowing -that An-si still held out against the victors.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Many of the Emperor’s advisers wanted him to ignore -An-si and press on into Ko-gu-ryŭ leaving it in the rear, but -this the wary Emperor would not consent to do, for he feared -lest his retreat should be cut off. So the weary siege was -continued. One day, hearing the lowing of cattle and the -cackling of hens within the walls, the Emperor astutely surmised -that a feast was being prepared preparatory to a sortie -that was about to be made. Extra pickets were thrown out -and the army was held in readiness for the attack. That very -night the garrison came down the wall by means of ropes; but -finding the besiegers ready for them they retired in confusion -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>and suffered a severe defeat. The siege went on. The Chinese -spent two months constructing a mound against the wall -but the garrison rushed out and captured it. It is said that -during this siege the Emperor lost an eye by an arrow wound, -but the Chinese histories do not mention it. The cold blasts -of late autumn were now beginning to give warning that -winter was at hand and the Emperor was obliged to consider -the question of withdrawing. He was filled with admiration -of the pluck and bravery of the little garrison of An-si and before -he broke camp he sent a message to the commander praising -his faithfulness to his sovereign and presenting him with -a hundred pieces of silk. Then the long march back to China -began, and the 70,000 soldiers wended their way westward, -foiled a second time by the stubborn hardihood of Ko-gu-ryŭ.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter XII.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Revolt in Sil-la.... Ko-gu-ryŭ invaded.... Sil-la invades Păk-je.... China -decides to aid Sil-la.... war between Păk-je and Sil-la.... relations -with China.... league against Sil-la.... China diverts Ko-gu-ryŭ’s -attention.... traitors in Păk-je.... Sŭng-ch’ung’s advice.... Chinese -forces sent to Păk-je.... portents of the fall of Păk-je.... conflicting -plans.... Sil-la army enters Păk-je.... Păk-je capital seized.... Păk-je -dismembered.... end of Păk-je.... disturbances in Păk-je territory.... Ko-gu-ryŭ -attacks Sil-la.... final invasion of Ko-gu-ryŭ planned.... Păk-je -malcontents.... combination against Ko-gu-ryŭ.... siege -of P‘yŭng-yang raised.... Pok-sin’s fall.... Păk-je Japanese defeated.... governor -of Ung-jin.... Buddhist reverses in Sil-la.... Sil-la king -takes oath.... Nam-gŭn’s treachery.... the Mal-gal tribes desert Ko-gu-ryŭ.... the -Yalu defended.... Chinese and Sil-la forces march on -P‘yŭng-yang.... omens.... Ko-gu-ryŭ forts surrender.... Ko-gu-ryŭ -falls.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Tong-man, the Queen ruler of Sil-la, died in 645 and was -succeeded by her sister Söng-man. The Emperor confirmed -her in her accession to the throne. It began to look seriously -as if a gynecocracy was being established in Sil-la. Some of -the highest officials decided to effect a change. The malcontents -were led by Pi-un and Yŭm-jong. These men with -a considerable number of troops went into camp near the -capital and prepared to besiege it. For four days the rebels -and the loyal troops faced each other without daring to strike a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>blow. Tradition says a star fell one night among the loyal -forces and caused consternation there and exultation among -the traitors. But the loyal Gen. Yu-sin hastened to the -Queen and promised to reverse the omen. That night he -prepared a great kite and fastened a lantern to its tail. Then -he exhorted the soldiers to be of good cheer, sacrificed a white -horse to the deities of the land and flew the kite. The rebels, -seeing the light rising from the loyal camp, concluded that -Providence had reversed the decree. So when the loyal troops -made their attack the hearts of the rebels turned to water and -they were driven over the face of the country and cut down -with great slaughter. That same year the Emperor again -planned to attack Ko-gu-ryŭ but the baleful light of a comet -made him desist.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At the instigation of Hap So-mun, the king of Ko-gu-ryŭ -sent his son to China, confessed his faults and begged for -mercy, but the Emperor’s face was flint. The next year the -message was again sent, but Ko-gu-ryŭ’s day of grace was -over. China’s answer was an army of 30,000 men and a -mighty fleet of ships. The fortress of Pak-chak in Liao-tung -was besieged but it was so fortified by nature as to be almost -impregnable. The Emperor therefore said “Return to China -and next year we will send 300,000 men instead of 30,000.” -He then ordered the building of a war vessel 100 feet in length. -He also had large store of provisions placed on O-ho Island to -be used by the invading army.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile Sil-la had become emboldened by the professed -<a id='corr102_28'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='perference'>preference</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_102_28'><ins class='correction' title='perference'>preference</ins></a></span> of China for her and she arose and smote Păk-je, -taking twenty-one of her forts, killing 30,000 of her soldiers -and carrying away 9,000 prisoners. She followed this up by -making a strong appeal to China for help, saying that unless -China should come to her aid she would be unable to continue -her embassies to the Chinese court. The Emperor thereupon -ordered Gen. So Chöng-bang to take 200,000 troops and go to -the aid of Sil-la. He evidently was intending to try a new -way of attacking Ko-gu-ryŭ. As the Sil-la messenger was -hastening homeward with this happy news emissaries of Ko-gu-ryŭ -dogged his footsteps and sought his life. Once he was -so hard pressed that he escaped only by a clever and costly -ruse. One of his suite dressed in his official garments and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>personated him and thus drew the assassins off the scent and -allowed himself to be killed, the real envoy making good his -escape. It was now for the first time that Sil-la adopted the -Chinese costume, having first obtained leave from the Emperor. -It is said that it resembled closely the costume used in -Korea today.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Unfortunately for Sil-la the Emperor died in 649 and Ko-gu-ryŭ -began to breathe freely again. It also emboldened Păk-je -and she invaded Sil-la with a considerable army and seized -seven forts. Sil-la retaliated by seizing 10,000 houses belonging -to Păk-je subjects and killing the leading Păk-je general, -Eum-sang. Sil-la lost not a moment in gaining the good will -of the new Emperor. Envoys with presents were sent frequently. -She adopted the Chinese calendar and other customs -from the suzerain state and so curried favor with the powerful. -The Păk-je envoy was received coldly by the Emperor -and was told to go and give back to Sil-la the land that had -been taken and to cease the hostilities. This Păk-je politely -declined to do. Each emperor of China seems to have declined -the legacy of quarrels handed down by his predecessor. So -bye-gones were bye-gones and Ko-gu-ryŭ was accepted again -on her good behavior.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With the end of Queen Söng-man’s reign affairs in the -peninsula began to focus toward that crisis which Ko-gu-ryŭ -and Păk-je had so long been preparing for themselves. In -655 a new combination was effected and one that would have -made Sil-la’s horizon very dark had she not been sure of Imperial -help. Her two neighbors formed a league against her, -and of course the Mal-gal tribes sided with Ko-gu-ryŭ in this -new venture. Păk-je and Ko-gu-ryŭ were drawn together by -their mutual fear of Sil-la and soon the allied armies were -marching on Sil-la’s borders. At the first onslaught thirty-three -of Sil-la’s border forts passed into the hands of the allies. -It was now China’s last chance to give aid to the most faithful -of her Korean vassals, for otherwise she would surely have -fallen before this combination. A swift messenger was sent -imploring the Emperor for aid and stating that if it was not -granted Sil-la would be swallowed up. The Emperor had no -intention of letting Sil-la be dismembered and without a day’s -delay troops were despatched into Liao-tung under Generals -<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>Chŭng Myŭng-jin and So Chöng-bang. Many of Ko-gu-ryŭ’s -fortresses beyond the Yalu River were soon in the possession of -China. This was successful in diverting Ko-gu-ryŭ’s attention -from Sil-la, but Păk-je continued the fight with her. The -advantage lay now with one side and now with the other. -The court of Păk-je was utterly corrupt and except for a small -army in the field under almost irresponsible leadership, she -was weak indeed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Now it happened that a Sil-la man named Cho Mi-gon -had been taken captive and carried to Păk-je where he was -employed in the household of the Prime Minister. One day -he made his escape and found his way across the border into -his native country, but there meeting one of the Sil-la generals -he was induced to go back and see what he could do in the -Păk-je capital towards facilitating an invasion on the part of -his countrymen. He returned and after sounding the Prime -Minister found him ready to sell his country if there was anything -to be made out of it. It is said that here began the -downfall of Păk-je. The king of Păk-je was utterly incompetent -and corrupt. One of his best councillors was thrown -into prison and starved to death for rebuking him <a id='corr104_20'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='of of'>of</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_104_20'><ins class='correction' title='of of'>of</ins></a></span> -his excesses. But even while this faithful man was dying -he sent a message to the king saying “Do not fail to place a -strong garrison at ‘Charcoal Pass’ and at Păk River.” These -were the two strategic points of Păk-je’s defenses; if they were -guarded well, surprise was impossible. From that time affairs -in Păk-je went from bad to worse. China kept Ko-gu-ryŭ -busy in the north and nothing of consequence was gained by -either side in the south until finally in 659 another Sil-la envoy -made his appearance in the Emperor’s court. At last the great -desire of Sil-la was accomplished. The Emperor ordered Gen. -So Chöng-bang to take 130,000 men by boat to the shores of -Păk-je and there coöperate with a Sil-la army in the utter subjugation -of Păk-je. The Sil-la army went into camp at Nam-ch’ŭn -and received word from the Chinese general to meet him -at the Păk-je capital in the seventh moon.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Tradition says that the doom impending over Păk-je was -shadowed forth in advance by many omens and signs. Frogs, -it is said, grew like leaves on the trees and if anyone killed one -of them he instantly fell dead. Among the mountains black -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>clouds met and fought one another. The form of an animal, -half dog and half lion, was seen in the sky approaching the -palace and uttering terrible bellowings and roarings. Dogs -congregated in the streets and howled. Imps of awful shape -came into the palace and cried “Păk-je is fallen, Păk-je is fallen,” -and disappeared in the ground. Digging there the king -found a tortoise on whose back were <a id='corr105_6'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='writen'>written</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_105_6'><ins class='correction' title='writen'>written</ins></a></span> the words “Păk-je -is at full moon; Sil-la is at half moon.” The diviners were called -upon to interpret this. “It means that Sil-la is in the ascendant -while Păk-je is full and about to wane.” The king ordered -their heads off, and called in another company of diviners. -These said that it meant that Sil-la was half waned while Păk-je -was at her zenith. Somewhat <a id='corr105_12'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='molified'>mollified</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_105_12'><ins class='correction' title='molified'>mollified</ins></a></span> by this, the king -called a grand council of war. The advice given was of the -most conflicting nature. Some said the Chinese must be attacked -<a id='corr105_15'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='flrst; other'>first; others</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_105_15'><ins class='correction' title='flrst; other'>first; others</ins></a></span> said the Sil-la forces must be attended to -first. A celebrated general who had been banished was sent -for and his advice was the same as that of the famous statesman -whom the king had starved in prison. “You must guard -the ‘Charcoal Pass’ and the Pak River.” But the majority of -the courtiers said that the Chinese had better be allowed to -land before they were attacked and that the Sil-la army should -be allowed to come in part through the pass before being opposed. -This latter point was decided for them, for when the -Păk-je troops approached the pass they found that the Sil-la -army was already streaming through, and at its head was the -famous Gen. Kim Yu-sin. When the battle was joined the -Păk-je forces held their ground and fought manfully; but victory -perched upon the banners of Sil-la and when the battle -was done nothing lay between the Sil-la forces and the capital -of Păk-je, the place of rendezvous. It is said that Gen. Ke-băk -the leader of the Păk-je forces killed all his family before -starting out on this expedition, fearing lest the thought of -them might make him waver. He fell in the battle.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The capital of Păk-je was situated on the site of the present -town of Sa-ch’ŭn. When the Sil-la warriors approached -it the king fled to the town now known as Kong-ju. He left -all the palace women behind and they, knowing what their -fate would be at the hands of the Sil-la soldiery, went together -to a beetling precipice which overhangs the harbor -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>of Tă-wang and cast themselves from its summit into the -water beneath. That precipice is famed in Korean song and -story and is called by the exquisitely poetical name Nak-wha-am -“Precipice of the Falling Flowers.” The victors forced -the gates of the capital and seized the person of the Prince, the -king’s second son, who had been left behind. A few days later -the King and the Crown Prince came back from their place of -hiding and voluntarily gave themselves up.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The allies had now met as they had <a id='corr106_10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='agree'>agreed</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_106_10'><ins class='correction' title='agree'>agreed</ins></a></span> and Păk-je was -at their mercy. The Chinese general said that the Emperor -had given him full authority to settle the matter and that -China would take half the territory and Sil-la might have the -other half. This was indeed a generous proposal on the part -of China but the Sil-la commander replied that Sil-la wanted -none of the Păk-je territory but only sought revenge for the -wrongs that Păk-je had heaped upon her. At the feast that -night the king of Păk-je was made to pour the wine for the -victors and in this act of abject humiliation Sil-la had her -desire for revenge fully satisfied. When the Chinese generals -went back to China to announce these events they took with -them the unthroned King of Păk-je together with his four sons, -eighty-eight of the highest officials and 12,807 of the people.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in 660 that Păk-je fell. She survived for 678 years -and during that time thirty kings had sat upon her throne. -A singular discrepancy occurs here in the records. They affirm -that the whole period of Păk-je rule covered a lapse <a id='corr106_28'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='of of'>of</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_106_28'><ins class='correction' title='of of'>of</ins></a></span> -678 years; but they also say that Păk-je was founded in -the third year of Emperor Ch’eng-ti of China. That would -have been in 29 B.C. making the whole <a id='corr106_31'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='dynaaty'>dynasty</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_106_31'><ins class='correction' title='dynaaty'>dynasty</ins></a></span> 689 years. -The vast burden of proof favors the belief that Păk-je was founded -in 16 B.C. and that her whole lease of life was 678 years.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As Sil-la had declined to share in the dismemberment of -Păk-je, China proceeded to divide it into provinces for administrative -purposes. There were five of these, Ung-jin, -Tong-myŭng, Keum-ryŭn, Tŭk-an. The central government -was at Sa-ja the former capital of Păk-je. The separate provinces -were put under the control of prefects selected from -among the people. The country was of course in a very -unsettled state; <a id='corr106_41'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='disffection'>disaffection</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_106_41'><ins class='correction' title='disffection'>disaffection</ins></a></span> showed itself on every side and -disturbances were frequent. A remnant of the Păk-je army -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>took its stand among the mountains, fortified its position and -bid defiance to the new government. These malcontents -found strong sympathisers at the capital and in the country -towns far and wide. The Chinese governor, Yu In-wŭn, -found the task of government no easy one. But still Sil-la -stood ready to aid and soon a Sil-la army crossed the border and -attacked the fortress of I-rye where the rebels were intrenched. -Taking this by assault they advanced toward the mountain -fortress already mentioned, crossed the “Chicken Ford,” -crumpled up the line of rebel intrenchments and lifted a heavy -load from the governor’s shoulders.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ko-gu-ryŭ soon heard the ominous news and she took it -as a presage of evil for herself. She <a id='corr107_13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='immedtately'>immediately</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_107_13'><ins class='correction' title='immedtately'>immediately</ins></a></span> threw a -powerful army across the Sil-la border and stormed the Ch’il-jung -Fortress. The records naively remark that they filled -the commander as full of arrows as a hedgehog is of quills.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Now that Păk-je had been overcome China took up with -alacrity the plan of subduing Ko-gu-ryŭ. The great final -struggle began, that was destined to close the career of the -proudest, hardiest and bravest kingdom that the peninsula of -Korea ever saw. The Păk-je king who had been carried to -China died there in 661. In that same year Generals Kye-p’il, -So Chŏng-bang and Ha Ryŭk, who had already received -their orders to march on Ko-gu-ryŭ, rendezvoused with their -forces at Ha-nam and the warriors of the Whe-bol together -with many volunteers from other tribes joined the imperial -standards. The plan was to proceed by land and sea. The -Emperor desired to accompany the expedition, but the death -of the empress made it impossible.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile matters in Păk-je were becoming complicated -again. A man named Pok Sin revolted against the government, -proclaimed Pu-yŭ P‘ung, the son of a former king, -monarch of the realm and planned a reëstablishment of the -kingdom. This was pleasing to many of the people. So popular -was the movement that the Emperor feared it would be -successful. He therefore sent a summons to Sil-la to send -troops and put it down. Operations began at once. Gen. -Yu In-gwe besieged Ung-jin the stronghold of the pretender -and chased him out, but a remnant of his forces <a id='corr107_29'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='entrenched'>intrenched</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_107_29'><ins class='correction' title='entrenched'>intrenched</ins></a></span> -themselves and made a good fight. They were however routed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>by the combined Sil-la and Chinese forces. But in spite of -this defeat the cause was so popular that the country was -honeycombed with bands of its sympathisers who gained many -lesser victories over the government troops and their Sil-la -allies. The Sil-la general, Kim Yu-sin, was very active, passing -rapidly from one part of the country to another, now -driving back to the mountains some band of Păk-je rebels and -now holding in check some marauding band from Ko-gu-ryŭ. -He was always found where he was most needed and was never -at a loss for expedients. It is said that at this time rice was -so plentiful in Sil-la that it took thirty bags of it to buy a -single bolt of grass cloth.</p> - -<p class='c000'>That same autumn the Chinese engaged the Ko-gu-ryŭ -forces at the Yalu River and gained a decided victory. Then -the fortress at Ma-eup San fell into their hands. This cleared -the road to P‘yŭng-yang, and the Chinese boldly advanced and -laid siege to that ancient stronghold. At the same time the Emperor -ordered Sil-la to send troops to coöperate with the imperial -army. She obeyed, but with great trepidation, for the fame -of Ko-gu-ryŭ’s arms made this seem a matter of life and death. -She was obliged to comply, however, or lose all the vantage -ground she had gained in the Emperor’s favor. There were -still some Ko-gu-ryŭ forces in the north and they were attempting -to check the advance of a large body of Chinese reinforcements. -It was late in the autumn and the Yalu was -frozen. Taking advantage of this the Chinese crossed in the -night and falling suddenly upon the unsuspecting army of Ko-gu-ryŭ -inflicted a crushing defeat. It is said that 30,000 Ko-gu-ryŭ -soldiers were killed in this engagement. The speedy -downfall of Ko-gu-ryŭ seemed now inevitable, but a sudden -timidity seized the Emperor, who feared perhaps to let his -army winter on Korean soil. So he sent orders for an immediate -retreat back to Chinese territory. The generals before -P‘yŭng-yang were deeply chagrined and indeed found it -impossible on account of lack of provisions to obey the command -at once. Soon the Sil-la army arrived before P‘yŭng-yang -with full supply of provisions. These the Chinese took -and the greater part of them reluctantly broke camp and -marched back to China, leaving Sil-la in a frame of mind better -imagined than described.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>While Ko-gu-ryŭ was staggering under the terrible reverses -inflicted by the Chinese, events of interest were taking -place in the south. The kingdom of T‘am-na on the island -of Quelpart had always been a dependency of Păk-je, but now -found it necessary to transfer her allegiance to Sil-la. The -king of T‘am-na at that time was To-dong Eum-yul.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The mischief-maker, Pok-sin, was again in the field. Now -that he was relieved of pressure he came back to the charge -and took Ung-jin from the Chinese. At the earnest request -of the governor the Emperor sent Gen. Son In-sa with a -small army to aid in putting down this dangerous malcontent. -Pok-sin was obliged to retire to Chin-hyŭn where he fortified -himself strongly. Success seems to have turned his head -for he began to carry himself so proudly that his followers -arose and put him to death and then sent a messenger to Ko-gu-ryŭ -and to Japan asking aid against the Chinese. The -latter responded by sending a considerable force to the shores -of Păk-je to coöperate with this hardy band of men who -were honestly fighting for the independence of their country.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 663 the Emperor conferred upon the king of Sil-la the -title of Tă-do-dok of Kye-rim.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It appears that when the Chinese retired from before -P‘yŭng-yang and left the Sil-la forces in such a delicate position, -some of the Chinese were allowed to remain there on the -plea that if all were removed it would invite an outbreak of -the Păk-je revolutionists. Now as the year 663 opened the -Emperor reinforced them by a powerful army under Gen. Son -In-sa. Sil-la also sent the flower of her army under command -of twenty-eight generals to join the Chinese before P‘yŭng-yang. -But the plan of operations was changed. It was decided -to move southward and complete the subjugation of the -troublesome Păk-je patriots and their Japanese allies. The -combined Chinese and Sil-la armies marched toward Chu-ryu -fortress where the revolutionists were supposed to be intrenched. -On their way they met the Japanese disembarking, -on the banks of the Pak River. They were put to flight and -their boats were burned. The march was continued and the -fortress was duly invested. It fell straightway and the pretender -to the Sil-la throne was captured. This was followed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>by the surrender of all the revolutionists and their Japanese -friends. The last fortress to fall was that of Im-jon, now Tă-heung, -after a desperate struggle.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The war was now at an end. The dead were buried, a -census was taken of the people in the Păk-je capital, aid was -given to the poor, and the people were encouraged to return -at their peaceful avocations. Expressions of satisfaction at -what seemed to be the return of peace were heard on all -sides.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Yu In-gwe, who had been left in charge of <a id='corr110_11'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='th'>the</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_110_11'><ins class='correction' title='th'>the</ins></a></span> Chinese -troops before P‘yŭng-yang when the Emperor ordered -the retreat, now sent word to the Chinese capital that as his -soldiers had been in the peninsula two years without seeing -home he feared they might mutiny. He received orders to -return to China with his men but he decided to wait till the -grain that his men had sown should ripen. The Emperor -then appointed Pu-yŭ Yung the brother of the last king of -Păk-je to the position of governor of all the territory formerly -embraced in Păk-je. He received the title of Tă-do-dok of -Ung-jin, and was urged by the Emperor to govern well. This -was in 664.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Sil-la took advantage of the timely cessation of hostilities -to send to the Chinese camp in Păk-je and have some of her -men take lessons in music from the musicians there. They -also took copies of the dishes, clothes and customs of the Chinese. -All these were imitated by the king and his court. -Buddhism received a sudden check in Sil-la at this time for -the king took the surest way to crush it out, namely, by forbidding -any one to give the monks either money <a id='corr110_31'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='of'>or</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_110_31'><ins class='correction' title='of'>or</ins></a></span> rice.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 665 Gen. Yu In-wŭn received orders from China to -return to that country but before doing so he performed a -significant act. He made the king of Sil-la and the new Tă-do-dok -of Ung-jin take an oath in the blood of a white horse -that they would fight no more. This was done at the fortress -of Ch‘wi-ri San and the slaughtered animal was buried there -under the oath altar. A written copy of the oath was placed -in the ancestral temple of the kings of Sil-la. After Gen. -Yu’s return to China he was followed by Gen. Yu In-gwe who -took with him envoys from Sil-la, Păk-je, T‘am-na and Japan. -To render the compact of peace more binding still the Emperor -<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>sacrificed to heaven in the presence of these envoys. It is -said, however, that the new ruler in Păk-je stood in such fear -of Sil-la that he fled back to China soon after this.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id003'> -<img src='images/i110.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>SILLA BOUNDARY STONE.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The last act in the tragedy of Ko-gu-ryŭ opens with the -death of her iron chancellor, Hap So-mun. It was his genius -that had kept the armies in the field; it was his faith in her -ultimate victory that had kept the general courage up. When -he was laid in his grave the only thing that Ko-gu-ryŭ had to -fall back upon was the energy of despair. It was her misfortune -that Hap So-mun left two sons each of whom possessed a -full share of his father’s ferocity and impatience of restraint. -Nam-săng, the elder, assumed his father’s position as Prime -Minister, but while he was away in the country attending to -some business, his brother, Nam-gŭn, seized his place. Nam-săng -fled to the Yalu River and putting himself at the head of -the Mal-gal and Kŭ-ran tribes went over with them to the -Emperor’s side. Thus by Nam-gŭn’s treachery to his brother, -Ko-gu-ryŭ was deprived of her one great ally, and gained an implacable -enemy in Nam-săng. The Emperor made the latter -Governor-general of Liao-tung and he began welding the wild -tribes into an instrument for revenge. Then the Chinese -forces appeared and together they went to the feast of death; -and even as they were coming news reached them that the Ko-gu-ryŭ -general, Yŭn Chŭn-t‘o, had surrendered to Sil-la and -turned over to her twelve of Ko-gu-ryŭ’s border forts. It was -not till the next year that the Chinese crossed the Liao and -fell upon the Ko-gu-ryŭ outposts. The Chinese general had -told his men that the strategic point was the fortress Sin-sŭng -and that its capture meant the speedy capitulation of all the -rest. Sin-sŭng was therefore besieged and the <a id='corr111_29'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='stuggle'>struggle</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_111_29'><ins class='correction' title='stuggle'>struggle</ins></a></span> began. -The commandant was loyal and wished to defend it to the death -but <a id='corr111_30'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='this'>his</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_111_30'><ins class='correction' title='this'>his</ins></a></span> men thought otherwise, and they bound him and surrendered. -Then sixteen other forts speedily followed the -example.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Ko-gan hastened forward and engaged the Ko-gu-ryŭ -forces at Keum-san and won a decided victory, while at the same -time Gen. Sŭl-In gwi was reducing the fortresses of Nam-so, -Mok-jŭ and Ch‘ang-am, after which he was joined by the Mal-gal -forces under the renegade Nam-săng. Another Chinese -general, Wŭn Man-gyŭng, now sent a boastful letter to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>Ko-gu-ryŭ capital saying “Look out now for the defenses of -that precious Am-nok River of yours.” The answer came -grimly back “We will do so.” And they did it so well that -not a Chinese soldier set foot on the hither side during that -year. The Emperor was enraged at this seeming incompetence -and banished the boastful general to Yong-nam. A -message had already been sent to Sil-la ordering her to throw -her army into Ko-gu-ryŭ and for the Chinese generals Yu In-wŭn -and Kim In-t‘ă to meet them before P‘yŭng-yang. These -two generals were in Păk-je at the time.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 668 everything beyond the Yalu had fallen into the hands -of the Chinese; even Pu-yŭ Fortress of ancient fame -had been taken by Gen. Sŭl In-gwi. The Emperor sent a -messenger asking “Can you take Ko-gu-ryŭ?” The answer -went back “Yes, we must take her. Prophecy says that after -700 years Ko-gu-ryŭ shall fall and that <em>eighty</em> shall cause her -overthrow. The 700 years have passed and now Gen. Yi Jök -is eighty years old. He shall be the one to fulfill the prophecy.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Terrible omens had been seen in the Ko-gu-ryŭ capital. -Earthquakes had been felt; foxes had been seen running -through the streets; the people were in a state of panic. The -end of Ko-gu-ryŭ was manifestly near. So tradition says.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Nam-gŭn had sent 50,000 troops to succor Pu-yŭ Fortress -but in the battle which ensued 30,000 of these were killed and -the remainder were scattered. Conformably to China’s demands, -Sil-la in the sixth moon threw her army into Ko-gu-ryŭ. -The great Sil-la general, Kim Yu-sin was ill, and so -Gen. Kim In-mun was in command with twenty-eight generals -under him. While this army was making its way northward -the Chinese under Gen. Yi Jök in the north took Tă-hăng -Fortress and focussed all the troops in his command upon -the defenses of the Yalu. These defenses were broken -through, the river was crossed and the Chinese advanced 210 -<em>li</em> toward the capital without opposition. One by one the Ko-gu-ryŭ -forts surrendered and at last Gen. Kye-p‘il Ha-ryŭk -arrived before the historic city of P‘yŭng-yang. Gen. Yi Jök -arrived next and finally Gen. Kim In-mun appeared at the -head of the Sil-la army.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After an uninteresting siege of a month the king sent out -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>Gen. Chön Nam-san and ninety other nobles with a flag of -truce and offered to surrender. But the chancellor Nam-gŭn -knew what fate was in store for him, so he made a bold dash -at the besieging army. The attempt failed and the miserable -man put the sword to his own throat and expired. The aged -general, Yi Jök, took the king and his two sons, Pong-nam, -and Tong-nam, a number of the officials, many of Nam-gŭn’s -relatives and a large company of the people of P‘yŭng-yang -and carried them back to China, where he was received with -evidences of the utmost favor by the Emperor. The whole -number of captives in the triumphal return of Gen. Yi Jök is -said to have been 20,000.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ko-gu-ryŭ’s lease of life had been 705 years, from 37 B.C. -to 668 A.D., during which time she had been governed by -twenty-eighty kings.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter XIII.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Sil-la’s captives.... Ko-gu-ryŭ dismembered.... extent of Sil-la.... she -deceives China.... her encroachments.... rebellion.... the word Il-bon -(Nippon) adopted.... Sil-la opposed China.... but is humbled.... again -opposes.... Sil-la a military power.... her policy.... the Emperor -nominates a rival king.... Sil-la pardoned by China.... again -makes trouble.... the Emperor establishes two kingdoms in the -north.... Sil-la’s northern capital.... cremation.... no mention of -Arabs.... China’s interest in Korea wanes.... redistribution of land.... diacritical -points.... philological interest.... Pal-hă founded.... Chinese -customs introduced.... Pal-hă’s rapid growth.... omens.... Sil-la’s -northern limit.... casting of a bell.... names of provinces -changed.... Sil-la’s weakness.... disorder.... examinations.... <a id='corr113_28'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Budhism'>Buddhism</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_113_28'><ins class='correction' title='Budhism'>Buddhism</ins></a></span> -interdicted.... no evidence of Korean origin of Japanese Buddhism.... Japanese -history before the 10th century.... civil wars.... Ch‘oé -Ch‘i-wŭn.... tradition.... Queen Man’s profligacy.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Immediately upon the fall of Ko-gu-ryŭ the Sil-la forces -retired to their own country carrying 7000 captives with them. -The king gave his generals and the soldiers rich presents of -silks and money.</p> - -<p class='c000'>China divided all Ko-gu-ryŭ into nine provinces in which -there were forty-two large towns and over a hundred lesser -ones of prefectural rank. In P‘yŭng-yang Gen. Sŭl In-gwi -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>was stationed with a garrison of 20,000 men. The various -provinces were governed partly by Chinese governors and -partly by native prefects.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king of Sil-la was now the only king in the peninsula -and the presumption was that in view of his loyalty to the -Chinese his kingdom would <a id='corr114_6'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='exend'>extend</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_114_6'><ins class='correction' title='exend'>extend</ins></a></span> to the Yalu River if not beyond, -but it probably was not extended at the time further -than the middle of Whang-hă Province of to-day. The records -say that in 669 the three kingdoms were all consolidated but -it did not occur immediately. It is affirmed that the Chinese -took 38,000 families from Ko-gu-ryŭ and colonized Kang-whe -in China and that some were also sent to San-nam in western -China. That Sil-la was expecting a large extension of territory -is not explicitly stated but it is implied in the statement -that when a Sil-la envoy went to the Chinese court the Emperor -accused the king of wanting to possess himself of the whole -peninsula, and threw the envoy into prison. At the same time -he ordered Sil-la to send bow-makers to China to make bows -that would shoot 1,000 paces. In due time these arrived but -when the bows were made it was found that they would shoot -but thirty paces. They gave as a reason for this that it was -necessary to obtain the wood from Sil-la to make good bows. -This was done and still the bows would shoot but sixty paces. -The bow-makers declared that they did not know the reason -unless it was because the wood had been hurt by being -brought across the water. This was the beginning of an estrangement -between the Emperor and the king of Sil-la which -resulted in a state of actual war between the two.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Sil-la was determined to obtain possession of a larger portion -of Ko-gu-ryŭ than had as yet fallen to her lot; so she sent -small bodies of troops here and there to take possession of any -districts that they could lay their hands on. It is probable -that this meant only such districts as were under native prefects -and not those under direct Chinese rule. It is probable -that Sil-la had acquired considerable territory in the north for -we are told that the Mal-gal ravaged her northern border and -she sent troops to drive them back.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If China hoped to rule any portion of Korea without -trouble she must have been speedily disillusionised for no -sooner had the new form of government been put in operation -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>than a Sil-la gentleman, Köm Mo-jam, raised an insurrection -in one of the larger magistracies, put the Chinese prefect to -death and proclaimed An Seung king. He was a member of -a collateral branch of the royal family. Sil-la seems to have -taken it for granted that the whole territory was under her -supervision for now she sent an envoy and gave consent to -the founding of this small state in the north which she deemed -would act as a barrier to the incursions of the northern barbarians. -The Chinese evidently did not look upon it in this -light and a strong force was sent against the nascent state; and -to such effect that the newly appointed king fled to Sil-la for -safety. The wheel of fortune was turning again and Chinese -sympathies were now rather with Păk-je than with Sil-la.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was at this time, 671, that the term Il-bün (Nippon) -was first used in Korea in connection with the kingdom of -Japan.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The relations between Sil-la and Păk-je were badly strained. -In the following year the Chinese threw a powerful army -into Păk-je with the evident intention of opposing Sil-la. So -the latter furbished up her arms and went into the fray. In -the great battle which ensued at the fortress of Sŭk-sŭng -5,000 of the Chinese were killed. Sil-la was rather frightened -at her own success and when she was called upon to explain -her hostile attitude toward China she averred that it was all a -mistake and she did not intend to give up her allegience to -China. This smoothed the matter over for the time being, but -when, a little later, the Emperor sent seventy boat loads of -rice for the garrison at P‘yŭng-yang, Sil-la seized the rice and -drowned the crew’s of the boats, thus storing up wrath against -herself. The next year she attacked the fortress of Ko-sŭng -in Păk-je and 30,000 Chinese advanced to the support of the -Păk-je forces. A collision took place between them and the -Sil-la army in which the Chinese were very severely handled. -This made the Emperor seriously consider the question of -subduing Sil-la once for all. He ordered that the Mal-gal -people be summoned to a joint invasion of the insolent Sil-la -and the result was that seven Sil-la generals were driven back -in turn and 2,000 troops made prisoners. In this predicament -there was nothing for the king to do but play the humble suppliant -again. The letter to the Emperor praying for pardon -<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>was written by the celebrated scholar Im Gang-su. But it -was not successful, for we find that in the following year the -Chinese troops in the north joined with the Mal-gal and Kŭ-ran -tribes in making reprisals on Sil-la territory. This time -however Sil-la was on the alert and drove the enemy back with -great loss. She also sent a hundred war boats up the western -coast to look after her interests in the north. At the same -time she offered amnesty and official positions to Păk-je nobles -who should come over to her side.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We can scarcely escape the conviction that Sil-la had now -become a military power of no mean dimensions. Many -citizens of Ko-gu-ryŭ had come over to her and some of the -Păk-je element that was disaffected toward the Chinese. All, -in fact, who wanted to keep Korea for the Koreans and could -put aside small prejudices and jealousies, gathered under the -Sil-la banners as being the last chance of saving the peninsula -from the octopus grasp of China. Sil-la was willing to be -good friends with China—on her own terms; namely that -China should let her have her own way in the peninsula, and -that it should not be overrun by officious generals who considered -themselves superior to the king of the land and so -brought him into contempt among the people.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this time there was at the Chinese court a Sil-la envoy -of high rank named Kim In-mun. The Emperor offered him -the throne of Sil-la, but loyalty to his king made him refuse -the honor. In spite of this he was proclaimed King of Sil-la -and was sent with three generals to enforce the claim. That -Sil-la was not without power at this time is shown by the fact -that she proclaimed An-seung King of Păk-je, an act that -would have been impossible had she not possessed a strong -foothold in that country.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The war began again in earnest. The Chinese general, -Yi Gön-hăng, in two fierce encounters, broke the line of Sil-la -defenses and brought the time-serving king to his knees again. -One can but wonder at the patience of the Emperor in listening -to the humble petition of this King Mun-mu who had -made these promises time and again but only to break them -as before. He was, however, forgiven and confirmed again in -his rule. The <a id='corr116_39'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='unfortunte'>unfortunate</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_116_39'><ins class='correction' title='unfortunte'>unfortunate</ins></a></span> Kim In-mun whom the Emperor -had proclaimed King of Sil-la was now in a very delicate position -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>and he wisely hastened back to China where he was compensated -for his disappointment by being made a high official.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Sil-la’s actions were most inconsistent, for having just -saved herself from condign punishment by abject submission -she nevertheless kept on absorbing Păk-je territory and reaching -after Ko-gu-ryŭ territory as well. In view of this the -Emperor ordered the Chinese troops in the north to unite with -the <a id='corr117_8'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Malgal'>Mal-gal</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_117_8'><ins class='correction' title='Malgal'>Mal-gal</ins></a></span> and Kŭ-ran forces and hold themselves in readiness -to move at an hour’s notice. They began operations by attacking -the Chön-sŭng Fortress but there the Sil-la forces were -overwhelmingly successful. It is said that 6,000 heads fell -and that Sil-la captured 30,000 (?) horses. This is hard to -reconcile with the statement of the records that in the following -year a Sil-la envoy was received at the Chinese court and -presented the compliments of the king. It seems sure that -Sil-la had now so grown in the sinews of war that it was not -easy for China to handle her at such long range. It may be -too that the cloud of Empress Wu’s usurpation had begun to -darken the horizon of Chinese politics and that events at home -absorbed all the attention of the court, while the army on the -border was working practically on its own authority.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A new kind of attempt to solve the border question was -made when in 677 the Emperor sent the son of the captive king -of Ko-gu-ryŭ to found a little kingdom on the Yalu River. -This might be called the Latter Ko-gu-ryŭ even as the Păk-je -of that day was called the Latter Păk-je. At the same time a -son of the last Păk-je king was sent to found a little kingdom -at Tă-bang in the north. He lived, however, in fear of the surrounding -tribes and was glad to retire into the little Ko-gu-ryŭ -kingdom that lay lower down the stream. The records -call this the “last” end of Păk-je.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 678 Sil-la made a northern capital at a place called -Puk-wŭn-ju the capital of Kang-wŭn Province. There a fine -palace was erected. The king enquired of his spiritual adviser -whether he had better change his residence to the new -capital but not receiving sufficient encouragement he desisted. -This monarch died in 681 but before he expired he said -“Do not waste the public money in building me a costly -mausoleum. Cremate my body after the manner of the West.” -This gives us an interesting clue to Sil-la’s knowledge of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>outside world. If, as some surmise, Arab traders had commercial -intercourse with the people of Sil-la it must have been -about this time or a little earlier for this was the period of the -greatest expansion of Arabian commerce. It is possible that -the idea of cremation may have been received from them although -from first to last there is not the slightest intimation -that Western traders ever visited the coasts of Sil-la. It is -difficult to believe that, had there been any considerable dealings -with the Arabs, it should not have been mentioned in the -records.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king’s directions were carried out and his son, Chong-myŭng, -burned his body on a great stone by the Eastern Sea -and gave the stone the name “Great King Stone.” That -the Emperor granted investiture to this new king shows -that all the troubles had been smoothed over. But from this -time on Chinese interest in the Korean peninsula seems to -have died out altogether. The little kingdom of Latter Ko-gu-ryŭ, -which the Emperor had established on the border, no -sooner got on a sound basis than it revolted and the Emperor -had to stamp it out and banish its king to a distant Chinese -province. This, according to the records, was the “last” end -of Ko-gu-ryŭ. It occurred in 682 A.D.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Sil-la now held all the land south of the Ta-dong River. -North of that the country was nominally under Chinese control -but more likely was without special government. In 685 -Sil-la took in hand the redistribution of the land and the formation -of provinces and prefectures for the purpose of consolidating -her power throughout the peninsula. She divided -the territory into nine provinces, making three of the original -Păk-je and three of that portion of the original Ko-gu-ryŭ -that had fallen into her hands. The three provinces corresponding -to the original Sil-la were (1) Sŭ-bŭl-ju (the first -step in the transformation of the word Sŭ ya-bŭl to Seoul), (2) -Sam-yang-ju, now Yang-san, (3) Ch‘ŭng-ju now Chin-ju. -Those comprising the original Păk-je were (1) Ung-ch‘ŭn-ju -in <a id='corr118_36'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='the the'>the</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_118_36'><ins class='correction' title='the the'>the</ins></a></span> north, (2) Wan-san-ju in the south-west, (3) Mu-jin-ju -in the south, now Kwang-ju. Of that portion of Ko-gu-ryŭ -which Sil-la had acquired she made the three provinces -(1) Han-san-ju, now Seoul, (2) Mok-yak-ju, now Ch‘un-ch‘ŭn, -(3) Ha-să-ju, now Kang-neung. These nine names -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>represent rather the provincial capitals than the provinces -themselves. Besides these important centers there were 450 -prefectures. Changes followed each other in quick succession. -Former Ko-gu-ryŭ officials were given places of trust and -honor; the former mode of salarying officials, by giving them -tracts of land from whose produce they obtained their emoluments, -was changed, and each received an allowance of rice according -to his grade; the administration of the state was put -on a solid basis.</p> - -<p class='c000'>One of the most far-reaching and important events of this -reign was the invention of the <em>yi-du</em>, or set of terminations -used in the margin of Chinese texts to aid the reader in Koreanizing -the syntax of the Chinese sentence. We must bear -in mind that in those days reading was as rare an accomplishment -in Sil-la as it was in England in the days of Chaucer. -All writing was done by the <em>a-jun</em>, who was the exact counterpart -of the “clerk” of the Middle Ages. The difficulty of -construing the Chinese sentence and using the right suffixes -was so great that Sŭl-ch‘ong, the son of the king’s favorite -monk, Wŭn-hyo, attempted a solution of the difficulty. Making -a list of the endings in common use in the vernacular of -Sil-la he found Chinese characters to correspond with the -sounds of these endings. The correspondence was of two -kinds; either the <em>name</em> of the Chinese character was the -same as the Sil-la ending or the Sil-la <em>meaning</em> of the character -was the same as the ending. To illustrate this let us take the -case of the ending <em>sal-ji</em>, as in <em>ha-sal-ji</em>, which has since been -shortened to <em>ha-ji</em>. Now, in a Chinese text nothing but the root -idea of the word <em>ha</em> will be given and the reader must supply the -<em>sal-ji</em> which is the ending. If then some arbitrary signs could -be made to represent these endings and could be put in the -margin it would simplify the reading of Chinese in no small -degree. It was done in this <a id='corr119_33'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='way;'>way:</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_119_33'><ins class='correction' title='way;'>way:</ins></a></span> There is a Chinese character -which the Koreans call <em>păk</em>, Chinese <em>pa</em>, meaning -“white.” One of the Sil-la definitions of this character <em>sal-wi-ta</em>. -It was the first syllable of this word that was used to -represent the first syllable of the ending <em>sal-ji</em>. Notice that -it was not the name of the character that was used but the Sil-la -equivalent. For the last syllable of the ending <em>sal-ji</em>, however, -the Chinese character <em>ji</em> is used without reference to its -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>Sil-la equivalent. We find then in the <em>yi-du</em> as handed down -from father to son by the <em>a-jun’s</em> of Korea a means for discovering -the connection between the Korean vernacular of to-day -with that of the Sil-la people. It was indeed a clumsy -method, but the genius of Sŭl-ch‘ong lay in his discovery of -the need of such a system and of the possibility of making -one. It was a literary event of the greatest significance. It -was the first outcry against the absurd primitiveness of the -Chinese ideography, a plea for common sense. It was the -first of three great protests which Korea has made against the -use of the Chinese character. The other two will be examined -as they come up. This set of endings which Sŭl-ch‘ong -invented became stereotyped and through all the changes -which the vernacular has passed the <em>yi-du</em> remains to-day what -it was twelve hundred years ago. Its quaint sounds are to -the Korean precisely what the stereotyped clerkly terms of -England are to us, as illustrated in such legal terms as <em>to wit</em>, -<em>escheat</em> and the like. There is an important corollary to this -fact. The invention of the <em>yi-du</em> indicates that the study of -Chinese was progressing in the peninsula and this system was -invented to supply a popular demand. It was in the interests -of general education and as such marks an era in the literary -life of the Korean people. The name of Sŭl-ch‘ong is one of the -most honored in the list of Korean literary men.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The eighth century opened with the beginning of a new -and important reign for Sil-la. Sŭng-dŭk came to the throne -in 702 and was destined to hold the reins of power for thirty-five -years. From the first, his relations with China were -pleasant. He received envoys from Japan and returned the -compliment, and his representatives were everywhere well -received. The twelfth year of his reign beheld the founding -of the kingdom of Pal-hă in the north. This was an event of -great significance to Sil-la. The Song-mal family of the Mal-gal -group of tribes, under the leadership of Kŭl-gŭl Chung-sŭng, -moved southward into the peninsula and settled near -the original Tă-băk Mountain, now Myo-hyang San. There -they gathered together many of the Ko-gu-ryŭ people and -founded a kingdom which they called Chin. It is said this -kingdom was 5,000 <em>li</em> in circumference and that it contained -200,000 houses. The remnants of the Pu-yŭ and Ok-jŭ tribes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>joined them and a formidable kingdom arose under the skillful -<a id='corr121_2'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='managament if'>management of</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_121_2'><ins class='correction' title='managament if'>management of</ins></a></span> Kŭl-gŭl Chung-sŭng. He sent his son to -China as a hostage and received imperial recognition and -the title of King of Pal-hă. From that time the word Mal-gal -disappears from Korean history and Pal-hă takes its -place.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During the next few years Sil-la made steady advance in -civilization of the Chinese type. She imported from China -pictures of Confucius and paid increased attention to that cult. -The water clock was introduced, the title Hu was given to the -Queen, the custom of approaching the throne by means of the -<em>sang-so</em> or “memorial” was introduced.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile the kingdom of Pal-hă was rapidly spreading -abroad its arms and grasping at everything in sight. China -began to grow uneasy on this account and we find that in 734 -a Sil-la general, Kim Yun-jung went to China and joined a -Chinese expedition against the Pal-hă forces. The latter had -not only absorbed much territory in the north but had dared -to throw troops across the Yellow Sea and had gained a foothold -on the Shantung promontory. This attempt to chastise -her failed because the season was so far advanced that the -approach of winter interfered with the progress of the -campaign.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The story of the next century and a half is the story of -Sil-la’s decline and fall. The following is the list of omens -which tradition cites as being prophetic of that event. A -white rainbow pierced the sun; the sea turned to <a id='corr121_27'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='biood'>blood</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_121_27'><ins class='correction' title='biood'>blood</ins></a></span>; hail -fell of the size of hens’ eggs; a monastery was shaken sixteen -times by an earthquake; a cow brought forth five calves at a -time; two suns arose together; three stars fell and fought together -in the palace; a tract of land subsided fifty feet and -the hollow filled with blue black water; a tiger came into the -palace; a black fog covered the land; famines and plagues -were common; a hurricane blew over two of the palace gates; -a huge boulder rose on end and stood by itself; two pagodas -at a monastery fought with each other; snow fell in September; -at Han-yang (Seoul) a boulder moved a hundred paces -all by itself; stones fought with each other; a shower of -worms fell; apricot trees bloomed twice in a year; a whirlwind -started from the grave of Kim Yu-sin and stopped at the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>grave of Hyŭk Kŭ-se. These omens were scattered through -a series of years but to the Korean they all point toward the -coming catastrophe.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in 735 that the Emperor formally invested the king -of Sil-la with the right to rule as far north as the banks <a id='corr122_5'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='ot'>of</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_122_5'><ins class='correction' title='ot'>of</ins></a></span> the -Ta-dong River which runs by the wall of P‘yŭng-yang. It -was a right he had long exercised but which had never before -been acquiesced in by China. The custom of cremating the -royal remains, which had been begun by King Mun-mu, was -continued by his successors and in each case the ashes were -thrown into the sea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first mention of the casting of a bell in Korea was in -the year 754 when a bell one and one third the height of a -man was cast. The records say it weighed 497,581 pounds, -which illustrates the luxuriance of the oriental imagination.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 757 the names of the nine provinces were changed. -Sŭ-bŭl became Sang-ju, Sam-yang became Yang-ju, Ch’ŭng-ju -became Kang-ju, Han-san became Han-ju, Ha-să became -Myŭng-ju, Ung-chŭn became Ung-ju, Wan-san became Chŭn-ju, -Mu-jin became Mu-ju, and Su-yak (called Mok-yak in the -other list) was changed to <ins class='correction' title='Sak-ju,'>Sak-ju.</ins> Following hard upon this -came the change of the name of government offices.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As we saw at the first, Sil-la never had in her the making -of a first class power. Circumstances forced her into the field -and helped her win, and for a short time the enthusiasm of -success made her believe that she was a military power; but -it was an illusion. She was one of those states which would -flourish under the fostering wing of some great patron but as -for standing alone and carving out a career for herself, that -was beyond her power. Only a few years had passed since -she had taken possession of well-nigh the whole of the peninsula -and now we see her torn by internal dissentions and so -weak that the first man of power who arose and shook his -sword at her doors made her fall to pieces like a house of cards. -Let us rapidly bring under review the events of the next -century from 780 to 880 and see whether the facts bear out -the statement.</p> - -<p class='c000'>First a conspiracy was aimed at the king and was led by -a courtier named Kim Chi-jong. Another man, Yang Sang, -learned of it and promptly seized him and put him to death. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>A very meritorious act one would say; but he did it in order -to put his foot upon the same ladder, for he immediately turned -about and killed the king and queen and seated himself upon -the throne. His reign of fifteen years contains only two important -events, the repeopling of P‘yŭng-yang with citizens -of <a id='corr123_6'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Han-ya ng'>Han-yang</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_123_6'><ins class='correction' title='Han-ya ng'>Han-yang</ins></a></span> (Seoul), and the institution of written examinations -after the Chinese plan. In 799 Chun-ong came to the -throne and was followed a year later by his adopted son -Ch‘ŭng-myŭng. These two reigns meant nothing to Sil-la except -the reception of a Japanese envoy bearing gifts and an -attempt at the repression of Buddhism. The building of -monasteries and the making of gold and silver Buddhas was -interdicted. It is well to remember that in all these long -centuries no mention is made of a Korean envoy to Japan, -though Japanese envoys came not infrequently to Sil-la. -There is no mention in the records of any request on the part -of the Japanese for Buddhist books or teachers and there seems -to be no evidence from the Korean standpoint to believe that -Japan received her Buddhism from Korea. Geographically it -would seem probable that she might have done so but as a fact -there is little to prove it. It would, geographically speaking, -be probable also that Japan would get her pronunciation of the -Chinese character by way of Korea but as a matter of fact the -two methods of the pronunciation of Chinese ideographs are -at the very antipodes. The probability is that Japan received -her knowledge both of Buddhism and of the Chinese character -direct from China and not mainly by way of Korea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The condition of Sil-la during this period of decline may -be judged from the events which occurred between the years -836 and 839 inclusive. King Su-jong was on the throne and -had been ruling some eleven years, when, in 835 he died and -his cousin Kyun-jăng succeeded him. Before the year was -out Kim Myŭng a powerful official put him to death and -put Che Yung on the throne. The son of the murdered king, -Yu-jeung, fled to Ch‘ŭng-hă Fortress, whither many loyal -soldiers flocked around him and enabled him to take the field -against the usurper. Kim Myu finding that affairs did not go -to suit him killed the puppet whom he had put on the throne -and elevated himself to that position. After Yu-jeung, the -rightful heir, had received large reinforcements from various -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>sources, he attacked the forces of this parvenu at Mu-ju and -gained a victory. The young prince followed up this success -by a sharp attack on the self-made king who fled for his life -but was pursued and captured. Yu-jeung then ascended the -throne. This illustrates the weakness of the kingdom, in that -any adventurer, with only daring and nerve, could seize the -seat of power and hold it even so long as Kim Myŭng did. -The outlying provinces <a id='corr124_8'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='practially'>practically</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_124_8'><ins class='correction' title='practially'>practically</ins></a></span> governed themselves. There -was no power of direction, no power to bring swift punishment -upon disloyal adventurers, and the whole attitude of the -kingdom invited insubordination. In this reign there were -two other rebellions which had to be put down.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 896 shows a bright spot in a dark picture. The -celebrated scholar Ch‘oé Ch‘i-wŭn appeared upon the scene. -He was born in Sa-ryang. At the age of twelve he went to -China to study; at eighteen he obtained a high literary degree -at the court of China. He travelled widely and at last returned -to his native land where his erudition and statesmanship -found instant recognition. He was elevated to a high position -and a splendid career lay before him; but he was far ahead of -his time; one of those men who seem to have appeared a -century or two before the world was ready for them. The low -state of affairs at the court of Sil-la is proved by the intense -hatred and jealousy which he unwittingly aroused. He soon -found it impossible to remain in office; so he quietly withdrew -to a mountain retreat and spent his time in literary pursuits. -His writings are to be found in the work entitled Ko-un-jip. -He is enshrined in the memory of Koreans as the very acme -of <a id='corr124_29'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='literarary'>literary</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_124_29'><ins class='correction' title='literarary'>literary</ins></a></span> attainment, the brightest flower of Sil-la civilization -and without a superior in the annals of all the kingdoms -of the peninsula.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Tradition asserts that signs began to appear and portents -of the fall of Sil-la. King Chung-gang made a journey -through the southern part of the country and returned by -boat. A dense fog arose which hid the land. Sacrifice was -offered to the genius of the sea, and the fog lifted and a strange -and beautiful apparition of a man appeared who accompanied -the <a id='corr124_38'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='expidtion'>expedition</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_124_38'><ins class='correction' title='expidtion'>expedition</ins></a></span> back to the capital and sang a song whose burden -was that many wise men would die and that the capital would -be changed. Chung-gang died the next year and was succeeded -<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>by his brother Chin-sung who lived but a year and -then made way for his sister who became the ruler of the land. -Her name was Man. Under her rule the court morals fell to -about as low a point as was possible. When her criminal intimacy -with a certain courtier, Eui-hong, was terminated by -the death of the latter she took three or four other lovers at -once, raising them to high offices in the state and caring as -little for the real welfare of the country as she did for her own -fair fame. Things reached such a pass that the people lost -patience with her and insulting placards were hung in the -streets of the capital calling attention to the depth of infamy -to which the court had sunk.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in 892 that the great bandit Yang-gil arose in the -north. His right hand man was Kung-ye, and as he plays an -important part in the subsequent history of Sil-la we must stop -long enough to give his antecedents. The story of his rise -is the story of the inception of the Kingdom of Ko-ryŭ. It -may be proper to close the ancient history of Korea at this -point and begin the medieval section with the events which -led up to the founding of Koryŭ.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>END OF PART I.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c002' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>PART II.</div> - <div class='c002'>MEDIEVAL KOREAN HISTORY.</div> - <div class='c002'><span class='small'>From 890 to 1392 A.D.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span> - <h2 id='part02' class='c007'>PART II. <br /> MEDIEVAL HISTORY.</h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c014'>Chapter I.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Kung-ye.... antecedents.... revolts.... Ch‘oé Ch‘i-wŭn.... retires.... Wang-gön.... origin.... Kung-ye -successful.... advances Wang-gön -himself King.... Wang-gön again promoted.... Sil-la -court corrupt.... Kung-ye proclaims himself a Buddha.... condition -of the peninsula.... Wang-gön accused.... refuses the throne.... forced -to take it.... Kung-ye killed.... prophecy.... Wang-gön <a id='corr127_8'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='doet'>does</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_127_8'><ins class='correction' title='doet'>does</ins></a></span> -justice..... Ko-ryŭ organized..... Buddhist festival..... Song-do.... Ko-ryŭ’s -defenses.... Kyŭn-whŭn becomes Wang-gön’s enemy.... wild -tribes submit.... China upholds Kyŭn-whŭn.... his gift to Wang-gön.... loots -the capital of Sil-la.... Ko-ryŭ troops repulsed.... war.... Wang-gön -visits Sil-la.... improvements.... Kyŭn-whŭn’s last -stand.... imprisoned by his sons.... comes to Song-do.... Sil-la expires.... her -last king comes to Song-do.... Wang-gön’s generosity.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Kung-ye was the son of King Hön-gang by a concubine. -He was born on the least auspicious day of the year, the fifth -of the fifth moon. He had several teeth when he was born -which made his arrival the less welcome. The King ordered -the child to be destroyed; so it was thrown out of the window. -But the nurse rescued it and carried it to a place of safety -where she nursed it and provided for its bringing up. As she -was carrying the child to this place of safety she accidentally -put out one of its eyes. When he reached man’s estate he -became a monk under the name of Sŭn-jong. He was by nature -ill fitted for the monastic life and soon found himself in -the camp of the bandit Ki-whŭn at Chuk-ju. Soon he began -to consider himself ill-treated by his new master and deserted -him, finding his way later to the camp of the bandit Yang-gil -at Puk-wŭn now Wŭn-ju. A considerable number of men accompanied -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>him. Here his talents were better appreciated and -he was put in command of a goodly force with which he soon -overcame the districts of Ch‘un-ch‘ŭn, Nă-sŭng, Ul-o and -O-jin. From this time Kung-ye steadily gained in power -until he quite eclipsed his master. Marching into the western -part of Sil-la he took ten districts and went into permanent -camp.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The following year another robber, Kyŭn-whŭn, made -head against Sil-la in the southern part of what is now Kyŭng-sang -Province. He was a Sang-ju man. Having seized the -district of Mu-ju he proclaimed himself King of Southern Sil-la. -His name was originally Yi but when fifteen years of age -he had changed it to Kyŭn. He had been connected with the -Sil-la army and had risen step by step and made himself extremely -useful by his great activity in the field. When, however, -the state of Sil-la became so corrupt as to be a by-word -among all good men, he threw off his allegiance to her, gathered -about him a band of desperate criminals, outlaws and other -disaffected persons and began the conquest of the south and -west. In a month he had a following of 5,000 men. He found -he had gone too far in proclaiming himself King and so modified -his title to that of “Master of Men and Horses.” It is said -of him that once, while still a small child, his father being -busy in the fields and his mother at work behind the house, -a tiger came along and the child sucked milk from its udder. -This accounted for his wild and fierce nature.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this time the great scholar Ch‘oé Ch‘i-wŭn, whom we -have mentioned, was living at of Pu-sŭng. Recognizing -the abyss of depravity into which the state was falling he -formulated ten rules for the regulation of the government and -sent them to Queen Man. She read and praised them but -took no means to put them in force. Ch‘oé could no longer -serve a Queen who made light of the counsels of her most -worthy subjects and, throwing up his position, retired to -Kwang-ju in Nam-san and became a hermit. After that he -removed to Ping-san in Kang-ju, then to Ch‘ŭng-yang Monastery -in Hyŭp-ju, then to Sang-gye Monastery at Ch‘i-ri San -but finally made his permanent home at Ka-ya San where he -lived with a few other choice spirits. It was here that he -wrote his autobiography in thirteen volumes.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>In 896 Kung-ye began operating in the north on a larger -scale. He took ten districts near Ch‘ŭl-wŭn and put them in -charge of his young lieutenant Wang-gön who was destined to -become the founder of a dynasty. We must now retrace our -steps in order to tell of the origin of this celebrated man.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Wang-yŭng, a large-minded and ambitious man, lived in -the town of Song-ak. To him a son was born in the third -year of King Hön-gang of Sil-la, A.D. 878. The night the -boy was born a luminous cloud stood above the house and -made it as bright as day, so the story runs. The child had a -very high forehead and a square chin, and he developed rapidly. -His birth had long since been prophesied by a monk -named To-sŭn who told Wang-yŭng, as he was building his -house, that within its walls a great man would be born. As -the monk turned to go Wang-yŭng called him back and received -from him a letter which he was ordered to give to the -yet unborn child when he should be old enough to read. The -contents are unknown but when the boy reached his seventeenth -year the same monk reappeared and became his tutor, -instructing him especially in the art of war. He showed him -also how to obtain aid from the heavenly powers, how to sacrifice -to the spirits of mountain and stream so as to propitiate -them. Such is the tradition that surrounds the origin of the -youth who now in the troubled days of Sil-la found a wide -field for the display of his martial skill.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Kung-ye first ravaged the country from Puk-wŭn to A-sil-la, -with 600 followers. He there assumed the title of -“Great General.” Then he reduced all the country about -Nang-ch’ŭn, Han-san, Kwan-nă and Ch‘ŭl-wŭn. By this time -his force had enormously increased and his fame had spread far -and wide. All the wild tribes beyond the Ta-dong River did -obeisance to him. But these successes soon began to turn his -head. He styled himself “Prince” and began to appoint -prefects to various places. He advanced Wang-gön to a high -position and made him governor of Song-do. This he did at -the instigation of Wang-yŭng who sent him the following -enigmatical advice: “If you want to become King of Cho-sŭn, -Suk-sin and Pyön-han you must build a wall about Song-do -and make my son governor.” It was immediately done, and in -this way Wang-gön was provided with a place for his capital.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>In 897 the profligate Queen Man of Sil-la handed the -government over to her adopted son Yo and retired. This -change gave opportunities on every side for the rebels to ply -their trade. Kung-ye forthwith seized thirty more districts -north of the Han River and Kyŭn-whŭn established his headquarters -at Wan-san, now Chŭn-ju and called his kingdom -New Păk-je. Wang-gön, in the name of Kung-ye, seized almost -the whole of the territory included in the present provinces -of Kyŭng-geui and Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng. Finally in 901 -Kung-ye proclaimed himself king and emphasized it by slashing -with a sword the picture of the king of Sil-la which hung -in a monastery. Two years later Wang-gön moved southward -into what is now Chŭl-la Province and soon came in contact -with the forces of Kyŭn-whŭn. In these contests the young -Wang-gön was uniformly successful.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 905 Kung-ye established his capital at Ch‘ŭl-wŭn in -the present Kang-wŭn province and named his kingdom Ma-jin -and the year was called <em>Mut</em>. Then he distributed the -offices among his followers. By this time all the north and -east had joined the standards of Kung-ye and Wang-gön even -to within 120 miles of the Sil-la capital. The king and court of -Sil-la were in despair. There was no army with which to take -the field and all they could do was to defend the position they -had as best they could and hope that Kyung-ye and Kyŭn-whŭn -might destroy each other. In 909 Kung-ye called Sil-la “The -Kingdom to be Destroyed” and set Wang-gön as military -governor of all the south-west. Here he pursued an active -policy, now fitting out ships with which to subjugate the -neighboring islands and now leading the attack on Kyŭn-whŭn -who always suffered in the event. His army was a -model of military precision and order. Volunteers flocked to -his standard. He was recognised as the great leader of the -day. When, at last, Na-ju fell into the hands of the young -Wang-gön, Kyŭn-whŭn decided on a desperate venture and -suddenly appearing before that town laid siege to it. After -ten days of unsuccessful assault he retired but Wang-gön -followed and forced an engagement at Mok-p‘o, now Yŭng-san-p‘o, -and gave him such a whipping that he was fain to -escape alone and unattended.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile Kung-ye’s character was developing. Cruelty -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>and capriciousness became more and more his dominant qualities. -Wang-gön never acted more wisely than in keeping as -far as possible from the court of his master. His rising fame -would have instantly roused the jealousy of Kung-ye.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Sil-la had apparently adopted the principle “Let us eat -and be merry for to-morrow we die.” Debauchery ran rife at -the court and sapped what little strength was left. Among -the courtiers was one of the better stamp and when he found -that the king preferred the counsel of his favorite concubine -to his own, he took occasion to use a sharper argument in -the form of a dagger, which at a blow brought her down from -her dizzy eminence.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 911 Kung-ye changed the name of his kingdom to Tă-bong. -It is probable that this was because of a strong Buddhistic -tendency that had at this time quite absorbed him. He -proclaimed himself a Buddha, called himself Mi-ryŭk-pul, -made both his sons Buddhists, dressed as a high priest and -went nowhere without censers. He pretended to teach the -tenets of Buddhism. He printed a book, and put a monk -to death because he did not accept it as canonical. The -more Kung-ye dabbled in Buddhism the more did all military -matters devolve upon Wang-gön, who from a distance beheld -with amazement and concern the dotage of his master. At -his own request he was always sent to a post far removed from -the court. At last Kung-ye became so infatuated that he -seemed little better than a madman. He heated an iron to -a white heat and thrust it into his wife’s womb because she -continually tried to dissuade him from his Buddhistic notions. -He charged her with being an adultress. He followed this up -by killing both his sons and many other of the people near his -person. He was hated as thoroughly as he was feared.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 918 was one of the epochal years of Korean history. -The state of the peninsula was as follows. In the south-east, -the reduced kingdom of Sil-la, prostrated by her own excesses, -without an army, and yet in her very supineness running -to excess of riot, putting off the evil day and trying to -drown regrets in further debauchery. In the central eastern -portion, the little kingdom of Kung-ye who had now become a -tyrant and a madman. He had put his whole army under the -hand of a young, skillful, energetic and popular man who had -<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>gained the esteem of all classes. In the south-west was another -sporadic state under Kyŭn-whŭn who was a fierce, unscrupulous -bandit, at swords points with the rising Wang-gön.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Suddenly Kung-ye awoke to the reality of his position. -He knew he was hated by all and that Wang-gön was loved -by all, and he knew too that the army was wholly estranged -from himself and that everything depended upon what course -the young general should pursue. Fear, suspicion and jealousy -mastered him and he suddenly ordered the young general -up to the capital. Wang-gön boldly complied, knowing -doubtless by how slender a thread hung his fortunes. When -he entered his master’s presence the latter exclaimed “You -conspired against me yesterday.” The young man calmly -asked how. Kung-ye pretended to know it through the power -of his sacred office as Buddha. He said “Wait, I will again -consult the inner consciousness.” Bowing his head he pretended -to be communing with his inner self. At this moment -one of the clerks purposely dropped his pen, letting it roll -near to the prostrate <a id='corr132_19'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='from'>form</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_132_19'><ins class='correction' title='from'>form</ins></a></span> of Wang-gön. As the clerk stooped -to pick it up, he whispered in Wang-gön’s ear “Confess that -you have conspired.” The young man grasped the situation -at once. When the mock Buddha raised <a id='corr132_22'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='has'>his</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_132_22'><ins class='correction' title='has'>his</ins></a></span> head and repeated -the accusation Wang-gön confessed that it was true. The -King was delighted at this, for he deceived himself into believing -that he actually had acquired the faculty of reading -men’s minds. This pleased him so greatly that he readily -forgave the offence and merely warned the young man not to -repeat it. After this he gave Wang-gön rich gifts and had -more confidence in him than ever.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But the officials all besieged the young general with entreaties -to crush the cruel and capricious monarch and assume -the reins of government himself. This he refused to do, for -through it all, he was faithful to his master. But they said -“He has killed his wife and his sons and we will all fall a prey -to his fickle temper unless you come to our aid. He is worse -than the Emperor Chu.” Wang-gön, however, urged that it -was the worst of crimes to usurp a throne. “But” said they -“is it not much worse for us all to perish? If one does not -improve the opportunity that heaven provides it is a sin.” -He was unmoved by this casuistry and stood his ground firmly. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>At last even his wife joined in urging him to lay aside his -foolish scruples and she told the officials to take him by force -and carry him to the palace, whether he would or not. They -did so, and bearing him in their arms they burst through the -palace gate and called upon the wretch Kung-ye to make room -for their chosen king. The terrified creature fled naked but -was caught at Pu-yang, now P‘yŭng-gang, and beheaded.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Tradition says that this was all in fulfillment of a prophecy -which was given in the form of an enigma. A Chinese -merchant bought a mirror of a Sil-la man and in the mirror -could be seen these words: “Between three waters—God -sends his son to Chin and Ma—First seize a hen and then a -duck—in the year Ki-ja two dragons will arise, one in a green -forest and one east of black metal.” The merchant presented -it to Kung-ye who prized it highly and sought everywhere for -the solution of the riddle. At last the scholar Song Han-hong -solved it for him as follows. “The Chin and Ma mean Chin-han -and Ma-han. The hen is Kye-rim (Sil-la). The duck is -the Am-nok (duck-blue) River. The green forest is pine tree -or Song-do (Pine Tree Capital) and black metal is Ch‘ŭl-wŭn -(Ch‘ŭl is metal). So a king in Song-do must arise (Wang-gön) -and a king in Ch‘ŭl-wŭn must fall <a id='corr133_22'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='(Kung-ye).'>(Kung-ye).”</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_133_22'><ins class='correction' title='(Kung-ye).'>(Kung-ye).”</ins></a></span></p> - -<p class='c000'>Wang-gön began by bringing to summary justice the -creatures of Kung-ye who seconded him in his cruelty; some -of them were killed and some were imprisoned. Everywhere -the people gave themselves up to festivities and rejoicings.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But the ambitious general, Whan Son-gil, took advantage -of the unsettled state of affairs to raise an insurrection. -Entering the palace with a band of desperadoes he suddenly -entered the presence of Wang-gön who was without a guard. -The King rose from his seat, and looking the traitor in the -face said “I am not King by my own desire or request. You -all made me King. It was heaven’s ordinance and you cannot -kill me. Approach and try.” The traitor thought that -the King had a strong guard secreted near by and turning fled -from the palace. He was caught and beheaded.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Wang-gön sent messages to all the bandit chiefs and invited -them to join the new movement, and soon from all sides -they came in and swore allegiance to the young king. Kyŭn-whŭn, -however, held aloof and sought for means to put down -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>the new power. Wang-gön set to work to establish his kingdom -on a firm basis. He changed the official system and established -a new set of official grades. He rewarded those who -had been true to him and remitted three years’ revenues. He -altered the revenue laws, requiring the people to pay much -less than heretofore, manumitted over a thousand slaves and -gave them goods out of the royal storehouses with which to -make a start in life. As P‘yŭng-yang was the ancient capital -of the country he sent one of the highest officials there as -governor. And he finished the year with a Buddhist festival, -being himself a Buddhist of a mild type. This great annual -festival is described as follows:—There was an enormous lantern, -hung about with hundreds of others, under a tent made of -a net-work of silk cords. Music was an important element. -There were also representations of dragons, birds, elephants, -horses, carts and boats. Dancing was prominent and there -were in all a hundred forms of entertainment. Each official -wore the long flowing sleeves and each carried the ivory memo -tablet. The king sat upon a high platform and watched the -entertainment.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The next year he transferred his court to Song-do which -became the permanent capital. There he built his palace and -also the large merchants’ houses and shops in the center of -the city. This latter act was in accordance with the ancient -custom of granting a <a id='corr134_25'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='monoply'>monopoly</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_134_25'><ins class='correction' title='monoply'>monopoly</ins></a></span> of certain kinds of trade and -using the merchants as a source of revenue when a sudden -need for money arose. He divided the city into five wards and -established seven military stations. He also established a -secondary capital at Ch‘ŭl-wŭn, the present Ch‘un-ch‘ŭn, and -called it Tong-ju. The pagodas and Buddhas in both the -capitals were regilded and put in good order. The people -looked with some suspicion upon these Buddhistic tendencies -but he told them that the old customs must not be changed too -rapidly, for the kingdom had need of the help of the spirits in -order to become thoroughly established, and that when that -was accomplished they could abandon the religion as soon as -they pleased. Here was his grand mistake. He riveted upon -the state a baneful influence which was destined to drag it into -the mire and eventually bring it to ruin.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 920 Sil-la first recognised Koryŭ as a kingdom -<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>and sent an envoy with presents to the court at Song-do.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i135.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>THE SOUTH GATE OF NA-JU.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Wang-gön looked out for the interests of the people in the -distant parts of the country as well as for those near the capital. -In order to break the force of the attacks of the wild -people beyond the Tu-man River he built a wall across the -northern border of Ham-gyŭng Province. It is said to have -been 900 <em>li</em> long. But there was a still stronger enemy on the -south. Kyŭn-whŭn had by this time come to see that he had no -hope of overcoming the young kingdom of Koryŭ and so he -bent his energies to the securing of his position against the -danger of interference, especially in his plans against Sil-la. -For this reason he sent a messenger to Song-do with presents -and tried to make friends with his old time enemy. His next -move was to attack Sil-la. Wang-gön took up the cudgels in -support of the king of Sil-la and by so doing secured the lasting -enmity of the bandit who from this time determined upon -war without quarter against his northern enemy. Wang-gön -said to the Sil-la envoys, “Sil-la has three treasures; the nine -storey pagoda, the Buddha six times the height of a man, and -the jade belt. As long as these three remain intact Sil-la will -stand. The first two are in Sil-la. Where is the jade belt?” -The envoy answered that he did not know, whereupon Wang-gön -blamed him sharply and sent him home. When Sil-la -finally fell, the jade belt passed into the hands of Wang-gön.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 921 the Mal-gal tribe, Heuk-su, made a treaty with -Wang-gön. This bears evidence to the rapidly growing power -of the young king. The Heuk-su Mal-gal were the most -feared of all the semi-savage tribes of the north. The following -year the Kŭ-ran, usually called Kitan in Chinese histories, -followed the example of the Heuk-su people by sending an -envoy with presents. It was not till 923 that Wang-gön -thought fit to send an envoy to China to offer his compliments.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the last king of Sil-la, but one, ascended the -throne in 924 important events were following thick and fast -upon each other. Sil-la was now so weak that the records say -the king had nothing left but his genealogy. Kyŭn-whŭn -sent a force to begin operations against Koryŭ, but without -success, and in the following year Wang-gön retaliated with -such good success that Kyŭn-whŭn was fain to send his son to -Song-do as a hostage. He thus bound himself to keep the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>peace. Having done this he sent to China desiring to secure -backing against Koryŭ. The Emperor so far complied as to -confer upon him the title of King of Păk-je, thus following -the time-honored policy of pitting one power against -another.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 926 saw the first envoy come from the kingdom -of T‘am-na on the island of Quelpart. He arrived at the -capital of Koryŭ, where he was well received. The fame of -Wang-gön was spreading far and wide among the northern -tribes. The Kŭ-ran, or Kitan tribe, having overcome the -Păl-ha tribe, made overtures to Wang-gön relative to annexation. -These advances were cordially responded to but we are -not informed that the union was actually effected.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Kyŭn-whŭn, who was at this time on the island Chŭl-yong-do, -sent a present of horses to Wang-gön but a few days -later he found a book of prophecy which said that in the year -when he should send a gift of horses to Song-do his power -would come to an end. He therefore sent a swift messenger -begging Wang-gön to return the gift. The King laughed -long and loud when he saw this message and good-naturedly -sent back the horses.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The last King of Sil-la, Kyŭng-sun, ascended the throne -in 927. It happened on this wise; Kyŭn-whŭn was keeping -up a double fight, one against Wang-gön and the other, an -offensive one, against Sil-la. He was badly defeated in an -engagement with Koryŭ forces but had good success in his -other venture. He burned and pillaged right up to the gates -of Sil-la’s capital, and, while a Sil-la envoy was posting to -Song-do to ask for aid, entered the city with a picked band -of men. Succor in the shape of 10,000 Koryŭ troops was on -its way but came too late. At the hour when Kyŭn-whŭn entered -the city the king, his son, the queen and many of the -courtiers were feasting at Po-sŭk summer-house. When the -unwelcome news arrived, there was no time for preparation. -The king and queen fled south without attendants. The -palace women were seized and the palace occupied. The king -was soon run to earth and was compelled to commit suicide. -Kyŭn-whŭn ravished the queen and delivered over the palace -women to the soldiery. The palace was looted and the entire -band, sated with excess and debauchery, and loaded down -<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>with the treasures of the palace, started back on the homeward -road. But not until Kyŭn-whŭn had appointed a relative -of the murdered king to succeed him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Wang-gön heard of these atrocities, he hastened -forward his troops and overtook the army of Kyŭn-whŭn in -O-dong forest where a sharp engagement ensued. For some -reason, whether it be because the soldiers of Kyŭn-whŭn -were more familiar with the locality or because the Koryŭ soldiers -were exhausted by their long forced march, the assault -was unsuccessful and the Koryŭ forces withdrew. This was -doubly unfortunate for it not only did not punish the ruffians -for their atrocities at the Sil-la capital but it inspired them -with confidence in their own power. Shortly after this Kyŭn-whŭn -sent a letter to Wang-gön saying “I became Sil-la’s -enemy because she sought aid from you. You have no cause -for warring against me. It is like a dog chasing a rabbit; -both are tired out to no purpose. It is like a king-fisher trying -to catch a clam; when he thrusts his bill into the shell the -clam closes it and he finds himself caught”. To this epistle -Wang-gön replied “Your actions at the Sil-la capital are so -outrageous that I cannot endure the thought of any compromise. -Your present course will lead you to speedy ruin”.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Elated over his successful repulse of Wang-gön’s army, -Kyŭn-whŭn took the field the following year, with a strong -force, and was prepared to assume the offensive. He assaulted -and took two Koryŭ fortresses and even, at one time, surrounded -Wang-gön in Ch’ŭng-ju and caused him no little -anxiety. In the battle which followed Kyŭn-whŭn lost three -hundred men and was pushed back, thus freeing the king -from an embarrassing position; but before the campaign was -over Kyŭn-whŭn scored another victory by capturing the -district of Ok-ch’ŭn. In his next campaign he was still successful, -and Eui Fortress fell into his hands and he killed the -general in charge. Here his successes ended, for Wang-gön -awoke to the necessity of using strong measures against him. -The following year Koryŭ forces inflicted a crushing defeat -upon the southern leader, at An-dong. The fight had lasted -all day and neither side had gained any advantage, but that -night a picked band of Koryŭ men ascended Hog’s Head -Mountain and made a rush <a id='corr137_40'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='down down'>down</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_137_40'><ins class='correction' title='down down'>down</ins></a></span> upon the unsuspecting -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>camp of the enemy, causing a panic and a stampede in -which eight thousand men were killed. Kyŭn-whŭn himself -sought safety in flight. This seemed conclusive and all the -countryside sent in their allegiance to the victors. A hundred -and ten districts in eastern Korea came over to Wang-gön -in a body. Dagelet Island, or Ul-leung as the Koreans -call it, sent presents to Koryŭ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The next year after these stirring events, namely 931, -Wang-gön made a visit to Sil-la taking with him an escort of -only fifty soldiers. The king of Sil-la came out to meet him -and they feasted there at the meeting-place together. The -king of Sil-la lamented the smallness and weakness of his -kingdom and deplored the ravages of <a id='corr138_13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Kyun-whŭn'>Kyŭn-whŭn</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_138_13'><ins class='correction' title='Kyun-whŭn'>Kyŭn-whŭn</ins></a></span>. The evils, -he said, were beyond estimation; and he broke down and -wept. The courtiers did the same and even Wang-gön could -scarce restrain his tears. After this they had a friendly talk -and the king of Koryŭ remained as a guest for some twenty -days. As he left the capital of Sil-la the people vied with -each other in doing him honor. Poor old Sil-la had gone out -of fashion and the minds of all men were turned Koryŭ-ward.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Wang-gön had a strong predilection for P‘yŭng-yang, the -ancient capital of the country. He had already established a -school there with professorships of literature, medicine and -incantation. He now in 932 conceived the project of moving -his capital northward to that place. To this end he erected -barracks there for his troops and was making other preparations -for the change, when he was dissuaded from it by some -evil omens. A great wind blew down some of the houses in -P‘yŭng-yang and, so the story goes, a hen became a cock. -These portents made it impossible to carry out the plan. It -was about this time that he built a guest-house outside the -walls of Song-do to be used as a reception hall for envoys and -messengers from the wild tribes of the north. Suspicion as -to the object of their coming may have made it seem undesirable -to allow them to enter the city proper, or it may have -been simply to impress them with the importance of the place.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Kyŭn-whŭn’s right hand man came and swore allegience -even though, at the time, his two sons and his daughter were -hostages in the hands of his former master. When Kyŭn-whŭn -heard of it he burned the first son alive and would have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>treated the second son and the daughter in like manner had -they not effected their escape to a retreat where they lay in -hiding till his death. This desertion seems to have roused -the old man’s ire, and he longed for the din of battle once -more. He could still command a considerable force; so he -entered upon another campaign and as usual was at first successful. -He seized three districts in the east country and set -fire to a large number of towns. It was not until the next -year that Wang-gön sent an expedition against him. This -was under the command of Gen. Yu Gön-p’il, whom the king -had banished but had pardoned and recalled because of his -lively efforts while in exile to raise a company of soldiers. He -never seemed to know when he was beaten. He routed the -forces of Kyŭn-whŭn and returned in triumph to Song-do, -where he was hailed as the savior of the people. We may -judge from this that Kyŭn-whŭn was still considered formidable. -In another fight Gen. Yu captured seven of Kyŭn-whŭn’s -captains and one of his sons as well.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As things seemed quiet now, the king made a royal progress -through the north and west, helping the poor, inspecting -fortresses, supplanting unpopular prefects; but when he -got back he found his old enemy still active, and at Un-ju he -had his last great fight with him. In this struggle three -thousand of the enemy were killed and thirty-two fortresses -were taken. The year 935 A.D. is another mile-stone in -Korean history. It marks the end of a dynasty which lacked -but eight years of completing a millennium. But we must -relate the events of the year in order. Kyŭn-whŭn had many -concubines and more than ten sons. Of the latter the fourth -named Keum-gang, was the one he loved the best, a boy of -robust body and great intelligence. The old man passed by -his other sons and named this one as his successor. This of -course made trouble at once. The first son, Sin-geum, led a -conspiracy and the old gentleman was seized and imprisoned -in Keum-san monastery, the young Keum-gang was put to -death and Sin-geum ascended the insecure throne of his -father, now doubly insecure, since it had lost the masterly -genius which of late years had been its only support. But old -Kyŭn-whŭn had not played his last card. After three months -imprisonment he succeeded in getting his guards drunk (jolly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>monks those) and escaped to Ka-ju from which point he had -the colossal impudence to send a letter to Wang-gön surrendering -and asking for asylum in Koryŭ against his own -son. It was granted and soon a ship of war arrived with a -high official on board to escort the grey old wolf of the south -to the Koryŭ capital, where he was received as a guest, given -a comfortable house and plenty of servants and the revenues -of Yang-ju prefecture. From that point we may believe that -he waited patiently to see the overthrow of his sons.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But these are small events compared with what followed. -The king of Sil-la determined to abdicate and hand over the -remnant of his kingdom to Wang-gön. When he broached -the matter to his officials no man raised his voice. They -could not assent and they knew there was no use in demurring. -The crown prince urged his father to submit the question -to the people and to abide by their decision, but the king was -determined and so sent a letter to Song-do offering to lay his -scepter at the feet of Wang-gön. The crown prince was in -despair, refused to see his father, retired to a mountain retreat -and ate coarse food as a token of his grief. He died -there of chagrin and sorrow.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Wang-gön answered by sending one of the highest officials -to escort the ex-king to Song-do. The royal procession -was ten miles long, as it slowly wound its way out of the -deserted city amidst the clamorous grief of the people. -Wang-gön met him in person at the gate of Song-do. He did -not want the ex-king to bow to him but the courtiers had -decided that as the country could have but one king this must -be done. So the new arrival did obeisance. Wang-gön gave -him his daughter to wife and made him prime minister, set -aside the revenues of an entire district to his use and conferred -high rank upon the Sil-la courtiers.</p> - -<p class='c000'>And so ended the ancient kingdom of Sil-la which had -existed for 992 years, from 57 B.C. to 935 A.D. Her line of -kings included fifty-six names, which gives an average of -about eighteen years to each reign. From that day the capital -of Sil-la was called simply by the name Kyöng-ju. We -believe that history shows few instances of greater generosity, -forbearance, delicacy and tact than are shadowed forth in the -life of this same Wang-gön. Does history show a nobler act -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>than that of providing a comfortable home where his old -enemy Kyŭn-whŭn might spend his last days in comfort -and ease? Does it show more delicacy than was shown by -Wang-gön when he took every means to cover the chagrin of -the retiring king of Sil-la by treating him as a royal guest?</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter II.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Kyŭn-whŭn’s sons defeated.... Buddhist teachers from China.... The -Emperor recognizes Koryŭ.... Wang-gön refuses to treat with the -Kitans.... makes ten rules.... king marries his sister.... plot detected.... practical -Shogunate.... Buddhism flourishes.... P‘yŭng-yang.... Chinamen -take office in Koryŭ.... slavery.... examinations.... Chinese -favored.... official garments.... incapable king.... retrogression.... reform.... Confucianism.... Kitan -growing.... bureau -of history reorganized.... equilibrium between Confucianism and -Buddhism.... Uk is banished.... quarrel with Kitan.... concession.... dispute.... China -refuses aid.... the provinces.... the “Emperor” -of Kitan gives the king investiture.... first coinage.... reforms.... conspiracy -crushed.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Before leaving the kingdom of Sil-la to be swallowed up -in antiquity we must notice a few corollaries. We will notice -that Sil-la was the first power to gain the control of the whole -peninsula. It was the language of Sil-la that became at least -the official language of the entire country. The <em>yi-t‘u</em>, or -system of diacritical marks, tended to stereotype the agglutinative -endings, so that we find to-day the general characteristics -running through the grammar of Korean are those -which characterized the language of ancient Sil-la. This fact, -clearly grasped, goes a long way toward opening a way for -the solution of the question of the origin of the language.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the year 936 opens we see king Wang-gön with his -two former rivals, the peaceful one and the warlike one, gathered -under his wing, and the only cloud upon his horizon -the attitude of Kyŭn-whŭn’s sons in the south. This was -soon settled. The king in company with Kyŭn-whŭn, at the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>head of an army of 87,000 men, marched southward and engaged -the pitiable force that was all the malcontents could now -muster. When they saw this tremendous army approaching -and knew that Kyŭn-whŭn was there in person, surrender -was immediate. Wang-gön’s first demand was “where is Sin-geum?” -He was told that he was in a fortress in the mountains -with a small force and was prepared to fight to a finish. -He was there attacked and 3,200 men were taken and 5,700 -killed, which shows how desperate the battle was. Sin-geum -and his two brothers were captured. The two other sons of -Kyŭn-whŭn were executed, because they had driven their -father away, but Sin-geum in some way showed that he had not -been a principal actor in that disgraceful scene and so escaped -what we may well believe was merited punishment. There on -the field the old man Kyŭn-whŭn died. It is said that his -death was caused by chagrin that Sin-geum was not killed -with his brothers.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in 938 that Wang-gön went outside the walls of -the capital to meet a celebrated monk named Hong-bŭm, who -had come originally from Ch’un-ch’uk monastery in the land -of Sŭ-yŭk.</p> - -<p class='c000'>All this time interesting reforms were in progress. The -names of all the prefectures throughout the country were -changed. This has always been customary in Korea with a -change of dynasty. The next year, 939, the new king -of Koryŭ was formally recognized by the Emperor who sent -and invested him with the insignia of royalty. The crown -prince of T‘am-na, on Quelpart, came and did obeisance at -the court of Koryŭ. A redistribution of the farming lands -throughout the country was effected, by which, the records -say, the worthy received more while others received less. It -would be interesting to know in what way the test of worthiness -was applied.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 942 the Kitan power in the north tried to make friendly -advances and sent a present of thirty camels. But Wang-gön -remembered the way in which Kitan had feigned friendship -for Pal-hă and then treacherously seized her; and for -this reason he showed his opinion of Kitan now by banishing -the thirty men and tying the thirty camels to Man-bu bridge -and starving them to death.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>King Wang-gön was now sixty-five years old. His life -had been an active one; first as a warrior and then as the -administrator of the kingdom which he had founded. Feeling -that his end was approaching, he set himself to the task of -formulating rules for his successor. As a result he placed in -the hands of his son and heir ten rules which read as follows:</p> - -<p class='c015'>(1) Buddhism is the state religion.</p> - -<p class='c015'>(2) Build no more monasteries.</p> - -<p class='c015'>(3) If the first son is bad let the second or some other -become king.</p> - -<p class='c015'>(4) Do not make friends with Kitan.</p> - -<p class='c015'>(5) Do honor to P‘yŭng-yang, the ancient capital.</p> - -<p class='c015'>(6) Establish an annual Buddhist festival.</p> - -<p class='c015'>(7) Listen to good men and banish bad ones.</p> - -<p class='c015'>(8) As the south is disaffected towards us do not marry -from among the people of that section.</p> - -<p class='c015'>(9) Look after the interests of the army.</p> - -<p class='c015'>(10) Be always ready for emergencies.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After urging his son to lock all these precepts in his heart -the aged king turned to the wall and died. These ten laws -are typical of the man. They inculcated reverence for the best -religion that had come under his notice, but in the same -breath forbade the disproportionate growth of priest-craft, for -he had seen what a seductive influence lay hidden within the -arcana of this most mystical of all heathen cults. He advised -temperance in religion. He forbade the throning of a -man simply because he was the king’s firstborn. By so doing -he really proclaimed that the king was for the people and not -the people for the king. He hated treachery and forbade -making alliances with the forsworn. He believed in doing -honor to the best of the old traditions and ordered that the -ancient city of P‘yŭng-yang be <a id='corr143_32'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='rememberd'>remembered</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_143_32'><ins class='correction' title='rememberd'>remembered</ins></a></span>. He believed in -loving his friends and hating his enemies and forbade descendants -taking a wife from among the people of the south who -had so desperately supported the claims of Kyŭn-whŭn, the -one-time bandit. He was a military man and believed in having -a strong army and in treating it in such a way as to insure -its perfect loyalty. It was in the last injunction, however, -that he struck the key-note of his character. Be always ready -for emergencies. Reading his character in the light of his actions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>we can well imagine one more precept that would have -been characteristic of him; namely, that it is better to make a -friend of an honest enemy than to kill him. And so in the -year 942 the great general, reformer, king and administrator -was laid to his fathers and his son Mu reigned in his stead. -The latter’s posthumous <a id='corr144_6'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='litle'>title</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_144_6'><ins class='correction' title='litle'>title</ins></a></span> is Hye-jong.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The reign of this second king of Koryŭ starts with the -statement that the king gave his own sister to his brother for a -wife. It was one of the peculiar institutions of the dynasty -that whenever possible the king married his own sister. In -this instance he gave his sister to his brother, but the king -had probably already married another of his sisters. This -custom, which has prevailed in other countries besides Korea, -notably in ancient Egypt, rests upon the assumption that by -marrying one’s own sister more of royalty is preserved in the -family and the line is kept purer, the royal blood not being -mixed with any of baser quality. We are told that, in order -to make it seem less offensive, the sister, upon marrying her -brother, took her mother’s family name. This shows that the -custom was looked down upon, else this device would not -have been resorted to. We find also that the kings of Koryŭ -were accustomed to have more than one real wife, contrary -to the custom of the present dynasty. We read that this king, -who had none of the elements of his father’s greatness, took as -his sixteenth wife the daughter of one Wang-gyu and by her -had a son. Through her influence Wang-gyu had risen to -the position of prime minister and it was his ambition to see -his daughter’s son ascend the throne. It had been the king’s -plan to give the throne to his brother Yo and the prime minister -began by plotting against the life of this possible successor. -The king learned of this and frustrated it by immediately -abdicating in favor of his brother. Wang-gyu seems to -have possessed considerable power independently of the king -for we learn that he not only was not punished but that he -continued to plot against Yo even after he had assumed the -reins of power. An assassin whom he had hired to kill the -king was himself killed by the king while attempting to carry -out the deed. When the king fell ill he was advised to move -secretly to another palace for safety. He did so and that very -night the myrmidons of Wang-gyu broke into the palace that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>he had left, but found that their bird had flown. In spite of -all this the king did not proceed against his minister but went -about with an armed escort. This signal failure to punish a -traitor is said to have been the reason why, during the whole -dynasty, the officials overruled the king and made a puppet of -him. In fact many times during the dynasty we find the -condition of affairs somewhat like those in Japan where the -emperor himself had little practical power but the government -was carried on by a shogun. But at last this Wang-gyu -met his deserts for he was banished to Kap-whan and -there executed, and with him 300 men who had been in his -pay.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is interesting to notice how soon after the death of -Wang-gön his ill-considered advice about Buddhism was to -bear its legitimate fruit. The third king of Koryŭ was -<a id='corr145_15'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='throughly in the hands of the sacardotal'>thoroughly in the hands of the sacerdotal</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_145_15'><ins class='correction' title='throughly in the hands of the sacardotal'>thoroughly in the hands of the sacerdotal</ins></a></span> power. He was a -devout worshipper of Buddha and spent large sums of money -upon the priesthood. He favored the monks in every way -and thus added one more blow to the wedge which ultimately -split the land and brought the dynasty to a close.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Following the directions of Wang-gön in regard to the -city of P‘yŭng-yang, he decided to make this town a secondary -capital. In the prosecution of this work many people -were compelled to give their time and labor, and great suffering -was the natural result. Many of the people of Song-do -were compelled to move to the northern capital. This was -very distasteful to them, and, joined with the king’s blind adherence -to Buddhism, made it easy for the people to rejoice -when in 970 he died and his younger brother So became king. -His posthumous title is Kwang-jong. He in turn married -his own sister, and the records intimate that another reason -for marrying in the family was that it kept out undesirable -connections who would naturally expect to receive positions -under the government.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When in 953 the emperor sent an envoy to the court of -Koryŭ approving of the coronation of the new king, he was -accompanied by a great scholar, Sang Geui, who found such -favor in the eyes of the king that he remained and took office -under the government. It is said that this caused a serious -set-back to the fortunes of Buddhism. Well would it have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>been could he have seen that insidious power crushed and -driven from the country. But it had gained too strong a -foothold to be overcome by the teaching or example of a single -man or coterie of men. It is not unlikely that it was at the -suggestion of this man that the king changed the law concerning -slavery. Heretofore slavery had been the punishment for -comparatively venial offences and the country was overrun -with slaves. The king manumitted <a id='corr146_8'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='may'>many</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_146_8'><ins class='correction' title='may'>many</ins></a></span> of these and by so -doing gained the enmity of many who thus lost valuable property. -It also resulted in outbreaks among slaves, incipient -riots, because this humane tendency in the king emboldened -them to claim more than he had intended. It showed that -sometimes the indiscriminate franchisement of slaves may be -a dangerous thing.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The most radical reform instituted at the advice of this -Sang Geui was the establishment of a national competitive -examination similar to those held in China. In Korea it is -called the <em>kwaga</em>. The examination was a six-fold one; (1) -heptameter verse, (2) hexameter verse, (3) commentary, (4) -historic citation, (5) medicine, (6) divination.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Communication with China seems to have become more -frequent and close, for we find that in 960 an envoy went to -China carrying as gifts 50,000 pounds of copper and 4,000 -pieces of rock crystal used in making spectacles. This was -likewise a period of Chinese immigration, encouraged without -doubt by the flattering reception given to Sang Geui. The -king gave the visitors a hearty welcome, provided them with -houses, gave them office and even secured them wives. So -far did he go in the way of providing houses that he incurred -the resentment of some of his highest officials, one of whom, -So P‘il, asked the king to take his fine residence from him as -a gift. In surprise the king asked him why he wanted to -give it up. The answer was, “It will be seized anyway -when I die and I would rather give it up now and spend -the rest of my days preparing a little home somewhere for -my children.” This threw the king into a rage; but the -shot told, for he stopped the form of injustice from that -very day.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The following year, 961, a sweeping change was made in -the style and color of official garments. This was also under -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>the direction of Sang Geui. For the highest rank purple was -used, and for the second rank red, for the third rank deep red, -and for the fourth rank blue.</p> - -<p class='c000'>How far this king had degenerated from the standard set -by the founder of the kingdom, less than fifty years before, is -apparent from the fact that he was the pliant instrument of -anyone who had access to his ear. He believed anybody and -everybody. Enemies accused each other before him and he -accepted every statement as true. The result was that the -prisons were simply bursting with inmates and the executioner’s -axe was busy night and day. Hundreds of men were -executed whose only crime was that they had been accused -before the king. Added to this was a prodigal waste of treasure -in the building of palaces, the assumption throughout of -Chinese clothes and the entertainment of countless “friends” -who came from across the border, on the principle, no doubt, -that where the carcass is there will the eagles be gathered together. -This state of things continued up to 969, going from -bad to worse. That year the king took to himself two Buddhist -monks as mentors. He suddenly awoke to the fact that -many murders lay at his door and he began to have twinges -of conscience. He thought to make it right by a wholesale -favoring of Buddhism. He put himself entirely into the hands -of the monks and let them manage all the affairs of state to -suit themselves. But this, while it may have eased his conscience, -brought no betterment to the state. He was imposed -upon in the grossest manner and never once guessed it. He -lost the respect of all men of sense and reason. His useless -reign dragged on till 976 when the country was relieved of the -mighty incubus by his death. The prisons were overrun -with innocent men, priestcraft had wound its octopus tentacles -about every branch of the government. Energy and patriotism -had been eradicated; for, the moment a man possessing -these traits appeared, jealousy caused him to be accused -to the credulous king and he was thrown into prison.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But now his son, Chu, came to the throne. His posthumous -title is Kyong-jong. His first act was to open the prison -doors and liberate all who were not condemned felons. -This act of mere justice was greeted by applause from the -people. It was the signal for a general reform in the methods -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>of administration. The monks were sent back to their -monasteries. The competitive examinations were renewed -and an impetus was given to the study of the classics. The -king in person examined the papers of the candidates. But -death put an end to his promising career after six short years -and in 982 his younger brother, Ch’i, posthumous title Song-jong, -ascended the throne. Fortunately he was of the same -mind as his deceased brother and the good work went on unchecked. -He first did away with the senseless festivals described -under the reign of Wang-gön, at which all manner of -animals were represented. He changed the names of official -grades to correspond with those of the Tang dynasty in China. -Intercourse with China was revived and frequent envoys -passed back and forth. It was in the second year of his reign, -namely 983, that the time-honored custom was instituted of -the king plowing a piece of land in person each year. This -too was borrowed from China. Confucianism received a great -impetus during these days; an envoy to China brought back -a picture of the emperor’s shrine, of the patron genius of -China, of Confucius’ shrine, and a history of the seventy-two -disciples of the great sage. Financial affairs engaged his -attention too, for we find that in this year 984 the legal rate -of interest on money was set at ten per cent <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><em>per mensem</em></span>. -The defenses of the country were not neglected. A fortress -was begun on the banks of the Yalu River but the people of -the Yŭ-jin tribe caused the work to be suspended.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Kitan tribe were still in the ascendant and so ominous -was the growth of their power that the envoy from -China who came to perform the ceremony of investiture of -the new king, intimated that China would be glad to join the -forces of Koryŭ in an invasion of the Kitan territory. We -are not told what reply was given but nothing seems to have -come of it. Buddhistic encroachments were checked and a -stop was put to the seizure of houses for the purpose of erecting -monasteries. Mourning customs were changed; the three -years’ limit was shortened to one hundred days, the one year -limit to thirty days, the nine months’ limit to twenty days, -the six months’ limit to fifteen days and the three months’ -limit to seven days. Special instructions were given to the -governors of the provinces to foster agriculture, and prizes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>were offered for superior excellence in agricultural methods -as proved by their results. The governors were allowed to -take their families with them to the provincial capitals. This -marks a long step in advance, for it would seem that heretofore -the families of provincial governors had been held at the -national capital as a guarantee of good behavior on the part -of the governors while in the country.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king caused the erection of great store-houses in the -various parts of the country for the storage of rice to be used -in time of famine. The students in the Confucian school -were encouraged by gifts of clothes and food, and several -were sent to China to prosecute their studies. In 987 the -soldiers’ implements of war were beaten into agricultural implements, -especially in the country districts. A second trial -was made of liberating slaves but without satisfactory results. -It made those that were not freed so arrogant that the attempt -was given up. A further invasion was made into the territory -of priest-craft by the discontinuance of certain important -festivals, but the fact that the law against the killing of any -animal in the first, fifth or ninth moons was still in active -force shows that Buddhism was still a powerful factor in the -national life. Kyöng-ju, the ancient capital of Sil-la, was -made the eastern capital of the kingdom, a merely honorary -distinction.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The annals state that this reign beheld the inauguration -of the humane custom of remitting the revenues, in part or -in whole, in times of famine, also the custom of the king -sending medicine to courtiers who might be ill.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The growing power of Kitan in the north was a cause of -uneasiness for we find that in 989 the whole north-east border -was thoroughly garrisoned. The time was approaching when -this half-savage tribe would add another proof that conquest -is usually from the cooler to the warmer climate.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During the commotion incident upon the founding of the -dynasty and the extinction of the kingdom of Sil-la, the -bureau of history had been largely neglected. Now it was -reorganized and the annals of the kingdom were put in proper -shape.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king was apparently trying to steer a middle course -between Buddhism and Confucianism, for the pen of the annalist -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>records that no animals were to be killed on the king’s -birthday, and in the next stroke that wives were to be rewarded -for unusual virtue, and again that the king went out of the -city to meet an envoy bringing the great Buddhistic work, -Tă-jang-gyŭng, from China, and still again that the first ancestral -temple was erected. Well would it have been could -this equilibrium have been maintained.</p> - -<p class='c000'>One of the sons of Wang-gön was still living. His name -was Uk. He was the author of a court scandal which illustrates -the lax morals of the time. He formed a liaison with -the widow of his younger brother. The king learned of it -and visited his anger upon the offender by banishing him. -The woman bore a son and then went forth and hanged herself -on a willow tree. The nurse brought up the child and -taught it the word father. One day the child was brought -into the presence of the king, when it rushed forward, caught -the king by the garments and cried father. The king was -deeply moved and sent the child to its father in banishment. -When Uk died the boy was brought back to the capital and -given office. He eventually became king.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 993 the cloud in the north began to assume a threatening -aspect. A feeble attempt was made to stem the march of -the now powerful Kitan tribe, but without avail. The Kitan -general, So Son-ryŭng, made this a <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><em>casus belli</em></span>, and, mustering a -strong force, pushed down into Koryŭ territory. The king put -Gen. Păk Yang-yu at the head of the Koryŭ forces and himself -went with the army as far as P‘yŭng-yang. At that point -news came that the enemy was going around the flank and -had already taken one important fortress there. The king -hurried back to Song-do. Gen. So Son-ryŭng sent a curt -message saying “Ko-gu-ryŭ once belonged to Kitan. We have -come to claim only our own. It remains therefore only for -you to surrender and become our vassals.” In answer the -king sent Yi Mong-jun to negotiate a peace on the best possible -terms. Arriving at the camp of Gen. So he boldly demanded -why the northern tribe had presumed to break across the -boundary. Gen. So replied that the land was the property -of his master and the sooner the king acknowledged it and -accepted Kitan as his suzerain the better for all parties. The -envoy returned to the capital and a great council of war was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>held. Some advised to surrender, but some said “Offer them -all the territory north of the Tă-dong River as a compromise -measure.” The king chose the latter alternative and began -by having the people there throw into the river all grain that -they could not carry away, so that it might not fall into the -hands of the enemy. The Kitan general was highly pleased -with this concession but his pride had a fall when, a few days -later, he was defeated by the Koryŭ forces under Gen. Yu -Bang. Thereupon he modified his demands to the mere recognition -of the suzerainty of Kitan; but this the king was -unwilling, under the circumstances, to agree to. Gen. So was -not satisfied with the grade of the general sent to negotiate -the treaty and demanded that the prime minister of Koryŭ be -sent to do it. A high official was therefore sent but he refused -to bow before the Kitan general. The latter said, “You -are from Sil-la and we are from Ko-gu-ryŭ. You are trespassing -on our territory. We are your neighbors. Why do you -persist in sending envoys to the court of China? That is the -reason we are now at war with you. Restore our land, become -our vassals and all will go well.” The envoy refused -to agree to this. He said “We are Ko-gu-ryŭ people. How -else could our land be Koryŭ? The capital of Ko-gu-ryŭ was -at P‘yŭng-yang and you formed a small part of that kingdom; -so why do you claim that we have usurped the power? Our -territory extended far beyond the Yalu River, but the Yŭ-jin -people stole it from us. You had better first go and recover -that part of Ko-gu-ryŭ which the Yŭ-jin stole and then we -will gladly bow to you as suzerain.” What there was in this -argument that convinced the hardy warrior of the north we -cannot say, but it served its purpose, for he first spread a great -feast and afterwards broke camp and marched back to his own -country without obtaining the coveted surrender. The king, -in order to maintain the semblance of good faith, adopted the -Kitan calendar. The next step, however, showed the true -bent of his mind, for he sent a swift messenger to the court -of China with an urgent request for aid against the arrogant -people of the north. But the Sung emperor apparently -thought he had his own hands full in watching his own -borders and declined to send the aid requested. This put an -end to the friendship between Koryŭ and the Chinese court, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>and all communication was broken off. The king of Kitan -sent a commissioner to Koryŭ to look after his interests there -and when he returned to the north he took a large number -of women as a gift from the Koryŭ king to his master.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was now, near the end of the tenth century, that Koryŭ -was first regularly divided into provinces. There were -ten of them. Their names and positions were as follows. -Kwan-nă, the present Kyŭng-geui; Chung-wŭn, now Chung-ju; -Ha-nam, now Kong-ju; Yong-nam, now Sang-ju; Kang-nam, -now Chŭn-ju; San-nam, now Chin-ju; Hă-yang, now -Na-ju; Sak-pang, now Ch‘un-ch‘ŭn, Kang-neung and An-byŭn; -P‘ă-su, now P‘yŭng-yang; and Kă-sŭng, another name -for Song-do. These were rather the provincial centers than -the provinces themselves.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In pursuance of the policy adopted in reference to the -kingdom of Kitan, ten boys were sent northward to that -country to learn its language and marry among its people. -The final act of suzerainty was played when in 996 the -“emperor” of Kitan invested the king of Koryŭ with the -royal insignia. The end of the reign was approaching, but -before it was reached one of the most important events of that -century transpired. It occupies little space on the page of -history. Many a court intrigue or senseless pageant bulks -larger in the annals, but it was one of the most far-reaching -in its effects. It was the first coining of money. It was in -this same year, 996. These coins were of iron but without -the hole which so generally characterizes the “cash” of to-day.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 998 the king died and his nephew, Song, posthumous -title Mok-jong, ascended the throne. His first act was to -revise the system of taxation, probably by causing a remeasurement -of arable land. Officials received their salaries not -in money nor in rice, but to each one was assigned a certain -tract of land and his salary was the produce from that particular -tract. In the third year of his reign, 1000 <span class='fss'>A.D.</span>, he -received investiture from the Kitan emperor. His fifth year -was signalized by a five days’ eruption of a volcano on the island -of Quelpart. This reign was destined to end in disaster. -The widow of the late king formed a criminal intimacy with -one Kim Ji-yang, whom she raised to a high official position. -The whole kingdom was scandalized. She had the walls of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>her palace decorated with sentiments expressive of the epicurean -dictum “Eat, drink and be merry”; and curiously enough -expressed the belief that after enjoying all this world had to -give they would all become Buddhas in the next. This is -probably a fair sample of the Buddhistic teaching of the times, -at least this was its legitimate fruit. She and her lover soon -began to plot against the young king. The latter was ill at -the time but knew well what was going on. He sent for Sun, -the illegitimate son of Uk, of whom we spoke in the last -chapter, with the intention of nominating him as his successor. -At the same time he sent post-haste to the country and summoned -Gen. Kang Cho, a faithful and upright man. On his way -up to the capital the general was falsely told that it was not -the king who had summoned him but the queen dowager’s -lover. Enraged at being thus played upon, the stern old general -marched into the capital and seized the lecherous traitor -and gave him his quietus. He then turned upon the king -and put him to death as well. He had not looked carefully into -the case, but he deemed that the whole court needed a thorough -cleaning out. He completed the work by driving out the queen -dowager who deserved the block more than any other; and -then he seated the above-mentioned Sun on the throne. His -posthumous title is Hyön-jong. This was in 1010 <span class='fss'>A.D.</span></p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter III.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Reforms.... eclipses.... Kitan declares war.... Koryŭ on guard.... Kitan -troops cross the Yalu.... diplomacy.... Gen. Kang Cho taken.... before -the emperor.... P‘yŭng-yang besieged.... the king submits.... siege -of P‘yŭng-yang raised.... king moves south.... Kitan deceived.... Song-do -taken.... a rebel governor.... Koryŭ’s victories.... Kitan -forces retreat across the Yalu.... king returns to Song-do.... Gen. -Ha Kong-jin executed.... reconstruction.... military and -civil factions.... king overthrows the military faction.... Kitan -invasion.... overwhelming defeat.... envoys.... Buddhism versus -Confucianism.... Koryŭ on the increase.... the “Great Wall” of -Koryŭ.... Buddhism flourishes.... primogeniture.... the disputed -bridge.... Japanese envoys.... Buddhism rampant.... new laws.... progress -of Buddhism.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The first act of king Hyön-jong after announcing to Kitan -his accession to the throne was to raze to the ground the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>palace of the queen dowager who had dragged the fair fame -of Koryŭ in the mire. His next move was to build a double -wall about his capital. Evidently coming events were casting -ominous shadows before, and he saw the storm brewing.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We should say at this point that during all these reigns -the annals make careful note of every eclipse. This is brought -prominently to our notice by the statement in the annals that -in the sixteenth year of this reign there should have been an -eclipse but that it did not take place. This throws some light -upon the science of astronomy as practiced in those dark days. -The common people looked upon an eclipse as an omen of evil, -but this would indicate that among the educated people, then -as to-day, they were understood to be mere natural phenomena. -In 1010 the storm, which had already given sharp premonitions -of its coming, broke in all its fury. It must have come -sooner or later in any event, but the immediate pretext for it -was as follows: Two Koryŭ generals, Ha Kong-jin and Yu -Chŭng, who had been placed in charge of the forces in the -north, when Gen. Kang-cho was recalled to the capital, took -matters into their own hands and looked for no orders from -headquarters. The desperate state of things at the capital -partly warranted them in this, but they carried it too far. Of -their own accord they attacked the eastern Yŭ-jin tribe and -though they did not succeed in the attempt they impressed -those people so strongly that an embassy came bringing the -submission of that tribe. The two generals who seem to have -partially lost their balance with the increase of their importance, -wantonly killed every member of this embassy. As soon -as the young king heard of this he promptly stripped them of -their honors and banished them. This, however, did not mend -matters with the outraged Yŭ-jin people, and they hastened to -inform the Kitan emperor of the whole matter. Thereupon -the proclamation went out from the Kitan capital, “Gen. -Kang-cho has killed the king of Koryŭ. We will go and inquire -into it.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>As a preliminary, a messenger was sent to Song-do to -demand why the king had been put to death. The officials -were thrown into a panic and hastened to send and envoy to -Kitan to explain matters. He was held a prisoner by the -emperor. The king sent again and again, ten envoys in all, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>but an ominous silence was the only answer. It appeared that -something serious was about to happen, but just what it was -could not be surmised. In order to be ready for any emergency, -the king sent Generals Kang Cho and Yi Hyŭn-un to -T‘ong-ju (now Sŭn-ch‘ŭn) in the north to guard against a -sudden surprise.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Early in December the spell was broken and the watchers -by the Yalu hurried in with the news that a cloud of Kitan -warriors was already crossing the stream. The invading army -400,000 strong, so say the records, pushed forward and surrounded -the Koryŭ forces at Heung-wha camp. When it was -found, however, that they would stand their ground and fight, -the invaders sent presents of silk and other valuables and advised -them to surrender, and said “We liked the king whom -Kang Cho killed, and we are determined to overthrow the murderer. -You assist us in this. If not we will destroy you root -and branch.” The reply was “We prefer to die rather than -surrender.” Thereupon the enemy sent more costly presents -still but the answer was the same. When it became plain -that there was to be bloodshed before Koryŭ would come to -terms, the Kitan emperor divided his immense army into two -divisions, sending 200,000 men to the vicinity of Eui-ju and -200,000 to T‘ong-ju. Gen. Kang Cho cunningly disposed his -little army between two creeks where he was protected on -either flank. It is said that he had a species of battle chariot -with swords attached to the axles of the wheels so that when -they charged among the ranks of the enemy the latter were -mown down. On this account the little Koryŭ army was at -first successful. Then Gen. Kang Cho was seized by that common -infatuation of fancied security and in the midst of the -fighting he sat down in his pride and began playing a game -of go-bang. A messenger hurried up with the news that the -line of battle had been broken on the west and that the enemy -were pouring in. Gen. Kang Cho laughed and said “Do not -come to me with such an insignificant piece of news. Wait -till they come in numbers worthy of my sword; then come -and tell me.” Soon a messenger came saying that the Kitan -forces were approaching in full column. Thereupon Gen. -Kang arose and prepared for battle. While doing so the annals -say that the spirit of the murdered king appeared before -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>him and chided him for scorning the power of Kitan. He -took off his helmet, and, bowing before the apparition, said “I -have committed an offence worthy of death.” The Kitan -soldiery rushed in and seized him. They bound him in a cart -and took him away.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Nothing now lay between the invading army and universal -rapine. The army penetrated far into the territory of -Koryŭ, cut off 30,000 heads and ravaged right and left.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Gen. Kang Cho and Gen. Yi Hyŭn-un were brought -before the Kitan emperor the bonds of the former were cut -and he was bidden to stand forth. “Will you become my -subject?” “I am a Koryŭ man. How can I be your subject?” -They cut his flesh with knives but he remained firm. -When the same question was put to Gen. Yi Hyŭn-un <a id='corr156_14'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='he replied.'>he replied:</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_156_14'><ins class='correction' title='he replied.'>he replied:</ins></a></span> -“As I now look upon the sun and moon, how can I remember -any lesser light?” Such were the words of his apostacy. -Kang Cho cried out upon him as a traitor, and then -bowed his head to the axe.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Kitan army was now in full march on P‘yŭng-yang, -but the broken remnants of the Koryŭ army united at “Long -Neck Pass” and successfully opposed the progress of the invaders. -A little diplomacy was now made use of by the Kitan -general. He sent a letter to Heung-wha camp, purporting -to be from Kang Cho, ordering them to surrender, but the -commander, Yang Kyu, replied “I listen only to the king.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Kwak-ju (now Kwak-san) and Suk-ju (now Suk ch‘ŭn) -fell in quick succession and soon the victorious army of Kitan -was thundering at the gates of P‘yŭng-yang. The general in -command was Wŭn Chong-sŭk and his two lieutenants were Chi -Ch‘oa-mun and Ch‘oé Ch‘ang. The commander was willing -to surrender without a fight and went so far as to write out the -surrender, but the other two prevented this by seizing the -paper, tearing it up and putting the Kitan messenger to death. -The camp of these generals was without the city, but the -panic of the people inside increased to such an extent that all -the forces entered the city to insure quiet.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Kitan general-in-chief now received from the king -an offer of surrender. It caused the greatest satisfaction in -the Kitan camp and orders were given that the soldiers should -cease ravaging the surrounding country. Ma Po-u was sent -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>as Kitan commissioner in Song-do and was accompanied by -an escort of a thousand men under the command of Gen. Eul -Neum.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We can see how little connection there was between the -capital and the army in the field by the fact that this submission -on the part of the king did not lead to the surrender of -P‘yŭng-yang nor to a cessation of hostilities by the generals -who commanded the forces there. When a second messenger -was sent into the city to ask why the former one did not return -he too was put to death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Eul Neum was ordered to reduce P‘yŭng-yang and -he approached to attack it but was driven back with a loss of -3,000 men. This attempt failing, the <a id='corr157_13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='conquorors'>conquerors</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_157_13'><ins class='correction' title='conquorors'>conquerors</ins></a></span> decided to -lay siege to the town. When the inmates saw this they knew -that the end was near. A plan was made whereby a part of -the troops should make a sally from the West Gate and another -part from the East Gate and together they hoped to -dislodge the enemy. But one of the generals, instead of following -out the plan, improved the opportunity to make good -his escape. The other party was therefore in a trap and had -to surrender. But still two generals held the city.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile a band of 1,000 soldiers under Gen. Yang -Kyu attacked Kwak-ju by night, and put the Kitan garrison -to the sword, and took seven thousand people away to Tong-bu -for safety.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the Kitan forces found they were likely to have -difficulty in bringing P‘yŭng-yang to terms they gave it up -and marched away eastward. Thereupon the general Chi -Ch‘oa-mun hastened to Song-do and announced that he had -fled from P‘yŭng-yang. The “residency” of Ma Po-u seems -to have been a short-lived one and terminated when it was -found that the submission of the king amounted to little when -the armies would not surrender. Courtiers urged an immediate -surrender but Gen. Kang Kam-ch‘an said “If we could -put them off a while and gain time they would be gradually -worn out. The king should move south out of harm’s way -for a time.” So that very night the king and queen and a -large number of officials together with 5,000 troops moved -southward to Chŭk-sŭng. The king’s southward flight was by -no means an easy one. The very first night out from the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>capital the house where he slept was attacked by a band of -traitors and malcontents. The king escaped to the mountains -where he was attended by the faithful Gen. Chi. From -this retreat he recalled the two generals who had been banished -for attacking Yŭ-jin without orders, and restored them -to their positions. Escorted by Generals Chi, Ch‘o and Chu, -the king slowly retreated toward Wang-ju. All his numerous -escort had left him excepting his two wives, two palace -women and two intimate friends. Gen. Chi kept a sharp -lookout for the bands of robbers who were roaming about the -country. Once when hard pressed by these irresponsible -gentry, Gen. Chi spirited the king away under cover of night -and concealed him in To-bong monastery in Yang-ju a little -to the northeast of the present Seoul, and the robbers were -thrown completely off the scent.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Ha Kong-jin told the king that the Kitan forces -had invaded Koryŭ for the purpose of punishing Gen. Kang -Bho, and as this had been accomplished all difficulty between -Koryŭ and Kitan could be easily settled by a letter from the -king to his northern suzerain. The letter was written and -sent by the hand of a trusty man. It said that the king had -left Song-do for an expedition into the country to quell certain -disturbances <ins class='correction' title='there'>there.</ins> When the messenger was asked how -far the king had gone he answered that he had gone several -thousand <em>li</em>. This seemed plausible to the Kitan court and -soon its army was working its way slowly back to the boundary, -the first stop being made at Ch‘ang-wha.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This retreat was more with a view to obtaining a wintering -place than with a desire to favor Koryŭ, for no sooner had -the next season, 1011, come than the Kitan army marched -straight down through the peninsula and entered the capital -and burned the palaces and most of the common houses. The -king was in Kwang-ju but, learning of this disaster, he hurried -still further south with his two wives to Ch‘ŭn-an in the -present Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng Province. From there he continued -south to Chŭn-ju where he was treated very cavalierly by the -governor who met him in common clothes and without the -ceremony befitting a royal visitor. In fact this governor had -determined to put the king out of the way. To this end he -hired three men to go by night and assassinate him. But -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>the door was guarded by Gen. Chi who bolted it firmly and -then mounted the roof and cried loudly to all who were loyal -to the king to rally round him. The next day the governor -was summoned before the king. Some of the generals were -clamorous for his death but Gen. Chi who was as wise as he -was faithful vetoed this, for the king was not in a position to -face the opposition that the execution of the governor would -arouse in the province. It will be remembered that Wang-gön -had left command that as the south was disaffected -none of his descendants should marry among its people. -This shows that the king when he went south found it -unwise to exercise all the prerogatives of royalty. So the -governor was left intact and the king moved further south -to Na-ju.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile the Kitan forces were not having it all their -own way in the north. Gen. Kim Suk-heung of Kwi-ju attacked -a powerful force of the enemy and secured a signal -victory. It is said that he put 10,000 men to death. Then -Gen. Yang Kyu made a dash at the enemy at Mu-ro-da near -Eui-ju and killed 2,000 and recovered 3,000 prisoners. Also -at Yi-su there was a battle in which 2,500 Kitan men were -killed and 1,000 captives rescued. At Yo-ri-ch‘ŭn also 1,000 -more were killed. These three desperate engagements occurred -on the same day.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Ha Kong-jin was at this time a hostage in the Kitan -capital, and he managed to send a letter to the King informing -him that the forces of Kitan were slowly retreating. -This made it possible for the king to start on his way back to -the capital. The first stage was to Chŭn-ju.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The retreating forces of Kitan were again engaged at A-jin -but as heavy reinforcements arrived at the moment, the -Koryŭ generals, Yang Kyu and Kim Suk-heng, lost the day -and fell upon the field of battle. This victory, however, did -not stop the retreat of the invading army. There had been -very heavy rains, and many horses had perished and many -soldiers were practically without arms. Gen. Chon Song, -who assumed command after the death of the two generals at -K-jŭn, hung on the flanks of the retreating enemy and when -half of them had crossed the Yalu he fell upon the remainder -and many of them were cut down and many more were -<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>drowned in mid-stream. When it became known that all the -Kitan forces were across the border it took but a few days -to re-man the fortresses which had been deserted.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king now hastened northward stopping for a time at -Kong-ju where the governor gave him his three daughters to -wife. By the first he begat two sons both of whom became -kings of Koryŭ, and by the second he begat another who also -became king. He was soon on the road again, and ere long -he reentered the gates of his capital which had undergone -much hardship during his absence. His first act was to give -presents to all the generals and to order that all the bones of -the soldiers who had fallen be interred. He followed this up -by dispatching an envoy to the Kitan thanking them for recalling -their troops. He banished the governor of Chŭn-ju who -had attempted his life. He repaired the wall of the capital -and rebuilt the palace.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Ha was still in the hands of the Kitan but he was -extremely anxious to return to Koryŭ. He therefore feigned -to be quite satisfied there and gradually gained the entire confidence -of his captors. When he deemed that it was safe he -proposed that he be sent back to Koryŭ to spy out the condition -of the land and report on the number of soldiers. The -emperor consented but changed his mind when he heard that -the king had returned to Song-do. Instead of sending Gen. -Ha back to Koryŭ he sent him to Yun-gyŭng to live and gave -him a woman of high position as his wife. Even then the -general did not give up hope of escaping and was soon busy -on a new plan. He purchased fleet horses and had them -placed at stated intervals along the road toward Koryŭ with -trusty grooms in charge of each. Someone, however, told the -emperor of this and, calling the exile, he questioned him -about it. Gen. Ha confessed that his life in exile was intolerable. -When the emperor had offered him every inducement -to transfer his allegience and all <a id='corr160_1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='to not avail, he comanded'>to no avail, he commanded</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_160_1'><ins class='correction' title='to not avail, he comanded'>to no avail, he commanded</ins></a></span> -the executioner to put an end to the interview. When news -reached Song-do that Gen. Ha had preferred death to disloyalty, -the king hastened to give office to the patriot’s son.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i160.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>A BUDDHIST MONUMENT (EIGHT HUNDRED YEARS OLD).</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The work of reconstruction was now commenced, in -1012. Kyöng-ju was no longer called the eastern capital -but was changed back to a mere prefecture. The twelve</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>The twelve provinces were reconstructed into five and -there were seventy-five prefectures in all. This plan however -was abandoned two years later. Now that Koryŭ had regained -control of her own territory, the Yŭ-jin tribe thought best -to cultivate her good will and so sent frequent envoys with -gifts of horses and other valuables. But when the Emperor -of Kitan, angry because the King refused on the plea of ill -health to go to Kitan and do obeisance, sent an army and seized -six of the northern districts this side the Yalu, the Yŭ-jin -turned about and ravaged the northeast boundary. The next -year the Yŭ-jin joined Kitan and crossed the Yalu but were -speedily driven back by Gen. Kim Sang-wi.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1014 the King came to the conclusion that he had made -a mistake in casting off the friendship of China and sent an -envoy to make explanations; but the Emperor Chin-jong -(Sang dynasty) was angry because he had been so long neglected -and would have nothing to do with the repentant Koryŭ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the autumn the Kitan army was again forced back -across the border. The Koryŭ army had now grown to such -proportions that the question of revenue became a very serious -one and the officials found it necessary to suggest a change. -They had been accustomed to “squeeze” a good proportion of -the soldiers’ pay and now that there was danger of further -change which would be only in the officials’ favor, the soldiers -raised a disturbance, forced the palace gates, killed two of the -leading officials and compelled the King to banish others. -They saw to it that the military officials took precedence of -civil officials. From that time on there was great friction between -the military and civil factions, each trying to drive the -other to the wall.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The next year, 1015, the Kitan people bridged the Yalu, -built a wall at each end and successfully defended it from -capture; but when they attempted to harry the adjoining -country they were speedily driven back. The military faction -had now obtained complete control at the capital. Swarms -of incompetent men were foisted into office and things were -going from bad to worse. The King was much dissatisfied at -this condition of affairs and at some-one’s advice decided to -sever the knot which he could not untie. He summoned all -the leaders of the military faction to a great feast, and, when -<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>he had gotten them all intoxicated, had them cut down by -men who had lain concealed in an adjoining chamber. In this -way nineteen men were put out of the way and the military -faction was driven to the wall.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Year by year the northern people tried to make headway -against Koryŭ. The Sung dynasty was again and again appealed -to but without success. Koryŭ was advised to make -peace with Kitan on the best terms possible. The Kitan -generals, Yu Pyul, Hăng Byŭn and Ya-yul Se-chang made -raid after raid into Koryŭ territory with varying success. In -1016 Kitan scored a decisive victory at Kwak-ju where the -Koryŭ forces were cut to pieces. Winter however sent them -back to their northern haunts. The next year they came -again and in the following year, 1018, Gen. So Son-ryŭng -came with 100,000 men. The Koryŭ army was by this time -in good order again and showed an aggregate of 200,000 men. -They were led by General Kang Kam-ch‘an. When the battle -was fought the latter used a new form of strategem. He caused -a heavy dam to be constructed across a wooded valley and -when a considerable body of water had accumulated behind it -he drew the enemy into the valley below and then had the dam -torn up; the escaping water rushed down the valley and -swept away hundreds of the enemy and threw the rest into -such a panic that they fell an easy prey to the superior numbers -of the Koryŭ army. This was followed by two more victories -for the Koryŭ arms.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The next year, again, the infatuated north-men flung -themselves against the Koryŭ rock. Under Gen. So Son-ryŭng -they advanced upon Song-do. The Koryŭ generals -went out thirty miles and brought into the capital the people -in the suburbs. Gen. So tried a ruse to throw the Koryŭ -generals off their guard. He sent a letter saying that he had -decided not to continue the march but to retire to Kitan; but -he secretly threw out a strong force toward Song-do. They -found every point disputed and were obliged to withdraw to -Yŭng-byŭn. Like most soldiers the Koryŭ forces fought best -when on the offensive and the moment the enemy took this -backward step Gen. Kang Kam-ch‘an was upon them, flank -and rear. The invaders were driven out of Yŭng-byŭn but -made a stand at Kwi-ju. At first the fight was an even one -<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>but when a south wind sprang up which lent force to the -Koryŭ arrows and drove dust into the eyes of the enemy -the latter turned and fled, with the exulting Koryŭ troops -in full pursuit. Across the Sŭk-ch‘ŭn brook they floundered -and across the fields which they left carpeted with Kitan -dead. All their plunder, arms and camp equipage fell into -Koryŭ hands and Gen. So Son-ryŭng with a few thousand -weary followers finally succeeded in getting across the Yalu. -This was the greatest disaster that Kitan suffered at any time -from her southern neighbor. Gen. So received a cool welcome -from his master, while Gen. Kang, returning in triumph -to Song-do with Kitan heads and limitless plunder, was met -by the King in person and given a flattering ovation. His -Majesty with his own hands presented him with eight golden -flowers. The name of the meeting place was changed to -Heung-eui-yŭk, “Place of Lofty Righteousness.” When -Gen. Kang retired the following year he received six honorary -titles and the revenue from three hundred houses. He was a -man of small stature and ill-favored and did not dress in a -manner befitting his position, but he was called the “Pillar of -Koryŭ.” Many towns in the north had been laid waste during -the war and so the people were moved and given houses -and land. The records say that an envoy came with greetings -from the kingdom of Ch‘ŭl-ri. One also came from Tă-sik in -western China and another from the kingdom of Pul-lă. -Several of the Mal-gal tribes also sent envoys; the kingdom -of T‘am-na was again heard from and the Kol-bu tribe in the -north sent envoys. In 1020 Koryŭ sent an envoy to make -friends again with her old time enemy Kitan and was successful. -The ambition of the then Emperor of Kitan had apparently -sought some new channel. Buddhism, too, came in -for its share of attention. We read that the King sent to -Kyöng-ju, the ancient capital of Sil-la, to procure a bone of -Buddha which was preserved there as a relic. Every important -matter was referred in prayer to the Buddhistic deities. -As yet Confucianism had succeeded in keeping pace with <a id='corr163_36'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Budhism'>Buddhism</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_163_36'><ins class='correction' title='Budhism'>Buddhism</ins></a></span>. -In 1024 the King decreed that the candidates in the -national examinations should come according to population; -three men from a thousand-house town, two from a five <a id='corr163_39'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='hunred'>hundred</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_163_39'><ins class='correction' title='hunred'>hundred</ins></a></span>-house -town and one each from smaller places. Several -<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>examinations were held in succession and only those who excelled -in them all received promotion. The great struggle between -Buddhism and Confucianism, which now began, arrayed -the great class of monks on the side of the former and the -whole official class on the side of the latter. The former -worked upon the superstitions of the King and had continual -access to him while the latter could appeal to him only on the -side of general common sense and reason. Moreover Buddhism -had this in its favor that as a rule each man worked for -the system rather than for himself, always presenting a solid -front to the opposition. The other party was itself a conglomerate -of interests, each man working mainly for himself -and joining with others only when his own interests demanded. -This marked division of parties was strikingly illustrated -when, in 1026, in the face of vehement expostulations -on the part of the officials, the King spent a large amount -of treasure in the repairing of monasteries. The kingdom of -Kitan received a heavy blow when in 1029 one of her generals, -Tă Yŭn-im, revolted and formed the sporadic kingdom of -Heung-yo. Having accomplished this he sent to the King -of Koryŭ saying “We have founded a new kingdom and you -must send troops to aid us.” The Koryŭ officials advised -that advantage be taken of this schism in Kitan to recover the -territory beyond the Yalu which originally belonged to Ko-gu-ryŭ -and to which Koryŭ therefore had some remote title. -Neither plan was adopted. It seemed good to keep friendly -with Kitan until such time as her power for taking revenge -should be past, so envoys were sent as usual, but were intercepted -and held by the new King of Heung-yo. This policy -turned out to be a wise one, for soon the news came that Kitan -had destroyed the parvenu.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Now that the fortunes of Koryŭ were manifestly in the -ascendant, many people in the north sent and swore allegiance -to her, thus following the example of a certain Kitan envoy -who at this time transferred his citizenship voluntarily from -Kitan to Koryŭ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The King died and his son Heum, posthumous title Tŭk-jong, -came to the throne in 1032. He married his own sister. -All friendly relations with Kitan were broken off, because the -bridge across the Yalu was not destroyed. It did not seem -<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>a friendly act to leave this standing menace to the peace of -Koryŭ. In view of this the King ordered a wall to be built -across the entire peninsula from the Yalu River to the Japan -Sea. It was nearly a thousand <em>li</em> long. This would seem almost -incredible were it not that the facts are given in such -detail. The wall was twenty-five <em>cha</em> high and the same in -breadth and stretched from Ko-gung-nă Fortress, near Eui-ju -on the Yalu, to Yöng-heung near the Japan Sea. The Kitan -people tried to hinder this work but without avail. This -period marks the acme of Koryŭ’s power and wealth. She had -reached her zenith within a century and a quarter of her -birth and now for three centuries she was destined to decline.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The younger brother, Hyöng, of this King Tŭk-jong, -succeeded him in 1035, after a short reign of three years. He -continued the work of making impregnable the defenses of the -north. He built a wall from Song-ryŭng Pass in the west to -the borders of the Yŭ-jin tribe in the north-east. He also -built a Fortress Chă-jŭn, now Ch‘ang-sŭng. His reign beheld -the riveting of Buddhistic chains upon the kingdom. Those -who could read the signs of the times surmised this when, in -1036, the King decreed that, if a man had four sons, one of -them must become a monk. Because of the Buddhistic canon -against the spilling of blood the death penalty was commuted -to banishment. Another Buddhistic anniversary was instituted. -The King also inaugurated the custom of having boys -go about the streets bearing Buddhistic books upon their backs -from which the monks read aloud as they passed along. This -was for the purpose of securing blessings for the people.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In order to counteract the tendency toward luxury, the -King forbade the use of silk and gold and went so far as to -burn up the whole stock of silk held by the merchants. He -made a new law of primogeniture. The first son is to succeed. -If he dies, the son of the first son <a id='corr165_34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='succedes'>succeeds</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_165_34'><ins class='correction' title='succedes'>succeeds</ins></a></span>. If there -is no grandson the second son succeeds. If there is no son by -the wife the son by a concubine succeeds. If there is none -then a daughter succeeds. The Yŭ-jin tribe came with rich -gifts and promised faithfully to refrain from raiding the -frontier again. In 1047 the King was succeeded by his -younger brother, Whi, posthumous title Mun-jong, who was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>destined to sit upon the throne for thirty-seven years. After -announcing to his suzerain his accession, he followed the custom -of his house and married his sister.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This monarch at first showed a blending of Buddhistic -and Confucian influences, for the annals state that in his second -year he fed ten thousand monks in the palace and gave -them lodging there, and that shortly after this he built a -Temple to Heaven before the palace. The Yŭ-jin tribe broke -their promise and made a descent upon the border fortresses -but were driven back; and not only so, but the Koryŭ forces -followed them to their haunts and burned their villages to the -ground.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1053 the system of taxation was overhauled and a new -schedule of weights was made. The King sent a letter to Kitan -complaining that the bridge across the Yalu still stood, -that a wall had been built to secure it and that a horse relay -system had been established, with this bridge as one of its -termini. It seemed, in the words of the letter, that “Kitan -was the silk-worm and Koryŭ was the mulberry leaf.” The -King was anxious to attempt an embassy to China and for -that purpose suggested that a boat be built on the island of -Quelpart but the officials dissuaded him from the attempt.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 1056 was signalised by the arrival of an envoy -from Japan. It is probable that the strong Buddhistic tendency -which had developed in Japan had tempted the Japanese to -send and secure further instruction in that cult and to secure -relics and paraphernalia. The envoy may have asked that -Buddhist teachers be sent, but the records say nothing to this -effect.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Buddhism was making steady advances. A large quantity -of metal intended for the manufacture of arms was taken by -order of the King and made into nails for use in building -monasteries. He took away houses from many wealthy people, -among them some of his own relatives, and gave them to the -monks. The law requiring that of four sons one must become -a monk was now revised so as to read that one of every -three should don the cowl. Nearly every house furnished its -monk. The King said “From the very first our Kings have -encouraged Buddhism and each generation has paid attention -to the building of monasteries. By so doing many blessings -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>have been received. Now that I have become King I find -that many evils are oppressing the state because of the neglect -of the important precept. I will now mend this breach in our -conduct and restore to the country her former prosperity.” -So he built monasteries in various places. The officials all used -their influence against this but the monks carried the day. -A Buddhist book called Tal-jang-gyŭng was sent by Kitan as -a gift to Koryŭ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This period was not without some hopeful signs. A law -was passed that no man should be punished before being tried -before three judges. The government built a fleet of a hundred -and six sailing vessels to carry the government rice from -one port to another. The boats made six trips a year.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But the advances, or rather retrogressions, in a Buddhistic -line were still more marked. In 1065 the King’s son Ku -cut his hair and became a monk. A law was promulgated -that no beast should be killed in the land for three years. A -monastery was being built in Song-do containing 2,800 <em>kan</em>, -each <em>kan</em> being eight feet square. It took twelve years to -complete it. When it became ready for occupancy there was -a magnificent festival at which all monks within a radius of -many miles were present. The feasting lasted five days. -There was an awning of silk, covering a passage-way from the -palace to this monastery. Mountains and trees were represented -by lanterns massed together. The King dressed in the -robes of a high priest. In this monastery was a pagoda on -which 140 pounds of gold and 427 pounds of silver were -lavished.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter IV.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Revenue.... mathematics.... the bridge removed.... friends with China -again.... Confucianism wanes.... Buddhist book from Japan.... frontier -defence.... prophecy.... Han-yang made a secondary capital.... new -laws.... cash counterfeited.... Yŭ-jin taken.... botany.... beginnings -of the Kin power.... between Kitan and Kin.... kingdom -of Wŭn.... China allies herself with Kitan.... Kin seeks -the good will of Koryŭ.... dancing-girls and Buddhism.... Kin demands -Koryŭ alliance.... refused.... defense of the north.... an ambitious -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>official.... Kitan falls.... Sung dynasty falls.... harbor improvement.... Buddhist -trickery.... rebellion quelled.... historical -work, Sam-guk-sa.... an abject king.... Kin immigrants.... a good -governor for Quelpart.... military faction dominant.... criminals, -houses destroyed.... king banished.... a plot foiled.... the emperor -suspicious.... military and monastic factions.... attempted revolution.... monastic -revolt.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is evident that population and revenue are proportionate. -Not often is the question of population touched upon in -the Korean annals but some light is thrown upon it by the -statement that at this time the revenue from the north, from -the most distant places only, was 49,000 bags of rice. From -this we must infer that the north was fairly well populated.</p> - -<p class='c000'>An interesting point in connection with the mathematical -knowledge of the time is brought out in the statement -that the system of land tax was changed and was collected at -a certain rate per each square of thirty-three paces; but if -the field was large the tax was a certain amount for each -tract forty-seven paces square. The square of thirty-three -is 1089 and the square of forty-seven is 2209, which is the -nearest possible to twice the square of thirty-three. It would -seem then that they had some notion of the properties of geometrical -figures.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was about this time that Kitan changed its name to -Yo. She at once sent an envoy announcing the fact. These -were the golden days of Koryŭ’s relations. The Yŭ-jin tribe -of To-ryŭng-ko-do-wha came and swore allegiance as also did -the Chang-man and Tu-hul tribes. A few years later a Japanese -ruler named Sal-ma sent gifts to the Koryŭ court as also -did the people of Tsushima.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During the latter years of this reign the Kitan people -were induced to break down the bridge across the Yalu but it -was done only by sending <a id='corr168_34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='at'>an</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_168_34'><ins class='correction' title='at'>an</ins></a></span> abject letter in which the Koryŭ -king said “As all the world is yours and all the people in the -world belong to you, you have no need of a bridge to bind us -to you.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1077 an envoy came from the Emperor of China (Sung -dynasty) asking aid against the Kitan. The king might -well have turned and answered that as the Emperor had remained -deaf to Koryŭ’s entreaties for help so now Koryŭ -would decline to respond. But he did nothing of the kind; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>this opportunity to reëstablish friendly relations with China -was hailed with delight by all classes. The king, though ill, -was carried on his bed outside the city walls to meet this welcome -messenger. The latter was treated royally and was -loaded with so many gifts that he could not take them back -with him. He had no intention, however, of leaving them -entirely, for he sold them and took the money instead. This -sort of thrift was something new to the Koreans and they -showed their disgust by ridiculing him; and when he left -they spat upon the ground in token of their contempt. We -are not told that Koryŭ gave the aid requested. And yet -the friendly relations were continued, as is seen from the fact -that in 1079 the emperor sent physicians and medicines to -Koryŭ. We have here the first definite mention of gold mining -in the statement that the people of Hong-wŭn dug a -hundred ounces of gold and a hundred and fifty ounces of -silver, which they sent to the king. He graciously gave it -back to them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1084 the king died and his adopted son Hun, posthumous -title Sun-jong, came to the throne; but he died almost -immediately and was succeeded the same year by his younger -brother Un, posthumous title Sŭn-jong. When the messenger -announcing this arrived at the gates of the Kitan capital -he was refused entrance, for they said there must be some -underlying cause for the sudden death of king Sun-jong.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Under the new king, Buddhism continued its rapid advance. -In the first year of his reign he instituted a Buddhist -examination to take the place of the ordinary examination -which was at bottom Confucian; and so Buddhism scored a -decided victory over her rival. It was a blow from which -Confucianism recovered only by the extinction of the dynasty. -These examinations the king attended in person, a Buddhist -book being carried before him. He sent the prince to China -to learn more about the tenets of the popular faith and when -he returned the king went out to welcome him home. The -young man brought back 1,000 volumes of Buddhistic books. -Later the king secured 4,000 volumes more from the same -source. The records distinctly state that he sent also to -Japan to secure still other Buddhistic books. This is a strong -indication that Japan did not obtain her Buddhism largely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>from Korea. It proves at least that she had a more direct -channel for the procuring of Buddhist literature than by way -of Korea, otherwise Koryŭ would hardly have applied to her -for books. The king married his own sister. The bridge -across the Yalu had been destroyed but it would seem that it -had been again built, for now in 1088 the records say it was -finally destroyed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>King Sŭn-jong could not do enough for Buddhism. A -vast amount of government rice was turned from its legitimate -uses and found its way into the store-rooms of monasteries. -The king constructed a thirteen-storey pagoda in the -palace. His mother made frequent visits to one of the -monasteries.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The only act of this king which was not with special reference -to Buddhism was the stationing at Eui-ju of a large -number of war chariots to be used in defense of the frontier.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1095 the king was succeeded by his son Uk, posthumous -title Hön-jong, who was only eleven years old. His -uncle Ong become regent but proved unfaithful and in the following -year drove the boy from the throne and proclaimed -himself king. His title was Suk-jong. The most important -events of his reign were in connection with the founding of a -second capital as Han-yang, the present Seoul. The monk <a id='corr170_23'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic: To-sŭn'>Tosun</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_170_23'><ins class='correction' title='sic: To-sŭn'>Tosun</ins></a></span> -who, it will be remembered, had taught the young Wang-gön -the science of war, had also left a prophecy to the effect -that after 160 years it would be well for the kingdom if the -site of the capital be changed. The preliminary arrangements -were made early in this reign but it was not until the -year 1104 that a palace was actually constructed there, nor -was the royal residence changed either at this time or at any -later period, for any considerable length of time. A few important -laws were promulgated; that if relatives intermarried -they could not receive official position; that the nomination -of an heir to the throne should be made only after consultation -with the court of the northern suzerain; that candidates -who failed to pass the government examinations should be -solaced by receiving military rank.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is said that in 1100 copper cash had begun to circulate -for the first time with freedom among the people. Buddhism -also made material advances during this reign and riveted its -<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>fetters more firmly upon the body politic. On the whole it -was a very clean reign, when we remember that a usurper -was on the throne.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1106 Suk-jong’s son U, posthumous title Ye-jong, -came to the throne. At the very first he was confronted by a -new problem. The people had yet to learn that the coinage -of money is a purely government monopoly. The readiness -with which cash circulated tempted some to attempt to counterfeit -it. The king consequently promulgated a law inflicting -a heavy penalty upon this offense and at the same time -made a law against the adulteration of food.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having, in his third year, married a near relative he took -as a teacher a monk named Un-jin, another indication of the -steady progress of that cult. The talk about the change of -site for the capital resulted in the building of a palace at -P‘yŭng-yang and several royal progresses to each of the proposed -sites.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The tribe of Yŭ-jin had repeatedly promised to remain -peaceful and had as often broken their word; so now when -they began to grow restless again, the king decided to make -an end of the matter. He sent a strong force into their territory, -killed 4,800 men and took several thousand prisoners. -The territory was divided into four administrative districts.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1115 the king developed a fad. He became an enthusiastic -botanist. He ransacked the kingdom for rare and -beautiful plants and sent them to China in exchange for many -kinds that were not indigenous.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have now arrived at the threshold of events which -were destined to result in the founding of a great dynasty. -In order to explain we must go back a few years. Early in -this dynasty a Koryŭ monk from P‘yŭng-yang, named Keum-jun, -had fled, for some reason not stated, to the town of -A-ji-go among the Yŭ-jin tribe. He had there married a Yŭ-jin -woman and gotten a son whom he named Ko-eul. He in -turn begot Whal-ra, and to him were born many sons, the -eldest of whom was Hyo-ri-bal and the second Yong-ga. The -latter was unusually bright and popular and eventually became -chief; but on his death the son of his brother Hyo-ri-bal, -named O-a-sok, took his place. O-a-sok died and his -younger brother, A-gol-t‘a, became chief. Yŭ-jin was at this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>time a small weak tribe under the sway of the Ki-tan court, -but now the masterly genius of A-gol-t‘a had come to her -help, matters were destined to assume a different complexion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was now in 1114 that the little tribe of Yŭ-jin broke -off its allegiance to Kitan and prepared to carve out a career -for herself under her great leader. Soon an envoy came in -haste from the capital of Kitan commanding the king to stand -ready to drive back the Yŭ-jin tribe if they attempted to escape -into his territory, for the emperor of Kitan was about -to chastise his recalcitrant vassal.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The next year A-gol-t‘a with sublime presumption proclaimed -himself emperor and named his kingdom Kin. At -the same time he changed his own name to Min.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Kitan emperor sent again demanding a contingent -of Koryŭ troops. After anxious consultation it was decided -to keep the soldiers near home and guard the interests of -Koryŭ. In the war between Kitan and Kin the former were -severely handled and again appealed to Koryŭ for help, but -now with no hope of success.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The next year, 1116, a Koryŭ envoy Yun Eun-sun was -sent to the Kitan court but he did not return, so a second -one was dispatched to learn the cause. The fact is, the first -envoy had fallen into the hands of a new power named Wŭn -which had been set up in eastern Kitan by a man named Ko -Yöng-ch‘ang. War was still raging between Kitan and Kin -and the whole country was in a state of turmoil and confusion. -The second envoy from Koryŭ fell into the hands of -the Wŭn people but got out of the difficulty by promptly -stating that he was accredited to them by the king of Koryŭ; -and he forthwith laid out his present. This made the upstart -“emperor” of Wŭn wild with delight and, loading the envoy -with rich presents, he sent him back home. Instead of going -back to the king, however, the envoy returned secretly to his -own home, and it was only by accident that the king learned -of his return. When he did learn of it he sent for the man -and inflicted summary punishment. Of course the Wŭn -people liberated the other envoy and sent him home. Him -also the king punished for having saved his life by seemingly -offering allegiance to Wŭn.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor of China sent an envoy to Koryŭ with gifts -<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>of musical instruments and took advantage of the occasion to -ask the Koryŭ king about the Kitan people. The king answered, -“Of all the savage tribes they are the worst.” When -this reply reached the Chinese court some of the courtiers -said that the king of Koryŭ was trying to keep China from -knowing Kitan, since there was treasure there which Koryŭ -wanted to secure for herself. The emperor therefore sent -and made an alliance with Kitan, which, as the sequel shows, -cost him dear.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Kitan was being hard pressed by Kin, and Gen. Ya -Ryul-lyŭng wanted to escape and find asylum somewhere, so -the king sent him a verbal invitation to come to Koryŭ. He -replied that he could not do so without a written invitation. -The Koryŭ statesmen feared that this covered some kind of -trickery and the written invitation was not sent.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Koryŭ desired to put out a feeler to see how she stood -with the Kin power so she sent a message saying “The -district of P‘o-ju is rightfully Koryŭ territory and we should -be pleased to have it turned over to us.” The answer was -given without an hour’s delay “Certainly, take it and do -with it as you wish.” Evidently the great Kin leader did -not intend to let a single district stand between him and the -good-will of a power which might cause him serious trouble -while he was prosecuting his designs upon China.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year ended with a great feast at the capital of Koryŭ -at which dancing girls from all parts of the country congregated. -The records say that they came “in clouds” which -indicates the social status of the country. Buddhism had -her representative in every home, but no severe asceticism -would seem to have characterized the people, if this report is -true.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 1117 beheld repeated triumphs of the Kin -leader over the Kitan forces, the flight of the Kitan general -Ya Ryul-lyŭng by boat, the burning of the Kitan fleet and the -cession to Koryŭ of two more districts, thus placing her border -again at the Yalu River. But this concession was of design -for it was followed by a letter from the Kin court which read -as follows: “The elder brother, the Emperor of the Great Kin, -to the younger brother, the king of Koryŭ; we were a small, -weak tribe and were badly treated by the Kitan power but -<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>now we are about to destroy it. The King of Koryŭ must -now make with us a firm treaty which shall be binding to the -ten thousandth generation.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>This met with an almost universal negative among the -wise-heads of Koryŭ, but one voice was heard saying “They -may be in a position to do us great harm and we should -comply with this demand.” The latter opinion did not -prevail. Three years later another envoy came from the -king of Kin with gifts but the accompanying letter was couched -in low language which was construed into an insult and -was answered in the same tone. The king then hastened to -repair the fortresses in the north and to increase the height -of the wall stretching across the country; but the Kin emperor -sent and forbade it. When he received as answer the -question “What affair is it of yours?” he kept his temper and -did not press the demand for he was anxious just then to be -on good terms with his southern neighbor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We must not imagine that these years were barren of -events of importance within the bounds of Koryŭ herself. -Splendid monasteries were built, notably the beautiful An-wha -monastery; embassies and gifts were received from China; -the king made trips to P‘yŭng-yang and Han-yang. In -spite of the height to which Buddhism had climbed, we read -in the annals that the king frequented the society of dancing -girls to such an extent that he drew down upon himself the -censure of one of his highest officials, whom he consequently -banished.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1123 the king’s son Hă, posthumous title In-jong, -came to the throne. An official, Yi Ja-gyŭm, who had risen -to the highest position under the former king seemed to think -himself in a sense on an equality with the young king now on -the throne, and wanted to have him bow to him, but the other -officials interfered and prevented it. In order to make his position -the more secure, and to strengthen his influence over the -king, Yi Ja-gyŭm bestowed upon him his four daughters -to wife. Naturally he incurred the bitter enmity of the other -officials, who sought means for destroying him, but without -success. As a last resort they sent a band of soldiers to the -palace to kill him. But he escaped to his private house, taking -the king with him. From that place he governed the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>land as he wished. Finding the king an incumbrance he tried -to do away with him by the use of poisoned bread, but someone -warned the king, and instead of eating the bread he threw -it out of the window and the magpies, which soon discovered it, -fell dead on the spot. Thereupon the king sent a secret message -to one of his generals and soon the traitor was travelling -southward into exile and all his connections and followers -were put where they could do no more harm.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in the third year of this King, 1124, that the Kin -armies finally overthrew the Kitan power. The false report -came to Koryŭ that China had defeated the Kin forces and -that the leader of the defeated power was coming to find -asylum in Koryŭ. The king was advised by some to take -this opportunity of dealing Kin a staggering blow, but the -more cautious advised delay until the report should be -authenticated. This was fortunate, for the report proved -false.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in 1126 that the northern Sung dynasty came to -an end at the hands of the all-conquering Kin. The records -state that Kin leaders carried the last emperor of the Sung -dynasty away and set up one Chang Pang-ch‘ang as king in -his stead, and changed the name of the dynasty to Ch‘o. -When this had been effected the Kin emperor sent Gen. -Ya Ryul Ka-geum to Koryŭ bearing his commands to the -king, but what those commands were the records do not tell.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The influence which priestcraft had exercised in Koryŭ -was well illustrated by a monk Myo-chung of P‘yŭng-yang -who told the King that there was no more “king Spirit” in -the soil of Song-do, but if he should move the capital to -P‘yŭng-yang the Kitan, Kin and Sung would all become subject -to him. The king believed every word of this and ordered -a palace to be built there for his occupancy. A year or -so later, after sending the Kin court his abject submission, -he essayed to move to the northern city by boat, but a fresh -breeze sprang up and he quickly changed his mind and hurried -back to Song-do. The coastwise trade must have been -of considerable importance, for we read that the water on the -bar at Hong-ju harbor, was too shallow for boats of large -burden to cross, so the king put several thousand men -to work to deepen the channel; but to no effect.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>The fight between Confucianism and Buddhism went -steadily on. The king was the puppet of the latter but -could not always carry out his plans. He wanted to take -away the support of Confucian schools and turn over the funds -to the monks, but this called out such a storm of remonstrances -that he hastened to recall the order. He had not forgotten -the flattering words of the monk Myo-chung, and now in -1130 he took occasion to visit the city of P‘yŭng-yang. -The tricky monk had made preparation for his coming. -Hollow loaves of bread were prepared with holes in their sides -after the style of a Jack-o’-lantern. Oil was placed inside -and as the king approached the town at dusk these were -floated down the stream, and the oil on the water, shining in -the light of the setting sun, reflected all the hues of the -rainbow. The monk told the king that this was the dragon’s -breath. This was to convince the king of the truth of -his former statement. But the king’s attendants were sceptical -and sent messengers who returned with the bread floats, -thus unmasking the trickster. They demanded the head of -the monk but the king did not consent.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Foiled in this the ambitious monk laid new plans. In -1135 they were ready to be put in execution. Together with -a fellow traitor, Cho Kwang, he massed soldiers at P‘yŭng-yang -and set up a kingdom of his own which he named -Ta-wi. He called the army the “Celestial Army,” perhaps to -keep them in good humor. The government forces easily -overcame these insurrectionary forces and Cho Kwang, finding -that the end was approaching, tried to buy pardon by -cutting off the head of the monk and bringing it to the -capital. The king forgave him, but no sooner had he re-entered -the gates of P‘yŭng-yang than he raised the standard -of revolt again. The royal forces laid siege to the city, -and having broken down a portion of the wall effected an -entrance. Cho Kwang, seeing that there was no longer any -chance of safety, set fire to his house and perished in the flames.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We find in the records the curious statement that -the law against murder was revised, making that crime -a greater one than the killing of a cow. The following -year there was a Buddhistic festival at which 30,000 monks -were present.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>In the year 1145 occurred an event of great importance. -A century and a quarter had now passed since the kingdom -of Sil-la had fallen and as yet the annals of Sil-la, Ko-gu-ryŭ -and Păk-je had not been worked up into a proper history. -This year it was done and the great work entitled <cite>Sam-guk-sa</cite>, -or History of the Three Kingdoms, was the result. This work -which, though rare, exists to-day, is the thesaurus of ancient -Korean history, and it is the basis upon which all subsequent -histories of ancient Korea are founded. Its compiler, Kim -Pu-sik, is one of the celebrated literary men of Korea and -may truly be called the father of Korean history.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In-jong was succeeded in 1147 by his son Hyön, posthumous -title Eui-jong. Never before had a king given himself -over so abjectly to the priesthood. The people were -thoroughly discontented with his course, but he would listen -to no remonstrances. It would have been better had he been -a more consistent Buddhist but his drinking, gambling and -licentiousness gave the lie to his religious pretentions and left -the impression that he was in reality only the tool of the -priesthood. It is said that his visits to a certain monastery -were so frequent that an awning had to be erected from the -palace to its gates, and if at any time the king was not to be -found they looked for him in this monastery. He was an -object of ridicule to the whole people. A diviner told him that -if he built a palace at Păk-ju (now Pă-ch‘ŭn) in Whang-hă -Province, in seven years he would overcome both Kitan and -Kin. The king was simple enough to follow his advice. He -wasted the public treasure on the wildest debaucheries, gave -high positions to monks and surrounded himself with a vile -set of men who debauched the palace women.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1165 numbers of the Kin people crossed the Yalu and -settled at In-ju and Chŭng-ju. The magistrates raised a force -of soldiers on their own account without royal authority and -drove out the intruders and burned their houses. The Kin -emperor made the king restore them to their places but the -magistrates again drove them out; so the Emperor sent a -body of troops and seized sixteen of the country officials.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The officials desired to stop the king’s frequent visits to -his favorite monastery. One day as he was passing along his -covered passage-way they made his horse rear violently and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>at the same time one of them let fall an arrow before him. -The king was terrified, supposing that someone had shot at -him, so he returned to the palace in haste and barred the -gates. He charged a slave of his brother’s with having shot -the arrow and after wringing a false confession from him by -torture put him to death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1168 Ch’oe Ch’ŭk-kyŭng became prefect of T’am-na -(Quelpart). He was well liked by the people and when he -was removed and another man put in his place they rose -in revolt, drove out the successor and said they would have -no governor but Ch’oe. So the King was obliged to reinstate -him. These people of Quelpart were very unruly. It was -only during the reign of this king’s father that the first -prefect had been sent to that island.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king sent a commission to Dagelet island off the east -coast to find out whether it was habitable. They brought -back an adverse report.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Besides his partiality to Buddhism the king added another -burden to those which the people already carried. -He made the eunuchs his instruments to exact money from -the people, and to such as supplied him with the most money -from this illegal practice he gave rank and honors. The -king was continually feasting, but none of the military men -enjoyed his favor or shared his hospitality. Matters came to -a crisis when in 1170 one of the military officials was struck -by a civil official of a lower grade in the presence of the king -while at a monastery outside the city. The matter was -hushed up for the moment but when the company separated -some of the generals assembled the palace guards and seized -and killed the two leading civil officials. One, Han Roe, -escaped and hid behind the king’s bed. In spite of this the -generals entered and dragged him away to his death. Then -they began to slaughter the civil officials and eunuchs indiscriminately. -The records say that the dead bodies were piled -“mountains high.” The military officials had a sign by which -they might be distinguished. The right shoulder was left -bare and they wore a head-dress called the <em>pok-tu</em>. Whoever -was found lacking these two signs was cut down. The king -was in mortal fear and tried to propitiate the leading general -by the gift of a beautiful sword. He accepted it but the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>work of death went on. They took the king back to the -capital and, arriving at the palace, cut down ten leading men -at that point. Then they went to the palace of the crown -prince and killed ten more. Proclamation was made in the -main street “Kill any official wearing the garments of the -civil rank”. This was the sign for a general slaughter -and fifty more of the officials were murdered. After this, twenty -eunuchs were beheaded and their heads were set upon pikes.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Though the king was badly frightened he continued his -evil course of life without abatement. The generals wanted -to kill him but were dissuaded. The persecution of the civil -officials continued but there was some discrimination, for two -of them who were better than the rest were spared and -protected. A civil official, returning from China, <a id='corr179_14'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='learned of of'>learned of</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_179_14'><ins class='correction' title='learned of of'>learned of</ins></a></span> -this <em>emeute</em> and, gathering forces in the country, approached -the capital; but at a certain pass an unfavorable -omen was seen in the shape of a tiger sitting in the road. -The omen was true, for the improvised army was defeated by -the insurrectionists. One Chöng Chung-bu was the leading -spirit in this business and he now proceeded to pull down all -the houses of the civil officials, turning a deaf ear to the expostulations -of those who pitied the widows and orphans. -From this time dates the custom of destroying the house -of any official or gentleman who is guilty of any serious crime -against the king.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Chöng came to the conclusion that the king was a -hopeless case and so he banished him to Kö-je in Island, Kyŭng-sang -Province, and the Crown Prince to the island of Chin-do, -and made way with a large number of the king’s relatives and -hangers-on. He then put the king’s younger brother Ho on -the throne. His posthumous title is Myŭng-jong. This was -in 1171.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Then all the offices were filled by military officials, Gen. -Im Keuk-ch’ung becoming Prime Minister. Mun Keup-kyŭm -was one of the civil officials who were spared, and he -now feigned to be well content with the condition of things -and gave his daughter to the son of one of the generals in -marriage. An envoy was sent to the Kin court saying that -as the king was old and sick his brother had been given the -reins of power.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>One of the generals, Yi Ko, desired to effect a revolution -and, gathering his friends about him, promised them high -honors in case the attempt should succeed. Thereupon he -took with him to a feast a number of his followers with -swords hidden in their sleeves. Gen. Ch’oa Wŭn, however, -suspected something and communicated his suspicions to Gen. -Yi Eui-bang who managed to get Gen. Yi Ko out into the -anteroom and there felled him to the ground with an iron -mace and dispatched him. His followers were also seized and -killed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor suspected that the deposed king had been -forcibly ejected and so sent a letter severely blaming his successor. -An envoy was dispatched to the Kin court to explain -matters. He talked well but the emperor still suspected -something and refused to answer the king’s letter. The -envoy thereupon sat down and deliberately began to starve -himself to death. This secured the desired answer and the -envoy returned to Song-do. The emperor sent a commission -to enquire into the matter. The commissioner was feasted at -the capital and told that the deposed king was old and sick -and had gone away to a distant part of the country and could -not be produced.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The ill-will between the military and the monks was well -illustrated when the palace caught fire. General Chöng saw -many monks running toward the burning buildings, but rather -than have them enter he locked the gates and let the buildings -burn to the ground.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The remnant of the civil officers were ever on the lookout -for opportunities to get the upper hand again and drive -out the military party. To this end Kim Po-dang sent letters -to prefects far and wide and a time for a rising was agreed -upon. The banished king was put in the van of the army -thus improvised and they advanced as far as Kyöng-ju. But -the plan miscarried and Kim, its originator, was seized by the -people and sent to Song-do where he was put to death. Before -dying he exclaimed “I was in league with all the civil -nobles.” This was probably not true, but it caused a fresh -outbreak of the military party upon the civil nobles, and scores -of them were killed. At last a reaction set in and the military -leaders, feeling that they had gone too far, tried to make -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>amends by giving their daughters to the sons of the civil officials -in marriage.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this point occurred one of the most revolting events -that blot the pages of Korean history. Gen. Chöng, hearing -that the banished king had come as far as Kyöng-ju sent Gen. -Yi Eui-mun to put him out of the way. After the leader and -two hundred members of the ex-king’s guard had been -treacherously killed the ex-king himself was spirited away to -a neighboring monastery. He was taken out to the brink of -a pond behind this monastery and there Gen. Yi, who was a -man of immense stature, seized him in his arms and crushed -his ribs, killing him instantly. The body was wrapped in -blankets, placed in two kettles, which were placed mouth to -mouth, and thrown into the pond. When this monster, Gen. -Yi, returned to Song-do he was loaded with honors. Later a -monk, who was a good swimmer, raised the body and gave it -decent burial.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In spite of the overwhelming power exercised by the -military party, the king was devoted to Buddhism. The -monks were very anxious to kill Gen. Yi, who had taken such -an active part in deposing the late king; so they massed in -front of the palace and set fire to it by first firing the adjoining -houses. Gen. Yi made a sudden sally with a strong guard -and killed a hundred of the monks. He followed this up by -demolishing five monasteries whose sacred vessels and other -utensils he confiscated.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter V.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Rebellion quelled.... cannibalism.... anarchy....“faith cure”.... reformation.... Ta-na -well.... the Queen restored.... slaves revolt.... the -Mongols.... envoy killed.... Kin weakens.... Kitan refugees.... civil -strife.... Kitan driven back.... Mongol allies.... Mongols drive -Kitans into Koryŭ.... Mongol savages.... Kitan remnant surrenders.... Mongol -envoy.... jealousy.... Mongol demands.... rebels’ heads -sent to Song-do.... Mongol demands tribute.... brutal envoy.... a -new wall.... Japanese pirates.... Mongol envoy killed.... Mongol -allies.... driven back.... prime minister duped.... pirates again.... a -Korean “Shogun”.... Mongols cross the Yalu.... a Mongol letter.... the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>Mongols reach Song-do.... leave it untaken.... the “Shogun” -flees.... a brave prefect.... Mongol terms.... King surrenders.... Mongol -residency.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Cho Wi-jong was a P‘yŭng-yang man with a towering -ambition, and he now deemed the time ripe to put the wheels -in motion. He therefore drew about him a strong body of -troops. All the districts about P‘yŭng-yang joined him excepting -Yŭn-ju, which remained loyal to the king. The people -of that place were afraid of the rebel but the loyal prefect -Hyŭn Tŭk-su forged a letter purporting to be from the royal -army <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>en route</em></span> for P‘yŭng-yang. This gave the people courage -to hold out.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Cho and his troops marched toward Song-do and encamped -not far to the west of the town. Gen. Yi Eui-bang, having -first seized and killed all the P‘yŭng-an officials who happened -to be in the capital, marched out against the rebels. At -the first attack the seditious force broke and fled. Gen. Yi -chased them as far as the Ta-dong River. He crossed that -river and lay siege to P‘yŭng-yang; but winter was coming -on and he was obliged to retire to Song-do. Cho then made -two or three attempts to overthrow the loyal town of Yŭn-ju, -but without success.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Yi was a ruthless man, who had no love of humanity -in him, but would kill his best friend if it served his -purpose. For this reason Gen. Chöng did not dare to associate -with him, but threw up his commission and went into -retirement. His son got a priest to dog the footsteps of Gen. -Yi and wait for a chance to kill him. This he finally accomplished -and Gen. Yi and many of his relatives were killed; -and the queen, who was his daughter, was driven away.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As Cho Wi-jong, the P‘yŭng-yang traitor, was gradually -losing power he desired to get help from the Kin emperor. -For this purpose he sent two envoys, but one of them killed -the other on the way and them fled to Song-do. Cho sent another, -but him the Kin emperor seized and sent a prisoner to -the Koryŭ capital. In the spring the royal forces besieged -Cho in P‘yŭng-yang again and famine within the walls became -so great that men ate each other. Many of the towns-people -came out by stealth and as they were well received by the besieging -force, well-nigh all the civilians in the city came over -<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>the walls by night. When the city fell, Cho was killed and -his wife and children were sent to Song-do where they were -hung in the center of the city.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The rebel forces were scattered but reunited in various -places and terrorized the whole north, so that envoys to the -Kin court had to go a round-about way to avoid them. The -whole country in fact was in a state of anarchy. In the south -whole sections of the country were disaffected toward the -government and bands of men roamed the country. There -was a rising also in Whang-hă Province. In P‘yŭng-yang -the people rose and drove out the governor. The king was -forced to begin the correction of abuses. He sent all about -gathering information as to how the people were governed and -as a consequence eight hundred officials were cashiered. -But the attempt at renovation came too late. In the west the -bands of robbers looted right and left and could not be apprehended. -The capital itself swarmed with thieves. The ancestral -temple itself was robbed of its utensils. But all this -time the king kept up a round of carousals and debaucheries -at which he himself played the buffoon, and danced for the -delectation of his guests, and that too at a monastery. A sacred -place truly!</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the twelfth year of the reign, 1182, we find an interesting -application of what goes in these days under the name of -“faith cure.” A priest claimed to be able to cure any disease. -Being called before the king he said, “If anyone drinks water -in which I have washed my hands he will be immediately -cured.” He further explained “After drinking the water, -pray earnestly to Buddha. Then rise and say ‘I am cured’, -and if you really believe you are cured, you will be so.” -Crowds of people applied to him for treatment. He seduced -many of the women who came to him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Yi Eui-mun was now court favorite and he usurped -all the leading offices and acted as pander-in-general to the -King by seeking out and forcibly carrying to the palace young -and handsome girls. This seemed intolerable to such loyal -men as Gen. Ch‘oe Chung-heun, and he, in company with his -brother, surrounded the palace, killed Yi Eui-mun and many -others of his ilk, chased away many illegitimate sons of the -king, who had become monks, and would not let them enter -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>the palace again. This all happened in 1196, and two years -later the reformer continued the good work by deposing the -old and indolent king, banishing the crown prince to Kang-wha -and putting the king’s brother Mun on the throne. His -posthumous title is Sin-jong. The banishing of the crown -prince and his wife was effected in a very heartless manner. -They were ordered out of the palace at a moment’s notice and, -coming forth entirely unprepared for the journey, were mounted -on horses in a cold rain and hurried away to Kang-wha. A -terrible storm raged the day the King was deposed, as if in -sympathy with the throes <a id='corr184_11'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic :through which?'>through</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_184_11'><ins class='correction' title='sic :through which?'>through</ins></a></span> the country was passing.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There was a saying current among the people which -shows at once how <a id='corr184_13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='superstitions'>superstitious</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_184_13'><ins class='correction' title='superstitions'>superstitious</ins></a></span> they were and to what an -extent the eunuchs were wont to abuse their power. They -said “If the King uses water from the Ta-nă Wall many eunuchs -will arise and will cause the government to be administered -badly;” so the well was filled up. Another instance -shows what a terrible temptation there was for the people -to abuse their power. This same reformer <a id='corr184_19'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Cho‘e'>Ch’oe</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_184_19'><ins class='correction' title='Cho‘e'>Ch’oe</ins></a></span> Chung-heun, -though himself a man of perfect uprightness, had a -brother who now took advantage of his position to force -the king to take his daughter as queen. To do this the real -queen had to be banished. As it happened, the king was -deeply attached to her, but he was in no position to refuse to -do the bidding of the powerful courtier. After a tearful parting -she went into exile. This was as yet unknown to the reformer, -but when he learned of it his indignation was deep -and fierce. Cloaking his feelings, he called his brother to a -feast and there reminded him that they were not of a high -enough family to furnish a queen, and he charged him to -give up the attempt. The next day, the villain changed his -mind again. His mother expostulated with him and he felled -her to the floor. Gen. Ch‘oe was told of this and, surrounding -himself with a strong body-guard, he proceeded to the -palace gate. When his niece was brought in her chair and was -about to enter to become queen, the faithful old general disputed -the passage and a fight ensued between his men and his -brother’s. The former were successful and the wretch betook -himself to flight, but was pursued, taken and killed by the -general himself. The rightful queen was restored to her station.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>The six years of this king’s reign were one long scene of -turmoil and strife. In the first place the slaves revolted. -They said “The high men are not made so by the decree of -heaven. Great men are those who do well. Let us fight for -our rights; Gen. Ch‘oe is from as low a grade as ourselves. -Let us become high men too.” They rendezvoused at -Heung-guk monastery and decided as a preliminary measure -to demand from their masters the deeds of themselves (for -slaves as well as houses were deeded property) and to burn -them. They were betrayed to Gen. Ch‘oe who trapped a -hundred of them, tied stones about their necks and drowned -them in the river. The south was overrun by marauding -parties whom the king bought off by gifts of food, clothes and -land. In Chin-ju the governor’s servants locked him in his -private dungeon, gathered a band of men and put to death all -who would not join their standard. It is said that 6,400 -men were killed because of refusal to join them. The same -scenes were enacted in various places, notably in Quelpart -and Kong-ju.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the midst of these scenes the king died and was succeeded -in 1205 by his son Tok, posthumous title Heui-jong.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have now arrived at the threshold of events which -were destined to make Asia one great battle-field and to cause -the sovereigns of Europe to tremble on their thrones.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Mongols lived north of Yŭ-jin and were in a sense -connected with them. Their first great chief was Ya-sok-hă -(Yusuka) who first led the revolt which separated the Mongol -power from the Yŭ-jin. He together with Keui-ak-on conquered -forty of the northern tribes in quick succession and -brought them all under his flag. His son’s name was Chŭl-mok-jin, -the great Genghis Khan. It was now in the second -year of Heui-jong, in 1206, that the great Genghis proclaimed -himself emperor and named his empire Mong.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile Ch‘oe Chung-heun was not proof against -the seductions of ambition and power, and we next find him -seizing the people’s houses and building himself a magnificent -residence adjoining the palace. People said of him that he -buried a boy or a girl under each corner post.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the spring of 1212 opened, an envoy was sent to -the Kin court but was intercepted by Mongol videttes who -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>had by this time worked their way southward to a point that -commanded the road between Koryŭ and Kin. The Kin -people recovered the body and sent it back to Koryŭ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Ch‘oe had acquired so much power that he was in -reality the ruler of the land, holding much the same position -that the Shogun of Japan is said to have occupied. He may -not inappropriately be styled the Shogun of Koryŭ. For this -reason the king desired to get him out of the way. To this -end he put upon his track a number of monks, but as they -began by attacking his servant he quietly slipped into a chest -and they could not find him. His body-guard became aware -of his predicament and forced the palace gates, killing right -left; and they would have killed the king had not the wily old -general stepped out of his hiding place and prevented it. The -latter banished the king to Kang-wha and the crown prince to -Chemulpo and set upon the throne one Chong, whose posthumous -title is Kang-jong.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The only event recorded of this reign is the arrival of an -envoy from the Kin court, who wanted to enter the palace by -the central or royal gate. He insisted upon it until he was -asked the question “If you enter by the royal gate, by what -gate would your master enter should he come here?” This -silenced him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Kang-jong was succeeded in 1214 by his son Chin, posthumous -title Kang-jang. This was destined to be the longest -and by far the most <a id='corr186_25'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='evenful'>eventful</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_186_25'><ins class='correction' title='evenful'>eventful</ins></a></span> reign of the dynasty for it lasted -forty-five years and witnessed the great Mongol invasion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Kin power was now trembling under the Mongol -onslaught and envoys came demanding aid from Koryŭ in the -shape of rice and horses. The king ostensibly refused but -allowed the envoys to purchase rice and carry it away with -them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Again a dark cloud hung over Koryŭ’s northern border. -It was not the Mongols as yet, but the remnant of the Kitan -forces who were unable to withstand the Mongols and so had -fled south into Koryŭ territory. At first the Koryŭ forces -were able to keep them in check but as they came in ever increasing -numbers they broke down all opposition and were -soon ravaging Whang-hă Province, making P‘yŭng-yang -their headquarters. The lack of Koryŭ soldiers was so evident -<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>that men of all classes, even the monks, became soldiers. It -was of no avail. They were cut down like stubble and -Whang-ju fell into Kitan hands. The enemy was soon only -eighty <em>li</em> from the capital. Consternation reigned in the city -and the people all procured swords or other weapons and -manned the walls.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To this outward danger was added the terror of civil -strife for the priests took this inopportune moment to attack -the old general, Ch‘oe, who still ruled with a high hand. He -turned on them however and cut down three hundred. He -then instituted an inquisition and as a result 800 more were -killed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Such then was the desperate position of Koryŭ; a powerful -enemy at her door, the south rife with rebellion, and in the -capital itself “mountains of dead and rivers of blood.” Victorious -Kitan came sweeping down on Song-do, but for some -reason, perhaps because they had heard that the town was well -defended, they made a detour, appearing next on the banks of -the Im-jin River half way between Song-do and the present -capital. There they suffered defeat at the hands of the Koryŭ -forces as they did also later at the site of the present capital. -In view of these defeats the Kitan army retired to Tă-băk -San. Now another cause of anxiety appeared in the shape of -the Yŭ-jin allies of the Mongols who crossed the Yalu and -took Eui-ju. But Koryŭ, wide awake to the danger, threw -upon them a well equipped force which destroyed 500 of them, -captured many more and drove the remaining 300 across the -river. The king now built a royal residence at Pă-gak San -to the east of Song-do, for he had been told that by so doing -he would be able to hold the north in check.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Myŭn Ku-ha of east Yŭ-jin, being defeated by the Mongols, -came in his flight towards the Yalu, but the Koryŭ general, -Chŭng Kong-su, caught him and sent him safely to the -Mongol headquarters. This pleased the Mongols hugely and -they said “We must make a treaty of friendship.” We must -remember that the Mongols were at war with Kitan and had -driven her army across into Koryŭ, but at first did not pursue -them. Now, however, an army of 10,000 men under Generals -T‘ap Chin and Ch‘al Cha, were sent to complete the destruction -of the Kitan power. They were joined by Yŭ-jin allies to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>the number of 20,000 men under Gen. Wan-an Cha-yŭn. As -these allies were advancing against the doomed army of Kitan, -the remnant of which, 50,000 strong, was massed at Kang-dong, -a great snowstorm came on and provisions ran low. -Koryŭ was asked to supply the deficiency which she did to -the extent of 1,000 bags of rice. This still more helped her -into the good graces of the Mongols. But the records state -that the Mongols were so little beyond the condition of the -savage that there could be little real friendship between them -and the people of Koryŭ. The latter showed it too plainly -and the Mongols of course resented it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In this army that was marching to the annihilation of -Kitan there was a contingent of Koryŭ forces under Gen. -Kim Ch‘ui-ryo who is described as being a giant in size with -a beard that reached his knees. He was a favorite with the -Mongol generals and was treated handsomely by them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The <a id='corr188_17'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='seige'>siege</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_188_17'><ins class='correction' title='seige'>siege</ins></a></span> of Kang-dong was prosecuted vigorously and -soon the greatest distress prevailed within the walls. The -leader finally gave up hope and hanged himself, and the -50,000 men came out and surrendered. Gen. T‘ap reviewed -them, took off the heads of a hundred of the leaders and released -the remainder. The Mongol leader wished to make a -visit to Song-do to see the king but he could not leave his -army, so he sent an envoy instead. He gave the Koryŭ generals -rich presents and released 700 Koryŭ captives that had -been previously taken. Many Kitan captives were put into -the hands of the Koryŭ generals as a result of the decisive -termination of the war against Kitan and many of the heretofore -inaccessible parts of the north were opened up, and they -were called the “Kitan District.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ere long the Mongol envoy approached Song-do and the -king sent out a messenger to meet him, but this did not satisfy -him, for he exclaimed “Why did not the king come out to -meet me?” It took some persuasion to induce him not to -turn back. When he had audience with the king he wore the -heavy fur clothing of his native country with a fur head-dress, -and carried a sword and a bow. Approaching the king he -seized his hand and showed him the letter from the Mongol -emperor, Genghis Khan. The king turned pale and was -exceedingly embarrassed at this familiarity, and the officials -<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>asked each other how the presence of this barbarian could be -endured. They induced him to retire and assume Koryŭ -garments, after which he reappeared and the king presented -him with gifts of gold, silver, silk and linen.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Cho Ch‘ung accompanied the retiring Mongol and -Yŭ-jin allies as far as the Yalu where they bade him an -affectionate adieu and declared that he was a man of whom -Koryŭ should be proud. The Mongol general, Hap Chin, -left forty men at Eui-ju to learn the Koryŭ language and told -them to stay there till he returned. Gen. Cho then returned -to P‘yŭng-yang where he was lionized and fêted. The old -man Ch‘oe Chung-heun feared that Gen. Cho would attempt to -throw him down from his high position and thought it would -be better to have him near by, where he could watch him; so -he forged a letter purporting to be from the king, ordering -him to come down to the capital. He obeyed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It seemed at this time that the relations of Koryŭ and the -Mongols would remain friendly, but if Koryŭ thought this -she was destined to be rudely awakened. The Mongol and -Yŭ-jin allies sent to Myŭng-sŭng and said “Koryŭ must send -an envoy and do obeisance each year.” This was said in so -offensive a way that it seemed to be an attempt to provoke -war. We are not told what answer was given but it sufficed -for the time to secure peace.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The great Ch‘oe Chung-heun who had carried things with -such a high hand now fell ill and died. This caused more -commotion than the death of several kings. He was buried -with royal honors. He left many sons, of whom U and -Hyang were first and second. Hyang was a bold and powerful -man, and before the father died he warned U against him. -U succeeded to his father’s position which, as we have seen, -corresponded closely with that of the Shogun of Japan.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A serious rebellion broke out in the north under two -leaders, Han Sun and Ta Chi, the cause being the illegal exactions -of the prefects. When the king found that it could not -be put down by peaceful means he sent Gen. Kim Ch‘ui-ro to -put it down by force. The east Yŭ-jin leader, Myŭn Ku-ha, -at first sided with the rebels but later changed his mind, invited -Han Sun and Ta Chi to a feast, got them intoxicated, assassinated -them, put their heads in a box and sent it to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>king, thereby earning the good will of the latter. The king -then reformed the abuses in the rebellious section and peace -was at last secured.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Mongols were not to be content with an empty friendship, -and in 1221 they sent a demand for revenue, consisting -of 10,000 pounds of cotton, 3,000 rolls of fine silk, 2,000 -pieces of gauze, 100,000 sheets of paper of the largest size. -The envoy who brought this <a id='corr190_8'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='extradordinary'>extraordinary</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_190_8'><ins class='correction' title='extradordinary'>extraordinary</ins></a></span> letter was provided -commodious quarters and excellent food but he expressed -his dissatisfaction at everything by shooting arrows into the -house posts, and by acting in a very boorish manner generally. -The only man who could do anything with him was -Kim Heui-jo who charged him with killing a man in Eui-ji, -and threatened to have him imprisoned. Thus meeting bluster -with bluster he made the brutal northerner listen to reason. -When the envoy was about to go to an audience with -his weapons in hand, this same Kim made him lay them aside. -Other Mongol and Yo-jin messengers came and Kim managed -them all so well that no trouble arose.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was becoming apparent that the Mongols were likely -at any time to make a descent upon Koryŭ; so, in the following -year, 1222, a wall was built near the Yalu river, extending -from Eui-ju to Wha-ju. It is said that this was completed -in the marvelously short space of forty days, a feat -which shows not only how great a power Koryŭ could exert -when necessary but how important she deemed it that this -wall should be built.</p> - -<p class='c000'>1223 <span class='fss'>A.D.</span> marks the beginning of that long series of depredations -which Japanese freebooters inflicted upon Koryŭ -<a id='corr190_30'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='beween'>between</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_190_30'><ins class='correction' title='beween'>between</ins></a></span> 1200 and 1400. In this year they landed on the -coast of Kyŭng-sang Province and ravaged the district of -Keum-ju. With the opening of the next year, a Mongol envoy -came modifying the demand for tribute to sea otter skins -only. The Kin dynasty was now tottering to its fall but was -destined to cling to life for another ten years. This year saw -it nearly fall before the Mongol power. Koryŭ therefore discarded -the Kin calendar. The friendship between the Mongols -and Koryŭ was destined to be rudely broken in the year -1225, and through no fault of the latter except the inability -to keep order in her own territory. The Mongol envoy, returning -<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>to the north, was set upon by a Koryŭ highwayman -and was robbed of the gifts which he was carrying home. -Thus all friendly relations were ruptured and another step -was taken toward the final catastrophe. This year also witnessed -another Japanese raid in the south.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i190.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>FERRY ACROSS THE HAN.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The Yŭ-jin who had now assumed the Mongol clothes, and -were in reality an integral part of the Mongol power, made a -descent upon Koryŭ in 1226 in the vicinity of Eui-ju. The -prefect deemed it too pressing a matter to wait till word -could be received from Song-do, so he sent a thousand men -immediately against the raiders and drove them back. The -king forgave the irregularity but refused to reward him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ch‘oé U who, as we know, was the prime minister, was -duped by a diviner into believing that he was to become king -some day, and he foolishly divulged the secret to a certain -Kim, and soon it became common property. As punishment -for this, as well as to get himself out of trouble, Ch‘oe U had -both Kim and the diviner drowned.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The depredations of the Japanese were without the cognizance -of the Japanese government and were against its wish. -This appears from the fact that when in 1227 an envoy, Pak -In, was sent to Japan to remonstrate against them, the government -of that country acquiesced and arrested and killed a -number of the corsairs.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Both this year and the next Yŭ-jin bands ravaged the -northern part of Koryŭ, but at the same time asked that a -treaty be concluded. The ink was hardly dry on this before -it was broken by the very ones who advocated it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ch‘oe U followed in his father’s steps and having established -himself in the viceroyship began to abuse the people, -stealing houses and lands from them wherewith to build himself -a princely mansion, two hundred paces long. In the -court of it he had mock battles and the soldiers played at ball. -The expense of this was borne by the people, whose faces -were already being ground to furnish the regular revenue. -His younger brother, Hyang, who long since been had banished, -attempted to raise an insurrection in favor of the exiled -king; but Ch‘oe U sent a strong force and chased his brother -until he was run to earth in a cave among the mountains -where he was killed.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>It was now the year 1231, the year which saw the outbreak -which had been threatening ever since Genghis Khan -came to the chieftainship of the Mongol armies. As the -spring opened a powerful Mongol army moved southward across -the Yalu under the leadership of Sal Ye-t‘ap and took the -fortress of Ham-sin near Eui-ju. They followed this up by -storming Ch‘ŭl-ju which ended only after the prefect had set -fire to his house and destroyed his whole family and he and -his associates had cut their own throats.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king did not intend to submit without a struggle. -He sent Generals Pak Sö and Kim Kyöng-sol at the head of a -large army to operate against the invaders. They rendezvoused -with all their forces at Ku-ju, the four gates of which -were strongly barricaded. The Mongols commenced the attack -at the south gate. The Koryŭ soldiers made five brilliant -sallies and forced the enemy to retire. The honors of -this victory fell to Gen. Kim who pursued the enemy some -distance and then returned to the town in triumph. The -Mongols, who seem to have been independent of any base of -supplies and made the country through which they passed -supply them, now left this town untaken and the Koryŭ army -undefeated in their rear, and marched boldly southward, taking -Kwak-ju and Sŭn-ju. From this point the Mongol general -Sal Ye-t‘ap sent a letter to the king saying “Let us make -peace. We have now taken your country as far as Han-sin -and if you do not come to terms with us we will draw reinforcements -from Yŭ-jin and crush you.” The messenger -who conveyed this very candid letter got only as far as -P‘yŭng-ju where he was seized by the people and imprisoned. -While waiting for an answer, the invaders tried another attack -on Ku-ju but with no better success. Not only so, but -they were badly defeated at Au-puk fortress.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king now reinforced the army in the north and at -the same time feasted 30,000 monks at the capital in order to -influence the celestial powers to bring about a cessation of -war. But at the same time the Mongol forces were reinforced -by Yŭ-jin troops and with high spirits crossed the Ta-dong -river and swept down to P‘yŭng-ju to wreak their vengeance -on that place where even yet the Mongol messenger with the -letter for the king was languishing in durance vile. By a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>night attack they took the place, burned it to the ground, -killed the prefect and even destroyed every dog and other domestic -animal in the place. Then they advanced toward -Song-do and soon appeared beneath its walls. There the -Mongol generals P‘o-do, Chŭk-kŭ and Tang-go went into -camp. They supplied their army by foraging all through -the surrounding country, in which operation thousands of -people were killed, their houses destroyed and their goods -confiscated, especially all kinds of food. The people in the -capital were in the greatest distress. Ch‘oe U, the viceroy, -stationed all the best troops about his own house and left the -inferior troops to guard the palace.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Mongol general Sal Ye-t‘ap was now in the north. -The king had already sent one messenger to ask for terms of -peace and had received the following answer; “I am emperor. -If you wish to fight it out then come on and fight. If not -then surrender, and be quick about it, too.” The king now -sent another messenger on a similar errand. He returned -with two Mongol commissioners and three more soon followed. -They were immediately admitted to an audience and a conference -followed, after which the king sent rich presents to Gen. -Sal Ye-t‘ap who seems now to have joined the main army before -Song-do, and also to the other generals. What the result -of the conference was is, for some reason, not stated in -the records, but that it was not entirely satisfactory to the -Mongols, or if satisfactory not sufficiently so to make them -forego the pleasure of plundering, is seen from their next -move, for they left Song-do and went southward to the center -of the peninsula, the rich province of Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The cowardly prime minister showed his colors by sending -a man to find a retreat for him on the island of Kang-wha, -but the messenger fell into the hands of Mongol foragers.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Sal Ye-t‘ap had gone north and joined another division -of the Mongol army and again he attacked Ku-ju. He -made engines of war called <em>ta-p‘o-ch‘a</em>, a sort of catapult, with -which to reduce this town, but the magistrate, Pak Sö also -made similar instruments which hurled huge stones, and the -besiegers were compelled to retire to a distance and take refuge -behind various kinds of defenses. The Mongols made -three attempts to deceive the prefect by forged letters purporting -<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>to be from the king and saying “I have surrendered -and therefore you must submit,” but Pak Sö was not to be -caught by so simple a trick. The besiegers then tried huge -scaling ladders, but these were cut down by the defenders as -fast as they were put in place. An aged Mongol general, -who made a circuit of the town and marked the splendid state -of defense into which the place had been put, declared that -he had never seen a place so well defended.</p> - -<p class='c000'>So the little town stood and the great Mongol general -was forced to seek other fields for the display of his prowess. -He sent a letter to the king finding fault because of the death -of the first Mongol <a id='corr194_12'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='massenger'>messenger</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_194_12'><ins class='correction' title='massenger'>messenger</ins></a></span> and modestly suggesting that -peace could be secured if he would surrender and give 20,000 -horse-loads of clothing, 10,000 pieces of purple silk, 20,000 -sea-otter skins, 20,000 horses, 1,000 boys, 1,000 girls and -1,000,000 soldiers, with food, to help conquer Japan. In addition -to this the king must go to the Mongol court and do -obeisance. These were the terms upon which Koryŭ could -secure peace.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With the beginning of the next year, 1232, the king sent -two generals bearing a letter of surrender. With it he sent -seventy pounds of gold, thirteen pounds of silver, 1,000 coats -and a hundred and seventy horses. He moreover stated that -the killing of the Mongol messenger was not the work of the -Koryŭ government but of a band of insurgents and robbers. -The officials had to give their garments in order to make up -the number that was sent. Each prefect along the route was -charged with the duty of seeing that the Mongols were in no -way molested.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But Pak Sö the prefect of <a id='corr194_30'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Ku Ju'>Ku-Ju</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_194_30'><ins class='correction' title='Ku Ju'>Ku-Ju</ins></a></span> was an obstinate man -and would not give up his fortress even when he knew the -king had surrendered. It was only after a great deal of argument -and expostulation that he at last capitulated. The -Koryŭ people wanted to kill him for his obstinacy but the -Mongols said “He is your greatest man and you should prize -him highly.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>So ended the first act of the tragedy, but it was not to -be the last. A Mongol residency was established at Song-do -and Mongol governors were stationed at important centers -throughout the country. The Mongol resident insisted upon -<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>entering the palace by the middle gate which the king alone -used, but it was shut and barred and he was not able to carry -his point. When the tribute above mentioned reached Gen. -Sal Ye-t‘ap he expressed the greatest dissatisfaction with it because -it fell so far short of what was demanded and he imprisoned -the messenger who brought it. The king sent an -envoy to the Mongol capital saluting the emperor as suzerain -for the first time.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter VI.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The king moves to Kang-wha.... a slave rebellion.... Mongol anger.... second -invasion.... Mongol charges.... popular insurrections.... palace -building.... the north occupied by Mongols.... Mongols not -good seamen.... suffering and distress.... nature of Mongol occupation.... diplomacy.... temporary -peace.... Gayuk Khan.... Mangu -Khan.... efforts to get the king out of Kang-wha.... great invasion -of 1253.... an urgent letter.... king decides not to remove.... great -fortress falls.... impossible demands.... siege of Ch‘un-ch‘ŭn.... Ya -Gol-dă meets the king.... the king promises to return to the capital.... a -ferocious governor-general.... exchequer depleted.... Cha Ra-dă -before Kang-wha.... a beautiful reply.... a new viceroy.... succession -of disasters.... viceroy overthrown.... Mongol ravages.... the -north defenseless.</p> - -<p class='c008'>That neither the Koryŭ king nor any of the officials believed -that the end of the trouble had come is evident. No -sooner had the tumult of war subsided than the question arose -in the Koryŭ councils as to the moving of the court. Some -objections were made, but Choe U silenced them by killing -off a few of the objectors. As for the king, he could not -make up his mind to go; but the viceroy showed no hesitation. -Seizing the government carts he loaded his household -effects upon them and moved to the island of Kang-wha. He -also urged the people to do likewise, and put up placards -threatening with death anyone who should speak against removing. -Meanwhile the people throughout the country were -rising in revolt against the Mongol governors and were driving -them out. This was sure to call down upon the troubled -land another invasion, and the king at last made up his mind -<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>to follow the example of his viceroy and move to Kang-wha. -A palace had been prepared for him there and on the appointed -day a start was made from the capital. It happened to be -in the midst of the rainy season when the roads are well-nigh -impassable. The whole cavalcade soon found itself mired, -and torrents of rain added materially to the discomfort. Even -ladies of noble rank were seen wading with bared limbs in -the mud and carrying bundles on their heads. The wailing -and crying of this forlorn multitude was audible for a long -distance. Gen. Kim Chung-gwi was left to guard the capital. -When the king at last arrived on the island he found that the -palace was not ready for occupancy and he was obliged to live -in a common house while the officials shifted for themselves. -Messengers were immediately sent in all directions ordering -the people to leave the mainland and seek refuge on the -islands.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The common people in Song-do were in utter confusion. -Anarchy stared them in the face. A slave by the name of Yi -T‘ong gathered about him a band of slaves and raised an insurrection. -The general who had been placed in charge was -driven out, the monks were summoned to help in the sack of -the town and all the government buildings were soon looted. -It is hardly complimentary to Buddhism that her monks were -invited by this seditious rabble to help in these lawless acts -but it is probably a true picture of the times. When this -came to the ears of the king he sent Gen. Yi Cha-sung to put -down the insurrection. The slaves barricaded the road but -the general dispersed them and at night gained admittance to -the city by feigning to be a deserter. Once within, he caught -the slave leader Yi T‘ong and the rest soon dispersed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the news of this exodus from the capital and the -driving out of the Mongol governors reached the Mongol capital -is caused a sensation. The emperor, in a white heat, -sent a messenger post-haste to Song-do and behind him came -a powerful army. The demand was “Why have you changed -the capital? Why have our people been driven out?” The -king replied that the capital was changed because all the -people were running away, but he affirmed that although he -had removed to Kang-wha his friendly feelings toward the -Mongols had not changed. To this the Mongols made the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>only answer that was to be expected from them. They fell -upon the northern towns and put them to indiscriminate -slaughter. Men, women and children fell beneath their -swords. Gen. Sal Ye-t‘ap himself came to attack Cho-im -fortress. In that place there was a notable archer. He shot -with unerring skill and every arrow found its victim. Aided -by this man the garrison offered such a stubborn resistance -that the Mongols at last fell back in disorder. It is said that -Gen. Sal Ye-t‘ap himself was one of the victims of this man’s -superb marksmanship. The king offered him official position -but he would not accept it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The spring of 1233 found the emperor’s anger somewhat -abated and instead of sending another army he sent another -envoy with four formulated charges. (1) No Koryŭ -envoy had come to do obeisance. (2) Highwaymen had killed -a Mongol envoy. (3) The king had run away from his capital. -(4) The king had given false figures in the census of -Koryŭ. We are not told whether these were answered but -we may infer that they were, and in the humblest tone.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It would be singular indeed if, in such lawless times, -there were not many insurrections in the country. A considerable -insurrection was gotten up in Kyŭng-sang Province -but was put down with a heavy hand, for the records say that -after the battle between the rebels and the loyal troops the -road for six miles was lined with dead. In P‘yŭng-yang likewise -there was a rising led by one Pil Hyŭn-bo. The King -sent Gen. Chöng I alone to settle the difficulty. He had already -been a P‘yŭng-yang prefect and had put down one insurrection. -He was feared throughout the whole section. As -he approached the northern city his servant besought him not -to enter it, but he replied that such were the king’s orders. -So he went to his death, for the insurrectionists, failing to -win him over to their side, gave him his quietus. The viceroy -then sent 3,000 picked troops to the rebellious city. They -took the rebel leader, cut him in two and sent the fragments -of his body to the king. The second in command named -Hong Pok-wŭn, fled to the Mongols, by whom he was warmly -welcomed. He became their guide in many subsequent expeditions. -These renegades were a source of constant trouble -between Koryŭ and the Mongols; so much so that the King -<span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>took pains to show favor to the parents and relatives of those -who had fled to the Mongol flag. This same year a second -wall was built about Kang-wha. The king sent asking the -Mongols to recall the rest of their troops, and it was done.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With the opening of the following year, 1234, great numbers -of people were summoned to help in the building of a -palace on Kang-wha. At this time the utmost favor was -shown to Buddhism. Sacrifices were offered on all the mountains -and beside the streams with the hope of enlisting the -sympathy of the gods. The viceroy also looked out for himself, -for we are told, probably with some exaggeration, that he -built himself a house twenty <em>li</em> in circumference. It was in -this same year that the Kin dynasty became extinct.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With the opening of the next year the real occupation of -the land by the Mongols commenced. The north was systematically -occupied, scores of prefects being seized. The king -<a id='corr198_17'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='on'>of</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_198_17'><ins class='correction' title='on'>of</ins></a></span> Kang-wha meanwhile was trying to secure a cessation of -these hostilities by turning sun-worshipper, for every morning -from seven to twelve the officials spent their time worshipping -that very useful, but hardly divine, luminary. The year -following increased the hopelessness of Koryŭ’s position a -hundred fold, for the Mongols established seventeen permanent -camps in P‘yŭng-an and Whang-hă Provinces. They -came as far south as Han-yang, the present Seoul. They -then proceeded southward to the very extremity of the peninsula, -and camps were established through all that portion of -the land. The only reverse the Mongols met in this triumphal -march was at the hands of Son Mun-ju the prefect of Chuk-ju, -now Chuk-san, who had learned the tactics of the Mongols -while serving in the north. Every day he foretold successfully -at what point the enemy would make the next attack. -People said he was inspired.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It would seem that the Mongols, however, did not remain -long in the south, for we read that when the standard of revolt -was raised the following year at Na-ju, the Koryŭ forces, sent -by the king, speedily overcame them. This would hardly -have been likely had the Mongols been in force in that -vicinity.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We must remember that the Mongols were continental -people and knew nothing of the sea. Even the narrow strip -<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>of water between Kang-wha and the mainland daunted them. -And so it was that the king from his island retreat defied the -tremendous Mongol power.</p> - -<p class='c000'>By 1238, when the Mongols again flooded the country with -their soldiery, the people had mostly found refuge among the -mountains and on the thousands of islands which lie off the -western coast of Korea. It would be impossible for anyone to -imagine the suffering and distress entailed by these invasions. -The records say that the people simply left their houses -and fields and fled to these places of refuge. What did these -hundreds of thousands of people live on as they fled, and -after they reached their places of retreat? What breaking of -old bonds of friendship and kinship, what rending of family -ties and uprooting of ancient landmarks! It is a marvel that -the land ever recovered from the shock. These Mongols were -fiercer and more ruthless than the Japanese who overran the -country three centuries later and they were far more numerous, -besides. Plunder being their main motive, their marauding -bands covered a much greater territory and mowed a -much wider swath than did the soldiers of the great Hideyoshi, -who kept to comparatively <a id='corr199_21'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='norrow'>narrow</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_199_21'><ins class='correction' title='norrow'>narrow</ins></a></span> lines of march. Nor did -these Mongols meet the opposition which the Japanese met. -The Mongols made a clean sweep of the country, and never again -do we read of those splendid armies of 200,000 or 300,000 -men which Koryŭ was once able to put into the field, even -when groaning under the weight of a corrupt court and a -rampant priesthood. It is from these days that dates that utter -prostration of Koryŭ’s power which left her an easy prey -to every Japanese freebooter who had 100 good swords at his -back.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After ravaging to their hearts’ content the Mongols withdrew -in 1236 to their own territory but sent a messenger ordering -the king to go to Peking and bow before the Mongol -emperor. He refused, but sent instead a relative by the name -of Chŭn with a letter asking the emperor to excuse him from -attempting the difficult journey to the Mongol court. Again -the next year the same demand was made, but this time the -king simply declined to go. The Mongols then modified their -demand and ordered the King to come out from his island retreat -and return to Song-do. This the king had no intention -<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>of doing; but the next year he sent another relation named -Sun as a hostage to the Mongol court asserting that this was -his son. The emperor believed this and married Sun to one -of his own near relatives.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Mongol emperor Ogdai died in 1242 and the queen -dowager took charge of affairs during <a id='corr200_6'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='and'>an</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_200_6'><ins class='correction' title='and'>an</ins></a></span> interval of four -years, until 1246, when Gayuk became emperor. This -brought peace to troubled Koryŭ for a period of five or six -years. During this time, all that was left of her resources was -used up in sending five or six embassies to the Mongol court -each year. The moment the pressure of war was raised the -king followed once more the bent of his inclinations, and -while the country was in the very lowest depths of distress he -feasted royally in his island retreat, while the viceroy vied -with him in the splendor of his entertainments. It is said that -at one feast 1300 musicians performed. Meantime the people -were slowly returning to their homes.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gayuk Khan came to the Mongol throne in 1246, and it -was the signal for the renewal of hostilities against Koryŭ. At -first four hundred men came, ostensibly to catch sea-otter but -in reality to spy out the country and learn the mountain passes -of the north. The king was not expecting a renewal of -hostilities, or else was too much taken up with his feasting to -attend to the defenses of the north; so the people fled in panic -before this handful of invaders. Many of them took refuge on -Wi-do Island off P‘yŭng-an Province and there engaged in -agriculture. They built a great dam across an estuary of the -sea and reclaimed a large tract of cultivable land, but they -suffered badly from lack of wells.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1249 Gayuk died and the regency again devolved upon -the queen dowager. Peace again reigned for a time, broken -only by a single attempted invasion by the Yŭ-jin people, -which was unsuccessful. The king began the erection of a -new palace at Song-do in order to make it appear that he intended -to obey the standing injunction of his suzerain to go -back to the capital.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Mongol regency ended in 1251 and Mangu Khan became -emperor. An envoy was immediately despatched to inquire -whether the king had yet obeyed this command, but as -the answer was unsatisfactory the Koryŭ envoy who appeared -<span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>at the emperor’s court the following year was thrown into -prison and a last envoy was sent with instructions <a id='corr201_2'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='the'>to</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_201_2'><ins class='correction' title='the'>to</ins></a></span> settle -the question definitely. If the king would come out and -return to his capital the people might remain on Kang-wha, -but if the king refused, the envoy was to return with all -haste to the Emperor and war would be declared at once. A -certain Korean, hearing about these instructions, hastened forward -and informed the king and urged that he go out and -meet the envoy. To this the king did not assent. When the -envoy arrived the king set a great feast for him, in the midst -of which the Mongol arose and, assuming a terrible aspect, -demanded loudly why the king did not leave the island and -return to Song-do. Without waiting for an answer to the -question he strode out of the hall and posted back to the -north. The people were in dismay and said to each other, -“This means war again.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the lengthening vernal sun of 1253 had melted the -northern snows this prophetic word was verified. The renegade -Koryŭ general, Hong Pok-wŭn, told the emperor that -the king had triple-walled the island of Kang-wha and would -not move therefrom. War, ever welcome to these first Mongol -emperors, was now afoot. The first detachment of 10,000 -troops was led by the Emperor’s brother Song-ju. With -many allies from the Yŭ-jin and other tribes he crossed the -Yalu. Then the Mongol general, A Mo-gan, and the renegade -Hong crossed and advanced as far as the Ta-dong -River. Following these came Gen. Ya Gol-dă with sixteen -chieftains in his train and with a formidable array of troops.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The envoy Sun who, we will remember, had married a -Mongol princess, now wrote an urgent letter to the king saying -“The emperor is angry because you persist in disobeying -him and he is sending seventeen kings against you. But he -says that if you will leave the island and follow out his commands -he will even now recall the army. You have now an -opportunity of giving your country a lasting peace. If you -leave the island, send your son to the emperor and receive -the Mongol envoy well, it will be a blessing to the kingdom of -Koryŭ. If you will not do this, I beg of you to put all my -family to death.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Beneath this last appeal lay a terrible threat and the king -<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>realized it. A great council was convened and the universal -voice was in favor of compliance; but a single voice was -raised in opposition. It said “How much treasure have we -squandered on this insatiable barbarian, and how many good -men have gone as envoys and never returned. Let the king go -out now from this place of safety and when we behold him a -corpse our condition will be enviable indeed!” This word -startles the assembly. Cowards that they are, they rise to their -feet and with one voice applaud the stirring words and charge -the king to stay in his island fortress and still defy the savage -of the north.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Ya Gol-dă now sent a messenger to the King purporting -to be from the Emperor saying “I have begun from -the rising sun and I will conquer to its going down. All people -rejoice but you, who do not listen. I now send Gen. Ya -Gol-dă. If you receive him well, I will leave you in peace; if -not, I will never forgive the offense.” Immediately putting -his troops in motion the redoubtable general <a id='corr202_18'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='appoached'>approached</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_202_18'><ins class='correction' title='appoached'>approached</ins></a></span> the -strongest fortress in Whang-ha Province. It was surrounded -by almost perpendicular precipices. The commandant <a id='corr202_20'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='laugh-at'>laughed at</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_202_20'><ins class='correction' title='laugh-at'>laughed at</ins></a></span> -the Mongols and defied them, and feasted in their sight. -But the Mongols, directing all their energy at a single point, -soon battered down a portion of the <a id='corr202_23'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='well'>wall</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_202_23'><ins class='correction' title='well'>wall</ins></a></span>, set fire to the buildings -with fire arrows, and with scaling ladders effected an entrance. -The commandant hanged himself, and 4,700 of the -garrison were put to the sword. All children above ten years -old were killed and all the women were ravished.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Ya Gol-dă, being at To-san in Whang-ha Province, -received a plaintive letter from the king asking him to retire -from the country. He told the bearer of this missive “The -Emperor says the king is too old to bow. I am going to find -out whether this is true. I will give him just six <a id='corr202_32'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='day'>days</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_202_32'><ins class='correction' title='day'>days</ins></a></span> to get -here.” The messenger argued the dangerous condition of the -road and said it could not be done in that time. Then the -Mongol forces turned <a id='corr202_35'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='earstward'>eastward</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_202_35'><ins class='correction' title='earstward'>eastward</ins></a></span> and began to destroy the fortresses -and loot the store-houses, at the same time sending to -the king saying “If every prefect in the land will send in a -written surrender I will retire.” This was impossible in the -present state of turmoil, and it probably was a mere pleasantry -on the part of the Mongols.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>The town of Ch‘un-ch‘ŭn was a rather formidable place -and its siege and fall offer some interesting indications of the -method of Mongol warfare. First a double fence or stockade -was built around the town and outside this a bank six feet -high and a ditch correspondingly deep. Ere long the supply -of water in the town gave out and the people killed their cattle -and drank the blood. The distress was terrible. Cho -Hyo-ip, a leading man, seeing that there was no escape, first -burned up his family and then killed himself. The prefect -fought until he was exhausted and then threw himself into a -burning house and perished. A party of the strongest of the -remaining soldiers made a fierce attack upon one portion of -the stockade and succeeded in breaking through, but they could -not force the bank and trench beyond. The enemy entered, -razed the town and burned the grain, and the women were -carried away. During this time the king was using the only -means left for turning the tide of war. He was worshipping -every spirit that he could think of, and before every large -boulder. He raised all his ancestors several rounds in the -ladder of apotheosis; but it all seemed to have little effect upon -the progress of events. Another renegade, Yi Hyŭn, arose in -the north and forced many districts into his following.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the course of time Gen. Ya Gol-dă arrived before the -town of Ch‘ung-ju in Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng Province, but being unable -to reduce it without a regular siege, he left his main army -there and came north to the vicinity of Kang-wha. He then -announced, “If the King will come out and meet me here I -will take my forces back across the Yalu.” With this message -he sent ten Mongol generals to the king. The latter complied, -and with a heavy guard came across the straits and met Ya Gol-dă -at Seung-ch‘ŭn-bu. Gen. Mong Go-dă was present with Ya -Gol-dă at the interview which followed. The Mongol general -said “After we crossed the Yalu into Koryŭ, thousands of -your people fell every day. Why should you think only of -your own comfort while your people are dying thus by tens -of thousands? If you had consented to come out sooner, -many lives would have been saved. We now ought to make -a firm treaty.” He added that Mongol prefects must be -placed in each district and that a force of ten thousand in all -must be quartered upon Koryŭ. To this the king replied that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>with such conditions it would be extremely difficult for him -to return to Song-do. In spite of this the Mongol leader -placed one of his men in each of the prefectures. The only -question which was discussed in the royal councils was how -to get rid of the Mongols. One man dared to suggest that the -Crown Prince be sent to intercede with the emperor. The -king flew into a rage at this but soon he was so far mollified as -to consent to sending his second son, Chang, with rich gifts -to the Mongol court, a course of procedure which once more -drained the royal coffers to the last farthing. The king had -promised the Mongols to go back to Song-do “gradually” as -fast as preparations could be made, and also to destroy the -palaces in Kang-wha. The Mongols kept their word and retired -but as they went they plundered and ravaged. When -they had gone the king caught the renegade Yi Hyŭn and killed -him and his son, and banished all his adherents. This was a -dangerous course, for this man had acted as guide to the -Mongols and the latter were more than likely to resent his -death. So it turned out, for an envoy came post from the -Mongol court complaining that only the king alone had come -out from Kang-wha, and that a man who had helped the -Mongols had been slain for it. Whether the king answered -these complaints satisfactorily we do not know, but soon the -emperor developed a new plan. He sent Gen. Cha Ra-dă -with 5,000 troops to become governor-general of Koryŭ. The -emperor little knew what sort of a man he was letting loose -upon Koryŭ. No sooner had this beast in human shape crossed -the frontier than he began a systematic course of extermination. -He killed right and left, every living thing. The king -hastened to remonstrate but he answered “Unless all the people -have their hair cut I shall continue to kill.” The records say -that he carried into captivity the enormous number of 206,800 -souls, both men and women, and that of the dead he left behind -no estimate was ever made. When the emperor heard of -this, even his fierce heart was touched, and the next year, -1255, he recalled the monster. The latter obeyed but on his -way north he built fortified camps along the way, for future use.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In spite of the thanks which the Koryŭ king sent to the -emperor for this deliverance, the latter allowed this same -general to come back with a powerful force, and accompanied -<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>by the same former envoy, Sun, who had married the Mongol -princess. The king had to go out and meet them and waste -his remaining treasure in useless presents. So thoroughly -was his exchequer depleted that his own table was but ill -supplied.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The two countries were now nominally at peace, but as -Gen. Cha seemed bent on fighting, there seemed to be nothing -to do but to fight. Some of his soldiers were roughly -handled at Chung-ju where a thousand were killed. Again -in the east a large detachment of his troops were heavily -defeated.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At last Gen. Cha came, in his sanguinary wanderings, -to the vicinity of Kang-wha and displayed his banners in -sight of that island, to the great uneasiness of its occupants. -Sun, the renegade, was now a Mongol general and was as -bitter against Koryŭ; as any of the northern savages.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king, in despair, sent Kim Su-gan to the emperor -to make a last appeal to his clemency, but the emperor -replied “I cannot recall my troops, for your king will not -come out from his retreat”. To this the envoy made the -beautiful reply, “The frightened quarry will not come forth -from its hole till the hunter has departed. The flower cannot -spring from the frozen sod”. Upon hearing this the emperor -immediately gave orders for the recall of the ruthless Gen. -Cha.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ch‘oe Hang the son of Ch‘oe U, had held the position -of viceroy for eight years. His course had been one of utter -selfishness and oppression. Many honorable men had met -their death at his hands. He now died, leaving a son, Ch‘oe -Chung, a young man of considerable power. When the viceroy -died his retainers did not announce the fact until the household -had been put in readiness for any emergency and a -strong armed guard had been stationed at every approach. -We can argue from this fact that the viceroyalty was anything -but pleasing to the king and that in case the viceroy -died the king would be glad of an opportunity to abolish the -office altogether. Subsequent events proved the truth of this -supposition. When everything was in readiness the death -was announced and the young man Ch‘oe Chung was put forward -as viceroy. The king was obliged to confirm him in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>the office. He had no power to refuse. Ch‘oe Jung was a -son by a concubine and from this time the annals contain no -mention of men’s birth on the mother’s side. This was because -Ch‘oe Jung killed everybody who was heard speaking -slightingly of his birth. If anyone had a spite against another -he could always effectually vent it by charging him -with having said that Ch’oe Chung was of common birth.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Disaster and distress followed each other thick and fast -in these days. An insurrection arose in Kang-wŭn Province -under the leadership of one An Yul, but was put down. A -famine wasted the country and the poor were fed out of the -government supplies. The Mongols though nominally at -peace with Koryŭ seemed to consider the territory as their -legitimate foraging ground, and now they came walking -through the land, coming even to the gates of Song-do. The -king sent Gen. Yi Eung and feasted the unwelcome guests -in the hope of inducing them to leave the unhappy country. -It was a vain hope. They turned southward and continued -their thieving across the Han River even to Chik-san. The -king feasted them again and asked them to desist. The -leader replied that he would do so if the king would come -out of Kang-wha and send the Crown Prince to the Mongol -court. As this leader was that same Gen. Cha who had once -been recalled by the emperor for cruelty, we may easily understand -how anxious the king was to be rid of him, at any -cost. He therefore consented to the conditions, and Gen. -Cha retired as far as Yŭn-ju and ordered all the detachments -of his army to desist from plundering. The king kept his -word, in part at least, for he sent not the Crown Prince but -his second son together with Ch’oe Chung.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ch’oe Chung used his wits for the purpose of personal -emolument and his credulity also led him into all kinds of -difficulties. His grand mistake was in casting off an aged -slave, Kim In-jun, who had served his father and grandfather -faithfully and deserved better treatment at the young -man’s hands. The worm, thus trodden upon, turned and bit -to the bone. It was as follows. The aged servant, gaining -access to the king, told him that the young viceroy was dead -and in a moment secured another man as leader of the soldiers. -Clad with his new power the vengeful old man caught -<span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>and killed some of the most intimate friends of the viceroy -and in the early morning gained access to the viceroy’s house -and hunted him from room to room. He found him hidden -in a disused chimney flue from which he was speedily drawn -forth and dispatched. When the old slave announced this to -the king the latter said “You have done me a great favor”, -and could hardly refrain from tears. The king then destroyed -the picture of Ch’oe Chung-heun who had founded the viceroyalty, -and distributed the ill-gotten wealth of the Ch’oe -family among the people. It is said that even the lowest citizen -received at least three bags of rice or other grain. At -the same time all Ch’oe’s following were banished.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 1258 had now come, the last that the aged king -Ko-jang was destined to see. In this year the Mongols came -again as usual. They began by building and garrisoning -a fortress at Eui-ju. Then Gen. Cha Ra-dă with a small -body of a thousand troops came southwards as far as Su-an in -Whang-hă Province. It shows how utterly shorn of power -Koryŭ was, that this general should dare to penetrate so far -into the land with only a thousand men at his back. Hearing -of this the aged king decided to try a little artifice. He -came out of Kang-wha, across the straits to Tong-jin on the -opposite bank, in order to make it appear that he had complied -with the emperor’s command. Gen. Cha demanded -that the crown prince also come out. He made a line of -camps all the way from Song-do to Tong-jin and settled down -as if he intended to stay and see his orders obeyed. The king -had retired to the island again upon the near approach of the -Mongols and now the latter redoubled their demands and -ravaged more remorselessly than ever. They swarmed all -about Kang-wha and nothing but a narrow strip of water lay -between the king and that more than half savage army. The -water proved, however, an effective barrier. All this time another -Mongol force under Gen. San Gil-dă was wasting the -northern and eastern districts, The people of Wha-ju and of -fourteen other towns, led by one Sin Chip-pyŭng sought refuge -on Cho-do island but finding this insecure, moved to another; -but some Koryŭ renegades led Mongol troops there and overthrew -the little colony.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king now altered his tactics. Sending an envoy to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>China he said “I have desired to obey the emperor but -hitherto I have been prevented by the powerful officials. -Now that the viceroy has been put out of the way I will go -back to Song-do and do as you shall direct. But we are -surrounded by your soldiery and it is hard to move. We are -like mice when the cat is about. Let them be ordered back -home and I will do as you direct.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile two traitors in the north had overpowered -the Koryŭ general and had gone over to the enemy. The -whole north was therefore without a single defence and was -being held by these two traitors under Mongol orders. Such -was the unhappy condition of affairs when the year 1258 -came to a close.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter VII.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The Mongols a fixture.... a royal envoy.... his reception.... palaces on -Kang-wha destroyed.... the regency.... Mongol troops ordered away.... -standing complaint.... a singular custom.... pirates.... the -prince finds Kublai Khan.... the prince returns to Korea.... Mongol -policy conciliatory.... again suspicious.... tribute remitted.... king -goes to China.... Sun silenced.... Chinese envoys to Japan.... accompanied -by Korean envoys.... Kublai’s message to Japan.... -specified charges against Koryu.... Mongol general murdered.... -envoys to Japan shabbily treated.... Kublai orders Koryu to aid in -the invasion of Japan.... Kim Ehun destroyed.... Japanese captives -sent to Peking.... revolution.... the emperor threatens.... king reinstated.... -king goes to China.... his requests.... returns.... sedition.... -preparations to invade Japan.... officials’ wives restored.... -a remarkable commissioner.... Kublai proclaims the Yuan empire.... -Japanese envoy.... rebellion on Quelpart.... finances in bad -shape.... Koryu falsely accused.... rebellion stamped out.... Koreans -build boats for the Mongols.... the army of invasion.... the expedition -sets sail.... attack.... driven back by storms.... the king’s -Mongol queen.... Mongol coiffure and dress.... argument for plurality -of wives.... women’s rights.... another envoy to Japan.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The year 1259 opened with the sending of an envoy to -China but he was waylaid, robbed and killed by Koryŭ -ruffians; thus Koryŭ was ever discredited in the eyes of -China. The Mongols now began to make fields about P‘yŭng-yang -with the intention of making that city a permanent -Mongol center. They repaired the walls of the town and -constructed new war boats on the river.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>The king came to the decision that there was no possibility -of ridding himself of this incubus but by sending the -crown prince to China. When Gen. Cha Ra-dă heard of -this he was highly pleased. Of course it would appear that -he had brought about this happy result. This was in the -third moon and Gen. Cha expected the arrival of the prince -the following month. When he heard that he was not to -start till the fourth moon he was angry; the king therefore -hurried the preparations and sent the prince off in the third -moon. The escort consisted of forty men, and there were -three hundred horse-loads of gifts. In good time all arrived at -the court of the Mongol emperor. Gen. Cha however did not -enjoy his triumph, for at this very time he sickened and died.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the prince arrived at the Chinese court the emperor -was away on a <a id='corr209_15'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='compaign'>campaign</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_209_15'><ins class='correction' title='compaign'>campaign</ins></a></span> against the Sung Empire in the -south; so he announced himself to the official in charge at -the capital, Song Kil. The latter asked if the king had as -yet gone back to Song-do, to which the prince replied in the -negative, but added that the king would go as soon as possible -if the emperor demanded it. Song Kil rejoined “How -can we recall the soldiers so long as the king does not leave -Kang-wha?” The Prince replied “Gen. Cha said that if I -came the troops would be recalled. If they are not recalled -the people will have no hope except in flight.” When Song -Kil heard this he countermanded an order which had been -given for additional troops to be sent into the peninsula. -Word was sent, instead, ordering the destruction of the -palaces on Kang-wha. The order was obeyed and it is said -that the fall of the buildings sounded like distant thunder. -But the aged king who had suffered so many vicissitudes of -fortune was not to survive this great shame, and in the summer -of 1259 he passed away.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Koryŭ was now without a king and the crown prince -was far away in China. It was decided to form a regency <a id='corr209_35'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='to to'>to</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_209_35'><ins class='correction' title='to to'>to</ins></a></span> -act until the return of the prince. At first it was conferred -upon the second son of the deceased king but the officials, remembering that -the dying king had said “Put my grandson -in as regent until the prince returns”, made the change, and -the crown prince’s son, Sun, became regent pending his -father’s return.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>As the Mongol troops continued their depredations in -the north an envoy was again dispatched to the emperor’s -court. As the latter was still away campaigning in the south -the envoy made bold to follow him up. He passed Chŭk-san -and finally found the emperor at Hyŭp-ju and delivered his -message. The emperor said “If you profess to be friendly -with me why are you always talking about my troops being -in the way? Yet since the crown prince has come to China -I am willing to show you this favor”. He thereupon sent -an order for the retirement of all Mongol troops from Korea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Some busybody told the emperor that Koryŭ had no -desire to hold faith with China and in consequence an envoy -came in haste to Song-do demanding why the people who had -fled to the islands did not return to their homes. The reply -was that the detention of the prince in China was a cause of -uneasiness and that even if he returned it would take at -least three years to get the people back to their homes; how -much less could it be done with the prince in China. This -then became the standing complaint of the Mongols, that the -Korean people would not come back to the mainland.</p> - -<p class='c000'>By this time the uncertainty of affairs and the fact that -the central government was weak and the Mongols still -numerous caused great instability in the north. The people -were easily induced to revolt on the slightest provocation. -It became a regular custom for the people, if they did not -like their prefect, to kill him and transfer their allegiance to -the Mongols. The central government did not dare to punish -them, for this would provoke the Mongols, and reprisals -would be in order. At the same time there was trouble in -the south, for pirates from both Japan and the Sung kingdom -of southern China kept ravaging the island of Quelpart. An -official was sent from Song-do to take in hand the defense of -the island but the people found him worse than the pirates -had been.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in 1260 that the crown prince followed the emperor -southward, but soon after reaching the emperor’s -camp the latter died in the town of Hap-ju and Gen. A-ri -Pal-ga took the reins of power arbitrarily. The prince knew -that the great general Hol-p‘il-ryŭl (Kublai) would doubtless -become emperor in spite of this seditious movement on the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>part of A-ri Pal-ga; so he secretly effected his escape from -the latter’s camp and struck directly across the country to -Kang-nam where he found Hol-p‘il-ryŭl in charge of an army, -and, informing him of the emperor’s decease, they both -hastened toward Peking. It was not till the crown prince -returned to Peking that he learned of his father’s death and -he hastened to assume the mourner’s garb.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor, Kublai Khan, sent him back to Koryŭ -with great honor, believing that, as he was to become king of -Koryŭ, the vassal power would thus become more closely -united to China. Two Mongol generals came with him as -escort. These were Sok Yi-kă and Kang Wha-sang. On -the way these generals were told by a Koryŭ renegade that -the crown prince would change the capital to Quelpart. -They asked the prince to face this man and deny the charge -but he assumed a royal attitude and exclaimed “I would cut -off my hair and become a slave before I would meet the villain”. -The generals were ashamed to press the matter. As -they approached Kang-wha the prince’s son, the acting king -came with a great retinue to meet them at Che-jung Harbor, -where they all took boat and crossed to the island. As the -Mongol generals strongly urged the king to go back to Song-do, -the latter sent many of the officials back there in order to -make it appear as if he would follow shortly. All Mongol -soldiers were now recalled from Koryŭ and all their prefects -as well. The emperor likewise gave the king a present of -seals, clothing, bows, arrows, silks and other articles of value. -The king so far conceded to the wishes of his suzerain as to -remove from Kang-wha to Tong-jin on the adjacent mainland, -from which, however, it was but half an hour’s sail across to -the island again. In addition to this the king sent the heir -apparent to China with gifts, of which, in view of the depletion -of Koryŭ’s treasury, the officials gave the greater part -out of their private means. The main request preferred at -Kublai’s court was that he would not listen longer to the representations -of Koryŭ renegades whose one object was to -stir up strife and keep the countries at war with each other. -The emperor assented to this.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1261 the emperor made a requisition upon Koryŭ for -a large amount of copper and lead. The king did not have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>the copper and yet did not dare to refuse; so he sent to A-t‘o -in China and bought copper and delivered it as ordered, but -told how he had procured it. The emperor charged him with -lying and claimed that he was remiss in her duties as a -vassal. He moreover ordered that the king take a census of -Koryŭ, establish a horse relay system, train soldiers and -prepare provisions for an army. The king was unable to -comply and an estrangement grew up between him and the -emperor which was unfortunate for both. Hong Ta-gu, a -Koryŭ renegade, took advantage of this to charge the Koryŭ -prince, who was then in Peking, with having insulted the -Mongol crown prince. The emperor believed the charge -and cut off the Koryŭ prince’s revenues and treated him with -marked coldness. Hong also poisoned the emperor toward -Koryŭ by intimating that she would soon attempt to throw -off the yoke of China. But by the following year the relations -seem to have become cordial again, for when the king -asked that the tribute be remitted on the ground of the -heavy expense of rebuilding palaces at Song-do, the emperor -not only consented but sent a present of 500 sheep. Koryŭ -was also fortunate in the sending of an envoy to Japan, for -he returned with a large amount of rice and cloth from -Tsushima, which had been stolen by Japanese corsairs.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1263 the king was ordered to repair to Peking. A long -discussion followed, some of the courtiers advising one thing -and some another. The monks at this time said, in effect, “I -told you so”, for they had long ago promised the king that if -he would favor them he would not be called to Peking. But -go he did, leaving his son to administer the kingdom in his -absence. Sun, whom we will remember as the Koryŭ gentleman -who had married a Mongol princess and who was thoroughly -Mongolized, told the emperor that there were 38,000 -troops in Koryŭ and that someone should go and bring them -to China where they could act as allies for the Mongols in -their conquests. To this Yi Chang-yung, who was in the -king’s retinue, answered. “Formerly we had that number -of soldiers but many have died and few are left. If the -emperor cannot believe this let him send Sun with me to Koryŭ -and we will review all the troops and learn the truth.” -This was a telling blow, for Sun knew that if he once crossed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>into Koryŭ territory his life would not be worth an hour’s -ransom; so he discreetly held his peace. The king came -back to Song-do in December of the same year.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1264 the Japanese pirates made another descent upon -the shores of southern Koryŭ but were driven away by the -royal forces under Gen. An Hong.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1265 the seed was sown that led to the attempted -invasion of Japan by the Mongols. A Koryŭ citizen, Cho I, -found his way to Peking and there, having gained the ear of -the emperor, told him that the Mongol power ought to -secure the vassalage of Japan. The emperor listened favorable -and determined to make advances in that direction. He -therefore appointed Heuk Chŭk and Eun Hong as envoys to -Japan and ordered them to go by way of Koryŭ and take -with them to Japan a Koryŭ envoy as well. Arriving in -Koryŭ they delivered this message to the king and two -officials, Son Kun-bi and Kim Ch‘an were appointed to accompany -them to Japan. They proceeded by the way of Kö-je -Harbor in Kyŭng-sang Province but were driven back by a -fierce storm and the king sent the Mongol envoys back to -Peking. The Emperor was ill satisfied with the outcome of -the adventure and sent Heuk Chŭk with a letter to the king -ordering him to forward the Mongol envoy to Japan. The -message which he was to deliver to the ruler of Japan said -“The Mongol power is kindly disposed toward you and -desires to open friendly intercourse with you. She does not -desire your submission but if you accept her patronage the -great Mongol empire will cover the earth.” The king forwarded -the message with the envoys to Japan, and informed -the emperor of the fact.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile the emperor was being worked upon by -designing men who were seeking to injure Koryŭ. They succeeded -so well in their designs that he sent an envoy bearing -a list of specified charges against the king. (1) You have -enticed Mongol people to Koryŭ. (2) You did not feed our -troops when they were in Koryŭ. (3) You persistently refuse -to come back to the capital. (4) When our envoy went -to Koryŭ you had a spy watch him. (5) Your tribute has not -been at all equal to the demand we made. (6) You brought it -about that the Japanese did not accept our offer. The emperor’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>suspicions continued to increase until finally he sent a general, -U-ya Son-dal, to demand that Yi Chang-yong and Kim Chun, -two of the most influential officials of Koryŭ, together with the -father and son of the latter, be brought to Peking. Kim Chun, -on learning of this, advised that the envoy be promptly killed -and that the king remain in some island, out of harm’s way. -But the king knew that such a course would be suicidal and -firmly refused. So Kim Chun himself put Gen. U-ya Son-dal -to death and then announced the fact to the court. The king -and court were dumbfounded at his temerity but dared not lay -hands on him, though they all felt sure they would suffer for -his rash act. Fortunately for them, however, other events of -great importance were happening which distracted the attention -of the emperor and secured immunity from punishment. -These events we must now relate.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Mongol and Koryŭ envoys, upon reaching the Japanese -capital, were treated with marked disrespect. They were -not allowed to enter the gates, but were lodged at a place called -T‘ă-jă-bu, outside the west gate of the city. There they -remained five months, and their entertainment was of the -poorest quality. And at last they were dismissed without receiving -any answer either to the emperor or to the king.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Kublai Khan was not the kind of a man to relish this sort -of treatment and when he heard the story he sent a messenger -straight to Koryŭ telling the king “I have decided to invade -Japan. You must immediately begin the building of one thousand -boats. You must furnish four thousand bags of rice and -a contingent of 40,000 troops.” The king replied that this -was beyond his power, for so many of the people had run away -that workmen could not be secured in sufficient numbers. -The emperor, however, was resolute and soon sent an envoy -to see if his orders were being carried out, and to make a survey -of the straits between Koryŭ and Japan, in the vicinity of -Heuk-san Island. The emperor could scarcely believe that -the Japanese would dare to treat his envoy so disrespectfully -as had been reported and he suspected that it was some sort -of ruse that the king of Koryŭ had been playing on him; so -he decided to send his envoy Heuk Chŭk once more to Japan. -This time also he was accompanied by a Koryŭ envoy, Sim Sa-jŭn.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>Meantime Kim Chun finding that his foul murder of the -Mongol envoy went unpunished, became prouder and more -headstrong. His son stole two boatloads of vegetables intended -for the king’s own table. This roused the ire of the king. -Kim Chun might kill all the Mongol envoys he wished but when -it came to stealing from the king’s table something must be -done. There was only one official, Im Yun, who hated Kim -Chun worse than he feared him and the king selected this man -for the work in hand. Sending away all the other officials to -a neighboring monastery to sacrifice to Buddha for his health, -he summoned Kim Chun and, when he had him at his mercy, -let Im Yun fall upon him with a club and take his life. Kim -Chun’s brother likewise fell the same day and the household of -the offender was broken up. The usual impotence of the king -was illustrated here by the very trick to which he was forced -in order to rid himself of his traitorous subject.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The spring of 1268 opened, and still the envoys had not -returned from Japan. The Koryŭ people managed to capture -some Japanese from Tsushima who had come near the Korean -coast. They were sent to Peking together with an envoy. -The emperor was delighted, showed the captives all over the -palace and reviewed the army before them. After showing -them all the grandeur of the Mongol court, he sent them back -to tell their king about it and to urge him to make friends -with the great Yuan empire. This same year the crown -prince went to the Mongol court.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Im Yun, whom the king had used as an instrument for -the removal of the obnoxious Kim Chun, did not intend to go -without his reward. He began to plan how he might become -a king-maker himself. He desired to depose the king and put -another in his place who would be quite subservient to himself. -To this end he began to banish those who might oppose -him in this scheme, and at last when he had cleared the way -and deemed the time ripe, he surrounded himself with a powerful -guard and called all the officials to a council. He told them -that the king desired to kill him, but rather than die tamely -he was resolved to do something desperate. He asked them -if they agreed, but no man dared to open his mouth. Then -putting on his armor he led the way to the palace and proclaimed -Chang as king. This Chang was a distant relative of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>the king. He also made all the officials bow to him. The records -say that this deed was accompanied by a tremendous -storm of rain in which the deposed king was driven forth on -foot. Im Yun and his lewd followers then proceeded to loot -the palace.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The parvenu Chang, at the instance of Im Yun sent an -envoy to the Mongol court saying that the king had handed -over the reins of government to him. The king’s son, who -had gone but lately to the Chinese court, was now on his way -home. He arrived at night on the farther bank of the Yalu -River and was there met by a secret messenger who had crossed -in the dark to tell him that Chang had usurped the throne -and that soldiers had been stationed at Eui-ju to kill him -when he arrived. So the Prince turned and hastened back to -the emperor and a letter was immediately dispatched demanding -the reinstatement of the rightful sovereign. After two -such appeals had remained unanswered the emperor threatened -to send an army to enforce the demand. The officials thereupon -became afraid and reluctantly put the rightful king back -upon his throne. The emperor then ordered both the king -and the man who had deposed him to go to China in order -that the matter might be investigated. The king went but -Im Yun refused and sent his son instead. The emperor ordered -the king to write out the cause of the trouble but the -latter feared that if he did so it would make trouble for him -when he went back, for Im Yun was a powerful and unscrupulous -man. He therefore told the emperor that he was -troubled with a lame hand that prevented his writing. Later -however, in private, he made the matter bare before the emperor -and as a consequence Im Yun’s son was thrown into -prison. Before returning to Koryŭ the king asked the emperor -to bestow upon his son, the crown prince, the hand of -one of the Mongol princesses, to give him a Mongol escort -back to Koryŭ, to place a Mongol governor at P‘yŭng-yang -and to return to the control of Koryŭ the northern districts of -the peninsula. The emperor consented to all but the last of -these requests. When the king came back to Song-do, Im -Yun attempted to oppose him but was speedily put down and -decapitated.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Arriving at the capital the king went into camp outside -<span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>the walls to await the completion of the palace which was in -course of construction. The troops oppressed the people, and -when the king ordered them to disband they marched out in a -body and went by boat to Chŭl-la Province and began to act -in a rebellious manner. A royal army, sent against them, -chased them into the island of Chin-do where they forced the -people to join their standards. Mongol and Koryŭ troops -were sent against them, but the people hated the Mongols so -heartily that this rather added to the difficulty than otherwise, -and the disaffection, spreading with increased rapidity, began -to assume serious proportions. The emperor learned of this -and, believing that the king was hardly equal to the task of -managing the affairs of the government, sent a commissioner -to assume control at Song-do.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Matters stood thus when in 1270 the emperor determined -to send another envoy to Japan. Cho Yong-p‘il and Hong -Ta-gu were appointed to this important mission and they were -joined in Koryŭ by the representative of that country, by -name Yang Yun-so. This embassy was charged with the -somewhat dangerous task of demanding the submission of Japan. -The emperor did not anticipate success in this, as is -shown by the fact that he had rice fields made in Pong-san, -Koryŭ, to raise rice for an army of invasion which he intended -to launch upon Japan. For this work he ordered the king -to furnish 6000 plows and oxen, as well as seed grain. The -king protested that this was quite beyond his power, but as -the emperor insisted he sent through the country and by force -or persuasion obtained a fraction of the number demanded. -The emperor aided by sending 10,000 pieces of silk. The Koryŭ -army had dwindled to such a point that butchers and slaves -were enrolled in the lists. The rebel army had been driven -out of Chin-do, but a remnant had crossed over to Quelpart -where the kingdom of T‘am-na still flourished. Many of -these rebels had been captured on Chin-do and had been taken -as captives to China. Now at the request of the king they -were sent back to Song-do for punishment. A curious complication -arose in connection with this. These rebels, when -they first went to Kang-wha had stolen the wives of many of -the officials there and had carried them south. These women -accompanied their newly acquired husbands to China; but -<span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>now that they were all returned to Song-do many of them -again met their former husbands. Some were received back -gladly while others were not wanted, owing to new arrangements -which were quite satisfactory. But the king commanded -that all officials who found their former wives should take -them back.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor, influenced by evil-minded men who exaggerated -the wealth of the peninsula, demanded that Koryŭ -send a large amount of timber to China, but the king answered -that he could not accomplish impossibilities. The commissioner -who had been sent was a capable man and was well liked by -the people in spite of his Mongol nationality. The commissioner -fell ill and was fast approaching his end. The king -sent him some medicine but he refused to take it, saying that -if he took it and yet died the emperor might charge the king -with having made away with him by poison. So the disease -ran its course and the commissioner expired amid the lamentations -of the people. Their appreciation of this Mongol’s -kindness shows how badly they were accustomed to being -governed. Their high appreciation of his mild and just government -overcame even their prejudice against his birth.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in this same year that Kublai Khan proclaimed the -name of his empire Yuan.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the Mongol and Koryŭ envoys returned from Japan -they were accompanied by a Japanese envoy. The king hurried -them on to Peking where they were received by the emperor -with great delight, who hoped that he had now gained -his point. But he did not relax his preparations for an invasion, -for he commanded the king to hasten the construction -of boats and the collection of provisions. Everything however -was hindered by the rebels on Quelpart who built there a strong -fortress and made it a center from which to harry the southern -islands and even parts of the mainland. The exchequer was -exhausted and the people could not endure further taxation. -Many of them fled from their homes to escape the exactions -of the government. It is said that one day the king himself -had to get along without any side dishes or condiments.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The land seemed doomed to misfortune. A marauding -party of Japanese landed at Keum-ju and the people, in fear -of their lives, treated them well and gave them whatever they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>asked for. This the renegade Hong Ta-gu told the emperor -with embellishments of his own and averred that Koryŭ was -making friends with Japan with a view to an invasion of -China. The action of the people of Keum-ju made this seem -probable. This fed the emperor’s suspicions of Koryŭ’s bad -faith and added materially to the overwhelming difficulties -under which the land was already staggering.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The matter of the Quelpart rebels came to an issue when -they began ravaging the coast of Chŭl-la Province, burning -at one place between twenty and thirty ships and carrying -away a number of Mongol soldiers as prisoners. The following -spring a strong body of Mongol and Koryŭ troops crossed -to Quelpart, overthrew the stronghold of the rebels and placed -there a garrison of 500 Mongol and 1000 Koryŭ troops.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The eventful year 1273 opened with a vigorous demand -on the part of the emperor that the king prepare 300 vessels, -for which he was to supply not only the labor but the materials -as well. At the same time the vanguard of the army of -invasion, 5000 strong, came to Koryŭ, perhaps to see that the -commands of the emperor were promptly complied with. -They brought 33,000 pieces of silk to use in purchasing supplies -for their maintenance. Silk was the very last thing that -the poverty-stricken people of Koryŭ wanted, but it was forced -upon them and they had to buy whether they wished or not. -The king in attempted obedience to the Emperor’s demands -assembled 3500 carpenters and other artisans necessary to the -building of the boats, and the work was begun.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Mongol governor who had been placed at P‘yŭng-yang -was a man of dark and fierce aspect and he was universally -feared and hated. He also demanded the society of the -fair sex and seized women right and left. Famine stared -the capital in the face and the emperor was obliged to send -20,000 bags of rice to relieve the distress. In spite of the -inauspiciousness of the times the crown prince who had been -plighted to a Mongol princess was sent to Peking where the -nuptials were celebrated. No sooner had this been done than -the emperor sent to Koryŭ the main body of the army which -was to cross the straits and attack Japan. It consisted of -25,000 men. Thus slightingly did the great conqueror gauge -the prowess of the Island Empire.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>King Wŭn-jong died while the prince was in China and -the emperor hastened to confer upon the latter the insignia -of royalty and send him back to take charge of affairs at -home. This prince’s name was Ko, posthumous title Ch‘ung-ryŭl. -The princess, his wife, did not accompany him to Koryŭ -at first but waited to follow at leisure. When the young -king arrived at Song-do has first act was to send an escort to -bring his Mongol queen to him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The events above recorded had followed thick and fast -upon each other and now the great and long contemplated invasion -of Japan was about to become an accomplished fact. -The entire army of invasion rendezvoused on the southeastern -coast of Korea, opposite the islands of Japan. It consisted of -25,000 Mongol troops under Generals Hol Ton, Hong Ta-gu -and Yu Pok-hyöng; and 15,000 Koryŭ troops under Gen. -Kim Pang-gyŭng. The flotilla that was to carry this army -across the straits consisted of 900 boats. Sailing from the -shores of Korea the fleet made for the island of Iki near the -mainland of Japan. Entering the harbor of Sam-nang they -found a small garrison stationed there. Generals Kim and -Hong attacked and routed this outpost, returning to the fleet, -it is said, with 1000 heads. From this point they approached -the mainland, landing at several points for the purpose of -making a general advance into the country. The Japanese -however attacked them briskly and checked the advance, but -were themselves checked by a Koryŭ General, Pak, whom the -Mongols praised highly for his valor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was a foregone conclusion that the allied Koryŭ and -Mongol forces must retire sooner or later. Forty thousand -men could do nothing on the Japanese mainland. So they -retired slowly back to their boats. Nature aided the Japanese, -for a storm arose which wrecked many of the boats and many -more were scattered, so that the total loss to the allied forces -was something over 13000. The scattered remnants of the -fleet rendezvoused as best they could at the harbor of Hap -and from there made their way back to Koryŭ. So ended the -first attempt to subdue the Land of the Rising Sun.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile events were not at a standstill in the peninsula. -The king went as far as P‘yŭng-yang to meet his bride. -Escorting her back to the capital he gave her a palace of her -<span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>own, fitted up according to her fancy. The records say that -she had sheep skins hanging in the doorways. This would -probably be in accord with Mongol ideas. The former Queen -was lowered to the position of second wife or concubine. -The Mongolizing tendency had now gone so far that the king -ordered the officials to adopt the Mongol coiffure. The order -was not obeyed until after long and heated debate, but at last -the conservatives were voted down and all submitted to the new -style. At the same time the Mongol dress was also adopted.</p> - -<p class='c000'>An amusing incident is reported as having occurred -about this time. A courtier named Pa-gyu observed to the -king, “The male population of the country has been decimated -but there are still plenty of women. For this reason it is -that the Mongols take so many of them. There is danger -that the pure Koryŭ stock will become vitiated by the intermixture -of wild blood. The king should let each man take -several wives and should remove the restrictions under which -the sons of concubines labor.” When the news of this came -to the ears of the women they were up in arms, as least the -married portion; and each one read to her spouse such a lecture -that the subject was soon dropped as being too warm to -handle. When the king passed through the streets with -Pa-gyu in his retinue the women would point to the latter -and say “There goes the man who would make concubines of -us all.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In spite of the failure of the plan of invasion, the emperor -could not believe that Japan was serious in daring to -oppose his will and so sent another envoy demanding that -the Japanese sovereign come to Peking and do obeisance. -We may well imagine with what ridicule this proposition must -have been received in the capital of the hardy islanders.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter VIII.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>A Queen huntress.... general tax.... a jealous Queen.... tribute.... a -thrifty Queen.... lack of filial piety.... a termagant.... Mongol -influence at its zenith.... second invasion planned.... corrupt court.... -preparations for the invasion.... expedition sets sail.... difficulties -<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>.... terrible catastrophe.... survivors.... retreat.... new preparations.... -the plan given up.... corruption.... famine in China.... -northern cannibals.... at last driven back.... a son’s rebuke.... -Timur Khan makes changes.... king abdicates.... family difficulties.... -an abject king.... new slave law.... king goes to Peking.... -Ch‘ung-sŭn ascends the throne.... a disgusted courtier.... a kingless -country.... eunuchs elevated.... reconstruction.... king of Mukden.... -pander to the Mongol court.... king’s father banished.... -silver coin.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The sporting proclivities of the Mongol queen of Koryŭ -were an object of wonder and disgust to the people, for she -was accustomed to accompany the king in his expeditions and -was as good a horseman as any in the rout. It may well be -imagined that the finances of the country were in bad shape, -and it was found necessary to reconstruct the revenue laws -to meet the constantly recurring deficit. For the first time -in the history a general tax was levied on all the people, high -and low alike. Hitherto taxes had been levied only on the -better class of people. This tax was called the <em>hop‘o</em> which -means “house linen,” for the tax was levied in linen cloth. -This shows that although coin circulated, barter was as yet -the main method of interchange of commodities.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The custom of dressing in white must be a fairly ancient -one for we learn that at this time the government ordered -the use of blue instead of white, as blue is the color that corresponds -to east. The birth of a son to the king’s Mongol -consort was the signal for great rejoicings and festivities. -Everyone offered congratulations, even the discarded queen.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is said that the king paid some attention to this -former queen and that it aroused the fierce jealousy of the -Mongol queen. She declared that she would write and complain -to the emperor that she was being ill treated. She was -dissuaded from this by the earnest entreaties of the officials. -At the same time a further concession was made to the Mongolizing -tendency by changing the names of official grades to -those in use among the Mongols.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor had not given up his plan of subduing Japan, -and for this purpose he began the preparation of boats -in the south of Korea, calling upon the Koreans to supply all -the requisites. But this was not the only use to which he -put his Koryŭ vassal, for he also demanded women and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>pearls; the former were taken from the men and the latter -from the women; and both were sent to the Mongol court.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Mongol queen of Koryŭ was a thrifty woman and -let no small scruples stand in the way of the procuring of pin-money. -She took a golden pagoda from one of the monasteries -and melted it down. The bullion found a ready -market. She also went into the ginseng raising business on -her own account, taking people’s fields by force and marketed -the crop of ginseng in Nanking, where it brought a good -price. She thus turned an “honest” penny. But it all went -against the aristocratic tendencies of the king. That the -queen was not without a touch of superstition is shown by -the fact that she desisted from accompanying the king to the -grave of Wang-gön when told that the spirit of the founder -of the dynasty was a strong one and that if she went she might -be attacked by some dangerous disease.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When some one hinted to the queen that the former -queen was plotting against her life she promptly had her -seized and put to the torture, and it would have cost her her -life had not the officials interfered and won the inquisitors -over to clemency. But her oppression of the people went on -unchecked and she sequestered so much of their property that -hundreds of people were driven into actual mendicancy. -Even when news of her mother’s death reached her she stopped -feasting but a short time, to shed a few conventional -tears, and then resumed her revels. This was perhaps her -greatest offence in the eyes of the people of Koryŭ. But her -affection for her husband was very real for we learn that -when he was taken sick and she was told that it was on account -of her lavish use of money, she stopped building, sent -away her falcons and restored a gold pagoda to the monastery -from which she had taken it. She had ideas of her own as to -the proper treatment of women by the sterner sex, for when -the king preceded her in one of the processions she turned -back and refused to go. The king went back to pacify her -but she struck him with a rod and gave him a round scolding. -She was meanwhile doing a stroke of business in sea-otter -skins. She kept a large number of men hunting these valuable -animals, but when she found they were “squeezing” half -the catch she imprisoned the offenders.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>It was not till 1279 that all the officials, high and low, -military and civil, had adopted the Mongol coiffure and -dress. It was now that the Mongol influence was at its -zenith in the peninsula. In this year the whole royal family -made a journey to Peking and it was the signal for a grand -festival at that capital. It put an end once for all to the suspicions -entertained by the emperor relative to the loyalty of -the king of Koryŭ. The busybodies therefore found their -occupation gone. On their return the queen resumed building -operations, seized over 300 of the people’s houses and had -a thousand men at work erecting a palace.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile what of the Mongol envoy who had been sent -to Japan with his daring demand that the Japanese sovereign -go to Peking and do obeisance? He had been promptly killed, -as might have been anticipated. When the king sent -word to Peking that the emperor’s envoy had been killed, another -invasion was immediately decided upon; and the king -was charged with the duty of preparing 900 vessels to transport -a great army of invasion across the straits. The king -was hardly prepared for such an undertaking. He was -spending his time in revelry and debauchery. He called to -Song-do all the courtezans, sorceresses and female slaves and -had them join in singing obscene songs for the delectation of -his guests. His manner of life was in no sense worthy of his -position. It is not surprising therefore that famine found its -way to Koryŭ the following year, and the emperor had to -give aid to the extent of 20,000 bags of rice.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king wanted to lead the army of invasion, and so -the emperor called him to Peking to discuss the matter. But -Hong Ta-gu talked the emperor over and secured the post of -general-in-chief himself. He raised 40,000 regular troops -and another general raised 100,000 more among the vassal -tribes. The king advised that only the men from the dependent -tribes be sent, but that their number be increased. To -this the emperor did not consent, and soon the king came back -to his capital where he went to work preparing the 900 boats, -15,000 sailors and 10,000 bags of rice, together with many -other things that would be needed. The emperor sent Hong -to superintend these preparations and the king, being thrown -completely into the shade, could do nothing but obey orders. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>Hong was so obnoxious to the king that he requested the -emperor to remove him and let Gen. Kim Pang-gyŭng superintend -the work of preparation. To this consent was given.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i225.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>CARRYING GOLD ORE TO THE MILL.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>It was in the next year, 1282, that all the troops rendezvoused -at Hap-p‘o, now Ch‘ang-wŭn, and prepared to embark. -The king went down from the capital to review the whole -array. There were 1000 boats in all. Of Koryŭ soldiers -there were 20,070, of Mongols there were 50,000. The soldiers -from the dependent tribes, of which there were 100,000, -had not yet arrived. It is hard to say just who these 100,000 -men were. The records say they were from Kang-nam but -they are also designated by another character in the records -which would imply a different origin.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Then the whole flotilla sailed away to the conquest of -Japan. They made for Tă-myŭng Harbor where the first engagement -with the Japanese took place. At first the invaders -were victorious and 300 Japanese fell, but when the latter -were reinforced the Mongols drew back with great loss. The -allied forces then went into camp where it is said that 3000 of -the Mongols died of fever. Gen. Hong was very anxious -to retreat, but Gen. Kim said, “We started out with three -month’s rations and we have as yet been out but one month. -We cannot go back now. When the 100,000 contingent arrives -we will attack the Japanese again.” Soon the reinforcements -came.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The invading army now pulled itself together and sailed -for the mainland of Japan. As they approached it a storm arose -from the west and all the boats made for the entrance of the -harbor together. As it happened the tide was running in -very strong and the boats were carried along irresistibly in -its grip. As they converged to a focus at the mouth of the -harbor a terrible catastrophe occurred. The boats were jammed -in the offing and the bodies of men and the broken timbers -of the vessels were heaped together in a solid mass, so -that, the records tell us, a person could walk across from one -point of land to the other on the solid mass of wreckage. -The wrecked vessels contained the 100,000 men from the -dependent tribes, and all of them perished thus horribly, excepting -a few who managed to get ashore. These afterwards -told their story as follows: “We fled to the mountains and lay -<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>hidden there two months, but the Japanese came out and attacked -us. Being in a starving condition, we surrendered, -and those of us who were in fair condition were made slaves -and the rest were butchered.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In that great catastrophe 8,000 Koryŭ soldiers perished, -but the remaining Koryŭ and Mongol forces, beholding the -miserable end of the main body of the invading army, turned -their prows homeward and furled their sails only when they -entered a <a id='corr226_9'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Koyrŭ'>Koryŭ</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_226_9'><ins class='correction' title='Koyrŭ'>Koryŭ</ins></a></span> harbor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At first the emperor was determined to continue the attempt -to subdue the Japanese, and immediately sent and -ordered the king to prepare more boats and to furnish 3,000 -pounds of a substance called in the records <em>tak soé</em>. The -character <em>tak</em> means a kind of wood from whose pulp paper is -made, and the character for <em>soé</em> means metal, especially such -as is used in making money. Some have conjectured that -this refers to paper money, others that it simply meant some -metal.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A Koryŭ citizen, Yu Ju, advised the emperor to use only -Koryŭ troops and the men from Kang-nam in his next invasion -of Japan and to provide in advance 200,000 bags of rice in -the peninsula. The emperor thereupon ordered the king to -lay aside 40,000 bags with this end in view. The king -answered that if all his officials could get but ten thousand -bags, this greater number was surely out of the question. -So he was told to set aside as many as he could.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The following year, 1283, changed the emperor’s purpose. -He had time to hear the whole story of the sufferings -of his army in the last invasion; the impossibility of squeezing -anything more out of Koryŭ and the delicate condition -of home affairs united in causing him to give up the project -of conquering Japan, and he countermanded the order for the -building of boats and the storing of grain.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The record of the next few years is hardly worth writing. -The royal family went to Peking with 1,200 men as escort -and remained there six months. Returning, they spent their -time in trampling down good rice-fields in the pleasures of -the chase and in seeking ways and means of making government -monopolies of various important commodities, especially -salt. On a single hunting expedition 1,500 soldiers accompanied -<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>the royal party afield. The queen developed a strange -propensity for catching young women and sending them to -her people in Peking. A law was promulgated that before a -young man married he must notify the government. This -was done for the purpose of finding out where marriageable -girls lived so that they could be the more easily seized and -sent to China. One official cut off his daughter’s hair when -he found that she was to be sent to China. The king banished -him for this and beat the girl severely. It is said -that these girls upon arriving in China became wives, not -concubines.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1289 a famine in China resulted in a demand for -100,000 bags of rice from Koryŭ. The king was at his wits -end but by great exertion and self-sacrifice on the part of the -officials 60,000 bags were collected. They were sent by boat, -but 6000 were destroyed in a storm and 300 men were lost.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But now in 1290 a new element of danger appeared in -the shape of the wild tribe of T‘ap-dan across the northern -border who began to ravage the outlying Koryŭ towns. -When they had penetrated the country as far as Kil-ju the -king sent an army against them, but more than 20,000 came -swarming down from the north and seized two districts in -Ham-gyŭng Province. They ate the flesh of men and -dried the flesh of women for future consumption. The Koryŭ -troops held them in check at first. The emperor sent 13,000 -troops to reinforce the Koryŭ army. In spite of this, however, -the king felt obliged to take refuge in Kang-wha for -fear of surprise. The following year the T‘ap-dan savages -came as far south as Kyŭng-geui Province and all the officials -and many of the people fled before them. It was a literary man -of Wŭn-ju who was destined to be the first to bring them to -a halt. Wŭn Ch‘ung-gap gathered about him all the strong -men of the neighborhood and drove back the van of the invading -force. Then the great body of the savage horde came -and surrounded the town. Wŭn killed the messengers they -sent demanding surrender, and sent back the heads as answer. -A desperate attack was made but the little garrison held firm -till by a lucky chance a rumor of some kind caused a panic -among the attacking forces and in the stampede that followed -every man’s sword was at his neighbor’s throat. While this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span>was going on Wŭn and his fellows made a sudden sally and -captured the savage chief To Cha-do, and sixty of his attendants -were cut down. The rabble then took to their heels -and from that day never dared to attack any considerable -town. The spell of terror which had held the people of Koryŭ -was now broken and they found no more difficulty in -keeping these savages at arm’s length. Ten thousand Mongol -troops arrived and began a campaign against these freebooters -and in Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng Province had a splendid victory over -them, leaving, it is said, a line of thirty <em>li</em> of dead as they -pursued the flying enemy. When the Mongol troops went -back home, their general told the emperor that the war had -destroyed the crops of Koryŭ and that 100,000 bags of rice -must be sent. The emperor consented, but when the rice -arrived the officials and men of influence divided the rice -among themselves, while the people went without.</p> - -<p class='c000'>All this time the crown prince was suffering a lively -feeling of disgust at the sporting propensities of his father, -and now that he was about to return from Peking he wrote -his father a very sarcastic letter saying, “As all the public -money has been used up in hunting tournaments you must -not lay an extra expense upon the treasury by coming out to -meet me.” The king was ashamed and angry but went as -far as P‘yŭng-ju to meet his son and took advantage of the -occasion to hunt along the way.</p> - -<p class='c000'>That Kublai Khan harbored no ill-will against the Japanese -on account of his failure to conquer them is shown by his -sending back to their country several Japanese whom the -Koreans had caught and carried to Peking. Two Koryŭ men -carried them back to Japan; but the Japanese did not return -the courtesy, for the two Koryŭ messengers were never seen -again.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king and queen were both in China when the emperor -Kublai died and they took part in the funeral rites, although -the Mongol law forbade any outsider to participate in -them. Timur Khan succeeded Kublai. He apparently had -no intention of invading Japan, for of 100,000 bags of rice -which had been stored in Koryŭ for that purpose, he sent -50,000 to the north to relieve a famine-stricken district. He -also gave back to Koryŭ the island of Quelpart which had -<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>been in Mongol hands since the time when the Mongol and -Koryŭ soldiers had put down the rebellion. From this time -dates the use of the name Ché-ju, which means “District -across the water,” and by which the island has ever since -been known.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king had now completed his cycle of sixty-one years -and the soothsayers were appealed to to read the future. They -said evils were in store and he was advised to give amnesty -to all but capital criminals, repair the tombs of celebrated -men, give rice to the poor and remit three years’ revenue. -But gray hairs had not brought wisdom to the king. His -time was spent in frivolity and sensuality. The crown -prince looked with unfriendly eye on these unseemly revels -and when, in the following year, 1297, his mother, the Mongol -princess, died, he claimed that her death was due to one -of the favorite concubines, and as a consequence the suspected -woman was killed. The prince had married a Mongol -princess in China and now at her summons he went back to -China. The old man, bereft of both wife and concubine, -wrote the emperor that he wished to surrender the reins of -power into the hands of his son. The emperor consented and -in the following year the prince was invested with the royal -insignia, while his father was honored with the title “High -King.” The new queen was a Mongol and as she came to -the Koryŭ capital a new palace was constructed for her. But -her royal husband saw fit to follow the example of his <a id='corr229_26'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='forbears'>forebears</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_229_26'><ins class='correction' title='forbears'>forebears</ins></a></span> -and take to himself a concubine. The queen, by her -frequent exhibitions of jealousy, lost what little love her lord -had ever felt for her. She was not long in letting the state -of affairs be known at Peking and soon an imperial mandate -arrived consigning the concubine and her father to prison. -Then another came remanding both to China. Then a high -monk came to mediate between the king and queen. This -proved ineffectual and the emperor commanded both king -and queen to appear before him in Peking. It was done and -the royal seals were put back into the hands of the aged king. -The prince and his unhappy queen were kept in China ten -years.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The close of the century beheld an old dotard on the -throne of Koryŭ, so incapable of performing the duties of his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>high office that the emperor was obliged to send a man to act -as viceroy while the old man spent his time trifling with -mountebanks and courtesans. The records state that he had -lost all semblance to a king.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The viceroy whom the emperor had sent was named -Whal-yi Gil-sa, and one of his first proposals was to do away -with slavery; but objection was raised that then a slave -might become an official and use his influence to wreak vengeance -upon his former master. So a law was made that -only the eighth generation of a manumitted slave could hold -office.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1301 an envoy was sent to Peking to make the audacious -proposal that the crown prince’s wife should be made -the wife of a Korean official named Chong. This was because -the Koryŭ officials believed she had been criminally intimate -with him and they were anxious to get the prince back on -the throne. An official originated the scheme of having this -Chong take the prince’s wife and ascend the throne himself, -but the emperor ordered him thrown into prison. When this -had been done the aged king sent an envoy pleading that the -prince be sent back to him. As this was not granted the -king himself went to Peking where he lodged at first at his -son’s house, but after a quarrel with him moved to the house -of the discarded princess, his <a id='corr230_24'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='daughter-in law'>daughter-in-law</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_230_24'><ins class='correction' title='daughter-in law'>daughter-in-law</ins></a></span>. The emperor -tried to mediate between father and son but without effect. -Then he tried to send the old man back to Koryŭ; but rather -than go back the aged king took medicine to make himself ill -and so incapable of travel. He was fearful that he would be -assassinated on the way by his son’s orders.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor died in 1308 and was succeeded by Guluk -Khan. This young man was the friend of the prince, and as -a consequence the old king was thrown into prison, his nearest -friends killed or banished and the young man was raised -to a high position under the Chinese government and his -friends, to the number of a hundred and eighty, were made -officials. But it was the old man that the emperor finally -sent back to Koryŭ to rule at the same time he making the -prince king of Mukden. Though so far away from the capital -of Koryŭ the prince was the one who really ruled Koryŭ, -so the records say. The father soon died and the prince immediately -<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>proceeded to Song-do and assumed the throne in -this same year 1308. His posthumous title was Ch‘ung-sŭn.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He had been kept out of his own so long that he now -proceeded to make up for lost time, and vied with his father’s -record in revelry and debauchery. It is said that a courtier -took an axe and went to the palace, where he asked the king -to decapitate him as the sight of these excesses made him -hate life. The king was ashamed, though we are not told that -he mended his ways.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In his second year he revived the government salt monopoly -and put the money into his private purse. Heretofore -it had been divided between certain monasteries and officials. -The Mongol empress made him furnish large quantities of -timber from Păk-tu Mountain, floating it down the Yalu. It -was used in the building of monasteries. The whole expense -was borne by the king. The latter was now spending most -of his time in Peking. The Koryŭ officials earnestly desired -him to come back to Song-do, but he refused. There was a -constant flow of eunuchs and courtesans from Koryŭ to Peking -and it would be difficult to imagine a more desperate -condition of affairs in the king-deserted country. How it -was being governed we do not know. It was probably -governing itself. The rural districts, which had been laid -waste by the Mongol armies and which had been deserted -by their occupants, were probably being gradually occupied -again and the less they heard of Song-do the better they -liked it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the third year of his reign the king killed his son because -some busybodies told him that the young man was conspiring -to drive him from the throne. This shows the depths -to which the court had sunk, when kings were not sure but -that their own sons were their worst enemies. Orders kept -coming from Peking to make certain eunuchs Princes. These -orders could not be disregarded. These eunuchs had doubtless -been in Peking and were known to be devoted to Mongol -interests. All this time the king was in Peking where his -presence began to be something of a bore. The mother of -the Emperor urged him to go back to Koryŭ. He promised -to go in the following autumn, but when the time came he -changed his mind and abdicated in favor of his second son.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>The new king, named To, posthumous title Ch‘ung-suk, -came to the throne in 1314. One of his first acts was to take -a thorough census of the people. Unfortunately the result is -not recorded. The revenue laws were also changed and a -new measurement of the fields was ordered with a view to a -more effective collection of the revenue. The king likewise -had ambitions along religious lines, for he sent 150 pounds of -silver to Nanking to purchase books; and 10,800 were secured. -The emperor also gave 4,070 volumes. These were doubtless -Buddhist books and it is more than likely that many of the -books in the Sanscrit or Thibetan character, still found in the -monasteries in Korea, are copies of the works introduced into -Koryŭ during these times.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king who had abdicated was sent back with his son, -though he had abdicated solely for the purpose of being able -to live permanently in Peking. He spent his time in attending -Buddhist festivals, but when he saw into what ruins the -palaces in Song-do had fallen he said, “If my father had feasted -less I should have had better palaces.” He soon returned <a id='corr232_18'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='to to'>to</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_232_18'><ins class='correction' title='to to'>to</ins></a></span> -China where he devoted himself to letters. The emperor -offered to make him his Prime Minister but he declined the -honor. He mourned over the lack of letters in Koryŭ and -came to realise that it was Buddhism <a id='corr232_22'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='what'>that</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_232_22'><ins class='correction' title='what'>that</ins></a></span> had proved the -curse of the dynasty. He accepted the post of King of Mukden -and later became Prime Minister to the emperor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The young king went to Peking in 1317 to marry a -Mongol Princess, and like his father was very loath to come -back. We infer that the position of king in Song-do was so -hedged about by priestcraft that <a id='corr232_28'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='was it'>it was</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_232_28'><ins class='correction' title='was it'>it was</ins></a></span> much pleasanter for the -king to reside at the Chinese court. Koryŭ must have been -exceedingly poor after the desperate struggles she had been -through and life in Peking with his hand in the imperial exchequer -must have had its attractions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At the end of a year however the king and his bride came -back to Song-do. The records say that in order to induce him -to come they had to bribe the soothsayers to tell him that if -he did not come he would be involved in war. As soon as he -arrived he began to search for unmarried women to send to -Peking. He had turned pander to the Mongol court. The -men of the upper classes hid their daughters and denied their -<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>existence for fear they would be seized and sent to Peking. -He himself put in practice the principles he had imbibed at -the Mongol court, and spent his days in hunting and his -nights in high revelry.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king’s father who had been made king of Mukden, -made a trip into southern China, or at least as far south as -Chŭl-gang and Po-ta San where he engaged in Buddhist worship. -Two years later he asked permission to repeat the visit -and the emperor consented. But he was suddenly called back -to Peking and ordered to go straight to Koryŭ. He refused -and the emperor compelled him to cut his hair and to become -a monk. He was banished to T‘o-bŭn or San-sa-gyŭl in the -extreme north. This was because one of the Peking eunuchs, -who had formerly been a Koryŭ man and hated the king, told -the emperor that the ex-king had on foot a scheme to raise a -revolt in China.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this time there was silver money in Koryŭ in the form -of little bottle-shaped pieces of silver, but it was much adulterated -by an alloy of copper. The king gave thirty of these -bottles and the officials contributed a number more; and with -them a silver image of Confucius was made, indicating a slight -reaction against Buddhism.</p> - -<p class='c000'>1322 the emperor, being deceived by the lying representations -of the king’s cousin who wished to secure the throne of -Koryŭ, ordered the king to Peking. The latter was glad to -go, but was obliged to get away secretly by night for fear of -being prevented by his officials. When he got to Peking the -emperor took away his royal seal and ordered him to remain -there, which he doubtless was nothing loath to do. The officials -of Koryŭ joined in a letter begging the emperor to send -him back, but without success, till in 1324 the emperor died -and his successor proclaimed a general amnesty, of which the -aged ex-king took advantage to return to Peking from his -place of banishment in the north. The king and Queen -returned to Koryŭ in the following year. No sooner were -they settled in their palace again than they went on a pleasure -trip to the Han River; but the trip ended disastrously for -while away on the journey the Queen was confined and died -in giving birth to a son. This shows to what extremes the -passion for the chase led the court.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span> - <h3 class='c011'>Chapter IX.</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c012'>Horrible excesses.... a royal desperado.... martial implements proscribed.... another -scapegrace.... general suffering.... taxes increased.... emperor -furious.... a general cleaning out.... the kings.... beginning -of the great Japanese depredations.... king supplanted.... a -memorial.... omens of the fall of the dynasty.... Buddhism ascendent.... a -traitor falls.... costly festival.... trouble in China.... the -rising Ming power.... restiveness under the Mongol yoke.... Yi -Whan-jo appears upon the stage.... genealogy.... place of origin.... Mongol -adherents try to make trouble.... Mongol power opposed.... coinage.... a -new capital.... divination.... first mention of founder -of present dynasty.... alarming Japanese raids....“the mighty fallen”.... a -curious spectacle....“Red Head robbers”.... they invade -Koryŭ.... a council.... P‘yŭng-yang taken.... panic at the capital -“Red Heads” beaten.... king favors a Mongol pretender.... the -dreaded Japanese.... king removes to Han-yang.</p> - -<p class='c008'>With the year 1329 begins a series of events that almost -baffles description. The worst excesses of Rome in her -decline could not have shown more horrible scenes than those -which made the Koryŭ dynasty a by-word for succeeding -generations. The king’s cousin, who was king of Mukden, -was always slandering him to the emperor, for he was itching -for the crown of Koryŭ himself. <a id='corr234_23'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Meanwile the king was build-'>Meanwhile the king was building</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_234_23'><ins class='correction' title='Meanwile the king was build-'>Meanwhile the king was building</ins></a></span> -“mountains” and pleasure-houses without end and his hunters -were his favorites by day and the courtezans his boon companions -by night. His son was in Peking learning the ways -of the Mongol court and preparing to prove as abandoned a -character as his father. In 1331, at the request of the king, -the Emperor made the young man king. The cares of office -seem to have interfered with his debaucheries. The prince’s -name was Chung, posthumous title Ch‘ung-hyé. He was -sent to Song-do and his father called to Peking. This was -well, for the young man hated his father intensely. No sooner -had he assumed the reins of power then he ran to ten times -the excess of riot that even his father had done. The whole -of his newly acquired power was applied to the gratification of -his depraved appetites and within a year so outrageous were -his excesses that the emperor had to recall him in disgrace to -Peking and send back the father to administer the government. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>This added fuel to the son’s hatred of his father.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The reinstated king continued his old courses and added -to his former record another desperate crime, in that he frequently -stopped a marriage ceremony and forcibly carried -away the bride to become a member of his harem. It was a -marvel that the people did not rise and drive such a villain -from the country. When he made a trip to Peking in 1336 -the emperor made him carry his son back to Koryŭ. He was -such a desperate scapegrace that Peking itself was not large -enough to hold him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The following year the emperor promulgated a singular -order and one whose cause it is difficult to imagine. It was to -the effect that all swords, bows and other martial implements -be put away from all Koryŭ houses and that no one be allowed -to ride a horse; but all must go afoot. This may have -been a precautionary measure to prevent the acquiring of skill -in the use of weapons or in horsemanship, so as to render less -probable the future use of such acquirements in an attack upon -China.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At last, in 1340, the king died and it looked as if the desperate -character who for one short year had played fast and -loose with Koryŭ royalty would become king. A courtier, -Cho Chŭk, surrounded the palace with soldiers with a view to -assassinating the young man who had not yet received investiture -from the emperor, and at the same time a message was -sent to the deceased king’s cousin, the king of Mukden, summoning -him to Song-do. The young Prince, bad as he was, -had a considerable following, and a desperate fight ensued in -which he was wounded in the shoulder. But Cho Chŭk’s forces -were routed and he himself caught and beheaded. The emperor -learning of this through the Prince’s enemies, called him -to Peking and took him to task for killing Cho Chŭk, the friend -of the king of Muk-den; but the facts soon came out, and the -Prince was <a id='corr235_34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>exhonerated</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_235_34'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>exhonerated</ins></a></span> and sent back to Song-do, having -been invested with the royal insignia. Unlike his father and -grand-father, he did not marry a Mongol Princess but took as -his Queen a Koryŭ woman. He likewise took a large number -of concubines. Not content with this he had illicit commerce -with two of his father’s wives. The almost incredible -statement is made in the records that on one occasion, feigning -<span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span><a id='corr236_1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='drunknness'>drunkenness</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_236_1'><ins class='correction' title='drunknness'>drunkenness</ins></a></span>, he entered the harem of his dead father and -had the women seized and violated them. They tried to escape -to China but he prevented them from securing horses for -the purpose. His profligate life was the curse of the country. -Nothing was too horrible, too unnatural, too beastly for him -to do, if it afforded him amusement. He sent 20,000 pieces -of cloth together with gold and silver to purchase many things -of foreign manufacture, but what these were we are not informed. -One of his amusements was the throwing of wooden -balls at a mark but when this lost piquancy he substituted -men for the target and frequently engaged in this truly -<a id='corr236_12'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>humane</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_236_12'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>humane</ins></a></span> pastime. General distress prevailed. Many died of -starvation and many ran away to distant places and many became -monks in order to escape the king’s tyranny. Sons cut -off their hair and sold it in order to secure food for aged -parents. The prisons were full to overflowing. Suicide was -a thing of daily <a id='corr236_17'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>occurence</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_236_17'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>occurence</ins></a></span>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king sent to Kang-neung to levy a tax on ginseng, -but as none could be found the messenger levied on the well-to-do -gentlemen of the place and this was so successful that -the king widened the scope of his operations and made it as -hard to live in the country as at the capital. Everything -that could possibly be taxed was put on the roll of his exactions. -No form of industry but was crushed to the ground by his unmitigated -greed. When amusements failed he tried all sorts -of experiments to awaken new sensations. He would go out -and beat the drum, to the sound of which the workmen were -building the palace. This building had iron doors, windows -and roof. If the king’s pander heard of a beautiful slave anywhere -she was seized and brought to this palace which was -also her prison and where she spent her time in weaving in -company with many other women who had been similarly -“honored.” Often by night the king would wander about the -city and enter any man’s house and violate any of its inmates.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When this all came to the ears of the emperor he was furious. -An envoy was sent to Song-do with orders to bring the -wretch bound to Peking. The king came out to meet this -envoy but the Mongol raised his foot and gave the wretch a -kick that sent him <a id='corr236_40'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sprawing'>sprawling</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_236_40'><ins class='correction' title='sprawing'>sprawling</ins></a></span> on the ground. He was then -bound and locked up and after things had been put in some -<span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>sort of shape in the capital the king was carried away to Peking -to answer to the emperor. Many of the king’s intimates -were killed and many fled for their lives. A hundred and -twenty concubines were liberated and sent to their homes.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the king was brought before the emperor the latter -exclaimed “So you call yourself a king. You were set over -the Koryŭ people but you tore off all their flesh. If your blood -should become food for all the dogs in the world justice would -still be unsatisfied. But I do not care to kill any man. I -will send you to a place from which you will not soon return.” -So he was placed on a bier, the symbol of humiliation, and sent -away to Ké-yang “twenty thousand <em>li</em> away,” so the records -say. No man went with him save his bearers. They carried -him from village to village like a dead man. He died on the -journey at Ak-yang before reaching his place of exile. When -the people of Koryŭ heard of this there was general rejoicing; -and a proverb was made which runs, <em>Aya mangoji</em>. The <em>Aya</em> -refers to Ak-yang where he died and <em>mangoji</em>, freely translated, -means “damned.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The heir to the throne of Koryŭ was a lad of eight years. -The emperor asked him, “Will you be like your father or like -your mother?” The lad replied, “Like my mother,” and -thereupon he was proclaimed king of Koryŭ. His posthumous -title is Ch’ung-mok. Orders were sent to Song-do -to discharge all the servants and officials of the late king, and -to put an end to all the evils which had been fastened upon -the people. The iron palace was turned into a school. The -examination laws were changed. Heretofore the examination -had been simply with a view to ascertaining the candidate’s -knowledge of the classics. Now it was made to include -an exegesis of obscure passages and exercises in penmanship. -This was followed by an essay on “What is the most important -question of the time.” The emperor also ordered the -establishment of a new department, to be called the Bureau -of General Oversight.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The empress of China at this time seems to have been -a Koryŭ woman and her relatives, who abounded in the -Koryŭ capital, expected to have their own way in all matters. -This new department, however, arrested and imprisoned -many of them and a number died in consequence. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>empress therefore sent a swift messenger demanding the reasons -for this. The reasons seem to have been good, for the -matter was dropped. Of course the young king was not -of an age to guide the affairs of state in person. We are left -in ignorance as to what form of regency administered the -government for him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1348 the boy king died and the question as to succession -arose. The king’s younger brother Chi was in Koryŭ at -the time; but Keui, the son of Ch‘ung-suk, the twenty-seventh -monarch of the line, was in China. The Koryŭ -officials asked that Keui be made king, probably because he -was of a proper age to assume the responsibilities of royalty; -but the emperor refused, and the following year, 1349, Chi -was made king at the age of twelve, posthumous title Ch‘ung-jong. -Keui, the unsuccessful candidate, was married to a -Mongol princess, perhaps as a consolation for his disappointment.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With the year 1350 begins a series of Japanese depredations -on the coasts of Koryŭ which were destined to cover a -period of half a century and which, in their wantonness and -brutality, remind us strongly of similar expeditions of the -Norse Vikings on the shores of western Europe. In the -second year of the young king these corsairs came, but were -driven off with a loss of 300 men. Soon, as if in revenge, -over 100 Japanese boats were beached on the shores of -Kyŭng-sang Province; the government rice was seized and -many villages wantonly burned.</p> - -<p class='c000'>That same year a kingdom called Ul-lam sent an envoy -with gifts to the king of Koryŭ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1351 again the Japanese corsairs came and ravaged -the islands off Chul-la Province.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor, for some reason not stated, decided to -make Keui, his son-in-law, king of Koryŭ. He was therefore -proclaimed king at the Mongol court and started for -Song-do. This was the distinct wish of the Koryŭ officials -and of course the boy upon the throne was helpless. He fled -to Kang-wha and the next year was killed by poison, but by -whose hand administered or at whose instigation is neither -known nor recorded. This new king’s posthumous title is -Kong-min.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>The Japanese cared for none of these changes but steadily -pursued their ravages, gradually creeping up the western -coast.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A Koryŭ man, Yi Săk, who had studied profoundly and -had passed the civil examinations in China, now returned to -Koryŭ and memorialised the king in reference to five special -points; to wit, (1) The necessity of having definite boundaries -for the fields. (2) Defense against the Japanese corsairs. -(3) Making of implements of war. (4) The fostering of study -and learning. (5) The evils of Buddhism.</p> - -<p class='c000'>All during this reign, so say the records, there were -signs and omens of the fall of the dynasty. There were -earthquakes, eclipses and comets; worms ate the leaves of the -pine trees in the capital, and as the pine tree was the emblem -of the dynasty this was ominous; red and black ants had war -among themselves; a well in the capital became boiling hot; -there was a shower of blood; for many days a fog like red -fire hung over the land; black spots were seen on the sun; -there was a shower of white horse hair three inches long; -hail fell of the size of a man’s hand; there was a tremendous -avalanche at Puk-san, near the present Seoul. These <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><em>ex post -facto</em></span> prophecies show the luxuriance of the oriental imagination.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In spite of the Confucian tendency which had manifested -itself Buddhism had no intention of letting go its hold on the -government, and we find that in his second year the king -took a Buddhist high priest as his teacher, and thus the -direction was given to his reign that tended to hasten it -toward its fall. He also conferred high positions upon -Buddhist monks and so alienated the good will of all the -other officials. This hostile feeling took definite shape when -Cho Il-si surrounded the palace with a band of soldiers, killed -many of the leaders of the party in power together with many -of the relatives of the Mongol empress, and announced himself -prime minister. To screen himself he told the king that -it was not he who had caused the execution, but two other -men; and he even went to the extreme of putting to death -two of his confiding friends in order to give color to this -statement. But Cho Il-si had overestimated his strength and -the king, by secret negotiations, was soon able to decorate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>the end of a pole with his head. Twelve of his accomplices -were also killed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the Mongol empress was a Koryŭ woman, the maternal -grandmother of the crown prince of China was of -course a Koryŭ woman. She was living in state in Song-do -when her grandson came from Peking to make her a visit. -It is said that in the festivities which graced this unusual -occasion 5,100 pieces of silk were used in making artificial -flowers. Such a feast had never before been seen at the -capital of Koryŭ, however frequent they may have been at -Peking.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The records state that in 1355 there was a great rebellion -in China. We must remember that between the years 1341 -and 1368 affairs were in a chaotic state in China. The last -Mongol emperor, Tohan Timur, came to the throne in 1333 -and gave himself up to licentiousness and luxury. No attention -was paid to the filling of offices according to the time-honored -law of literary merit, but the best positions were -given to Mongols by pure favoritism. This caused widespread -dissatisfaction among the Chinese and from that time -the doom of the Mongol dynasty was sealed. In 1355 the -low-born but brilliant leader Chu Yuan-chang, at the head of -the insurrectionary army, crossed the Yang-tse river and -took Nanking. This was the great rebellion spoken of in -the Koryŭ annals and soon an envoy arrived from Peking -demanding aid in the shape of soldiers. Twenty-three thousand -men were sent on this forlorn hope. In 1356 a Mongol envoy -brought incense to be burned in all the Koryŭ monasteries, -doubtless with a view to securing supernatural aid against the -rising Ming power. At the same time great uneasiness was -again caused by raids of the Japanese, which increased in frequency -and extent. One gang of robbers alone carried out -of Kyŭng-sang Province, at one time, 200 boat-loads of rice. -This year also saw the Ming forces pressing on toward -Peking and driving the Mongols back step by step. As the -fortunes of the Mongols waned the loyalty of Koryŭ waned -accordingly. For the mass of the Koryŭ people, the Mongol -yoke had never been less than galling, and they hailed -the signs of the times which pointed toward her overthrow.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>This tendency to restlessness under the Mongol yoke -was shown when the Mongol envoy was carrying the incense -about the country to various monasteries. Everywhere he -treated the people like abject slaves and trampled on their -prejudices and rights. When he came to Chul-la Province -the governor promptly threw him into prison and put his son -to death. The Mongols in Peking were of course too busy -with their own troubles to attempt to chastise Koryŭ for this; -and this very impunity added impetus to the anti-Mongol -feeling.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In this same year, 1356, we see the first rising of the -cloud that was soon to spread over the country and, breaking, -clean the land of the corruption which had so long been -festering at her core. This event was the coming to the capital -of the father of the man who founded the present dynasty, on -the ruins of Koryŭ. This man was Yi Cha-ch‘un whose -posthumous title, given after the founding of this dynasty, -was Whan-jo. As his son founded this dynasty it will be fitting -to inquire briefly into his antecedents. His great-grandfather -was Yi An-sa, a Koryŭ official who died in 1274, and -who was afterwards given the title Mok-jo. His son was Yi -Hăng-yi, born in Tŭk-wun in Ham-gyŭng Province, who was -compelled by the Mongols to take office under them while -they held possession of the north. His posthumous title -is Ik-jo. His son was Yi Ch‘un, born in Ham-heung -in Ham-kyŭng Province, who held rank under Koryŭ between -1340 and 1345. His posthumous title is To-jo. His -son was Yi Cha-ch‘un of whom we are now speaking. He -was born in 1315 and at the time of which we are writing he -was made prefect of his native place, Sang-sŭng, in Ham-gyŭng -Province. This part of Koryŭ had been held by the -Mongols during the whole period of their occupation of Koryŭ -until their loosening grasp let it fall back into the hands -of Koryŭ and the king hastened to reorganise his government -there.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The relatives of the Mongol empress still nursed the -delusion that they could do as they pleased in Koryŭ, secure -in the possession of such powerful friends at Peking. But -they soon discovered their mistake, for their misdeeds met -the same punishment as did those of others. Infuriated at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span>this they planned an insurrection. They thought this newly -acquired district of Sang-sŭng would be the most likely to -co-operate with them in this scheme; so they opened negotiations -with its people. The king therefore summoned Yi -Whan-jo to Song-do and warned him against these traitors. -Foiled here, the empress’ relatives appealed to the country to -rise in defense of the Mongol supremacy, which was being -thus rudely flouted. They learned what Koryŭ thought of -Mongol supremacy when they were incontinently seized and -put to death and their property confiscated. The next step -was the sending back to China of the Mongol “resident.” -This was followed by an expedition into trans-Yalu territory -which seized all the land there which formerly belonged -to Koryŭ. Fearing, however, that he was going a little too -fast, the king sent an envoy to Peking to tell the emperor -that the local governor of the north was responsible for these -reprisals and not the central Koryŭ government. Troops -were nevertheless stationed in each of these newly acquired -districts and fields were cultivated to provide for their maintenance.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Not long after this the important question of coinage -came up. We have already seen that the medium in Koryŭ -was little bottle-shaped pieces, but as these were each a -pound in weight they could be used only for large transactions. -Each one of them was worth a hundred pieces of -linen. It was decided to change to a system of regular coinage, -and so the silver was coined into “dollars” each worth -eight pieces of five-strand linen. It is probable that in all -small transactions barter was the common method of exchange -although there may have been a metal medium of exchange -as far back as the days of ancient Chosŭn, a thousand -years before Christ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The question again came up as to the advisability of -moving the capital to Han-yang, the present Seoul. Enquiry -was made at the ancestral temple but what answer the spirits -made, if any, we are not told. All dishes and implements as -well as tile were made black because the peninsula is nearly -surrounded by water and black is the color that corresponds -to water according to Chinese and Korean notions. Black -was substituted for the prevailing color in dress which was at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>that time blue-green, and men, women and monks all donned -the sable attire.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was at length decided to change the capital to the -other site and palaces were ordered built there. They were, -so some say, probably outside the present south gate of Seoul.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is said that in order to decide about the removal of the -capital the king had recourse to that form of divination -which consisted in making scrawls at random with a pen and -then examining them to see what Chinese characters the -marks most resembled. At first they did not favor a change, -but after several trials the favorable response was obtained.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 1359 beheld a recurrence of the dreaded Japanese -incursions. At this time the robbers burned 300 Koryŭ -boats at Kak-san. An official, Yi Tal-jung, was sent to -govern the great north-eastern section of the land. He was -a friend of Yi Whan-jo, the prefect of Sang-sŭng. As he -approached that place his friend Yi Whan-jo came out to -meet him, accompanied by his son Yi Song-gye who was to -become the founder of the present dynasty, and whom we -shall designate by his posthumous title T‘ă-jo. When Yi -Whan-jo handed his friend a cup of wine he drank it standing, -but when Yi T‘ă-jo handed him one, so the story runs, -he drank it on his knees. When the father demanded why -this greater deference was shown his son the guest replied, -“This boy is different from us,” and, turning to the young -man, he continued. “When I have passed away you must -always befriend my descendants.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Japanese raids had now reached such alarming -proportions that an extra wall was built about Song-do and -all the government granaries along the coast were moved far -inland to be out of the reach of piratical parties, who would -naturally hesitate to go far from their boats.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The breaking up of the Mongol power was foreshadowed -by the act of a certain Mongol district Hă-yang which, with -its garrison of 1,800 men, now came and enrolled itself under -the banner of Koryŭ. How had the mighty fallen! Less -than eighty years before the world had trembled beneath the -hoof-beats of the “Golden Horde.” This was followed by -the submission of a wild tribe in the north called Pang-guk-chin, -and a Mongol rebel sent a messenger with gifts to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>court of Koryŭ. Meanwhile the Japanese were ravaging -the southern and western coasts without let or hindrance. -It was a curious spectacle, a country eaten up by its own -excesses receiving humble deputations from former masters -and at the same time being ridden over rough-shod by gangs -of half-naked savages from the outlying islands of Japan.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There was one tribe in the north however, called the -Hong-du-jŭk or “Red-Head Robbers,” who threatened to -invade the country, but forces were sent to guard against it. -In the case of the Japanese marauders the difficulty was to -know where they were going to strike next. There was military -power enough left in Koryŭ had it been possible to so -place the forces as to intercept or bring to action the robber -gangs. The Japanese had really begun to threaten Song-do -itself and the king wished to move the capital to Su-an in -Whang-hă Province. He went so far as to send a commissioner -to look over the site and report.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king was not blessed with an heir, and in 1360 he -took a second wife, which was the cause of constant quarrelling -and bickering.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The “Red-Head Robbers” were led by Kwan Sŭn-sang -and P‘a Tu-ban. They now took the city of Mukden and -entering Liaotung, sent a letter to the king of Koryŭ saying -“We have now consolidated our power and intend to set up -the Sung dynasty again.” The Mongols were thus beset on -both sides and were in desperate straits. Three thousand of -the “Red-Heads” crossed the northern border and carried -fire and sword into the frontier towns. A Mongol general, -deserting the banners of his waning clan, took service with -these people. His name was Mo Ko-gyŭng. He collected -40,000 men and crossed the Yalu. Eui-ju fell forthwith and -the prefect and a thousand men perished. Chöng-ju soon -fell and In-ju was invested, but a stubborn resistance was -here encountered. The prefect, An U, was the only prefect -in the north who was not afraid of the invaders. He made -light of their power and by swift counter-marches and brilliant -manoeuvers succeeded in making them fall back to -Chöng-ju. In the mean time Gen. Yi An was sent north to -P‘yŭng-yang to take charge of the army of defense. The tide -of fortune had turned again and the invaders were in full -<span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>march on P‘yŭng-yang. A council of war was held at which it -appeared that all the generals were about equally frightened. -With a powerful force in hand and an easily defended town -to hold they still considered only how best to make a retreat. -Some were for burning everything behind them and retiring -to some point more easy of defense; but Gen. Yi An thought -they had better leave a large store of provisions in the city, -for the enemy would pause and feed there until everything -was gone, and this would give the Koryŭ army time to gain -needed reinforcements. This course would also appear so -foolish to the enemy that few preparations would be made -to meet the Koryŭ troops later. This plan was adopted and -the army retired into Whang-hă Province and left the gates -of P‘yŭng-yang open to the invaders. This caused the greatest -consternation in the capital, and every citizen was under -arms. The king immediately sent and deprived Gen. Yi An -of the office which he had so grievously betrayed and put the -command into the hands of Gen. Yi Seung-gyŭng.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The invading host was now feasting in P‘yŭng-yang and -the king and queen in Song-do were practicing horse-back -riding with the expectation that they would be obliged to leave -the capital. It was the beginning of winter and the cold was -intense. The Koryŭ soldiers died by hundreds and the people -were being wantonly killed by foraging parties of the “Red -Heads.” The records say that they left “heaps upon heaps” -of dead in their track.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As in duty bound the Koryŭ forces went north and engaged -the invaders at P‘yŭng-yang. At first the latter were -successful and a thousand Koryŭ troops were trampled under -the hoofs of the enemy’s horses; but in the end the “Red -Heads” were defeated and, retreating northwards, were -hotly pursued as far as Ham-jŭng. There they were reinforced -and attempted to make a new stand; but the Koryŭ -troops, drunk with success, attacked them with such abandon -that they were obliged to build a palisade within which they -intrenched themselves. The Koryŭ generals surrounded this -stockade and, by a simultaneous assault of horse and foot, broke -through the barrier and put the occupants, numbering 20,000, -to the sword. The leader, Whang Chi-sŭn was taken alive. -A remnant fled to the Yŭn-ju River where the ice broke beneath -<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>them and 2,000 perished. The few survivors made a -<a id='corr246_2'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='desparate'>desperate</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_246_2'><ins class='correction' title='desparate'>desperate</ins></a></span> stand on a hill but were starved out and compelled -to continue their flight, in which hundreds more were cut -down along the road; and at last, out of 40,000 men who had -come across the Yalu, just three hundred recrossed it and -were safe.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Hardly had this happened when seventy boat-loads of -these same “Red Heads” arrived at P‘yŭng-ju and soon after -a hundred boat-loads more disembarked at An-ak and scoured -the surrounding country. They were, however, soon put to -flight by Gen. Yi Pang-sil whom the king rewarded richly -for his services.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was at this time that the king first received an envoy -from Chang Sa-sŭng, a pretender to the Mongol throne. -The king made the first move toward breaking away from -the Mongol yoke by sending an envoy in return. The Koryŭ -court evidently was in great doubt as to just how matters -were going to turn out in the struggle that was under way in -China. By favoring these advances on the part of a Mongol, -whether of the imperial family or not, it is probable that the -king lost the good-will of the Mings who, as we shall see, -looked with satisfaction upon the overthrow of Koryŭ and -the founding of the present dynasty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The alarming increase both in the frequency and the -violence of the Japanese incursions gave scope for the development -of the military genius of Gen. Yi Whan-jo, the father -of the founder of this dynasty. He was appointed general -of the west to guard against the freebooters. The people of -Song-do were in dismay over the proximity of the dreaded -Japanese and over the defeat of all the armies sent to put -them down. Many civil officials took part in the martial preparations -and even took the field in defense of their country. -The Japanese were now penetrating Kyŭng-geui Province. -In this year, 1360, they landed on Kang-wha, killed three -hundred men and stole 40,000 bags of rice. So many men -were in mourning that the king was obliged to curtail the -period of mourning from three years to only a few days. -The palace in Han-yang had now been completed and the -king removed to that place, apparently because it was further -from the sea shore and more difficult of access by the Japanese.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span> - <h3 class='c011'>Chapter X.</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c012'>An unnecessary warning.... “Smoke-house Soldiers”.... Yi Whan-jo -dies.... Yi T‘ă-jo takes his place.... new invasion by “Red Heads”.... -Song-do evacuated.... the enemy revel in the capital.... cannibals.... -plans for defense.... the “Red Heads.” badly beaten.... -Gen. Yi distinguishes himself.... the monster Kim Yong.... Gen. -Yi brings Nap-t‘ap-chul to terms.... Quelpart revolts.... “tax without -reason”.... the Mongols proclaim a new king for Koryŭ.... a -bold envoy.... a faithful eunuch.... Kim Yong destroyed... Mongol -invasion.... order restored.... Gen. Yi drives back the Mongols.... -Japanese advances.... a conscientious official.... the Japanese -creep nearer to Song-do.... king inconsolable.... he meets Sin-don.... -who becomes his favorite.... king’s oath to Sin-don.... disgraceful -practices.... an heir to the throne.... Sin-don’s policy.... Japanese -swarm along the coast.... Sin-don the “Tiger”.... he chides -the king.</p> - -<p class='c008'>With the opening of the year 1361 Yi Whan-jo was appointed -general of all the forces in the north and north-east. -This was done against the advice of one of the officials who -told the King that as Gen. Yi was from the north-east it was -dangerous to appoint him general over the forces there, for -untoward events were likely to happen. The king turned a -deaf ear to this warning, which indeed was unnecessary, for -the king had no more loyal subject that Yi Whan-jo. The king, -having feasted the new appointee, sent him on his mission -and himself returned to Song-do.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ere long came reports of new and terrible ravages by the -Japanese along the southern coast, especially at Nam-hă, Ko-sŭng, -Kö-je and Ul-ju, while at Fusan they stole a large -number of Korean boats. A garrison had been stationed in -the south to be used in just such emergencies, but it had -been used for so many different things that it could not be -concentrated upon any given point; so levies were made on -the common people. These levies went under the name of -Yŭn-ho-gun, or “Smoke-house Soldiers” because from every -house where smoke was seen arising a man was requisitioned. -At the same time the governor of Chŭl-la Province advised -the establishment of a horse relay system, but the suggestion -was not acted upon.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>At this time the king lost the services of Gen. Yi Whan-jo -who died at his post. His son, Yi Sŭng-gye, better known -by his title Yi T‘ă-jo, stepped into his father’s place. At the -very beginning of his martial career an opportunity presented -itself for him to perform a signal service for the king. A -certain Pak Eui deemed that the time was ripe for an insurrection -and he began to take steps in that direction, but -the king sent the young general, Yi T‘ă-jo, against him and -the little blaze was promptly stamped out. As a consequence -the young man was confirmed in the position of military -governor of the north and east, and under his command was -placed a large body of troops.</p> - -<p class='c000'>And now there burst upon the country another storm of -fire and blood. The “Red Heads” had been gaining ground -rapidly and were now ready to take their revenge for the -terrible reverses they had suffered during the previous invasion. -They crossed the Yalu 200,000 strong under the -leadership of generals Pan-sŭng Sa-yu and Kwan Sŭng-săng. -The king promptly sent Gen. Yi Pang-sil against them and -hastened to swell the army to as high a point as possible, -The officials and monks and other people of means brought -horses or provisions, while the walls of Song-do were guarded -with jealous care.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the very first engagement the Koryŭ army was crumpled -up like paper and one of the leading generals was killed. -The “Red Heads” sent a letter to the king saying “We have -ten million men and there is no escape for you except in -prompt surrender.” It seemed true, for the invading army -swept like a cyclone though the north, and in Song-do panic -reigned. Flight seemed imperative. The women and children -belonging to the royal household were sent away first and -the king was about to follow, when the defeated Gen. Yi -Pang-sil came hurrying in and implored the king not to run -away but to rally the people about him and stand the siege. -The king went to the center of the city, “Big Bell Street,” -and submitted the question to the people, asking whether -they would rally round him. Just two men responded. This -settled the matter and the king and queen, each on horse-back, -rode out the south gate, while behind them came a -weeping crowd of old men, women and children. Such was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>the confusion that parents lost their children and families -were scattered. The king’s escort consisted of only ten men. -When he arrived at the Im-jin river he sent messengers in -all directions summoning all loyal soldiers to rally round him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The northern savages swept down upon the devoted city, -sat down in its palaces and gave themselves up to every form -of excess. They feasted upon the cattle and horses, hanging -their hides upon the city wall and pouring water over them -and letting it congeal, thus preventing the citizens from -making their escape from the city clandestinely.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king in his flight carried terror with him, for the -people thought the enemy would be in hot pursuit; so they -scattered in every direction. This displeased the king so -much that when he arrived at the capital of Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng -Province he imprisoned the governor. From that point he -hurried southward as far as Pak-ju, now An-dong, in Kyŭng-sang -Province.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Day by day the horrible orgies of the savages in Song-do -increased in barbarity. It is said that they cooked and -ate little children and that they cut off the breasts of women -and fed on them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the midst of these vicissitudes the king appointed -Chöng Se-un as general-in-chief of all the Koryŭ forces. He -was a wise and loyal man and was ever thinking of ways and -means of checkmating the invaders. He advised the king to -send out a general letter encouraging the people and calling -all the soldiers to rally to the defense of the country. The -officials were also encouraged and made to feel that their -utmost endeavors must be put forth in the good cause. The -generals were all exhorted to do their best and were threatened -with death in case they proved unfaithful. So the -campaign was opened. The savages had looted all the -towns about Song-do and had taken Wŭn-ju and killed its -prefect. They also went north to An-byŭn in Ham-gyŭng -Province where the people pretended to surrender, but, having -gotten their conquerors intoxicated, they fell upon and -killed them. The same tactics were tried in Kang-wha with -equal success.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Chöng Se-un now appeared before Song-do with -200,000 troops. These figures must surely be an exaggeration -<span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>for we can hardly suppose Koryŭ able at that time to put -that number of men in the field. Snow and rain added to the -difficulties of the situation. A spy returned and said that -the troops of the enemy were massed inside the South Gate -and that if a picked body of men could gain entrance somewhere -and attack them from behind they could be easily overcome. -At the dead of night a picked body of horsemen gained -admittance somewhere in the rear of the city and fell with -fury upon the garrison. At the same time the main body -advanced to attack the South Gate. The savages, not knowing -the size of the attacking force and being surprised from -behind were thrown into confusion and attempted to run -away. Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo distinguished himself by pursuing -and capturing Kwan Sŭn-săng the leader of the hostile force. -In this stampede the routed savages trod on and killed each -other by hundreds. In the center of Song-do the dead were -piled in heaps. It is said, though it must be an exaggeration, -that 100,000 men perished miserably on that night. As -a result of this battle several Mongol seals which the savages -had taken in previous fights with the imperial armies, were -recovered.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Some of the generals advised that a remnant of the -enemy be spared; so the Sung-in and T‘an-hyŭng gates were -thrown open and Pa Tu-ban and his remaining followers -hastened out and made for the Yalu River.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is related that during the fight on that eventful night -a body of Koryŭ troops collided with a company of the enemy -and a melée ensued near the East Gate, where the soldiers -trod on each other. Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo was there and was -stabbed in the back with a spear. Finding himself in -extremely narrow quarters he drew his sword and, hewing a -path through the enemy, leaped the wall, horse and all, for -he was in the saddle. The spectators thought he was a -spirit. A volume might be filled with the stories of the -wonderful achievements of this man, but most of them are -figments of the imagination, invented at a later period to -add lustre to the name of the founder of the dynasty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The capable leader Gen. Chöng Se-un, met the fate -which has been the curse of Korean history from the beginning -to the present time. Kim Yong-an, a jealous official, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>forged a royal order for his execution and sent it to Gen. An -U who promptly carried it out. When the king learned of -this he thought it was an incipient revolution but soon the -other generals joined in a letter to His Majesty saying that it -had been done because the murdered man was a traitor. The -king accepted this as true and rewarded the murderers.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The fortress of Sang-sŭng near the Tu-man River had -long been under Mongol control and was governed by a -Koryŭ renegade Cho Whi and afterwards by his descendants -as a hereditary fief. Now when Koryŭ once more assumed -control, Cho So-săng, the then chief of this anomalous settlement, -fled to Mukden where he joined the banners of a wild -tribe under the lead of Nap-t‘ap-chul, and proposed to them -to make a raid into Koryŭ. This they did, crossing the Yalu -and ravaging as far as Puk-ch‘ung and Hong-wŭn. This -promised to become a serious matter, but the difficulty of the -situation for Koryŭ was increased tenfold by a fresh invasion -of the south by Japanese. The king was on his way back to -Song-do when news of these two disasters reached him. -Things looked desperate, but to add to the hopelessness of the -situation the same Kim Yong-an who had murdered Gen. -Chöng now compelled the king to kill Gen. An U on the -ground that it was he who had killed Gen Chöng. The -monster then proceeded to killed his own brother, and induced -the king to put to death generals Yi Pang-sil and Kim -Teuk-pă, two of the best surviving generals. It is a wonder -that Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo was spared. Song-do had been so roughly -handled that the king feared the historical records would be -lost or destroyed; so he now sent men to look them up and -put them in a place of safety.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The wild Nap-t‘ap-chul having been so successful in their -first venture, now once more entered Koryŭ territory and as -the general sent against them was not able to check their advance -Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo was appointed to this place. The enemy -was encamped in Hong-wŭn in Ham-gyŭng Province. -Gen. Yi attacked them there and routed them with a loss of -1,000 men. Near Ham-hung they made a stand and defended -themselves desperately, but he soon had them in full flight -once more. Taking 600 picked cavalrymen he pursued them -to Ch‘a-ryăng Pass and secured another victory. Only one -<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>of the enemy fought well. This man fought <a id='corr252_1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>aways</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_252_1'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>aways</ins></a></span> in front -of Gen. Yi. The latter feigned flight to draw him on and -then suddenly turning attacked his pursuer and laid him low -with an arrow from his unerring bow. The women who -followed the camp of the invading army came out and taunted -the men saying “You have overcome everyone but these -Koryŭ people; them you cannot conquer. You had better -retreat and make for home.” The enemy called a truce -and told Gen. Yi that they had come not to attack Koryŭ but -the “Red Heads.” This was a mere ruse to save time. Gen. -Yi knew this and drawing an arrow to the head shot one of -the leaders of the enemy through the body. At last he -gave orders to his archers to shoot the horses from under -the enemy. This decided the battle and the Nap-t‘al-chul sued -for peace. In recognition of these services the king appointed -him general of all the forces in the north. The general -then proceeded to annihilate all the colonies and settlements -of the obnoxious Nap-t‘ap-chul throughout the entire north, -and having placed them where they belonged, showed them -that their only hope was in making a lasting treaty with Koryŭ. -This they were quite willing to do.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the king came slowly north toward the capital the -officials urged that Song-do was too small for the capital and -too near the sea to be well protected from the Japanese -corsairs. They therefore urged him to remain for a time at -Ch‘ŭng-ju, and he gave consent.</p> - -<p class='c000'>And now, strange to relate, Quelpart, at the instigation -and under the leadership of Ho-dok-ko Pul-wha, who had -been stationed there three years before to take charge of the -horse-breeding industry, revolted from the sway of Koryŭ -and became at least nominally a part of the Yuan empire.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In order to reward the soldiers who had done such good -work in the north the king levied a special tax on the people -which they gave with such poor grace that they called it the -“tax without reason.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1362 the emperor of China, led to it by the empress, -whose seditious relatives had forfeited their lives in Koryŭ, -proclaimed one Hye, called Prince Tok-heung, a relative of -the king, as king in his place. But Koryŭ well knew that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span>the old time power of the Mongols was gone and so prepared -to resist the order.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Early in 1363 the king at last re-entered his deserted capital. -A strong force was sent north to guard against the pretender -and an envoy was sent to Peking to ask why there -were two kings for Koryŭ. The emperor replied that the -newly appointed one was the right one and that he must be -received in Koryŭ. To this the envoy replied “Though you -kill me and smear my blood upon my clothes I will not accompany -the pretender back to Koryŭ.” The emperor praised -the envoy’s bravery and did not insist upon the demand.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A Koryŭ official named Kim Yong-an, whose evil deeds -we have already related, now desired to kill the king and -bring in the pretender. A eunuch, An To-jok, knew of the -plot and on the appointed night personated the king and was -killed by the assassin’s hand. The plotter was forthwith -seized, drawn and quartered and his limbs were sent throughout -the land as a warning to other malcontents. The emperor -was urged to send the pretender as a prisoner to Koryŭ -but of course he refused. Not only so, but he also ordered -the king to send the royal seals to Peking. The king refused -and began preparations for defense against a possible invasion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He did not have to wait long, for with the opening of the -year 1364 a Mongol army 10,000 strong crossed the Yalu and -besieged Eui-ju. In the fight at that point the Koryŭ forces -were completely routed, though not till after great valor had -been shown by Gen. An U-gyŭng against overwhelming odds. -The Koryŭ forces retreated in disorder to An-ju. Panic -prevailed among all the people of that section for they -thought the horrors of the former Mongol invasion were -about to be repeated.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king sent Gen. Ch‘oe Yŭng with a considerable -force to An-ju where he made all his generals swear to stand -by the colors to the last. He executed a number of fugitives -as an example to the rest and soon succeeded in restoring -some semblance of order in the camp. Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo was -ordered with 1,000 soldiers from the northeast province to -An-ju. Also generals Yi Sun, U Che, and Pak Ch‘un were -ordered to the same point, and the army thus consolidated -<span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>assumed large proportions, but the men were miserably dressed -and fed, and the death rate was high. Desertions were of -frequent <a id='corr254_3'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>occurence</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_254_3'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>occurence</ins></a></span>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo’s influence in the northeast is proved by -the commotion that followed when he left. The remnant of -the Yŭ-jin tribe, led by Sam Seun and Sam Ka seized the -whole of this northeast and the people were longing for the -return of Gen. Yi. These two Sams were cousins of Gen. Yi -and they had fled beyond the northern border and joined the -wild Yŭ-jin folk.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The combination of the generals gave great confidence -to the troops and when the battle was joined at Chöng-ju the -Mongol forces were badly defeated. A Mongol general’s -body was taken and sent all about that section to encourage -the people and make them believe their troubles were near an -end. Gen. Yi blamed the other generals for not following -up their advantage and they became angry and said “If you -are so brave, you had better try it yourself.” So the very -next day he led the army out and surrounded the Mongol -forces at Su-ju near the sea, where another glorious victory -was won. That night the remnant of the Mongols fled back -to the Yalu. Gen. Yi gave chase and it is said that only -seventeen of the Mongol army got back in safety across that -Rubicon of Korea. This done, Gen. Yi returned to his -northeast province and drove back to their haunts the wild -tribe who had taken advantage of his absence.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Yi T’ă-jo was steadily rising in favor although like -Wang-gön he wisely stayed as far as possible from his royal -master. The king now conferred upon him the title of Mil-jik-sa -which means “The Messenger who Restores Confidence -and Firmness.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Japanese had not ceased their incursions. Only a -year had passed since 200 boat loads had ravaged the southern -coast and now a like number swept the island of Kal-do -in the south, so that from many a district no revenue rice -was forthcoming. It is to be feared that this was the principal -cause of uneasiness in Song-do—the loss of revenue. -Troops were sent and a fleet of eighty war boats to guard the -coast and to <a id='corr254_39'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='covoy'>convoy</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_254_39'><ins class='correction' title='covoy'>convoy</ins></a></span> the revenue junks, but these unexpectedly -fell in with a Japanese fleet and were all lost. This disaster -<span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>caused a panic among the people of Kang-wha and Kyo-dong -Island. The governor of Chŭl-la Province came northward -with troops guarding the revenue but he too met Japanese -and lost all the rice and half his men.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This same year 1364 a Mongol official told the emperor -that the king of Koryŭ ought to be allowed to retain his -position; and the emperor listened to him. The renegade -Ch‘oe Yu was sent back to Koryŭ where he was imprisoned -and executed. The Koryŭ envoy Yi Kong-su also returned -from Peking. A very neat story is told of him. As he was -pursuing his way across a wide plain which seemed to have -no inhabitants he was obliged to feed his animals with the -standing grain. When he was preparing to resume his way -he took a bolt of linen and wrote upon it “The price of -grain,” and left it among the standing barley. His attendants -said, “But the owner of the grain will never get it. -Someone will steal it.” The envoy replied, “That is not -my affair. I will have done my duty.” The king wished -the emperor to send the would-be king to Koryŭ but to -this consent was not given.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Japanese crept nearer and nearer to Song-do with -every new expedition. They went into the temple to the -dead and carried away a picture of the king. It was with -great difficulty that they were dislodged and driven away.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1365 when the queen was confined the king ordered -the monks to worship on every mountain top and at every -monastery to ensure a safe delivery, but all to no avail. She -died in giving birth to the child and the king was inconsolable. -Treasure was poured out like water to make the -funeral the most imposing that had ever been seen in Koryŭ. -For three years following the king ate no meat.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in this year that the king had that singular dream -which led to such disastrous results. He dreamed that someone -attempted to stab him, but a monk sprang forward -and by intervening saved his life. The face of this monk -remained stamped on his memory. Soon after this he met a -monk, Sin-don, whose face was the same as that of the monk -who had saved his life in the dream. He was the son of a -slave in Ok-ch‘ŭn Monastery and he was looked down upon -and despised by the other Monks. The king took this Sin-don -<span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>to himself, raised him to high position and lavished -upon him wealth and honors. As a fact this Sin-don was a -most unprincipled, licentious and crafty man, but always -when in the presence of the king he assumed the sedate -demeanor of the philosopher and for many a year completely -hoodwinked his royal master. The other officials expostulated -in vain. In vain did they urge that this monk was -a beast in human shape. The king considered him well-nigh -inspired. He believed that it was jealousy that prompted -their antagonism and rather enjoyed getting an outsider in -and showing them that office and honors did not always go -by inheritance. This new favorite soon began to urge the -banishment of this or that official and the king always -complied. On this account the feeling against him rose to -such a pitch that the king was obliged to send him away for -a time lest he should be killed. He remained in this retreat -until the king had put to death some of his worst enemies. -At last the king sent and recalled him; but the crafty man -answered “I cannot go back. It is not right that I should -hold office.” When the king reiterated his pressing invitation -the monk replied “I am afraid that you will listen to my -enemies.” To this the king made answer “I swear by the sun, -the moon, the stars, heaven and earth that I will listen to no -one but you.” So the wily man came back and from that -day completely dominated the king. He exaggerated the -faults of his enemies and so gradually supplanted them with -his creatures. It is claimed of him that he built a dark vaultlike -room where he indulged in almost incredible excesses. -He gave out that he could cure barrenness, and by his evil -practices brought down upon himself the maledictions of -the whole people. The king alone would believe no ill of -him. He said he was the greatest prodigy in the world.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this time the Mongol empire was on the verge of its -fall and Koryŭ envoys found it impossible to force their way -through to Peking and so were compelled to desist. It is a -noteworthy fact that though Koryŭ hated the Mongols she -nevertheless held fast to them till the very last moment.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this time it happened that the king was without an -heir and both he and the court were anxious about the succession.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>The records say that he was so anxious to have a son -that he committed an act almost if not quite unparalleled in -the history of any land, civilized or savage. Having become -prematurely old by his terrible excesses, he introduced a -number of young men into the palace and gave them the -<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>entre</em></span> into the queen’s apartments, hoping thereby that his -hopes might be realised. In this he was disappointed. One -day while passing an hour in the apartments of his favorite, -Sin-don, he noticed there a new-born babe, the son of one of -Sin-don’s concubines. He seemed pleased with the child -and Sin-don asked him to adopt it as his own. The king -laughed but did not seem averse to the proposition. Returning -to the palace he summoned the officials and told them -that for some time he had been frequenting the apartments of -Sin-don and that he had gotten a son by one of the women -there. He knew well enough that if he proposed to adopt -Sin-don’s son the opposition would be overwhelming, so he -took this means of carrying out the plan. Of course it is -impossible to verify the truth of this statement. It may -have been a fabrication of the historians of the following -dynasty in order to justify the founder of the new dynasty -in overthrowing Koryŭ. The annals of the Ming dynasty -say that it was the king’s son and not Sin-don’s.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1366 the opposition to the favorite increased in intensity -and the king was almost buried beneath petitions for his -banishment or death. These the king answered by banishing -or killing the senders and by this means the open opposition -was put an end to. The wily monk knew that he needed -more than the king’s favor in order to maintain his position -of honor, and so he began to take away the fields and other -property of high officials and distribute them among the people -in order to curry favor with them. This brought from the -officials a new and fiercer protest and they told the king that -these acts would make his reign a subject of ridicule to future -generations. While this did not move the king to active -steps against Sin-don it caused a coolness to spring up between -them. The favorite saw that he had been going too -far and he tried to smooth the matter over by returning -the property that had been sequestered. At the same time -he secured the liberation of many slaves. <a id='corr257_40'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Here, too, he was'>Here, too, he was [...]</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_257_40'><ins class='correction' title='Here, too, he was'>Here, too, he was [...]</ins></a></span></p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>All this time the Japanese were busy at the work of -pillage and destruction. They took possession of an island -near Kang-wha with the intention of fortifying it and making -of it a permanent rendezvous. They landed wherever -they pleased and committed the most horrible excesses with -impunity. The Koryŭ troops were in bad condition. They -had no uniforms and their arms were of the poorest kind and -mostly out of order. They dared not attack the Japanese -even when there was good hope of success. The generals -showed the king the ways and means of holding the freebooters -in check but he would not follow their advice, probably -on account of the expense. He paid dearly for his economy -in the end.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The mother of the king could not be brought to treat -<a id='corr258_15'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Sindon'>Sin-don</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_258_15'><ins class='correction' title='Sindon'>Sin-don</ins></a></span> with respect. When the king expostulated with her -and told her that the favorite was the pillar of the state she -declared that he was a low-born adventurer and that she -would not treat him as her equal. From that time she incurred -the deadly enmity of the favorite who used every -means in his power to influence the king against her. He -became suspicious of everyone who held any high position -and caused many of the highest officials to be put to death. -He was commonly called “The Tiger.” The depth of the -king’s infatuation was shown when in this same year he went -to a monastery to give thanks to Buddha for the cessation of -famine, which he ascribed to his having taken <a id='corr258_25'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Sindon'>Sin-don</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_258_25'><ins class='correction' title='Sindon'>Sin-don</ins></a></span> as -counsellor. It is also shown in the impunity with which Sin-don -took the king to task in public for certain things that -displeased him. The favorite was playing with fire. The -people sent to the king repeatedly asking if the rumors of the -favorite’s drunkenness and debaucheries were correct. But -the king’s eyes had not yet been opened to the true state of -affairs and these petitioners were severely punished.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span> - <h3 class='c011'>Chapter XI.</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c012'>Sin-don’s pride.... Mongol Emperor’s plan of escape to Koryŭ.... Mongol -Empire falls.... Japanese envoy snubbed.... an imperial letter -from the Ming court.... ill treatment of Japanese envoy bears fruit.... -more trouble in Quelpart.... census and revenue.... Gen. Yi -promoted.... Koryŭ adopts Ming dress and coiffure.... Gen. Yi makes -a campaign across the Yalu.... the Japanese come north of the -capital.... Sin-don is overthrown.... popular belief regarding him.... -trouble from three sources at the same time.... a Mongol messenger.... -the Japanese burn Han-yang.... a new favorite.... a laughing-stock.... -Chöng Mong-ju an envoy to Nanking.... plans for a -navy.... useless army.... Ming Emperor demands horses.... Quelpart -rebels defeated.... king assassinated.... Ming Emperor refuses to -ratify the succession.... Mongols favored at the Koryŭ court.... -a supernatural proof.... Japanese repulsed.... Japanese deny their -responsibility for the action of corsairs.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The year 1367 saw no diminution of the symptoms that -proclaimed the deep-seated disease that was eating at the -vitals of Koryŭ. Sin-don even dared to flout the emperor by -scornfully casting aside an imperial missive containing a -notification of his elevation to an honorary position. The -king continued to abase himself by performing menial duties -in Buddhistic ceremonies at his favorite monastery. Sin-don -added to his other claims the power of geomancy and said the -king must move the capital to P‘yŭng-yang. He was sent -to look over the site with a view to a removal thither, but a -storm of hail frightened him out of the project. Returning -to Song-do he refused to see the king for four days, urging as -his excuse the fatigue of the journey. His encroachments -continued to such a point that at last he took no care to appear -before the king in the proper court dress but came in the -ordinary dress of the Koryŭ gentleman, and he ordered the -historians not to mention the fact in the annals.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Mongol horse-breeders still ruffled it in high style -on the island of Quelpart where they even saw fit to drive -out the prefect sent by the king. For this reason an expedition -was fitted out against them and they were soon brought to -terms. They however appealed to the emperor. As it -<span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>happened the Mongol emperor was at this time in desperate -straits and foresaw the impossibility of long holding Peking -against the Ming forces. He therefore formed the plan of -escaping to the island of Quelpart and there finding asylum. -For this purpose he sent large store of treasure -and of other necessaries to this place. At the same time he -sent an envoy to the court at Song-do relinquishing all claim -to the island. In this way he apparently hoped to gain the -good will of Koryŭ, of which he feared he would soon stand -in need. The king, not knowing the emperor’s design, -feared that this was a device by which to raise trouble and he -hastened to send an envoy declaring that the expeditions to -Quelpart were not in reference to the Mongols there but -in order to dislodge a band of Japanese freebooters. The -former prefects had always treated the people of Quelpart -harshly and had exacted large sums from them on any and -every pretext; but the prefect now sent was determined to -show the people a different kind of rule. He even carried -jars of water from the mainland rather than drink the water -of Quelpart. So at least the records affirm. Naturally the -people idolized him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 1368 opened, the year which beheld the demolition -of the Mongol empire. It had risen less than a century -before and had increased with marvelous rapidity until it -threatened the whole eastern hemisphere. Its decadence had -been as rapid and as terrible as its rise. The Mongols were -peculiarly unfit to resist the seductions of the more refined -civilizations which they encountered. The Ming forces -drove the Mongol court from Peking and the dethroned -emperor betook himself northward into the desert to the -town of Sa-mak.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This year also witnessed the arrival of a friendly embassy -from Japan bearing gifts to the king. Here was Koryŭ’s -great opportunity to secure the coöperation of the Japanese -government in the work of putting down the pirates who -were harrying the shores of the peninsula. Proper treatment -of this envoy and a little diplomacy would have saved Koryŭ -untold suffering, but the low-born but all-powerful favorite, -Sin-don, took advantage of the occasion to make an exhibition -of his own importance and he snubbed the envoy so -<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>effectually that the latter immediately returned to Japan. -The foolish favorite went so far as to withhold proper food -from him and his suite, and addressed them in low forms -of speech. The same year, at his instigation, the whole -system of national examinations was done away with.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i260.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>A FORM OF SEPULTURE.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Early in 1369 the first envoy, Sŭl Sa, from the Ming court -arrived in Song-do. He was the bearer of an imperial letter -which read as <a id='corr261_8'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='follow'>follows</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_261_8'><ins class='correction' title='follow'>follows</ins></a></span>:-</p> - -<p class='c000'>“After the Sung dynasty lost its power, a hundred years -passed by without its recovering from the blow, but heaven -hated the drunkenness and licentiousness of the Mongols and -now after eighteen years of war the fruition of our labors has -been reached. At first we entered the Mongol army and -there beheld the evils of the Mongol reign. Then with -heaven’s help we went to the west, to Han-ju and overcame -its king Chin U-ryang. Then we raised the standard of revolt -against the Mongols. In the east we overcame the rebel -Chang Sa-sŭng and in the south the Min-wŏl kingdom. In -the north the Ho-in fell before us and now all the people of -China call us emperor. The name of our dynasty is Ming -and the name of this auspicious year is Hong-mu. We call -upon you now as in duty bound to render allegiance to -us. In times past you were very intimate with us for -it was your desire to better the condition of your people -thereby.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Such was the importance of this embassy that the king -went out in person to meet it. Splendid gifts were offered -which, however, the envoy declined.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In accordance with the summons contained in this letter -the king formally put away the Mongol calendar and assumed -that of the Mings instead. An envoy was immediately sent -to the Ming court to offer congratulations and perform the -duties of a vassal. The emperor responded graciously by -sending back to Koryŭ all citizens of that kingdom who had -been held in semi-durance by the Mongols.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The criminal neglect of opportunity in driving away the -friendly Japanese envoy now began to bear its bitter fruit. -Many Japanese had from time to time settled peacefully in -southern Koryŭ and the king had given them a place to live at -Nam-hă in Kyŭng-sang Province. They now broke their oath -<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>of fealty to the government, rose in open revolt and began -ravaging the country right and left.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the emperor of the Mongols had fled away north and -his scheme for taking refuge in Quelpart had come to naught -we would suppose the Mongol horse-breeders in that island -would act with considerable circumspection; but on the other -hand they kept up a continual disturbance, revolting and -surrendering again in quick succession much to the annoyance -of the central government.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the latter part of the year 1369 the government again -took a census of the arable land of the peninsula in order to -make a re-estimate of the revenue to be received. This indicates -that there had been a certain degree of prosperity in -spite of all untoward circumstances and that the margin of -cultivation had moved at least a little way up the hill-sides, -and that waste land had been reclaimed. It is only by inferences -from chance statements like this that we get an -occasional imperfect glimpse of the condition of the common -people. Oriental histories have not been written with reference -to the common people.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king had now handed over to Sin-don the whole -care of public business and he was virtually the ruler of the -land. Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo had shown his wisdom in staying as -far as possible from the capital and in not crossing the path -of the dangerous favorite. He was now appointed general-in-chief -of all the north-eastern territory and at the same -time Gen. Yi Im-in was appointed to a similar position in the -north-west. There was some fear lest fugitive Mongols -might cross the border and seek refuge in Koryŭ territory. -The chief business of the army there was to guard all the -approaches and see to it that such fugitives were strictly -excluded. In the following year, 1370, Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo even -crossed the Yalu, probably in the vicinity of the present -Sam-su, into what was then Yŭ-jin territory, and took 2000 -bullocks and 100 horses, but gave them all to the people to be -used in cultivating the fields.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Now that the Ming dynasty was firmly established the -emperor turned his attention to Korea. He began by investing -the king anew with the insignia of royalty and -presenting him with a complete outfit of clothes of the style -<span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>of the Ming dynasty. He also gave musical instruments and -the Ming calendar. The important law was promulgated that -after a man had passed the civil examinations in Koryŭ he -should go to Nanking and there undergo further examination. -The king received all the emperor’s <a id='corr263_4'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='gfts'>gifts</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_263_4'><ins class='correction' title='gfts'>gifts</ins></a></span> and commands -with complacency and soon the Ming dress was adopted -throughout by the official class and more gradually by the -common people. It is the style of dress in vogue in Korea -today, whereas the Chinese themselves adopted later the -dress of their Manchu <a id='corr263_9'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='conquerers'>conquerors</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_263_9'><ins class='correction' title='conquerers'>conquerors</ins></a></span>. In this respect the -Koreans today are really more Chinese <a id='corr263_10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='that'>than</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_263_10'><ins class='correction' title='that'>than</ins></a></span> the Chinese themselves.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With the opening of 1371 Gen. Yi led an army across -the Yalu and attacked Ol-ja Fortress. The whole territory -between the Yalu and the Great Wall was at this time held -by the Yŭ-jin people or by offshoots of the Mongol power. -The Ming emperor had as yet made no attempt to take it and -therefore this expedition of Koryŭ’s was not looked upon as -an act of bad faith by China. Just before the attack on Ol-ja -began, there came over to the Koryŭ forces a general who, -formerly a Koryŭ citizen, had long been in the Mongol -service. His name was Yi In-bok. Gen. Yi sent him to -Song-do where the king elevated him to a high position. A -bridge had been thrown across the Yalu and the army had -crossed in safety, but a tremendous thunder storm threw -the army into confusion, for they feared it was a warning -voice from a deity who was angered by this invasion of trans-Yalu -territory. With great presence of mind one of the -leaders shouted that it was a good sign for it meant that the -heavenly dragon was shaking things up a bit as a presage of -their victory. Their fears were thus allayed and the attack -upon the fortress was successful. Gen. Yi then led his -forces toward the Liao Fortress but cautiously left all the -camp baggage three days in the rear and advanced, with seven -days rations in hand. The advance guard of 3000 reached the -fortress and began the assault before the main body came up. -When the garrison saw the full army approach they were in -despair but their commander was determined to make a fight. -As he stood on the wall and in person refused Gen. Yi’s -terms it is said that the latter drew his bow and let fly an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>arrow which sped so true that it struck off the commander’s -helmet, whereupon Gen. Yi shouted, “If you do not surrender -I will hit your face next time.” The commander thereupon -surrendered. So Gen. Yi took the place and having -dismantled it and burned all the supplies, started on the return -march. Provisions ran low, and it was found necessary -to kill the beasts of burden. They were in some danger from -the detachments of the enemy who hung upon their rear but -they were kept at a respectful distance by an ingenious strategem -of Gen. Yi’s, for wherever he made a camp he compelled -the soldiers to make elaborate preparations even to the extent of -erecting separate cattle sheds and water closets. The enemy -finding these in the deserted camps deemed that the army -must be in fine condition and so dared not attack them. -Thus the whole army got safely back to An-ju.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the Japanese pirates, emboldened by the impunity -with which they could ravage Korea, now came even north of -the capital and attacked Hă-ju the capital of Whang-hă -Province, and also burned forty Koryŭ boats, Gen. Yi was -detailed to go and drive them away, which he speedily -did.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The royal favorite was now nearing the catastrophe -toward which his criminally corrupt course inevitably led. -He was well known to all but the king whom he had infatuated. -But now he began to see that the end was not far -off. He knew that soon the king too would discover his -knavery. For this cause he determined to use the little -power he had left in an attempt to overthrow the government. -What the plan was we are not told but it was nipped in the -bud, for the king discovered it and arrested some of his accomplices -and by means of torture learned the whole truth -about the man whom he had before considered too good for -this world. The revulsion of feeling was complete. He -first banished Sin-don to Su-wŭn and then at the urgent -advice of the whole court sent an executioner to make way -with him. The messenger of death bore a letter with him in -which the king said, “I promised never to move against you -but I never anticipated such actions as those of which you -have been guilty. You have (1) rebelled, (2) you have numerous -children, though a monk and unmarried, (3) you have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span>built yourself a palace in my capital. These things I did not -agree to.” So Sin-don and his two sons perished.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is said of Sin-don that he was mortally afraid of hunting-dogs -and that in his feasts he insisted upon having the -flesh of black fowls and white horses to eat. For these reasons -the people said that he was not a man but a fox in disguise; -for Korean lore affirms that if any animal drinks of -water that has lain for twenty years in a human skull it will -have the power to assume at will any form of man or -beast. But the peculiar condition is added that if a hunting-dog -looks such a man in the face he will be compelled to resume -his original shape.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With the opening of 1372 troubles multiplied. Nap -T‘ap-chul, a Mongol chieftain at large, together with Ko-gan, -led a mixed army of Mongol and Yŭ-jin adventurers -across the Yalu and began to harry the northern border. -Gen. Chi Yun was sent to put down the presumptuous robbers. -At the same time the Quelpart horse-breeders again -revolted and when the king, at the command of the emperor, -sent a man to bring horses as tribute to China the insurrectionists -put him to death. But the common people of Quelpart -formed a sort of militia and put down the insurrection -themselves. The Japanese also made trouble, for they now -began again to ravage the eastern coast, and struck as high -north as An-byŭn, and Ham-ju, now Ham-heung. They -also carried on operations at Nam-han near Seoul, but in -both instances were driven off.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is said that at this time the king was given over to -sodomy and that he had a “school” of boys at the palace to -cater to his unnatural passions. The people were deeply -indignant and talk ran very high, but the person of the king -was sacred, and his acts were not to be accounted for; so he -went his evil way unchecked, each step bringing him nearer -the overthrow of the dynasty which was now not far away.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Late in the year the king sent a present of fifty horses -to the Ming emperor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>No sooner had the spring of 1373 opened than the remnant -of the Mongols in the north sent to the king and said -“We are about to raise a mighty force to overthrow the -Ming empire, and you must cooperate with us in this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span>work.” The messenger who brought this unwelcome summons -was promptly clapped into prison, but later at the -advice of the courtiers he was liberated and sent back home.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It would be well-nigh impossible to describe each successive -expedition of the Japanese to the shores of Koryŭ, but -at this time one of unusual importance occurred. The marauders -ascended the Han River in their small boats and -made a swift attack on Han-yang the site of the present -capital of Korea. Before leaving they burned it to the -ground. The slaughter was terrific and the whole country -and especially the capital was thrown into a state of unusual -solicitude. The Japanese, loaded down with booty, made -their way to the island of Kyo-dong just outside the island -of Kang-wha, and proceeded to kill and plunder there.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The boy whom the king had called his son but who was in -reality an illegitimate son of Sin-don, was named Mo-ri-no, but -now as he had gained his majority he was given the name of -U and the rank of Kang-neung-gun, or “Prince who is near -to the king.” As Sin-don was dead the king made Kim -Heung-gyŭng his favorite and pander. Gen. Kŭl Săng was -put in charge of the defensive operations against the Japanese -but as he failed to cashier one of his lieutenants who had -suffered defeat at the hands of the Japanese the testy king -took off his unoffending head. Gen. Ch‘oe Yŭng was then -put in charge and ordered to fit out a fleet to oppose the -marauders. He was at the same time made criminal judge, -but he committed so many ludicrous mistakes and made such -a travesty of justice that he became a general laughing -stock.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the Ming capital was at Nanking the sending of -envoys was a difficult matter, for they were obliged to go by -boat, and in those days, and with the craft at their command, -anything but coastwise sailing was exceedingly dangerous. -So when the Koryŭ envoy Chöng Mong-ju, one of the few -great men of the Koryŭ dynasty, arrived at the emperor’s -court, the latter ordered that thereafter envoys should come -but once in three years. In reply to this the king said that -if desired the envoy could be sent overland; but this the -emperor forbade because of the danger from the remnants of -the Mongol power.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span>The eventful year 1374 now came in. Gen. Yi Hyŭn -told the king that without a navy Koryŭ would never be -able to cope with Japanese pirates. He showed the king a -plan for a navy which he had drawn up. His majesty was -pleased with it and ordered it carried out, but the general -affirmed that a navy never could be made out of landsmen -and that a certain number of islanders should be selected and -taught naval tactics for five years. In order to do this he -urged that a large part of the useless army be disbanded. -To all of this the royal assent was given. The quality of the -army may be judged from the action of the troops sent south -to Kyŭng-sang Province to oppose a band of Japanese. They -ravaged and looted as badly as the Japanese themselves. And -when at last the two forces did meet the Koryŭ troops were -routed with a loss of 5,000 men. Meanwhile the Japanese -were working their will in Whang-hă Province, north and -west of the capital, and as to the details of it even the annals -give up in despair and say the details were so harrowing that -it was impossible to describe them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor of China was determined to obtain 2,000 of -the celebrated horses bred on the island of Quelpart and after -repeated demands the king sent to that island to procure -them. The Mongol horse-breeders still had the business in -hand and were led by four men who said, “We are Mongols, -why should we furnish the Ming emperor with horses?” So -they gave only 300 animals. The emperor insisted upon -having the full 2,000 and the king reluctantly proceeded to -extremities. A fleet of 300 boats was fitted out and 25,000 -men were carried across the straits. On the way a gale of -wind was encountered and many of the boats were swamped, -but the following morning the survivors, still a large number, -arrived at Myŭng-wŭl, or “Bright Moon,” Harbor where -they found 3,000 men drawn up to oppose their landing. -When the battle was joined the enemy was defeated and -chased thirty <em>li</em> but they again rallied in the southern part of -the island at Ho-do where they made a stand. There they -were surrounded and compelled to surrender. The leader, -T‘ap-chi was cut in two at the waist and many others committed -suicide. Several hundreds others who refused to surrender -were cut down. To the credit of the officers who led -<span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span>the expedition be it said that wherever they went the people -were protected and lawless acts were strictly forbidden.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king had now reached the moment of his fate. The -blood of many innocent men was on his hands and he was -destined to a violent death himself. He was stabbed by one -of his most trusted eunuchs while in a drunken sleep. The -king’s mother was the first to discover the crime and with -great presence of mind she concealed the fact and hastily -summoning two of the courtiers consulted with them as to -the best means of discovering the murderer. As it happened -the eunuch was detected by the blood with which his clothes -were stained. Put to the torture he confessed the crime -and indicated his accomplice. The cause of his act was as -follows. One of the king’s concubines was with child. When -the eunuch informed the king the latter was very glad and -asked who the father might be. The eunuch replied that -one Hong Mun, one of the king’s favorites, was the father. -The king said that he would bring about the death of this -Hong so that no one should ever know that the child was not -a genuine prince. The eunuch knew that this meant his -own death too, for he also was privy to the fact. So he -hastened to Hung Mun and they together matured the plan -for the assassination.</p> - -<p class='c000'>U, the supposed son of the king, now ascended the -throne. His posthumous title is Sin-u. An envoy was sent -to Nanking to announce the fact, but the emperor refused to -ratify his accession to the throne. The reason may have -been because he was not satisfied as to the manner of the late -king’s demise, or it may be that someone had intimated to -him that the successor was of doubtful legitimacy; and now -to add to the <a id='corr268_31'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='dfficulties'>difficulties</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_268_31'><ins class='correction' title='dfficulties'>difficulties</ins></a></span> of the situation the Ming envoy on -his way home with 200 tribute horses was waylaid by Korean -renegades who stole the horses and escaped to the far north. -When news of this reached Nanking the Korean envoy there -hastened to make good his escape.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A conference was now held at the Koryŭ capital and as -the breach with the Ming power seemed beyond remedy it -was decided to make advances to the Mongols who still -lingered in the north; but at the earnest desire of Chöng -Mong-ju this decision was reversed and an envoy was sent to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span>Nanking to explain matters as best he could. The eunuch -and his accomplice who had killed the king were now executed -and notice of the fact was sent to the Chinese court.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There was great dissatisfaction among the Koryŭ officials -for they all knew that the king was a mere usurper and it -was again suggested that approaches be made to the Mongols. -About this time also a Mongol envoy came demanding to -know whose son the present king was. They wanted to put -the king of Mukden on the throne, as he was of course -favorable to the Mongols. A great and acrimonious dispute -now arose between the Mongol and Ming factions in the -Koryŭ court. But the Mongol sympathizers carried the day. -This, however, came to nothing for when news came that -the king of Mukden and many Koryŭ renegades were advancing -in force on the Koryŭ frontier to take by force what the -officials had decided to give unasked, there was a great revulsion -of feeling and troops were sent to hold them in check. -This was in 1376, and while this was in progress the Japanese -were carrying fire and sword <a id='corr269_19'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='thrugh'>through</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_269_19'><ins class='correction' title='thrugh'>through</ins></a></span> the south without let or -hindrance.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Pan-ya the real mother of the king came forward and -claimed her position as such, but another of the former king’s -concubines, Han, had always passed as the boy’s mother and -she was now loath to give up the advantages which the -position afforded. For this reason she secured the arrest and -imprisonment of Pan-yu. It was decided that she must die -and she was carried to the water’s edge and was about to be -thrown in when she exclaimed, “When I die one of the -palace gates will fall as a sign of my innocence and the truth -of my claim.” The story runs that when she sank beneath -the water this came true and all knew, too late, that she was -indeed the mother of the king.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Japanese now made their appearance again in Ch‘ung-Ch‘ŭng -Province and took the town of Kong-ju. The Korean -forces under Gen. Pak In-gye were there routed but not -till their leader had been thrown from his horse and killed. -Then an army under Gen. Ch‘oé Yŭng met them at Hong-san. -The general rushed forward ahead of his men to attack -the marauders and was wounded by an arrow in the mouth -but he did not retire from the fight. The result was a glorious -<span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>victory for the Koryŭ forces. The Japanese were almost -annihilated.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Some time before this the king had sent an envoy Na -Heung-yu to Japan to ask the interference of the Japanese -Government against the pirates, and the reply was now brought -by the hand of a Japanese monk Yang Yu. It said. “The -pirates all live in western Japan in a place called Ku-ju and -they are rebels against us and have been for twenty years. -So we are not at fault because of the harm they have done -you. We are about to send an expedition against them and -if we take Ku-ju we swear that we will put an end to the -piracy.” But the pirates in the meantime ravaged Kang-wha -and large portions of Chŭl-la Province.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter XII.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>A Mongol proposal.... “The Revellers”.... friends with the Mongols.... -Gen. Yi takes up arms against the Japanese.... victorious.... -envoys to and from Japan.... gun-powder.... defeat turned into victory -by Gen. Yi.... fire arrows.... vacillation.... prophecy.... Japan -helps Koryŭ.... jealousies.... a reckless king.... Gen. Yi’s stratagem.... -a triumphal return.... the emperor loses patience.... a coast -guard.... stone fights.... heavy tribute.... the capital moved.... -Japanese repelled.... lukewarm Koryŭ.... a disgraceful act.... Gen. -Yi victorious in the north.... the emperor angry.... Japan sends back -Koryŭ captives.... a skillful diplomat.... fine sarcasm.... a grave -error.... victory in the northeast.... untold excesses.... “Old Cat”.... -tribute rejected.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Toward the close of 1377 the Mongol chieftain In-puk-wŭn -sent the king a letter saying, “Let us join forces and -attack the Ming power.” At the same time he sent back all -the Koryŭ people who had been taken captive at various -times. The king’s answer was a truly diplomatic one. He -said, “I will do so if you will first send the king of Mukden to -me, bound hand and foot.” We need hardly say that this -request was not granted.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The next attack of the Japanese extended all along the -southern coast. The general who had been placed in the -south to guard against them spent his time feasting with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>courtezans and he and his officers were commonly known as -“The Revellers.” Fighting was not at all in their intentions. -When the king learned of this he banished the -general to a distant island. Affairs at the capital were not -going well. Officials were so numerous that the people again -made use of the term “Smoke House Officials,” for there were -so many that nearly every house in the capital furnished one. -They tampered with the list of appointments and without the -king’s knowledge slipped in the names of their friends. So -the people in contempt called it the “Secret List.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The coquetting with the Mongols brought forth fruit -when early in 1378 they invested the king of Koryŭ and he -adopted the Mongol name of the year. It is said that this -caused great delight among the Mongols and that they now -thought that with the help of Koryŭ they would be able to -again establish their power in China.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After the Japanese had ravaged to their hearts’ content -in Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng Province and had killed 1000 men on -Kang-wha and had burned fifty boats, the king did what he -ought to have done long before, namely, appointed Gen. Yi -T‘ă-jo as General-in-chief of the Koryŭ forces. He took -hold of the matter in earnest and summoned a great number -of monks to aid in the making of boats for coast defence. -The pirates now were ravaging the east and south and were -advancing on Song-do. The king wanted to run away but -was dissuaded. The Japanese were strongest in Kyŭng-sang -Province. Gen Yi’s first encounter with them was at Chi-ri -Mountain in Chŭl-la Province and he there secured a great -victory, demonstrating what has always been true, that -under good leadership Koreans make excellent soldiers. When -the Koryŭ troops had advanced within 200 paces of the enemy -a burly Japanese was seen leaping and showing himself -off before his fellows. Gen. Yi took a cross-bow and at the -first shot laid the fellow low. The remainder of the Japanese -fled up the mountain and took their stand in a solid mass -which the records say resembled a hedge-hog; but Gen. Yi -soon found a way to penetrate this phalanx and the pirates -were slaughtered almost <a id='corr271_38'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='to man'>to a man</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_271_38'><ins class='correction' title='to man'>to a man</ins></a></span>. But Gen. Yi could not be -everywhere at once and in the meantime Kang-wha again -suffered. Gen. Yi was next seen fighting in Whang-hă Province -<span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>at Hă-ju, where he burned the Japanese out from behind -wooden defenses and slaughtered them without quarter.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Japanese Government had not been able as yet to -put down the pirates, but now an envoy, Sin Hong, a monk, -came with gifts declaring that the government was not a -party to the expeditions of the freebooters and that it was -very difficult to overcome them. And so the work went on, -now on one coast of the country and now on another. The -king sent an envoy to the Japanese Shogun, P‘ă-ga-dă, to -ask his interference, but the shogun imprisoned the envoy -and nearly starved him to death and then sent him back. -The king wanted to send another, but the courtiers were all -afraid. They all hated the wise and learned Chöng Mong-ju -and told the king to send him. He was quite willing to go -and, arriving at the palace of the shogun, he spoke out -fearlessly and rehearsed the friendly relations that had existed -between the two countries, and created a very good impression. -He was very popular both with the shogun himself -and with the Japanese courtiers and when he returned -to Koryŭ the shogun sent a general, Chu Mang-in, as escort -and also 200 Koreans who had at some previous time been -taken captive. The shogun also so far complied with the -king’s request as to break up the piratical settlements on the -Sam-do or “Three islands.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>A man named Im Sŭn-mu had learned among the Mongols -the art of making gunpowder and a bureau was now -formed to attend to its manufacture but as yet there were no -firearms.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With the opening of 1379 things looked blacker than -ever. The Japanese were swarming in Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng Province -and on Kang-wha. The king was in mortal fear and -had the walls of Song-do carefully guarded. Gen. Ch‘oe -Yŭng was sent to hold them in check. The Japanese knew -that no one but he stood between them and Song-do so they -attacked him fiercely and soon put him to flight; but in the -very nick of time Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo came up with his cavalry, -turned the retreating forces about and attacked the enemy so -fiercely that defeat was turned into a splendid victory. A -messenger arrived breathless at the gate of Song-do saying -that Gen. Ch‘oé had been defeated.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>All was instantly in turmoil; the king had all his valuables -packed and was ready to flee at a moment’s warning. -But lo! another messenger followed hard upon the heels of the -first announcing that Gen. Yi had turned the tide of battle -and had wrested victory from the teeth of the enemy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The good will of the Japanese government was shown -when a prefect in western Japan sent sixty soldiers under -the command of a monk, Sin Hong, to aid in the putting -down of the corsairs. They made some attempts to check -their lawless countrymen but soon found that they had -undertaken more than they had bargained for, and so returned -to Japan. As the pirates were ravaging the west -coast as far north as P‘yŭng-yang, the king sent against -them Generals Na Se and Sim Tŭk-pu who had been successful -before. By the use of fire-arrows they succeeded in -burning several of the enemy’s boats at Chin-p‘o and of -course had the fellows at their mercy, for they had no means -of escape.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is evident the king did not know his own mind in relation -to Chinese suzerainty. Now he favored the Mongols -and now the Mings. A year or so before this he had adopted -the Mongol name of the year but now he turns about and -adopts the Ming name again. It was this vacillation, this -playing fast and loose with his obligations, that alienated the -good-will of the Ming emperor and made him look with -complacency upon the <a id='corr273_27'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='disolution'>dissolution</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_273_27'><ins class='correction' title='disolution'>dissolution</ins></a></span> of the Koryŭ dynasty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Late in the autumn of 1379 the Japanese were again in -dangerous proximity to the capital and the king wanted to -move to a safer place. The geomancers’ book of prophecies -indicated Puk-so San as “A narrow place and good for a king -to live in,” but the courtiers opposed it, saying that there was -no large river flowing near by, on which the government rice -could be brought by boat to the capital. So it was given up.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There was a Mongol general named Ko-ga-no who had -become independent of the main body of the Mongols and had -set up a separate government on his own responsibility in -Liao-tung. He was wavering between natural ties on the -one hand, which bound him to the Mongols, and the dictates -of common sense on the other, which indicated the rising -fortunes of the Ming. He chose a middle course by coming -<span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>with his 40,000 men and asking the privilege of joining -Koryŭ. The records do not say whether permission -was given or not, but we may easily believe it was.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1380 the Japanese government sent 180 soldiers under -the command of Gen. Pak Kŭ-sa to aid in driving the -pirates out of Koryŭ. In the midst of these dangers from -freebooters, jealousy was undermining the government at -Song-do. Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo had a friend named Gen. Yang -Păk-yŭn who now under false charges, enviously made by -officials near the king, was banished and then killed. It was -wonderful that the fame of Gen. Yi did not bring about his -murder.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Ming emperor thought, and rightly, that the king -was a very fickle individual and sent a letter asking him why -it was that he had no settled policy but did everything as the -impulse of the moment led. The king’s reply is not recorded -but that he did not take to heart the admonitions of the -emperor is quite evident, for he plunged into greater excesses -than ever. His ill-timed hunting expeditions, his drunkenness -and debauchery were the scandal of the country. The -people thought he ought to be hunting Japanese pirates -rather than wild boar and deer. Even while the Japanese -were ravaging Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng Province the king was -trampling down the people’s rice-fields in the pursuit of -game. He stole the people’s cattle and horses whenever he -needed them and if he chanced to see a good looking girl -anywhere he took means to possess himself of her person by -fair means or foul. He was indeed the son of Sin-don both -by blood and by disposition.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This year the ravages of the freebooters exceeded anything -that had been known before. The southern provinces -were honeycombed by them. Generals Pă Keuk-yŭm and -Chöng Chi were sent against them but without result. At last -the Japanese laughingly asserted that they soon would be in -the city of Song-do. They might have gone there if Gen. Yi -had not been sent in person to direct the campaign against -them. Hastening south he rallied around him all the available -troops and came to Un-bong in Chŭl-la province. He -ascended Chöng San which lay six miles from the camp of the -enemy. From this point he perceived that there were two -<span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>roads leading to this camp; one broad and easy and the -other narrow and rough. With great sagacity he judged that -the Japanese would take the narrow road, hoping to make a -counter march on him. So he sent a considerable force by -the broad road but selected a band of trusty men to form an -ambush on the narrow one. The Japanese acted precisely as -he had foreseen. When they learned that the Koryŭ army -was approaching they hastened away by the narrow road and -so fell into the ambush, where they were severely handled. -Fifty of their number were left dead. The remainder sought -safety in the mountains but were soon brought to bay. -The whole Koryŭ army was called up and the attack upon -the Japanese position was begun. It was necessary to attack -up a steep incline and Gen. Yi had two horses shot out from -under him, and an arrow pierced his leg; but he drew it out -and continued the fight. Among the enemy was a man stronger -and larger than the rest. He stood spear in hand and danced -about, urging on his comrades. He was encased in armor -and on his head was a copper helmet. There was no opening -for an arrow to enter; so Gen. Yi said to his lieutenant, Yi -Tu-ran, “Make ready an arrow and when I strike off his -helmet do you aim at his face.” Gen. Yi took careful aim -and struck off the man’s helmet and swift behind his arrow -flew that of his lieutenant which laid the fellow low. This -demoralized the enemy and they were soon hewn down. It -is said that for days the stream near by ran red with blood. -As the result of this victory 1600 horses were taken and a -large amount of spoil, including implements of war.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the victorious general returned to Song-do he was -given a triumphal entry and fifty ounces of gold and other -gifts were distributed among the generals who assisted him. -It is said that, from that time on, whenever the news came -that a Japanese band had disembarked on the southern coast -the first word that was spoken was, “Where is Gen. Yi -T‘ă-jo?”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The long-suffering emperor at last tired of the <a id='corr275_36'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='eratic'>erratic</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_275_36'><ins class='correction' title='eratic'>erratic</ins></a></span> -course of the Koryŭ king and decided to bring a little pressure -to bear upon him in order to bring him to his senses. -He ordered the king to send him each year a thousand horses, -a hundred pounds of gold, five thousand ounces of silver and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span>five thousand pieces of cotton cloth. This was beyond the -means of the king, but he succeeded in sending three hundred -ounces of gold, a thousand ounces of silver, four hundred and -fifty horses and four thousand five hundred pieces of cotton. -This large amount of tribute was delivered into the hands of -the governor of Liao-tung to be sent to the imperial court, -but the governor declared that as the tax was a penal one -and not merely for tribute he could not accept less than the -full amount required. So he drove the envoy away.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1382 the government adopted a new policy in the -matter of coast defense. In all the larger seaport towns -generals were stationed in charge of considerable bodies of -troops and in the smaller towns garrisons of proportional -strength. The constant coming and going of these troops -was a terrible drain upon the resources of the people but -there was no help for it. The piratical raids of the Japanese -had now become so frequent that no attempt was made to -keep a record of them. It would have been easier for the -people to bear had the king showed any of the characteristics -of manhood, but his feasts and revels saw no abatement. -Frequently he was so intoxicated that he fell from his horse -while hunting. He peopled the palace with dancing-girls -and it may be said of him as it was of Nero that he “fiddled -while Rome was burning.” As the king rode forth to hunt -with falcon on wrist the eunuchs rode behind him singing -ribald Mongol songs. When other pleasures cloyed he invented -a sort of mock battle in which stones were used as -missiles. It is believed by many that this was the beginning -of the popular “stone-fight,” which is such a unique -custom of Korea today. Once he amused himself by pretending -that he was going to bury one of his officials alive behind -the palace, and he hugely enjoyed the poor fellow’s shrieks -and struggles. He made this same official put up his hat as -a target, than which hardly anything could be a greater -disgrace, for the hat in Korea is the badge of citizenship and -is held in such esteem that no one will attend to the duties of -nature without taking off his hat and laying it aside.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Being hard pressed by the emperor in the matter of tribute -it is said that in 1383 he sent to the Ming court a hundred -pounds of gold, ten thousand ounces of silver, ten thousand -<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>pieces of linen and a thousand horses. The records say the -emperor refused to take it, for it fell short of his demands. -It is probable that this means not that it was sent back but -that the emperor refused to give a receipt in full of all -demands.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In this same year, 1383, the capital was again moved to -Han-yang. The reasons alleged were that so many misfortunes -overtook the dynasty that it seemed as if the site of the -capital must be unpropitious. It was also said that wild -animals entered the city, which was a bad sign. The water -in the wells had boiled, fish fought with each other, and a -number of other fictions were invented, all of which made it -necessary to move the capital. It was effected, however, in -the face of great opposition. Meanwhile the Japanese were -working their will in the south, for Gen. Yi was in the north -repelling an attack by the Yŭ-jin forces.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In spite of the sending of tribute to the Ming court, Koryŭ -was on good terms with the Mongols. In 1384 the -Mongol chief Nap-t‘ap-chul came with gifts to the king and -frequent envoys were exchanged. Koryŭ was neither hot -nor cold but lukewarm and for this reason it was that the -Mings finally spewed her out of their mouth. The capricious -king now moved back to Song-do and the courtiers were put -to no end of trouble and expense. When they returned to -Song-do with the king they burned all their houses in Han-yang -so as to make it impossible to return.</p> - -<p class='c000'>One of the most disgraceful acts of this king was his attempt -to possess himself of his father’s wife, or concubine. -Meeting her one day he commented on her beauty and said -she was more beautiful than any of his wives. He tried to -force his way into her apartments at night but in some way -his plan was frustrated. When one of the courtiers took him -to task for his irregularities he tried to shoot him through -with an arrow.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. <a id='corr277_35'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Yi t‘ă-jo'>Yi T‘ă-jo</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_277_35'><ins class='correction' title='Yi t‘ă-jo'>Yi T‘ă-jo</ins></a></span> was having a lively time in the north with -the Yŭ-jin people. Their general was Ho-bal-do. His helmet -was four pounds in weight. He wore a suit of red armor -and he rode a black horse. Riding forth from the ranks he -shouted insulting words to Gen. Yi and dared him to single -combat. The latter accepted the gage and soon the two were -<span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span>at work striking blows that no ordinary man could withstand. -Neither could gain the advantage until by a lucky chance the -horse of Gen. Ho stumbled, and before the rider could recover -himself Gen. Yi had an arrow in his neck. But the helmet -saved him from a serious wound. Then Gen. Yi shot his -horse under him. At sight of this Gen. Ho’s soldiers rushed -up, as did also those of Gen. Yi, and the fight became general. -The result was an overwhelming victory for Koryŭ. These -flattering statements about the founder of the present dynasty -are probably, in many cases, the result of hero-worship -but the reader has the privilege of discounting them at -discretion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Ming court knew all about Koryŭ’s coquetting with -the Mongols and sent a severe letter warning her that the -consequences of this would be disastrous. The king was -frightened and sent an envoy in haste to the Ming court to -“make it right,” but the emperor cast him into prison and -sent demanding five years’ tribute at once. We may well believe -that this demand was not complied with.</p> - -<p class='c000'>That there were two opinions in Japan as regards Koryŭ -is shown by the fact that immediately after that government -sent back 200 Koryŭ citizens, who had been carried away -captive, a sanguinary expedition lauded on the coast of Kang-wŭn -Province near the town of Kang-neung and ravaged -right away north as far as Nang-ch‘ŭn.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king, in partial compliance with the emperor’s -demands sent, in the spring of 1385, 2000 horses to China. -It was the faithful Chöng Mong-ju who accompanied this -peace offering, and when he arrived in Nanking the emperor -saw by the date of his commission that he had come in -extreme haste. This mollified his resentment to such an -extent that he gave the envoy a favorable hearing and that -careful and judicious man made such good use of the opportunity -that friendly intercourse was again established between -China and her wayward vassal.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The state of affairs in Koryŭ was now beyond description. -The <em>kwaga</em>, a literary degree of some importance, was -frequently conferred upon infants still in their mothers’ -arms. The people, with fine sarcasm, called this the “Pink -Baby-powder Degree.” The king was struggling to pay up -<span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span>his arrears of tribute, but he could not secure the requisite -number of horses. In lieu of these he sent large quantities -of silver and cloth. The pendulum had now swung to the -other extreme and a Mongol envoy was denied audience with -the king.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1386, the year following the above events, the Ming -emperor formally recognized the king of Koryŭ. This event -was hailed with the greatest delight by the court. But it did -not have the effect of awakening the king to the dignity of -his position for he gave freer rein to his passions than ever. -He seized the daughter of one of his officials and made her his -concubine although she was already affianced to another. -This is a most grave offense in the east, for a girl affianced is -considered already the same as married.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is a relief to turn from this picture and see what Gen. -Yi was doing to free his country from Japanese pirates. He -was in the northeast when a band of these men landed in his -vicinity, near the mouth of the Tu-man River. When they -found that Gen. Yi was near by they wanted to make their -escape but he forced them into a position where they either -had to fight or surrender. He informed them that immediate -surrender was the only thing that could save them. They -agreed to his terms but when they had thus been thrown off -their guard he fell upon them and the slaughter was so great -that it is said the plain was filled with the dead bodies. The -records make no attempt to conceal or palliate this act of bad -faith on the part of this great general. It was not an age -when nice distinctions were made. The Japanese were not -waging a regular warfare against the Koryŭ government but -were killing helpless women and children and burning their -houses. Their one aim was plunder and this put them outside -the pale of whatever code of military honor prevailed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king’s vagaries now took a new turn. Like Haroun -al Raschid he went forth at night and roamed the streets -in disguise accompanied by concubines and eunuchs. Crimes -that cannot be described and which would have brought instant -death upon a common citizen were committed with -impunity. No man’s honor was safe. Not only so, but -other evil-minded people masquerading at night and in disguise -committed like indescribable outrages under the cover -<span class='pageno' id='Page_280'>280</span>of the king’s name. In his hunting expeditions the king -rode forth <a id='corr280_2'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>preceeded</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_280_2'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>preceeded</ins></a></span> by a host of harlots and concubines -dressed in male attire and wherever he went the people lost -their horses and cattle and whatever else the royal escort -took a fancy to.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The continual trouble in Quelpart arising out of the -horse-breeding business grew so annoying that the king finally -sent Gen. Yi Hăng with instructions to bring away every -horse and to do away entirely with the business. This was -done and from that day Quelpart had peace.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Kim Yu the envoy to Nanking was closely questioned by -the emperor as to the cause of the late king’s death and he -told that potentate that it was done by Yi In-im, which indeed -was true; but to the question as to whose son the king might -be he returned an evasive answer. As a result of his frankness -in telling who murdered the former king he was banished, -for Yi In-im was all-powerful at court. The sentence -of banishment meant death for he was sent to a distant place of -banishment as such a break-neck pace that no man could live -through it. He died of fatigue on the way as was intended. -This Yi In-im and his following held the reins of power at -the capital and they sold all offices and took bribes from all -criminals. They thus succeeded in defeating the ends of -justice and the people “gnashed their teeth” at him. He -caused the death of so many good men that he earned the -popular soubriquet of “Old Cat.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 1387 was signalized by a closer union between -Koryŭ and her suzerain. The Ming emperor sent 5000 -pieces of silk to purchase horses but when the animals arrived -at his capital they were such a sorry lot that he rejected -them and charged the king with bad faith. The Koryŭ -officials all adopted the dress and the manners of the -Ming court. This they had done before but had dropped -them again when they turned back to the Mongols. From -that time on until the present day the clothes of the Korean -have followed the fashions of the Ming dynasty.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span> - <h3 class='c011'>Chapter XIII.</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c012'>King determines to invade Liao-tung.... why unwise.... the emperor’s -letter and the answer.... preparations.... Gen. Yi’s argument.... -royal threat.... Gen. Yi marches northward.... the troops appealed -to.... the Rubicon of Korea.... an omen.... advance toward Song-do.... -the capital in Gen. Yi’s hands.... popular song.... Gen. Yi’s -demands.... attempted assassination.... king banished.... a new -king.... reforms.... the “Red Grave”.... envoy to China.... Koryŭ -takes the offensive against the Japanese.... the emperor’s offer.... a -real Wang upon the throne.... the banished kings executed.... unsuccessful -plot.... Gen. Yi opposes the Buddhists.... capital moved -to Han-yang.... people desire Gen. Yi to be made king.... he is reluctant.... -his son active.... Chöng Mong-ju assassinated.... all enemies -silenced.... the king’s oath.... the king abdicates in favor of -Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Koryŭ was now whirling in the outer circles of the maelstrom -that was destined to engulf her. So long as the king -revelled and hunted only and did not interfere with outside -affairs he was endured as an necessary evil but now in the -opening of the year 1388 he determined upon an invasion of -Liao-tung, a plan so utterly foolhardy as to become the laughing-stock -of reasonable men. It was an insane idea. The -constant inroads of the Japanese demanded the presence of -all the government troops, for the sending of any of them -out of the country would be the signal for the Japanese to -pour in afresh and with impunity. In the second place the -king could not hope to cope with the great Ming power that -had just arisen and was now in the first blush of its power. -The kingdom of Koryŭ was essentially bound to the Mongols -and she pursued her destiny to the bitter end. In the third -place the Ming power had now obtained a firm foothold in -Liao-tung and an invasion there would look much like a plan -to finally attack that empire itself. In the fourth place the -finances of the country were utterly disorganised and the unusual -taxes that would be required to carry out the plan would -take away all popular enthusiasm for it and desertions would -decimate the army. But in spite of all these drawbacks the -stubborn king held to his point and as a preliminary measure -<span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span>built a wall about Han-yang where he sent all the women -and children for safety. By this act he acknowledged the -extreme hazard of the venture. It is not unlikely that he -was so tired of all other forms of amusement that he -decided to plunge into war in order to make sport for himself.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor seems to have been aware of the plan for he -now sent an envoy to announce to the Koryŭ court that “All -land north of Ch‘ŭl-lyŭng belongs to the Mongols, and I am -about to erect a palisade fence between you and them.” -When this envoy arrived at Song-do the king feigned illness -and would not see him. A letter was sent in reply saying -“We own beyond the Ch‘ŭl-lyŭng as far as Sang-sŭng, so we -trust it will please you not to erect a barrier there.” He -then called in all the troops from the provinces in preparation -for the invasion. His ostensible reason was a great -hunting expedition in P‘yŭng-an Province for he knew the -people would rise in revolt if they knew the real purpose. -The Japanese were wasting the south, the people were fainting -under new exactions to cover the expense of the repairs -at Han-yang and it is said the very planting of crops was -dispensed with, so disheartened were the people.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having made Ch‘oe Yŭng general-in-chief of the expedition, -the king accompanied the army north to Pong-ju, -now Pong-san. Gen. Ch‘oe never divulged the fact that this -was an army of invasion but told all the troops that they -must be strong and brave and ready for any work that might -be given them to do. Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo was made lieutenant-general -in connection with Gen. Ch‘oe. He made a powerful -plea against the war and the main points of his argument are -preserved to us. His objections were (1) It is bad for a -small country to attack a powerful one. (2) It is bad to -make a campaign in summer when the heavy rains flood the -country, rendering the transporting of troops almost impossible -and decimating them with disease. (3) It is bad to -drain off all the soldiers from the country when the Japanese -are so constant in their ravages. (4) The heat and -moisture of summer will spoil the bows and make them -break easily. To all these objections the king replied that -having come thus far the plan must be carried out. Gen. Yi -hazarded his neck by demurring; still asserting that it would -<span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span>mean the overthrow of the kingdom. The king in rage -exclaimed “The next man that advises against this war will -lose his head.” This was an end of the debate and as the -council of war dispersed the officers saw Gen. Yi weeping, -and to their questions he answered “It means the destruction -of Koryŭ.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Yalu was quickly bridged and Gen. Yi in company -with one other general started north from P‘yŭng-yang with -38,600 troops, 21,000 of whom were mounted. At the same -time the king discarded the Ming calendar, dress and coiffure. -The Mongol clothes were again adopted and the hair cut. -The Japanese knowing that the troops had gone north, entered -the open door thus invitingly left ajar and seized forty -districts.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But we must follow the fortunes of the expedition that -was to attack the empire of the Mings. When Gen. Yi arrived -at the Yalu his plans were not laid as to what he should do. -For one thing, he intended to make no invasion of China. -So he crossed over to Wi-ha island, in the mouth of the Yalu, -and there made his camp. Hundreds of his troops deserted -and went back home. Some of these the king <a id='corr283_21'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='siezed'>seized</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_283_21'><ins class='correction' title='siezed'>seized</ins></a></span> and -beheaded; but it did not stop the defection. From that -island a general, Hong In-ju, made a dash into Liao-tung -territory and was highly complimented by the king in consequence. -But Gen. Yi <a id='corr283_25'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='remaind'>remained</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_283_25'><ins class='correction' title='remaind'>remained</ins></a></span> impassive. He sent a letter -to the king imploring him to listen to reason and recall the -army, urging history, the flooded condition of the country -and the Japanese reasons for it. But the king was stubborn. -Rumor said that Gen. Yi had fled but when another general -was sent to ascertain whether this were true or false he was -found at his post. The two generals wept together over the -hopeless condition of affairs. At last they summoned the -soldiers. “If we stay here we will all be swept away by the -<a id='corr283_34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='rsiing'>rising</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_283_34'><ins class='correction' title='rsiing'>rising</ins></a></span> flood. The king will not listen to reason. What can -we do to prevent the destruction of all the people of Koryŭ? -Shall we go back to P‘yŭng-yang, depose the general-in-chief, -Ch‘oe, who urges on this unholy war against the Mings?” -The soldiers shouted out acclamations of glad assent. Nothing -could please them better.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo mounted his white steed and with his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_284'>284</span>red bow and white arrows stood motionless upon a mound of -earth watching his soldiers recross the Yalu to the Koryŭ -side against the mandate of their king and his, we see a new -Caesar watching his army cross the Rubicon, an army as -passionately devoted to their leader as the Roman legions -ever were to Caesar. And Caesar suffers in the comparison, -for he went back not to restore the integrity of the state and -prevent the waste of human life, but rather to carry out to its -tragic end a personal ambition. We have seen how once and -again Yi T‘ă-jo had plead with the king and had risked even -his life to prevent this monumental folly; and we shall see -how he used his power not for personal ends but with loyalty -to his king, until circumstances thrust him upon the throne.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The records say that no sooner had Gen. Yi followed his -army across the stream than a mighty wave, fed by mountain -streams, came rolling down the valley and swept clean -over the island he had just left. The people looked upon this -as an omen and a sign of heaven’s favor, and they made a -song whose refrain runs “The son of wood will become -king.” This refers to the Chinese character for Gen. Yi’s -name. It is the union of the two characters “wood” and -“son.” The whole army then took up its march toward -Song-do. A magistrate in the north sent a hasty message to -the king saying that the army was in full march back toward -the capital. The king was at this time in Song-ch‘ŭn, north -of P‘yŭng-yang. He knew many of the generals were opposed -to the war and thought that they would obey him -better if he were near by, and so had come thus <a id='corr284_29'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='for'>far</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_284_29'><ins class='correction' title='for'>far</ins></a></span> north.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Hearing this startling news he immediately dispatched -Gen. Ch‘oe Yu-gyŭng with whatever force he had, to oppose -the march of the <a id='corr284_32'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='rebellous'>rebellious</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_284_32'><ins class='correction' title='rebellous'>rebellious</ins></a></span> Gen. Yi. The associate of the -latter urged him to push forward with all speed and seize the -person of the king, but he was no traitor, and he replied “If -we hurry forward and encounter our <a id='corr284_35'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='countymen'>countrymen</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_284_35'><ins class='correction' title='countymen'>countrymen</ins></a></span> many will fall. -If anyone lays a finger on the king I will have no mercy on -him. If a single citizen of Koryŭ is injured in any way I -will never forgive the culprit.” So Gen. Yi came southward -slowly, hunting along the way in order to give the king -time to get back to Song-do in a leisurely manner as becomes -a king. At last the king arrived at his capital and the recalcitrant -<span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span>army came following slowly. The people along -the way hailed them as the saviors of the nation and gave -them all manner of provisions and supplies, so that they -lacked for nothing.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo reached the neighborhood of Song-do -he sent a letter to the king saying, “As General-in-chief -Ch‘oe-yŭng does not care for the welfare of the people he -must die. Send him to me for execution.” But Gen. Ch‘oe -did not intend to give up without a struggle, however hopeless -his case might be; so he took what troops were left and -manned the walls of Song-do. It was a desperate move, for -all saw what the end must be. Hundreds of soldiers who had -deserted now flocked again to the standards of Gen. Yi.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the attack came off, Gen. Yi stormed the South -Gate and Gen. Yu Man-su the West Gate, and soon an -entrance was effected. It is said that after entering the city -the first attack upon the royal forces was made by Gen. Yu -alone and that he was driven back. When this was told Gen. -Yi he seemed not to care but sat on his horse and let it crop -the grass along the path. After a time he partook of some -food and <a id='corr285_21'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='them'>then</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_285_21'><ins class='correction' title='them'>then</ins></a></span> leisurely arose, drew up his forces and in full -view of them all took a shot at a small pine that stood a -hundred paces away. The arrow cut it sheer off and the -soldiers hailed it as a sign of victory, for was not the pine the -symbol of Koryŭ? So they marched on the palace. The old -men and boys mounted the city walls and cheered the attacking -forces. Gen. Yi did not lead the attack in person and -his lieutenant was beaten back by the royal forces under -Gen. Ch‘oe. Gen. Yi thereupon took in his hand a yellow -flag, crossed the Sön-juk bridge and ascended South Mountain -from which point he obtained a full view of the interior -of the palace. He saw that Gen. Ch‘oe and the king, with a -band of soldiers, had taken refuge in the palace garden. -Descending the mountain he led his troops straight through -every obstacle, entered the palace and surrounded the royal -party. Gen. Ch‘oe was ordered to come out and surrender -but as there was no response the garden gate was burst open -and the king was discovered holding the hand of Gen. Ch‘oe. -As there was no longer hope of rescue the king, weeping, -handed over the loyal general to the soldiers of Gen. Yi. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_286'>286</span>He stepped forward and said “I had no intention of proceeding -to these extremes, but to fight the Ming power is out of -the question. It is not only useless but suicidal to attempt -such a thing. I have come back to the capital in this manner -because there was no other way open to me, because it was a -traitorous act to attack our suzerain, and because the people -of Koryŭ were suffering in consequence of the withdrawal of -protection.” Gen. Ch‘oe was then banished to Ko-yang and -Gen. Yi, as he sent him away, wept and said “Go in peace.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The records say that long before this the evil-minded Yi -In-im had foretold to Gen. Ch‘oe that one day Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo -would become king, but at the time Gen. Ch‘oe laughed at -it. Now he was forced to grant that the prophecy had been a -true one. A popular song was composed at this time, whose -refrain states that</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c017'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“Outside the wall of P‘yŭng-yang there is a red light,</div> - <div class='line'>Outside the wall of An-ju a snake.</div> - <div class='line'>Between them comes and goes a soldier, Yi.</div> - <div class='line'>May he help us.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>When Gen. Ch‘oe had thus been disposed of, Gen. Yi -turned to the king and said “It was impossible to carry out -the plan of conquest. The only thing left was to come back, -banish the man who gave such bad advice and make a new -start. We must now be firm in our allegience to the Ming -emperor, and we must change back to the Ming costume.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor, hearing of the threatened invasion, had -sent a powerful army into Liao-tung, but now that the invaders -had retired he recalled the troops.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We can easily imagine how the king, who had never -been balked of his will, hated Gen. Yi. The moment an opportunity -occurred he called about him eighty of his most -trusted eunuchs, armed them with swords and sent them to -kill the obnoxious dictator. But they found him so well -guarded that the attempt proved abortive.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It will be remembered that this king was the son of Sin-don -and was therefore not of the royal stock. So now the -courtier Yun So-jŭng told Gen. Yi that they ought to find -some blood relative of the Wang family, the genuine royal -stock, and put him on the throne. To this the dictator -assented. As a first move all arms were removed from the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span>palace. The king was left helpless. He was ordered to send -away one of his concubines who had formerly been a monk’s -slave but he replied “If she goes I go.” The generals went -in a body to the palace and advised the king to leave the -capital and retire into private life in Kang-wha. This was a -polite way of saying that he was banished. He <a id='corr287_6'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>plead</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_287_6'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>plead</ins></a></span> to be -allowed to wait till the next day as it was now well along -toward night. And so this evil king took his concubines, -which he had always cherished more than the kingdom, and -passed off the stage of <a id='corr287_10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='histoy'>history</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_287_10'><ins class='correction' title='histoy'>history</ins></a></span>. He it was who most of all, -excepting only his father, helped to bring about the fall of -the dynasty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Yi now, in 1388, was determined to put upon the -throne a lineal descendant of the Wang family, but Cho Min-su -with whom he had before conferred about the matter -desired to put Chang, the adopted son of the banished king, -on the throne. Gen. Yi demurred, but when he learned that -the celebrated scholar Yi Săk had favored this plan he acquiesced. -The young king wanted to give Gen. Yi high official -position but he was not anxious to receive it and it was only -by strong pressure that he was induced to take it. So the -records say, but we must remember in all this account that -hero worship and desire to show the deeds of the founder of -the new dynasty in the best light have probably colored -many of the facts which occurred at this time.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As this king was never acknowledged by the emperor -nor invested with the royal insignia, his name is dropped -from the list of the kings of Koryŭ. Neither he nor his -foster-father were given the regular posthumous title, but -were known, the father as Sin-u and the son as Sin Chang.</p> - -<p class='c000'>An envoy was dispatched to Nanking telling of the -banishment of the king and the appointment of his successor. -Cho Min-su who had been instrumental in putting this new -king on the throne was not so modest as the records try -to make us believe Gen. Yi was. He now held almost unlimited -power. It spoiled him as it has spoiled many another -good man, and he gave way to luxury and ere long had to be -banished, a victim of his own excesses.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Reform now became the order of the day. First they -changed the unjust and shameful manner of appointing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span>officials that had prevailed under the banished king. The -laws respecting the division of fields was changed, making -the people more safe in the possession of their property. The -defenses of the south were also looked to, for Gen. Chöng Chi -went south with a powerful force and scored a signal victory -over the corsairs at Nam-wŭn. Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo was now -general-in-chief of all the royal forces. His first act was to -have the banished king sent further away, to the town of -Yö-heung; and at the same time the banished Gen. Ch‘oe -Yŭng was executed. The old man died without fear, at the -age of seventy. He was not a man who had given himself -over to luxury and he had many good qualities, but he was -unlettered and stubborn and his crime in desiring to attack -China brought him to his death. The records say that when -he died he said “If I am a true man no grass will grow on -my grave,” and the Koreans say that his grave in Ko-yang -is bare to this day and is called in consequence “The Red -Grave.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor’s suspicions had been again roused by the -new change of face on the part of Koryŭ. The celebrated -scholar Yi Săk stepped forward and offered to go to the emperor’s -court and smooth things over. Gen. Yi praised him highly -for this act of condescension and he was sent as envoy. He -took with him Gen. Yi’s fifth son who is known posthumously -by his title T‘ă-jong. He was destined to become the third -king of the new dynasty. He was taken to China by Yi Săk -because the latter feared that Gen. Yi might usurp the throne -while he was gone and the son would then be a sort of hostage -for good behavior on the part of the father. The two -great men of Koryŭ, when it fell, were Chöng Mong-ju and -this Yi Săk. They were both men of education and experience -and were both warm partizans of the Koryŭ dynasty. -They were loyal to her even through all the disgusting -scenes herein described, but their great mistake was their -adherence to the Mongol power when it had plainly retired -from active participation in the affairs of Asia. Yi Săk now -sought the court of China not so much with a view to helping -Koryŭ as to find means to get Gen. Yi into trouble. -But to his chagrin the emperor never gave him an opportunity -to say what he desired to say about the great dictator.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span>The questions the emperor asked gave no opportunity to -mention the topic nearest his heart. His chagrin was so -great that when he got back to Koryŭ he spoke slightingly -of the emperor, to the great displeasure of the court. The -king himself desired to go to Nanking and do obeisance to -the emperor but was forbidden by the latter.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 1389 beheld some interesting and important -events. In the first place Gen. Yi decided to take the offensive -against the Japanese; so a hundred boats were fitted out. -The expedition arrived first at Tsushima where three hundred -of the enemy’s boats were burned as well as many -houses; and more than a hundred prisoners were brought -away. Secondly, the emperor, being asked to let the king go -to Nanking and do obeisance, replied, “This having a pretender -on the throne of Koryŭ is all wrong. If you will put a -real descendant of the royal family on the throne you need -not send another envoy to my court for twenty years if you -do not wish.” Gen Yi, to show his good will, sent a messenger -to the banished king and gave him a feast on his -birthday. The king of the Loo Choo Islands sent an envoy -to Song-do with gifts, declaring his allegiance to Koryŭ. At -the same time he sent back some Koryŭ captives who had -fallen into his hands. Gen. Yi came to the conclusion that -if the dynasty was to continue, a lineal descendant of the royal -family must be put at the head of affairs. At this time Gen. -Yi was of course the actuating spirit in the government and -at his desire the young king, who had been on the throne but -a year and who had not been formally recognised by the -emperor, was sent away to Kang-wha and the seventh descendant -of the seventeenth king of the line was elevated to -the seat of royalty. His name was Yo and his posthumous -title Kong-yang. He was forty-five years old. This move -on the part of Gen. Yi was doubtless on account of the -pronounced views of the emperor. A busybody named Kang -Si told the newly appointed king that Gen. Yi did this not because -he cared for the Wang dynasty but because he feared -the Mings. When Gen. Yi learned of this the man’s banishment -was demanded but not insisted upon. One of the first -acts of the new sovereign was to banish Yi Săk and Cho -Min-su who had insisted upon putting the parvenu Chang -<span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span>upon the throne. An envoy was also dispatched to China -announcing that at last a genuine Wang was now on the -throne of Koryŭ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The officials urged that the two banished kings be killed -but when the matter was referred to Gen. Yi he advised a -more lenient policy, saying, “They have been banished and -they can do no more harm. There is no sense in shedding useless -blood.” But the king replied, “They killed many good -men and they deserve to die;” so executioners were sent and -the two men were executed at their places of banishment. -It is said that the wife of the elder of the two took the dead -body of her lord in her arms and said, as she wept, “This is -all my father’s fault, for it was he who advised the invasion -of China.” The records say that for ten days she ate -nothing and slept with the corpse in her arms. She also -begged rice and with it sacrificed before the dead body of the -king.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1390 a dangerous conspiracy was gotten up with the -view to assassinating Gen. Yi, but it was discovered in time -and many men were killed in consequence and many more -were put to the torture. Yi Săk and Cho Min-su were in -some way implicated in this attempt though they were in -banishment. It was advised to put them to death but after -torture they were sent back to prison. The emperor in some -way had the impression that Gen. Yi was persecuting these -two men because they had prevented his invasion of China. -Cho was executed but when the executioner approached the -cell of Yi Săk, so the records say, a terrific clap of thunder -was heard and a flood of water swept away part of the town -in which he was imprisoned. For this reason the king dared -not kill him but granted him freedom instead.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Under the supervision of Gen. Yi a war-office was established -and a system of conscription which secured a rotation -of military duty. The king, true to the instincts of his -family, was a strong adherent of Buddhism and now proceeded -to take a monk as his teacher. The whole official class -decided that this must not be, and the monk was forthwith -expelled from the palace. In spite of the suffering it entailed -upon the people the king decided to move the capital again to -Han-yang and it was done, but no sooner was the court transferred -<span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span>to that place than the king, with characteristic Wang -fickleness, went back to Song-do. The law was promulgated -that women must not go to visit Buddhist monasteries. This -was without doubt because the looseness of the morals of the -inmates rendered it unsafe for respectable women to go to them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The people throughout the land looked to Gen. Yi as -their protector and it was the almost universal wish that he -should become king. His friends tried to bring this about -but they were always thwarted by the aged Chöng Mong-ju, -the only great man who now clung to the expiring dynasty. -He was a man of perfect integrity and was held in much -esteem by Gen. Yi himself though they differed in politics. -Chong Mong-ju <a id='corr291_13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='realy'>really</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_291_13'><ins class='correction' title='realy'>really</ins></a></span> believed it necessary for the preservation -of the state that Gen. Yi be put out of the way and he -was always seeking means for accomplishing this end.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the crown prince came back from Nanking, whither -he had gone as envoy, Gen. Yi went out to meet him. He -went as far as Whang-ju where he suffered a severe fall from -his horse which for a time quite disabled him. This was -Chöng Mong-ju’s opportunity. He hastened to have many -of Gen. Yi’s friends put out of the way. He had them accused -to the king and six of the strongest partisans of the -general were banished. Gen. Yi was at Hă-ju at the time -and his son T‘ă-jong hastened to him and imparted the startling -news. The old man did not seem to care very much, but -the son whose energy and spirit were equal to anything and -who foresaw that prompt action at this juncture meant life or -death to all the family, had the aged general carried on the -backs of men back to Song-do. When he arrived, attempts -were being made to have the six banished men put to death, -but the coming of the great dictator put a stop to this. -T‘ă-jong urged that something must be done immediately to -save the family name, but the father did not wish to proceed -to extremities. The brunt of the whole business fell upon -T‘ă-jong and he saw that if his father was to become king -someone must push him on to the throne. The first step -must be the removal of Chöng mong-ju. Nothing could be -done until that was accomplished.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Yi’s nephew turned traitor to him and informed -Chöng Mong-ju that there was danger. About this time Gen. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>Yi gave a dinner to the officials and Chöng Mong-ju was invited. -The latter decided to go and, by watching the face of -his host, determine whether the report was true. When T‘ă-jong -saw Chöng Mong-ju come to the banquet he knew the -time had come to make the master move. Five strong men -were placed in hiding beside Sön-juk bridge which Chöng -had to cross in going home. There they fell upon him and -murdered him with stones, upon the bridge. Today that -bridge is one of the sacred relics of the kingdom and -is enclosed by a railing. On the central stone is seen a -large brown blotch which turns to a dull red when it rains. -This is believed to be the blood of the faithful Chöng Mong-ju -which still remains a mute reproach to his murderers.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This dastardly deed having been committed, T‘ă-jong -conferred with his uncle, Wha, and they sent Gen. Yi’s eldest -living son, who is known by his posthumous title of Chöng-jong, -to the king, to demand the recall of the banished friends -of the general. The king was in no condition to refuse and -the men came back.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Yi mourned sincerely for the death of Chöng Mong-ju -for he held him to be a loyal and faithful man, but his son -saw to it that the friends of the murdered man were promptly -banished. Even the two sons of the king who had sided -with the enemies of Gen. Yi were banished. Gen. Yi was -asked to put some of the friends of Chöng Mong-ju to death -but he sternly refused and would not even have them beaten. -Yi Săk was again banished to a more distant point, the property -of Chöng Mong-ju was confiscated and so at last all opposition -was effectually silenced.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The energetic T‘ă-jong next proceeded to have the king -make an agreement or treaty of lasting friendship with his -father. The officials opposed it on the ground that it was not -in keeping with the royal office to swear an oath to a subject, -but the king who had doubtless been well schooled by the -young intriguer agreed to it. Gen. Yi was very loath to go -and receive this honor at the king’s hand and it was at last -decided that the king should not attend the function in person -but should do it by deputy. The oath was as follows;—</p> - -<p class='c018'>“If it had not been for you I never could have become -king. Your goodness and faithfulness are never to be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_293'>293</span>forgotten. Heaven and earth witness to it from generation -to generation. Let us abjure all harm to each other. -If I ever forget this promise let this oath witness to my -perfidy.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>But soon the king began to see the ludicrousness of -his position. His sons had been banished, himself without a -particle of power and the voice of the people clamoring to -have Gen. Yi made king. The pressure was too great, and -one day the unhappy king handed over the seals of office -to the great dictator Gen. Yi T‘ă-jo and the Wang dynasty -was at an end. The king retired to private life, first to -Wŭn-ju, then to Kan-Sŭng and finally to San-ch‘ŭk where he -died three years after abdicating. The dynasty had lasted -four hundred and seventy-five years in all.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>END OF PART II.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c002' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_294'>294</span>PART III.</div> - <div class='c002'>MODERN KOREA.</div> - <div class='c002'><span class='small'>1392-1897.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_295'>295</span> - <h2 id='part03' class='c007'>PART THREE. <br /> MODERN KOREA.</h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter I.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Beginning of the new kingdom.... name Cho-sŭn adopted.... prophecies.... a -man hunt.... a royal dream.... the wall of Seoul built.... -capital moved.... diplomacy in the north.... Buddhism.... three -ports set aside for the Japanese.... plot discovered.... back to Song-do.... -king T‘ă-jo retires.... death blow to feudalism.... Chöng-jong -abdicates.... T‘ă-jong’s sweeping reforms.... copper type.... -sorcerers’ and geomancers’ books burned.... T‘ă-jong’s claims to -greatness.... Se-jong reigns.... his habits.... literary work.... Japanese -islands attacked.... gradual suppression of Buddhism.... trials -for capital offenses.... numerous reforms.... wild tribe punished.... -the far north colonised.... Japanese settlement in the south.... -origin of Korean alphabet.... king Mun-jong dies from over-devotion -to Confucian principles.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It was on the sixteenth day of the seventh moon of the -year 1392 that Gen. Yi ascended the throne of Koryŭ, now -no longer Koryŭ. He was an old man, far past the age -when he could hope to superintend in person the vigorous -“house-cleaning” that the condition of things demanded. -He called about him all the officials whom he knew to be -personally loyal to himself and placed them in positions of -trust and authority. Those who had contributed to his rise -were rewarded, and a tablet was erected in the capital telling -of their merits. He liberated many who had been imprisoned -because of their opposition to the Wang kings and recalled -many who had been banished.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was not long before a message came from the emperor -saying, “A man can become king only by the decree of -Heaven. How is it then that the people of Sam-han have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_296'>296</span>made Yi king?” In reply the king hastened to send an -envoy to explain matters and to ask the emperor whether he -would prefer to have the new kingdom called Cho-sŭn, -“Morning Freshness” or Wha-ryŭng, “Peaceful Harmony.” -The emperor probably thought there was a great deal more -morning freshness than peaceful harmony in the peninsula; -at any rate he ordered the former name to be adopted. It -was the doubtful loyalty of the Wang kings to the Chinese -throne that made it easy for king T‘ă-jo to <a id='corr296_9'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>smoothe</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_296_9'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>smoothe</ins></a></span> over the -displeasure of the emperor. The seals of the Koryŭ kings -were then delivered over to China and new seals received for -the new dynasty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>According to unwritten law, with the beginning of a -new dynasty a new capital must be founded, and king T‘ă-jo -began to look about for a new site. At first he determined -to build his capital at Kye-ryŭng Mountain in Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng -Province, and he went so far as to begin work on it; but it -was found that in the days of Sil-la a celebrated priest, To-sŭn, -had prophesied that in the days to come Yi would found a -capital at Han-yang, and one of the Koryŭ kings had planted -many plum trees at that place and as fast as they matured -had them mutilated, hoping thus to harm the fortunes of the -Yi family; for the Chinese character for Yi is the same as -that for plum. Tradition also says that the king had a dream -in which a spirit came and told him that Kye-ryŭng San was -reserved for the capital of a future kingdom which should be -founded by a member of the Chöng family. Two commissioners -were thereupon sent to Han-yang to make surveys -for a palace site. It is said that a monk, Mu-hak, met them -at Ha-yang and told them that the palace should face toward -Pă-gak Mountain and Mong-myŭk Mountain (the present -Nam-san,) but they persisted in making it face the south. -“Very well” the monk replied, “If you do not listen to my -advice you will have cause to remember it two hundred years -from now.” His words were unheeded but precisely two -hundred years later, in the year 1592, the Japanese hordes -of Hideyoshi landed on the shores of southern Korea. This -is a fair sample of Korean <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><em>ex post facto</em></span> prophecy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The courtiers urged the king to destroy the remaining -relatives of the last Koryŭ kings that there might be no -<span class='pageno' id='Page_297'>297</span>danger of an attempt at revolt. The royal consent was given -and a considerable number of those unfortunates were put in -a boat, taken out to sea and abandoned, their boat being first -scuttled. The king thought better of this, however, before -it had gone far and ordered this man-hunt to be stopped.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the emperor still seemed to entertain suspicions concerning -the new kingdom the king was fain to send his eldest -son as envoy to the Chinese court where he carefully -explained the whole situation to the satisfaction of his -suzerain.</p> - -<p class='c000'>An interesting prophecy is said to have been current at -the time. The king dreamed that he saw a hen swallow a -silk-worm. No one could explain the meaning of the dream -until at last an official more <a id='corr297_14'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='imaginitive'>imaginative</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_297_14'><ins class='correction' title='imaginitive'>imaginative</ins></a></span> than discreet averred -that it meant that Kye-ryŭng would swallow Cham-du. Kye -means “hen” and Cham-du means “silk-worm’s head.” But -Kye-ryong was the site of the future capital of the next -kingdom according to prophecy, while “silk-worm’s head” -is the name of one of the spurs of Nam-san in Seoul. So the -interpretation was that the new dynasty would fall before -another founded at Kye-ryong, by Chöng. The poor fellow -paid for this bright forecast with his life.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Cho Chin was charged with the work of building the wall -of the new capital. To this end, in the spring of 1391, 119,000 -men were brought from the provinces of P‘yŭng-an and -Whang-hă and they worked steadily for two months. In the -autumn 89,000 men came from Kang-wŭn, Chŭl-la and Kyŭng-sang -Provinces and finished it in a month more. The whole -circuit of the wall was 9,975 double paces. At five feet to -the double pace this would give us about nine and a half miles, -its present length. It was pierced by eight gates, the South -Gate, or Suk-nye-mun, the East Gate or Heung-in-mun, -the West Gate, or Ton-eui-mun, the Little West Gate, or -So-eui-mun, the North-east Gate, or Chang-eui-mun, the -Water Mouth Gate, or Kwang-heui-mun, also called the -Su-gu-mun, and finally the Suk-chang-mun, a private gate -at the north by which the king may pass in time of danger to -the mountain fortress of Puk-han. At the same time a law -was made that dead bodies could be carried out of the city only -by way of the Little West or the Water Mouth Gates. Neither -<span class='pageno' id='Page_298'>298</span>of these “dead men’s gates” were roofed at first but were -simply arches.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Immediately upon the completion of the wall the court -was moved from Song-do to the new capital and the new -palace was named the Kyŭng-bok Palace. By this time the -news of the founding of a new dynasty had spread, and -envoys came from Japan, the Liu-kiu Islands and from the -southern kingdom of Sam-na. It will be remembered that -the Mongols had absorbed a portion of the northern territory -of Korea, especially in Ham-gyŭng Province. This had -never come again fully under Ko-ryŭ control, so that now -the new kingdom extended only as far north as Ma-ch’ŭn -Pass. Between that and the Tu-man River lived people of -the Yŭ-jin tribe. The king sent Yi Tu-ran to give them a -friendly introduction to the newly founded kingdom of Cho-sŭn, -and he was so good a diplomat that soon he was able to -form that whole region into 3 semi-independent <a id='corr298_17'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='district'>districts</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_298_17'><ins class='correction' title='district'>districts</ins></a></span> and -in course of time it naturally became incorporated into Cho-sŭn. -The Koryŭ dynasty left a heavy legacy of priest-craft -that was not at all to the liking of the new king. The monks -had far more power with the people than seemed consistent -with good government. Monasteries were constantly in process -of erection and their inmates arrogated to themselves -large powers that they did not by right possess. Monks were -not mendicants then as they are today. Each monastery had -its complement of slaves to do all menial work and the law -that declared that the grandson of a slave should be free was a -dead letter. The first of a long list of restrictions upon the -priesthood was a restatement and an enforcement of this -salutary law which made hereditary serfdom impossible.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Before his accession to the throne he had succeeded in -putting down the Japanese pirates, at least for the time. He -now placed high military and naval officials at all the great -southern ports, who offered the people still further protection. -He also set aside the three ports of Ch’e-p’o, Yŭm-p’o and -Pu-san-p’o (Fusan) as places where Japanese envoys and -trading parties might be entertained. At these places he -built houses for the accommodation of such guests.</p> - -<p class='c000'>King T'ă-jo had a numerous family. By his first Queen, -Han, he had six sons, of whom the second and the fifth later -<span class='pageno' id='Page_299'>299</span>became Kings of Cho-sŭn, with the posthumous titles of -Chöng-jong and T‘ă-jong respectively. By his second Queen, -Kang, he had two sons, both of whom aspired to the crown -but without hope. They were named Pang-sŭk and Pang-bon. -Their ambition led them astray, for now in the sixth -year of the reign they conspired to kill their two rival half-brothers -and so prepare the way for their own elevation. -They secured the services of two assassins who made the -attempt, but being foiled they lost their heads. It was well -known that the two princes were at the bottom of the plot, -and the king, knowing that even he could not protect them -from justice, advised them to make good their escape. They -fled but were caught just outside the West Gate and put to -death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The courtiers were all homesick for Song-do and the king -himself probably missed many of the comforts which he -had there enjoyed. Merchants had not as yet come in large -numbers to the new capital and the number of houses was -comparatively small. It must be noticed that with the -change of dynasty it was taken for granted that the citizens -of the old capital were loyal to the fallen dynasty and so -the people of Song-do were not allowed to move to Seoul -in large numbers. That city was reserved as the residence -of the friends of the new regime. Song-do has ever been -considered less loyal than any other city in the country and -the rule has been that no native of that city could hold an -important office under the present government. But at first, -the new capital was hardly as pleasant a place to live as the -old, and so the king gave the word and the whole court -moved back there for a time.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We are told that king T‘ă-jo was heartily tired of the -constant strife among his sons as to who should be the successor -and he decided to resign the office and retire to his -native Ham-heung. His choice of a successor fell upon his -oldest living son, Prince Yong-an, better known by his posthumous -title Chöng-jong Kong-jŭng Tă-wang. The army -and the people all desired that his fifth son, Prince Chöng-an, -who is generally known as T‘ă-jong, who had been so active -in helping his father to the throne and who was as energetic -and enterprising as his brother was slow, should become <a id='corr299_41'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='theri'>their</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_299_41'><ins class='correction' title='theri'>their</ins></a></span> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_300'>300</span>ruler. When they heard that they could not have their will -there was an angry demonstration at the palace. This led the -retiring king to advise that after Chöng-jong had ruled a -while he had better resign in favor of his brother, the -people’s choice.</p> - -<p class='c000'>King Chöng-jong’s first act was a statesman-like one. He -commanded the disbanding of the feudal retainers of all -the officials. A few who rebelled at this as an encroachment -upon their rights were promptly banished, and the rest -submitted. Thus the death blow was struck at feudalism in -the peninsula. It never gained the foothold here that it had -in Japan, for it was thus nipped in the bud. The weakness -of the fallen dynasty had been that one or more of the officials -had gathered about their persons such large retinues that -they succeeded in overawing the king and making him a -mere puppet. But this was not to be a feature of the new -regime, for King Chöng-jong by this one decree effectually -stamped it out.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The retired king seemed to be determined not to be -disturbed in his well-earned rest, for when his sons sent and -begged him to come back to the capital and aid the government -by his advice, he answered by putting the messenger -to death. Later, however, he relented and returned -to Seoul.</p> - -<p class='c000'>T‘ă-jo’s third son, Prince Pang, was jealous because his -younger brother had been selected to succeed king Chöng-jong, -and so he determined to have him put out of the way. To -this end he conspired with one Pak-po, but the plot was discovered, -Pak Po was killed and the prince banished to T‘o-san -in Whang-hă Province. T‘ă-jong himself, the prospective -king, seems to have chafed at the delay, for we are told -that King Chöng-jong’s Queen noticed his moody looks and -advised her lord to abdicate in his favor without delay, before -harm came of it. So King Chöng-jong called his brother and -handed over to him the seals of office and himself retired to -private life with the title Sang-wang, or “Great king.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i300.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>THE WHITE BUDDHA.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>It was in the centennial year 1400 that T‘ă-jong, whose -full posthumous title is T‘ă-jong Kong-jŭng T‘ă-wang, entered -upon the royal office. He was a man of indomitable will, -untiring energy and ready resource. It was he who really -<span class='pageno' id='Page_301'>301</span>entered upon the work of reform in earnest. T‘ă-jo had been -too old and Chöng-jong had lacked the energy. The year -1401 gave him an opportunity to begin these reforms. The -land was suffering from famine, and the king said, “Why is -so much grain wasted in the making of wine? Let it cease -for the present.” When he found that the people would not -obey he said. “It is because I myself have not desisted from -the use of wine. Let no more wine be served in the palace -for the present.” It is said that this practical appeal was -successful and the people also desisted. From the earliest -times it had been the custom for the monks to congregate -and pray for the cessation of drought, but now by one sweep -of his pen the king added another limitation to the prerogatives -of the monks by forbidding the observance of the custom. -Large tracts of land were also taken from the monasteries and -given back to the people. The king hung a great bell in the -palace gate and made proclamation that anyone who failed to -have a grievance righted by the proper tribunals might appeal -directly to the throne, and whoever struck the drum was -given instant audience. This privilege was seldom abused -for it soon became known that if a man did not have right -clearly on his side his rash appeal to the king brought severe -punishment.</p> - -<p class='c000'>For many a decade letters had languished in the peninsula, -and now with a view to their revival the king ordered the -casting of copper types and provided that, as fast as new -characters were found in the leading Chinese works, they -should be immediately cast and added to the font. The -authenticity of this statement cannot be called in question. It -is attested by all the great historical works both public and -private. The method of use was such that the types were -practically indestructible and large numbers exist and are in -active use to this day. So far as the evidence goes these -were the first metal type ever made, though xylography had -been known since the very earliest time.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1406 the emperor sent an envoy asking that a copper -Buddha on the island of Quelpart be brought to Seoul for the -king to do obeisance to it, and that it then be forwarded to -China. The king, however, refused to bow before it. During -this same year the law was promulgated forbidding the imprisonment -<span class='pageno' id='Page_302'>302</span>of criminals for long periods of time. It also beheld -the execution of all the brothers of the Queen. We are -not told the reason of this but we may surmise that it was because -they had been implicated in seditious proceedings.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1409 the Japanese, Wŭn-do-jin, was sent to the Korean -court to present the respects of the Japanese sovereign.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The kings of Koryŭ had set aside large tracts of land in -Whang-hă Province for hunting purposes. These by order -of king T‘ă-jong were now restored to the people and they -were ordered to cultivate them. In 1413 the land suffered -from a severe drought and the courtiers all advised that the -monks and the female exorcists and fortune-tellers be called -upon to pray for rain; but the king replied, “Buddhism is an -empty religion and the exorcists and fortune-tellers are a -worthless lot. If I were only a better ruler Heaven would -not refuse us rain.” He thereupon ordered all the sorceresses, -fortune-tellers, exorcists and geomancers to deliver up -the books of their craft to the government and a great fire -was made with them in front of the palace.</p> - -<p class='c000'>King T‘ă-jong’s great sorrow was his son the Crown -Prince, Yang-yŭng. This young man was dissolute and -worthless. He would not pursue the studies prescribed by -his tutors but spent his time in hunting, gambling and in less -reputable pursuits. The people cried out against him and -made it known that it was not their will that he should reign -over them. The father saw the justice of the complaint and -the young man was banished to Kwang-ju and the fourth son, -Prince Ch‘ung-nyŭng, was proclaimed heir to the throne.</p> - -<p class='c000'>King T‘ă-jong retired in 1419 in favor of this son -Ch‘ung-nyŭng who is known by the posthumous title Se-jong -Chang-hŭn Tă-wang.</p> - -<p class='c000'>T‘ă-jong had been a radical reformer and worked a revolution -in Korean life similar to that which Cromwell effected -in England. His greatness is exhibited in three ways. (1) -He was the first king who dared to break away utterly from -customs whose only sanction was their antiquity. (2) He was -wise enough not to force all these radical reforms at once, but -spread them over a period of nearly two decades. (3) He recognised -that a king is the servant of the people. It may be -in place here to call attention to a peculiar custom of the east. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_303'>303</span>We refer to the custom of surrendering the throne to a successor -before one’s death. The benefits of this custom are -soon cited. The retiring sovereign becomes the tutor of the -incoming one. The young ruler has the benefit of his practical -suggestions and of his immense influence. He thus -does away with much of the danger of revolution or rebellion -which so often accompanies a change or rulers. If the new -king proves inefficient or otherwise unsatisfactory it is possible, -through the father’s influence, to effect a change. In -other words the young ruler is on trial and he undergoes a -probation that is salutary for him and for the people as well. -It also helps greatly in perpetuating a policy, for in such a -case the father, knowing that his son is to assume the reins of -government while he still lives, takes greater pains to initiate -him into the secrets of government and in forming in his -mind settled principles which, while they may not always -perpetuate the same policy, at least ensure an easy gradation -from one policy to another. This perhaps was the crowning -feat of T‘ă-jong’s greatness. He knew enough to stop while -his success was at its height and spend some years in teaching -his successor how to achieve even a greater success. Let us -see how these principles worked in the case of this new king.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The young king began in a modest way by consulting -with his father in regard to all matters of importance. The -retired king had taken up his quarters in the “Lotus Pond -District” where he was at all times accessible to the young -king and where he took cognizance of much of the public -business. The new ruler was characterized by great evenness -of temper, great astuteness and untiring diligence. He -is said to have risen each morning at dawn.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He ordered the making of musical instruments, including -metal drums and triangles. Under his supervision a <a id='corr303_32'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic: clepshedra'>clypsehydra</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_303_32'><ins class='correction' title='sic: clepshedra'>clypsehydra</ins></a></span> -was made and a work on astronomy was published. It -is said that with his own hand he prepared works on “The -five rules of conduct,” “The duties of King, Father and -Husband,” “Good Government and Peace,” and a work on -military tactics. The custom of collecting rare flowers and -plants and growing them in the palace enclosure was done -away and it was decreed that no more of the public money -should be squandered in that way. He built a little straw -<span class='pageno' id='Page_304'>304</span>thatched cottage beside the palace and compelled the officials -to attend him there in council. He put a stop to the evil -practice of letting concubines and eunuchs meddle with state -affairs, for when one of his concubines asked him to give one -of her relatives official position he promptly banished her from -the palace.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the second year of his reign, 1420, the king showed -his partiality for literature and literary pursuits by founding -a college to which he invited thirteen of the finest scholars -that the kingdom could furnish, and there they gave themselves -up to the pursuit of letters. In the early summer the -dreaded Japanese again began their ravages on the coasts of -Korea. Landing at Pi-in, Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng Province, they -easily overcame the local forces and marched northward along -the coast into Whang-hă Province. They there informed the -Korean generals that they did not want to ravage Korea but -that they were seeking a way into China. They lacked -provisions and promised to go immediately if the Koreans -would give them enough rice for their sustenance, until they -should cross the border into China. Forty bags of rice were -given to them, but when the king learned of it he was displeased -and said, “When they return we must destroy them.” -The southern provinces were put into a state of defense and -Gen. Yi Chong-mu was put at the head of a punitive expedition. -It is said that a fleet of 227 war vessels and an army of -107,285 men rendezvoused at Ma-san Harbor. They were -provided with two month’s rations. This powerful flotilla -sailed away and soon reached the island of Tsushima. There -it burned 129 Japanese boats and 1939 houses. Over a -hundred Japanese were killed, twenty-one prisoners were -taken and 131 Chinese and eight Korean captives were liberated. -The fleet then sailed toward Japan and arrived at -Ni-ro harbor. There, the records say, they lost 120 men and -so abandoned the enterprise. This is good evidence that the -numbers of the army are overestimated, for a loss of a -hundred and twenty men from such an immense force would -not have caused an abandonment of the expedition.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor sent a messenger asking for the four jewels -that are supposed to come from the bodies of good monks -when they are incinerated.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_305'>305</span>These were said to be kept at Heung-ch‘ŭn monastery -at Song-do. King Se-jong replied that there were no such -jewels in the peninsula. He ordered the discontinuance of -the custom of building monasteries at the graves of kings, -and the people were commanded not to pray to Buddha in behalf -of the king. The great expense incurred in providing -for the huge stone that covered the sarcophagus of a king -made him change the custom and it was decreed that thereafter -four smaller ones should be used instead of the one great one.</p> - -<p class='c000'>One of his most statesmanlike acts was to decree that every -man charged with a capital offense should have three trials -and that detailed accounts of each of these should be furnished -for the royal inspection. Following out the policy of a gradual -suppression of Buddhism, he interdicted the observance of the -festival called the <em>To-ak</em>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the fourth year of his reign, his father died. It is said -that at the time of his death there was a severe drought, and -on his deathbed he said, “When I die I will go and ask Heaven -to send rain,” and the story goes that on the very day he died -the welcome rain came. To this day it is said that it is sure -to rain on the tenth day of the fifth moon, and this is called -the “T‘ă-jong rain.” We see that under that father’s tutelage -he had continued the policy of reform, but what he had done -was only the beginning. The law was made that if a prefect -died the prefects along the road should furnish transport for -his body up to the capital. The eunuchs were enjoined not to -interfere in any way with the affairs of state. The term of -office of the country prefects was lengthened, owing to the expense -entailed upon the people by frequent changes. It was -made a crime to delay the interment of a corpse simply because -the geomancers could not find an auspicious spot for the burial, -and all geomancers’ books were ordered burned. Every adult -male was required to carry on his person a wooden tag bearing -his name. This was for the purpose of identification to prevent -the evasion of taxes and of military service. It is but -right to say that this law was never strictly carried out. Korea -has always suffered from the existence of armies on paper. -The king edited a book on agriculture telling in what districts -and in what kinds of soil different species of grains and vegetables -would thrive best. He paid attention to penal laws as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_306'>306</span>well. Beating was to be administered on the legs rather than -on the back; no murderers were to be bound in prison who -were under fifteen years or over seventy; no prisoner under -ten or over eighty was to suffer under the rod; even the king’s -relatives, if guilty of crime, were not to be exempt from punishment.</p> - -<p class='c000'>These important reforms occupied the attention of the king -up to the year 1432, the fourteenth of his reign, but now the -border wars in the north claimed his attention. At this time -the wild tribes across the Ya-lu were known under the collective -name of Ya-in. These savages were ravaging back and -forth across the border, now successful and now defeated. -King Se-jong decided that the peace of the north was worth the -outlay of some life and treasure; so, early in the year 1433 an -expedition under Gen. Ch’oé Yun-dok crossed the Ya-lu in six -divisions, each consisting of a thousand men or more. These -had agreed to make a common attack on Ta-ram-no, the stronghold -of the robbers, on the nineteenth of the fourth moon. -This was successfully done with the result that 176 of the -enemy were left dead, and 236 captives and 270 head of cattle -were taken. All of this was at the cost of just four men.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The northern portion of Ham-gyŭng province was as yet -but sparsely settled, and reports came in that the Ming people -were coming in great numbers and settling there; so the king -felt it necessary to do something to assert his rights. A great -scheme for colonization was made and people from the southern -part of the province were sent north to occupy the land. -But there were two powerful Yŭ-jin chiefs across the Tu-man -river who were constantly crossing and harrying the people -along that border line. These were Ol-yang-t’ap and Hol-ja-on. -It was not until the year 1436 that they were really silenced -and then only after repeated and overwhelming victories -on the part of the Korean forces. During these years thousands -of people from the southern provinces were brought -north by the government and given land in this border country.</p> - -<p class='c000'>About this time a Japanese named Chŭng Seung was -Daimyo of Tsushima. He sent fifty boats across to the Korean -shore and the trade relations were revived which we may feel -sure had been sadly interrupted by the long period of piratical -<span class='pageno' id='Page_307'>307</span>raids. The government made these people a present of 200 -bags of rice and beans. Sixty “houses” of people also came -from that island and asked to be allowed to live in the three -ports, Ch’ep’o, Yŭm-p’o and Pu-san-p’o. The king gave his -assent and from that time until about the present day, with -only temporary intermissions, the Japanese have resided in -one or other of these three places, although Pu-san (Fusan) -has always been the most important of them. In the year -1443 the custom of giving the Daimyo of Tsushima a bonus of -200 bags of grain a year was instituted. The number of trading -boats that could come was strictly limited by the Korean -<a id='corr307_12'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='governnment'>government</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_307_12'><ins class='correction' title='governnment'>government</ins></a></span> to fifty, but in extreme cases where sudden -need arose through piratical raids or other cause the number -could be increased. This custom continued without interruption -until 1510.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The most striking feat that King Se-jong accomplished -and the one that had the most far-reaching and lasting effect -upon the people was the invention of a pure phonetic alphabet. -This alphabet scarcely has its equal in the world for simplicity -and phonetic power. He was not the first one to see the vast -disadvantage under which the people labored in being obliged -to master the Chinese character before being able to read. We -will remember that in the days of Sil-la the scholar Sŭl-chong -had invented a rough way of indicating the grammatical endings -in a Chinese text by inserting certain diacritical marks, -but this had of course been very cumbersome and only the -<em>ajuns</em> or “clerks” were acquainted with it. Another similar -attempt had been made near the end of the Koryŭ dynasty -but it too had proved a failure so far as general use by the -people was concerned. King Se-jong was the first man to dare -to face the difficulty and overcome it by the use not of modifications -of the Chinese characters but by an entirely new and -different system, a phonetic alphabet. It can scarcely be said -that he had the genius of a Cadmus, for he probably knew of -the existence of phonetic alphabets, but when we remember -that the Chinese character is considered in a sense sacred and -that it had been in use in the peninsula exclusively for more -than two thousand years we can place him but little lower -than the great Phoenician.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Korean histories are almost a unit in affirming that the alphabet -<span class='pageno' id='Page_308'>308</span>is drawn from the Sanscrit and from the ancient seal -character of China. Where then did King Se-jong have access -to the Sanscrit? Some have argued that his envoys came -in contact with it at the court of the Emperor at Nanking. -This is possible but it is extremely unlikely that they gained -such a knowledge of it in this way to make it of use in evolving -their own alphabet. On the other hand it is well known -that the monasteries of Korea were filled with books written -in the Sanscrit or the Thibetan (which is an offshoot of the -Sanscrit) character. It is believed by some that Buddhism -was entirely crushed in the very first years of the dynasty, -but this is a great blunder. Buddhism had begun to wane, -but long after the end of King Se-jong’s reign it was still the -predominant religion in Korea. Most of the officials, following -the lead of royalty, had given it up, but the masses were -as good Buddhists as ever. The probabilities are therefore -overwhelming that when the histories refer to the Sanscrit -they mean the Sanscrit contained in these Buddhist books and -which had been a common feature of Korean religious life for -centuries.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Comparison reveals the fact that the Korean consonants are -mere simplifications of the Sanscrit consonants. On the other -hand there are no similarities between the Korean and Sanscrit -vowels. King Se-jong’s genius lay in his recognition of -the fact that the vowel lies at the basis of articulate speech, and -in this he was in advance of every other purely Asiatic alphabet. -Each syllable was made up of the “mother and child” -the mother being the vowel and the child being the consonant. -If we examine the ancient seal character of China with a view -to ascertaining the source from which the Koreans drew their -symbols for the vowels we shall find at a glance that they -consist in the simplest strokes of those ideographs. Every -Korean vowel is found among the simpler radicals of -the Chinese. What more need be added to prove that the -statements of the Korean histories are correct?</p> - -<p class='c000'>In this work the king made use of the two distinguished -scholars Sin Suk-ju and Sŭng Sam-mun. Thirteen times the -latter was sent with others to Liao-tung to consult with a celebrated -Chinese scholar Whang Ch’an, who was in banishment -in that place. For the prosecution of this literary plan and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_309'>309</span>the work growing out of it the king erected a separate building -in the palace enclosure. There he caused to be compiled -and printed the dictionary of the Korean language in the new -alphabet which was called the <em>ön-mun</em>. This celebrated -dictionary is called the Hun-min Chöng-eum.</p> - -<p class='c000'>King Se-jong died in 1450 and was succeeded by his son -Hyŭn whose posthumous title is Mun-jong Kong-sun Tă-wang. -His brief reign of two years is a good sample of what -Confucianism will do for a man if carried to excess. Upon -his father’s death he refused to be comforted and neglected the -necessary precautions for preserving his health. Long nights -he lay out in the cold thinking that by so doing he was showing -respect for the memory of his father. Such excesses joined -with the lack of a proper diet soon made it clear that his -health was permanently undermined. This was a source of -great anxiety to the officials and to the people, for the heir to -the throne was a young boy, and the king’s brother, Prince -Su-yang, was a powerful and ambitious man. The king -himself entertained grave fears for his son and shortly before -he died he called together the leading officials and made them -solemnly promise to uphold the boy through every vicissitude. -Then he turned to the wall and died.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter II.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Tan-jong becomes king.... “The Tiger”.... conspiracy.... king’s uncle -virtual ruler.... sericulture encouraged.... king abdicates.... -people mourn.... king banished.... a royal captive’s song.... king -strangled.... the usurper’s dream.... character of the new king.... -reforms.... trouble with the emperor.... policy in the north.... more -<a id='corr309_29'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='refoms'>reforms</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_309_29'><ins class='correction' title='refoms'>reforms</ins></a></span>.... official history of the land.... medicine.... hostility to -Buddhism.... king’s concern for the people.... army cared for.... -literary work.... a standing Buddha.... a voluminous work.... -dangerous rebellion in the north.... emperor pleased.... king retires.... -Great Bell hung.... The <em>Pyo-sin</em>.... a new king.... foreign relations.... -Buddhists driven from Seoul.... examinations.... convents -broken up.... war against Buddhism.... a termagant.... a prosperous -land.... law against the marriage of widows.... military operations -in the north.... celebrated history written.... king reproved.... a -foe to Buddhism.... reform in music.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_310'>310</span>It was in 1452 that king Mun-jong died and his little son -Hong-wi ascended the throne. The title of the latter is Tan-jong -Kong-eui Tă-wang, and of all the kings of Korea, whether -of this dynasty or of any other, his fate is the most calculated -to excite the pity of the reader.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His uncle, Prince Su-yang, was a bold, unscrupulous -man with whom natural affection did not affect the balance by -a feather weight. He was at the head of a powerful faction -and it was only the jealous vigilance of the Prime Minister, -Kim Chong-so, that the boy ever came to the throne at all. -The people said that “The Tiger” must be killed before the -boy could come to his rights. Prince Su-yang saw that the -people were with the young prince to a man and he knew -that he must brush from his path these powerful friends of -the young king before he ever could come to the throne himself. -To this end he conspired with Kwŭn Nam, Han Myong-whe -and some thirty others. The Prime Minister was the -first object of attack for he was the most strenuous supporter -of the king. Prince Su-yang, in company with one Im Un, -armed with iron bludgeons, went to the house of the Prime -Minister and there the former feigned to have lost one of the -wings from his palace hat and asked the Minister to lend him -one for the day. The Minister could not refuse and sent his -little son to bring one, but ere the lad returned the father was -laid dead by a blow from the bludgeon in the hands of Im Un. -The prince then hastened to the palace and told the boy-king -that the Prime Minister had been conspiring against the -government and so it had been necessary to put him to death. -Boy though he was, King Tan-jong saw straight through this -falsehood and his first words were, “I beg of you to spare my -life.” From that moment all power slipped from the hands of -the king and the Prince Uncle was virtual ruler of the land. -Placing heavy guards at the palace gates, he sent messengers -summoning the king’s best friends, and as soon as they -appeared they were cut down. In this manner Whang Po-in, -Cho Keuk-gwan, Yi Yang, Yun Cho-gong and Min Si were -killed. Besides these many others were banished, so that -soon the court was deprived of almost every supporter of the -king except the aged Sŭng Sam-mun who was such a venerable -man and held in such esteem by the whole nation that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_311'>311</span>even this bold prince did not dare to lay hands on him. This -done, Prince Su-yang began to center in himself all the high -offices of the realm and became an autocrat, dispensing offices -and regulating the affairs of the country according to his -own ideas. Yi Cheung-ok, the governor of Ham-gyŭng Province, -was a strong supporter of the king and so, though far -from the scene of this intrigue, emissaries were sent who -murdered him in cold blood.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The only important act of this short and unfortunate -reign was the encouragement given to sericulture. The -young king sent large numbers of silk worms to various -districts and rewarded those who did well with them and -punished those who made a failure of it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>All the time the wily prince had been urging upon the -king the necessity of abdicating in his favor. We know not -what threats and cajolery were used, but true it is that early -in 1456, after all the other uncles of the king had been banished -to distant parts to get them away from the person of -the king, that unhappy boy, as yet but fifteen years old, -bereft of every friend he had ever known, hedged in by the -threats of his unnatural uncle, finally called the officials to a -council and repeated the lesson he had been undoubtedly -taught. “I am too young to govern the realm rightly and I -desire to put the reins of government into the hands of my -uncle, Prince Su-yang.” As in duty bound they all went -through the formality of demurring at this but the king was -firm and ordered the seals to be handed to the prince. -Among these officials there were two who looked with disfavor -upon this. They were Pak P‘ăng-yŭn and Sŭng Sam-mun. -The former stepped forward as if to give the seals to -the prince, but when they were once in his hands he made a -dash for the door and tried to throw himself into a lotus pond. -Sŭng Sam-mun caught him by the garments and whispered -in his ear, “Wait, all this will be righted, but we must live -to see it done.” So the young king Tan-jong stepped down -from the throne. The usurper is known by his posthumous -title Se-jo Hye-jang Tă-wang.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After King Tan-jong had abdicated he was held under -strict surveillance in the palace and was practically a prisoner. -It is said the people congregated at the Great Bell in the center -<span class='pageno' id='Page_312'>312</span>of the city and wailed over this fulfillment of their worst -fears.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But the dethroned king was not left entirely without -help. Six of the officials conspired to assassinate the usurper -at a dinner given to a Chinese envoy, but someone betrayed -them to him and they were seized, tortured with red-hot irons, -decapitated and dismembered. These six men were Pak -P‘ăng-yŭn, Sŭng Sam-mun, Yi Gă, Ha Wi-ji, Yu Sŭng-wŭn -and Yu Eung-bu. Their wives, parents and children perished -with them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Chöng In-ji, one of the new king’s creatures, memorialized -the throne as follows:—“All this difficulty arose about -the ex-king. He should therefore be put to death.” This -was rather more than the king dared to do but the unfortunate -boy was banished to Yong-wŭl in Kang-wŭn Province. -His brother Yu was also banished at the same time. The -banished king lived beside a mountain stream and is said to -have sung this plaintive song to it:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c017'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>A long, long road, a long good-bye.</div> - <div class='line'>I know not which way to turn.</div> - <div class='line'>I sit beside the stream and its waters, like me, mourn.</div> - <div class='line'>And together we weep without ceasing.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>At last when the time seemed ripe, another of Tan-jong’s -uncles memorialized the throne urging that the banished boy -be put to death so that there might be no more cause for conspiracy -on the part of any of the officials. With apparent reluctance -the king gave orders that Gen. Wang Pang-yŭn -be detailed to go and administer poison to the boy. When -that official arrived at the place of banishment his hardihood -failed him and instead of giving the boy the poison he prostrated -himself before him. The ex-king exclaimed, “What -brings you here?” but before answer could be given a man named -Kong Sang came up behind the banished king and -strangled him with a cord. The story runs that as the murderer -turned to leave the room blood burst from his ears, eyes, nose -and mouth and that he fell dead beside the body of his victim.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The few palace women who remained in the suite of the -banished king threw themselves into the stream and perished. -The body of the young king would have remained unburied -had not a man named Om Heung-do taken pity on the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_313'>313</span>murdered boy and buried him in Tong-eul-ji. The night the -boy was murdered the usurper dreamed that the dead mother -of his victim came from the grave, and, standing beside his -couch, pronounced the following malediction: “You have -stolen the throne and killed my son. Your’s too shall die.” -It is said that when he awoke he found that the prophecy had -already been fulfilled. He therefore dug up the bones of this -prophetess of evil and scattered them upon the water of the -river.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Tradition says that the next seven magistrates who were -appointed to the district where this foul murder was perpetrated -died on the very night of their arrival. The eighth made -it his first duty to go to the grave of the murdered king and -sacrifice before it and write an elegy upon him. From that -time there was no more trouble.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In spite of the way in which King Se-jo obtained the throne -he is not held in ill repute among the people of Korea. The -unpardonable crime which attended his usurpation of the -throne augured ill for the reign, but the truth is there have -been few kings of the dynasty who have done so much for the -advancement of the interests of the people as this same Se-jo. -Tradition says that when a boy he was looked upon -with wonder because of his skill with the bow, and he used to -climb the mountains blindfold where others dared not follow -with open eyes. One story tells how once, when he went to -China with the embassy, eight elephants that stood before the -palace gate knelt as he approached, thus foretelling his future -greatness. He was a temperate man and hated luxury -and effeminacy. He would not use gold upon his table and -when his little son asked for a silver cup it was refused him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He took up the policy of reform at the very point where -his father, King Se-jong, had laid it down five years before. -He established pleasant relations with the people of the Liu -Kiu islands and of the wild northern tribes, by treating their -envoys with special attention. Those who were obstinately -unfriendly he crushed with a heavy hand. Among the latter -was an able chieftain, Yi man-su, who had formerly lived in -Seoul and had married a Korean woman but later had fled -back to the Yŭ-in tribes and raised the standard of revolt. -The Korean generals were in some trepidation on this account -<span class='pageno' id='Page_314'>314</span>but Gen. Sin Suk-ju marched against him and soon drove -him back to his retreat.</p> - -<p class='c000'>By giving rank to a man of the Keum-ju tribe in Manchuria -without the previous permission of the Emperor the -king came near getting into serious trouble with his suzerain, -but as it was a first offense it was overlooked. The Emperor -sent word however that a repetition of the offense would bring -down upon the king serious trouble.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The power of the central government was but weakly -felt along the northern border and so the king paid special -attention to that portion of the country, founding prefectures -all along the north-eastern border. It was doubtless because -of this active policy that the Yŭ-jin tribe came the following -year and swore allegiance to Cho-sŭn. Among the reforms -which were effected during the early part of this reign the -following suffice to show the energy and wisdom of this king -Se-jo. Fruit trees were planted in the palace enclosure so -that the people might not be burdened with the duty of -providing the king’s table with fruit. Mulberry trees were -planted in all available places in the grounds of the different -government offices, and even in the palace, where the queen -engaged in weaving, together with the palace women. Dress -reform was carried on to the extent of shortening the skirts -of women’s dresses so that they could be more easily distinguished -from men in the street. A school was founded for -the study of the Chinese vernacular. The criminal court was -ordered to present the king each month with a written account -of its proceedings. The king saw in person every official -who came up to Seoul from the country on business. A -hospital was founded for the dispensing of medicine for indigestion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>These were but the beginning of his reforms. He punished -at one time over a hundred prefects who had been oppressing -the people. The palace inclosure was sown with grain -when there was prospect of scarcity. In this reign we find -the first reference to the Kuk-cho Po-gam or the official annals -of the dynasty. The great bell which hangs in the center -of the city of Seoul today was cast in his reign and hung at -first outside the South Gate. A medical government bureau -was founded and medical works were published. The king -<span class='pageno' id='Page_315'>315</span>was actively interested in military matters and called together -all the soldiers who could wield a bow of 120 pounds weight. -This was with a view to the invasion of the territory of the -troublesome wild tribes of the north. A census of the people -was taken for the purpose of making army estimates, and during -the whole reign the soldiers were practiced in sham fights -both in the palace enclosure and outside the city walls. His -attitude toward Buddhism was one of distinct hostility. One -of his earliest edicts was that no monk should attend or pray -at a funeral. He invented the use of the split bamboo as a -sign between himself and the general upon the field. He kept -half and the general kept the other half and if it was necessary -to send a messenger he would take the piece of wood, which, -if it fitted the piece in the hands of the receiver of the message, -showed that the messenger was properly accredited. He -seems to have been much concerned for the welfare of the -people for we find that in the fourth year of his reign he caused -the publication of a book on weaving and had it extensively -distributed among the people, together with another on -military matters and another still on women’s manners.</p> - -<p class='c000'>King Se-jo was the first of the descendants of the great -<a id='corr315_22'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Tă-jo'>T‘ă-jo</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_315_22'><ins class='correction' title='Tă-jo'>T‘ă-jo</ins></a></span> to observe carefully the precept laid down by the -founder of the dynasty—namely, to take good care of the army; -this is evinced by the fact that at one <a id='corr315_24'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='tine'>time</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_315_24'><ins class='correction' title='tine'>time</ins></a></span> he distributed large -quantities of medicine among the soldiers on the <a id='corr315_25'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='northen'>northern</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_315_25'><ins class='correction' title='northen'>northern</ins></a></span> border -and made generous gifts of land to the troops, thus fostering -the military spirit among the people. As a result we see -them successful on every side. The tribe of Ol-yang-hap was -destroyed, the tribes of I-man-ju, Ol-jok-heup and Yan-ba-a-gan -came and swore allegiance.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In his fifth <a id='corr315_31'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='yeaar'>year</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_315_31'><ins class='correction' title='yeaar'>year</ins></a></span> he codified the laws and published -them. He also extended his medical work and published a -book on veterinary surgery, and he published works on -astronomy, geology, music, writing, the signs of the times, -agriculture, live-stock, foreign relations and arithmetic. In -other words this versatile man was actively interested in -military, political, social, scientific and artistic matters and -caused books to be written about these subjects for the enlightenment -of the people.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is said that in 1465 he caused the erection of a monastery -<span class='pageno' id='Page_316'>316</span>in Seoul but he made the Buddha a standing one rather -than a sitting one. Evidently he had little faith in the inanity -of the sleepy sitting Buddha, who with folded hands let -the years slip by unheeded. He wanted something more -lifelike. So he set the Buddha on his legs. This image was -carried through the streets at periodic intervals accompanied -by a crowd of musicians and monks. A Japanese envoy was -horrified at what he called sacrilege and foretold that it could -not endure. He was right, not because the Buddha had -gotten on its feet but because the people of Korea had begun -to cast off the shackles of Buddhism and, following in the -wake of the court, were learning to take advantage of their -emancipation. This making of a standing Buddha and the -occasional festivals seem to have been more by way of sport -than through any serious intentions on the king and this in -itself accounts for the speedy downfall of the custom. Its -novelty, which was all it had to recommend it, soon wore off.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1467 he ordered the two monks Sin Mi and Chuk Hŭn -to cut wooden blocks for a book to be called the Tă-jang-gyŭng. -The love of exaggeration in the Korean temperament -finds play in the statement that this book contained -8,888,900 pages. The historian evidently did not have his -abacus at hand, for he continues by saying that each of the -fifty volumes contained 7,078 pages, while the above figure -would require 167,778 pages to the volume.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The last year of King Se-jo’s reign, 1468, witnessed a -serious disturbance in Ham-gyŭng Province. A man named -Yi Si-ă gathered about him a strong body of soldiers and sent -word to Seoul that it was simply with a view to defending -his district from the incursions of the northern barbarians. -The provincial general went in person to investigate, but he -was murdered by the followers of Yi Si-ă who were aided by a -courtezan who occupied the general’s room with him and who -at dead of night opened the window and gave ingress to the -revolutionists. A messenger, Sŭl Kyŭng-sin was then sent -to Seoul to say that the general had been killed because he -had been conspiring against the king. At the same time the -king was asked to make Yi Si-ă the general of the northeast. -This man told the king that the three Prime Ministers were -implicated in the plot against him. The king was suspicious -<span class='pageno' id='Page_317'>317</span>but did not dare to let matters progress without investigation. -He put the Prime Ministers in prison and at the same time -raised a large army to go and oppose the too ambitious Yi. -Generals Yi Chun, Cho Sŭk-mun and Hŭ Chŭng were put in -charge. The last of these three was one of the great soldiers -of Korea. Tradition says that he was of gigantic stature, -that he ate a bag of rice a day and drank wine by the bucketful. -A doughty man indeed, at least by the trencher. But -his feats on the battlefield were commensurate with his gastronomic -prowess for we are told that the sight of his face -struck fear into the stoutest enemy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This army found the enemy before Ham-heung whose -governor they had killed. The royal forces soon had the -enemy on the run and at last brought them to bay on Man-nyang -Mountain which projects into the sea and is impregnable -from the land side. The royal forces took boat and -stormed it from the sea while part of the force engaged the -enemy from the landward side. The head of Yi Si-ă was -taken and forwarded to Seoul. In this fight it is said that -Gen. Hŭ Chŭng found his sword too small, so throwing it -aside he tore up by the roots a pine tree twelve inches in -girth (?) and swept all before him with this titanic weapon. -Of course the king then set free the three Prime Ministers and -confessed his mistake.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor called upon Korea to help in the castigation -of the Keum-ju tribe beyond the Ya-lu, so the king sent a -large force and accomplished it without the help of Chinese -arms. Having destroyed the tribe the Korean general cut a -broad space on the side of a great pine and there inscribed -the fact of the victory. The emperor was highly pleased and -sent handsome presents to the generals engaged.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This same year the king resigned in favor of his son and -retired to a separate palace to prosecute a line of study in -which he was greatly interested, namely the art of estimating -distances by the eye, a subject of importance to all military -engineers and one in which Napoleon Bonaparte is said to -have been an adept. But before the end of the year he -died.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His successor, Prince Hă-yang, is known by his posthumous -title Ye-jong Yang-do Tă-wang. He was so young at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_318'>318</span>the time that his mother acted as regent. During the single -year 1469 that this king reigned the Great Bell was brought -into the city and hung at the central spot called Chong-no or -“Bell Street.” He also made the law that the palace gates -should never be opened at night unless the one so ordering -showed the royal signet or token, called the <em>su-gŭl</em>. -This was a round piece of ivory half an inch thick and three -inches in diameter with the word <em>sun-jun</em> on one side and the -king’s private mark on the other. To it are appended straps -of deer skin and it is used when the king wishes to accredit -a man to a certain work. The mere showing of this is -accepted as the royal command. It is commonly called also -the <em>pyo-sin</em> “The Sign to be Believed.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>This reign saw the division of the city into north, east, -south, west and central districts. It also saw the promulgation -of the Kyŭng-guk Tă-jŭn or “The Great Laws for Governing -the Country.” The system had been inaugurated at -the beginning of the dynasty but now for the first time it was -<a id='corr318_19'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='difinitely'>definitely</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_318_19'><ins class='correction' title='difinitely'>definitely</ins></a></span> adopted and written out in full for the guidance of -the official classes. It dealt with the minute divisions of -communities, each having an overseer.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This same year 1469 the young king died and his mother -calling the Ministers together, nominated to the throne <a id='corr318_23'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Prince-Cha-san'>Prince Cha-san</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_318_23'><ins class='correction' title='Prince-Cha-san'>Prince Cha-san</ins></a></span> -the cousin of the deceased king. As he was only -thirteen years old the Queen Mother acted as regent during -the first years of his reign. <a id='corr318_26'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='He'>His</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_318_26'><ins class='correction' title='He'>His</ins></a></span> posthumous title is Sŭng-jong -Kang-jŭng Tă-wang.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Under the regency of the Queen Mother the first act was -the abrogation of the law requiring the people to wear the -<em>ho-pă</em> or wooden identification tag, which King T‘ă-jong had -promulgated. It had become a mere matter of form and was -found quite useless for the purpose intended, namely a -preventative against the evasion of the taxes.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This reign was marked by increased activity in the field -of foreign relations. First an envoy came from Quelpart with -a gift of pearls. Another came from the town of Ku-ju Si-so -in the province of Kwan-sŭ (Japan) and still another, Chöng -Sŭng-hong from the town of Wŭn-jung on the islands of -Tsushima. One embassy from the Liu Kiu Islands came -with a gift of monkeys. The Japanese on the island of Sal-ma -<span class='pageno' id='Page_319'>319</span>sent an envoy who presented gifts of red pepper, incense -and white silk. He asked for Buddhist books but was refused. -Envoys came also from the northern tribes swearing -allegiance to <a id='corr319_3'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>Cho-săn</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_319_3'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>Cho-săn</ins></a></span>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1472 all the sorceresses, fortune-tellers and Buddhist -monks were driven from Seoul <a id='corr319_5'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='and and'>and</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_319_5'><ins class='correction' title='and and'>and</ins></a></span> forbidden to enter it -again. In the following year an envoy arrived from Japan -saying “When Se-jo was king I painted his portrait and carried -it to Japan, but at night a great light would stream from -the picture’s face. So I brought it back and have left it at -Che-p‘o in Chŭl-la Province.” The king immediately sent -word to the governor to build an altar and burn the picture -thereon, as it had been defiled by being carried to <ins class='correction' title='Japan.”'>Japan.</ins></p> - -<p class='c000'>Special attention was given by King Sŭng-jong to the -matter of government examinations. He sent to the provinces -and commanded the governors to hold preliminary examinations -and to send the successful men up to Seoul to -attend the grand examinations held on the third day of the -third moon and the ninth of the ninth moon. Three men -were to be sent up from each of the provinces except Kyŭng-sang, -Chŭl-la and Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng Provinces from which five -each were allowed to come. This shows that then as today -the largest part of the population of Korea was in the -south.</p> - -<p class='c000'>An important change was effected in the matter of criminal -procedure. The king commanded that all men of scholarly -rank who offended against the laws should be arraigned -not before the common tribunal of justice but before the -college of scholars. Thus another barrier was built up between -the common people and the nobility. King Sŭng-jong -was also a patron of letters, for besides publishing a work -called Che-wang Myŭng-gan or “The King’s clear Mirror,” -and the O-ye-eui or “Five Rules of <a id='corr319_35'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Conduct.” He'>Conduct,” he</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_319_35'><ins class='correction' title='Conduct.” He'>Conduct,” he</ins></a></span> also built -a library and collected in it all the different books that could -be found. He was the determined foe of Buddhism and, having -driven out the monks, he now proceeded against the Buddhist -convents in Seoul. He broke them up and made them -remove to the country. There were twenty-three of these -convents in Seoul at the time.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_320'>320</span>The Queen Mother retired from the regency in 1477 and -the king, assuming his full authority, continued the work of -demolishing Buddhistic influence. He sequestered a monastery -at Yong-san and made a school of it, after throwing out the -image of Buddha. He seems to have been also a moral reformer, -for he made a law against dancing-girls and commanded -that boys be taught to dance and to take the place of -those unfortunate women. It had been the custom on the -king’s birth-day to have prayers offered in Buddhist temples -for the safety and peace of the kingdom, but now this was -abrogated, for the king said, “What does Buddha know? It -is a worthless custom and must be stopped.” More than this, -he compelled the monks in the country to refund to a man -large sums of money which had been paid for prayers which -were intended to ward off harm from the man’s son. The -boy died and the father sued the monks for breach of contract, -and the king upheld the claim.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1478 the queen died and a concubine named Yun -was raised to the position of royal consort. This was destined -to bring dire disaster to the realm. She was a woman -of jealous disposition and violent temper and her hatred of -the other concubines led her into trouble. On one occasion -her passions overcame her and in an angry altercation with -the king she scratched his face severely. The king desired -to treat her offense leniently but he was overruled by the officials -and the woman was driven from the palace. She had -one son who is commonly known by his posthumous title -Prince Yŭn-san. When the disgraced woman was dying she -charged this son to avenge her disgrace, when he should come -to the throne; for he was the heir apparent.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The reign saw many reforms of a social character. It -was decreed that grave-plots must not be allowed to interfere -with the making of fields. This indicates that during the -years of prosperity the population had been rapidly increasing -and that it was found necessary to increase the area of arable -land in like proportion. The people were reaping the reward -of many years of peace and good government. Nothing -could show more plainly the relation between King Sŭng-jong -and the people than the custom he inaugurated of helping -those to marry who were too poor to do so.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_321'>321</span>The only books he caused to be published were four; -on marriage, funerals, ancestor worship and “On Reaching -Manhood.” He seems to have been an ardent Confucianist -for among other things he ordered that widows -should not be allowed to re-marry. This striking feature -of Korean life dates from the days of this king. Before -this there had been a certain amount of sentiment against -the practice but it had been common even among ladies -of the higher classes up to this time. His refusal to give -books to the Japanese envoys would also lead us to believe -that he was an active Confucianist.</p> - -<p class='c000'>All these years we hear of no dealings with China on the -part of Cho-sŭn, but at this point we are told that the wild -tribe of Yŭ-jin was <a id='corr321_14'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>harrassing</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_321_14'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>harrassing</ins></a></span> the people of northern China -and the Emperor sent a message to Korea calling upon her to -combine with China in an attack upon this obnoxious tribe. -The military policy of his predecessors now stood the King in -good stead, for he was able to put a strong army in the field -immediately and the tribe of Yŭ-jin was speedily chastised. -The Emperor was highly pleased and sent the King a present -of silk, gold thread and cotton cloth.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the latter years of his reign the King had the Kuk-cho -Po-gam written up to date, and he successfully withstood an -invasion of the wild tribes of the north. One of his last acts -was to order that all impurity and obscenity should be dropped -from the songs and poems.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1482 the King built two forts on the Ya-lu near the -town of Kang-gye because of threatened outbreaks of tribes -living on the further side. In 1484 he built the Ch‘ang-gyŭng -Palace east of what is now known as the “Old Palace.” -In this same year the great historical work called the Tong-guk -T‘ong-gam or “Complete Mirror of the Eastern Kingdom,” -probably the most celebrated of Korean histories, was -published. It brought the annals of the peninsula down to -the beginning of the present dynasty. Its author was Sŭ Sa-ga, -better known by his pseudonym Sŭ Ko-gan. He was a -thorough master of Korean history.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A little glimpse of this King’s disposition is given in a -memorial addressed to him in 1486 when, after a certain royal -tomb had been struck by lightning he, in terror, asked his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_322'>322</span>officials to mention his faults that he might mend them and so -ward off the judgment of Heaven. One official brought four -charges against him. (1) Love of money; (2) The selling -of offices; (3) Cruel beating of criminals; (4) Unwillingness -to be reproved. Two years later he ordered a remeasurement -of the fields in Ham-gyŭng Province as he believed there -was much taxable property there that was yielding no revenue.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 1489 was marked by a terrible scourge of cholera -and one of the officials advised that the King pray to Buddha -to stop it. The King promptly banished him. This man -apparently thought that because the King’s mother was an -ardent Buddhist this advice would not meet with punishment. -But in this case even filial duty did not stand in the way of -stern opposition to Buddhism. Soon a still more striking example -was given. The Queen Mother had a Buddha made -and placed in a monastery outside the East Gate, called -Chöng-ok-wŭn. A man named Yi Pyŭk, passing by, asked -what they were doing with the image and when he learned -that the Queen Mother had ordered it set up he struck it and -broke it in pieces. He finished the good work by burning the -fragments. It can be imagined how angry the Queen Mother -was and how she urged the King to destroy the contumacious -subject, but in reply the King said “Instead of death he deserves -a gift”, and there the matter dropped.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1490 one Kwŭn Chu memorialized the throne declaring -that the musical instruments in use were those made by the -corrupt Sin-don and that they were destructive of good manners. -At his advice the instruments were destroyed and others -were made. The style of music also was changed and it became -purer and more serious. At this time the instrument of -war called the <em>so-ni</em>, a kind of catapult, was invented.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The years 1491 and 1492 were occupied in border wars in -Ham-gyung province, Gen. Hŭ Chŭng at last succeeding in -clearing the northern borders of the enemy. The King died -in 1494.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter III.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Consternation upon the accession of Prince Yŭn-san.... his character.... -avenges his mother’s disgrace.... reign of terror.... concubines of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_323'>323</span>former King killed.... sporting proclivities.... noble women dishonored.... -carnival of crime.... plot against the King.... prisons -opened.... King banished.... royal proclamation.... a sad parting.... -abuses corrected.... revolt of Japanese residents in the south.... -diplomatic relations with Japan severed.... reforms.... money -for army made from Buddhist image.... literature.... mistake in -a Chinese history.... puritan simplicity.... color of clothes.... military -activity.... Japanese pirates captured.... the first compass.... -caste.... a Korean-Chinese dictionary.... an extreme Confucianist.... -a dangerous regency.... evil advisers.... good men murdered.... -Japanese return to the southern ports ... omens ... a Buddhist -regent.... conscription.... invasions north and south.... signal victory -over the Japanese.... rebellion.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It was in 1494 that Korea had the misfortune to come -under the baneful rule of Prince Yŭn-san. As we have seen, -he was the son of the discarded Queen. He inherited her evil -disposition and he had sworn to her that he would avenge the -stigma that had been cast upon her name. He was twenty -years old when the load of empire was placed upon his unworthy -shoulders.</p> - -<p class='c000'>No sooner had his accession been ratified by the Emperor -than the Prime Minister resigned his position and hastened -away to his country home. When asked his reason for such -precipitation he replied, “Look at the pupil of his eye; with -such a King it is difficult to keep the head on the shoulders. -So I have come to the country.” Many tales are told illustrative -of his character. Some time before the last King’s -death, while he was walking in the palace grounds with his -son, a tame deer had come and rubbed its nose on his arm. -The youth in wanton cruelty had brutally kicked the animal -and was sharply reprimanded for it by his father. Now that -he had become King he sent for the harmless beast and drove -a spear through it with his own hand. Beholding this vindictive -act, and rightly gauging the evil mind that lay behind -it, a high official, Pak Yŏng, immediately left the court and -retired to the country. The next act of this King was to behead -his old tutor, Cho Chi-sŭ, whom he had learned to hate -when a boy, because the faithful instructor had tried to curb -his wild excesses.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 1496 began with a demand for more revenue -from Chŭl-la Province, and a consequent remeasurement of -the land under cultivation. It is said that his mother, dying, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_324'>324</span>had left a napkin, dyed with her blood, and had said, “When -my son becomes King, give this to him and tell him not to -forget his vow to avenge my death.” In pursuance of this -injunction the young King now gathered together all the men -in any way connected with the banishment and death of his -mother, all those who recorded the facts, all the messengers -who carried the hateful commands. In all there were several -hundred people. These he decapitated and dismembered. -He also dug up the bodies of those who had been implicated -but had died in the interval, broke their bones in pieces and -flung them into the river or ground them to powder and -scattered them to the winds. The King wanted to have his -mother’s picture hung in the ancestral temple and when he -proposed it all the officials assented to it but three, who said. -“She was a criminal and died a felon’s death; her picture cannot -hang in the ancestral hall.” The King in a rage ordered -their instant execution. Their families like wise perished and -their houses were razed to the ground.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have seen that Kim Chong-jik, the Prime Minister, -had fled to the country. His enemies now accused him to the -King asserting that he had said that, as King Se-jo had killed -King Tan-jong, how could the son of the former become King. -This story was believed and Kim and many of his friends -were seized and beheaded. This was the signal for an exodus -of the better class of the people from the city. The schools -were all closed and a deadly silence reigned for the most part. -No one knew who was to be taken next. As the years passed -the reign of terror did not abate. Debauchery, oppression -and theft were the daily practices of the court and the people -were ground to the very lowest point. So much so, in fact, -that in 1504 the people printed placards in the native character -declaring the baseness of the King, and posted them throughout -the city. “These must be the friends of the people whom -I have banished” said the King. So he brought them back -from exile and beheaded, poisoned or beat them all to death. -The people of the eight provinces besought the King to do -away with the native script which had brought such disaster.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Two concubines of the deceased King were still living -and when they were accused to the King of having brought -about his mother’s death, he sent for them and killed them -<span class='pageno' id='Page_325'>325</span>on the spot. For this he was blamed by the widow of the -dead King; so the wretch went into her apartments, ran at -her and butted her with his head, knocking her to the ground. -She said they might kill her if they wished; she did not care. -Having stolen the beautiful wife of Whang Yun-hŭn the King -could not induce her to smile upon him. So he said, “It is -because her husband is still living.” He therefore sent and -had the man killed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The King placed dancing girls in all the 369 prefectures -of the country and reserved three hundred of the fairest for -the palace. For these he built sumptuous pavilions and a -hospital for their treatment when ill. A special office was -erected for the care of the dogs, falcons, nets and other instruments -of the chase. The royal stables were in Chong-dong -where the United States Legation now stands. Agents -were sent into all the provinces to hunt for fair women and -swift horses. Others were sent to wring from the people special -taxes. The King thought the officials were blaming him -behind his back, so he gave each of them a wooden tag on -which was written, “The mouth is the avenue to misery. The -tongue is a sword which may pierce the body. Watch the -mouth and guard well the tongue; so shalt thou dwell in safety.” -He changed the Confucian temple into a play-house, drove -out all the students from the dormitories and put diviners and -sorceresses in their places. When his grandmother died he -did not assume mourning, but as two of the officials dared to -do so he killed them. He wiped out the three districts of -Ko-yang, P‘a-ju and Yang-ju to make a hunting ground and -forbade anyone to settle there. Those who disobeyed were -killed. This hunting park was then stocked with all manner -of wild beasts. He stole the people’s boats to use in sport on -the palace ponds and restricted the people to the use of a -single ferry-boat on the river. This lessened the traffic to -such an extent that the people of Seoul suffered severely and -many inn-keepers were ruined. An aged eunuch remonstrated, -but the King caught up a bow and shot him through. -He taxed the people of the south a bolt of cotton a head, and -they paid it only by taking the cotton out of their clothes and -weaving it. He invited the wives of the courtiers to a feast -and had each of them wear upon the breast the name of her -<span class='pageno' id='Page_326'>326</span>husband. Of these he dishonored whom he would and gave -the husbands official position. His uncle’s wife was enticed -into his net, in consequence of which she committed suicide.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Such were a few of the acts of this depraved monarch. -We need not multiply details of his execrable career. It was -one long carnival of murder, lust and oppression. The people -were simply the instrument by which the spendthrift -King could fill his coffers.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in the twelfth year of his reign, 1506, that the -people were brought to the limit of their patience. Three -men. Song Heui-an, Pak Wŭn-jong and Yu Sun-jong, conferred -together and agreed that unless there was a change -the destruction of the kingdom was inevitable. They determined -to drive the corrupt King from the throne and put -in his place Prince Chin-sŭng, the second son of King Song-jong. -One dark night they met at the Hun-yŭn-wŭn, near -the East Gate, with a number of others who had been let into -the dangerous secret. Not a light was to be seen, and they -prepared to act. With a small band of picked soldiers whom -they knew to be faithful they formed a line in front of the -palace. The two Prime Ministers came out and joined them -and soon a crowd of people gathered. Powerful men with -iron bars soon forced an entrance and six of the King’s -favorites were seized and beheaded. As a next move the prisons -were all opened and crowds of innocent people were -liberated. They thirsted for revenge and, finding weapons -as best they could, joined the revolutionists. It soon appeared -that there was to be no resistance for even the King’s friends -were aghast at his enormities. The revolutionists proceeded -to the Kyöng-bok Palace where the King’s step-mother lived, -the one whom he had treated so brutally, and said to her, -“The King is a wild debauchee. The people are scattered. -The ancestral temple has been desecrated. The people desire -to make your son King.” She modestly replied, “How can -my son become King? The King’s son is old enough to -assume the crown.” At this there was a general cry of dissent -and all demanded that she comply and let her son become -King. At last she consented and the youth was brought out. -The assembled multitude bowed before him and swore fealty -to him. They then crowned him and brought him to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_327'>327</span>palace. The deposed King was banished with his son to -Kyo-dong Island. The honorary posthumous title was never -conferred upon him but he is known as Yŭn-san-ju, or “Lord -of Yŭn-san.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Throughout the country there was universal holiday. -The first proclamation of this new King who is known by his -posthumous title Chung-jong Kong-eui Tă-wang, gave the -keynote of his reign. “The most important thing in any country -is the common people. If the people prosper the country -prospers, if they suffer the country suffers. The late King -was cruel and lawless, and so by the people’s will I have become -King. I have ordered the discontinuance of the evil -customs that have prevailed and I shall do all in my power -for the people. Let everyone rejoice.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>But a sad event marred the happiness of the new King. -His queen’s father had been on intimate terms with the -deposed King and had been killed upon the day of his banishment. -The officials therefore insisted that the Queen be put -away and that another be selected. She was innocent of any -crime, and the King said, “She is the wife of my youth and I -<a id='corr327_21'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='connot'>cannot</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_327_21'><ins class='correction' title='connot'>cannot</ins></a></span> put her away.” But they insisted until finally he was -forced to comply and he tearfully parted from her.</p> - -<p class='c000'>One of his first acts was to do away with the “Dog and -Falcon Bureau” which had in charge the implements of the -chase. He abolished the “Woman Bureau” which looked -after the procuring of concubines for the King. He gave -back to their owners many houses that they had been despoiled -of. He revived the law by which a written report of the -proceedings of the criminal court should be submitted to him -every ten days.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Years before this in the days of King Sŭ-jong Japanese -had been permitted to settle in the three harbors, namely -<a id='corr327_33'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Ch’e-p’o Yum-p’o'>Ch’e-p’o, Yum-p’o</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_327_33'><ins class='correction' title='Ch’e-p’o Yum-p’o'>Ch’e-p’o, Yum-p’o</ins></a></span> and Pu-san-p’o. They were now having -a difficult time. The prefects were oppressing them sadly, -forcing them to work without wages and stealing their fish -or game. This they could not endure; so two of their number, -Ko-jo-mo and Ko-su-jang passed over to the islands of -Tsushima and raised an expedition against the oppressive prefects. -Two hundred boat loads of them crossed the straits -and fell upon Fusan, killed its prefect, attacked <a id='corr327_40'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>Ch’è</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_327_40'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>Ch’è</ins></a></span> Harbor -<span class='pageno' id='Page_328'>328</span>and took its prefect alive. They carried fire and sword into -all that region. They ravaged the prefectures of Ung-ch’ŭn -and Tong-nă. The King sent a strong force by land and sea -who cut off the retreat of the invaders and then attacked them. -Three thousand were soon put <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>hors de combat</em></span> and many hundreds -were chased into the sea where they were drowned. -From this time, 1512, until 1572 diplomatic relations with -Japan were practically suspended, though an occasional envoy -came. A small number of Japanese boats were however allowed -to come to the three harbors for the purpose of trade. -Access to the court was strictly denied them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>King Chung-jong was as active in matters of reform as -had been his father or grandfather. He put an end to the -cruel custom of houghing robbers. He limited the number -of blows that could be administered in the cross-examination -of criminals. He published 2940 volumes of the Sam-gang-hăng-sil -and circulated them among the people as well as another -work on filial piety. He made a foundling asylum, or -at least made provision for the support of abandoned children. -The custom of punishing by striking the legs with short, -thick clubs was done away, for this process was almost sure -to shatter the bone.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the seventh year of his reign, 1512, he turned his attention -to the army and sent out an edict that arms should -all be put in good order and should be ready for use at an instant’s -warning. We are not told whether this was because -of any expedition that he was contemplating or any hostile -invasion that he feared. Whichever it was it was unrealized, -for the army under his rule engaged in no offensive or defensive -warfare. It was probably with a view simply of carrying out -the policy so wisely begun by his ancestors of keeping the -army in good order. He sent down to the town of Kyöng-ju -in the province of Kyŭng-sang, which had once been the site -of the capital of Sil-la, and brought up a great copper Buddha -and broke it up in order to use the metal in making new -arms for the soldiers. It was the common belief that if anyone -prayed to this image barrenness might be cured. The -people cried out against its being broken up, but the King -said “Do not fear. I will take the blame.” Nothing could -show us more clearly the position that Buddhism held at this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_329'>329</span>time. It had reached its low water mark in Korea, and -while it can scarcely be said to have strengthened its position -up to the present time, it is very doubtful whether an emergency -could arise so great as to induce a King of Korea in -these days to break up an image of Buddha.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The reign of this king was marked by severe disturbances -at different times. In his thirteenth year, 1518, there were -severe earthquake shocks extending over a period of four -days and causing much loss of life and property.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During his reign literature was on the increase. He -ordered the publication of various books and established a -headquarters for books at Seoul, a sort of central depot or -depository. The only relations that he had with outside -countries was the reception of a Japanese envoy who brought -a gift of mirrors. They were considered very valuable.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1518 a historical work came from China in which it -was asserted that king T’ă-jo was not the son of Whang-jo -but of Yi Im-in, a traitor, and that he had founded the new -kingdom as a result of treachery. The king sent an envoy -immediately to the court of China asking that the mistake be -corrected. The Emperor replied that it would be done in the -next edition.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king’s teacher, Cho Kwang-jo, called “The Confucius -of Korea,” told his master that Buddhism and sorcery -were alike useless and urged him to do away with the headquarters -of the diviners and sorcerers. It was done and the -teacher was given the title of “Guardian of Public Morals.” -We are told that this reign was the golden age of Korean -morals. The people revolting from the excesses of the -deposed king took on a puritan simplicity. Men and women -walked on opposite sides of the street. If any article was -dropped in the road no one would touch it, but would leave -it for the owner to recover. No one had to lock his doors at -night. When the wild Ya-in of the north ravaged the border -and one advised that a force be sent disguised as laborers to -chastise them, the king decided that it was beneath his -dignity to have recourse to trickery, and so sent the troops -openly. The important decennial examination called the -Hyŭn-yang-gwa was now established.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this time white clothes were not largely worn. That -<span class='pageno' id='Page_330'>330</span>custom did not come in till about 1800. Blue, red and black -predominated. The king now established the custom of -wearing very light blue at the time of ancestral worship.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This reign saw some notable advances along certain lines. -Bows were made which were shot by putting the feet against -the bow and drawing the string with both hands. They -were to be used by women in defending walls while the men -might be away. A small powerful bow was made which shot -metal arrows called “needle arrows.” They carried four -times as far as the ordinary bow, and an arrow from one of -them would penetrate three men. A kind of bomb was also -invented. It was probably projected from a catapult of some -kind. A spring trap was made whose arrow weighed <a id='corr330_13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='a a'>a</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_330_13'><ins class='correction' title='a a'>a</ins></a></span> -hundred and twenty pounds.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1521 a Japanese So I-jön sent an envoy named Song-gong -Pu-su-choa with a curious gift of three stones that resembled -mirrors. The king, however, declined to accept them. -The following year a Japanese named Teung Wŭn-jung went -to the Chinese district of Yŭng-p’a and ravaged, and on his -way home landed with his booty on the coast of Whang-hă -Province in Korea. He was there captured by a Korean and -his whole company were sent to China much to the delight -of the Emperor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1524 P‘yŭng-yang was decimated by the cholera. It -is said that there were 7700 deaths. The following year the -envoy to Nanking, Yi Sun, brought back with him the first -compass ever seen in Korea. In 1532 a royal concubine -desired to have her son become king instead of the Crown -Prince. In order to accomplish the destruction of the latter -she took a dead rat, wrote his name on its belly and put it -under the Prince’s room. This is a common way of attempting -to do an enemy to death by witchery. She was discovered -in the act and she and her son were put to death. Some -three years later a great mock naval battle was fought on the -river and the king went out and witnessed it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 1536 beheld an important event in the bringing -of the official history of the dynasty up to date. In the next -year an important law was made, the one which commanded -that the people of the upper class should be distinguished from -the lower class by a difference in the clothes. Heretofore -<span class='pageno' id='Page_331'>331</span>the style had been the same for both classes, but from this -time on the lower class was not allowed to wear the long -flowing sleeves which until recent years have distinguished -the Korean gentleman.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1541 Chu Se-bung a noted scholar of Kyŭng-sang -Province founded a school at P‘ung-geui in honor of a noted -sage An Yu who had lived there during the Koryŭ dynasty. -In digging the foundations he had found a bar of copper of -three hundred pounds weight. With the profits of the sale he -bought books for the school library.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The last recorded act of this monarch casts into the shade -all his other work and tells us more by implication about the -condition of the people than any other words could do. That -act was the making of the Ok-pyŭn or Korean-Chinese dictionary, -arranged in the order of the Chinese radicals. This -important publication shows first a great advance all along -the line of literature. The demand for such a work argues -a constant pressure along literary lines that finally made -it an absolute necessity. In the second place it showed that -the native character, whatever may be said to the contrary, -had taken a firm hold upon the people and had begun to -bring forth substantial fruit. A standard for transliterating -Chinese characters was demanded and the demand could have -sprung from nothing less than a large and constant use of -the native character. The publication of this work marks an -era in the literary life of the peninsula. It fixed the native -character firmly upon the people and made it a factor that -can neither be ignored nor evaded. The Chinese character -is still a favorite in Korea but it will go out before the native -phonetic character as surely as the Latin tongue went out -from England before the English.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in 1544 that King Chung-jong closed his long -and eventful career. Forty years upon the throne had seen -the country lifted out of the mire into which it had been -trodden by his predecessor, and brought to the highest point -of morals, of literature and of general culture that it has ever -reached. He was succeeded by his son Yi-ho who is known by -his <a id='corr331_38'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='posthumus'>posthumous</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_331_38'><ins class='correction' title='posthumus'>posthumous</ins></a></span> title In-jong Yŭng-jŭng Tă-wang.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The career of this monarch affords another illustration of -what Confucianism in its extremer moods can do. When his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_332'>332</span>father died he fasted six days and became so weak that he -could hardly stand even with the aid of a staff. He continued -to refuse sufficient food and mourned continually for -his father. He would sit on the bare ground all night long -even in winter, asking Heaven to kill him or else give him -back his father. He refused medicine saying that his trouble -was one that drugs could not reach. Seeing that his end was -approaching he asked that his half brother Prince Kyön-wŭn -be made king after him. When he died the whole land resounded -with wailing. It is said that in a single day the -news travelled by the sound of wailing caught up from -village to village, even to the limits of the kingdom. The -new king is called Myŭng-jong Kong-hön Tă-wang.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This king at his accession was a lad twelve years old -and consequently the regency devolved upon his mother. -This was most unfortunate for she was a wholly unscrupulous -woman and ere the king was old enough to assume the duties -of his high office inflicted serious injuries upon the state. -She had a brother, Yun Wŭn-hyŭng, who was her equal in -daring and intrigue. Yun Im the uncle of the deceased king -In-jong was holding office at this time. He was a faithful -and honest man. Being the brother of the late king’s mother -he formed a natural as well as moral antithesis to the brother -of the new king’s mother. Yun Wŭn-hyŭng had a younger -brother Yun Wŭn-no who was his equal in chicanery. They -could not but be enemies and so the elder banished the -younger to Hă-nam in the south.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From the time when King Chung-jong died the two rival -leaders Yun Wŭn-hyŭng and Yun Im, the trickster and the -statesman, had been wooing fortune for the premiership. -The people called Yun Im the “Big Yun” and Yun Wŭn-hyŭng -the “Little Yun.” The people are not seldom the -best judges of their rulers. During the short reign of King -In-jong the friends of Yun Im had been in power and they -had sedulously kept all evil-minded men, including Yun -Wŭn-hyŭng, out of office. For this reason it was that when -the latter came into power he found himself at the head of a -crowd of malcontents who thirsted first for the sweets of -office and secondly for the sweets of revenge. Before King -In-jong died “Little Yun” had poisoned the mind of the incoming -<span class='pageno' id='Page_333'>333</span>king’s mother against “Big Yun” by asserting that -he and his friends were conspiring to prevent the accession -of her son. The Queen Mother, as soon as she came to the -regency sent word to “Little Yun” to put “Big Yun” and -his associates to death. He called the Chief of Police -and gave orders to that effect but that careful individual said -that the men he was ordered to kill were honest men and that -he would have nothing to do with it. “Little Yun” then -sought audience with the boy king and urged the matter, the -Queen Mother adding her voice to his arguments. The -courtiers said that it was mere <a id='corr333_11'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='heresay'>hearsay</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_333_11'><ins class='correction' title='heresay'>hearsay</ins></a></span> and so long as the -new king had ascended the throne without any attempt at -sedition the matter ought to be dropped; whereupon the -Queen Mother flew into a passion and screamed, “Do you -want my son to sit here and be murdered? I will have those -men killed like snakes in the fire.” She then ordered the -courtiers to retire, and the bowl of poison was sent to “Big -Yun” and his friends. A relative of the king, whom the -Regent believed they intended to make king instead of her -son, fled to Sŭ-gwang Monastery and hid in a cave behind it, -but he was tracked down and seized. They brought him to -Seoul and killed him by searing his body all over with red -hot irons. “Little Yun” was now the royal favorite, or at -least the Regent’s favorite, and the men who had opposed -the appointment of himself and his friends to official position -were banished right and left or else killed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We will remember that the Japanese settlers had been -driven from the three southern ports during the reign of -King Chung-jong. An envoy now came saying that the Japanese -settlers were not to blame for that uprising but that it -was done by a band of ruffians from the islands, and they -asked to be allowed to resume the old friendly relations. -Consent was given but on condition that twice a year tribute -should be brought to Fusan from Tsushima. The Japanese -who headed this embassy was called So-i Jön-sa. This occurred -in the year 1548. The same year saw the famous -books Kang-mok Chŭn-p‘yŭng and Sok-kang-mok, dealing -with Chinese history, and the military works Pal-myŭng -Kang-eui, and Mu-gyŭng Ch‘ong-yo copied in Korea and disseminated -throughout the country. These are among the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_334'>334</span>best known works in Korea today. The common people -execrated the favorite Yun Wŭn-kyŭng and chafed under -the regency of the Queen Mother. They went so far as to -put out posters stating that “We are ruled by a woman, and -her creatures are fattening off the revenues of the land. It -means the destruction of the kingdom.” So far from learning -a lesson from this, the Regent said, “It is because we did -not make thorough work with the followers of ‘Big Yun’.” -She therefore seized and killed above seventy more of them, -all good and honest men.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is generally believed that the hardships endured by -the people during this reign, because of famines, pestilences -and other calamities, were a forerunner of the terrible -cataclysm that swept over the land during the following -reign, in the great Japanese invasion. These calamities had -begun in the very first year of the reign when a pestilence -swept the province of Ham-gyŭng. The same year an -enormous mass of rock became detached from the side of Sam-gak -mountain back of Seoul and fell with such a tremendous -crash that it was heard and felt in all the <a id='corr334_20'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='adjourning'>adjoining</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_334_20'><ins class='correction' title='adjourning'>adjoining</ins></a></span> prefectures. -This was followed by disastrous floods in various parts -of the country whereby thousands of people perished and vast -amounts of property were destroyed. In the city of P‘yŭng-yang -alone 720 houses fell and 209 lives were lost.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in 1550 that <a id='corr334_25'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='and astronomical instument'>an astronomical instrument</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_334_25'><ins class='correction' title='and astronomical instument'>an astronomical instrument</ins></a></span> was -made, called the Sŭn-gi-ok-hyŭng or “Heaven Measure.” -We are not told the exact nature of the instrument, but it -implies a considerable degree of intellectual activity and an -inclination toward scientific pursuits that is rare in Korea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Queen Mother, as seems to have been common with -women of high degree in Korea, became a confirmed Buddhist. -This tendency became so strong that in 1552 she had a law -made requiring government sanction for a man to enter the -priesthood, and special examinations were also required. A -monk named Po U, an unscrupulous but capable man, exercised -immense influence at the palace. The courtiers besought -the king to drive him away but as yet the Regent was too strong.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The following year the custom of filling the ranks of the -army by conscription was inaugurated. All men over fifteen -years of age were supposed to give two or three years’ service. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_335'>335</span>But it was not a success. The military spirit has never been -really strong in Korea since the downfall of ancient Ko-kuryŭ. -The profession of arms has always been looked down upon as -an inferior calling and so long as a living could be gained -some other way the army has been shunned. The law of conscription -was soon modified so that the payment of a modest -sum, three hundred and fifty cash a year, bought exemption -from service. Later the sum was raised to 10,000 cash and -even to 20,000 in some cases, but this included a large “squeeze” -on the part of the officials.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Queen Mother’s power came to an end in 1554 when -the king reached his twenty-first year. From that point -matters began to mend. The ex-Regent and her minions -lost a large part of their power, but other difficulties came up -which took the place of those which were thus overcome. -The wild tribe of Kol-gan-bul crossed the northern border -and harried the border towns. When sixty of them had been -caught and beheaded the remainder retired. A Japanese -marauding band, returning from the coast of China laden -with booty, landed on the Korean coast and were there captured -and sent to Nanking. The next year seventy boat-loads -of Japanese landed on the Chul-la coast and killed several -prefects but the governor called about him a band of soldiers -and routed the invaders. A hundred and twenty Japanese -were killed and all their arms were captured.</p> - -<p class='c000'>One of the most signal victories the Koreans ever scored -over the pirates occurred in 1556. A thousand or more of -these unwelcome neighbors landed at Tal-yang in Chŭl-la -Province and besieged the town. Government troops were -sent against them but were driven back with great loss. The -O-ran, Ma-do and Ka-ri harbor forts were besieged and taken -and the towns of Chang-heung and Kang-jin were swept by -the remorseless foe. Kim Pin the admiral of Chul-la Province, -and the prefect of Kwang-ju were both badly defeated -in their attempts to check this hostile advance.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Yi Yun-gyŭng, the prefect of Chŭn-ju raised a force of -2000 men and marched toward the seat of war. An experienced -general warned him that he could do nothing but -he replied “Then let my head pay the price.” He gave a -written promise that if any of his men deserted he would forfeit -<span class='pageno' id='Page_336'>336</span>his life, so great was his confidence in the quality of his -soldiers. Pushing rapidly forward he first encountered the -Japanese at Hyang-gyo where he threw up breastworks. He -was to have been reinforced by his brother but the latter sent, -warning him that it was a hopeless case and urging him to -retreat. He replied by decapitating the messenger and attacking -the enemy single-handed. He warned his men that the -first one to retreat would lose his head.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The leader of the Japanese rode a powerful white horse -and bore in his hand a yellow flag, and he kept beating his -sword against the flagstaff with terrible clamor. Gen. Yi -began the attack not by shooting at the Japanese themselves -but by shooting fire arrows into their camp and among their -baggage. When this was seen to be well ablaze he ordered a -charge and singling out the conspicuous Japanese leader soon -laid him low with one of the famous “needle arrows.” The -enemy was soon in full retreat but their progress was stopped -by a high ledge of rocks and there they were brought to -bay. It is said that 1800 Japanese perished at this point. -This is but another sample of what Korean soldiery can do -when properly led. The brilliant young leader was made -governor of the province. The Japanese who escaped made -their way across the straits into the island of Quelpart, -where they demanded arms of the prefect, for they had cast away -theirs in their precipitate flight. Instead of complying the -prefect attacked them, brandishing an enormous battle-club. -The victory was complete and the plain was strewed with the -dead bodies of the foe.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the king heard of these victories he praised the -troops and remitted all the revenue from the prefectures -where the Japanese had created the disturbance.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A serious rebellion occupied public attention in the year -1563. A butcher of Yang-ju named Im Ko-jung gathered -about him a band of desperate highwaymen and began to plunder -and burn in that and the neighboring prefectures. Government -troops chased them into Ku-wŭl Mountains where they were -tracked with difficulty owing to the fact that they wore their -shoes reversed in order to deceive their pursuers. But the army -surrounded the whole mountain and, gradually working their -way up, at last brought the offenders to bay and cut them down.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_337'>337</span>In 1566 the Queen Mother died, and no sooner was it announced -than the monk who had been such a favorite with -her was banished to Quelpart and there beaten to death. -This done, the officials demanded the death of Yun Wŭn-hyŭng. -The King refused to kill his uncle but deprived him -of all official position and drove him away from the capital.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter IV.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>King Sŭn-Jo takes the throne.... a memorable reign.... reforms.... northern -invasion.... a prophecy.... mourning costume.... rise of -the political parties.... party strife.... literature.... border war.... condition -of affairs in Korea.... charge of effeminacy untrue.... condition -of Japan.... Japanese envoy.... Hideyoshi.... his demands refused.... second -envoy.... delay.... Korea’s condition acceded to.... renegades -executed.... conspiracy.... a coward envoy.... Hideyoshi’s -ultimatum.... Korea refuses.... Tairano.... the King’s answer -to Hideyoshi.... the King informs the Emperor.... preparations -for war.... generals commissioned.... the army of invasion.... lands -on Korean soil.... Japanese firearms.... the cowardly provincial general.... the -fall of Tong-nă.... a faithful defender.... cowardly officers.... the -Japanese move northward.... a martinet.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1568, as King Myŭng-jong lay dying, his Queen summoned -the officials to consult about the succession but ere they -arrived the King expired. They asked her to nominate a -successor and she named Prince Hă-sŭng a youth of seventeen, -second cousin to the deceased King. He is known by -his posthumous title Sŭn-jo So-gyŭng Tă-wang. The Queen -who nominated him acted as regent until he should reach his -majority.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This reign is perhaps the most memorable of any in this -dynasty, for in it occurred the great Japanese invasion which -brought the land to the verge of destruction and which has -ever since colored the Korean conception of the Japanese.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first years of the reign were spent in correcting the -abuses brought about by “Little Yun” and in removing from -office all those who had been connected in any way with him. -The whole kingdom was canvassed for wise and scholarly men -to put in the places of those who had been removed. Books -<span class='pageno' id='Page_338'>338</span>intended for the instruction and elevation of the people were -published and distributed far and wide.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The wild Ya-in across the Ya-lu were crossing that river -and taking possession of fields in Korea proper, near the town -of Kang-gye. The King sent a force under Gen. Kim Tong-yung -to dislodge them. The intruders were chased across -the river and into a narrow defile where they turned on their -pursuers. Taken thus by surprise the Korean forces were -thrown into confusion and were put to flight, but not till after -their general had fallen. A second expedition chased the -intruders to their villages, and burned them out.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the following year the Prime Minister Yi Chun-gyŭng -died, but before he expired he gave voice to a prophecy -which has become historic. He said:—“Since I have begun -to examine men’s minds I find that opposing factions will -arise and that in their train great evils will follow. The -king should studiously avoid showing favoritism to either of -these factions. The first symptom of the rise of such factions -should be met with stern resistance.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the year 1572, the relations with the Japanese were as -follows:—Since the seventh year of King Chöng-jong, when -the Japanese in the three ports revolted, there had been little -communication between the two countries, but a few Japanese -had been allowed to live in the three settlements by sufferance. -But now the Japanese sent a friendly message asking that -the old relations be resumed. The prefect of Fusan added -his influence in favour of granting the request, and the -Japanese were allowed to resume operations at Fusan alone, -three <em>li</em> below the prefecture, which means about half way -down the bay from the present village of Fusan. From that -time the former relations seem to have been renewed, but no -envoys went from Korea to Japan. It was decreed by the -Korean government that should a Japanese land anywhere -upon the coast except at Fusan he should be dealt with as a -pirate. Officials were set to watch the Japanese and see to -it that they did not overstep the strict regulations.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It had not been customary for the people to assume -mourning on the death of a royal personage, but when the -Queen Regent died in 1575 the custom was begun, and each -citizen wore a white hat, belt, and shoes.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_339'>339</span>This year, 1575, was signalized by another event of far-reaching -importance and one which exerted a powerful influence -over all subsequent Korean history. It was the -formation of the great political parties. At first there were -only two, but soon they split into four, which are known as -the No-ron, So-ron, Nam-in, and Puk-in. These mean “The -Old Men’s Party,” “The Young Men’s <a id='corr339_7'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Prty'>Party</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_339_7'><ins class='correction' title='Prty'>Party</ins></a></span>,” “The Southerners,” -and “The Northerners.” These terms are not at -all descriptive of the composition of the various parties but -arose from trivial circumstances. These parties have never -represented any principles whatever. They have never had -any “platforms,” but have been, and are, simply political -clans each bent upon securing the royal favour and the offices -and emoluments that go therewith. The story of their rise -shows how frivolous were the causes which called them -into being, and the remainder of these annals will show how -they have cursed the country.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During the palmy days of the odious “Little Yun” of the -preceding reign, a man by the name of Sim Eni-gyŭm happening -to see a blanket in the reception room of the universally -hated favorite, asked to whom it belonged. When he was -told that it belonged to one Kim Hyo-wŭn, he exclaimed “He -is called a good man, but if so how can he sleep in the house -of such a man as Little Yun.” So he opposed this Kim -with all his might and was opposed by him in like manner. -The matter grew into a family feud and kept on increasing -until at the time of which we are writing two hostile clans -had arisen, the one called Sŭ-in or “Westerners,” because -their leader lived in the western part of Seoul. The other was -at first called Tong-in or “Easterners,” perhaps because their -leader lived in the eastern part of the city. The two men -through whom the quarrel first arose had now left the field of -active politics and the Sŭ-in and Tong-in parties were led respectively -by Pak Sun and Hŭ Yŭp. It is said that from -this time impartiality in the distribution of offices was a thing -unknown in Korea. A Sŭ-in would help a Sŭ-in and a Tong-in -would help a Tong-in, right or wrong.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The long fight was immediately begun. A slave in -Whang-hă province was accused of murder and was held in -prison waiting the decision of Pak Sun, the leader of the party -<span class='pageno' id='Page_340'>340</span>in power. He did not believe the man guilty and delay followed. -Hŭ Yŭp, the leader of the opposition, took advantage of this -and accused his rival of neglect of duty. Then followed a -running fire of charge and counter-charge between the leaders -and between their partisans. The Tong-in, or So-ron as it -soon came to be called, won in this first encounter and two -of the opposing faction were banished. The Prime Minister -urged that this fight was utterly useless and would cause -endless trouble. The king agreed and determined to stamp -out the cause of the disturbance; so he banished the two men -Kim and Sim who had originated the factions. This had no -effect however upon the now thoroughly organized parties and -affairs kept going from bad to worse.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1579 Păk In-gŭl said to the king, “All the people have -taken sides in this senseless war and even though a man be a -criminal there are plenty who will defend him. This means -the ultimate destruction of the kingdom, and the King should -act as a peacemaker between the factions.” Others urged the -same point before the king, but they were unaware that it -was beyond the power of any king to lay the evil spirit of -factional strife. In the fifteenth year of his reign the king -threw himself into the cause of literature. He believed that -neglect of the classics was the cause of the factional strife in -his kingdom. He ordered the publication of the “Religion -in the Mind,” “Picture of the Good and Evil Will,” and -“The Legacy of Kim Si-seup.” He called together a large -congress of scholars, and in company with them threw himself -into the study of the classics.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The year 1583 beheld a fierce invasion on the part of the -northern savages under Pon-ho. The prefecture of Kyöng-wŭn, -in Ham-gyŭng Province, was taken by them, but Sil-Yip, -the prefect of On-sŭng, went to its succour, and after -a desperate fight before the town, broke the back of the invasion, -drove the marauders back across the Tu-man and burned -their villages.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i341.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>THE HAN RIVER.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>A novel method was adopted for raising recruits for the -army on the <a id='corr340_37'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='broder'>border</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_340_37'><ins class='correction' title='broder'>border</ins></a></span>. A law was made that sons of concubines, -who had always been excluded from official position, might -again become eligible by giving a certain amount of rice or by -going themselves and giving three years’ time to border guard -<span class='pageno' id='Page_341'>341</span>duty along the Ya-lu or Tu-man. Two chieftains, Yul Po-ri -and Yi T’ang-ga, advanced by separate roads upon Kyöng-sŭng -with 10,000 mounted followers, but the little garrison of -100 men fought so stubbornly that the siege was raised and -the two chieftains marched on to attack Pang-wŭn. Fortunately -government troops arrived just in time to drive the invaders -back.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Minister of War was working faithfully forwarding -troops as fast as they could be gotten ready, but the opposition -made charges against him on the ground of the neglect of -some trifling technicality and he forthwith laid down his -portfolio and retired in disgust. When the king asked the -Prime Minister about it, that careful individual, fearing to -compromise himself, would give no definite answer and the -king consequently said, “If my Prime Minister will not tell -me the facts in the case it is time he retired,” so he too lost -footing and fell from royal favor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having reached now the threshold of the great Japanese -invasion of Korea it will be necessary for us to pause and -examine the state of affairs in Japan and institute a comparison -between that country and Korea in order to discover -if possible the causes of Japan’s early success and subsequent -defeat.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Korea and Japan may be said to have been at two opposite -poles. Beginning with Korea, we notice, first, that -her relations with the Ming dynasty were eminently peaceful. -Unlike the Mongols of an earlier date and the Manchus of a -later date the Mings did not have their origin in the north, -and therefore were brought less into contact with Korea -along her northern border. They belonged to central China -and were not a horde of brutal pillagers as were the Mongols -and Manchus. Hence it was that so long as Korea was -friendly and held her own way quietly the Ming emperors -concerned themselves very little about her. To this day -Korea looks back to the Ming dynasty as her true patron -and realizes that the Manchu supremacy is an alien one. -Korea had been strongly unified by the statesmanship of the -first kings of the Cho-sŭn dynasty, the present one, and had -been ruled so well as a general thing that there was no sense -of insecurity and no particular fear from the outside except -<span class='pageno' id='Page_342'>342</span>such as arose from the occasional irruption of a northern tribe -or a piratical raid of a few boatloads of Japanese. The only -need of a standing army was to guard herself from such attacks. -The arts of peace flourished, the country was peaceful, -there is little reason to believe that she was sunken, as -many have averred, into a state of shameful effeminacy. -In fact there is much to indicate the opposite, for almost up -to the very year in which the invasion occurred the policy of -reform instituted by king Se-jong was adhered to and the -rulers, however unwarlike they may have been, surely did -much for the sake of literature, art and public morals. You -will scarcely find in the annals of history that the kings who -ruled during times of great public degeneracy, when luxury -sapped the vital power of the nation, spent their time in giving -to the people treatises on moral, scientific, social and -literary topics as these kings unquestionably did even up to -the day when the Japanese cataclysm swept the country. It -had not been a hundred years since an unworthy king had -been driven from the throne by his disgusted people and been -refused the posthumous title. That king was succeeded by -one who made the land even puritanic in the severity of its -morals, who fostered the arts and sciences as hardly any -other had done and who crowned his work by publishing the -Ok-pyŭn, which marked an era in the literary life of the -people. He had been followed in turn by a king who -continued the work of progress and among other things -caused the construction of a complicated astronomical instrument. -The following reign was the one in which the -invasion occurred. No candid reader can believe that the -country was steeped in such absolute degeneracy as the -Japanese annalists would have us believe, and which other -writers who had not access to the Korean annals have described. -But some may say that the good work of Korean -kings does not necessarily argue a good people. This again -is a mistake, for there could scarcely be found a people that -has taken their cue more directly from the court than have -the Korean people. When the kings have been lax the -people have followed the example and when the kings have -been true men the people have been brought back to honest -living. The refutation of this calumny then needs but a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_343'>343</span>careful perusal of the Korean annals; not those which have -been written under government sanction and are therefore -unreliable but those which, like these, have been drawn from -the private and popular histories of the dynasty and are -presumably reliable. For centuries Korea had been at peace, -except for insignificant uprisings on the border, and the arts -of peace had gradually taken the place of martial prowess. -A man is not an object of contempt simply because he is not -a warrior. If he is, then let us go back to the peat-smoke of -our ancestral hovels.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having shown this reason for Korea’s inability to -hold <a id='corr343_12'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='the the'>the</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_343_12'><ins class='correction' title='the the'>the</ins></a></span> Japanese in check to have been a false one it -will be necessary to account for it in some other way. This -can easily be done. The reason was three-fold. In the first -place the Korean people, having no use for a large standing -army, had not been trained in large numbers to military life. -Secondly the Japanese were armed with firearms while the -Koreans had absolutely none. The first firearm that was -ever seen in Korea was given the king by a Japanese envoy -just at the outbreak of the invasion, as we shall see. This -alone would account for Korea’s inability to cope with the -islanders. In the third place the rise of the political parties -had brought in a spirit of jealousy which made it impossible -for any man to reach celebrity without calling down upon -himself the hatred of the opposing party and his consequent -ruin. This we deem the main cause of Korea’s weakness. -The following pages will show whether this view is upheld -by facts or not. It was the mutual jealousies of opposing parties -that proved the bane of the land and not the supineness -and effeminacy of the people.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We must now glance at Japan and see of what stuff the -invaders were made. Unlike the Korean people, the Japanese -had never been welded into a homogeneous mass. Feudalism -was the most marked feature of Japanese life. It has -been but thirty years since Japan became a unit. It was -feudalism and its consequent spirit of liberty (for feudalism -is liberty in embryo) that made possible Japan’s phenomenal -development during the past three decades. Her feudalism -is therefore not to be decried, but one of its necessary evils -was a state of almost continual civil war. For two centuries -<span class='pageno' id='Page_344'>344</span>preceding the invasion of Korea Japan had been one great -battlefield. War was the great occupation of the people. -While Korea had been busy producing Japan had been busy -destroying and when at last Hideyoshi, the great Shogun, -found himself the virtual ruler of a temporarily quiet kingdom -he had on hand an enormous army which must either be -given occupation or must be disbanded. The latter he dared -not do and the former he could not do without finding <a id='corr344_8'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='a field a field'>a field</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_344_8'><ins class='correction' title='a field a field'>a field</ins></a></span> -of operation abroad. But we are anticipating.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is well known that the <a id='corr344_10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='governnent'>government</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_344_10'><ins class='correction' title='governnent'>government</ins></a></span> of Japan was not -administered by the emperor in person but by an official called -the Taiko, or Kwan-băk as the Koreans say. For about two -centuries this office had been in the hands of a family named -Wŭn. Hideyoshi had been a retainer in the family of the -Taiko. Being a bold and successful fighter he won his way -to a generalship and from this <a id='corr344_16'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='pount'>point</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_344_16'><ins class='correction' title='pount'>point</ins></a></span> of vantage killed the -Taiko and assumed that title himself. It had been the dream -of his life to strike at China. He had tried it once unsuccessfully -by boat, attacking her at Chŭl-gang. He now changed -his plan and decided to make Korea a stepping stone to the -conquest of the Ming empire. His initial move was based -on his statement “Year after year our envoys have gone to -Korea but they never send one in return.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In pursuance of this policy a Japanese envoy named -Yasuhiro appeared at the Korean court in 1587 bearing a -harshly worded and insulting letter demanding that the king -send <a id='corr344_27'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='and envoy to Japan. The only norice'>an envoy to Japan. The only notice</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_344_27'><ins class='correction' title='and envoy to Japan. The only norice'>an envoy to Japan. The only notice</ins></a></span> taken of this -demand was a polite note in which the king stated that as the -journey by sea was a long one and the Koreans were not good -sailors he would have to be excused from complying with the -demand. <a id='corr344_31'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Wen'>When</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_344_31'><ins class='correction' title='Wen'>When</ins></a></span> Yasuhiro placed this missive in the hands of -his master he was promptly ordered into the hands of the -executioner.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The opening of the year 1588 found Korea still suffering -from outbreaks of the far <a id='corr344_35'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='norther'>northern</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_344_35'><ins class='correction' title='norther'>northern</ins></a></span> border and Gen. Yi Il took -a small force of men, crossed the Tu-man River on the ice -and attacked the Chin-do tribe. Being successful in this <a id='corr344_37'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='hə'>he</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_344_37'><ins class='correction' title='hə'>he</ins></a></span> -took 2000 men, crossed the same river at four different points -<a id='corr344_39'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='simultaneosly'>simultaneously</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_344_39'><ins class='correction' title='simultaneosly'>simultaneously</ins></a></span> and attacked the Si-jun tribe by night, burning -200 houses and killing 300 people.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_345'>345</span>In the spring of this year there arrived from Japan a second -envoy, or rather three envoys, Yoshitoshi, Tairano -Tsuginobu and a monk Gensho. Of these Yoshitoshi was -the chief. He is described by the Koreans as being a young -man, but coarse and violent and of such a fierce nature that -the other members of his suite dared come into his presence -only on their knees. They dared not look him in the face. -Yoshitoshi and his suite were comfortably quartered at the -Tong-p‘ŭng-gwan near the present Japanese settlement in -Seoul, and having renewed the demand that Korea send an -envoy to Japan, he waited month after month hoping that -the king would accede to the demand and fearing to go back -without success lest he should meet the same fate that -Yasuhiro the former envoy had suffered.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At last the king announced that he would send an envoy -to Japan on one condition, namely that the Japanese government -seize and send back to Korea a number of Korean renegades -who, under the leadership of one Sa Wha-dong, had -run away to Japan and had since led marauding bands of -Japanese against the southern seaboard of Korea. To this -condition the Japanese envoy gladly consented and Tairano -was despatched to Japan to carry it out. But it was not till -the seventh moon of the following year, 1589, that the pirate -Sa Wha-dong and three Japanese freebooters together with -certain other Koreans were brought back from Japan and -delivered up to justice. With them came a letter from the -Japanese government saying “We are not responsible for the -evil deeds of these men. The Korean Sa Wha-dong is the -cause of this trouble; so we send them all to you and you -must mete out to them such punishment as you see fit.” The -culprits were immediately decapitated outside the West Gate. -This seems to have thawed somewhat the reserve of the king -and Yoshitoshi was called to the palace for the first time, -where he was presented by the king with a handsome steed -while he in turn gave the king a peacock and some firearms, -the first that had ever been seen in Korea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Late in the year a dangerous conspiracy was discovered, -the prime mover being Chöng Yo-rip of Chŭl-la Province. -He had arranged a plan by which he and several friends of -his in Whang-hă Province should rise simultaneously and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_346'>346</span>overthrow the government. A certain monk in Ku wŭl -mountain in Whang-hă Province discovered that a certain -man, Cho Ku, was working diligently among the people, -taking names, sending numerous letters and in other ways -acting in a suspicious manner. He believed the man was a -traitor and told the prefect of An-ak to be on the lookout. -The latter arrested the man and examined him. It was then -elicited that a widespread rebellion was being gotten up. -When the news was told the king secretly he called together his -officials and asked “What sort of a man is this Chöng Yo-rip?” -Some said they did not know but the Prime Minister said -that he was a good scholar and an <a id='corr346_11'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='examplary'>exemplary</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_346_11'><ins class='correction' title='examplary'>exemplary</ins></a></span> man. The -king <a id='corr346_12'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='them'>then</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_346_12'><ins class='correction' title='them'>then</ins></a></span> threw upon the floor the letter telling about the -plot and exclaimed “Read that and see what sort of a man -he is.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The traitor Chöng had gotten wind of the discovery and -had fled with his son to Chi-nan Mountain in Chŭl-la Province -but he was pursued and surrounded. Rather than be -taken he cut his own throat and expired. His son and his -nephew were taken back to Seoul and executed. The nephew -under torture affirmed that the Prime Minister and a large -number of other officials were privy to the plot. This was the -more easily believed because the Prime Minister had insisted -that Chöng was a good man. So he and two others were -banished. It is affirmed on good authority that the Prime -Minister and the other who suffered were innocent of the -charge, and that it was simply one of the deplorable results -of party jealousy and strife. We here have a striking instance -of the cause of Korea’s weakness.</p> - -<p class='c000'>All momentous events in Korea are believed to be foretold -in some way. It is said that in this year 1589 a good -man named Cho Hön went to the monastery at Kom-san and -when rice was set before him said “Whoever eats with me -will die next year, for the Japanese are coming with 200,000 -men. Those here who do not eat with me will live.” Three -only are said to have taken up the challenge and eaten -with him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the third moon of the following year 1590 the king -redeemed his promise by sending to Japan three envoys, -Whang Yun-gil, Kim Sŭng-il and Ho Sŭng. They were accompanied -<span class='pageno' id='Page_347'>347</span>by the Japanese envoy who had waited a year for -them. Whang <a id='corr347_2'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Yunn-gil'>Yun-gil</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_347_2'><ins class='correction' title='Yunn-gil'>Yun-gil</ins></a></span> was chief of the Korean embassy, -but he was a weak, timid man who hardly dared speak when -a Japanese addressed him. The other members of the embassy -realizing <a id='corr347_5'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='how how'>how</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_347_5'><ins class='correction' title='how how'>how</ins></a></span> such action would bring Korea into -contempt at the Japanese court, tried to stir him up and -make him speak out fearlessly, but to no avail. After wasting -a year at the Japanese court the embassy returned, accompanied -by Tairano who was charged with an important mission -to the king but the minute this embassy landed at Tong-ăn -Whang Yun-gil the cowardly envoy sent a letter post haste -to Seoul saying that war with Japan was certain. When they -all arrived at Seoul the king called them into audience and -questioned them about their experiences in Japan. His first -question was “Did you see Hideyoshi? How did he look?” -Whang replied “His eyes flashed fire. He is a fearsome man.” -but Kim Sŭng il said “There is nothing fearsome about him. -His eyes are like rats’ eyes.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The important letter of which Tairano was the bearer -was now handed to the King and it lay bare the mind of Hideyoshi. -It read as follows:—</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Our country consists of sixty-six kingdoms. They all -revolted from the Emperor but for four years I fought them -and succeeded in bringing them all to their knees until even -the remote islands lay mastered in my hand. When my -mother conceived me it was by a beam of sunlight that entered -her bosom in a dream. After my birth a fortune teller -said that all the land the sun shone on would be mine when I -became a man, and that my fame would spread beyond the four -seas. I have never fought without conquering and when I -strike I always win. Man cannot outlive his hundred years, -so why should I sit chafing on this island? I will make a -leap and land in China and lay my laws upon her. I shall go -by way of Korea and if your soldiers will join me in this invasion -you will have shown your neighborly spirit. I am determined -that my name shall pervade the three kingdoms.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>At a feast given in honor of the Japanese embassy, Hyŭn -So, the Japanese monk who seems to have accompanied -Tairano to the Korean court, whispered to Whang Yun-gil -and said, “The reason why Hideyoshi wants to attack China -<span class='pageno' id='Page_348'>348</span>is because the Emperor refuses to receive a Japanese envoy. -If Korea leaves us but a clear road to China we will ask nothing -else. No troops need be given.” To this Whang replied. -“That can never be. China is our Mother Country and -we cannot so desert her as to give a road to an invading -army.” The monk returned to the attack but this time from -another standpoint. “Long ago the Mongol hordes desired -to invade Japan and you gave them a road through Korea for -that purpose. Now when we seek revenge you should do the -same by us.” This was considered too preposterous a thing -to be even discussed and the matter suddenly dropped and the -Japanese envoys started straight back to their own country. -It was this envoy Tairano who while on his way up from -Fusan insulted the aged governor of Tă-gu by saying, “For -ten years I have followed war and thus my beard is gray; why -should you grow old?” Also calling for a Korean spear he -said, “Your spears are too long,” meaning that only cowards -use long spears. He it was also who threw the basket of -oranges to the dancing girls and, when they scrambled for them, -uttered his ironical criticism. “Your nation is doomed. You -have no manners.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>When this embassy went back to Japan he carried an -answer to Hideyoshi’s letter, in which the King said:—</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Two letters have already passed between us and the -matter has been sufficiently discussed. What talk is this of -our joining you against China? From the earliest times we -have followed law and right. From within and from without -all lands are subject to China. If you have desired to send -your envoys to China how much more should we. When -we have been fortunate China has rejoiced and when we have -been unfortunate she has helped us. The relations which -subsist between us are those of parent and child. This you -well know. Can we desert both emperor and parent and join -with you? You <a id='corr348_34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='doutlbess'>doubtless</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_348_34'><ins class='correction' title='doutlbess'>doubtless</ins></a></span> will be angry at this and it is because -you have not been admitted to the court of China. -Why is it that you are not willing to admit the suzerainty of -the emperor instead of harboring such hostile intents against -him? This truly passes our comprehension.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The emperor hearing a rumor of a Korean Japanese -alliance sent and enquired about it but the king replied -<span class='pageno' id='Page_349'>349</span>through an envoy telling the facts of the case exactly as -they had occurred. It was well understood in Korea that -an invasion was all but inevitable and active preparations -were going on all the year in view of this contingency. -Three able men were sent as the governors of Kyŭng-sang, -Chŭl-la and Ch‘ung-chŭng Provinces respectively, namely -Kim Su, Yi Kwang, and Yun Sŭng-gak. They were so energetic -in repairing fortresses and accumulating arms that the -people complained loudly. Someone told the king that Yi -Sun-sin, a man as yet unknown, had in him the making of -the greatest general in the world, and for this reason the -king made him admiral of all the naval forces of the kingdom.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter V.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The army of invasion.... lands on Korean soil.... Japanese fire-arms.... fall -of Fusan.... a cowardly provincial governor.... the fall of -Tong-nă.... a faithful defender.... cowardly officers.... the Japanese -move northward.... a martinet.... braver soldiers than leaders.... the -news reaches Seoul.... the three roads guarded.... a comical -predicament.... a good shot.... Cho-ryŭng (Pass) left undefended.... an -army disbands for lack of leaders.... Gen. Yi Il’s -fiasco.... Gen. Sil Yip wants to fight in the plain.... reconnoitering.... the -Korean army in a trap.... overwhelming defeat.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We have now arrived at the year 1592 A.D. the two -hundredth anniversary of the founding of the dynasty, the -year that was destined to see the country swept by the Japanese -hordes. The Koreans call it the Im-jim year and the -mere pronunciation of that word today brings up in the Korean’s -mind the tales of horror and suffering which his mother -told him when a boy, and which have determined the whole -attitude of the Korean mind toward Japan.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Before spring opened the king took an inventory of all -the arms that were available, and <a id='corr349_20'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='apointed'>appointed</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_349_20'><ins class='correction' title='apointed'>appointed</ins></a></span> Gen. Sil Yip to -the command of the forces in Kang-Wŭn and Ham-gyŭng -Provinces, and Gen. Yi Il to the command of those in the -south. In the third moon the officials worshiped at the tomb -of King T‘ă-jo the founder of the dynasty. Korean tradition -<span class='pageno' id='Page_350'>350</span>says that wailings were heard proceeding from this tomb for -three or four days preceding the landing of the Japanese.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Hideyoshi had gotten together an enormous force from -all parts of the kingdom and the expedition rendezvoused at -the islands of Iki. They were led by thirty-six generals, the -general-in-chief being Hideyi.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As to the numbers in the invading army the Korean account -agrees so well with the Japanese that there can be little -doubt of its correctness. The Korean accounts say that the -regular army <a id='corr350_10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='consited'>consisted</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_350_10'><ins class='correction' title='consited'>consisted</ins></a></span> of 160,000 men, that there was a -“body-guard” of 80,000 men, perhaps meaning the personal -body-guard of Hideyoshi, and that there were 1500 heavy -armed cavalry. This says nothing about a reserve force of -60,000 men which is mentioned by some authorities, and from -this we conclude that these did not come with the main army -but waited and came later as reinforcements. The best Japanese -accounts make the total 250,000 while the Korean records -say 241,500. Either of these numbers is approximately correct, -but the Japanese accounts divide the estimate differently, -saying that the main army was 150,000 while Hideyoshi’s -personal command was 100,000. But this discrepancy is of -course unessential.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As to armament we find that this army was provided -with 5000 battle axes, 100,000 long swords, 100,000 spears, -100,000 short swords, 500,000 daggers, 300,000 firearms large -and small, and that there were in the whole army 50,000 -horses.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The flotilla which brought this immense army to the -shores of Korea consisted of between three and four thousand -boats. This gives us an intimation as to the capacity of the -boats used in those days. According to this enumeration -each boat carried sixty men. They were probably undecked, -or at most but partially decked, boats of about forty or fifty -feet in length by ten in breadth.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We learn from Japanese sources that the whole fleet did -not weigh anchor from Iki at the same time. Kato, who -was in command of one division of the army, managed -to give the rest of the fleet the slip and was away with his -command by night, while his rival Konishi was compelled to -wait several days longer at anchor because of adverse winds. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_351'>351</span>These two men, Kato and Konishi figure so prominently in -the first years of the war that a word of description is necessary. -Kato was an old warrior who had fought for many -years beside the great commander. He was an ardent Buddhist -and a firm believer in the old regime. Konishi on -the other hand was a young and brilliant general who had -gained his place not so much by long and faithful service -as by his uncommon skill in military affairs. He was a convert -to Roman Catholicism, having been baptized by the <a id='corr351_9'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>Portugese</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_351_9'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>Portugese</ins></a></span> -missionaries in 1584. He seems to have been a personal -favorite with the great Taiko. It is in the Korean accounts -that we find the statement that Hideyi was made the -General-in-chief of all the army of invasion. From the Japanese -accounts which naturally would be supposed to be more reliable -in this matter it would seem that Kato and Konishi -divided between them the honor of supreme command. But we -must remember that Hideyoshi was an old soldier and well -acquainted with the natural jealousies that spring up between -officers in an army, and it is almost inconceivable that he -should have put this army in joint command of two men -whom he must have known to be bitter enemies and who -would doubtless work at cross purposes in the peninsula. -We incline therefore to the opinion that the Koreans were -right and that there was a nominal head in the person of -Hideyi, but it is quite true that the brunt of the work fell -upon the two rivals, Kato and Konishi.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When day broke on the morning of the thirteenth of the -fourth moon of 1592 a dense fog rested on the sea and hid -from the eyes of the Koreans the vast fleet that was working -across the straits. Curiously enough, the commander of the -Korean forces in Fusan happened to be hunting that day on -Deer Island at the entrance to the harbor. He was the first -to descry the invading host. Hastening back to the fortifications -he prepared for the worst. Before many hours had -passed the Japanese host had landed, surrounded the fort and -poured in upon its doomed defenders such a destructive fire that -it is said the bullets fell like rain. The garrison fought till their -arrows were gone and then fell at their post, not one escaping.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It would be difficult to overestimate the immense advantage -which the Japanese enjoyed in the possession of firearms, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_352'>352</span>a weapon with which the Koreans were not acquainted and -to whose natural destructiveness as a machine of war must be -added the terror which it naturally inspired. It was Cortez -and the Mexican over again, only in somewhat lesser degree. -What seemed to the Japanese and what has passed down in -history as cowardice can scarcely be called by so strong a term -when we consider that bows and arrows were pitted against -muskets and men who were trained in their use.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Without delay the invaders marched around the bay to -the ancient city of Tong-nă, the remains of whose ancient -fortress still greet the eye and interest the imagination of the -traveller. Its prefect, Song Sang-hyŭn, hurriedly gathered -all the town-people and what soldiers he could find. Gen. Yi -Kak, the commander of all the forces in the province, was approaching -from the north; but, hearing of the fate of the -garrison of Fusan, he halted abruptly and said “As commander -of all the provincial forces I must not risk my life in actual -battle but must stand outside where I can direct affairs.” -So he turned about and put six miles between his precious -person and the <a id='corr352_20'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='beleagured'>beleaguered</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_352_20'><ins class='correction' title='beleagured'>beleaguered</ins></a></span> town of Tong-nă, encamping at So-san. -The next day the Japanese completed the investment -of the town and prepared to storm the fortress. The brave -prefect took up his position in the upper storey of the great -gate of the fortress where, in accordance with the Korean -custom, he beat upon a great drum and urged on his soldiers -in the fight. For eight hours the gallant defenders fought -before the enemy effected an entrance over their dead bodies. -Seeing that all was lost, the prefect called for his official robes -and seated himself in state in the upper gateway. The ruthless -Japanese rushed in and seized him by his garments and attempted -to make him bow before them, but the first one received -such a kick in the stomach that he rolled over on the -floor. An instant <a id='corr352_33'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='latter'>later</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_352_33'><ins class='correction' title='latter'>later</ins></a></span> the prefect was struck down by their -swords. Just before the enemy entered he had bitten his -finger till the blood came and with it he wrote on his fan -“The duty of a subject to his King comes before that of a son -to his father, so here I die without seeing you again.” This -he delivered to a trusty servant to give to his father. To his -trusty friend, Sin Yŭ-go, he said, “There is no need of your -staying here to die, make good your escape while you can.”</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_353'>353</span>But Sin replied, “I have enjoyed pleasures with you -and now I prefer to suffer with you.” So the two died together. -The Japanese general in command was so impressed -with the bravery of this prefect Song Sang-hyŭn that he had -his body decently buried and erected over his grave a wooden -monument on which he wrote “A Loyal Subject,” an epitaph -than which none could be more grateful to a true Korean gentleman. -Tradition, which delights to <a id='corr353_8'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='embelish'>embellish</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_353_8'><ins class='correction' title='embelish'>embellish</ins></a></span> such accounts, -avers that for two years a red light could be seen glimmering -at night above the gate where this man met his end.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Gen. Yi Kak, the cautious, and Gen. Pak Hong -who was with him, heard of the fall of Tong-nă, they took to -their heels and consequently their forces did likewise. And -here it should be noted that cowardice evinced itself almost -exclusively in the generals and other officers. We shall find -that in almost every instance the soldiers stood by their officers -to the last man.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the forces of the Japanese moved northward the prefects -fled to right and left. The governor of the province, -Kim Su, hearing of the battle at Tong-nă, advanced toward -that place with all the forces at his command, but his determination -seems to have wavered, perhaps on account of the -growing rumors of the prowess of the Japanese; for before he -came in sight of the invading army he turned to the west and -south, alarming all the prefects as he went; and so it is said -that this whole portion of the province was practically depopulated.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the Japanese arrived at Yŭng-san they found it -empty. They swarmed over Chak-wŭn Pass like ants and -filled the plain beyond. Pak Chin the prefect of Mi-ryang -burned all the provisions and arms and fled to the mountains. -Not so with Sŏ Yi-wŭn the prefect of Kim-hă. He stayed inside -his <a id='corr353_32'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='fortess'>fortress</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_353_32'><ins class='correction' title='fortess'>fortress</ins></a></span> and defied the invaders. The latter could not -effect an entrance until they went and cut down a large field -of barley in the neighborhood, which they tied in bundles -and heaped against the wall till they were able to scale it. -Having done his best and failed the prefect made good his -escape. U Pok-yong, prefect of Yong-gung, as in duty -bound, called in his retainers and started to join the banner -of his chief, Yi Kak, whose whereabouts at that time was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_354'>354</span>rather uncertain as we have already seen. During a halt for -dinner two hundred soldiers from the town of Ha-yang passed -them on their way to join the forces of the governor. U -Pok-yong seems to have had so large an opinion of himself -that he was enraged because these soldiers did not dismount -when they passed him. They were of course ignorant of his -rank, but he had them all seized and executed and sent a note -to the governor saying that he had destroyed a band of two -hundred robbers. For this meritorious service he was elevated -to the rank of district-general.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile Gen. Yi Kak, the provincial general, was flying -from place to place in momentary fear of encountering -the enemy. His troops were disgusted at this, for they had -made some rude guns that would throw pebbles and they -thought if they could have a fair chance at the Japanese they -could give them a whipping.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the seventeenth, four days after the landing of the -Japanese, the startling news reached Seoul. The city was -thrown into a sort of panic. The ministers hastened to the -palace to consult about ways and means for defense. Yi Il -was the highest actual field officer in the country. He was -of the third military rank but the two above him were simply -the minister and vice-minister of war and always stayed with -the king. Gen. Yi Il may then be said to have been the General-in-chief -of all the armies of Korea at the time.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There were three main roads leading up from the south -to the capital, any one of which might be chosen by the Japanese. -The most direct of these was the central one leading over -the mountain chain at the celebrated Cho-ryŭng (Pass). Another -to the east crossed the mountains at Chuk-nyŭng (Pass) -and a third to the west led through the center of Ch’ung-ch’ŭng -province. To guard these three approaches the king -ordered Gen. Yi Il to go south by the middle road and station -a garrison at Cho-ryŭng, the most important strategic -point in the Japanese line of march. Gen. Pyŭn Keui was -to be stationed in charge of this garrison. The eastern road -was to be guarded by Gen. Yu Keuk-nyang and Pyŭn Eung-sŏng -was made prefect of the important southern town of -Kyŏng-ju. All these men were ordered to start for their respective -posts immediately. At a late hour of that same day -<span class='pageno' id='Page_355'>355</span>came the news of <a id='corr355_1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='he'>the</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_355_1'><ins class='correction' title='he'>the</ins></a></span> fall of Fusan, for someone from the -summit of a neighboring hill had seen the red banners of the -Japanese swarming over the walls into the doomed town.</p> - -<p class='c000'>These generals who had been ordered to start in such hot -haste were practically without forces. When the military -rolls were <a id='corr355_6'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='lookd'>looked</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_355_6'><ins class='correction' title='lookd'>looked</ins></a></span> up it was found that the army was mostly on -paper and that a large majority of the men were either “sick” -or were “in mourning.” So the whole force that Gen. Yi Il -could muster amounted to just three hundred men. Even -these could not be mustered at an hour’s notice, and so in -order to obey the king’s command, the unfortunate general -had to start off alone, trusting that this pitiful handful of -men <a id='corr355_13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='wold'>would</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_355_13'><ins class='correction' title='wold'>would</ins></a></span> follow him. The sight of the General-in-chief of -the armies of Korea starting out alone to meet the mighty -army of invasion would be comical were it not so pathetic. -Of course the intention was to gather troops as he went, and we -shall see that he did succeed in getting together at least the -semblance of an army.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Prime Minister Yu Sŭng-nyong was made Minister -of War and charged with the duty of gathering a competent -force to cope with the dreaded Japanese. Sil Yip was also -appointed Vice-minister of War. He seems to have been -specially trusted by the king for the latter gave him a splendid -sword and sent him south with the injunction to kill anyone -who should prove unfaithful, even though it be Gen. Yi Il himself. -Here we see another grievous mistake, in thus giving a -man an independent command over the head of the General-in-chief. -It well illustrates a defect that has brought disaster to -many an army—namely the confusing of authority. As Sil -Yip came out from this audience with the king he slipped on -the stone steps and his court hat fell from his head. The attendants -looked upon this with dismay for it was considered an -omen of ill-success. The general went south only eighty li -and stopped at Yong-in.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Kim Sŭng-il whom we will remember as the man who accompanied -the cowardly envoy Whang Yun-gil to Japan and -who had so severely censured him for his craven conduct, -was now made commander of all the forces in the western part -of Kyŭng-sang Province. He started for his post immediately -and in a few days arrived at the important town of Chin-ju, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_356'>356</span>just as the Japanese were approaching. His escort had become -somewhat scattered, but he was not going to take a -backward step even to save his life. Dismounting he seated -himself in the official chair having with him only a corporal -and a dozen soldiers. It was a common custom for the Japanese -to wear hideous masks for the purpose of terrifying the -Koreans. On this occasion, when the van of the Japanese -army entered the town it was led by a burly fellow wearing -an extremely large and extremely ugly mask. The corporal -strung his bow and let fly a shaft which pierced the mask -and laid its wearer low. His followers beat a hasty retreat -supposing that no one would be shooting arrows about like -that unless there was a considerable force of soldiers in the -immediate vicinity. We are not told as to the fate of the bold -general. In this part of the province the prefects seem to -have been made of better stuff than those further south, for -they sent to each other urging the necessity of standing at -their posts and offering whatever resistance they could to the -advance of the enemy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>By this time Gen. Yi Il had collected a considerable force, -had crossed the great Cho-ryŭng (Pass) and was stationed at -Sŭng-ju, in the very path of the invading army. It did not -take long to measure his calibre, for no sooner did the rumor -of the approach of the Japanese reach him than he turned -and fled up the pass. This was bad enough, but his next act -was little less than traitorous; he made no attempt to block -the pass, even though a mere handful of men could have -held it against thousands. It was his one great opportunity -to distinguish himself and that he did not improve it speaks -as poorly for his generalship as it does for his <a id='corr356_30'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='patrotism'>patriotism</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_356_30'><ins class='correction' title='patrotism'>patriotism</ins></a></span>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile an equally reprehensible event was happening -in the south. Governor Kim Su, who had turned aside -from meeting the enemy had sent letters to all the prefects -ordering them to have soldiers from all the districts rendezvous -at Tă-gu and await in camp the arrival of generals from -Seoul. The order was obeyed and a large force was congregated -at the appointed place; but day after day passed -and no generals came. The Japanese were sweeping northward -and would soon be upon them. Under the circumstances -it should cause little surprise that the camp broke up, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_357'>357</span>each man returning to his own district. This is but one of -many cases which go to show that in almost every instance -the blame rested not on the soldiers but on the generals and -other officers. The soldiers were always willing to go where -the generals would lead them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Gen. Yi Il fled in panic over Cho-ryŭng and left -it undefended his followers naturally objected to remaining -under the command of a man who was not only no commander -but was a coward to boot. So at last the doughty -general found himself stranded in the town of Sang-ju without -a soldier at his back. He had hoped to find some troops -there under the command of the prefect, Kwŭn Chong-gil. -When he found that there were none he flew into a rage and -was about to decapitate the prefect, but let him off on condition -that he find some troops immediately. This the poor -fellow tried to do, but as the whole population was a farming -one not a man could be found who had ever borne arms or -who knew anything about fighting. Nevertheless, to save -his head, he got together some nine hundred raw recruits. -At this juncture a messenger came post haste from Ka-ryŭng -saying that the Japanese were coming and were already near. -Gen. Yi replied: “You lie, this is only a scheme to get me -to leave, so that I will not levy any more troops here. Off -with his head.” So off it came. That very night the <a id='corr357_24'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Japan'>Japanese</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_357_24'><ins class='correction' title='Japan'>Japanese</ins></a></span> -encamped at Chang-ch‘ŭn-li a few miles away, but Gen. Yi -knew nothing about it, as he had no pickets out. The next -morning Japanese scouts were seen on the opposite bank of -the river reconnoitering. The Koreans saw these scouts but -as one man had been beheaded for telling of the approach of -the Japanese no one dared to tell the general, and it was not -till he heard the firing of guns that he became aware of the -proximity of the foe. Then he rushed out and formed up -his little garrison as best he could behind the fortifications. -Ere long his attention was called to several columns of smoke -arising from the town. He sent some of his aides to discover -the cause but they fell into the hands of the Japanese and -were immediately cut down. When Gen. Yi learned of this -he was genuinely alarmed, and his anxiety was added to by -seeing two long files of Japanese deploying to right and left -and rapidly inclosing him and his forces. There was only -<span class='pageno' id='Page_358'>358</span>one thing to do. Mounting his steed he fled by the only -way that was not already blocked. Being hotly pursued he -abandoned his horse and the greater part of his clothing and -fled into the mountains where he managed to elude his pursuers. -In a day or so he appeared at the town of Mun-gyŭng where -he wrote a letter telling of his defeat and sent it to Seoul. -Hearing that Gen. Sil Yip was at Ch‘ung-ju he hastened to -that point and joined him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Sil Yip had some time since arrived at his post in -Ch‘ung-ju and had prosecuted his work of collecting soldiers -with such zeal that he had mustered a force of some eight -thousand men. It was his intention to push straight for Cho-ryŭng, -the key to the whole situation, but when he heard of -the flight and defeat of Gen. Yi Il he fell back to his strong -position in Ch‘ung-ju. One of his lieutenants, Kim Yŭ-mul, -expostulated with him and said, “We cannot cope with them -except in such a place as Cho-ryŭng where the roughness of -the land will be of material aid to us,” but the general replied, -“No, they are infantry and we are cavalry. If we can once -get them into the plain we can use our battle-flails on them -with deadly effect.” One of <a id='corr358_21'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='this'>his</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_358_21'><ins class='correction' title='this'>his</ins></a></span> captains told him that the -Japanese had already crossed the Cho-ryŭng, and that night -he left the camp secretly and went on a long tour of inspection -in order to ascertain whether this was true. When he -came back he ordered the instant execution of the captain. -This midnight expedition speaks well for his courage and -his loyalty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A few days after the fugitive general, Yi Il, joined the -forces of Gen. Sil Yip, the Japanese forces approached. In -order to carry out his pet scheme of fighting the Japanese in -an open plain where his soldiers could make good use of their -battle-flails, Gen. Sil selected a spot that seemed to him most -suitable. It was a great amphitheater made by high mountains. -Along the other side, like the chord of an arc, flowed the -river T‘an-geum da. The only approaches to this plain were -two narrow passages at either end where the mountains came -down to the river bank. In this death trap, then, Gen. Sil -drew up his entire command and awaited the coming of the -invaders. It is easy to imagine the glee with which the Japanese -saw this arrangement, for it meant the extermination -<span class='pageno' id='Page_359'>359</span>of the only army that lay between them and Seoul. Strong -detachments were sent to block the passage at the ends of the -plain while the main body scaled the mountains and came -down upon the doomed army as if from the sky. The spears -and swords of the descending legions flashed like fire while -the roar of the musketry made the very earth to tremble. -The result was an almost instantaneous stampede. The Koreans -made for the two narrow exits but found them heavily -guarded by the Japanese. They were now literally between -“the devil and the deep blue sea,” for they had the appalling -spectacle of the hideously masked Japanese on the one hand -and the deep waters of the river on the other. The whole -army was driven into the river or mercilessly cut down by -the swords of the Japanese. Gen. Sil Yip himself made a -brave stand and killed with his own hand seventeen of the -enemy before he fell. Out of the whole army only a handful -escaped, and among them we are almost sorry to say was the -coward Yi Il who managed to get across the river.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter VI.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>News of defeat reaches Seoul.... panic.... divided councils.... lack of -troops.... general exodus.... indescribable confusion.... straw shoes -at a premium.... Princes sent away.... the king leaves Seoul.... -Yi Hang-bok attends the Queen.... riotous citizens.... slaves burn -the deeds.... palaces in flames.... royal party dwindles.... drenching -rain.... the king goes without dinner.... welcome relief.... Japanese -approach Seoul.... the race between Kato and Konishi.... no -resistance.... the Han left undefended.... an empty victory.... -Hideyi’s quarters.... the Japanese in Seoul.... the king orders the -Im-jin River guarded.... the king enters P‘yŭng-yang.... a coward.... -the Im-jin guarded.... the Japanese impetus checked.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Meanwhile the city of Seoul was waiting breathless for -news of a victory by Gen. Sil Yip. The terrors of the horde of -half-savage soldiers from the islands of Japan had passed from -mouth to mouth and all, from the king to the humblest coolie, -knew that Gen. Sil Yip alone stood between them and that -dreaded host. One morning a naked soldier was seen approaching -the South Gate on a run. He bore the marks of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_360'>360</span>battle and as he passed under the great arch of the gate a -hundred hands were <a id='corr360_2'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='streched'>stretched</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_360_2'><ins class='correction' title='streched'>stretched</ins></a></span> out to greet him and a hundred -voices demanded news of the battle. He cried, “I am one of the -followers of Sil Yip and I come to tell the city that yesterday -he fell at the hand of the Japanese. I have escaped with my -life and I am come to tell you that flight is your only hope.” -The people were fearfully agitated. The evil news spread -from mouth to mouth and a great wailing arose from the -multitude that thronged the streets.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was the last day of the fourth moon and that night the -king, not knowing at what moment the enemy might be -thundering at his gates, took up his quarters in a secluded -part of the palace, “The Old Palace” as it is now called, and -gathered about him all his courtiers and officers and held a -great council. The only question was, “Where shall <a id='corr360_15'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='be'>we</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_360_15'><ins class='correction' title='be'>we</ins></a></span> go?”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Yi San-ha the Minister of War said “The Court should -remove to P‘yŭng-yang,” but Yi Hang-bok, an official who -was destined to figure prominently in the war, said, “It will -not be enough to go to P‘yŭng-yang. We must send and ask -aid of China.” On the other hand Kim Kwi-yŭng and a -host of other officials said, “No, the king should stay right -here and defend his capital.” The king himself, after listening -to all that had to be said, agreed with the majority that it -would be best to stay and defend the city. He said, “The ancestral -temple with all the tablets of my illustrious ancestors is -here. How can I go and leave them? Let the Minister of War -immediately detail troops to man the walls.” But it was just -here that difficulty arose and it showed clearly why the -Minister of War had counselled flight. The city wall has -thirty thousand battlements and each battlement has three -embrasures, but in the whole city there were only seven -thousand troops. This was not a tenth part the number that -would be required to man the walls. This lack of soldiers -was due to the fact that in the long centuries of peace it had -<a id='corr360_35'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='bocome customary for the goverment'>become customary for the government</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_360_35'><ins class='correction' title='bocome customary for the goverment'>become customary for the government</ins></a></span> to receive a money -equivalent in place of military service. As a result only the -very poorest of the poor were enrolled in the army, and the -service consequently suffered. This bad custom, while it -argues corrupt practices among the officials, does not prove -the absence of courage or faithfulness among the people, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_361'>361</span>we shall find that the people were as a rule true to their duty -when they were properly led.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To add to the difficulty of the situation, on that very -night there was an overwhelming exodus of the people. -High and low, rich and poor, young and old, thronged out of -the city by every gate and made for some place of fancied -safety in the country. The very warders of the gates fled -and left them wide open. The great bell at Chong-no remained -silent that night for lack of someone to ring it. Very -many took refuge in the palace enclosure and men and women, -horses and cattle and goods of all kinds were mixed together -in indescribable confusion. Wailing and shouting -and crying on all sides added to the confusion. The king -could do nothing to quiet the disturbance, so he sat down in -his private apartments attended by two eunuchs. Meanwhile -the lawless element among the people was trying to make -capital out of the confusion, and all night long the palace -was being looted by these vicious characters, while palace -women fled half naked and screaming with terror from room -to room.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king’s relatives all gathered at his doors and begged -with tears and imprecations that he would not go and leave -them. An order went forth from the palace that all the -straw shoes and sandals that could be found should be -brought in. When the officials saw these they said to the -king “This great pile of straw shoes looks as if flight was -being prepared for. We had better take them and burn -them all and then shut the city gates so that the people -cannot escape and leave the place undefended.” This advice -was probably not followed, for by this time the king himself -began to see that flight would be the only possible plan, -and it was probably at his order that the shoes had been -prepared.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Minister Yu Sŭng-nyŭng said, “Let us send the two -Princes to the provinces where they will be safe and let the -different governors be instructed to collect troops and send -them on as fast as possible.” This seemed sound advice and -the king’s oldest son, by a concubine, for the Queen had -borne no sons, was sent to the province of Ham-gyŭng, and -Prince Sun-wha went into Kang-wŭn Province.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_362'>362</span>When night came the king, who saw that it was useless -to attempt to hold the city, sent to the keeper of the Ancestral -Temple and ordered him to send the ancestral tablets on -toward P‘yŭng-yang. All night long the preparations for -departure were pushed and just at day break the king called -for his horse and, mounting, rode out the New Gate attended -by his personal following, a host of the officials and a crowd -of terrified citizens who well knew that his going meant -perfect anarchy. The Queen was aided in making her escape -by Yi Hang-bok who under cover of the darkness led her by -the light of a torch to the palace gate. She asked his name -and being told she said, “I have to thank you, and I am sorry -to have put you to this trouble.” It is said that he had all -along felt sure the Japanese would enter Seoul and that he -had sat for days in his house refusing food and drink. At the -end of that time he roused himself and called for food. Having -eaten he prepared for a long journey and then went to -the palace. One of his favorite concubines followed him and -asked what they were to do at home, but he did not answer. -She plucked him by the sleeve but he drew his sword and cut -the sleeve off leaving it in her hands. He felt that his first -duty was at the palace. We have seen that he did good work -there in looking after the welfare of the Queen. He secured -her a chair at the palace gate and they joined the royal cavalcade -on its way northward.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the king and his escort passed through “Peking Pass” -day was breaking in the east and a last look at the city showed -it to be on fire in many places. The populace had thrown -off all restraint and had looted the treasure houses and the -store houses. In one of the latter were kept all the deeds of -the government slaves. Each slave was deeded property, -the same as real estate, and the deeds of the government slaves -were deposited in the Chang-yé-wŭn. At that time there was -nominally no lower middle class at all. Society was composed -of the upper class and their retainers. Almost every man in -the lower stratum of society was nominally the slave of some -nobleman though in many places it was a nominal serfdom -only. At the same time the master had the right to sell them -at will and they were in duty bound to assume mourning at his -death. It was this class of people, then, that arose and burned -<span class='pageno' id='Page_363'>363</span>the store-house which contained the deeds and thereby secured -liberty. Another building contained deeds of all private -slaves. This too was made an objective point the moment -the restraint of government was taken off. They also saw -the royal granary in flames where the rice, cloth and money -were stored. The king’s private treasure house inside the -palace grounds was also burning. The Kyŭng-bok Palace, the -Chang-dŭk Palace and the Chang-gyŭng Palace were all in -flames. It must have been a depressing sight to the king and -his court but there was no time to waste in mourning over -the desolation in Seoul. No one knew at what moment the -enemy might appear over the southern hills; and so the royal -party pressed on toward the north. When they arrived at -Sŭk-ta-ri in the district of Ko-yang it was raining furiously -and by the time they arrived at Pyŭk-je-yŭk the entire party -were dripping wet.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Up to this point the cavalcade had kept together very -well but there were many among them who had not intended -to keep on with the royal party and there were probably many -more whose good intentions were so dampened by the elements -that they gave it up. From this point on the royal escort -was much reduced. The king here dismounted, entered a -hostelry and sat down and began to beat upon the ground -with his whip and to weep. As the Ministers gathered -around him he said, “What shall we do in this terrible haste?” -Yi Hang-bok answered, “When we get to Eui-ju, if we find -it impossible to stop there we must push on into China and -seek aid from the Emperor.” The king was pleased with this -and said, “That is just what I want to do.” But Yu Sŭng-nyŭng -said, “Not so, for if the king leaves Korean soil the -dynasty will be at an end and Korea will be lost. The -soldiers of Ham-gyŭng Province are still to be heard from and -those from Kang-wŭn Province as well; so there is no call for -such talk as this about leaving Korean soil.” He likewise -administered a sharp reproof to Yi Hang-bok who confessed -himself to have been too hasty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After a short rest they took the road again, ever goaded -on by the dread of pursuit, and as they passed He-eum-nyŭng -the rain came down again in torrents. The palace women -were riding horses that were small and weak and they could -<span class='pageno' id='Page_364'>364</span>go but slowly. The riders went along with their hands over -their faces, weeping and wailing loudly. By the time they -reached the Im-jin River it was dark, and a more wretched -company can hardly be imagined. The horses were up to -their <a id='corr364_5'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='kness in mud and were wellnigh'>knees in mud and were well-nigh</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_364_5'><ins class='correction' title='kness in mud and were wellnigh'>knees in mud and were well-nigh</ins></a></span> exhausted. All were -nearly famished. It was pitchy dark and the party had become -scattered. The case looked about as hopeless as it well -could; but Yi Hang-bok was a man of tremendous energy, -and he realised the gravity of the situation. So halting the -cavalcade he dismounted and managed after great exertions -to collect the entire party once more. It was so dark that it -was impossible to think of crossing the river by ferry, until -someone thought of the happy plan of setting fire to some of -the buildings on the bluff beside the stream. By this baleful -light the sorry and bedraggled multitude somehow effected a -crossing and from that point on the fear of pursuit was greatly -lessened. By this time food and rest had become imperative -both for man and beast. Those who had been accustomed -to no greater hardship than lolling on divans in palaces found -a ride of thirty miles in the mud and rain, without rest or -nourishment, a severe test. When the cavalcade came at -midnight to the hostlery of Tong-pa-yŭk in the prefecture of -P’a-ju they found that the prefect Hŭ-jin and the prefect of -Chang-dan, Ku Hyo-yŭn, had provided an excellent supper -for the king and the Ministers, but before these worthies -could get settled in the apartments provided for them, the -grooms and coolies and others, rendered desperate by hunger, -rushed into the kitchen to find what had been provided for -them, and finding that they had been <a id='corr364_29'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='forgotton'>forgotten</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_364_29'><ins class='correction' title='forgotton'>forgotten</ins></a></span> they began to -help themselves to the food that had been prepared for the -royal table. An attempt was made to stop them but they were -in no mood to be stopped. The result was that the king and -his Ministers went hungry. His Majesty asked for a cup of -wine but none could be found. He asked for a cup of tea but -that too had disappeared. One of the servants of the party -happened to have a cake of Chinese sugar tucked under his -head-band. This he drew out and it was dissolved in some -warm water and formed the repast of the king that night.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the morning when it became time to resume the -journey it was found to the dismay of all that the coolies had -<span class='pageno' id='Page_365'>365</span>decamped and left the royal party high and dry. But even -while they were discussing this sorry plight the governor of -Whang-hă province and the prefect of Sö-heung appeared on -the scene with two hundred soldiers and fifty or sixty horses. -They had come expressly to escort the king northward, and -truly they came in the very nick of time. They had with -them a few measures of barley and this was doled out to the -hungry people. As soon as possible a start was made and at -noon they arrived at Cho-hyŭn-ch’an forty li from Sŭng-do -where they found plenty of food, as the governor had ordered -it to be prepared. This was the second day of the fifth -moon. That night they entered the welcome gates of Song-do, -which, almost exactly two centuries before, had witnessed the -overthrow of the Koryŭ dynasty. This was the first time the -royal party could really breathe freely, for they could be easily -warned of the approach of the enemy, now that soldiers -were on the lookout. So it was decided that they should rest -a day at this place.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king came out and seated himself in the upper story -of the South Gate and all the people gathered before him. He -said to them “Now that this war is upon us, if there is anything -that you would say, say on.” Without hesitation they -replied, “This war has been caused by Yi San-han (one of the -Ministers), and by Kim Kong-yang,” (the father of a favorite -concubine). The people were very angry with them. They -also said, “You should recall the Minister Chöng.” This -man had been banished because of factional rivalry. To the -latter proposition the king readily assented, glad probably to -find some way to please the populace.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was on this day, the third of the fifth moon, that the -Japanese entered Seoul.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It will be necessary for us to pause here and note the -method of the Japanese approach to the capital. A glance at -the map of Korea shows that there are three great highways -leading up from Fusan to Seoul. One is the main or middle -road leading by Yang-san, Mi-ryang, Ch’ŭng-do, Tă-gu and -soon up the valley of the Nak-tong River, over the great Cho-ryŭng -(Pass). The division led by Konishi came up the peninsula -at double-quick by this road. It was before this division -that Gen. Yi Il had fled. A second road is to the east of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_366'>366</span>this, proceeding by way of Choa-p‘yŭng, Ul-san, Kyöng-ju, -Yong-jin, Sil-yăng, Kun-wi, Pi-on and Mun-gyŭng. Kato -led the division which took this road, but his forces joined -those of Konishi below Cho-ryŭng and the two crossed it together. -The forces of both Kato and Konishi were in the -battle which witnessed the massacre of Sil Yip’s forces in the -<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>cul de sac</em></span> which we have described. After this battle the two -rival leaders again separated and hastened toward Seoul by -different routes. Konishi kept on by the main road by way -of Chuk-san, Yong-in, crossing the Han River just below -Han-gang and entering the city by the South Gate. Kato -took a more easterly road and came via Yŭ-ju and Yang-geun -crossing the Han seventy li above, at Yang-jin. But a -third division under Kuroda and other generals had branched -off to the west at the very start. They proceeded by way of -Kim-hă and U-do and then, leaving Kyung-sang Province -they crossed over to Chi-re and Kim-san in Chŭl-la Province. -Then crossing the Ch’u-p’ung Pass they entered Ch’ung-ch’ŭng -Province and then made for Seoul by way of Yong-dong, -Ch’ung-ju and so up by the main road.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The reason for the different divisions taking different -routes may have been because of the necessity of obtaining -forage, but it was also in part due to the jealousy which existed -between Kato and Konishi, for each of these men was -<a id='corr366_25'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='disirous'>desirous</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_366_25'><ins class='correction' title='disirous'>desirous</ins></a></span> of getting to Seoul before the other.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This great <a id='corr366_26'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='tripple'>triple</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_366_26'><ins class='correction' title='tripple'>triple</ins></a></span> army met with no real resistance on its -way to Seoul. The country was utterly unprepared for war, -the principal lack being in competent leaders rather than in -number of troops. It was the first quick, sharp stroke on the -part of the Japanese which seems to have paralysed the Koreans. -The banners of the great host of the invaders spread out over a -thousand li and at intervals of twenty or thirty li they built -fortifications from which they signalled to each other at night. -The only aggressive move on the part of the Koreans up to this -time was the effort of Captain Wŭn Ho to prevent or at least -delay the passage of the Han by Kato’s forces, at Yang-jin, by -destroying all the boats. But the Japanese were not delayed -long by this, for the neighboring hill-sides furnished them with -logs for rafts on which they soon crossed and hastened on to -anticipate the troops of Konishi in the occupation of Seoul.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_367'>367</span>It was on the fourth day of the fifth moon that the eager -forces of Konishi swept down to the banks of the Han River -opposite the town of Han-gaug. This river is a real barrier -to an army unprepared with pontoon or other boats and the -Japanese troops might have been held in check for some considerable -time. But the whole make-up of the Japanese -warrior was calculated to inspire terror, and no sooner did -this countless horde show itself on the opposite shore than -Gen. Kim Myŭng-wŭn, who had been put in charge of the -river defenses, came to the conclusion that he would have -more than a mere river between himself and that gruesome -array. He therefore threw all his engines of defense into the -Han and fled with all his following to the Im-jin river, the -next natural barrier between the Japanese and the king. At -first thought this flight of Gen. Kim would seem to be an act -of pure cowardice, but when we remember that he had only a -few hundred men under him while on the opposite bank a -hundred thousand men were clamoring for a passage across, -we cannot wonder that he found it necessary to retreat. He -did it in proper style by first destroying his military engines -lest they should fall into the hands of the enemy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king before leaving Seoul placed Gen. Yi Yang-wŭn -in charge of the city and its defenses, but when he learned -of the flight of Gen. Kim from the river he rightly judged -that the city could not <a id='corr367_25'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='he'>be</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_367_25'><ins class='correction' title='he'>be</ins></a></span> held by any such force as was at -his command; so he in turn beat a retreat and went north to -the town of Yang-ju. The result was that when the Japanese -succeeded in crossing the river and pushed on to the gates of -Seoul they found only an undefended and half depopulated -city of which to take inglorious possession. It is said that -only a few hours elapsed after the entry of Konishi’s forces -<a id='corr367_32'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='befere'>before</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_367_32'><ins class='correction' title='befere'>before</ins></a></span> those of Kato hastened in from the east, disappointed -and chagrined to find that they had been beaten in the race; -but they were probably consoled by the fact that long before -the goal had been reached the prize had taken wing.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Hideyi, the General-in-chief of the Japanese forces, took -up his quarters in the Ancestral Temple from which the -tablets of the royal line had been removed. This was looked -upon by the Koreans as an act of sacrilege and queer tales are -told of how during that first night, while the burning of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_368'>368</span>city was going on, a Japanese soldier would drop dead every few -minutes without visible cause. It is for this reason, as some -say, that Hideyi removed to the Nam-pyul-gung, known as -the place where Chinese embassies have been lodged, and now -the site of the Imperial Altar.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Before many days had elapsed the people found out that -the coming of the Japanese did not mean universal slaughter -as they had supposed, and gradually they returned to their -homes in the city. They reopened their shops and so long as -they attended to their own affairs they were unmolested by -the Japanese. Indeed they adapted themselves readily to the -new order of things and drove a lucrative trade with the invaders. -The latter were strict in the watch of the city and no -one could go out or come in without showing a passport. When -the Japanese had exhausted the supplies in Seoul they pushed -out into the country and laid the surrounding villages under -contribution. Koreans were even found who would tell them -where they could go with the hope of finding booty, and acted -as guides to them. Among the more loyal citizens a plot was -gotten up to assassinate the guard, but it was betrayed to the -enemy and the plotters were seized and burned to death after -indescribable tortures. <a id='corr368_22'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='In'>It</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_368_22'><ins class='correction' title='In'>It</ins></a></span> is said so many perished in that -holocaust that their collected bones made a huge mound.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Gen. Kim Myŭng-wŭn fled from the defenses of -the Han and came to the Im-jin he immediately sent a letter -to the king at Song-do telling him of the arrival of the Japanese, -his own retreat and the entry of the Japanese into Seoul. -The king did not censure him, for retreat was the only way -open to him; so a messenger was dispatched ordering him to -make haste and get together as many soldiers of Kyŭng-geui -and Whang-hă Provinces as possible and make a firm stand -at the Im-jin River. Gen. Sin Kil was sent to aid in this -work. No sooner were these orders given than the royal -party resumed their journey northward in haste, and at night -they reached the village of Keum-gyo in Keum-ch’ŭn district. -Here the escort of the king bivouacked in the open air. -It was discovered with dismay that the ancestral tablets had -been overlooked in the haste attendant upon the departure -from Song-do. So one of the king’s relatives started back -after them and succeeded in bringing the precious relics on.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_369'>369</span>On the seventh of the moon the royal party crossed the -Tă-dong River and entered the gates of P’yŭng-yang. Here -there was food and drink in plenty and all the other luxuries -of life. For the first time since the flight began the king enjoyed -a season of real rest. The royal cortège was escorted -into the city by the governor, Song Wŭn-siu, who came out -with three thousand troops and met him on the way.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Two days later a messenger was seen approaching at a -rapid pace. He was swiftly ferried across the river and hurried -into the king’s presence where he said, “Yi Yang-wŭn, -the defender of Seoul has fled, and the city is in the possession -of the enemy.” The king exclaimed, “This is bad news -indeed, we must appoint someone whose work it shall be to -continually attempt to retake the capital.” He thereupon -appointed Gen. Yu Hong to that arduous and dangerous position. -He was to go with three thousand men and do what he -could to stop the progress of the Japanese and if possible regain -control of the capital. Gen. Yu received the appointment -with the worst possible grace. After the headlong -flight with all its hardships and privations, to be told that he -must go back with three thousand men and meet what he -supposed was a blood-thirsty horde of savages was too much -for his patriotism; so he stayed in his rooms and sulked. -Two days passed and still he did not start. The king called -him up and said, “How is it that you let the time slip by like -this when you ought to be on the way to Seoul with troops?” -The mighty warrior replied, “I fear Your Majesty will have -to excuse me from this duty as I am suffering from a boil on -my leg.” One of the courtiers, Yi Han-guk took him to task -saying, “How is it that after receiving such favors at the hand -of the king you shrink from this duty? You are a coward -and are afraid to go. You are like a sulky dancing-girl who -refuses either to dance or sing. You are not only not brave -but you are not even clever. Do you suppose you can impose -on His Majesty with any such story as this about a boil on your -leg?” The king was immensely pleased with this well merited -rebuke and laughed long and loud at the discomfitted general, -but finally said, “Well, then, since our doughty Gen. Yu -cannot go let Gen. Han Eung-in go instead.” The next -day Gen. Han started south with 5000 troops picked from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_370'>370</span>the northern <a id='corr370_1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='bother'>border</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_370_1'><ins class='correction' title='bother'>border</ins></a></span> guard, and in good time he arrived at -the banks of the Im-jin River, midway between Song-do and -Seoul. This was the great strategic position that must be -held at any cost. It was the key to the north, the gate-way -to Whang-hă Province and to P‘yŭng-an Province -beyond.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Now that the king and the court were in comparative -safety, an attempt was made to bring together the loose ends -of things and make some sort of headway against the Japanese. -Gen. Yi Hang-bok who had so gallantly escorted the -Queen from the palace, the night of the exodus from Seoul -was made Minister of War. A council was called to discuss -the demands made by the people of Song-do in reference to -the punishment of certain officials whom they had accused. -The result was that Yi San-ha was banished to P‘yŭng-ha but -the king refused to punish the father of his favorite concubine.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We notice that the military prowess of the Japanese, -their thorough equipment and their martial spirit took Korea -by surprise. It caused a universal panic, and for the first few -weeks it was impossible to get the soldiers to stand up and -fight the enemy, to say nothing of the generals. The troops -and the generals were <a id='corr370_22'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='muturally'>mutually</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_370_22'><ins class='correction' title='muturally'>mutually</ins></a></span> suspicious of each other and -neither seemed to have any faith in the courage or loyalty of -the other. But now the time had come when the impetuous -sweep of the Japanese was stopped, for the time being, by their -occupation of Seoul. The fall of the capital was looked upon -by the king and the people as a great calamity, but in reality -it was the very thing that saved the king from the necessity -of crossing the border and perhaps it saved Peking itself. If -the Japanese had kept up that impetuous, overwhelming rush -with which they came up from Fusan to Seoul, and, instead -of stopping at the capital, had pushed straight for the Yalu -River they would have swept everything before them and -would have been knocking at the gates of <a id='corr370_34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Naking'>Nanking</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_370_34'><ins class='correction' title='Naking'>Nanking</ins></a></span> before the -sleepy celestials knew that Hideyoshi dreamed of paying back -in kind the haughty summons of Kublai Khan four hundred -years before. The stop at Seoul gave the Korean forces a -breathing space and an opportunity to get into shape to do -better work than they had done. The people came to see that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_371'>371</span>instead of painted devils, as they had at first appeared, the -Japanese were flesh and blood like themselves and the terror -which their fierce aspect at first inspired gradually wore off -and in-so-far lessened the discrepancy between the two combatants. -On the side of the Japanese there was only one -favorable factor, their tremendous fighting power in battle. -There they had it all their own way. But on the other hand -they were in a thickly populated and hostile country, practically -cut off from their base of supplies and dependent entirely -upon forage for their sustenance. Under these circumstances -their position was sure to become worse rather than -better and the real strength of the Koreans was sure to show -itself. If a Korean regiment was swept off in battle there -were millions from which to recruit, while every Japanese -who fell caused just so much irreparable injury to the invading -army. We shall see that it was the abandonment of the -“double quick” that eventually drove the Japanese back -across the straits.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter VII.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Mutual jealousies.... first Korean victory.... successful general executed.... people -disgusted.... another general executed.... operations in -the south.... troops mass in Kong-ju.... unfortunate engagement.... troops -scattered.... naval engagement in the south under Admiral -Yi Sun-sin.... a great Japanese defeat.... Japanese army cut -off from reinforcements.... the tortoise boat.... another naval victory.... and -another.... naval campaign closes.... Admiral Yi is -decorated.... the fall of Yŭng-wŭn Fortress.... Japanese checked at -the Im-jin River.... they seemingly prepare to retreat.... jealousies -among the Koreans.... divided counsels.... Koreans cross and attack.... defeated.... Korean -army retreats.... the Japanese cross.... Japanese -jealousies.... they separate.... the news of defeat -reaches the king.... a trifling Korean victory.... a great council.... the -king decides to go to Ham-heung.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The wretched party strife among the Koreans was the -cause of their weakness. No sooner did a capable man arise -than he became the target for the hatred and jealousy of a -hundred rivals, and no trickery or subterfuge was left untried -whereby to have him degraded and disgraced. A particular -<span class='pageno' id='Page_372'>372</span>incident will illustrate this. Gen. Sin Kak had been associated -with Gen. Kim Myŭng-wŭn in the defenses of the Han -River, but when Gen. Kim fled after throwing into the river -the engines of defense, there was nothing to do but fall back. -Gen. Sin retreated to a place of safety but immediately began -collecting troops from Kyŭng-geui Province, and he was also -joined by a contingent from Ham-gyŭng Province. While -the Japanese held Seoul, large bands of them scoured the surrounding -country for booty. One of these bands was trying -to make its way across the hills to Ka-p’yŭng and Ch‘un-ch‘un, -and had gotten as far as the Kye Pass in the town of -Yang-ju when they found themselves face to face with the -troops of Gen. Sin Kak. A fierce fight took place, in which -the Japanese, who were probably largely outnumbered, were -severely defeated, leaving sixty heads in the hands of the -Koreans. This promised to be the beginning of a series of -such little engagements in which the Japanese army would be -gradually weakened without being able to draw the Koreans -into a large general engagement; the more so because the -Japanese were dependent upon forage for their supplies.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But note the sequel. While all Kyŭng-geui was ringing -with the praises of the successful general and the people were -beginning to see that all was not yet lost, a swift messenger -was on his way southward from P‘yŭng-yang bearing a sword -and a letter ordering the instant execution of the traitor Sin -Kak. The alleged reason for this was as follows: When Gen. -Kim fled from the defenses of the Han, in order to cover his -infamy, he wrote a letter to the king accusing Gen. Sin Kak -of having deserted him in his hour of need. Gen. Yu Hong -also recognised Gen. Sin as a powerful rival and so added his -prayers to those of Gen. Kim that the traitor Sin be killed. -The king knew no better than to comply with this request, -preferred as it was by two of his leading generals, and the -message of death was sent. But before the day was done came -the news of the defeat of the Japanese by the forces under -this same Sin Kak. The condemned “traitor” had stood up -before a Japanese force and had taken sixty heads. The king -was filled with remorse and a swift messenger was sent to stay -the hand of the executioner. He took the road an hour after -the death messenger and arrived at the camp of Gen. Sin -<span class='pageno' id='Page_373'>373</span>Kak an hour after that loyal man had bowed his head to the -axe of his royal master. Who knows but the feet of the -second messenger had been made heavy by the gold of Sin -Kak’s rivals? History is silent as to this but the suspicion is -inevitable. This wanton act was looked upon by the people -with horror and detestation, who saw their first successful -champion cut down in the very hour of his success.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But another sword, this time of pure justice, was also -prepared for Gen. Yi Kak who had fled from before the Japanese -at Tong-nă. He made his appearance at the Im-jin -River, doubtless thinking himself safe from criticism, but in -this he was mistaken, for as he was the one who first set the -example of cowardice, he was arrested and put to death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>And now as the Japanese are revelling in Seoul and the -king is resting in P‘yŭng-yang and the Korean generals are -busy massing troops at the Im-jin to dispute the passage of -the Japanese, let us turn southward and witness some of the -events that are transpiring there, for we must not think that -the provinces of Chŭl-la and Ch‘ung-ch’ŭng are at peace all -this time.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the Japanese army separated soon after leaving -Tong-nă one army division under Kuroda swept like a whirlwind -westward across the north-western corner of Chul-la -Province and through the entire length of Ch‘ung-chŭng -Province on its way to Seoul. Yi Kwang the governor of -Chŭl-la got together some 8000 men and hastened north to -Kong-ju the capital of Ch‘ung-chŭng Province. Finding -there that the king had fled from Seoul, he gave up all hope -of effecting anything and, turning about, made for the south -again. But on the way he was met by Păk Kwang-ön who -upbraided him severely, urging that if the king had fled -northward all the more need of keeping on and offering him -whatever support was possible. The governor humbly confessed -that he had been hasty in his action, and turned about -and went back to Kong-ju where he joined the forces of the -governors of <a id='corr373_36'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='C‘ung-ch‘ŭng'>Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_373_36'><ins class='correction' title='C‘ung-ch‘ŭng'>Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng</ins></a></span> and Kyŭng-sang Provinces who -had arrived at that place. There were also Gen. Yi Ok, the -military governor of Ch‘ung-ch’ŭng, and Gen. Kwak Yŭng, -the military governor of Chŭl-la. Each of the provinces had -both a civil and a military governor. These three civil and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_374'>374</span>two military governors met, then, in Kong-ju and joined -forces. It is commonly reported that they had between them -100,000 men, but probably about half that figure would be -nearer the truth. They formed a gallant array with their -flaunting banners, and the people of the adjoining districts -caught up arms and came and joined what seemed to them an -invincible host. A Japanese force was found to be intrenched -on Puk-du-mun Mountain and Governor Yi Kwang was for -making an immediate attack, but one of his aides said, “We -are now so near Seoul there is no use in turning aside to attack -so small a force. We had better push on to the defense -of the Im-jin River.” Păk Kwang-ön who had upbraided -the governor for retiring also said, “The road is very narrow -which leads up to this position of the Japanese and the woods -are very dense. We had better be cautious.” Being opposed -thus the second time was more than his temper could -endure, so the governor ordered Păk bound and whipped. -The latter thinking that it was an imputation on his bravery, -after receiving a severe beating, seized his weapons and rushed -<a id='corr374_20'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='headling'>headlong</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_374_20'><ins class='correction' title='headling'>headlong</ins></a></span> up the slope and attacked the Japanese. Many -followed and the engagement became general. From morning -till noon it continued but the Japanese could not be driven -out of their strong position in the woods. The Koreans began -to lose in the battle and finally the Japanese, creeping -down toward the Koreans in the underbrush and grass, suddenly -rushed out upon them and cut them down by scores. -Păk and several other notable men fell in the fight, but -the main body of the Korean troops under Governor Yi -Kwang moved on to Kwang-gyo Mountain near the town -of Su-wŭn, only eighty li from Seoul. Expecting that the -day would be a busy one, Governor Yi had his soldiers fed -very early in the morning and when day broke, sure enough, -there was the Japanese force ready to engage him, and every -few moments one or other of the Japanese braves would rush -out from the lines, brandish his weapons and challenge the -Koreans to come out and fight. So Gen. Sin Ik of the province -of Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng advanced with his force and engaged -the enemy. In a few moments the superiority of the Japanese -arms became evident. The panic-stricken Koreans fled -before them like sheep before wolves. After an hour’s time -<span class='pageno' id='Page_375'>375</span>this considerable army which was to have succored the king -was thoroughly scattered, but it is probable that many of the -soldiers figured later in the defense of the Im-jin River.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At the same time events were happening further south -which were far more creditable to the Korean arms and -which were the forerunner of the final expulsion of the -Japanese from the peninsula.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A fleet of Japanese boats, bringing as is supposed the reserve -of 60,000 men, arrived off the island of Ka-dok on the -coast of Kyŭng-sang Province. At that time Admiral Wŭn -Kyun had charge of all matters along the coast of that province. -When he saw this vast fleet of ships his heart sank and -without more ado he prepared to scuttle his ships and flee by -land, but fortunately there was good advice at hand, for one -of his staff said, “Do not abandon all hope at once but send -and ask Yi Sun-sin the Admiral of Chŭl-la to come and aid -you.” A swift messenger was sent and the missive was -placed in the hands of Admiral Yi. One of his staff said -“No, let him guard his own coast and we will look after -ours. Why should we go and help him?” But Admiral Yi -said, “Is not Kyŭng-sang Province as much the country of -our king as Chŭl-la? How can we refuse to go to his aid?” -So eighty boats were gotten ready in haste and sailed away -co the island of Han-san where the two admirals met and joined -forces. The whole fleet sailed out of harbor together and -made for the island of Ok-po where the hostile fleet was moored. -As soon as the enemy hove in sight Admiral Yi Sun-sin made -directly for them and soon was grappling them. The Koreans -had the advantage of the wind at their backs for they -shot fire arrows among the boats of the Japanese and soon had -twenty-six of them in flames. It is said the sea was covered -with the wreckage and with struggling human forms. So -the remaining ships of the enemy turned about and crowded -on all sail in flight, but Admiral Yi gave chase and cut down -many more and scattered the rest so that the expedition was -an entire failure. This was the first of this great admiral’s -successes and it illustrates the fact that the Korean warrior -was not a coward when well led. The Japanese armies in Korea -were thus cut off from their source of supply and reinforcement -and thus a tremendous blow was dealt them. This -<span class='pageno' id='Page_376'>376</span>victory may be said to have been the decisive point in the war.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is probable that the soldiers in the Japanese army had -been accustomed to short though sanguinary campaigns and -had spent the intervals of leisure at home. But now this -vast army was quite cut off from their home and were among -strange scenes. It cannot be wondered at therefore that -after time discontent arose in spite of all successes, a discontent -which, combined with other causes, finally drove -them back to Japan.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Tradition says that about this time Admiral Yi had a -dream in which a robed man appeared and cried, “The Japanese -are coming.” He arose, assembled his fleet and sailed -forth as far as the town of No-ryang where he found a large -fleet of the enemy. He used the same tactics as before, burning -twelve of them and chasing the rest away. The main -reason for his unparalleled successes on the sea was the possession -of a peculiar war vessel of his own invention and construction. -It was called the Kwi-sŭn or “Tortoise Boat,” -from its resemblance to that animal. There is no doubt that -the tortoise furnished the model for the boat. Its greatest -peculiarity was a curved deck of iron plates like the back of -a tortoise, which completely sheltered the fighters and rowers -beneath. In front was a hideous crested head, erect, with -wide open mouth through which arrows and other missiles -could be discharged. There was another opening in the rear -and six on either side for the same purpose. On top of the -curved deck there was a narrow walk from stem to stern and -another across the middle from side to side, but every other -part of the back bristled with iron pikes so that an enemy -who should endeavor to board her would find himself immediately -impaled upon a score of spear-heads. This deck, -being of iron, rendered the ship impervious to fire arrows -and so the occupants could go into action with as much -security as one of our modern battle ships could go into -engagement with the wooden war vessels of a century ago. -In addition to this, she was built for speed and could easily -overtake anything afloat. This made her doubly formidable, -for even flight could net avail the enemy. She usually did -more execution after the flight commenced than before, for -she could overtake and ram them one by one, probably better -<span class='pageno' id='Page_377'>377</span>than she could handle them when drawn up in line of battle. -It is said that the ribs of this remarkable ship lie in the -sand today in the village of Ko-sŭng on the coast of Kyŭng-sang -Province. They are believed to have been seen there by -Lieut. Geo. C. Foulk, U. S. N., in 1884. The people of the -town have an annual festival, when they launch a fleet of boats -and sail about the harbor in honor of the great Yi Sun-sin -and his “Tortoise Boat.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i337.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>THE TOMB OF ADMIRAL YI SUN-SIN.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>In the engagement last described the Japanese in their -flight were so terrified by this craft, which pursued them -and sank them one by one, that they stamped their feet -and cried out that it was more than of human workmanship. -And indeed it was almost more than the human -of that century, for it anticipated by nearly three hundred -years the iron-clad war ship. In this battle Admiral Yi -was wounded in the shoulder but made no sign. He urged -on his men to the very last and finally when they drew off, -weary of slaughter, he bared his shoulder and ordered the -bullet to be cut out.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having thus brilliantly begun, and perhaps fearing lest, -if he should delay, some jealous rival might induce the king -to take off his head, he pushed straight on to Tang-hang -Harbor where he encountered another fleet, among which -was an immense three-decked ship, on which sat the admiral -of the fleet, clad in silk and wearing a golden head-piece. -The intrepid Yi made straight for this craft with his tortoise -boat and when near it called to one of his best marksmen -to let fly a shaft at the man in silks. The arrow flew -straight to its mark and pierced the man’s throat. Seeing the -fall of their chief, the whole fleet showed their rudders and -made off as fast as they could go, but with the usual result. -The next day saw Admiral Yi in Pyŭk-hang Harbor where -he lay at anchor while he sent out ships to reconnoitre and -find out the position of the enemy. If anything was seen of -the foe, guns were to be fired as a signal. Ere long the signal -shot was heard far out at sea. The fleet put out in two long -divergent lines “like a fish-trap,” as the Koreans say, and -soon on the horizon twenty-six hulls appeared rising and -sinking on the swell. As they neared they entered the two -lines of the Korean fleet and were surrounded. As the result -<span class='pageno' id='Page_378'>378</span>of this fight every one of the Japanese boats was burned -and two hundred heads were taken as trophies. This remarkable -naval campaign closed with the destruction of a few remaining -Japanese boats that were overtaken near Yong-deung -Harbor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The reputation of Admiral Yi Sun-sin spread over the -whole south and his praises were <a id='corr378_7'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='one very'>on every</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_378_7'><ins class='correction' title='one very'>on every</ins></a></span> lip. His followers -would go anywhere with him and scarcely seemed to know -what fear was. Soon the report of these splendid victories -came to the ears of the king, and though Admiral Yi was -not without detractors at court the king conferred upon him -a lofty title.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the fifth moon the Japanese resumed active operations -in the north and east. A powerful force were sent to the province -of Kang-wŭn which was straightway overrun. The -governor, Kim Che-gap, hastily collected all the soldiers that -could be found, together with arms and ammunition, and went -to the almost impregnable fortress of Yŭng-wŭn. The natural -defenses of this place were unexcelled by any in Korea. -On three sides the approach was almost precipitous and a -handful of men could hold an army at bay. Here the governor -collected provisions in abundance and dug a well. Stones -were piled on the top of the wall to be thrown down upon -anyone who should attempt to scale the height. The Japanese -recognised the strength of the position and tried to get -the governor to surrender without a struggle. A letter was -sent up the steep slope and handed over the wall. It said -“You are doomed. Even if you hold out for two months you -will then be taken. You must come out and surrender at -once.” The only answer was the headless trunk of the Japanese -messenger, rolled down the precipice before the eyes of -the invading army. The next day the assault began. The -besiegers swarmed up the sides of the slope, so that, to -use the Korean figure, the mountain-side was clothed with -them. The garrison though only 5000 strong found no difficulty -in driving them back. That night the Koreans, -wearied by the labors of the day and deeming it impossible -that the Japanese should try to attack at night up those steep -slopes, failed to set a guard; and in the early morning, before -light, a little band of the enemy worked its way up the face -<span class='pageno' id='Page_379'>379</span>of the precipice until they reached the base of the wall. A -few stones were displaced until a small aperture was made -and the little band effected an entrance. They rushed into -the camp with a terrific yell cutting down the half-awakened -and wholly terrified garrison. The gates were thrown open -and in an hour the victory was complete. Gov. Kim Che-gap -refused to do obeisance and was cut down.</p> - -<p class='c000'>And now all eyes were turned toward the Im-jin River -where the king and the people fondly hoped to be able to stop -the invading host. Troops had been coming continually and -massing on the northern bank of the stream at the point -where the main road from Seoul to P‘yŭng-yang crosses it by -ferry. Its great strategic importance was due to the fact -that it was the only good place for a large force to cross. The -troops massed here were nominally under the command of -Gen. Kim Myŭng-wŭn who had so promptly deserted the -defenses of the Han, upon the arrival of the Japanese. The -Koreans had everything in their favor. The southern bank -where the Japanese must embark is a high bluff pierced only -by a narrow gully which would allow of only a few hundred -approaching the immediate brink of the water at once and -consequently the army would have to cross little by little. -The opposite bank, on the other hand, is a long flat stretch of -sand, an ideal place for drawing up a defensive force, and -every boat-load of the enemy would be the mark for a thousand -arrows.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Korean forces were numerous enough, they were -brave enough and their leaders were individually capable -enough; but note the sequel. All the boats had been brought -over to the Korean side and so, when the Japanese arrived -on the southern bank and looked down the high bluff upon -the assembled hosts of the Koreans and marked the difficulty -of embarkation, the swiftness of the current and the utter -absence of boats or craft of any kind, they found themselves -for the first time completely checked. An hour’s resistance -was all they had ever met before, but here was evidently a -serious obstacle.</p> - -<p class='c000'>For ten long days these great armies sat facing each -other across the waters of the Im-jin. They were ten days -of exultation for the Koreans and every day that passed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_380'>380</span>raised the courage, or rather the self-confidence, of the Koreans, -who forgot that it was nature and not they who held the -foe in check. They did not dream for an instant that the -Japanese were about to make them the instruments of their -own destruction. When the eleventh morning broke something -was seen to be going on among the Japanese, a great -running about and the carrying of bundles from place to -place. In a short time the reason became apparent. The -Japanese had given up further advance and were preparing -to retreat toward Seoul. Smoke and flame showed that they -were burning their camp and soon the whole force was seen -to be on the move back toward the south. To imagine the -revulsion of feeling in the minds of the Koreans we should -have to realize the deep humiliation to which they had been -subjected, the heaps of slain they had seen, the losses in property, -in homes, in relatives, in friends which they had sustained -at the hands of the ruthless invaders. Instead of being -pursued they were to pursue. They would dog the footsteps -of the retreating army, cut off the stragglers, worry the -life out of the “dwarfs,” as they called the Japanese, and -finally give them a farewell kick as they left the port of -Fusan on their ignominious homeward flight. Such must -have been the common thought and purpose of the Koreans, -and the thirst for revenge was simply unbearable. And here -again comes to the front the fatal weakness of the Koreans. -We have before remarked that the rise of the political parties -lay at the bottom of the failure of the Korean arms against -the Japanese. It has already been illustrated in the case of -Gen. Sin Kak who was executed through jealousy on the -very day of his great victory. Here again it is to become apparent. -While Gen. Kim Myŭng-sŭn was nominally in -charge of the defenses of the Im-jin he was far from being in -full command of the troops massed there. A number of -other generals were there and each held his own troops in -hand and each wished to distinguish himself and so step over -the heads of the rest into the good graces of the king. This -would mean preferment and wealth. There was absolutely -no supreme command, there was no common plan, there was -nothing but mutual jealousy and suspicion. A young general, -Sin Kil-i, who knew nothing of war, was sure that the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_381'>381</span>enemy had decamped, and he wanted to cross immediately in -pursuit. But this was so manifestly absurd that even the -common soldiers cried out, “You had better examine carefully -and see whether the enemy has actually gone.” For answer -the young general had a few heads struck off, which shows -he was something of a disciplinarian if nothing more. Then -Gen. Yu Keuk-yang expostulated with the young man, warning -him that it was surely a trick to lure them across, but the -young fellow drew his sword and made a lunge at the old -general and charged him with cowardice. This no one could -endure, so the aged general said, “Coward, am I? Well I -speak only for the good of my king; but I will be the first to -cross and fall into this trap, and when you see me fall you will -know that my advice was sound.” So calling his soldiers he -ordered them into the boats and, throwing all caution to -the winds and forgetting the best interests of his king for a -petty vindication of his own bravery, he dashed across the -river and up the heights. The young Sin Kil-i could do no -less than follow, and when he had gained the heights beyond -he found the words of the aged general true. A short -distance away a half dozen naked Japanese were dancing on -the border of a wood, but when the Koreans rushed at them -a countless multitude of Japanese who had lain concealed in -the wood poured out, and in an instant the Koreans were surrounded. -The aged general having thus proved his claim to -bravery, or rather foolhardiness, sat down and said, “Now -has come the time for me to die.” And die he did. It was -only of himself that he thought, and it was this all-pervading -selfishness, bred of party strife, that neutralised every good -quality in the Korean army. It was not because they were -not brave nor because luxury had sapped the vitality of the -noble classes but it was because no one would work with anyone -else. It was because they saw in war nothing but the -chance of personal advancement. And so each one deplored -the successes and rejoiced in the failures of every other.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the old general fell, the Koreans found themselves -again, as in the battle in which Gen. Sin Yip fell, between -the Japanese and the river. Back they rushed only to find -that some of the boats had drifted away and others, being -overcrowded, had sunk. Hundreds were driven into the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_382'>382</span>water while others, preferring a soldier’s death, presented -their necks to the swords of the Japanese.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But even yet all was not lost. A little wisdom and care -might still have left the day unwon by the Japanese. They -had a few boats, to be sure, but not enough to be of any use in -the face of the still large Korean force on the opposite bank. -But here occurred the greatest mistake of all. The generals -on the northern bank, witnessing the terrible slaughter of -their confreres, and not stopping to reckon the chances still remaining -of successful defense, mounted their horses and gave -themselves to flight. This was not only cowardice. It was -thoughtlessness, carelessness in large part, and if there had -been one man in command of the whole defensive force -who could witness the loss of a large fraction of his force -without losing his head, the Japanese would still have been -as far from the northern bank as ever. The moment the -soldiers saw the flight of their generals they raised a derisive -shout, “The generals are running away,” and forthwith -they followed the example, as they had a perfect right -to do.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Japanese leaders seeing the defenses of the river -broken up by their successful strategem, immediately crossed -with their entire force which Korean accounts reckon at -about a quarter of a million. The Korean accounts tell us but -little about the rivalry of the two Japanese leaders, Kato and -Konishi, but among the Japanese it was notorious. It was -impossible for them to march together for any length of time. -It was this rivalry which had made them take different roads -to Seoul and it was now necessary for them to part again. -This jealousy was another of the potent causes of the final -failure of the Japanese. Had these two men worked together -they could have marched straight on to the walls of Nanking -without meeting an enemy worthy of their steel. As it -was they separated and scattered over the country, dissipating -their power and thus frustrating the design of -Hideyoshi—the conquest of China. They cast lots as to their -routes and fortune favored the younger man, Konishi, who -drew as his lot the straight path north where glory lay if -anywhere. Kato had to be content with a dash into the -province of Ham-gyŭng in the northeast. Another general, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_383'>383</span>Kuroda, led a force into the western part of Whang-hă Province. -All this took place in the fifth moon.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king was resting secure in P‘yŭng-yang, trusting -in the defense of the Im-jin River, when a messenger rushed -in breathless, announcing that the Im-jin had been deserted -and that the invaders were coming north by leaps and bounds. -The town was thrown into a panic of fright and, as the Koreans -truly put it, “No man had any color in his face.” Gen. -Yi Il came hurrying in from the seat of war disguised as a -coolie and wearing rough straw shoes. The king put him in -command of the forces guarding the fords of the Ta-dong -River which flows by the walls of P‘yŭng-yang.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We must note in passing a trifling success on the part of -Captain Wŭn-ho who had been in charge of the ferry across -the Han at Yö-ju. He had been called away into Kang-wŭn -Province but returned just in time to form an ambush at Yö-ju -and spring out upon a company of Japanese whom he -routed, securing some fifty heads. The Koreans say that -from that time the Japanese avoided the Yö-ju ferry.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter VIII.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>A great council.... the king decides to move to Ham-heung.... the -news in China.... the king finds difficulty in leaving P‘yŭng-yang.... -a parley in the channel of the Ta-dong.... the king leaves the -city.... the Koreans reveal the position of the ford.... the Japanese -enter P‘yŭng-yang.... the Crown Prince goes to Kang-wŭn Province.... -the king pushes north.... Koreans in despair.... the indefatigable -Yu Sŭng-nyong.... Song Ta-ŭp brings the queen to the king.... -Kato pushes into Ham-gyŭng Province.... fight at the granaries.... -Korean reverses.... a Korean betrays the two Princes.... a traitor -punished.... brave defenders of Yŭn-an.... the king goes to Eui-ju.... -conclave in the south.... “General of the Red Robe”.... his -prowess.... he retires.... disaster at Köm-san.... a long chase.... -Japanese defeated at Keum-nyŭng.</p> - -<p class='c008'>On the second day of the sixth moon the king called a -great council to discuss the advisability of his staying longer -in P‘yŭng-yang or of moving further north. One said, “If -someone is left to guard this city it will be well for the king -<span class='pageno' id='Page_384'>384</span>to move north,” but another said, “<a id='corr384_1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Pyŭng-yang'>P‘yŭng-yang</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_384_1'><ins class='correction' title='Pyŭng-yang'>P‘yŭng-yang</ins></a></span> is a natural -fortress. We have 10,000 soldiers and plenty of provisions. -If the king goes a step from here it will mean the destruction -of the dynasty.” Another voice urged a different course; -“We have now lost half the kingdom. Only this province -and that of Ham-gyŭng remain to us. In the latter there are -soldiers and provisions in abundance and the king had better -find there a retreat.” All applauded this advice excepting -Yun Tu-su who said, “No, this will not do. The Japanese -will surely visit that province too. Ham-heung is not nearly -so easy of defense as P‘yŭng-yang. If the king is to leave -this place there are just three courses open to him. First, -he can retire to Yung-byŭn in this province and call about -him the border guard. If he cannot hold that place he can -go to Eui-ju on the border and ask speedy help from China. -If necessary he can go up the Yalu to Kang-gye, still on Korean -soil. And if worse comes to worst he can cross into -Chinese territory and find asylum at Kwan-jun-bo although -it is sure that he could hold out for a few months at Kang-gye -before this would be necessary. I know all about Ham-heung. -Its walls are of great extent but they are not high -and it is open to attack from every side. Besides if he retreats -northward from that place he will find nothing but -savage tribes. Here he must stay.” But all cried out as -with one voice that the king must go to Ham-heung. Gen. -Yi Hang-bok insisted upon the <a id='corr384_26'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='neccessity'>necessity</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_384_26'><ins class='correction' title='neccessity'>necessity</ins></a></span> of going north to -the Yalu and imploring aid from China even if it became -necessary for the king to find asylum on Chinese soil. But -in spite of all this advice the king on the sixth of the month -sent the queen on toward Ham-heung and gave orders to -Yun To-su to hold P‘yŭng-yang against the Japanese. His -Majesty came out and seated himself in the Ta-dong summerhouse -and addressed the people saying, “I am about to start -for Ham-heung but I shall leave the Crown Prince here and -you must all aid him loyally.” At this the people raised a -great outcry. It looked as if they would all follow the king -from the city. They did not want the Prince to stay, they -wanted the king.</p> - -<p class='c000'>By this time the rumors of these things had gone ahead -into Liao-tung.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_385'>385</span>The form which the news assumed across the border -was that the king had fled north to P‘yŭng-yang, but that it was -only a blind, as the Japanese and Koreans had formed -an agreement to invade China together and the king had -made a pretense of flight so as to keep the Chinese unsuspecting -until the Japanese should reach the Yalu. This -report caused a great deal of anxiety in the Chinese capital -and the Emperor sent Gen. In Se-dŭk, who was stationed in -Liao-tung, to investigate. He immediately set out for P‘yŭng-yang, -and on his arrival sought an audience with the king. -It was granted, and the general, having learned the exact -state of affairs, started post haste back toward Nanking to -report to the Emperor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the eighth day of the sixth moon the van of the -Japanese army arrived on the southern bank of the Ta-dong -River opposite P‘yŭng-yang, but there were no boats and no -way of crossing; so they went into camp to await the arrival -of the main body of the army. No Chik was ordered by the -king to take the Ancestral tablets and start north. The people -were enraged at this, for they thought it would mean the -immediate pillage of the city by the Japanese, and consequent -hardships and dangers for themselves. So the crowd armed -itself with clubs and stones and as the tablets were being carried -out of the gate they struck the bearers down and loudly insulted -No Chik, who was in charge. They cried “In times -of peace you are ready enough to steal the government -revenues, and it is for this reason that all these troubles have -arisen. You call upon us to protect the city and then you run -away yourself when danger approaches.” Lashing themselves -into a fury by their own words, they threw off their clothes -and prepared to strike down every man who should try to -escape from the city. Meanwhile the old people and children -besieged the palace with their prayers, saying, “We are all -here to protect the city, and if the king leaves it will be the -same as handing us over to slaughter.” In the eagerness of -their importunity they even pressed into the outer court -yard and were stopped only by the statement that the king -was not about to leave. Yu Sŭng-nyong came out and sat -before the crowd and addressing an old man said, “You say -that you desire to protect the city and the king’s person -<span class='pageno' id='Page_386'>386</span>and you say well, but how is it that you so far forget your -duty as to come in this bold manner into the king’s apartments -and raise this disturbance?” The people, partly because -it seemed evident the king was not about to leave, returned -to their homes.</p> - -<p class='c000'>That night the Japanese caught a Korean and sent him -across the river with a letter to the king, in which they said -“We wish to meet Yi Tŭk-hyŭng and have a parley with -him.” This seemed to be a proper thing to do, so Yi entered -a small boat and was sculled out to the middle of the river where -he met Konishi. Without wasting any words in mere formalities -the latter said, “The cause of all this trouble is that -Korea would not give a safe conduct to our envoys to Nanking, -but if you will now give us an open road into China all -the trouble for you will be at an end.” To this Yi replied, -“If you will send this army back to Japan we can confer -about the matter, but we will listen to nothing so long as you -are on Korean soil.” Konishi continued, “We have no desire -to harm you. We have wished such a conference as this before, -but have not had a single opportunity until today.” -But the only answer the Korean made was, “Turn about and -take your troops back to Japan.” The Japanese general -thereupon lost his temper and cried, “Our soldiers always go -ahead, and they know nothing about going backwards.” -And so the conference <a id='corr380_25'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='was was'>was</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_380_25'><ins class='correction' title='was was'>was</ins></a></span> broken up, each returning to -his own side of the stream.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The next day the king succeeded in getting away from -the city and made his way towards Yŭng-byŭn, generals Yun -Tu-su, Kim Myŭng-wŭn and Yi Wŭn-ik being left to guard -the city and oppose the passage of the enemy. The Japanese -camped beside the Ta-dong and waited, as they had waited -beside the Im-jin, “for something to turn up.” They did -not have to wait as long as they did beside the Im-jin. The -Korean generals, Kim Myŭng-wŭn and Yun Tu-su were not -without courage and skill, and they conceived the scheme of -crossing the river at night at the fords of Neung-na-do a -little above the city and falling upon the enemy with a picked -body of troops. It would be difficult to disprove that in the -face of such odds and such a vast disparity in equipment this -plan showed the highest courage not only in the generals but -<span class='pageno' id='Page_387'>387</span>in the common soldiers. The fact that the attempt failed -and failed disastrously may reflect upon the judgment of the -leaders but it can never impeach their bravery. The fording -of the river, always a difficult and slow operation at night, -consumed more time than had been anticipated and by -the time the devoted men reached the Japanese outposts -it was already dawn. They were now in a desperate -situation. There was nothing to do but to retreat, but the -retreat was itself a cause of disaster, for it revealed to the foe -the position of the fords; and thus it happened that a miscalculation -as to time made the Koreans the instrument of their -own destruction, even as they had been at the Im-jin.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Japanese now knew that they had everything their -own way. After a hearty breakfast they shouldered their -arms and made for the ford. They swarmed across in such -crowds that the defenders were driven back before they had -shot a dozen arrows. The two Korean generals, making a -virtue of necessity, opened the Ta-dong Gate on the river -side of the town and told the people to escape for their lives. -The soldiers threw all their heavier arms into the pond called -P‘ung-wŭl-su and fled by way of the Po-dong Gate. The -Japanese did not pursue, but took quiet possession of the town -and settled down. Here again they made a grand mistake. -Their only hope lay in pushing on at full speed into China, -for even now the force that was to crush them was being -collected, and every day of delay was lessening their chances -of success.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The king was at Pak-ch‘ŭn when the news of the fall of -P‘yŭng-yang reached him, and he was in feverish haste to get -on to Eui-ju, saying that if worst came to worst he would -cross into Chinese territory. But he added, “As I am told -that by leaving Korean soil I shall abdicate my royal right -I wish the Crown Prince, in care of Gen. Ch‘oe Heung-wŭn, -to go to Yi-ch‘ŭn in Kang-wŭn Province and there gather -about him an army and hold the fortress as long as he can.” -This order was immediately carried out and the Prince started -for Kang-wŭn Province, while the king pushed on northward -to Ka-san. He arrived at that place in the middle of the -night. It was pitchy dark and there were no lights and the -rain was falling in torrents. The royal escort had dwindled -<span class='pageno' id='Page_388'>388</span>to less than twenty men. Here the report was received that -a Chinese force was to cross the Ya-lu, and so the king stopped -at Ka-san waiting their approach. Yu Sŭng-nyong was -hurrying from town to town trying to get together provisions -for the Chinese army that was coming to Korea’s aid, but as -fast as he got them together the people rose in revolt and stole -them all. Some days passed and still the expected army did not -appear, so Yi Tŭk-hyŭng was despatched as envoy to China -to solicit aid from the Emperor, and His Majesty called -together his little court and said, “If necessary I shall -cross the Ya-lu and find asylum on Chinese soil. If so, -which of you will go with me?” For some moments there -was a dead silence and then Yi Hang-bok, the same who had -aided the Queen in her flight from the palace, spoke up and -said, “I will go with you.” The truth of the matter is that -when the king left P‘yŭng-yang the courtiers all gave up -the kingdom for lost and were ready to desert the king the -moment there was a more favorable opening.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With tremendous toil Yu Sŭng-nyong succeeded in getting -some provisions together and transported them all to -Chöng-ju, but when he arrived at that place he found a crowd -of people assembled in front of the royal granary armed with -clubs. He charged the mob and scattered it, caught eight of -the leaders and beheaded them on the spot. He then went to -Kwak-san and secured further supplies, and also at Kwi sŭng, -and held them in readiness for the Chinese army when it should -appear.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We will remember that the king had fully determined to -go across into Ham-gyŭng Province, but at the last moment -he had been dissuaded because of the difficulties that might -arise if he were compelled to retreat further still. Being -now urged to go on to Eui-ju he replied, “Yes, I must do so, -but what about the queen whom I sent forward into Ham-gyŭng -Province?” The brave Prefect of Un-san made -answer, “I will go and bring her to Your Majesty.” So he set -out across the country to find the queen, and all the records -tell us is that he brought her faithfully to him at Pak-ch‘ŭn. -This short mention does this brave man scant justice, -for even in these days a journey across the northern part of -the peninsula is an arduous undertaking especially in summer. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_389'>389</span>But not only so; he was to find a queen, beset perhaps by -enemies, and bring her safely across that wilderness to the -king, who by that time might be far across the Chinese border, -while the country behind him swarmed with a half-savage -enemy. This prefect, whose name is Song Ta-ŭp, must have -been a brave, energetic, tactful man whose will was as strong -as his patriotism was deep.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Japanese were now settled in P‘yŭng-yang and -as they were destined to remain there some time it may -be well for us to leave them there and follow the fortunes of -Kato, who, as we will remember, had branched off eastward -into Ham-gyŭng Province after casting lots. He pushed -on rapidly across the country toward Wŭn-sin, but as he -was not on one of the main thoroughfares of the country he -found it difficult to keep to the road; so he captured a Korean -and forced him to act as guide. Arriving at the town -of Kok-san in the eastern part of Whang-hă Province they -crossed the mountains by the No-ri-hyŭn Pass and pushed on -until they struck the Seoul-Wünsan road not far from the -latter place.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Han Keuk-sŭng was in charge of the government -<a id='corr389_22'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='farces'>forces</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_389_22'><ins class='correction' title='farces'>forces</ins></a></span> in Ham-gyŭng Province. He advanced immediately -to engage the Japanese, and a fierce fight took place at the -government storehouses at Ha-jong. At first the Japanese had -decidedly the worst of it but at last they retired to the shelter -of the granaries and barricaded themselves behind bags of rice -from which position they poured a destructive fire upon the -Korean troops who were drawn up four deep, and who therefore -suffered the more severely. Not being able to dislodge the -enemy the Koreans decided to withdraw and fortify the passes -both in front and behind the Japanese, supposing that in -this way they would be entrapped. The Japanese learned of -this and when night came they knew they must make a bold -strike for liberty. So they scaled the mountains in the darkness -and succeeded in completely surrounding the defenders -of one of the passes. When morning came there was a heavy -fog and the Koreans were utterly unsuspicious of danger. -Suddenly the surrounding party of Japanese opened fire on -them and it took but a few moments to have them on the -run. It came on to rain and the roads were heavy with mud. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_390'>390</span>The Koreans who were entirely unused to such a prolonged -strain, fell exhausted along the way and were butchered by -the pursuing enemy. Gen. Han made his escape to Kyŭng-săng -but was there captured by the Japanese. The governor -of the province, to the disgust of the people, fled and hid -among the hills, but the populace arose and dragged him out -and forced him to resume his duties. Gen. Yi Hon also fled -northward toward Kap-san, and the people consequently -seized him and took off his head. It was hard work for -generals in that province, for they had the Japanese on the -one hand and the people on the other. The people of the north -are made of sterner stuff than those of the south and the -punishment they meted out to these cravens is a good indication -of their quality.</p> - -<p class='c000'>While these events were happening the two princes who -had taken refuge in this province fled northward and stopped -not till they reached the border town of Whe-ryŭng on the -Tu-man River. As it proved, this was the worst thing they -could have done, for the <em>ajun</em> or constable of that district was -either in the pay of the Japanese or was so terrified by their -approach that he was willing to go to any extreme to gain -their favor. So he seized the two young princes and carried -them to the Japanese camp. The latter received them gladly, -unbound them, placed them in their midst and carried them -wherever they went. They were a prize worth watching. -To the traitor, Kuk Kyŭng-in, who had betrayed the two -princes, they gave a position equivalent to the governorship -of the province, and he was formally installed in that office. -But justice soon overtook him. A loyal general, Chöng Mun-bu, -in the northern part of the province, arranged a plan to -effect the capture of the traitor. But in some way the news -got out and the pseudo-governor sent and seized Gen. Chöng, -intending to take his head off the next morning; but during -the night another loyal man named Sin Se-jun, gathered a -band of men, armed them as best he could and addressed them -thus: “Our district has become disloyal through the treachery -of this villain. If we do not hasten to make it right we will -all have to suffer for it in the end. If you do not agree with -me, take your swords and strike me down.” They answered -as one man, “We will listen to you and obey you.” They -<span class='pageno' id='Page_391'>391</span>immediately sallied out, broke into the governor’s house and -beat him to death. The Japanese knew that it was Gen. -Chöng who had originated the plot and they searched for him -everywhere, but he hid in private houses in different places -and so they failed to apprehend him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Chi Tal-wŭn of Kyŭng-sang gathered a band of men and -tried to make head against the Japanese but not being a -soldier he could make but little impression; so Gen. Chöng -was hunted up and put in command. There were only two -hundred soldiers in all, but soon they were joined by the -prefects of Chöng-sŭng and Kyŭng-wŭn and their contingents, -and the little army made its headquarters at Kyŭng-sŭng.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the Japanese were overrunning the country, many -events of interest happened, many episodes that history will -probably never record, scenes of cruelty and rapine that are -perhaps better left undiscovered; but a few of the more important -of these events are necessary to a correct understanding -of the way in which the Koreans met their fate at the -hands of the invaders.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the Koreans fled from Seoul a high official by the -name of Yi Chong-ŭm fled to the walled town <a id='corr391_21'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='on'>of</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_391_21'><ins class='correction' title='on'>of</ins></a></span> Yŭn-an in -Whang-hă Province. Its prefect had fled, and when a Japanese -force of 3000 men under Nagamasa approached, the people -besought this Yi to take charge of the defense of the town. -He consented and made proclamation, “The Japanese are all -about us and we are in <a id='corr391_26'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='jeapordy'>jeopardy</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_391_26'><ins class='correction' title='jeapordy'>jeopardy</ins></a></span> of our lives. All that wish -to live must now run away and the rest of us will remain and -die together.” To this they replied with one voice, “How -can we let our leader die alone?” The next day the Japanese -arrived and invested the town, but on attempting to storm -it they were met by buckets of boiling water thrown <a id='corr391_31'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='wond'>down</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_391_31'><ins class='correction' title='wond'>down</ins></a></span>. -on their heads. They drew off, but renewed the attack at -night. This time they were met by piles of burning straw -which again drove them back. Again they came on, this -time with broad planks over their heads to protect them from -the novel weapons of the Koreans, but these were not proof -against the huge stones which the defenders threw down -<a id='corr391_38'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='pon them. The fight lasted three days and finally theu'>upon them. The fight lasted three days and finally the</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_391_38'><ins class='correction' title='pon them. The fight lasted three days and finally theu'>upon them. The fight lasted three days and finally the</ins></a></span> -Japanese withdrew after burning their dead.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_392'>392</span>In the seventh moon the king moved northward to Eui-ju. -But we must turn again to the south to witness another -loyal attempt to stem the tide of invasion. In the province -of Chŭl-la there were men who longed to take up arms in -defense of their homes, but all the regular troops had been -drafted away northward and nothing could be done on regular -lines. So Ko Kyöng-myŭng and Kim Ch’ŭn-il of that province -and Kwak Chă-u and Chöng In-hong of Kyŭng-sang Province -held a conference to devise ways and means for prosecuting -a <a id='corr392_10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>geurilla</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_392_10'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>geurilla</ins></a></span> campaign. These men had all been connected -with the army at some previous time and were not utterly -lacking in knowledge of military affairs. Kwak Chă-u -was in the prime of life and was appointed leader. Gathering -the people of the countryside to a great conclave, he addressed -them thus, “The whole country is being overrun by -the Japanese and soon we will become their prey. Among -our young men there must be many hundreds who are able -to bear arms. If we take our stand at Chöng-jin on the -river we shall be able to prevent the Japanese from crossing -and they will thus be held in check.” This brave leader -then turned his whole patrimony into ready money and spent -it in equipping his little army, which amounted to 5000 men.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A Japanese general attempted to enter this portion of the -province but was met all along the line of the river by a -determined soldiery, and was not able to affect a crossing. -The Korean leader Kwak has become famous in Korean -story for his valiant deeds. He is said to have worn a fiery -red cloak and he was dubbed Hong-eui Tă-jang or “General -of the Red Robe.” His particular skill lay in rapid changes of -base and he appeared now at one point and now at another -with such bewildering rapidity that he earned the reputation -of being able to transport himself by magic to incredible -distances in a moment of time. These reports he did not -contradict. The Japanese came to dread his approach and -the report that he was near, or a glimpse of the flaring red robe -was enough to send them scurrying off. From his central -camp he sent out spies in all directions who kept him informed -of every move of the enemy, and whenever the Japanese -encamped the Koreans gathered on the surrounding hills -at night, each carrying a framework that supported five -<span class='pageno' id='Page_393'>393</span>torches, and so the Japanese supposed they were surrounded -by great numbers of Koreans, and anxiety kept them always -awake. The best of the Korean soldiers were detailed to -watch mountain passes and look for opportunities to cut off -small bodies of the enemy’s forces. Traps of various kinds -were set, into which they occasionally fell, and they were so -<a id='corr393_7'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>harrassed</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_393_7'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>harrassed</ins></a></span> and worried that at last they were compelled to -withdraw entirely from the three districts of Eui-ryŭng, -Sam-ga and Hyŭp-chăn, and quiet was restored.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But this useful man’s career was cut short in a manner -similar to that in which Gen. Yi Kak’s had been. We will -remember, after the Japanese had taken Tong-nă and were -sweeping northward, that Kim Su, the governor of Kyŭng-sang -Province, not daring to meet them, turned to the west -and fled from their path. It was just about this time that -the “General of the Red Robe” was having his victories -over the Japanese that had pressed westward after the fall of -Tong-nă. When this successful leader heard of the craven -flight of Gov. Kim Su he was filled with scorn and with -righteous indignation. He considered the cowardly governor -to be worse than the Japanese themselves. He sent the -governor a message naming seven valid reasons why he -deserved execution. Kim Su replied, “As for you, you are a -robber yourself,” and he also sent a letter to the king charging -Gen. Kwak with disloyalty. At the same time Gen. Kwak -sent a letter to the king saying, “Gov. Kim ran away from -his post of duty, and when I upbraided him for it he called me -a robber. I have killed many of the ‘rats’ but as I have been -called a robber I herewith lay down my arms and retire.” -Despatching this letter to the king, Gen. Kwak dismissed all -his followers and retired to a hermitage of Pi-p‘a Mountain -in Kyŭng-sang Province and “lived upon pine leaves for -food.” So the records say. Thereafter, though offered the -governorship of Ham-gyŭng or Chŭl-la province he refused -to come out of his retreat. He changed his name to Mang -U-dang or, “House of Lost Passions,” and he thus acquired -great sanctity. Here is another instance in which the king -lost an able leader through mere wanton caprice. Wounded -pride made the famous leader forget country, king, kindred, -honor—all.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_394'>394</span>Another attempt was made by Ko Kyŭng-myŭng, a -native of Chang-heung in Chul-la Province. Hearing that -the king had fled to P‘yŭng-yang he, together with Yu -P‘ang-no, gathered a large force at Tam-yang. Sending -letters all over the province he succeeded in getting together -6000 men, and made the central camp at Yŭn-san. The king, -bring informed of this, sent a gracious letter giving his -sanction and urging the faithful men to do all in their power -for the people and the country. Gen. Kwak Nyŭng was also -sent from the north to coöperate with this army in their loyal -attempts.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Hearing that the Japanese had arrived at Köm-san, the -Korean forces advanced against them, but, for some reason -not stated, when they appeared before the town their number -had dwindled to eight hundred. Whether the rest had run -away or whether a small detachment was deemed sufficient is -not known, but at any rate a blunder had been committed, -and when the Japanese saw the smallness of the attacking -party they sallied out and soon scattered the Korean forces -under Gen. Kwak Nyŭng. The other troops, seeing this, -also took to their heels, but Gen. Ko would not run away, -though urged to do so by his lieutenants. He told them to -make good their escape, but that he would remain and meet -his fate. So they all stood and fought it out to the bitter end -and fell side by side. Gen. Ko’s son, learning of his father’s -death burned for revenge and so he collected a band of soldiers -in the south, which he named “The Band that Seeks -Revenge.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>A more successful attempt was made by Chöng In-hong -of Hyŭn-p‘ung in Kyŭng-sang Province. He was joined by -Kim Myön, Pak Song, Kwak Chun, Kwak Il and Son In-gap. -These men organized a force and drove the Japanese out of -Mu-gye and burned their supplies. Hearing that the enemy -had fled toward Cho-gye and knowing that a river intervened, -they gave chase. The Japanese came to the river but could -find no boats to cross. They spent so much time looking -for a ford that when at last they found one and were starting -to cross, the pursuers came up. The ford was a bad one, -the bottom being composed of soft sand, something like -quick-sand. Soon the horses and men were floundering -<span class='pageno' id='Page_395'>395</span>about in mid-stream. Chöng and his men, who knew the ford, -rushed in upon them, while so entangled, and cut them -down by hundreds. Those that escaped fled towards Song-ju, -but one of Chöng’s lieutenants took a thousand men and -gave chase. Pressed beyond endurance the Japanese turned -and came on to fight. One huge fellow on a magnificent -charger came dashing out ahead of the rest, brandishing his -sword and yelling at the top of his voice. A hideous gilt -mask added to the picturesqueness of his appearance, but it -did not frighten the pursuers. Their leader aimed at the -horse’s legs and soon he came crashing to the ground, where -he was speedily despatched. The other Japanese thereupon -turned and resumed their flight. Japanese troops who were -in force in Song-ju and Ko-ryŭng came out to intercept the -pursuers, but Chöng and his men formed an ambush and -springing suddenly upon the Japanese threw them into confusion -and chased them as far as Pyŭl Pass. In this flight -the Japanese threw away their baggage, weapons and all -superfluous clothing. Chöng and his men chased them six -miles and then turned back.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The last adventure of this nature which we shall mention -is that of Kim Ch‘ŭn-il a man of Na-ju in Chŭl-la Province. -Hearing of the king’s flight he sat down and wept, but suddenly -springing up he exclaimed, “I might far better be -trying to aid my sovereign than sit here bewailing his misfortune.” -In company with his friends Song Che-min and Yang -San-do, he got together a goodly band of men whose avowed -purpose was the succor of the king. Before commencing operations -the leader slaughtered horses and oxen and made each -man taste the blood and take an oath of allegiance to the -cause in which they were embarked. Kim addressed them -in these words, “Of course this means death to us all. We -cannot expect to come out of it alive. We can only go forward. -There must be no retreat. If any one of you desires -life more than the accomplishment of the work in which we -are engaged let him turn back now.” They fortified Tok-san -in Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng Province. Koreans who had sold -themselves to the Japanese as spies came to this camp to gain -information, but were apprehended and put to death. The -Japanese camp was at Keum-nyŭng not far away. One -<span class='pageno' id='Page_396'>396</span>moonless night Kim, by a forced march came and surrounded -this camp, and at a given signal his forces descended like an -avalanche upon the unsuspecting enemy. Those that escaped -the edge of the sword found safety in flight. In the seventh -moon this force, consisting of several thousand men, crossed -the Han River below Yang-wha-do intending to go and join the -king, but instead of doing so they entered the island of Kang-wha -and fortified it. When the king heard of these deeds of -Kim Ch‘ŭn-il, he was highly pleased and gave him the title -of “Defender against Invaders.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>These incidents of Korean success against the Japanese -cannot be taken as typical cases for, as a rule, the Japanese -went where they wished and did what they wished, but they -are inserted here rather to show that it was no craven submission -on the part of the Koreans; that there were strong, -brave and faithful men who were willing to cast their fortunes -and lives into the scales and strike as hard blows as -they knew how for their homes and for their king. It was -of course a <a id='corr396_19'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>geurilla</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_396_19'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>geurilla</ins></a></span> warfare and it was only small detachments -of the main army of the Japanese that they could successfully -withstand, but the utter <a id='corr396_21'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>pusilanimity</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_396_21'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>pusilanimity</ins></a></span> of the Koreans, as sometimes -depicted, is not a true picture of them. Their worst -fault was that they were unprepared for war. This together -with the strife of parties was the reason why the Japanese for -a time worked their will upon the peninsula.</p> - -<h3 class='c011'>Chapter IX.</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Attempts to secure aid from China.... divided counsels in Nanking.... an -army sent.... a desperate envoy.... Gen. Suk Sŭng’s love for -Korea.... the Emperor gives orders for the king’s entertainment.... great -Korean victory in the south.... Japanese army of reinforcement -defeated and destroyed by Admiral Yi Sun-sin.... Gen. -Yi honored.... the back of the invasion broken.... a vainglorious -Chinese general.... severely beaten.... the monks begin a Holy -War.... a sharp answer.... various Korean forces.... a night adventure.... Japanese -reverses in the south.... China awakens.... a grand -conference.... a truce.... the time expires.... a celebrated soldier -tracked down.... attempt to retake Seoul.... brave defense of Chin-Ju -<span class='pageno' id='Page_397'>397</span>... the first mortar and bomb ... various Korean attempts ... Korean -victory in Ham-gyŭng Province ... another in the south ... Japanese -confined almost entirely to P‘yŭng-yang.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The efforts that Korea put forth before she obtained aid -from China make an entertaining story, and they show that -China delayed it as long as possible and then complied, not so -much because she wished to help Korea as because she desired -to check the Japanese before they crossed the Ya-lu and -began ravaging the fruitful plains of the Liao-tung peninsula. -Before the Japanese ever landed in Korea the king had sent -an envoy to Nanking telling the Emperor that an invasion -was next to certain; and that envoy was still in Nanking. -After the king’s flight to the north he sent Min Mong-nyŭng -and Yi Tŭk-hyŭng as special envoys to ask aid again. On the -arrival of these men with their urgent request there was a -great council of war in Nanking. Some of the leading -generals said, “There is no need for China to help those wild -people. Let them fight it out themselves.” It would appear -that the policy by which China disclaimed responsibility for -Korea, when such responsibility involved sacrifice, is several -centuries old. Other generals said, “No, that will not do. -We must send troops and at least guard our own territory -from invasion.” But the Chinese General-in-chief, Sŭk -Sŭng, said, “We must, without fail, render Korea the assistance -for which she asks. We must immediately despatch -2000 troops, and the Emperor must appropriate 2,000,000 -cash for their maintenance.” The upshot of it all was that -Gen. Nak Sang-ji took a small body of troops and marched -eastward to the banks of the Ya-lu where he went into camp -without attempting to render the Koreans any assistance.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the seventh moon the king sent another envoy to -Nanking on the same errand but with the same lack of success. -Then the king called to him one of his most trusted -officials and appointed him envoy to Nanking and said, “The -salvation of the kingdom lies in your hands. Go to Nanking -and leave no efforts untried whereby the Emperor may be induced -to help us.” Charged with this important mission, -this envoy Chöng Kon-su hastened to Nanking and, entering -the enclosure of the war office, sat in the courtyard for seven -<span class='pageno' id='Page_398'>398</span>days weeping; but the officials all turned a deaf ear to his -entreaties, excepting the General-in-chief Sŭk Sŭng. Indignant -at the apathy of his colleagues and in spite of the -fact that his duty as general-in-chief demanded his presence -in Nanking, he arose and said, “If none of you gentlemen -will go to the aid of Korea I will go myself.” There were -special and personal reasons for this man’s interest in Korea. -In years gone by a Korean merchant, while in Nanking, had -met in an inn a beautiful slave girl and upon inquiry had -discovered that she was of noble family but had sold herself -into slavery to obtain money wherewith to deliver her father -from prison. The merchant was so touched by the sacrifice -which she had made—for it meant the sacrifice of honor itself—that -he gave all his patrimony and bought her and set her -free. In after years she became the wife of this same Gen. -Sŭk Sŭng, and thus it was that he was an ardent admirer of -Korea and was determined to see that Korea received aid in -her present extremity.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this point the king sent a message to the prefect of -Liao-tung saying, “The Japanese have come as far north as -P‘yŭng-yang and I fear I shall have to cross the Ya-lu and -take refuge in your district.” This the prefect immediately -reported to the Emperor, who answered, “If the king of -Korea enters your district, provide him with a fine house, -give him food out of the imperial stores, each day four ounces -of silver, a pig, a sheep, vermicelli and rice. Give him also -an escort of a hundred men and let twenty women be detailed -to wait upon him.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have now arrived at the threshold of the Chinese -counter-invasion which was destined to be one of the main -causes of the Japanese retreat, but before entering upon this -narrative we must turn again to the south and witness some -events which did far more to effect the withdrawal of the -Japanese than did the coming of the Chinese armies.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first of these was the utter defeat of a large body of -Japanese who were scouring the province of Chŭl-la. Entering -the town of I-ch‘i they were met by such a fierce attack on -the part of Whang-jin the prefect of Tong-bok that they -turned back and, crossing the Ung-ch‘i Mountain entered -the prefecture of Chŭn-ju. Yö Pong-nam, the prefect of Na-ju, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_399'>399</span>and Whang Pŭk, a volunteer general, lay in ambush with a -large body of volunteer troops, and succeeded in driving the -Japanese back, but the next day the invading host came -fiercely to the attack and the Koreans had to give way. The -Japanese in their exultation now thought they could go back -to I-ch‘i and avenge themselves for their defeat there. Gen. -Kwŭn Yŭl and the prefect of Whang-jin heard of this in -time to fortify one of the mountain passes. The Japanese -attacked in a desperate manner, creeping up the steep mountain -sides on their hands and knees, shooting as they advanced. -All day long the fight continued and the Japanese -were utterly defeated. Their bodies were piled in heaps -where they fell and the records say that the ground was -covered with one crimson matting of leaves. This was one -of the greatest land victories which the Koreans scored -against the Japanese. Retreating to the valley with their -dead the Japanese made two great heaps of bodies and buried -them in trenches, marking the spot with rough monuments of -wood. This was probably one of the bodies of troops for -which the Japanese in P‘yŭng-yang were waiting, before -attempting the invasion of China.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But meanwhile events of far greater importance were -occurring farther south, where Admiral Yi Sun-sin with his -wonderful “tortoise boat” was watching for Japanese fleets.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in the eighth moon that his watchfulness was -rewarded and he beheld on the eastern horizon a vast fleet of -Japanese boats bringing a hundred thousand men to reinforce -the army of invasion and enable it to push on into China.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Admiral Yi and his lieutenant Yi Ok-keui met this powerful -fleet in a place called Kyön-nă-ryang among the islands off -the southern coast of Chŭl-la Province. The evident intention -of the Japanese was to round the southwestern corner of the -peninsula and sail up the west coast to P‘yŭng-yang. At -first the wily admiral made as if he would betake himself to -flight and the Japanese, by giving chase, threw their own line -into disorder. When opposite Han-san Island, Admiral Yi -suddenly turned his iron-clad about and rammed the nearest -of his pursuers, and then engaged the others either singly or -by the score, for his craft was impervious to their weapons. -His attending fleet followed and completed the work, after he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_400'>400</span>had disabled the enemy’s boats. Seventy-one of the Japanese -boats were sunk that day and it is said the very sea was -red. But soon a reinforcing fleet came up from An-gol -Harbor near Han-san and the Admiral found that his day’s -work was not yet done. The attack straightway began and -soon the Japanese were in the same plight in which their -comrades had been put. Many, seeing how impossible it was -to make headway against this iron ship, beached their boats -and fled by land; so on that same day forty-eight ships more -were burned. The few that escaped during the fight sped -eastward toward home. So ended, we may well believe, one of -the great naval battles of the world. It may truly be called -the Salamis of Korea. It signed the death-warrant of the invasion. -It frustrated the great motive of the invasion, the -humbling of China; and thenceforth, although the war dragged -through many a long year, it was carried on solely with -a view to mitigating the disappointment of Hideyoshi—a disappointment -that must have been as keen as his thirst for conquest -was unquenchable.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the king heard of these splendid achievements he -heaped upon Admiral Yi all the honors in his gift, and even -those who hated him for his successes were compelled to join -in his praise. Konishi had heard that an army was coming -to reinforce him and he wrote an exultant letter to the king -saying, “A hundred thousand men are coming to reinforce -me. Where will you flee to then?” But before this letter -reached its destination there came the news of the crushing -defeat in the south. The whole success of the invasion -depended upon forming a junction between the army in -P‘yŭng-yang and this army of reinforcement, but Admiral Yi -shattered the fleet, and the last hope of the invaders perished.</p> - -<p class='c000'>And now at last China bestirred herself and sent Gen. -Cho Seung-hun with 5000 troops across the Ya-lu into Korea. -This was a man whose vanity was as great as his ignorance of -the Japanese. He loudly boasted “Now that I have come, -no Japanese will be able to stand before me.” Penetrating -as far south as Ka-san he enquired whether the Japanese had -fled from P‘yŭng-yang, and being answered in the negative he -exclaimed “Heaven is indeed good to keep them there for -me.”</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_401'>401</span>Two of the Korean generals ventured to offer him some -advice, saying that it was now the rainy season and the roads -were very bad, and that it might be well to wait until his -army could move with greater ease and with better hopes of -success. But he laughed and said, “I once took 3000 men -and put to flight 100,000 Mongols. I care no more for these -Japanese than I do for mosquitoes or ants.” And so his troops -floundered on through the mud until they stood before -P‘yŭng-yang on the nineteenth of the eighth moon. And lo! -the gates were wide open. The Chinese troops marched -straight up through the town to the governor’s residence, -firing their guns and calling on the enemy to appear. But not -a Japanese was to be seen. When the whole of the Chinese -force had entered the city and the streets were full, the Japanese, -who lay hidden in every house, poured a sudden and -destructive fire into their ranks. The Chinese, huddled together -in small companies, were shot down like rabbits. -Gen. Sa Yu, the second in command of the Chinese, was -killed and the boastful Gen. Cho Seung-hun mounted his -horse and fled the city, followed by as many of his soldiers as -could extricate themselves. Rain began to fall and the roads -were deep with mud. The Japanese followed the fugitives, -and the valley was strewed with the bodies of the slain. Out -of 5000 men who entered the city only two thousand escaped. -Gen. Cho fled two hundred <em>li</em> to An-ju before he stopped. -He there gave out that as there had been much rain and the -roads were heavy he was at a disadvantage in attacking, and -when his second, Gen. Sa Yu, fell he saw that nothing could -be done, and so had ordered a retreat. But the Koreans only -smiled, for they knew that a sixty mile ride over those -roads by a Chinese general meant more than an ordinary retreat. -And so he returned to Liaotung, this valiant man, and -fearing punishment, averred that “We whipped the Japanese -but the Koreans turned against us and we had to fall back.” -The Chinese general Yang Sa-heun was sent to investigate this -charge but the king denied it and the truth was soon discovered.</p> - -<p class='c000'>And now a new element in this seething caldron of war -rose to the surface. It was an independent movement on the -part of the Buddhist monks throughout the country. Hyu -Chŭng, known throughout the eight provinces as “The great -<span class='pageno' id='Page_402'>402</span>teacher of So-san,” was a man of great natural ability as well -as of great learning. His pupils were numbered by the -thousands and were found in every province. He called together -two thousand of them and appeared before the king at -Eui-ju and said, “We are of the common people but we are -all the king’s servants and two thousand of us have come to -die for Your Majesty.” The king was much pleased by this -demonstration of loyalty and made Hyu Chŭng a Priest General, -and told him to go into camp at Pŭp-heung Monastery. -He did so. and from that point sent out a call to all the monasteries -in the land. In Chŭl-la Province was a warrior -monk Ch’oe Yŭng, and at Diamond Mountain another named -Yu Chŭng. These came with over a thousand followers and -went into camp a few miles to the east of P’yŭng-yang. -They had no intention of engaging in actual battle but they -acted as spies, took charge of the commissariat and made themselves -generally useful. During battle they stood behind the -troops and shouted encouragement. Yu Chŭng, trusting to his -priestly garb, went into P’yŭng-yang to see the Japanese generals. -Being ushered into the presence of Kato, who had now -joined the main army after his detour into Ham-gyŭng Province, -the monk found himself surrounded by flashing weapons. -But he was not in the least daunted, and looked about him -with a smiling face. Kato addressed him good-naturedly -and asked, “What do you consider the greatest treasure in -your land?” Without a moment’s hesitation the monk answered -“Your head,” which piece of subtle flattery made the -Japanese general laugh long and loud.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Besides these there were other movements of a loyal -nature throughout the country. At Wha-sun in Chŭl-la -Province there was a little band of men under Ch‘oe -Kyŭng-whe whose banner represented a falcon in flight. -Also in Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng Province a celebrated scholar Cho -Hön collected a large band of men, but his efforts were -frustrated by the cowardice and jealousy of the governor of -the province who imprisoned the parents of many of his followers -and so compelled them to desert.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Yi Wŭn-ik, the governor of P‘yŭng-an Province and Yi -Pin, one of the provincial generals, made a fortified camp at -Sun-an, sixty <em>li</em> to the west of P‘yŭng-yang. At the same -<span class='pageno' id='Page_403'>403</span>time generals Kim Eung-Sŭ and Pak Myung-hyŭn, with a -force of 10,000 men, made a line of fortified camps along the -west side of the town of P‘yŭng-yang. Kim Ok-ch‘u with a -naval force guarded the ford of the Ta-dong. These forces -advanced simultaneously and attacked the Japanese, cutting -off all stragglers. Suddenly the Japanese army made a sally -from the city and the Koreans were dispersed. When they -again rendezvoused at their respective camps it was found -that Gen. Kim Eung-sŭ and his troops were nowhere to be -found. As it happened he was very near the wall of the -town when the sortie occurred and he was cut off from retreat. -But in the dusk of approaching night he was not -discovered by the Japanese. A story is told of a curious -adventure which he had that night. One of the Japanese -generals in the town had found a beautiful dancing girl and -had compelled her to share his quarters. On this eventful -evening she asked him to let her go to the wall and see if she -could find some one who would carry a message to her brother. -Permission was given and she hastened to the wall and there -called softly, “Where is my brother?” Gen. Kim, as we have -seen was immediately beneath the wall and he answered, -“Who is it that calls?” “Will you not help me escape from -the Japanese,” she pleaded. He immediately consented to -help her and, taking his life in his hands, he speedily scaled -the wall and accompanied her toward the Japanese general’s -quarters. Her captor was a terrible creature, so the story -goes, who always slept sitting bolt upright at a table with his -eyes wide open and holding a long sword in each hand. His -face was fiery red. Gen. Kim, conducted by the dancing girl, -came upon him unawares and smote off his head at a stroke, -but even after the head fell the terrible figure rose and hurled -one of the swords with such tremendous force that it struck -through one of the house-posts. The Korean general concealed -the head beneath his garments and fled, with the girl -at his heels. But now for the first time he seemed to become -aware of the extreme hazard of his position and fearing that -he would not be able to get by the guard, if accompanied by -the girl, his gallantry suddenly forsook him and he turned -and smote off her head as well. Thus unencumbered he -succeeded in making his escape.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_404'>404</span>We must here digress again to describe the final conflict -that put an end to Japanese advances in the province of Chŭl-la. -A general. Cho Hön, in company with a monk warrior, -Yung Kyu, advanced on the important town of Ch‘ung-ju, -then occupied by a strong Japanese garrison. They approached -the west gate and stormed it with stones and arrows. In a -short time the Japanese were compelled to retire and the Koreans -began to swarm into the town, vowing to make a complete -slaughter of the hated enemy, but at that moment a severe -thunder shower arose and the darkness was intense. So -Gen. Cho recalled his troops and encamped outside the gate. -That night the Japanese burned their dead and fled out the -north gate, and when Gen. Cho led his troops into the city the -next day he scored only an empty triumph. He desired to -push forward to the place were the king had found refuge, and -to that end he advanced as far north as On-yang in Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng -Province: but learning there that a strong body of -Japanese had congregated at Yö-san in Chŭl-la Province, he -turned back to attack them. He made an arrangement by -letter with Kwŭn Yŭl, the provincial general of Chŭl-la, to -make a simultaneous attack upon the Japanese position from -different sides. But when Gen. Cho arrived before the Japanese -camp with his little band of 700 men Gen. Kwŭn was -nowhere to be found. The Japanese laughed when they saw -this little array and came on to the attack, but were each time -driven back. But at last the Koreans had spent all their arrows, -it was late in the day and they were fatigued and half -famished. Gen. Cho, however, had no thought of retreat and -kept urging on his men. If he had at this crisis withdrawn -his remaining soldiers, the victory would virtually have been -his for the Japanese had lost many more men than he; but -he was too stubborn to give an inch. The Japanese came on -to a last grand charge. Gen. Cho’s aides advised him to -withdraw but he peremptorily refused. At last every weapon -was gone and the men fought with their bare fists, falling -where they stood. The slain of the Japanese outnumbered -those of the Koreans and although they were victorious their -victory crippled them. It took the survivors four days to burn -their dead and when it was done they broke camp and went -southward. The Japanese never regained the ground lost by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_405'>405</span>this retreat <a id='corr405_1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='and and'>and</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_405_1'><ins class='correction' title='and and'>and</ins></a></span> it was a sample of what must occur -throughout the peninsula, since Admiral Yi had rendered -reinforcement from Japan impossible.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We return now to the north, the real scene of war. In -the ninth moon the Chinese general, Sim Yu-gyŭng, whose -name will figure largely in these annals from this point on, -was sent from China to investigate the condition of affairs in -Korea with a view to the sending of a large Chinese force, for -by this time China had become alive to the interests at stake, -namely her own interests. This general crossed the Ya-lu -and came southward by An-ju as far as Sun-an. From that -point he sent a communication to the Japanese in P‘yŭng-yang -saying, “I have come by order of the Emperor of China to inquire -what Korea has done to merit such treatment as this at -your hands. You are trampling Korea under foot and we -would know why.” The Japanese general, Konishi, answered -this by requesting that the Chinese general meet -him at Kang-bok Mountain ten <em>li</em> north of P‘yŭng-yang, and -have a conference with him. To this Gen. Sim agreed and, -taking with him three followers, he repaired to the appointed -place. Konishi accompanied by Kuroda and Gensho came -to the rendezvous with a great array of soldiers and weapons, -Gen. Sim walked into their midst alone, having left his horse -outside the enclosure. He immediately addressed them as -follows; “I brought with me a million soldiers and left them in -camp beyond the Ya-lu. You, Gensho, are a monk. Why do -you come to kill and destroy?” Gensho answered, “For -many a year Japan has had no dealings with China. We asked -from Korea a safe conduct for our envoy to Nanking but -it was refused and we were compelled to come and take it by -force. What cause have you to blame us for this?” To this -Gen. Sim replied, “If you wish to go to China to pay your respects -to the Emperor there will be no difficulty at all. I can -arrange it without the least trouble,” Konishi said nothing, -but handed his sword to Gen. Sim in token of amity and after -they had conferred together for some time it was arranged -that Gen. Sim go to Nanking and represent that Japan wished -to become a vassal of China. Fifty days was agreed upon -for the general to make the trip to Nanking and return with -the answer, and a truce was called for that time. A line was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_406'>406</span>drawn round P‘yŭng-yang ten <em>li</em> from the wall and the Japanese -agreed to stay within that limit while the Koreans promised -not to cross that line. Gen. Sim was sent upon his way -with every mark of esteem on the part of the Japanese who -accompanied him a short distance on the road.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Japanese lived up to the terms of the truce, never -crossing the line once, but the fifty days expired and still -Gen. Sim did not appear. They then informed the Koreans -that in the twelfth moon their “horses would drink the water -of the Ya-lu.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>During these fifty days of truce what was going on in -other parts of the peninsula? Cho Ung a soldier of Ch‘ung-ch‘ŭng -Province was a man of marvelous skill. With a band -of 500 men he succeeded so well in cutting off small foraging -bands of Japanese that they were at their wits end to get him -put out of the way. One foggy day when the mist was so -thick that one could not see his hand before his face the Japanese -learned that this dreaded man was on the road. They -followed him swiftly and silently and at last got an opportunity -to shoot him in the back. He fell from his horse but rose -and fled on foot. But they soon overtook him and, having -first cut his hands off, they despatched him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The governor of Kyŭng-geui Province was Sim Tă. He -had found asylum in the town of Sang-nyŭng, two hundred <em>li</em> -north of Seoul. Having gotten together a considerable body -of soldiers he formed the daring plan of wresting Seoul from -the hands of the Japanese. For this <a id='corr406_27'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='purporse'>purpose</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_406_27'><ins class='correction' title='purporse'>purpose</ins></a></span> it was necessary -that he should have accomplices in that city who should -rise at the appointed time and join in the attack. Through -treachery or otherwise the Japanese became aware of the plot -and sending a strong body of troops to Sang-nyŭng they seized -the governor and put him to death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gen. Kim Si-min had charge of the defense of the walled -town of Chin-ju in Kyŭng-sang Province. The Japanese invested -the town with a very large force. Within, the garrison -amounted to only three thousand men. These were placed on -the walls in the most advantageous manner by Gen. Kim who -was specially skilled in the defense of a walled town. All the -soldiers were strictly commanded not to fire a single shot until -the Japanese were close up to the wall. The Japanese advanced -<span class='pageno' id='Page_407'>407</span>in three divisions, 10,000 strong. A thousand of these -were musketeers. The roar of the musketry was deafening -but the walls were as silent as if deserted. Not a man was to -be seen. On the following day the assault began in earnest. -The Japanese discarded the muskets and used fire arrows. -Soon all the houses outside the wall were in ashes. Gen. Kim -went up into the south gate and there sat and listened to some -flute playing with a view to making the Japanese think the -defending force was so large as to make solicitude unnecessary. -This made the Japanese very careful. They made -elaborate preparations for the assault. Cutting down bamboos -and pine trees they made ladders about eight feet wide and as -high as the wall. They also prepared straw mats to protect their -heads from missiles from above. But the defenders had also -made careful preparations. They had bundles of straw with -little packages of powder fastened in them, to cast down on the -attacking party. Piles of stones and kettles of hot water were -also in readiness. As the assault might take place at night, -planks bristling with nails were thrown over the wall. This -proved a wise precaution for in fact the attack was made that -very night. It raged fiercely for a time, but so many of the -Japanese were lamed by the spikes in the planks and so many -were burned by the bundles of straw, that at last they had to -withdraw, leaving heaps of dead behind. More than half the -attacking force were killed and the rest beat a hasty retreat.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the ninth moon Gen. Pak Chin of Kyŭng-sang Province -took 10,000 soldiers and went to attack the walled town of -Kyöng-ju which was held by the Japanese. It is said that he -made use of a species of missile called “The Flying Thunderbolt.” -It was projected from a kind of mortar made of bell -metal and having a bore of some twelve or fourteen inches. -The mortar was about eight feet long. The records say that -this thing could project <em>itself</em> through the air for a distance of -forty paces. It doubtless means that a projectile of some -kind could be cast that distance from this mortar. The records -go on to say that the “Flying Thunder-bolt” was thrown -over the wall of the town and, when the Japanese flocked -around it to see what it might be, it exploded with a terrific -noise, instantly killing twenty men or more. This struck -the Japanese dumb with terror and so worked upon their superstitious -<span class='pageno' id='Page_408'>408</span>natures that they decamped in haste and evacuated -the city. The inventor of this weapon was Yi Yang-son, and -it is said that the secret of its construction died with him. It -appears that we have here the inventor of the mortar and -bomb. The length of the gun compared with its calibre, the -distance the projectile was carried with the poor powder then -in use and the explosion of the shell all point to this as being -the first veritable mortar in use in the east if not in the world. -It is said that one of these mortars lies today in a storehouse -in the fortress of Nam-han.</p> - -<p class='c000'>All through the country the people were rising and arming -against the invaders. A list of their leaders will show -how widespread was the movement. In the province of Chŭl-la -were Generals Kim Ch’ŭn-il, Ko Kyung-myŭng and Ch’oé -Kyăng-whe: in Kyŭng sang Province Generals Kwak Chă-o, -Kwŭn Eung-su, Kim Myön. Chöng In-hong, Kim Hă, Nyu -Wan-gă, Yi Tă-geui and Chang Sa-jin; in Ch’ung-ch’ŭng -Province Generals Cho Heun, Yŭng Kyu (monk), Kim Hong-min, -Yi San-gyŭm, Cho Tún-gong, Cho Ung and Yi Pong; -in Kyŭng-geui Province Generals U Sung-jun, Chăng Suk-ha, -Ch’oé Heul, Yi No, Yi San-whi, Nam On-gyŭng, Kim -T’ak, Yu Ta-jin, Yi Chil, Hong Kye-nam and Wang Ok; in -Ham-gyŭng Province Generals Chöng Nam-bu, and Ko -Kyŭng-min; in P’yŭng-an Province Generals Cho Ho-ik and -the monk Yu Chŭng. The country was filled with little bands -of fifty or a hundred men each, and all were fighting separately. -Perhaps it was better so, for it may have prevented -jealousies and personal enmities that otherwise would have -ruined the whole scheme.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Chöng Mun-bu was the “Military inspector of the north” -and it was his business to investigate annually the condition -of things in the province of Ham-gyŭng and to superintend -the annual fair on the border at Whe-ryŭng in the tenth moon -of each year. He was caught by the Japanese on the road -and was held captive, but made his escape by night and found -a place of hiding in the house of a certain sorceress or fortune-teller -in Yong-sŭng. After five days of flight he reached the -town of Kyöng-sung where he found the leaders Ch’oé Pa-ch’ŭn -and Chi Tal-wŭn at the house of a wealthy patriot Yi -Pung-su who had given large sums of money to raise and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_409'>409</span>equip soldiers. The common people entered heartily into the -plan and a force of 10,000 men, indifferently armed and drilled, -was put into the field. This force surrounded the town of -Kil-ju where the Japanese were encamped, and after a desperate -fight the Japanese were totally defeated, leaving 600 -heads in the hands of the victors. A few days later a similar -engagement took place with a like result, sixty more heads -being taken.</p> - -<p class='c000'>And so it was throughout the country. The Japanese -were being worn away by constant attrition; here a dozen, -there a score and yonder a hundred, until the army in P‘yŭng-yang, -by no means a large one, was practically all that was left -of the Japanese in the peninsula.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Kwŭn Yŭl, the governor of Chŭl-la Province, said to the -provincial general, “If you will remain in Yi-hyŭn and guard -the province I will take 20,000 men and move northward to -the capital.” He advanced as far as Su-wŭn. The Japanese -tried to draw him into a general engagement but he avoided -it and kept up a <a id='corr409_19'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>geurilla</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_409_19'><ins class='correction' title='sic'>geurilla</ins></a></span> warfare, cutting off large numbers of -stragglers from the Japanese camp. By this means he accomplished -the important work of opening up a way to the -north, which had been closed; so that from now on messengers -passed freely from the southern provinces to the king.</p> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c002' /> -</div> -<p class='c000'><a id='endnote'></a></p> -<div class='tnotes'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class='large'>Transcriber’s Note</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The use of digital editions is greatly enhanced through the use of -text search features. That usefulness can be stymied by variations, -intentional or not, in spelling. The decision was taken here to attempt -to regularize spelling where printer or editorial errors were made, -and to a great extent where there seemed to be gratuitous variations.</p> - -<p class='c000'>For errors in the English text, corrections were made where they could -be reasonably attributed to the printer or editor, or where the same -English word appears as expected elsewhere.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the other hand, the romanization of Korean words was changing even -as this text was being written in the early 20th century. The author -notes (p. <a href='#Page_iv'>iv</a>) that a system of his own was adopted during the -preparation of this text, but a more official system issued by the -Royal Asiatic Society was employed later. The result, as he says, is -that there are inconsistencies in the spelling of proper names. Since -it is impossible to distinquish between printer lapses and this -variability, Korean names are given here as they appeared in the text.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Exceptions are made where common names (e.g., ‘Ko-gu-ryŭ’) very occasionally -appear without a diacritical mark. These are corrected without further comment. -Where the quality of the source text is suspect, the most common version -of a given name is used. The system in use seems to solely employ the breve ‘ŭ’, -except for the occasional ‘oé’ or ‘ö’. The chapter summaries tend to not use -the diacritical marks found in the text.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Another exception is made for the (presumable) misprinting of proper -names, which, according to the author’s <a href='#Page_iv'>Preface</a>, have no hyphen between -the patronymic and the following given names, which are hyphenated. Where this -rule is violated (e.g., <a href='#corr51_3'>Keum Su-ro</a> on p. 51), the hyphen is removed. -Where a hyphen occurs at the end of a line, it is retained or removed depending -on the preponderance of other instances of the same word.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There is no mention by the author regarding the use of the special characters -ʻ and ʼ within Korean names. More modern romanization schemes utilize the -apostrophe (ʼ) to indicate aspirated consonants (pʼ, tʼ, kʼ, and Chʼ). -In this text, however, though the place-name ‘P<span class='large'>ʻ</span>yŭng-yang’ can be found much more -frequently than ‘P<span class='large'>ʼ</span>yŭng-yang’, there seems to be no rhyme nor reason -to the variations. The former appears most frequently in the first hundred -pages, which may imply that it is related to the scheme employed. But both -will occasionally appear in different words on the same page. Just the same, -every attempt was made to follow the text, using ʻ and ʼ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The author consistently uses the word ‘geurilla’, where modern usage would -have us using ‘guerrilla’ or 'guerilla', and that has been honored here. The -author uses ‘allegience’ and ‘allegiance’ interchangeably, and both are -retained. ‘Buddhism’ appears twice (pp. 113 & 163) as ‘Budhism’, and has been -corrected in both places. The word ‘strategem’ appears as ‘stratagem’ only once, in the -description of Chapter XII. The word ‘emissary’ or ‘emissaries’ is misspelled -twice, as ‘emmisaries’ and again as ‘emmisary’. Both are noted and retained.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The transition from p. 257 to 258 is corrupted. At the top of p. 258, a passage -from mid-paragraph on p. 257 (‘these acts ... coolness to spring up between -them.’) is repeated. This has been removed. The final phrase on p. 257 -(‘Here, too, he was....’) is not taken up on the following page, which is -indicated here with a bracketed ellipsis.</p> - -<div class='htmlonly'> - -<p class='c000'>Corrections made to the text appear underlined. The original text can be -viewed using a mouseover, as <ins class='correction' title='original text'>corrected text</ins>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class='epubonly'> - -<p class='c000'>Corrections made to the text appear as links to the table below, or, for -punctuation corrections, as a thin underline, e.g. <ins class='correction' title='original'>corrected</ins>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Substantive changes are summarized below. It is a lengthy list, so punctuation -errors, such as missing full stops or comma/full stop errors, have been corrected -with no further notice, except for the underlining just mentioned. The page numbers -serve as links back to the correction.</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='14%' /> -<col width='64%' /> -<col width='21%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_iii_26'></a>p. <a href='#corriii_26'>iii</a></td> - <td class='c005'>than[g] in German.</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_v_13'></a>p. <a href='#corrv_13'>v</a></td> - <td class='c005'>by the Tu-man River. [b/B]etween</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_1_17'></a>p. <a href='#corr1_17'>1</a></td> - <td class='c005'>He governed through his three vice-[ger/reg]ents</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_4_2'></a>p. <a href='#corr4_2'>4</a></td> - <td class='c005'>P’ang-o[-/ ]is erected there.</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed hyphen.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_4_26'></a>p. <a href='#corr4_26'>4</a></td> - <td class='c005'>and his whole e[n]vironment>.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_5_7'></a>p. <a href='#corr5_7'>5</a></td> - <td class='c005'>tradit[i]on, is as follows.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_5_34'></a>p. <a href='#corr5_34'>5</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the royal dupe, she said[./,]</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_7_35'></a>p. <a href='#corr7_35'>7</a></td> - <td class='c005'>ready communication be[t]ween> its parts.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_12_26'></a>p. <a href='#corr12_26'>12</a></td> - <td class='c005'>In 403 the king of Y[u/ŭ]n sent</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_15_26'></a>p. <a href='#corr15_26'>15</a></td> - <td class='c005'>establishes his kin[dg/gd]om</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_20_27'></a>p. <a href='#corr20_27'>20</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the aged men of Pu-y[ü/ŭ] used to say</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_25_16'></a>p. <a href='#corr25_16'>25</a></td> - <td class='c005'>P[y’/’y]ŭng-an and the western part</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_25_29'></a>p. <a href='#corr25_29'>25</a></td> - <td class='c005'>(known also as the Mul-gil[)]</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_27_18'></a>p. <a href='#corr27_18'>27</a></td> - <td class='c005'>im[m]igration>.... customs</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_28_32'></a>p. <a href='#corr28_32'>28</a></td> - <td class='c005'>we can eas[i]ly imagine</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_30_15'></a>p. <a href='#corr30_15'>30</a></td> - <td class='c005'>making certain kinds of[ of] vow or promises.</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_30_35'></a>p. <a href='#corr30_35'>30</a></td> - <td class='c005'>occupying approxima[t]ely the territory</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_33_27'></a>p. <a href='#corr33_27'>33</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the great northern kingdom of Ko-gu[r-y/-ry]ŭ</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_33_31'></a>p. <a href='#corr33_31'>33</a></td> - <td class='c005'>The founding of Sil[-/ ]la, Ko-gu[r-y/-ry]u</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced. Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_33_33'></a>p. <a href='#corr33_33'>33</a></td> - <td class='c005'>vicissitudes.... Ko-gu[r-y]/-ry]u.... four Pu-yus</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_33_34'></a>p. <a href='#corr33_34'>33</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Chu-mong founds Ko-gu[r-y]/-ry]u.... growth</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_33_38'></a>p. <a href='#corr33_38'>33</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the capital moved.... siiuation si[i/t]uation of</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_34_4'></a>p. <a href='#corr34_4'>34</a></td> - <td class='c005'>great council at Yun-[e/c]hŭn-yang></td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_35_17'></a>p. <a href='#corr35_17'>35</a></td> - <td class='c005'>so the[ ]records</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_35_34'></a>p. <a href='#corr35_34'>35</a></td> - <td class='c005'>It would also indicate tha[e/t]</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_35_37'></a>p. <a href='#corr35_37'>35</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the little kingdo[n/m] of Sil-la</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_36_24'></a>p. <a href='#corr36_24'>36</a></td> - <td class='c005'>As this was the year, 37 B.C., w[e/h]ich marks</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_36_28a'></a>p. <a href='#corr36_28a'>36</a></td> - <td class='c005'>in the kingdom of Pu[-]yŭ, it will be</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_36_28b'></a>p. <a href='#corr36_28b'>36</a></td> - <td class='c005'>for us to examine b[a/r]iefly</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_37_10'></a>p. <a href='#corr37_10'>37</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Thus was his prayer answered[.]></td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_39_23'></a>p. <a href='#corr39_23'>39</a></td> - <td class='c005'>probabl[e/y] refers to certain family clans</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_40_22'></a>p. <a href='#corr40_22'>40</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the deceased was exhaus[t]ed in the funeral ceremony.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_41_8'></a>p. <a href='#corr41_8'>41</a></td> - <td class='c005'>went sadly home and a[s]ked his mother</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_43_34'></a>p. <a href='#corr43_34'>43</a></td> - <td class='c005'>where it remained for two hun[d]red</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_44_6'></a>p. <a href='#corr44_6'>44</a></td> - <td class='c005'>In the third y[r/e]ar of his reign</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_48_30'></a>p. <a href='#corr48_30'>48</a></td> - <td class='c005'>of compelling a speedy s[e/u]rrender.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_50_38'></a>p. <a href='#corr50_38'>50</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Ham-ch’ang[,] Sŭng-ju, Ko-ryŭng a[h/n]d Ham-an.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added. Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_51_3'></a>p. <a href='#corr51_3'>51</a></td> - <td class='c005'>One of the[m] was Keum[-/ ]Su-ro</td> - <td class='c019'>Added. Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_51_32'></a>p. <a href='#corr51_32'>51</a></td> - <td class='c005'>became king of Ko-gu-r[y]u</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_51_33'></a>p. <a href='#corr51_33'>51</a></td> - <td class='c005'>noble lady of Sil-la i[a/s] sent to Japan.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_51_38'></a>p. <a href='#corr51_38'>51</a></td> - <td class='c005'>traditions of[ of] Ko-gu-ryŭ this ruler professed</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_51_39'></a>p. <a href='#corr51_39'>51</a></td> - <td class='c005'>on the one hand and s[ie/ei/zed all the Chinese territory</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_52_13'></a>p. <a href='#corr52_13'>52</a></td> - <td class='c005'>a hopeless struggle [s/a]gainst Păk-je.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_52_24'></a>p. <a href='#corr52_24'>52</a></td> - <td class='c005'>avarice or [pusilanimity]</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_52_26'></a>p. <a href='#corr52_26'>52</a></td> - <td class='c005'>e[n/m]bellish the legendary lore</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_54_10'></a>p. <a href='#corr54_10'>54</a></td> - <td class='c005'>one of his first acts was to[ a] arrest and put to death</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_54_29'></a>p. <a href='#corr54_29'>54</a></td> - <td class='c005'>by opening roads [thro] to the north</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_58_38'></a>p. <a href='#corr58_38'>58</a></td> - <td class='c005'>A court[i]er>, Yu-ryu, offered to go</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_59_6'></a>p. <a href='#corr59_6'>59</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the weapon and p[l]unged> it into the enemy’s breast.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_59_13'></a>p. <a href='#corr59_13'>59</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Two years lat[t]er [b/h]e made a treaty</td> - <td class='c019'>Added. Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_59_17'></a>p. <a href='#corr59_17'>59</a></td> - <td class='c005'>I[t/n] the third year of King Ch’ŭm-hă of Sil-la, 249 A.D.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_60_4'></a>p. <a href='#corr60_4'>60</a></td> - <td class='c005'>be[ing/gin] at once.</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_63_3'></a>p. <a href='#corr63_3'>63</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Yong-whang, who had succeeded Mo [W/Y]ong-we,</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_63_6'></a>p. <a href='#corr63_6'>63</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Two years lat[t]er the capital was moved northward</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_63_38'></a>p. <a href='#corr63_38'>63</a></td> - <td class='c005'>few years lat[t]er by sending his son</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_63_40'></a>p. <a href='#corr63_40'>63</a></td> - <td class='c005'>In 344 new complications grew up be[t]ween> Sil-la</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_64_22'></a>p. <a href='#corr64_22'>64</a></td> - <td class='c005'>th[a/e]n at Nam-han.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_64_37'></a>p. <a href='#corr64_37'>64</a></td> - <td class='c005'>[i]arrow, but the assault failed</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_65_16'></a>p. <a href='#corr65_16'>65</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Three years before this, [I/i]n 372, the Chinese had gained</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_66_3'></a>p. <a href='#corr66_3'>66</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the tenets of this cult through [emissaries]</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_68_28'></a>p. <a href='#corr68_28'>68</a></td> - <td class='c005'>people, with a fine sense of justice, drove [Ch’ăm-nye]</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_69_1'></a>p. <a href='#corr69_1'>69</a></td> - <td class='c005'>so skillful a di[lp/pl]omat that he soon brought</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_69_25'></a>p. <a href='#corr69_25'>69</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Then they tortur[t]ed their remaining victim</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_69_31'></a>p. <a href='#corr69_31'>69</a></td> - <td class='c005'>b[e/y] torture. They burned him alive</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_70_9'></a>p. <a href='#corr70_9'>70</a></td> - <td class='c005'>investiture from the Emperor, no[w/r] that the latter</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_71_25'></a>p. <a href='#corr71_25'>71</a></td> - <td class='c005'>When [Pă-gy[ /ŭ]ng]</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_72_11'></a>p. <a href='#corr72_11'>72</a></td> - <td class='c005'>We will remember that Ko-[k/g]u-ryŭ had cultivated f[i]riendly</td> - <td class='c019'>Replace. Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_73_2'></a>p. <a href='#corr73_2'>73</a></td> - <td class='c005'>asked openly that the Wei Emperor send a[t/n] army</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_73_7'></a>p. <a href='#corr73_7'>73</a></td> - <td class='c005'>cha[rg/gr]in</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_75_1'></a>p. <a href='#corr75_1'>75</a></td> - <td class='c005'>a calf, a colt, a dog[,] a pig and a woman</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_75_10'></a>p. <a href='#corr75_10'>75</a></td> - <td class='c005'>One of the visitors was Ko-hu[,] one was one was Ko-ch’ŭng[,] but the[ the]</td> - <td class='c019'>Added. Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_76_4'></a>p. <a href='#corr76_4'>76</a></td> - <td class='c005'>bearing upon the wel[l]fare of the</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_79_18'></a>p. <a href='#corr79_18'>79</a></td> - <td class='c005'>lavend[a/e]r.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_79_29'></a>p. <a href='#corr79_29'>79</a></td> - <td class='c005'>This came to a climax when she stopp[p/e]d</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_84_4'></a>p. <a href='#corr84_4'>84</a></td> - <td class='c005'>this faithful minister, Hu-jik, [plead] in</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_84_26'></a>p. <a href='#corr84_26'>84</a></td> - <td class='c005'>on one occasi[a/o]n the king impatiently exclaimed</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_84_30'></a>p. <a href='#corr84_30'>84</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the king who had forg[e/o]tten all about his threat</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_84_34'></a>p. <a href='#corr84_34'>84</a></td> - <td class='c005'>her arm and drove [the] away from the palace.</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em> her? the girl?</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_87_29'></a>p. <a href='#corr87_29'>87</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the har[d]ihood of the Ko-gu-ryŭ soldiery</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_88_7'></a>p. <a href='#corr88_7'>88</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Only two courses were ther[e]fore open to an[d] invading army;</td> - <td class='c019'>Added. Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_90_16'></a>p. <a href='#corr90_16'>90</a></td> - <td class='c005'>He entered upon a [geurilla] warfare</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_90_32'></a>p. <a href='#corr90_32'>90</a></td> - <td class='c005'>very humble letter [sueing]> for mercy.</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_91_13'></a>p. <a href='#corr91_13'>91</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Chinese covered four hund[er/re]d and fifty <em>li</em></td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_91_21'></a>p. <a href='#corr91_21'>91</a></td> - <td class='c005'>like the [paltroon] that she was</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_92_10'></a>p. <a href='#corr92_10'>92</a></td> - <td class='c005'>u[y/p] as high as the wall of the town</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_95_13'></a>p. <a href='#corr95_13'>95</a></td> - <td class='c005'>specious promises so far mol[l]ified the dislike</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_95_39'></a>p. <a href='#corr95_39'>95</a></td> - <td class='c005'>[s/t]o secure a rabbit</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_96_19'></a>p. <a href='#corr96_19'>96</a></td> - <td class='c005'>to restore the territory to you.[”]</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_97_3'></a>p. <a href='#corr97_3'>97</a></td> - <td class='c005'>At the same time a Sil-la [emmissary]</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_97_34'></a>p. <a href='#corr97_34'>97</a></td> - <td class='c005'>had neither the power of the one no[w/r] the peaceful disposition</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_98_8'></a>p. <a href='#corr98_8'>98</a></td> - <td class='c005'>that [was this/this was] an ancient feud with</td> - <td class='c019'>Words transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_98_34'></a>p. <a href='#corr98_34'>98</a></td> - <td class='c005'>The Emperor listened to and [profitted] by this advice</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_99_10'></a>p. <a href='#corr99_10'>99</a></td> - <td class='c005'>rest of Ko-gur[-]yŭ</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_102_28'></a>p. <a href='#corr102_28'>102</a></td> - <td class='c005'>p[er/re]ference of China for her</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_104_20'></a>p. <a href='#corr104_20'>104</a></td> - <td class='c005'>for rebuking him of[ of] his excesses.</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_105_6'></a>p. <a href='#corr105_6'>105</a></td> - <td class='c005'>on whose back were writ[t]en> the words</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_105_12'></a>p. <a href='#corr105_12'>105</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Somewhat mol[l]ified> by this</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_105_15'></a>p. <a href='#corr105_15'>105</a></td> - <td class='c005'>must be attacked f[l/i]rst; other[s] said the Sil-la forces</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced. Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_106_10'></a>p. <a href='#corr106_10'>106</a></td> - <td class='c005'>as they had agree[d]</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_106_28'></a>p. <a href='#corr106_28'>106</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the whole period of Păk-je rule covered a lapse of[ of] 678 years;</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_106_31'></a>p. <a href='#corr106_31'>106</a></td> - <td class='c005'>making the whole dyna[a/s]ty 689 years.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_106_41'></a>p. <a href='#corr106_41'>106</a></td> - <td class='c005'>dis[a]ffection showed itself on every side</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_107_13'></a>p. <a href='#corr107_13'>107</a></td> - <td class='c005'>She immed[ia]tately threw</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_107_29'></a>p. <a href='#corr107_29'>107</a></td> - <td class='c005'>but a remnant of his forces [e/i]ntrenched</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced for consistency.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_110_11'></a>p. <a href='#corr110_11'>110</a></td> - <td class='c005'>who had been left in charge of th[e] Chinese</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_110_31'></a>p. <a href='#corr110_31'>110</a></td> - <td class='c005'>either money o[f/r] rice.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_111_29'></a>p. <a href='#corr111_29'>111</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Sin-sŭng was therefore besieged and the st[r]uggle began.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_111_30'></a>p. <a href='#corr111_30'>111</a></td> - <td class='c005'>but [t]his men thought otherwise</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_113_28'></a>p. <a href='#corr113_28'>113</a></td> - <td class='c005'>disorder.... examinations.... Bud[d]hism</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_114_6'></a>p. <a href='#corr114_6'>114</a></td> - <td class='c005'>his kingdom would ex[t]end> to the Yalu River</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_116_39'></a>p. <a href='#corr116_39'>116</a></td> - <td class='c005'>The unfortun[a]te> Kim In-mun</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_117_8'></a>p. <a href='#corr117_8'>117</a></td> - <td class='c005'>to unite with the Mal[-]gal and Kŭ-ran forces</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_118_36'></a>p. <a href='#corr118_36'>118</a></td> - <td class='c005'>(1) Ung-ch‘ŭn-ju in the[ the] north,</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_119_33'></a>p. <a href='#corr119_33'>119</a></td> - <td class='c005'>It was done in this way[;/:] There is a Chinese character</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_121_2'></a>p. <a href='#corr121_2'>121</a></td> - <td class='c005'>'manag[a/e]ment [i/o]f Kŭl-gŭl Chung-sŭng.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replace x 2.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_121_27'></a>p. <a href='#corr121_27'>121</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the sea turned to b[i/l]ood></td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_122_5'></a>p. <a href='#corr122_5'>122</a></td> - <td class='c005'>as far north as the banks o[t/f] the Ta-dong River</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_123_6'></a>p. <a href='#corr123_6'>123</a></td> - <td class='c005'>of Han-ya[ ]ng (Seoul)</td> - <td class='c019'>Space removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_124_8'></a>p. <a href='#corr124_8'>124</a></td> - <td class='c005'>The outlying provinces practi[c]ally governed themselves.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_124_29'></a>p. <a href='#corr124_29'>124</a></td> - <td class='c005'>of literar[ar]y attainment,</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_124_38'></a>p. <a href='#corr124_38'>124</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the exp[id/edi]tion back to the capital</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_127_8'></a>p. <a href='#corr127_8'>127</a></td> - <td class='c005'>prophecy.... Wang-gön doe[t/s]</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_132_19'></a>p. <a href='#corr132_19'>132</a></td> - <td class='c005'>near to the prostrate f[ro/or]m of Wang-gön.</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_132_22'></a>p. <a href='#corr132_22'>132</a></td> - <td class='c005'>When the mock Buddha raised h[a/i]s head and repeated</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_133_22'></a>p. <a href='#corr133_22'>133</a></td> - <td class='c005'>must fall (Kung-ye).[”]</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_134_25'></a>p. <a href='#corr134_25'>134</a></td> - <td class='c005'>custom of granting a monop[o]ly</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_137_40'></a>p. <a href='#corr137_40'>137</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Mountain and made a rush down[ down] upon the unsuspecting</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_138_13'></a>p. <a href='#corr138_13'>138</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the ravages of Ky[u/ŭ]n-whŭn.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_143_32'></a>p. <a href='#corr143_32'>143</a></td> - <td class='c005'>ancient city of P‘yŭng-yang be remember[e]d>.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_144_6'></a>p. <a href='#corr144_6'>144</a></td> - <td class='c005'>The latter’s posthumous [l/t]itle is Hye-jong.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_145_15'></a>p. <a href='#corr145_15'>145</a></td> - <td class='c005'>th[o]roughly in the hands of the sac[a/e]rdotal power.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added. Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_146_8'></a>p. <a href='#corr146_8'>146</a></td> - <td class='c005'>The king manumitted ma[n]y of these</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_156_14'></a>p. <a href='#corr156_14'>156</a></td> - <td class='c005'>was put to Gen. Yi Hyŭn-un he replied[./:]</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_157_13'></a>p. <a href='#corr157_13'>157</a></td> - <td class='c005'>This attempt failing, the conqu[o/e]rors decided</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_160_1'></a>p. <a href='#corr160_1'>160</a></td> - <td class='c005'>and all to no[t] avail, he com[m]anded</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed. Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_163_36'></a>p. <a href='#corr163_36'>163</a></td> - <td class='c005'>in keeping pace with Bud[d]hism.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_163_39'></a>p. <a href='#corr163_39'>163</a></td> - <td class='c005'>two from a five hun[d]red-house</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_165_34'></a>p. <a href='#corr165_34'>165</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the son of the first son succe[de/ed]s.</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_168_34'></a>p. <a href='#corr168_34'>168</a></td> - <td class='c005'>only by sending a[t/n] abject letter</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_170_23'></a>p. <a href='#corr170_23'>170</a></td> - <td class='c005'>The monk [Tosun]</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em> To-sŭn</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_179_14'></a>p. <a href='#corr179_14'>179</a></td> - <td class='c005'>A civil official, returning from China, learned of[ of]</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_184_11'></a>p. <a href='#corr184_11'>184</a></td> - <td class='c005'>with the throes through [ ] the country was passing.</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em> which?</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_184_13'></a>p. <a href='#corr184_13'>184</a></td> - <td class='c005'>at once how superstitio[n/u]s they were</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_184_19'></a>p. <a href='#corr184_19'>184</a></td> - <td class='c005'>This same reformer [Cho‘e/Ch’oe] Chung-heun,</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_186_25'></a>p. <a href='#corr186_25'>186</a></td> - <td class='c005'>by far the most even[t]ful reign</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_188_17'></a>p. <a href='#corr188_17'>188</a></td> - <td class='c005'>The s[ei/ie]ge of Kang-dong</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_190_8'></a>p. <a href='#corr190_8'>190</a></td> - <td class='c005'>The envoy who brought this extra[d]ordinary letter</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_190_30'></a>p. <a href='#corr190_30'>190</a></td> - <td class='c005'>be[t]ween 1200 and 1400.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_194_12'></a>p. <a href='#corr194_12'>194</a></td> - <td class='c005'>of the first Mongol m[a/e]ssenger</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_194_30'></a>p. <a href='#corr194_30'>194</a></td> - <td class='c005'>But Pak Sö the prefect of Ku[-]Ju was an obstinate man</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_198_17'></a>p. <a href='#corr198_17'>198</a></td> - <td class='c005'>o[n/f] Kang-wha meanwhile</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_199_21'></a>p. <a href='#corr199_21'>199</a></td> - <td class='c005'>who kept to comparatively n[o/a]rrow lines of march.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_200_6'></a>p. <a href='#corr200_6'>200</a></td> - <td class='c005'>charge of affairs during an[d] interval of four</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_201_2'></a>p. <a href='#corr201_2'>201</a></td> - <td class='c005'>sent with instructions [the/to] settle</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_202_18'></a>p. <a href='#corr202_18'>202</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the redoubtable general app[r]oached> the</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_202_20'></a>p. <a href='#corr202_20'>202</a></td> - <td class='c005'>The commandant laugh[-/ed ]at</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_202_23'></a>p. <a href='#corr202_23'>202</a></td> - <td class='c005'>a portion of the w[e/a]ll, set fire to the buildings</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_202_32'></a>p. <a href='#corr202_32'>202</a></td> - <td class='c005'>I will give him just six day[s] to get</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_202_35'></a>p. <a href='#corr202_35'>202</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Mongol forces turned ea[r]stward</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_209_15'></a>p. <a href='#corr209_15'>209</a></td> - <td class='c005'>was away on a c[o/a]mpaign against the Sung Empire</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_209_35'></a>p. <a href='#corr209_35'>209</a></td> - <td class='c005'>It was decided to form a regency to[ to]</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_226_9'></a>p. <a href='#corr226_9'>226</a></td> - <td class='c005'>entered a Ko[yr/ry]ŭ harbor.</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_229_26'></a>p. <a href='#corr229_26'>229</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the example of his for[e]bears</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_230_24'></a>p. <a href='#corr230_24'>230</a></td> - <td class='c005'>his daughter-in[-]law</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_232_18'></a>p. <a href='#corr232_18'>232</a></td> - <td class='c005'>He soon returned to[ to] China</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_232_22'></a>p. <a href='#corr232_22'>232</a></td> - <td class='c005'>came to realise that it was Buddhism [w/t]hat had proved</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_232_28'></a>p. <a href='#corr232_28'>232</a></td> - <td class='c005'>by priestcraft that [was it/it was] much pleasanter</td> - <td class='c019'>Words transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_234_23'></a>p. <a href='#corr234_23'>234</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Meanw[h]ile the king was build[-/ing]</td> - <td class='c019'>Added. Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_235_34'></a>p. <a href='#corr235_34'>235</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Prince was [exhonerated] and sent back</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_236_1'></a>p. <a href='#corr236_1'>236</a></td> - <td class='c005'>drunk[e]nness, he entered the harem</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_236_12'></a>p. <a href='#corr236_12'>236</a></td> - <td class='c005'>[humane] pastime.</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_236_17'></a>p. <a href='#corr236_17'>236</a></td> - <td class='c005'>a thing of daily [occurence].</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_236_40'></a>p. <a href='#corr236_40'>236</a></td> - <td class='c005'>kick that sent him spraw[l]ing on the ground.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_246_2'></a>p. <a href='#corr246_2'>246</a></td> - <td class='c005'>desp[a/e]rate stand on a hill</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_252_1'></a>p. <a href='#corr252_1'>252</a></td> - <td class='c005'>This man fought [aways] in front</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_254_3'></a>p. <a href='#corr254_3'>254</a></td> - <td class='c005'>frequent [occurence].</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_254_39'></a>p. <a href='#corr254_39'>254</a></td> - <td class='c005'>and to co[n]voy the revenue junks,</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_257_40'></a>p. <a href='#corr257_40'>257</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Here, too, he was [...]</td> - <td class='c019'>Missing text.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_258_15'></a>p. <a href='#corr258_15'>258</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Sin[-]don with respect.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_258_25'></a>p. <a href='#corr258_25'>258</a></td> - <td class='c005'>he ascribed to his having taken Sin[-]don</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_261_8'></a>p. <a href='#corr261_8'>261</a></td> - <td class='c005'>which read as follow[s]:-</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_263_4'></a>p. <a href='#corr263_4'>263</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the emperor’s g[i]fts and commands</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_263_9'></a>p. <a href='#corr263_9'>263</a></td> - <td class='c005'>of their Manchu conquer[e/o]rs.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_263_10'></a>p. <a href='#corr263_10'>263</a></td> - <td class='c005'>more Chinese tha[t/n] the Chinese themselves.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_268_31'></a>p. <a href='#corr268_31'>268</a></td> - <td class='c005'>to add to the d[i]fficulties of the situation</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_269_19'></a>p. <a href='#corr269_19'>269</a></td> - <td class='c005'>were carrying fire and sword thr[o]ugh the south</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_271_38'></a>p. <a href='#corr271_38'>271</a></td> - <td class='c005'>were slaughtered almost to [a] man.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_273_27'></a>p. <a href='#corr273_27'>273</a></td> - <td class='c005'>complacency upon the dis[s]olution</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_275_36'></a>p. <a href='#corr275_36'>275</a></td> - <td class='c005'>at last tired of the er[r]atic</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_277_35'></a>p. <a href='#corr277_35'>277</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Gen. Yi [t/T]‘ă-jo was having a lively time</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_280_2'></a>p. <a href='#corr280_2'>280</a></td> - <td class='c005'>rode forth [preceeded] by a host of harlots and concubines</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_283_21'></a>p. <a href='#corr283_21'>283</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Some of these the king s[ie/ei]zed and</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_283_25'></a>p. <a href='#corr283_25'>283</a></td> - <td class='c005'>But Gen. Yi remain[e]d impassive.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_283_34'></a>p. <a href='#corr283_34'>283</a></td> - <td class='c005'>r[si/is]ing flood.</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_284_29'></a>p. <a href='#corr284_29'>284</a></td> - <td class='c005'>and so had come thus f[o/a]r north.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_284_32'></a>p. <a href='#corr284_32'>284</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the march of the rebell[i]ous></td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_284_35'></a>p. <a href='#corr284_35'>284</a></td> - <td class='c005'>encounter our count[r]ymen many will fall.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_285_21'></a>p. <a href='#corr285_21'>285</a></td> - <td class='c005'>food and the[m/n] leisurely arose,</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_287_6'></a>p. <a href='#corr287_6'>287</a></td> - <td class='c005'>He [plead] to be</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_287_10'></a>p. <a href='#corr287_10'>287</a></td> - <td class='c005'>off the stage of histo[r]y>.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_291_13'></a>p. <a href='#corr291_13'>291</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Chong Mong-ju real[l]y believed</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_296_9'></a>p. <a href='#corr296_9'>296</a></td> - <td class='c005'>made it easy for king T‘ă-jo to [smoothe] over the</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_297_14'></a>p. <a href='#corr297_14'>297</a></td> - <td class='c005'>an official more imag[a/i]native than discreet</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_298_17'></a>p. <a href='#corr298_17'>298</a></td> - <td class='c005'>into 3 semi-independent district[s]</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_299_41'></a>p. <a href='#corr299_41'>299</a></td> - <td class='c005'>should become the[ri/ir]</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_303_32'></a>p. <a href='#corr303_32'>303</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Under his supervision a [clypsehydra]</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em> clepshedra</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_307_12'></a>p. <a href='#corr307_12'>307</a></td> - <td class='c005'>govern[n]ment to fifty</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_309_29'></a>p. <a href='#corr309_29'>309</a></td> - <td class='c005'>refo[r]ms>.... official history of the land</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_315_22'></a>p. <a href='#corr315_22'>315</a></td> - <td class='c005'>T[‘]ă-jo> to observe carefully the precept</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_315_24'></a>p. <a href='#corr315_24'>315</a></td> - <td class='c005'>at one ti[n/m]e he distributed large</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_315_25'></a>p. <a href='#corr315_25'>315</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the soldiers on the northe[r]n border</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_315_31'></a>p. <a href='#corr315_31'>315</a></td> - <td class='c005'>In his fifth yea[a]r he codified the laws</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_318_19'></a>p. <a href='#corr318_19'>318</a></td> - <td class='c005'>d[i/e]finitely adopted and written out</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_318_23'></a>p. <a href='#corr318_23'>318</a></td> - <td class='c005'>nominated to the throne Prince[-]Cha-san</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_318_26'></a>p. <a href='#corr318_26'>318</a></td> - <td class='c005'>H[e/is] posthumous title is Sŭng-jong</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_319_3'></a>p. <a href='#corr319_3'>319</a></td> - <td class='c005'>allegiance to [Cho-săn].</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_319_5'></a>p. <a href='#corr319_5'>319</a></td> - <td class='c005'>were driven from Seoul and [and] forbidden to enter it</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_319_35'></a>p. <a href='#corr319_35'>319</a></td> - <td class='c005'>“Five Rules of Conduct[./,]” [H/h]e also built</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_321_14'></a>p. <a href='#corr321_14'>321</a></td> - <td class='c005'>tribe of Yŭ-jin was [harrassing] the people</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_327_21'></a>p. <a href='#corr327_21'>327</a></td> - <td class='c005'>c[o/a]nnot put her away.”</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_327_33'></a>p. <a href='#corr327_33'>327</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Ch’e-p’o[,] Yum-p’o' and Pu-san-p’o.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_327_40'></a>p. <a href='#corr327_40'>327</a></td> - <td class='c005'>attacked [Ch’è] Harbor</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_330_13'></a>p. <a href='#corr330_13'>330</a></td> - <td class='c005'>whose arrow weighed a[ a] hundred and twenty pounds</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_331_38'></a>p. <a href='#corr331_38'>331</a></td> - <td class='c005'>his posthum[o]us title</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_333_11'></a>p. <a href='#corr333_11'>333</a></td> - <td class='c005'>it was mere he[re/ar]say</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_334_20'></a>p. <a href='#corr334_20'>334</a></td> - <td class='c005'>felt in all the adjo[ur/i]ning prefectures.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_334_25'></a>p. <a href='#corr334_25'>334</a></td> - <td class='c005'>It was in 1550 that an[d] astronomical inst[r]ument</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed. Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_339_7'></a>p. <a href='#corr339_7'>339</a></td> - <td class='c005'>“The Young Men’s P[a]rty>,”</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_340_37'></a>p. <a href='#corr340_37'>340</a></td> - <td class='c005'>army on the b[ro/or]der.</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_343_12'></a>p. <a href='#corr343_12'>343</a></td> - <td class='c005'>inability to hold the[ the] Japanese</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_344_8'></a>p. <a href='#corr344_8'>344</a></td> - <td class='c005'>he could not do without finding a field[ a field]</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_344_10'></a>p. <a href='#corr344_10'>344</a></td> - <td class='c005'>It is well known that the govern[n/m]ent of Japan</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_344_16'></a>p. <a href='#corr344_16'>344</a></td> - <td class='c005'>and from this po[u/i]nt of vantage killed</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_344_27'></a>p. <a href='#corr344_27'>344</a></td> - <td class='c005'>send an[d] envoy to Japan. The only no[r/t]ice taken</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed. Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_344_31'></a>p. <a href='#corr344_31'>344</a></td> - <td class='c005'>W[h]en> Yasuhiro placed this missive</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_344_35'></a>p. <a href='#corr344_35'>344</a></td> - <td class='c005'>from outbreaks of the far norther[n] border</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_344_37'></a>p. <a href='#corr344_37'>344</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Being successful in this h[ə/e]</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_344_39'></a>p. <a href='#corr344_39'>344</a></td> - <td class='c005'>simultaneo[u]sly and attacked the Si-jun tribe</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_346_11'></a>p. <a href='#corr346_11'>346</a></td> - <td class='c005'>he was a good scholar and an ex[a/e]mplary man.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_346_12'></a>p. <a href='#corr346_12'>346</a></td> - <td class='c005'>The king the[m/n] threw upon the floor</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_347_2'></a>p. <a href='#corr347_2'>347</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Whang Yun[n]-gil was chief of the Korean embassy,</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_347_5'></a>p. <a href='#corr347_5'>347</a></td> - <td class='c005'>realizing how[ how] such action would bring Korea</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_348_34'></a>p. <a href='#corr348_34'>348</a></td> - <td class='c005'>You dou[tlb/btl]ess will be angry</td> - <td class='c019'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_349_20'></a>p. <a href='#corr349_20'>349</a></td> - <td class='c005'>and ap[p]ointed> Gen. Sil Yip</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_350_10'></a>p. <a href='#corr350_10'>350</a></td> - <td class='c005'>regular army consi[s]ted of 160,000 men,</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_351_9'></a>p. <a href='#corr351_9'>351</a></td> - <td class='c005'>having been baptized by the [Portugese]</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_352_20'></a>p. <a href='#corr352_20'>352</a></td> - <td class='c005'>and the beleagu[e]red town of Tong-nă,</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_352_33'></a>p. <a href='#corr352_33'>352</a></td> - <td class='c005'>An instant lat[t]er the prefect</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_353_8'></a>p. <a href='#corr353_8'>353</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Tradition, which delights to embel[l]ish such accounts,</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_353_32'></a>p. <a href='#corr353_32'>353</a></td> - <td class='c005'>his fort[r]ess and defied the invaders.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_355_1'></a>p. <a href='#corr355_1'>355</a></td> - <td class='c005'>came the news of [t]he fall of Fusan,</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_355_6'></a>p. <a href='#corr355_6'>355</a></td> - <td class='c005'>rolls were look[e]d up</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_355_13'></a>p. <a href='#corr355_13'>355</a></td> - <td class='c005'>men wo[u]ld> follow him.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_356_30'></a>p. <a href='#corr356_30'>356</a></td> - <td class='c005'>as it does for his patr[i]otism.</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_357_24'></a>p. <a href='#corr357_24'>357</a></td> - <td class='c005'>That very night the Japan[ese]</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_358_21'></a>p. <a href='#corr358_21'>358</a></td> - <td class='c005'>One of [t]his captains told him</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_360_2'></a>p. <a href='#corr360_2'>360</a></td> - <td class='c005'>hundred hands were stre[t]ched> out</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_360_15'></a>p. <a href='#corr360_15'>360</a></td> - <td class='c005'>“Where shall [b/w]e go?”</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_360_35'></a>p. <a href='#corr360_35'>360</a></td> - <td class='c005'>b[o/e]come customary for the gover[n]ment</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced. Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_364_5'></a>p. <a href='#corr364_5'>364</a></td> - <td class='c005'>their kne[s/e]s in mud and were well[-]nigh</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced. Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_364_29'></a>p. <a href='#corr364_29'>364</a></td> - <td class='c005'>they had been forgott[o/e]n they began to</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_366_25'></a>p. <a href='#corr366_25'>366</a></td> - <td class='c005'>d[i/e]sirous of getting to Seoul</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_366_26'></a>p. <a href='#corr366_26'>366</a></td> - <td class='c005'>This great trip[p]le army</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_367_25'></a>p. <a href='#corr367_25'>367</a></td> - <td class='c005'>that the city could not [h/b]e held</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_367_32'></a>p. <a href='#corr367_32'>367</a></td> - <td class='c005'>bef[e/o]re those of Kato hastened</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_368_22'></a>p. <a href='#corr368_22'>368</a></td> - <td class='c005'>I[n/t] is said so many perished</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_370_1'></a>p. <a href='#corr370_1'>370</a></td> - <td class='c005'>the northern bo[th/rd] guard,</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_370_22'></a>p. <a href='#corr370_22'>370</a></td> - <td class='c005'>and the generals were mutu[r]ally suspicious</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_370_34'></a>p. <a href='#corr370_34'>370</a></td> - <td class='c005'>at the gates of Na[n]king</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_373_36'></a>p. <a href='#corr373_36'>373</a></td> - <td class='c005'>governors of C[h]‘ung-ch‘ŭng and Kyŭng-sang Provinces</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_374_20'></a>p. <a href='#corr374_20'>374</a></td> - <td class='c005'>headl[i/o]ng up the slope</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_378_7'></a>p. <a href='#corr378_7'>378</a></td> - <td class='c005'>his praises were on[e / e]very lip.</td> - <td class='c019'>Moved space.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_380_25'></a>p. <a href='#corr380_25'>380</a></td> - <td class='c005'>And so the conference was[ was] broken up.</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_384_1'></a>p. <a href='#corr384_1'>384</a></td> - <td class='c005'>but another said, “P[‘]yŭng-yang is a natural</td> - <td class='c019'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_384_26'></a>p. <a href='#corr384_26'>384</a></td> - <td class='c005'>Yi Hang-bok insisted upon the nec[c]essity of going north</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_389_22'></a>p. <a href='#corr389_22'>389</a></td> - <td class='c005'>f[a/o]rces in Ham-gyŭng Province.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_391_21'></a>p. <a href='#corr391_21'>391</a></td> - <td class='c005'>he walled town o[n/f] Yŭn-an</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_391_26'></a>p. <a href='#corr391_26'>391</a></td> - <td class='c005'>we are in je[apo/opa]rdy of our lives.</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_391_31'></a>p. <a href='#corr391_31'>391</a></td> - <td class='c005'>boiling water thrown [wond/down].</td> - <td class='c019'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_391_38'></a>p. <a href='#corr391_38'>391</a></td> - <td class='c005'>[u]pon them. The fight lasted three days and finally the[u]</td> - <td class='c019'>Added. Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_392_10'></a>p. <a href='#corr392_10'>392</a></td> - <td class='c005'>a [geurilla] campaign.</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_393_7'></a>p. <a href='#corr393_7'>393</a></td> - <td class='c005'>[harrassed] and worried</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_396_19'></a>p. <a href='#corr396_19'>396</a></td> - <td class='c005'>of course a [geurilla] warfare</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_396_21'></a>p. <a href='#corr396_21'>396</a></td> - <td class='c005'>but the utter [pusilanimity] of the Koreans,</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_405_1'></a>p. <a href='#corr405_1'>405</a></td> - <td class='c005'>this retreat and[ and] it was a sample of what must occur</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_406_27'></a>p. <a href='#corr406_27'>406</a></td> - <td class='c005'>For this purpo[r]se it was necessary</td> - <td class='c019'>Removed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><a id='c_409_19'></a>p. <a href='#corr409_19'>409</a></td> - <td class='c005'>and kept up a [geurilla] warfare,</td> - <td class='c019'><em>sic</em></td> - </tr> -</table> - -</div> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Korea (vol. 1 of 2), by -Homer B. 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