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+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #52179 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52179)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon, by 
-William A. Matthews
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon
-       Guidebook 8
-
-Author: William A. Matthews
-
-Release Date: May 28, 2016 [EBook #52179]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGIC STORY--PALO DURO CANYON ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-                       BUREAU OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
-                   The University of Texas at Austin
-                        Peter T. Flawn, Director
-
-
-                              Guidebook 8
-
-
-
-
-                 The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon
-
-
-                                   By
-                        William H. Matthews III
-
-    [Illustration: THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN]
-
-                              August 1969
-                            Second Printing
-                              August 1983
-
-
-
-
-                                Contents
-
-
-  Introduction                                                         1
-  Acknowledgments                                                      2
-  Park history                                                         3
-      Ancient man in Palo Duro Canyon                                  3
-      Indians of the Plains                                            3
-      Advent of the White Man                                          3
-  Regional setting                                                     8
-  The geologic story                                                  10
-      The canyon’s rocks and minerals                                 10
-      Unraveling earth history                                        10
-      The geologic column and geologic time scale                     12
-      Geologic formations exposed in Palo Duro Canyon                 16
-      Quartermaster Formation                                         17
-      Tecovas Formation                                               19
-      Trujillo Formation                                              22
-      Ogallala Formation                                              23
-      Rocks of the Pleistocene                                        28
-  How the canyon was carved                                           29
-      The geologic work of running water                              29
-      Weathering and gravity add the final touch                      30
-      Weathering                                                      30
-      Mass-wasting                                                    31
-      Differential erosion                                            31
-  What to do and see at Palo Duro Canyon State Park                   33
-      Park Entrance                                                   33
-      Coronado Lodge and Observation Point                            33
-      The Scenic Drive                                                33
-      Pioneer Amphitheatre                                            33
-      Sad Monkey Train Ride                                           35
-      Triassic Peak                                                   35
-      Spanish Skirts                                                  37
-      Catarina Cave                                                   37
-      Santana’s Face                                                  37
-      The Sky Ride                                                    37
-      The First Water Crossing                                        39
-      Colonel Charles Goodnight’s Dugout                              39
-      The Lighthouse                                                  39
-      Capitol Peak                                                    40
-      Fortress Cliff                                                  40
-      The Rock Garden                                                 40
-      The Devil’s Slide                                               40
-      The Turnaround                                                  41
-      Hiking                                                          43
-      Horseback riding                                                43
-      Camping and picnicking                                          43
-      Photography                                                     43
-  Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum                                  45
-  Selected references                                                 47
-  Glossary                                                            48
-  Index                                                               50
-
-
-
-
-                              Illustrations
-
-
-  Figures—                                                          Page
-  1. Aerial View of Palo Duro Canyon                        Frontispiece
-  2. Place map of Palo Duro Canyon                                   4-5
-  3. Indian carving on sandstone boulder                               6
-  4. War dress of Comanche Chief Quanah Parker                         7
-  5. Generalized geologic map of the Texas Panhandle                   9
-  6. Geologic time scale                                              11
-  7. Generalized geologic map of Palo Duro Canyon State Park       14-15
-  8. Joints and gypsum veins in Quartermaster Formation               17
-  9. Syncline in Quartermaster red beds                               18
-  10. Reduction halos in Quartermaster shale                          20
-  11. Cross-bedded boulder of Trujillo sandstone                      20
-  12. Panoramic view of canyon showing major rock units exposed in
-          canyon                                                      21
-  13. Phytosaur skull                                                 22
-  14. Skeleton of _Buettneria_                                        24
-  15. Mortar hole made by Indians                                     25
-  16. Rock pedestal near the Lighthouse                               25
-  17. Outcrop of Ogallala caliche                                     26
-  18. Life-sized model of shovel-jawed mastodon                       27
-  19. Fossilized carapaces of Pliocene tortoises                      27
-  20. Talus slopes and “hoodoo” on Capitol Peak                       31
-  21. Entrance to Palo Duro Canyon State Park                         34
-  22. Coronado Lodge                                                  34
-  23. Pioneer Amphitheatre                                            35
-  24. Train on Sad Monkey Railroad track                              36
-  25. South face of Triassic Peak                                     36
-  26. Spanish Skirts                                                  37
-  27. Catarina Cave                                                   38
-  28. Santana’s Face                                                  38
-  29. Picnic area at first water crossing                             39
-  30. Colonel Charles Goodnight’s Dugout                              40
-  31. The Lighthouse                                                  41
-  32. Capitol Peak                                                    42
-  33. Fortress Cliff                                                  42
-  34. The Rock Garden                                                 43
-  35. The Devil’s Slide                                               44
-  36. Campsite in south end of park                                   44
-  37. Entrance to Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum                  45
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 1. Aerial view of Palo Duro Canyon showing
-    location of major points of interest: (1) Coronado Lodge; (2)
-    Triassic Peak; (3) Timber Mesa; (4) Capitol Peak; (5) Fortress
-    Cliff; (6) Prairie Dog Town Fork of Red River; (7) The Turnaround
-    (termination of Park Road 5). (Courtesy of Charles A. Wolfin;
-    photograph by W. A. Hester.)]
-
-
-
-
-                 The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon
-
-
-                       William H. Mathews III[1]
-
-
-
-
-                              INTRODUCTION
-
-
-Like the early Spanish explorers who first saw Palo Duro Canyon, today’s
-visitor is likely to view the impressive canyon with surprise and awe.
-This great depression—it is more than 2 miles wide and as much as 800
-feet deep within park boundaries—contains a fascinating assortment of
-multicolored geologic formations and erosion-produced rock sculptures of
-many shapes, colors, and size. The geographic setting of the canyon
-further heightens its impact on the visitor, for it is surrounded by the
-level, virtually treeless plains of the Texas Panhandle. (_See_ upper
-background area in fig. 1, frontispiece).
-
-It is not surprising that this scenic area has been set aside as a State
-park, for Palo Duro Canyon has long been of interest to man. First, as
-the hunting grounds of prehistoric Indians who stalked the now-extinct
-Ice Age mammoths and bison that roamed the valley floor. Later, the
-canyon was frequented by the Comanches, Apaches, Kiowas, and other
-Indians of historic time. These tribes, like those before them, found
-both food and refuge within the canyon. However, it was not until 1876
-that Palo Duro Canyon was inhabited by the white man. It was during this
-year that pioneer cattleman Charles Goodnight herded some 1,600 head of
-cattle into the canyon and established a camp there (p. 6).
-
-Today’s visitor to Palo Duro Canyon can re-live some of the fascinating
-history of this interesting area. One can still see a replica of Colonel
-Goodnight’s primitive dugout, follow the faint trace of the Comanche
-Trail, or perhaps find the fossil bones of prehistoric creatures that
-lived hundreds of thousands—even millions—of years ago. But most
-visitors to Texas’ most colorful canyon are not attracted by its
-interesting history. They come instead to enjoy the scenery and
-recreational opportunities that are present. These are readily
-accessible, for a carefully engineered, hard-surface road leads from the
-rim of the canyon to the canyon floor. There are campgrounds, picnic
-areas, concessions, and even an outdoor theatre (fig. 23). The location
-of these facilities and some of the canyon’s more interesting geologic
-features are shown on the generalized place map of the canyon (fig. 2).
-
-This publication does not attempt to describe the scenic beauty of Palo
-Duro Canyon, for this must be seen to be appreciated. Rather, it
-discusses the geologic setting and origin of the canyon, the methods by
-which some of the more interesting geologic features were formed, and
-briefly reviews the history of the area. Hopefully, it will enable the
-visitor to understand better the meaning behind the canyon scenery,
-thereby enhancing his visit.
-
-
-
-
-                            ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
-
-
-Many people have assisted in the preparation of _The Geologic Story of
-Palo Duro Canyon_, and their help is gratefully acknowledged: Professor
-Jack T. Hughes, Dr. Frank W. Daugherty, Dr. Robert C. Burton, Meade
-Humphries, and Jim Hughes of the West Texas State University Geology
-Department provided much information about the area and assisted in the
-field; help was also provided by Mr. Pete Cowart, Mr. Earl Burtz, Mr.
-Jerry Tschauner, Mr. Bob Watson, Mr. King, and other park personnel; Mr.
-C. Boone McClure, of the Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum, furnished
-some of the photographs; Mr. J. Dan Scurlock, Mr. Bill Collins, and Mr.
-Harold Allums, of the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, made
-available certain maps and statistical data; Mrs. Ples Harper of Canyon
-assisted in assembling information and photographs for the Pioneer
-Amphitheatre; and the aerial photograph of Palo Duro Canyon was taken by
-Mr. W. A. Hester and made available through the courtesy of Mr. Charles
-A. Wolflin of Amarillo.
-
-Drs. Peter T. Flawn, Peter U. Rodda, and Ross A. Maxwell of the Bureau
-of Economic Geology read much of the manuscript and offered many helpful
-suggestions, and Mr. A. Richard Smith provided special information on
-caves in the Palo Duro area. Special thanks are due to Miss Josephine
-Casey who edited the manuscript and to Mr. J. W. Macon, cartographer,
-who assumed responsibility for preparing the maps. Thanks are due also
-to my wife, Jennie, who critically read the manuscript and took a number
-of the photographs. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. J. Daniel Powell
-of The University of Texas at Arlington for invaluable assistance in the
-field and his enthusiastic co-operation throughout the project.
-
-
-
-
-                              PARK HISTORY
-
-
-Palo Duro Canyon’s long and colorful past has created considerable
-interest among historians, archeologists, and geologists. Historians
-have traced the written history of man and his effect on the Palo Duro
-area, but archeologists have delved much further into the past. They
-have sought out and studied the more enduring records of the canyon’s
-early inhabitants—their tools, utensils, and weapons. The geologist,
-however, is interested in history that far antedates even the most
-primitive human inhabitant of the canyon. The earth scientist has probed
-the geologic record of the Palo Duro area, using rocks, minerals, and
-fossils as clues to the geologic history and development of the canyon.
-
-Palo Duro Canyon is unique among Texas’ State parks because of its many
-contributions to history, archeology, and geology. Here the written
-record, the artifacts of prehistoric man, and the geologic formations
-overlap and complement each other in many respects. Although this
-guidebook is primarily concerned with the geologic history of the
-canyon, a brief review of its human history is also included.
-
-
-                    ANCIENT MAN IN PALO DURO CANYON
-
-Archeological studies indicate that the earliest known inhabitants of
-Palo Duro Canyon lived in the canyon from about 10,000 to 5,000 B.C.
-These early men apparently hunted the bison and now-extinct
-elephant-like mammoths that roamed the Palo Duro area during the Ice Age
-of Pleistocene time (_see_ geologic time scale, fig. 6). Their stone
-weapons and other artifacts have been found in and around the canyon. It
-is assumed that these primitive people—like those who came later—were
-attracted by the streams and springs that are found in the canyon and by
-game that came there to feed. There is also evidence that the Indians
-took advantage of certain of the canyon’s geologic features. They
-fashioned tools, weapons, and utensils from the rocks exposed in the
-canyon and used certain of the shallow caves and rock shelters as their
-homes.
-
-
-                         INDIANS OF THE PLAINS
-
-Various tribes of Plains Indians of historic times also used Palo Duro
-Canyon as a camping ground. The presence of these Indians is known from
-many campsites and burials. In addition, flint chips and stone
-artifacts, potsherds, ornaments of shell and bone, grinding slabs, stone
-mortars (fig. 15), and a few pictographs (fig. 3) have provided
-considerable information about the culture of these people. Among the
-tribes believed to have frequented the canyon at various times are the
-Apaches, Cheyennes, Arapahos, Kiowas, and Comanches. However, it is the
-Comanches who are most closely associated with the Palo Duro area, for
-the canyon is located near the center of their last homeland. Indeed it
-was here that the Comanches were finally defeated and driven from this
-part of the Plains. The battlefield where Colonel Ranald Mackenzie’s
-troops fought the Comanches is located near the southeast corner of the
-park (_see_ fig. 7). This skirmish, which took place in 1874, is
-believed to have been the last major Indian battle in Texas.
-
-Although most of the canyon’s archeological sites have been picked over
-and many of the artifacts removed, important finds are still
-occasionally reported. Park visitors who make discoveries of this type
-are urged to report them to a park ranger in order that they might be
-called to the attention of the proper authorities.
-
-
-                        ADVENT OF THE WHITE MAN
-
-Although the history of Palo Duro Canyon is rich in Indian lore, it was
-the coming of the white man that heralded the development of the area.
-Today it is generally believed that Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was
-the first white man to view the canyon. Coronado and his men are thought
-to have camped here during the winter of 1541, as they crossed the High
-Plains in search of the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 2. Place map of Palo Duro Canyon.]
-
-Later, during the 17th and 18th centuries, the canyon was a favorite
-resting place of the buffalo hunters and Indian traders who frequented
-the Plains. The canyon was also popular during the first half of the
-19th century, for it was then that it was occupied by the Comanches and
-served as a trade center for the Spaniards and Indians who came from New
-Mexico. These traders, called _comancheros_, bartered for loot taken by
-the Comanches on their raids of early settlements and wagon trains that
-passed through the Panhandle-Plains region.
-
-This same era marked the beginning of American interest in the Palo Duro
-country. During this period the area was visited by several expeditions
-including those of Long and Pike and the Texas-Santa Fe Expedition of
-1841. However, the canyon was not fully explored or mapped until 1852.
-This important survey was carried out by a party which was under the
-supervision of Captain R. B. Marcy.
-
-But it was not until 1876 that the first white man established permanent
-residence in Palo Duro Canyon. In 1876—just two years after McKenzie’s
-rout of the Comanches—Colonel Charles Goodnight herded more than 1,600
-head of cattle into the canyon. Here he laid out his first permanent
-ranch and lived in a primitive earthen dugout. Not only was Goodnight’s
-Palo Duro Ranch the first in the canyon, it is also thought to have been
-the first commercial cattle ranch in the Texas Panhandle. In later years
-Colonel Goodnight formed a partnership with John Adair of Ireland, and
-together they developed the famous JA Ranch—a vast spread of some
-600,000 acres. Today’s visitor to Palo Duro Canyon can visit a partially
-restored dugout similar to that occupied by the canyon’s early settlers
-(fig. 30).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 3. The face carved on this boulder can be seen
-    along the track of the Sad Monkey Railroad (p. 35). It is believed
-    to have been carved by Indians.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 4. The war bonnet, war lance, and head feathers
-    of Comanche Chief Quanah Parker can be seen at the Panhandle-Plains
-    Historical Museum in Canyon. (Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains
-    Historical Museum.)]
-
-From the late 1800s until about 1930, the Palo Duro country remained the
-domain of the Panhandle-Plains cattleman. It was, nonetheless, a
-favorite picnic and camping spot of the residents of nearby towns and
-cities. In 1933 the recreational potential of the canyon was finally
-recognized and land for the Palo Duro Canyon State Park was purchased by
-the State of Texas with money obtained through a public revenue bond
-issue. Today, most of the park revenue received through gate admissions,
-concession receipts, and mineral leases goes into a fund that pays off
-the remaining balance of the revenue bonds. During the initial phase of
-the park’s development, most of the improvements in the area were made
-by members of the Civilian Conservation Corps who worked under the
-supervision of the National Park Service.
-
-Currently, Palo Duro Canyon State Park is visited by approximately
-300,000 visitors each year and is one of the State’s more popular
-recreational and scenic areas.
-
-
-
-
-                            REGIONAL SETTING
-
-
-Palo Duro Canyon State Park is located in the Panhandle of Texas (fig.
-5) approximately 13 miles east of Canyon on State Highway 217 (_see_
-fig. 7). It is about 12 miles south and 8 miles east of Amarillo via
-Ranch Road 1541 which intersects State Highway 217. The park includes
-more than 15,000 acres of Palo Duro Canyon, a complexly dissected area
-which spreads into Randall, Armstrong, and Briscoe counties.
-
-More specifically, the Palo Duro area is situated on the Llano Estacado
-or High Plains area which comprises approximately 20,000 square miles of
-Texas and New Mexico (_see_ fig. 5). Generally speaking, the Llano
-Estacado is a high isolated plateau or broad mesa, rising above the
-surrounding rolling plains in a nearly flat, island-like mass. On the
-west, southwest, and south, the Llano Estacado is bounded by the valley
-of the Pecos River, while its eastern escarpment is drained by the
-headwaters of the Red, Brazos, and Colorado Rivers.
-
-The rim of Palo Duro Canyon is formed by the Eastern Caprock Escarpment.
-Caprock is the term used to describe a massive layer of calcareous rock
-which supports the High Plains surface (_see_ p. 26). Because it is more
-resistant to forces of erosion than the softer, underlying more or less
-horizontal strata, the caprock forms an abrupt, precipitous escarpment
-at the edge of the High Plains. With the exception of the resistant
-caprock, however, the surficial deposits on the High Plains are for the
-most part unconsolidated sediments.
-
-The Llano Estacado is essentially devoid of native trees and is
-characterized by a sparse, but uniform, covering of grasses. The surface
-rocks are of Tertiary and Quaternary age (_see_ geologic time scale,
-fig. 6) and have a general easterly to southeasterly slope of about 9½
-feet per mile. In the vicinity of Palo Duro Canyon, rocks of Late
-Cenozoic age are directly underlain by Permian and Triassic formations.
-These Permian and Triassic rocks, which are discussed elsewhere in this
-publication, are not normally exposed except in deeply eroded areas such
-as the canyon.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 5. Generalized geologic map of the Texas
-    Panhandle showing location of Palo Duro Canyon.]
-
-  _Showing:_
-    Q & T   Pleistocene and Pliocene undifferentiated
-    Trdo   Dockum Group (Triassic)
-    P   Permian undifferentiated
-
-
-
-
-                           THE GEOLOGIC STORY
-
-
-                    THE CANYON’S ROCKS AND MINERALS
-
-Palo Duro visitors—regardless of age—seem to have an innate curiosity
-about the canyon’s rocks. This is not surprising, for most of the
-features of the park landscape are composed of or have been sculptured
-from solid rock. In short, much of the natural beauty of Palo Duro
-Canyon has been derived from the character of its exposed rock
-formations and the effect of geologic agents upon them.
-
-Because rocks are the raw materials of geology and the stuff from which
-landscapes are formed, it will be helpful for the visitor to know
-something about the general characteristics of rocks and their role in
-the development of the landscape. Rock is everywhere around us and is
-one of the most common objects in the world, yet few people can actually
-define a rock. So, at the outset it should be stated that _a rock is a
-naturally formed aggregate of minerals_, and _a mineral is a naturally
-occurring substance which has a fairly definite chemical composition,
-distinctive physical properties, characteristic internal structure, and
-which commonly occurs in definite shapes called crystals_. Although not
-an exact scientific or legal definition of a mineral, the above
-explanation is satisfactory for the purposes of this publication.
-
-Although most visitors show considerable interest in the canyon’s rocks
-and minerals, few of them know the story behind the rocks. They do not
-know how the rocks were formed, of what they are composed, how they
-change, and how they differ. More important, they fail to realize the
-historical significance of the rocks and how they can be used to
-interpret events that occurred in the canyon many millions of years ago.
-Thus, before one studies the geologic story of Palo Duro Canyon, it is
-helpful to know something about the various kinds of rocks. There are
-three major classes of rocks in the earth’s crust: _igneous_,
-_sedimentary_, and _metamorphic rocks_.
-
-_Igneous rocks_ solidified from an original molten state. Common
-examples of igneous rocks include granite, basalt, and volcanic ash.
-Although no igneous rocks are found in Palo Duro Canyon, they are widely
-exposed in parts of West and Central Texas.
-
-_Metamorphic rocks_ were originally igneous or sedimentary in origin.
-However, these rocks have undergone such great physical and chemical
-change that they have been transformed into a different kind of rock.
-Thus, metamorphic changes alter limestone to marble or sandstone to
-quartzite. No metamorphic rocks crop out in the canyon, but, like the
-igneous rocks, they are common in some parts of the State.
-
-All of the geologic formations exposed in Palo Duro Canyon are composed
-of _sedimentary rocks_. These are rocks that have been formed by the
-compaction and cementation of rock and mineral fragments called
-_sediments_, or by the precipitation of material from solution.
-Sandstone, conglomerate, shale, and caliche (_see_ p. 26) are examples
-of sedimentary rocks that are exposed in the canyon.
-
-Sedimentary rocks are typically _stratified_, that is, they occur in
-layers or beds called _strata_. In addition, sedimentary
-rocks—especially those of marine origin—commonly contain _fossils_.
-These fossils are traces or evidence of prehistoric plants and animals
-that have been preserved in the rocks, and they may provide clues as to
-the age of rocks and the manner in which they were formed. Fossil
-remains have been found at a number of places in the park and these are
-discussed later.
-
-
-                        UNRAVELING EARTH HISTORY
-
-In order to understand better the geologic history and development of
-the canyon, one should also have some knowledge of the basic principles
-of earth history and should be familiar with the geologic time scale
-(fig. 6).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 6. Geologic time scale. Reproduced from
-    _FOSSILS: An Introduction to Prehistoric Life_, William H. Matthews
-    III, Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1962.]
-
-  GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
-  ERA
-    PERIOD
-      EPOCH
-        SUCCESSION OF LIFE
-  CENOZOIC   “RECENT LIFE”
-    QUATERNARY   0-1 MILLION YEARS
-      Recent
-      Pleistocene
-    TERTIARY   62 MILLION YEARS
-      Pliocene
-      Miocene
-      Oligocene
-      Eocene
-      Paleocene
-  MESOZOIC   “MIDDLE LIFE”
-    CRETACEOUS   72 MILLION YEARS
-    JURASSIC   46 MILLION YEARS
-    TRIASSIC   49 MILLION YEARS
-  PALEOZOIC   “ANCIENT LIFE”
-    PERMIAN   50 MILLION YEARS
-    CARBONIFEROUS
-      PENNSYLVANIAN   30 MILLION YEARS
-      MISSISSIPPIAN   35 MILLION YEARS
-    DEVONIAN   60 MILLION YEARS
-    SILURIAN   20 MILLION YEARS
-    ORDOVICIAN   75 MILLION YEARS
-    CAMBRIAN   100 MILLION YEARS
-  PRECAMBRIAN ERAS
-    PROTEROZOIC ERA
-    ARCHEOZOIC ERA
-      APPROXIMATE AGE OF THE EARTH MORE THAN 4 BILLION 550 MILLION YEARS
-
-The geologist has learned that the earth’s physical features have not
-always been as they are today. It is known, for example, that mountains
-now occupy the sites of ancient seas. Coal is now being mined where
-swamps existed many millions of years ago. Furthermore, the earth’s
-plants and animals have also been subject to great change. The trend of
-this organic change is, in general, toward more complex and advanced
-forms of life. However, some forms have remained virtually unaltered
-while others have become extinct at different points in geologic time.
-
-In order to interpret earth history, the earth scientist gathers
-evidence of the great changes in climate, geography, and life that took
-place in the geologic past. He does this by studying the rock
-formations, the structural relationships of these formations, and the
-landforms of the area. The record of ancient events is pieced together
-by studying the stony layers of the earth as one might study a giant
-history book. Indeed, the sedimentary rocks are the rocky “pages” of
-earth history, for in them we find the tracks and trails, and bones and
-stones, which reveal the intriguing story of life long ago.
-
-Much of the basic information which the geologist uses to reconstruct
-the geologic history of a region comes from his examination and
-interpretation of _bedrock outcrops_. _Bedrock_ is the solid unweathered
-rock which underlies loose earth material such as soil, sand, and
-gravel. An _outcrop_, or _exposure_, is a place where bedrock is exposed
-at the surface.
-
-The first chapter of earth history begins with the most ancient rocks
-known. Because they were formed early in geologic time, these rocks are
-normally found deeply buried beneath younger rocks which have been
-deposited on top of them. It is for this reason that earth history is
-read from the bottom up, for the earliest formed rock layers correspond
-to the opening chapter in our earthen history book. The later chapters
-are found in the upper younger rocks which are located nearer the
-surface. Thus, in “reading” the geologic history of Palo Duro Canyon we
-start with the oldest “chapter” which is recorded in the Quartermaster
-Formation (p. 17) of Permian age, for these are the oldest rocks exposed
-in the canyon.
-
-But deciphering earth history is not as simple as it might appear. In
-many areas the rock layers are not always found in the sequence in which
-they were originally deposited. In places, great structural disturbances
-have caused some of the rocky “pages” to become shuffled and out of
-place; others may be missing completely. Many rocks have been destroyed
-by weathering and erosion or greatly altered by metamorphism. As a
-result, the story recorded in these particular rocks is lost forever.
-These missing “pages” make the ancient story even more difficult to
-interpret so the geologist must then depend on other evidence that will
-permit him to “fill in the blanks.”
-
-The record revealed in the rocks indicates that our planet is at least
-4½ billion years old and that life has been present for more than 3
-billion years. During this vast span of time the earth and its
-inhabitants have undergone many changes.
-
-
-              THE GEOLOGIC COLUMN AND GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
-
-The _geologic column_ refers to the total succession of rocks, from the
-oldest to the most recent, that are found in the entire earth or in a
-given area. For example, the geologic column of Texas includes all rock
-divisions known to be present in the State. By the same token, the
-geologic column of Palo Duro Canyon consists of the geologic formations
-exposed there. Thus, by referring to the geologic column previously
-determined for a specific area, the geologist can determine what type of
-rock he might expect to find in that particular region.
-
-The _geologic time scale_ (fig. 6) is composed of named intervals of
-geologic time during which were deposited the rocks of the geologic
-column. These time intervals bear the same names that are used to
-distinguish the various units of the geologic column. For example, one
-can speak of Permian _time_ (referring to the geologic time scale) or of
-Permian _rocks_ (referring to rock units of Permian age in the geologic
-column).
-
-Both the geologic column and the geologic time scale are based upon the
-_principle of superposition_. This basic geologic concept states that
-unless a series of sedimentary rock has been overturned, a given rock
-layer is older than the strata above it, and younger than all of the
-layers below it. Thus, the field relationship of the rocks plus the type
-of fossils (if present) give the geologist some indication of the
-_relative_ age of the rocks. Relative age does not imply age in years;
-rather, it fixes age in relation to other events that are recorded in
-the rocks.
-
-Within recent years, however, it has become possible to assign ages in
-years to certain rock units. This is accomplished by a system of rock
-dating based on very precise measurements of amounts of radioactive
-elements (such as uranium). When present in the rocks, radioactive
-minerals change or decay at a known rate so that they are natural
-“clocks.” This method of dating has made it possible to devise a time
-scale in years which gives some idea of the tremendous amount of time
-that has passed since the oldest known rocks were formed. It has also
-been used to verify the previously determined relative ages of the
-various rock units.
-
-The largest unit of geologic time is an _era_, and each era is divided
-into smaller time units called _periods_. A period of geologic time is
-divided into _epochs_, which, in turn, may be subdivided into still
-smaller units. The geologic time scale might be roughly compared to the
-calendar in which the year is divided into months, months into weeks,
-and weeks into days. Unlike years, however, geologic time units are
-arbitrary and of unequal duration, and the geologist cannot be positive
-about the exact length of time involved in each unit. The time scale
-does, however, provide a standard by which he can discuss the age of
-fossils and their surrounding rocks. By referring to the time scale it
-may be possible, for instance, to state that a certain event occurred
-during the Paleozoic Era in the same sense that one might say that
-something happened during the American Revolution.
-
-There are five eras of geologic time, and each has been given a name
-that is descriptive of the degree of life development that characterizes
-that era. Hence, Paleozoic means “ancient-life” and the era was so named
-because of the relatively simple and ancient stage of life development.
-
-The eras, a guide to their pronunciation, and the literal translation of
-each name is shown below.
-
-    Cenozoic (SEE-no-zo-ic)—“recent-life”
-    Mesozoic (MES-o-zo-ic)—“middle-life”
-    Paleozoic (PAY-lee-o-zo-ic)—“ancient-life”
-    Proterozoic (PRO-ter-o-zo-ic)—“earlier-life”
-    Archeozoic (AR-kee-o-zo-ic)—“beginning-life”
-
-Archeozoic and Proterozoic rocks are commonly grouped together and
-referred to as Precambrian in age. In most places Precambrian rocks have
-been greatly contorted and metamorphosed, and the record of this portion
-of earth history is most difficult to interpret. Precambrian time
-represents that portion of geologic time from the beginning of earth
-history until the deposition of the earliest fossiliferous Cambrian
-strata. Precambrian time probably represents as much as 85 percent of
-all geologic time.
-
-The _oldest_ era is at the _bottom_ of the time scale because this part
-of geologic time transpired first and was then followed by the
-successively younger eras which are placed above it. This is, of course,
-the order in which the various portions of geologic time occurred and
-during which the corresponding rocks were formed.
-
-As mentioned above, each of the eras has been divided into periods, and
-most of these periods derive their names from the regions in which the
-rocks of each were first studied. For example, the Pennsylvanian rocks
-of North America were first studied in the State of Pennsylvania.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 7. Generalized geologic map of Palo Duro Canyon
-    State Park.]
-
-  EXPLANATION
-    Q & T   Pleistocene and Pliocene undifferentiated
-    Rdo   Dockum Group
-    P   Permian undifferentiated
-
-The Paleozoic Era has been divided into seven periods of geologic time.
-With the oldest at the bottom of the list, these periods and the source
-of their names are:
-
-    Permian (PUR-me-un)—from the Province of Perm in Russia
-    Pennsylvanian (pen-sil-VAIN-yun)—from the State of Pennsylvania
-    Mississippian (miss-i-SIP-i-un)—from the Upper Mississippi Valley
-    Devonian (de-VO-ni-un)—from Devonshire, England
-    Silurian (si-LOO-ri-un)—for the Silures, an ancient tribe of Britain
-    Ordovician (or-doe-VISH-un)—for the Ordovices, an ancient tribe of
-          Britain
-    Cambrian (KAM-bri-un)—from the Latin word _Cambria_, meaning Wales
-
-The Carboniferous Period in Europe includes the Mississippian and
-Pennsylvanian Periods of North America. Although this classification is
-no longer used in the United States, the term Carboniferous is found in
-many of the earlier geological publications and on many of the earlier
-geologic maps.
-
-The periods of the Mesozoic Era and the source of their names are:
-
-    Cretaceous (cre-TAY-shus)—from the Latin word _creta_, meaning
-          chalky
-    Jurassic (joo-RAS-ik)—from the Jura Mountains of Europe
-    Triassic (try-ASS-ik)—from the Latin word _triad_, meaning three
-
-The Cenozoic periods derived their names from an old outdated system of
-classification which divided all of the earth’s rocks into four groups.
-The two divisions listed below are the only names of this system which
-are still in use:
-
-    Quaternary (kwah-TUR-nuh-ri)
-    Tertiary (TUR-shi-ri)
-
-Although the units named above are the major divisions of geologic time
-and of the geologic column, the geologist generally works with smaller
-units of the column called _geologic formations_. A geologic formation
-is a unit of rock that is recognized by certain physical and chemical
-characteristics. A formation is generally given a double name which
-indicates both where it is exposed and the type of rock that makes up
-the bulk of the formation. For example, the Beaumont Clay is a formation
-consisting of clay deposits that are found in and around Beaumont,
-Texas. For convenience in study, two or more successive and adjoining
-formations may be placed together in a group. Thus, the Tecovas and
-Trujillo Formations have been placed in the Dockum Group. Likewise, a
-formation may be subdivided into smaller units such as members, which
-may also be given geographic or lithologic (rock type) names.
-
-
-            GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS EXPOSED IN PALO DURO CANYON
-
-As noted above, all of the rocks which crop out in Palo Duro Canyon are
-sedimentary in origin. They represent four different geological periods:
-the Permian, Triassic, Tertiary, and Quaternary (fig. 12).
-
-Although these rock formations differ considerably in composition and
-age, they do not tell the whole geologic story of the area. Long spans
-of geologic time are not represented by rock units because the region
-was undergoing erosion or no sediments were being deposited during
-certain portions of geologic time. Rocks that had formed during one
-geologic period were removed by erosion during a later period. Thus,
-segments of the geologic record were destroyed or never recorded. For
-this reason, much of the geologic history of the Palo Duro area is
-unrecorded and must be inferred from fragmentary evidence borrowed and
-pieced together from adjacent areas. Even so, an interesting story can
-be assembled from the rocks that remain in the canyon today.
-
-In general, the following descriptions of the formations exposed in Palo
-Duro Canyon State Park follow the procedure that most geologists use in
-presenting the results of their geologic investigations. The more
-distinctive characteristics of the rock units are described in order
-that they may be more easily recognized, and the ways in which the rocks
-were formed are also considered. With this background it is then
-possible to review the geologic history recorded in the bedrock of the
-canyon. A simplified geologic map is presented in figure 7; this shows
-the distribution of the major rock types in the canyon. The reader will
-find it helpful to refer to this map when reading the descriptions of
-the various formations.
-
-
-Quartermaster Formation.—
-
-The oldest formation exposed in the canyon is the Quartermaster
-Formation of Permian age (_see_ fig. 6) which is named from exposures
-along the banks of Quartermaster Creek in Roger Mills County, Oklahoma.
-One of the more colorful formations in the park, the Quartermaster is
-composed primarily of brick-red to vermilion shales which are
-interbedded with lenses of gray shales, clays, mudstones, and
-sandstones. Averaging about 60 feet thick where exposed in the park, the
-Quartermaster forms the floor and lower walls of the canyon.
-
-The rocks of this formation are easily examined at many places
-throughout the canyon and in them can be seen a number of interesting
-geologic phenomena. Probably the most noticeable of these features are
-the shining white veins of _gypsum_ that lace the face of the red shale
-outcrops (fig. 8). A soft, transparent to translucent mineral that can
-be scratched by a fingernail, gypsum is hydrous calcium sulfate
-(CaSO₄·2H₂O). Three varieties of gypsum are found in the canyon: (1)
-_satin spar_, a fibrous variety with a silky sheen; (2) _selenite_, a
-colorless, transparent variety which commonly occurs in sheet-like
-masses; and (3) a fine-grained massive variety called _alabaster_. Satin
-spar is the most common variety of gypsum present and it commonly occurs
-in thin bands interbedded with the mudstones and sandstones. It is much
-more noticeable in the shales, however, for it is typically seen in
-narrow veins which criss-cross the surface of the outcrop and intersect
-the bedding planes at various angles. Although normally white, some of
-the satin spar has a soft pink or bluish hue due to the presence of
-impurities in the mineral.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 8. Veins of selenite gypsum (top arrow) in
-    Quartermaster Formation. Notice diagonal joint to left of
-    geologist’s hand (lower arrow).]
-
-The presence of gypsum in the Quartermaster red beds is of special
-significance to the geologist, for it provides valuable information
-about the geologic history of the Palo Duro area. It is known, for
-example, that when a landlocked body of sea water in an arid climate
-becomes separated from the ocean, one of the most common salts to
-precipitate is hydrous calcium sulfate, or gypsum. Gypsum may also be
-precipitated when a lake without an outlet evaporates in an arid
-climate. Geologic evidence suggests that the sediments which gave rise
-to the rocks of the Quartermaster Formation were deposited in a
-landlocked arm of the sea during the latter part of the Permian Period.
-As evaporation continued and the sea water was reduced to approximately
-one-third of its original volume, gypsum was precipitated. There must
-have been periodic influxes of silt- and mud-bearing waters entering the
-ancient Permian sea, for layers of shale and mudstone are interbedded
-with the gypsum.
-
-It is believed that much of the satin spar and selenite gypsum was
-originally _anhydrite_ (CaSO₄). Unlike gypsum, anhydrite does not
-contain water, but it can be changed to gypsum in the presence of
-moisture. There are two lines of evidence that indicate an anhydrite
-origin for the Quartermaster gypsum. First, microscopic examination of
-gypsum samples reveals the presence of residual anhydrite crystals
-embedded in the gypsum. Second, many of the gypsum beds have been
-squeezed into rather gentle _folds_. These consist of small
-_anticlines_, upfolds or arches, and _synclines_, downfolds or troughs
-(fig. 9). It has been suggested that this folding took place as the
-anhydrite underwent _hydration_, or took on water. As hydration occurred
-and the anhydrite was converted to gypsum, the gypsum expanded, thereby
-exerting both lateral and vertical pressure on the beds around it. This
-produced the crumpled, wave-like folding so characteristic of certain of
-the gypsum beds. However, there is not complete agreement that the
-folding in the gypsum is due to the hydration of anhydrite. Certain
-geologists attribute this deformation to slumping caused by solution
-cavities, for gypsum is relatively easily dissolved in water. As the
-gypsum was dissolved and carried away in solution, the removal of the
-supporting layers of gypsum permitted slumping and consequent
-deformation in the overlying shales and mudstones. Although some
-geologists believe that the folds were caused by expansion due to the
-hydration of anhydrite and others support deformation related to the
-removal of soluble gypsum, there is general agreement that the folding
-is local and not related to regional or widespread deformation.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 9. Sagging beds of Quartermaster Formation have
-    produced this gentle syncline, or downfolding, in the rocks. The
-    “dome” on Capitol Peak can be seen in the background.]
-
-Not all of the red Quartermaster shales are uniformly colored. Some of
-them contain gray-green, circular spots called _reduction halos_ (fig.
-10). These spots, which in places give the red shales a distinctive
-polka-dot appearance, have been produced as the result of chemical
-change of certain minerals within the shale.
-
-As noted earlier, sediments are usually laid down in horizontal layers.
-However, in certain environments, sediments may be deposited in such a
-way that the layers are inclined at angle to horizontal (fig. 11). This
-structure, called _cross-bedding_ or _cross-stratification_, is found in
-certain sandstones and other coarse-grained or fragmental sedimentary
-rocks. Cross-bedding typically consists of rather distinct inclined
-layers separated by _bedding planes_ (the surface of demarcation between
-two individual rock layers). Bedding of this type commonly occurs in
-sedimentary rocks formed in rivers, deltas, and along the margins of
-lakes or oceans. The cross-bedding in the Quartermaster and certain of
-the Triassic formations is believed to have been developed under similar
-conditions. Although cross-bedding is also common in certain rocks of
-_eolian_ origin (deposited by wind) none of the cross-bedding in the
-canyon’s rocks is due to the action of wind.
-
-In addition, some of the Quartermaster strata have _ripple marks_ on
-their surfaces. These features are common in certain sedimentary rocks
-and were formed when the surface of a bed of sediment was agitated by
-waves or currents. The size, shape, and cross section of the ripple
-marks can be used to tell whether the marks were produced by waves or
-currents. The ripple marks in the Quartermaster appear to have been
-formed by the action of waves on a shallow sea floor.
-
-A number of interesting geologic features in the canyon have been formed
-in part in the Quartermaster Formation. These include the multi-hued
-Spanish Skirts (fig. 26), the Devil’s Slide (fig. 35), Capitol Peak
-(fig. 32), and Catarina Cave (fig. 27). The latter is a rather unusual
-cave in that it has developed in a large mass of landslide debris
-divided by projecting bedrock of the Spanish Skirts. The cave has been
-formed by _suffosian_, a process whereby water enters the landslide
-debris on the upper slopes and follows buried channels in the landslide
-removing rock debris as it passes through. The flood water exits at the
-base of the landslide by means of Catarina Cave. The plan of the cave
-closely resembles the drainage patterns of surface gullies.
-
-
-Tecovas Formation.—
-
-Rocks of the Triassic System (fig. 6) are well represented in Palo Duro
-Canyon and consist of the _Tecovas_ and _Trujillo_ Formations. These
-formations are part of the Dockum Group of Late Triassic age.
-
-Having a total thickness of about 200 feet, the Tecovas (which is named
-from exposures found on Tecovas Creek in Potter County, Texas) consists
-largely of multicolored shales. Also present are thin layers of soft
-sandstone, which are disseminated throughout the shales, and a more
-prominent bed of white sandstone, which marks the middle of the
-formation. The Tecovas shales overlie the Quartermaster Formation, and
-the lower zone of lavender, gray, and white shales forms a relatively
-smooth slope that is easily distinguished from the steeper slopes of
-gullied red-and-white-banded shales beneath them (fig. 12).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 10. Chemical reactions in certain of the red
-    Quartermaster shales have produced reduction halos (p. 19) which
-    give the rocks a polka-dot appearance.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 11. This boulder, located near the foot of
-    Triassic Peak along the Sad Monkey Railroad track, exhibits the
-    cross-bedding typical of the Trujillo sandstones.]
-
-But the contact zone between the Tecovas and Quartermaster shales
-involves more than a mere change in color. Here is one of the missing
-“chapters” in the geologic history of the canyon, for part of the Late
-Permian record and all of the record of Early and Middle Triassic time
-are missing from the geologic column. Such gaps in the column are
-represented by _unconformities_ in the rocks. Here the unconformity is
-an ancient erosional surface between the Tecovas Formation of Late
-Triassic age and the Late Permian Quartermaster Formation, and there are
-many millions of years of earth history represented in this missing
-“chapter” in the geologic story of Palo Duro Canyon. During this vast
-span of time, thousands of feet of sediments were probably deposited,
-converted into rock, and then later removed by erosion.
-
-Near the middle of the Tecovas Formation there is a bed of white,
-crumbly (friable) sandstone. Averaging about 15 feet in thickness, this
-sandstone contains many _joints_ (small crack-like fractures) along
-which no appreciable movement has taken place (fig. 8). There are two
-distinct sets of these joints which intersect each other at right
-angles. The distinctive joint patterns, the color, and the friability of
-this sandstone clearly differentiate it from the harder, darker, and
-more coarse-grained sandstones of the overlying Trujillo Formation (p.
-22).
-
-The upper part of the Tecovas consists of a layer of orange shale which
-overlies the middle sandstone unit and is in contact with the lower part
-of the Trujillo Formation.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 12. Taken from the northwest rim near Coronado
-    Lodge, this photograph shows the four major rock units exposed in
-    the park: (1) The Quartermaster Formation which forms the lower wall
-    and canyon floor; (2) Tecovas Formation; (3) Trujillo Formation
-    which caps the mesas; and (4) Ogallala Formation.]
-
-The fossils which have been found in the Tecovas Formation suggest that
-these rocks were derived from sediments deposited in swamps and streams.
-Unlike the _marine_ deposits of the Quartermaster, the rocks of the
-Tecovas were formed from _continental_ deposits laid down on the land.
-Fossils found in the canyon include the bones and teeth of the extinct
-semi-aquatic reptiles known as _phytosaurs_ (fig. 13) and bone and skull
-fragments of a primitive amphibian called _Buettneria_ (fig. 14).
-_Coprolites_ (the fossilized excrement of animals), pieces of petrified
-wood, and the teeth and bones of lungfish have also been reported from
-the Tecovas.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 13. The skull of this crocodile-like creature
-    called a phytosaur is typical of the reptiles that inhabited the
-    Palo Duro area during the Triassic Period. (Photograph courtesy
-    Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]
-
-A number of minerals including _hematite_, an iron mineral, and
-_psilomelane_, a barium-magnesium oxide, occur in the Tecovas. Hematite
-is an ore of iron and psilomelane a manganese ore, though neither of
-these is present in commercial quantities in the canyon.
-
-The Tecovas also contains a number of _concretions_ which range from a
-fraction of an inch to as much as 6 inches in diameter. These spherical
-masses are generally harder than the fine-grained shaly sands in which
-they are found and were thus left behind when the surrounding rock was
-eroded away. Some of these concretions are marked by cracks or veins
-filled with the mineral _calcite_. Concretions bearing this type of
-structure are called _septaria_, or _septarian concretions_.
-
-_Geodes_ are also found in the Tecovas Formation. These are rounded
-concretionary rocks with a hollow interior that is frequently lined with
-mineral crystals. Well-formed crystals of clear calcite have been found
-in many of the geodes from the Tecovas.
-
-Among park landmarks that are characterized by the multi-hued Tecovas
-strata are the middle portion of Triassic Peak (fig. 25), the upper part
-of the Spanish Skirts (fig. 26), Capitol Peak (fig. 32), and the Devil’s
-Slide (fig. 35).
-
-
-Trujillo Formation.—
-
-Named from rock exposures on Trujillo Creek in Oldham County, Texas, the
-Trujillo is easy to distinguish from the underlying Tecovas Formation.
-The contact is quite distinct and lies between the top of the orange
-Tecovas shale and the base of the massive-bedded, cliff-forming Trujillo
-sandstone (fig. 25). Although generally fine grained and thickly bedded,
-there are local concentrations of pebble-sized rock fragments in the
-Trujillo. The weathered surface of the lower sandstone is stained red or
-dark brown by iron oxides. However, a fresh, unweathered surface is
-typically gray or greenish gray in color, and careful examination of the
-unweathered rock reveals the presence of tiny flakes of mica.
-
-The basal Trujillo sandstone is one of the most conspicuous rock units
-in the canyon and forms many of the prominent benches and mesas so
-typical of the Palo Duro landscape. In places the sandstone is
-cross-bedded (p. 20) and contains channel deposits of coarse sand which
-suggest that the sediments from which it was derived were deposited in
-ancient stream beds.
-
-Red, maroon, and gray shales overlie the basal sandstone member of the
-Trujillo, and these shales are overlain by cross-bedded, coarse-grained
-sandstone. Another interval of varicolored shales separates the middle
-sandstone bed from the upper sandstone member. The middle sandstone unit
-is a conspicuous ledge- or cliff-forming rock and is medium to coarse
-grained and commonly cross-bedded. In most localities, the upper
-sandstone is overlain by a section of red and green shales which mark
-the uppermost limits of the Trujillo Formation. In places, however, this
-shale section has been removed by erosion and rocks of Tertiary age
-directly overlie the sandstone.
-
-Although fossils are not common, the remains of _Buettneria_ (fig. 14),
-leaf imprints, pieces of mineralized wood, and the scattered teeth and
-bone fragments of reptiles and amphibians have been found. Phytosaur
-remains, especially teeth, have also been collected from the Trujillo
-sandstones.
-
-The Indians who formerly inhabited the Palo Duro area (p. 3) put the
-rocks of the canyon to a number of uses. This appears to be especially
-true of the rather coarse-grained Trujillo sandstones, which were
-commonly used for constructing primitive rock shelters. The abrasive
-surface of the sandstone was especially well suited for grinding grain,
-and mortar holes have been found in a number of places. One of these
-(fig. 15) can be seen along the tracks of the Sad Monkey Railroad (p.
-35) near the foot of Triassic Peak. The Indians also used the clays of
-the Quartermaster, Tecovas, and Trujillo Formations to make pottery, and
-iron and copper minerals such as hematite and malachite were used to
-make red and green pigments for decoration and war paint.
-
-The Trujillo shales and sandstones can be seen in a number of Palo
-Duro’s more spectacular geological oddities. These erosional remnants
-are best developed where blocks of erosion-resistant sandstone protect
-underlying pedestals of softer shale (fig. 15). This type of
-differential weathering (p. 31) has produced a number of interesting and
-unusually shaped pedestal rocks or “hoodoos” (figs. 16 and 20). The most
-spectacular erosional remnant—and one that has come to be the
-“trademark” of Palo Duro Canyon—is the Lighthouse (fig. 31). The great
-jumble of boulders called the Rock Garden (fig. 34) is also composed
-largely of massive blocks of dislodged Trujillo sandstone. These
-boulders accumulated on the canyon floor as a result of landslides. In
-addition, the rock profile known as Santana’s Face (fig. 28) is a
-naturally sculptured profile in the Trujillo sandstone that forms the
-cap of Timber Mesa.
-
-
-Ogallala Formation.—
-
-The Ogallala Formation is named from exposures around Ogallala in Keith
-County, Nebraska. There is a major unconformity between the Trujillo
-Formation of the Triassic and the overlying Ogallala Formation of
-Pliocene (Late Tertiary) age. Missing here is the geologic evidence for
-what may have been some of the more exciting chapters in the canyon’s
-history. There is no record, for example, of the Jurassic and Cretaceous
-Periods which together encompass almost 120 million years of earth
-history. Also missing is any evidence of what transpired during more
-than 90 percent of the Tertiary Period, for no rocks of Paleocene,
-Eocene, Oligocene, or Miocene age are exposed in the canyon. Together
-these four epochs comprise approximately 47 million years of earth
-history. It is impossible, of course, to determine how many geologic
-formations may have been formed and later eroded during the 167 million
-years represented by this unconformity. However, our knowledge of
-present-day deposition and erosion suggests that the missing geologic
-record undoubtedly represents many thousands of feet of rock.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 14. The skeleton of _Buettneria_, a large
-    amphibian, found in Upper Triassic strata in the canyon. (Photograph
-    courtesy Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]
-
-The lower portion of the Ogallala Formation is composed of a
-reddish-brown, fine- to medium-grained sandstone that contrasts sharply
-with the underlying red and green shales that are exposed in the top of
-the Trujillo Formation. Much of this sandy rock is characterized by
-pebbles consisting of a variety of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
-rocks. Because it consists of rock and mineral fragments of varied
-composition and size, this kind of sedimentary rock is called a
-_conglomerate_. The type of rock fragments found in basal Ogallala
-conglomerates suggests that they were transported to the
-Panhandle-Plains area by streams flowing southeastward from the Rocky
-Mountains. As these streams deposited their loads, they left behind a
-wide spread blanket of sand, gravel, and mud which formed an extensive
-alluvial plain that extended from western Nebraska to northwest Texas.
-Although it is less than 100 feet thick in Palo Duro Canyon, in places
-this great mantle of _fluvial_ (stream-deposited) sediments is as much
-as 900 feet thick.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 15. The depression in this boulder is a mortar
-    hole believed to have been used by the Indians for grinding corn.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 16. This pedestal rock, located near the
-    Lighthouse, is capped by a slab of weather-resistant Trujillo
-    sandstone.]
-
-Most of the Ogallala Formation consists of a mixture of diverse rock
-types such as conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, clay and marl. But the
-upper part of the formation is characterized by thick _caliche_
-deposits. A dull, earthy calcite deposit, caliche typically forms in
-areas of scant rainfall. It is believed to originate when ground
-moisture, containing dissolved calcium bicarbonate, moves to the surface
-where the moisture steadily evaporates leaving a calcium carbonate crust
-on or near the surface (fig. 17).
-
-Caliche, which derives its name from the Latin _calix_, meaning “lime,”
-may be firm and compact or loose and powdery. It is also commonly found
-mixed with other materials such as clay, sand, or gravel. Caliche
-commonly occurs in the Trans-Pecos, southwestern Gulf Coastal Plain, and
-the High Plains area of Texas (_see_ fig. 5, p. 8). In the latter area
-it typically makes up the “caprock.” Caliche is commonly quarried in
-these parts of Texas where it is used as road material and as an
-aggregate.
-
-Good exposures of Ogallala caliche can be seen on the surface around the
-overlook at Coronado Lodge on the northwest rim of the canyon (fig. 17).
-Ogallala strata also crop out along the upper reaches of Park Road 5 as
-it starts to descend into the canyon. But probably the most spectacular
-exposures of the Ogallala are exposed in the precipitous face of the
-Fortress Cliff (fig. 33) which forms part of the eastern rim of the
-canyon.
-
-Also located within the Ogallala Formation is a very important
-_aquifer_—a porous, water-bearing rock formation. This fine-to
-coarse-grained sandstone is very porous and permeable and is the most
-important single water-producing formation in the Panhandle-Plains area.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 17. The white surface in the right foreground
-    consists of caliche (p. 26) in the Ogallala Formation. Coronado
-    Lodge can be seen in the right background.]
-
-Opal and chert are locally abundant in the Ogallala conglomerates. The
-opal, which is found in small cavities in the conglomerate is not of the
-gem variety but it does _fluoresce_. Minerals that exhibit
-_fluorescence_ emit visible colors when exposed to ultraviolet light.
-For this reason, the Ogallala opal is sought after by rock and mineral
-collectors. The chert, a flint-like variety of quartz, occurs as nodules
-in the conglomerate and in a well-developed layer near the base of the
-formation. Both of these _siliceous_ (silica-bearing) rocks were
-apparently prized by the Indians, who used them to fashion knives,
-scrapers, projectile points, and other artifacts. The Indians also
-learned that flat slabs of caliche were ideal for lining fireplaces and
-to construct primitive rock shelters.
-
-A number of Pliocene vertebrates have been found in the Palo Duro area.
-Known as the “Age of Mammals,” the Tertiary Period was characterized by
-mammals as diverse as were the reptiles of the Mesozoic Era. Among these
-unusual creatures were such now-extinct species as the saber-tooth cat
-and the elephant-like shovel-jawed mastodon (fig. 18). The remains of
-these as well as bones of giraffe-like camels, pony-sized horses, and
-sloths have been found in the vicinity of the canyon. The grassy plains
-of Pliocene time were also inhabited by large tortoises which reached
-lengths of up to 3 feet (fig. 19). Dioramas showing how these animals
-might have looked, as well as their actual remains, are on display in
-the Hall of Pre-History in the lower floor of the Panhandle-Plains
-Historical Museum in Canyon, 13 miles west of the park (p. 35).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 18. This life-size model of a shovel-jawed
-    mastodon is typical of the now-extinct, elephant-like creatures that
-    lived in this area during the Pliocene Epoch. (Photograph courtesy
-    Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 19. The carapaces of giant tortoises as much as
-    3 feet long have been collected from Pliocene rocks in the Palo Duro
-    area. (Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]
-
-
-Rocks of the Pleistocene.—
-
-The youngest rocks in Palo Duro Canyon State Park were formed during the
-Pleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period of the Cenozoic Era (_see_
-geologic time scale, p. 11). Pleistocene rocks are rather widespread in
-much of the Panhandle-Plains area and they are mostly composed of
-sediments which were deposited in stream valleys, in lakes or ponds, or
-by the wind. Most of the Pleistocene strata in the park area consist of
-loose deposits of silt and sand which were deposited by wind action.
-Known locally as “blow sand,” this reddish-brown, silty sand overlies
-the Ogallala caliche at most points along the canyon’s rim.
-
-
-
-
-                       HOW THE CANYON WAS CARVED
-
-
-The visitor seeing Palo Duro Canyon for the first time may find it
-difficult to believe that this yawning chasm began as a simple gully.
-But to the _geomorphologist_—the geologist who studies the origin and
-development of landscapes—Palo Duro Canyon is but a gully magnified many
-times over. This is evident because the shape of the canyon, the nature
-of its tributaries, and the character of its walls indicate that it has
-been deepened and lengthened by the downcutting of a stream and widened
-by other geologic processes.
-
-
-                   THE GEOLOGIC WORK OF RUNNING WATER
-
-Palo Duro Canyon is a classic example of a land-form that has been
-created by the geologic work of _running water_. Undoubtedly the most
-important single agent of erosion, running water probably does more to
-wear away the land than all the other geologic agents combined. This is
-not surprising considering the fact that the earth’s annual
-precipitation (such as rain and snow) equals about four billion tons of
-water. Although the amount of precipitation varies greatly from place to
-place, the average annual precipitation on land is about 40 inches of
-water. Of this, roughly 25 percent runs off from the land to form
-streams.
-
-When one drives through the park and fords the normally gently flowing
-waters of the Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River he may well wonder
-if this unimposing stream actually is the geologic agent that is
-responsible for this deep gorge. But the visitor who happens to be
-present during a severe rainstorm will soon be convinced, for during
-heavy rains this gentle stream becomes a raging torrent. As the river
-increases in size it also becomes a more effective land-shaping tool,
-for the larger and swifter the stream, the more rock material it can
-carry. Thus, when flowing at peak capacity, this branch of the Red River
-becomes a moving ribbon of sandpaper whose load of sand, silt, and
-gravel has cut and scoured the canyon walls and floor for hundreds of
-thousands of years. How long has it taken the river to carve this
-remarkable chasm? Although there is no way of knowing for sure, geologic
-evidence indicates that the canyon has formed during the last one
-million years—a relatively short time, geologically speaking.
-
-The work of the river is made still more effective by water and sediment
-which it receives from its tributaries; this added water substantially
-increases the volume and velocity of the river. Although many of the
-tributary streams are dry throughout much of the year, they carry large
-quantities of water during heavy rains. Moreover, because most of these
-streams flow over rock surfaces which are not protected by thick soil or
-vegetation, their waters are quickly transported to the master stream.
-Thus, the volume and velocity of the Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red
-River make it possible—especially during flood periods—for the river to
-carry a large load of rock particles which effectively erodes the stream
-channel. Where does this rock debris come from? Most of it is eroded
-from the sides and bottom of the river’s channel.
-
-The river carries its load in a number of ways. Material such as salt
-and other soluble matter is transported in a dissolved state or in
-_solution_. Still more, for example, silt and fine sand, is carried in
-_suspension_. These sediments are suspended between the surface of the
-water and the bottom of the stream channel. Those particles that will
-not dissolve in water and are too heavy to be carried in suspension,
-constitute the _bottom load_ of the stream. These larger sediments, such
-as gravel, cobbles, and boulders, roll, bounce, or slide along the
-stream bed.
-
-As flash floods course through Palo Duro Canyon, the river uses its load
-to erode further the rocks over which it passes. Each moving rock
-fragment literally becomes a cutting tool for _abrasion_ as the loose
-rock particles slowly wear away the banks and bed of the stream.
-Eventually the abraded rock fragments become smooth and rounded and the
-stream channel is gradually worn down to a lower level; it is also
-widened.
-
-The river also erodes by _hydraulic action_ as loose rock fragments are
-lifted and moved by the force of the stream’s current. This process is
-similar to the effect produced when soil is churned up and washed away
-when water from a garden hose is sprayed on loose earth. The effects of
-hydraulic action have played an important role in widening the canyon,
-for recession of the cliffs away from the middle of the canyons has been
-caused in part by undercutting. Thus, as the soft shale and gypsum beds
-were removed by the stream, the overlying sandstone formations gradually
-broke off and fell into the canyon. Once on the canyon floor, most of
-the slabs and blocks of sandstone were eventually broken up and carried
-away by the streams as sand and mud. Not all of the boulders have been
-destroyed in this manner; in places (for example, the Rock Garden)
-similar boulders are seen today (fig. 34).
-
-
-               WEATHERING AND GRAVITY ADD THE FINAL TOUCH
-
-Most of the energy of the river has been expended in downcutting, for
-the canyon has apparently been deepened more rapidly than it has been
-widened. But as the stream gouged its channel deeper into the bedrock,
-an ever-increasing expanse of canyon wall was exposed to other agents of
-erosion. Slowly—almost imperceptibly—the walls of the canyon have been
-eroded by the processes of weathering and mass-wasting.
-
-
-Weathering.—
-
-Wherever rocks are exposed on the earth’s surface, they are attacked by
-the agents of _weathering_. They are dissolved by rainwater, pried apart
-by frost and ice, and blasted by windblown sand. Some of the changes
-produced by weathering are purely mechanical, that is, the rock is
-simply reduced to smaller fragments without being broken down chemically
-or undergoing any change in its mineral composition. This _mechanical
-weathering_, or _disintegration_, takes place in a number of ways.
-Changes are especially noticeable in rocks that are subjected to large
-daily temperature variations. If a crack in these rocks becomes filled
-with water and the temperature drops below freezing, ice forms. When
-water freezes it expands by about 10 percent of its volume—this is the
-reason why water pipes often split open during the winter. Just as in a
-water pipe, the pressure of the expanding ice is commonly great enough
-to widen and deepen the crack in the rock. This process, called _frost
-wedging_, may ultimately cause the rock to split and fall apart. The
-cumulative effects of frost wedging have probably played a significant
-role in prying off large blocks of rocks from the walls and rim of the
-canyon.
-
-Animals and plants may also hasten rock disintegration. Plant roots
-commonly grow in rock crevices and as the roots become larger they wedge
-the rock apart. Burrowing animals such as rabbits, gophers, and ground
-squirrels also promote rock disintegration. Although they do not attack
-the rocks directly, their digging exposes new rock surfaces to
-weathering processes. The holes these creatures make also permit water
-and air to enter the earth more easily, thereby hastening rock
-destruction.
-
-Man, of course, promotes more rock disintegration than all other animals
-combined. Thus, as one explores the canyon’s trails and climbs its
-walls, he will not only see evidence of the various types of mechanical
-weathering, he will also be contributing to the further wearing away of
-the rocks.
-
-_Decomposition_, or _chemical weathering_, works hand in hand with
-mechanical weathering. But unlike disintegration, decomposition produces
-rock materials that are basically different from the original
-unweathered rock. These changes are brought about as the result of
-chemical reactions between minerals in the rocks and water, carbon
-dioxide, and oxygen. Although the arid climate and severe winters of the
-Panhandle generally facilitate mechanical weathering, some of the red
-shales and gypsum deposits show the effect of oxidation, hydration, and
-other forms of chemical weathering (fig. 10).
-
-
-Mass-wasting.—
-
-_Mass-wasting_, the erosional process by which rock and soil move
-downslope in response to the force of gravity, has also been
-instrumental in shaping Palo Duro Canyon. This type of erosion has been
-especially active on the walls of the canyon, for here the slopes are
-steep enough to promote downward movement of earth materials. In a few
-places there have been landslides which have moved large quantities of
-rock in a short span of time. But most mass movements have been
-imperceptibly slow as masses of _talus_ (accumulations of rock debris)
-on steeper slopes have inched slowly downhill because of their own
-weight. Talus deposits produced in this way can be seen at the foot of
-most of the cliffs and erosional remnants throughout the canyon (fig.
-20).
-
-
-Differential erosion.—
-
-Even the most casual observer will soon note that not all of the
-canyon’s rocks have been equally affected by erosion. Indeed, it is the
-nature of this _differential erosion_ that gives Palo Duro Canyon the
-rugged sculptured appearance that accounts for much of its beauty.
-
-Visitors to Palo Duro Canyon commonly ask why the rock formations are so
-diversely shaped. The answer to this question lies in the rocks
-themselves. Because the various rock strata are of unequal hardness,
-they erode at different rates of speed. Hence, the harder, more
-resistant rocks, such as the sandstones and conglomerates of the
-Trujillo Formation, form the shelves, ledges, and “caps” of the rock
-sculptures. The Lighthouse (fig. 31) and other pedestal rocks (fig. 16)
-are good examples of land-forms produced by differential erosion. The
-“hoodoos” mentioned earlier are also the products of this type of
-erosion (figs. 16 and 20).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 20. Talus slopes (arrow) are well developed on
-    the east side of Capitol Peak and in places obscure the
-    Quartermaster red beds. Note the “hoodoo” at the south (left) end of
-    the structure.]
-
-Softer rocks like shales and clay are more readily eroded and they
-normally form slopes rather than cliffs or ledges (fig. 12). Grooves,
-recesses, and caves have also developed in some of the less resistant
-rocks such as the shales and gypsum beds of the Quartermaster Formation.
-Catarina Cave (fig. 27) which has formed in the red and white shales of
-the Spanish Skirts (fig. 26) is a good example of this type of feature.
-Caves of this type afforded protection to both man and wild animals
-since the dawn of history, for their remains have been found in a number
-of similar caves.
-
-Thus, within a relatively short time—geologically speaking—the familiar
-land-shaping processes described above have joined forces to provide
-Texas with one of its most remarkable natural attractions. But
-interestingly enough, the same geologic processes that created these
-unusual formations are busily at work destroying them. As time passes
-and erosion progresses, the caps of the pedestals are worn away and the
-underlying shales crumble and are washed into the valley below. Yet even
-as the old land-forms are being destroyed, wind, water, ice, and man are
-attacking the canyon walls to produce still more of these interesting
-erosional remnants.
-
-
-
-
-           WHAT TO DO AND SEE AT PALO DURO CANYON STATE PARK
-
-
-The visitor to Palo Duro Canyon can choose from a number of recreational
-and educational activities. Moreover, regardless of whether one visits
-for a few hours to picnic along the banks of the river, or spends a week
-at one of the well-kept campgrounds, the visit will probably be both
-pleasant and rewarding. In the pages that follow there is a brief
-description of certain of the park landmarks and some of the more
-popular attractions within the canyon. The numbers in parentheses refer
-to numbers which designate these places on the map of Palo Duro Canyon
-(fig. 2, pp. 4-5). Hopefully, this information will help one to plan his
-visit to the canyon and thereby make his stay more enjoyable and
-worthwhile.
-
-
-_Park Entrance_ (1).—
-
-The first stop in the park is the gate at the ranger station (fig. 21).
-Here one pays a modest admission fee and receives literature and
-information about the park. The park is open every day of the year, but
-the entrance gates close at sundown.
-
-
-_Coronado Lodge and Observation Point_ (2).—
-
-The overlook at Coronado Lodge (fig. 22), located about half a mile from
-the Park Entrance, is a good place to start one’s visit. Situated on a
-ledge of Ogallala caliche (p. 26), the Lodge is an attractive, rustic
-structure constructed of blocks of Trujillo sandstone (p. 22). Its
-picture windows and outdoor overlook provide a matchless view of the
-canyon and make it possible to become oriented for the descent to the
-canyon floor. Large, coin-operated telescopes permit close-up views of
-distant parts of the canyon, and there are museum cases containing
-objects of historical and geological interest from the Palo Duro area.
-If possible one should visit the Coronado Observation Point more than
-once during the visit, preferably at different times of the day. Because
-of shifting clouds and changing lighting conditions, the canyon presents
-a continually changing panorama from sunrise to sunset. Open year-round,
-the Lodge offers a complete line of souvenirs, film, and camping
-supplies. There is also a snack bar where coffee, sandwiches, and cold
-drinks can be purchased.
-
-
-_The Scenic Drive_ (1-16).—
-
-After viewing the canyon from Coronado Lodge, one should take the scenic
-drive on Park Road 5. This paved, all-weather road descends the
-northwest rim of the canyon and continues on to the turnaround at Cow
-Camp, a distance of about 8 miles. Although the present scenic drive was
-completed in 1951, the path that it follows is essentially that which
-was laid out by Colonel Charles Goodnight when he established Palo Duro
-ranch in 1876. The road descends to the canyon floor in a series of
-well-engineered turns, but because it drops some 800 feet in little more
-than a mile it is wise to use second or low gear on the descent. One
-should also observe the posted speed limits (10 to 20 miles per hour)
-and keep to the right side of the road at all times.
-
-In the 800-foot drop from rim to floor, the complete geologic section of
-the canyon is traversed, as one passes from the Pleistocene sands
-through the Ogallala, Trujillo, and Tecovas Formations, before reaching
-the Quartermaster Formation which is exposed in the canyon floor. Each
-of these geologic formations is discussed elsewhere in this publication
-(pp. 16-28).
-
-
-_Pioneer Amphitheatre_ (3).—
-
-Upon reaching the canyon floor, Park Road 5 flattens out and from this
-point it is but a short distance to the Pioneer Amphitheatre, one of the
-canyon’s newest and most popular attractions. Here, located at the foot
-of a colorful 600-foot cliff, is a remarkable 1500-seat outdoor theatre
-of latest design (fig. 23). Each evening during a ten-week summer
-season, a symphonic drama portraying the history of the Texas Panhandle
-is presented in the amphitheatre. Information about these productions
-can be obtained at the Park Entrance, Coronado Lodge, and other points
-within the park.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 21. The entrance gate to Palo Duro Canyon State
-    Park.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 22. Coronado Lodge on the canyon’s northwest rim
-    affords panoramic views of the canyon.]
-
-
-_Sad Monkey Train Ride_ (4).—
-
-The Sad Monkey Railroad begins—and ends—at Sad Monkey, Texas, a small
-“community” that lies at the foot of Triassic Peak (fig. 24). Unlike
-most miniature railroads, the Sad Monkey Special is not a “kiddie” ride.
-Instead, this 2-mile journey provides an opportunity to get away from
-the road for a closer look at the geologic formations exposed along the
-track. There are especially good views of the Spanish Skirts (fig. 26),
-Catarina Cave (fig. 27), and Triassic Peak (fig. 25). These, and other
-features of geologic interest, are pointed out by an experienced
-lecturer who also presents a brief review of the geologic history of the
-area.
-
-
-_Triassic Peak_ (5).—
-
-Long used by Indians and ranchers as a Palo Duro landmark, the canyon
-visitor will find Triassic Peak to be equally useful as a geologic
-landmark. When viewed from the Sad Monkey Railroad Terminal, the south
-face of Triassic Peak clearly reveals three of the four major geologic
-formations of the canyon (fig. 25).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 23. Located on the canyon floor, Pioneer
-    Amphitheatre is a modern outdoor theatre where symphonic dramas are
-    presented each summer. (Courtesy Mrs. Ples Harper, Texas Panhandle
-    Heritage Foundation, Inc.; photograph by Ron Horn.)]
-
-The lower one-third of the peak consists of deeply furrowed, red and
-white banded shales of the Quartermaster Formation (p. 17). Overlying
-the Permian red beds are the brightly colored, multi-hued Tecovas shales
-of Triassic age (p. 19). The composition of the Tecovas is such that the
-lower shales tend to weather into relatively gentle slopes with rather
-smooth surfaces. Triassic Peak is capped by a weather-resistant layer of
-Trujillo sandstone, and this durable cliff-forming sandstone has served
-as a protective covering to impede the erosion of the softer rocks of
-the Tecovas and Quartermaster Formations. Although it has withstood the
-ravages of time exceedingly well, the large blocks of Trujillo sandstone
-which litter the flanks and foot of Triassic Peak clearly indicate that
-weathering and mass-wasting have exacted their toll in the geologic
-past.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 24. A trip on the Sad Monkey Railroad is a good
-    place to learn more about the canyon’s geology and get a closer look
-    at the rocks.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 25. Excellent exposures of the Quartermaster
-    Formation of Permian age (1) and the Triassic Tecovas (2) and
-    Trujillo (3) Formations can be seen in the south face of Triassic
-    Peak. The feature known as the Sad Monkey is indicated by the
-    arrow.]
-
-Sad Monkey, Texas derives its name from the prominent mass of Trujillo
-sandstone at the southern extremity of Triassic Peak. When viewed in the
-proper perspective—and with the proper amount of imagination—this
-massive block of sandstone bears a striking resemblance to an aged and
-saddened monkey.
-
-
-_Spanish Skirts_ (6).—
-
-Few of the canyon’s features are as well-named as the gaudy Spanish
-Skirts (fig. 26). The lower part of this multi-colored bluff consists of
-alternating layers of red and white Quartermaster shale, capped by the
-colorful maroon and lavender Tecovas shales. Located on the north flank
-of Timber Mesa, the Spanish Skirts and nearby Catarina Cave can be
-reached by an easy half-mile path. The trail begins on the west side of
-Park Road 5, just beyond the Timber Creek bridge located several hundred
-feet from the Sad Monkey Station.
-
-
-_Catarina Cave_ (7).—
-
-A short distance west of the Spanish Skirts lies Catarina Cave. This
-depression has been washed out of the relatively soluble Permian shales
-(fig. 27).
-
-
-_Santana’s Face_ (8).—
-
-Like Triassic Peak, Timber Mesa is capped by a thick layer of massively
-bedded Trujillo sandstone. On the eastern tip of the mesa the sandstone
-has been eroded in such a fashion that it resembles the profile of an
-Indian (fig. 28). This feature, called Santana’s Face, is best seen from
-the park road shortly after leaving Sad Monkey Station.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 26. The gaudy Spanish Skirts are a colorful
-    expanse of Quartermaster and Tecovas strata exposed on the north
-    flank of Timber Mesa. Note the contrast in weathering in the lower,
-    gullied Quartermaster Formation and the smooth slopes of the Tecovas
-    shales above it. Catarina Cave (arrow) is at the right.]
-
-
-_The Sky Ride_ (9).—
-
-The Sky Ride, located near the first water crossing on Park Road 5,
-transports visitors from the canyon floor to the top of Timber Mesa
-(fig. 28). The 300-foot ascent is made in ski-lift chairs that are
-comfortable and safe. The observation area atop the mesa offers an
-unusually fine view of most parts of the canyon.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 27. Catarina Cave (arrow) is easily reached by a
-    half-mile trail from Park Road 5.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 28. Santana’s Face (left arrow) has been
-    sculptured from the Trujillo sandstone cap of Timber Mesa. The cable
-    for the Sky Ride (p. 37) passes through the notch indicated by arrow
-    at right.]
-
-
-_The First Water Crossing_ (10).—
-
-As it winds through the canyon, the park road crosses the Prairie Dog
-Town Fork of the Red River seven times in a distance of about 4 miles.
-These fords, or water crossings as they are called locally, are paved
-and are normally safe to pass through. They should, however, be avoided
-during times of heavy rains and flash flooding. Because of stream
-erosion, especially fine exposures of the Quartermaster Formation are
-revealed in the stream banks near several of the crossings.
-
-The first of these crossings (fig. 29) is about 1 mile from the Sad
-Monkey Station and is one of the more popular picnic areas in the park.
-This area was also popular with earlier residents of the park, for it is
-believed to have been the campgrounds of both the Kiowa and Comanche
-Indians.
-
-
-_Colonel Charles Goodnight’s Dugout_ (11).—
-
-As mentioned earlier (p. 6) Colonel Charles Goodnight entered the canyon
-in 1876 with more than 16,000 head of cattle. Although he later
-established more comfortable quarters, Col. Goodnight first lived in a
-primitive dugout similar to the one shown in figure 30. A replica of
-this early shelter has been constructed of mud, stone, and logs and can
-be seen on the west side of the park road just beyond the first water
-crossing (_see_ fig. 29).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 29. Now a popular picnic spot, the wooded area
-    near the first water crossing through the Prairie Dog Town Fork of
-    the Red River was a favorite Indian campground.]
-
-
-_The Lighthouse_ (12).—
-
-The unpaved road to the Lighthouse enters Park Road 5 about two-tenths
-of a mile beyond the first water crossing. Although considered by many
-to be the canyon’s best-known landmark, the Lighthouse is actually not
-within park boundaries. It is located in Little Sunday Canyon about 3
-miles west of the road and is not easily accessible to the average
-visitor. Like many of the park’s natural attractions, the Lighthouse is
-an erosional remnant of colorful Trujillo shales and sandstones (fig.
-31). A similar pedestal rock, the Devil’s Tombstone, can be reached by
-means of a trail which leaves the Lighthouse road and enters Sunday
-Canyon.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 30. When Colonel Charles Goodnight settled in
-    the canyon in 1876 he lived in a primitive dugout similar to the one
-    shown here.]
-
-
-_Capitol Peak_ (13).—
-
-Capitol Peak (figs. 20 and 32) is a rather imposing geologic feature
-that can be seen from a number of points along Park Road 5. There are
-especially good views in the vicinity of the second water crossing if
-one will look to the west of the road. Just beyond the crossing an
-unimproved road leads to the foot of Capitol Peak. The lower part of
-this feature is composed of Quartermaster shales of Permian age and the
-upper section consists largely of Triassic Tecovas shales. When viewed
-from the proper angle, the silhouette of Capitol Peak is thought to
-resemble the prostrate form of a human (fig. 32). For this reason it has
-also been called the Sleeping Indian.
-
-
-_Fortress Cliff_ (14).—
-
-The Ogallala Formation of Pliocene age (p. 23) forms the upper rim of
-the canyon and is well exposed in impressive Fortress Cliff (fig. 33).
-Although this precipitous cliff dominates the eastern rim of the canyon
-along most of the scenic drive, especially good views are afforded
-between the second and third water crossings.
-
-
-_The Rock Garden_ (15).—
-
-Shortly after fording the river at the fifth water crossing, there is a
-jumbled pile of boulders on the west side of the road (fig. 34). This
-accumulation of Trujillo sandstone blocks has been named the Rock
-Garden. Many boulders such as these have accumulated on the floor of the
-canyon in ages past. However, most of these have been destroyed by
-weathering and their fragments removed by the canyon’s streams.
-
-
-_The Devil’s Slide_ (16).—
-
-The Devil’s Slide can be reached by an unimproved road that leads
-southwest from the scenic drive for a distance of about half a mile.
-Composed of upper Quartermaster and lower Tecovas shales, the surface of
-this eroded spur is laced with many trails and “slides” that have been
-made by previous visitors (fig. 35).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 31. The Lighthouse, an erosional remnant and the
-    “trademark” of Palo Duro Canyon, exhibits well the geologic
-    phenomenon of differential erosion (p. 31).]
-
-
-_The Turnaround_ (17).—
-
-A loop marks the end of Park Road 5 and the conclusion of the scenic
-drive. Located in this area are a number of fine camping areas, picnic
-grounds, the old stone cottages called the “Cow Cabins,” and rest rooms
-with shower facilities (fig. 36).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 32. The “dome” on Capitol Peak is a well-known
-    canyon landmark. Composed of the Tecovas and Quartermaster
-    Formations, the profile of Capitol Peak is referred to as the
-    Sleeping Indian. (The “Indian’s” head can be seen in the right
-    background.)]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 33. Fortress Cliff is a prominent feature on the
-    eastern rim of the canyon. Seen here are the precipitous cliffs
-    developed in the Ogallala caliche (p. 26) and the sandstones and
-    shales of the Trujillo Formation.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 34. The Rock Garden is a jumbled mass of
-    Trujillo sandstone boulders that mark the site of an ancient
-    landslide.]
-
-
-_Hiking._—
-
-There are a number of established trails for the visitor who is
-interested in hiking. The more popular trails include those to the
-Spanish Skirts and Catarina Cave (p. 37), the Devil’s Tombstone, the
-Lighthouse (p. 39), and the Devil’s Slide (p. 40). Park rangers will be
-glad to provide more complete information about these and other trails
-within the canyon.
-
-
-_Horseback riding._—
-
-Saddle horses can be rented at the stables located east of the road near
-the Pioneer Amphitheatre. There are a number of trail rides that can be
-taken on well-trained horses accustomed to the rugged terrain of the
-canyon. Additional information may be obtained from the attendants at
-the stable.
-
-
-_Camping and picnicking._—
-
-An ample number of well-developed camping and picnic areas are scattered
-throughout the canyon. Most are located adjacent to or a short distance
-from Park Road 5; they are equipped with outdoor fireplaces and tables.
-Running water, rest rooms, and showers are provided in certain areas.
-Campsites are available on a first-come first-served basis, and there is
-a 10-day limit on overnight camping. Detailed information on camping
-regulations and camping areas is available from a park ranger or at the
-Entrance Station.
-
-
-_Photography._—
-
-Palo Duro Canyon offers many opportunities for both amateur and
-professional photography. The multi-colored rock formations, erosional
-land-forms, and plants and animals offer limitless possibilities to the
-creative and imaginative photographer. Color shots are especially
-effective, but a haze filter will be helpful when photographing distant
-objects. Morning and afternoon are the best times for picture taking as
-the mid-day sun is “flat” and lends little perspective to the canyon
-scene.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 35. The Devil’s Slide in the south end of the
-    park is an eroded spur of Tecovas shales. Some of the “slides” made
-    by visitors are indicated by the arrow.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 36. Outcrops of the Quartermaster (1) and
-    Tecovas (2) Formations provide a geological backdrop for this
-    campsite near the turnaround at the end of Park Road 5.]
-
-
-
-
-                   PANHANDLE-PLAINS HISTORICAL MUSEUM
-
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 37. Located on the campus of West Texas State
-    University in Canyon, the Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum has
-    many exhibits of historical and geological interest that will
-    enhance one’s visit to Palo Duro Canyon State Park. (Courtesy
-    Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]
-
-The visitor to Palo Duro Canyon State Park would do well to start his
-visit at the Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum located on the campus of
-West Texas State University in Canyon (fig. 37). Here all phases of
-history—recent, archeologic, and geologic—are depicted in the various
-halls. In the Hall of Pre-History are the fossilized remains and
-reconstructions of ancient animals that were entombed in the canyon
-walls as long as 200 million years ago. Elsewhere there are exhibits and
-dioramas that portray human history in the Palo Duro area. Beginning
-with the oldest known evidence of human occupation about 12,000 years
-ago, there is a succession of displays that tell the story of man in the
-Palo Duro—High Plains region. These exhibits follow man from the early
-Indians living in stone shelters, to the horse-using nomadic plains
-Indians who relied heavily on the great herds of bison and who fought a
-desperate but losing battle to save their homeland from invasion by the
-white man. Here, too, is the story of the coming of the Spanish
-conquistadores, the _comancheros_ (_see_ p. 6), and the advent of the
-anglican settler. All are portrayed by means of artifacts that represent
-the different cultures of the region’s colorful past.
-
-The major theme of the Museum is the history of the High Plains during
-the period of the cattle industry of the open range. One entire hall is
-devoted to the display of saddles, spurs, lariats, barbed wire, branding
-irons, a chuck wagon, and a life size model of a typical cowboy of the
-Old West. The Museum also houses one of the nation’s finest collections
-of guns of the Old West, the Old World, and guns of today. Other
-highlights include scale models depicting scenes of the Old West,
-exhibits of typical rooms from pioneer homes furnished with furniture of
-that era, a fine assortment of antique vehicles, and famous collections
-of Western art.
-
-The Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum is easily reached from any of the
-major highways that pass through Canyon. It is open from 9:00 a.m. to
-5:00 p.m. weekdays and from 2:00 p.m. to 6:00 p.m. Sundays.
-
-
-
-
-                         SELECTED REFERENCES[2]
-
-
-Brand, J. P. (1956) Triassic System, _in_ Eastern Llano Estacado and
-    adjoining Osage Plains: West Texas Geol. Soc. and Lubbock Geol.
-    Soc., Guidebook, Spring Field Trip, April 6-7, 1956, pp. 8-9.
-
-Cummins, W. F. (1890) The Permian of Texas and its overlying beds: Texas
-    Geol. Survey 1st Ann. Rept. (1889), pp. 183-197.
-
-—— (1893) Notes on the geology of northwestern Texas: Texas Geol. Survey
-    4th Ann. Rept. (1892), pt. 1, pp. 177-238.
-
-Drake, N. F. (1892) Stratigraphy of the Triassic formations of northeast
-    Texas: Texas Geol. Survey 3rd Ann. Rept. (1891), pp. 225-247.
-
-Evans, G. L. (1949) Upper Cenozoic of the High Plains: West Texas Geol.
-    Soc. and New Mexico Geol. Soc., Guidebook for Field Trip No. 2,
-    November 9, 1949, pp. 1-9.
-
-*——, and Meade, G. E. (1945) Quaternary of the Texas High Plains, _in_
-    Contributions to Geology, 1944: Univ. Texas Pub. 4401, pp. 485-507.
-
-*Frye, J. C., and Leonard, A. B. (1957) Studies of Cenozoic geology
-    along eastern margin of Texas High Plains, Armstrong to Howard
-    counties: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 32, 62 pp.
-
-*——, and —— (1959) Correlation of the Ogallala Formation (Neogene) in
-    western Texas with type localities in Nebraska: Univ. Texas, Bur.
-    Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 39, 46 pp.
-
-*——, and —— (1964) Relation of Ogallala Formation to the southern High
-    Plains in Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 51,
-    25 pp.
-
-*Girard, R. M. (1959) Bibliography and index of Texas geology: Univ.
-    Texas Pub. 5910, 238 pp.
-
-*—— (1964) Texas rocks and minerals: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol.
-    Guidebook No. 6, 109 pp.
-
-Gould, C. N. (1902) The geology and water resources of the eastern
-    portion of the Panhandle of Texas: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply
-    Paper 154, 64 pp.
-
-—— (1907) The geology and water resources of the western portion of the
-    Panhandle of Texas: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 191, 70
-    pp.
-
-*Matthews, W. H., III (1960) Texas fossils: An amateur collector’s
-    handbook: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Guidebook No. 2, 123 pp.
-
-*Patton, L. T. (1923) The geology of Potter County [Texas]: Univ. Texas
-    Bull. 2330, 180 pp.
-
-*Reed, L. C., and Longnecker, O. M. (1932) The geology of Hemphill
-    County, Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 3231, 98 pp.
-
-*Sellards, E. H., Adkins, W. S., and Plummer, F. B. (1933) The geology
-    of Texas, Vol. I, Stratigraphy: Univ. Texas Bull. 3232 (August 22,
-    1932), 1007 pp.
-
-West Texas State University Geological Society (1964) Palo Duro Field
-    Trip Guidebook: West Texas State Univ. Geol. Soc., Canyon, 18 pp.
-
-—— (1960) Geology of Palo Duro Canyon State Park and the Panhandle of
-    Texas: West Texas State Univ. Geol. Soc., Guidebook for 1966 SASGS
-    Annual Field Trip, April 15-17, 1966, 58 pp.
-
-Smith, A. R. (1967) Caves of Palo Duro Canyon: The Texas Caver, Abilene,
-    Texas, vol. 12, pp. 145-148.
-
-
-
-
-                                GLOSSARY
-
-
-Abrasion—erosion of rock material by friction of solid particles moved
-    by water, ice, wind, or gravity.
-
-Absolute time—geologic time measured in years. Compare with relative
-    time.
-
-Amphibians—cold-blooded four-footed animals which have gills in youth
-    and lungs in maturity (e.g., frog).
-
-Anhydrite—the mineral calcium sulfate, CaSO₄. _See_ Gypsum.
-
-Anticline—an arch-like fold in the rocks, with the beds dipping in
-    opposite directions on the two sides.
-
-Aquifer—a water-bearing layer of porous and permeable rock.
-
-Aragonite—a form of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃).
-
-Archeozoic—the oldest known geological era; early Precambrian.
-
-Bedding plane—the plane of demarcation between two individual rock
-    layers or strata.
-
-Calcite—a mineral composed of calcium carbonate, CaCO₃.
-
-Caliche—an accumulation of calcium carbonate, commonly white in color,
-    in the soil profile.
-
-Cenozoic—the latest era of geologic time, containing the Tertiary and
-    Quaternary Periods and continuing to the present time.
-
-Chert—dense, hard rock of very fine-grained silica, usually in nodular
-    form. This material is also called flint.
-
-Concretion—a concentration, usually spherical, of mineral matter in
-    sedimentary rocks, produced by deposits from solution; it is harder
-    than the surrounding rock.
-
-Conglomerate—a sedimentary rock composed of rounded, water-worn gravel,
-    usually mixed with sand, and cemented together by another mineral
-    substance.
-
-Coprolite—the fossilized excrement of animals.
-
-Eolian—pertaining to the erosion and the deposits resulting from wind
-    action and to sedimentary rocks composed of wind-transported
-    material.
-
-Epoch—a subdivision of a geologic period, such as the Pliocene Epoch of
-    the Tertiary Period.
-
-Era—a major division of geologic time. All geologic time is divided into
-    five eras: the Archeozoic, Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and
-    Cenozoic Eras.
-
-Fluorescence—luminescence of a mineral during exposure to radiation
-    (such as from ultraviolet or X-rays).
-
-Fluvial deposit—sediment deposited by streams.
-
-Formation—a rock unit useful for mapping and distinguished primarily on
-    the basis of lithologic character.
-
-Fossil—any remains or traces of plants or animals preserved in deposits
-    of a past geologic age.
-
-Geode—a hollow stone, usually lined or filled with mineral matter.
-
-Geologic age—the age of an object as stated in terms of geologic time
-    (e.g., a Pennsylvanian fern, Cretaceous dinosaur).
-
-Geologic time—all time which has elapsed since the first known rocks
-    were formed and continuing until recent, or modern, times.
-
-Geologic time scale—record of the divisions of earth history.
-
-Gypsum—a mineral, hydrated calcium sulfate (CaSO₄·2H₂O). _See_
-    Anhydrite.
-
-Hoodoo—a form produced by erosion of rock.
-
-Ice age—the Pleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period, Cenozoic Era; a
-    time of extensive glaciation.
-
-Igneous rock—rocks which have solidified from lava or molten rock called
-    magma.
-
-Joint—a fracture in a rock along which there has been no displacement on
-    opposite sides of the break.
-
-Joint System—a series of two or more sets of joints passing through a
-    rock mass and separating it into blocks of more or less regular
-    pattern.
-
-Mass-wasting—erosion caused chiefly by gravity.
-
-Mesozoic—the geologic era between the Paleozoic and Cenozoic Eras; the
-    “Age of Reptiles.”
-
-Metamorphic rock—rock formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks that have
-    been subjected to great changes in temperature, pressure, or
-    chemical environment.
-
-Metamorphism—the process whereby rocks are changed physically by heat,
-    pressure, or chemical environment into different kinds.
-
-Mineral—a naturally occurring inorganic substance possessing definite
-    chemical and physical properties.
-
-Nodule—rounded lump of rock or mineral.
-
-Outcrop—the area where a particular rock formation comes to the surface.
-
-Paleontology—the science which deals with the study of fossils.
-
-Paleozoic—that era of geologic time following the Proterozoic and
-    preceding the Mesozoic.
-
-Period—a basic unit of the geologic time scale into which the eras are
-    divided, such as the Pennsylvanian Period of the Paleozoic Era.
-
-Permian—the seventh and last period of the Paleozoic Era.
-
-Pleistocene—the first of the two epochs of the Quaternary Period, and
-    that which precedes modern time, known as the Great Ice Age.
-
-Pliocene—last and youngest epoch of the Tertiary Period of the Cenozoic
-    Era.
-
-Proterozoic—youngest era of the Precambrian; follows the Archeozoic Era
-    and precedes the Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era.
-
-Red beds—a general term for red sandstone, shales, etc., which appear to
-    characterize arid periods in the past.
-
-Ripple marks—wave-like corrugations produced in unconsolidated materials
-    by wind or water.
-
-Rock—any natural aggregate of mineral matter, usually consisting of a
-    mixture of two or more minerals.
-
-Sandstone—sedimentary rock composed of cemented sand grains, usually
-    quartz.
-
-Sediment—material that has been deposited by settling from a
-    transportation agent such as water or air.
-
-Sedimentary rock—rocks formed by the accumulation of sediments.
-
-Shale—a sedimentary rock formed by the hardening of mud and clay and
-    usually tending to split into thin sheets or layers.
-
-Silica—an oxide of silicon (SiO₂).
-
-Siliceous—containing or pertaining to silica.
-
-Silt—fine muddy sediment consisting of particles intermediate in size
-    between clay particles and sand grains.
-
-Siltstone—a very fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of silt grains,
-    and intermediate between shale and sandstone.
-
-Stratified rocks—sedimentary rocks; those formed in beds, layers, or
-    strata.
-
-Stratum—an individual layer of rock formation. (Plural, _strata_.)
-
-Superposition, law of—in an undisturbed sequence of rocks younger beds
-    overlie older beds.
-
-Syncline—a trough-like fold in the rocks, with the beds dipping inward
-    on either side. _See_ Anticline.
-
-Talus—a mass of rock debris commonly on slopes or at the base of a steep
-    mountain or cliff.
-
-Topography—the configuration of a land surface.
-
-Unconformity—a break in the sequence of rock formations which separates
-    younger strata from older ones; caused primarily by removal of older
-    rocks by erosion before those of a later sequence were laid down.
-
-Weathering—any natural process, mechanical or chemical, whereby rocks
-    are disintegrated or decomposed into smaller particles and
-    ultimately into clay and soil.
-
-
-
-
-                                 Index
-
-
-                                   A
-  abrasion: 30
-  Adair, John: 6
-  “Age of Mammals”: 27
-  alabaster: 17
-  ancient man in Palo Duro Canyon: 3
-  anhydrite: 18
-  anticlines: 18
-  Apaches: 1, 3
-  aquifer: 26
-  Arapahos: 3
-  Archeozoic rocks: 13
-
-
-                                    B
-  “blow sand”: 28
-  bottom load: 29
-  Brazos River: 8
-  _Buettneria_: 22, 23, 24
-
-
-                                    C
-  calcite: 22
-  caliche: 26
-  camels: 27
-  camping and picnicking: 43
-  Canyon, Texas: 45
-  Capitol Peak: 1, 18, 19, 31, 40, 42
-  Carboniferous Period: 16
-  Catarina Cave: 19, 37, 38
-  chemical weathering: 30
-  chert: 26
-  Cheyennes: 3
-  Civilian Conservation Corps: 8
-  Colorado River: 8
-  _comancheros_: 6, 46
-  Comanches: 1, 3
-  concretions: 22
-  conglomerate: 24
-  coprolites: 22
-  Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de: 3
-  Coronado Lodge: 1, 21, 26, 33, 34
-  “Cow Cabins”: 41
-  cross-bedding: 19, 20
-  cross-stratification: 19
-
-
-                                    D
-  decomposition: 30
-  Devil’s Slide: 19, 40, 44
-  Devil’s Tombstone: 40
-  differential erosion: 31, 41
-  disintegration: 30
-  dugout, Col. Charles Goodnight’s: 39, 40
-
-
-                                    E
-  earth history: 10-12
-  Eastern Caprock Escarpment: 8
-  erosion, differential: 31, 41
-
-
-                                    F
-  flash floods: 29
-  fluorescence: 26
-  fluvial sediments: 24
-  Fortress Cliff: 1, 40, 42
-  fossils: 10
-  frost wedging: 30
-
-
-                                    G
-  geodes: 22
-  geologic column: 12
-  geologic time scale: 11, 12
-  geomorphologist: 29
-  Goodnight, Colonel Charles: 1, 39, 40
-  gypsum: 17
-
-
-                                    H
-  Harper, Mrs. Ples: 35
-  hematite: 22
-  Hester, W. A.: 1
-  High Plains: 8
-  hiking: 43
-  history of park: 3-8
-  “hoodoos”: 23, 31
-  Horn, Ron: 35
-  horseback riding: 43
-  horses: 27
-  hydration: 18, 31
-  hydraulic action: 30
-
-
-                                    I
-  Ice Age: 3
-  igneous rocks: 10
-  Indian campground: 39
-  Indians of the Plains: 3
-
-
-                                    J
-  JA Ranch: 6
-
-
-                                    K
-  Kiowas: 1, 3
-
-
-                                    L
-  Lighthouse, The: 23, 25, 39, 41
-  Little Sunday Canyon: 39
-  Llano Estacado: 8
-
-
-                                    M
-  Mackenzie, Colonel Ranald: 3
-  mammals: 27
-  Marcy, Captain R. B.: 6
-  mass-wasting: 31
-  mastodon, shovel-jawed: 27
-  mechanical weathering: 30
-  metamorphic rocks: 10
-  mortar hole: 25
-
-
-                                    O
-  Observation Point: 33
-  Ogallala Formation: 21, 23-27, 42
-  opal: 26
-  oxidation: 31
-
-
-                                    P
-  Paleozoic Era: 13
-  Palo Duro Canyon State Park: 7, 14, 45
-  Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum: 2, 27, 45-46
-  Park Entrance: 33
-  park history: 3-8
-  Park Road 5: 33, 38, 50
-  Parker, Chief Quanah: 7
-  Pecos River: 8
-  pedestal rock: 25
-  petrified wood: 22
-  photography: 43
-  phytosaurs: 22
-  picnicking and camping: 43
-  Pioneer Amphitheatre: 33-34
-  Plains Indians: 3
-  Pleistocene rocks: 28
-      time: 3
-  Pliocene Epoch: 27
-  Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River: 1, 29, 39
-  Precambrian rocks: 13
-  principle of superposition: 13
-  Proterozoic rocks: 13
-  psilomelane: 22
-
-
-                                    Q
-  Quartermaster Formation: 12, 17-19, 20, 21, 31, 36, 37, 42, 44
-
-
-                                    R
-  Red River: 8, 29
-  reduction halos: 19, 20
-  ripple marks: 19
-  Rock Garden, The: 23, 40, 43
-  Rocky Mountains: 24
-
-
-                                    S
-  saber-tooth cat: 27
-  Sad Monkey, Texas: 36
-      Railroad: 6, 20, 23, 35
-  Santana’s Face: 23, 37, 38
-  satin spar: 17
-  Scenic Drive, The: 33
-  sedimentary rocks: 10
-  sediments: 10
-  selenite: 17
-  septaria: 22
-  septarian concretions: 22
-  shovel-jawed mastodon: 27
-  Sky Ride, The: 37
-  Sleeping Indian: 40, 42
-  sloths: 27
-  siliceous rocks: 27
-  solution: 29
-  Spanish Skirts: 19, 37
-  suffosian: 19
-  Sunday Canyon: 40
-  superposition, principle of: 13
-  suspension: 29
-  synclines: 18
-
-
-                                    T
-  talus: 31
-  talus slopes: 31
-  Tecovas Formation: 19-22, 36, 37, 42, 44
-  Texas Panhandle: 9
-  Texas Panhandle Heritage Foundation, Inc.: 35
-  Texas Parks and Wildlife Department: 2
-  Texas-Santa Fe Expedition: 6
-  Timber Mesa: 1, 23, 37, 38
-  time scale, geologic: 11, 12
-  tortoises: 27
-  Triassic Peak: 1, 35
-  Trujillo Formation: 20, 21, 22-23, 36, 38, 42, 43
-  Turnaround, The: 1, 41, 44
-
-
-                                    U
-  unconformities: 21
-
-
-                                    W
-  water crossings: 39
-  weathering: 30
-  West Texas State University: 45
-  Wolfin, Charles A.: 1
-
-
-
-
-                                Footnotes
-
-
-[1]Professor of Geology, Lamar State College of Technology, Beaumont,
-    Texas.
-
-[2]Entries marked with asterisk are published by the Bureau of Economic
-    Geology, The University of Texas at Austin. Those not out of print
-    are distributed at nominal sale price; list sent on request.
-
-
-    [Illustration: Cover image, Aerial view of Palo Duro Canyon]
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber’s Notes
-
-
---This book, published without copyright notice, is in the public
-  domain.
-
---Silently corrected a few palpable typos.
-
---Added links to glossary entries.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon, by 
-William A. Matthews
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGIC STORY--PALO DURO CANYON ***
-
-***** This file should be named 52179-0.txt or 52179-0.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon, by 
-William A. Matthews
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon
-       Guidebook 8
-
-Author: William A. Matthews
-
-Release Date: May 28, 2016 [EBook #52179]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGIC STORY--PALO DURO CANYON ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-                       BUREAU OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
-                   The University of Texas at Austin
-                        Peter T. Flawn, Director
-
-
-                              Guidebook 8
-
-
-
-
-                 The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon
-
-
-                                   By
-                        William H. Matthews III
-
-    [Illustration: THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN]
-
-                              August 1969
-                            Second Printing
-                              August 1983
-
-
-
-
-                                Contents
-
-
-  Introduction                                                         1
-  Acknowledgments                                                      2
-  Park history                                                         3
-      Ancient man in Palo Duro Canyon                                  3
-      Indians of the Plains                                            3
-      Advent of the White Man                                          3
-  Regional setting                                                     8
-  The geologic story                                                  10
-      The canyon's rocks and minerals                                 10
-      Unraveling earth history                                        10
-      The geologic column and geologic time scale                     12
-      Geologic formations exposed in Palo Duro Canyon                 16
-      Quartermaster Formation                                         17
-      Tecovas Formation                                               19
-      Trujillo Formation                                              22
-      Ogallala Formation                                              23
-      Rocks of the Pleistocene                                        28
-  How the canyon was carved                                           29
-      The geologic work of running water                              29
-      Weathering and gravity add the final touch                      30
-      Weathering                                                      30
-      Mass-wasting                                                    31
-      Differential erosion                                            31
-  What to do and see at Palo Duro Canyon State Park                   33
-      Park Entrance                                                   33
-      Coronado Lodge and Observation Point                            33
-      The Scenic Drive                                                33
-      Pioneer Amphitheatre                                            33
-      Sad Monkey Train Ride                                           35
-      Triassic Peak                                                   35
-      Spanish Skirts                                                  37
-      Catarina Cave                                                   37
-      Santana's Face                                                  37
-      The Sky Ride                                                    37
-      The First Water Crossing                                        39
-      Colonel Charles Goodnight's Dugout                              39
-      The Lighthouse                                                  39
-      Capitol Peak                                                    40
-      Fortress Cliff                                                  40
-      The Rock Garden                                                 40
-      The Devil's Slide                                               40
-      The Turnaround                                                  41
-      Hiking                                                          43
-      Horseback riding                                                43
-      Camping and picnicking                                          43
-      Photography                                                     43
-  Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum                                  45
-  Selected references                                                 47
-  Glossary                                                            48
-  Index                                                               50
-
-
-
-
-                              Illustrations
-
-
-  Figures--                                                         Page
-  1. Aerial View of Palo Duro Canyon                        Frontispiece
-  2. Place map of Palo Duro Canyon                                   4-5
-  3. Indian carving on sandstone boulder                               6
-  4. War dress of Comanche Chief Quanah Parker                         7
-  5. Generalized geologic map of the Texas Panhandle                   9
-  6. Geologic time scale                                              11
-  7. Generalized geologic map of Palo Duro Canyon State Park       14-15
-  8. Joints and gypsum veins in Quartermaster Formation               17
-  9. Syncline in Quartermaster red beds                               18
-  10. Reduction halos in Quartermaster shale                          20
-  11. Cross-bedded boulder of Trujillo sandstone                      20
-  12. Panoramic view of canyon showing major rock units exposed in
-          canyon                                                      21
-  13. Phytosaur skull                                                 22
-  14. Skeleton of _Buettneria_                                        24
-  15. Mortar hole made by Indians                                     25
-  16. Rock pedestal near the Lighthouse                               25
-  17. Outcrop of Ogallala caliche                                     26
-  18. Life-sized model of shovel-jawed mastodon                       27
-  19. Fossilized carapaces of Pliocene tortoises                      27
-  20. Talus slopes and "hoodoo" on Capitol Peak                       31
-  21. Entrance to Palo Duro Canyon State Park                         34
-  22. Coronado Lodge                                                  34
-  23. Pioneer Amphitheatre                                            35
-  24. Train on Sad Monkey Railroad track                              36
-  25. South face of Triassic Peak                                     36
-  26. Spanish Skirts                                                  37
-  27. Catarina Cave                                                   38
-  28. Santana's Face                                                  38
-  29. Picnic area at first water crossing                             39
-  30. Colonel Charles Goodnight's Dugout                              40
-  31. The Lighthouse                                                  41
-  32. Capitol Peak                                                    42
-  33. Fortress Cliff                                                  42
-  34. The Rock Garden                                                 43
-  35. The Devil's Slide                                               44
-  36. Campsite in south end of park                                   44
-  37. Entrance to Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum                  45
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 1. Aerial view of Palo Duro Canyon showing
-    location of major points of interest: (1) Coronado Lodge; (2)
-    Triassic Peak; (3) Timber Mesa; (4) Capitol Peak; (5) Fortress
-    Cliff; (6) Prairie Dog Town Fork of Red River; (7) The Turnaround
-    (termination of Park Road 5). (Courtesy of Charles A. Wolfin;
-    photograph by W. A. Hester.)]
-
-
-
-
-                 The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon
-
-
-                       William H. Mathews III[1]
-
-
-
-
-                              INTRODUCTION
-
-
-Like the early Spanish explorers who first saw Palo Duro Canyon, today's
-visitor is likely to view the impressive canyon with surprise and awe.
-This great depression--it is more than 2 miles wide and as much as 800
-feet deep within park boundaries--contains a fascinating assortment of
-multicolored geologic formations and erosion-produced rock sculptures of
-many shapes, colors, and size. The geographic setting of the canyon
-further heightens its impact on the visitor, for it is surrounded by the
-level, virtually treeless plains of the Texas Panhandle. (_See_ upper
-background area in fig. 1, frontispiece).
-
-It is not surprising that this scenic area has been set aside as a State
-park, for Palo Duro Canyon has long been of interest to man. First, as
-the hunting grounds of prehistoric Indians who stalked the now-extinct
-Ice Age mammoths and bison that roamed the valley floor. Later, the
-canyon was frequented by the Comanches, Apaches, Kiowas, and other
-Indians of historic time. These tribes, like those before them, found
-both food and refuge within the canyon. However, it was not until 1876
-that Palo Duro Canyon was inhabited by the white man. It was during this
-year that pioneer cattleman Charles Goodnight herded some 1,600 head of
-cattle into the canyon and established a camp there (p. 6).
-
-Today's visitor to Palo Duro Canyon can re-live some of the fascinating
-history of this interesting area. One can still see a replica of Colonel
-Goodnight's primitive dugout, follow the faint trace of the Comanche
-Trail, or perhaps find the fossil bones of prehistoric creatures that
-lived hundreds of thousands--even millions--of years ago. But most
-visitors to Texas' most colorful canyon are not attracted by its
-interesting history. They come instead to enjoy the scenery and
-recreational opportunities that are present. These are readily
-accessible, for a carefully engineered, hard-surface road leads from the
-rim of the canyon to the canyon floor. There are campgrounds, picnic
-areas, concessions, and even an outdoor theatre (fig. 23). The location
-of these facilities and some of the canyon's more interesting geologic
-features are shown on the generalized place map of the canyon (fig. 2).
-
-This publication does not attempt to describe the scenic beauty of Palo
-Duro Canyon, for this must be seen to be appreciated. Rather, it
-discusses the geologic setting and origin of the canyon, the methods by
-which some of the more interesting geologic features were formed, and
-briefly reviews the history of the area. Hopefully, it will enable the
-visitor to understand better the meaning behind the canyon scenery,
-thereby enhancing his visit.
-
-
-
-
-                            ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
-
-
-Many people have assisted in the preparation of _The Geologic Story of
-Palo Duro Canyon_, and their help is gratefully acknowledged: Professor
-Jack T. Hughes, Dr. Frank W. Daugherty, Dr. Robert C. Burton, Meade
-Humphries, and Jim Hughes of the West Texas State University Geology
-Department provided much information about the area and assisted in the
-field; help was also provided by Mr. Pete Cowart, Mr. Earl Burtz, Mr.
-Jerry Tschauner, Mr. Bob Watson, Mr. King, and other park personnel; Mr.
-C. Boone McClure, of the Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum, furnished
-some of the photographs; Mr. J. Dan Scurlock, Mr. Bill Collins, and Mr.
-Harold Allums, of the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, made
-available certain maps and statistical data; Mrs. Ples Harper of Canyon
-assisted in assembling information and photographs for the Pioneer
-Amphitheatre; and the aerial photograph of Palo Duro Canyon was taken by
-Mr. W. A. Hester and made available through the courtesy of Mr. Charles
-A. Wolflin of Amarillo.
-
-Drs. Peter T. Flawn, Peter U. Rodda, and Ross A. Maxwell of the Bureau
-of Economic Geology read much of the manuscript and offered many helpful
-suggestions, and Mr. A. Richard Smith provided special information on
-caves in the Palo Duro area. Special thanks are due to Miss Josephine
-Casey who edited the manuscript and to Mr. J. W. Macon, cartographer,
-who assumed responsibility for preparing the maps. Thanks are due also
-to my wife, Jennie, who critically read the manuscript and took a number
-of the photographs. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. J. Daniel Powell
-of The University of Texas at Arlington for invaluable assistance in the
-field and his enthusiastic co-operation throughout the project.
-
-
-
-
-                              PARK HISTORY
-
-
-Palo Duro Canyon's long and colorful past has created considerable
-interest among historians, archeologists, and geologists. Historians
-have traced the written history of man and his effect on the Palo Duro
-area, but archeologists have delved much further into the past. They
-have sought out and studied the more enduring records of the canyon's
-early inhabitants--their tools, utensils, and weapons. The geologist,
-however, is interested in history that far antedates even the most
-primitive human inhabitant of the canyon. The earth scientist has probed
-the geologic record of the Palo Duro area, using rocks, minerals, and
-fossils as clues to the geologic history and development of the canyon.
-
-Palo Duro Canyon is unique among Texas' State parks because of its many
-contributions to history, archeology, and geology. Here the written
-record, the artifacts of prehistoric man, and the geologic formations
-overlap and complement each other in many respects. Although this
-guidebook is primarily concerned with the geologic history of the
-canyon, a brief review of its human history is also included.
-
-
-                    ANCIENT MAN IN PALO DURO CANYON
-
-Archeological studies indicate that the earliest known inhabitants of
-Palo Duro Canyon lived in the canyon from about 10,000 to 5,000 B.C.
-These early men apparently hunted the bison and now-extinct
-elephant-like mammoths that roamed the Palo Duro area during the Ice Age
-of Pleistocene time (_see_ geologic time scale, fig. 6). Their stone
-weapons and other artifacts have been found in and around the canyon. It
-is assumed that these primitive people--like those who came later--were
-attracted by the streams and springs that are found in the canyon and by
-game that came there to feed. There is also evidence that the Indians
-took advantage of certain of the canyon's geologic features. They
-fashioned tools, weapons, and utensils from the rocks exposed in the
-canyon and used certain of the shallow caves and rock shelters as their
-homes.
-
-
-                         INDIANS OF THE PLAINS
-
-Various tribes of Plains Indians of historic times also used Palo Duro
-Canyon as a camping ground. The presence of these Indians is known from
-many campsites and burials. In addition, flint chips and stone
-artifacts, potsherds, ornaments of shell and bone, grinding slabs, stone
-mortars (fig. 15), and a few pictographs (fig. 3) have provided
-considerable information about the culture of these people. Among the
-tribes believed to have frequented the canyon at various times are the
-Apaches, Cheyennes, Arapahos, Kiowas, and Comanches. However, it is the
-Comanches who are most closely associated with the Palo Duro area, for
-the canyon is located near the center of their last homeland. Indeed it
-was here that the Comanches were finally defeated and driven from this
-part of the Plains. The battlefield where Colonel Ranald Mackenzie's
-troops fought the Comanches is located near the southeast corner of the
-park (_see_ fig. 7). This skirmish, which took place in 1874, is
-believed to have been the last major Indian battle in Texas.
-
-Although most of the canyon's archeological sites have been picked over
-and many of the artifacts removed, important finds are still
-occasionally reported. Park visitors who make discoveries of this type
-are urged to report them to a park ranger in order that they might be
-called to the attention of the proper authorities.
-
-
-                        ADVENT OF THE WHITE MAN
-
-Although the history of Palo Duro Canyon is rich in Indian lore, it was
-the coming of the white man that heralded the development of the area.
-Today it is generally believed that Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was
-the first white man to view the canyon. Coronado and his men are thought
-to have camped here during the winter of 1541, as they crossed the High
-Plains in search of the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 2. Place map of Palo Duro Canyon.]
-
-Later, during the 17th and 18th centuries, the canyon was a favorite
-resting place of the buffalo hunters and Indian traders who frequented
-the Plains. The canyon was also popular during the first half of the
-19th century, for it was then that it was occupied by the Comanches and
-served as a trade center for the Spaniards and Indians who came from New
-Mexico. These traders, called _comancheros_, bartered for loot taken by
-the Comanches on their raids of early settlements and wagon trains that
-passed through the Panhandle-Plains region.
-
-This same era marked the beginning of American interest in the Palo Duro
-country. During this period the area was visited by several expeditions
-including those of Long and Pike and the Texas-Santa Fe Expedition of
-1841. However, the canyon was not fully explored or mapped until 1852.
-This important survey was carried out by a party which was under the
-supervision of Captain R. B. Marcy.
-
-But it was not until 1876 that the first white man established permanent
-residence in Palo Duro Canyon. In 1876--just two years after McKenzie's
-rout of the Comanches--Colonel Charles Goodnight herded more than 1,600
-head of cattle into the canyon. Here he laid out his first permanent
-ranch and lived in a primitive earthen dugout. Not only was Goodnight's
-Palo Duro Ranch the first in the canyon, it is also thought to have been
-the first commercial cattle ranch in the Texas Panhandle. In later years
-Colonel Goodnight formed a partnership with John Adair of Ireland, and
-together they developed the famous JA Ranch--a vast spread of some
-600,000 acres. Today's visitor to Palo Duro Canyon can visit a partially
-restored dugout similar to that occupied by the canyon's early settlers
-(fig. 30).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 3. The face carved on this boulder can be seen
-    along the track of the Sad Monkey Railroad (p. 35). It is believed
-    to have been carved by Indians.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 4. The war bonnet, war lance, and head feathers
-    of Comanche Chief Quanah Parker can be seen at the Panhandle-Plains
-    Historical Museum in Canyon. (Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains
-    Historical Museum.)]
-
-From the late 1800s until about 1930, the Palo Duro country remained the
-domain of the Panhandle-Plains cattleman. It was, nonetheless, a
-favorite picnic and camping spot of the residents of nearby towns and
-cities. In 1933 the recreational potential of the canyon was finally
-recognized and land for the Palo Duro Canyon State Park was purchased by
-the State of Texas with money obtained through a public revenue bond
-issue. Today, most of the park revenue received through gate admissions,
-concession receipts, and mineral leases goes into a fund that pays off
-the remaining balance of the revenue bonds. During the initial phase of
-the park's development, most of the improvements in the area were made
-by members of the Civilian Conservation Corps who worked under the
-supervision of the National Park Service.
-
-Currently, Palo Duro Canyon State Park is visited by approximately
-300,000 visitors each year and is one of the State's more popular
-recreational and scenic areas.
-
-
-
-
-                            REGIONAL SETTING
-
-
-Palo Duro Canyon State Park is located in the Panhandle of Texas (fig.
-5) approximately 13 miles east of Canyon on State Highway 217 (_see_
-fig. 7). It is about 12 miles south and 8 miles east of Amarillo via
-Ranch Road 1541 which intersects State Highway 217. The park includes
-more than 15,000 acres of Palo Duro Canyon, a complexly dissected area
-which spreads into Randall, Armstrong, and Briscoe counties.
-
-More specifically, the Palo Duro area is situated on the Llano Estacado
-or High Plains area which comprises approximately 20,000 square miles of
-Texas and New Mexico (_see_ fig. 5). Generally speaking, the Llano
-Estacado is a high isolated plateau or broad mesa, rising above the
-surrounding rolling plains in a nearly flat, island-like mass. On the
-west, southwest, and south, the Llano Estacado is bounded by the valley
-of the Pecos River, while its eastern escarpment is drained by the
-headwaters of the Red, Brazos, and Colorado Rivers.
-
-The rim of Palo Duro Canyon is formed by the Eastern Caprock Escarpment.
-Caprock is the term used to describe a massive layer of calcareous rock
-which supports the High Plains surface (_see_ p. 26). Because it is more
-resistant to forces of erosion than the softer, underlying more or less
-horizontal strata, the caprock forms an abrupt, precipitous escarpment
-at the edge of the High Plains. With the exception of the resistant
-caprock, however, the surficial deposits on the High Plains are for the
-most part unconsolidated sediments.
-
-The Llano Estacado is essentially devoid of native trees and is
-characterized by a sparse, but uniform, covering of grasses. The surface
-rocks are of Tertiary and Quaternary age (_see_ geologic time scale,
-fig. 6) and have a general easterly to southeasterly slope of about 9�
-feet per mile. In the vicinity of Palo Duro Canyon, rocks of Late
-Cenozoic age are directly underlain by Permian and Triassic formations.
-These Permian and Triassic rocks, which are discussed elsewhere in this
-publication, are not normally exposed except in deeply eroded areas such
-as the canyon.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 5. Generalized geologic map of the Texas
-    Panhandle showing location of Palo Duro Canyon.]
-
-  _Showing:_
-    Q & T   Pleistocene and Pliocene undifferentiated
-    Trdo   Dockum Group (Triassic)
-    P   Permian undifferentiated
-
-
-
-
-                           THE GEOLOGIC STORY
-
-
-                    THE CANYON'S ROCKS AND MINERALS
-
-Palo Duro visitors--regardless of age--seem to have an innate curiosity
-about the canyon's rocks. This is not surprising, for most of the
-features of the park landscape are composed of or have been sculptured
-from solid rock. In short, much of the natural beauty of Palo Duro
-Canyon has been derived from the character of its exposed rock
-formations and the effect of geologic agents upon them.
-
-Because rocks are the raw materials of geology and the stuff from which
-landscapes are formed, it will be helpful for the visitor to know
-something about the general characteristics of rocks and their role in
-the development of the landscape. Rock is everywhere around us and is
-one of the most common objects in the world, yet few people can actually
-define a rock. So, at the outset it should be stated that _a rock is a
-naturally formed aggregate of minerals_, and _a mineral is a naturally
-occurring substance which has a fairly definite chemical composition,
-distinctive physical properties, characteristic internal structure, and
-which commonly occurs in definite shapes called crystals_. Although not
-an exact scientific or legal definition of a mineral, the above
-explanation is satisfactory for the purposes of this publication.
-
-Although most visitors show considerable interest in the canyon's rocks
-and minerals, few of them know the story behind the rocks. They do not
-know how the rocks were formed, of what they are composed, how they
-change, and how they differ. More important, they fail to realize the
-historical significance of the rocks and how they can be used to
-interpret events that occurred in the canyon many millions of years ago.
-Thus, before one studies the geologic story of Palo Duro Canyon, it is
-helpful to know something about the various kinds of rocks. There are
-three major classes of rocks in the earth's crust: _igneous_,
-_sedimentary_, and _metamorphic rocks_.
-
-_Igneous rocks_ solidified from an original molten state. Common
-examples of igneous rocks include granite, basalt, and volcanic ash.
-Although no igneous rocks are found in Palo Duro Canyon, they are widely
-exposed in parts of West and Central Texas.
-
-_Metamorphic rocks_ were originally igneous or sedimentary in origin.
-However, these rocks have undergone such great physical and chemical
-change that they have been transformed into a different kind of rock.
-Thus, metamorphic changes alter limestone to marble or sandstone to
-quartzite. No metamorphic rocks crop out in the canyon, but, like the
-igneous rocks, they are common in some parts of the State.
-
-All of the geologic formations exposed in Palo Duro Canyon are composed
-of _sedimentary rocks_. These are rocks that have been formed by the
-compaction and cementation of rock and mineral fragments called
-_sediments_, or by the precipitation of material from solution.
-Sandstone, conglomerate, shale, and caliche (_see_ p. 26) are examples
-of sedimentary rocks that are exposed in the canyon.
-
-Sedimentary rocks are typically _stratified_, that is, they occur in
-layers or beds called _strata_. In addition, sedimentary
-rocks--especially those of marine origin--commonly contain _fossils_.
-These fossils are traces or evidence of prehistoric plants and animals
-that have been preserved in the rocks, and they may provide clues as to
-the age of rocks and the manner in which they were formed. Fossil
-remains have been found at a number of places in the park and these are
-discussed later.
-
-
-                        UNRAVELING EARTH HISTORY
-
-In order to understand better the geologic history and development of
-the canyon, one should also have some knowledge of the basic principles
-of earth history and should be familiar with the geologic time scale
-(fig. 6).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 6. Geologic time scale. Reproduced from
-    _FOSSILS: An Introduction to Prehistoric Life_, William H. Matthews
-    III, Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1962.]
-
-  GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
-  ERA
-    PERIOD
-      EPOCH
-        SUCCESSION OF LIFE
-  CENOZOIC   "RECENT LIFE"
-    QUATERNARY   0-1 MILLION YEARS
-      Recent
-      Pleistocene
-    TERTIARY   62 MILLION YEARS
-      Pliocene
-      Miocene
-      Oligocene
-      Eocene
-      Paleocene
-  MESOZOIC   "MIDDLE LIFE"
-    CRETACEOUS   72 MILLION YEARS
-    JURASSIC   46 MILLION YEARS
-    TRIASSIC   49 MILLION YEARS
-  PALEOZOIC   "ANCIENT LIFE"
-    PERMIAN   50 MILLION YEARS
-    CARBONIFEROUS
-      PENNSYLVANIAN   30 MILLION YEARS
-      MISSISSIPPIAN   35 MILLION YEARS
-    DEVONIAN   60 MILLION YEARS
-    SILURIAN   20 MILLION YEARS
-    ORDOVICIAN   75 MILLION YEARS
-    CAMBRIAN   100 MILLION YEARS
-  PRECAMBRIAN ERAS
-    PROTEROZOIC ERA
-    ARCHEOZOIC ERA
-      APPROXIMATE AGE OF THE EARTH MORE THAN 4 BILLION 550 MILLION YEARS
-
-The geologist has learned that the earth's physical features have not
-always been as they are today. It is known, for example, that mountains
-now occupy the sites of ancient seas. Coal is now being mined where
-swamps existed many millions of years ago. Furthermore, the earth's
-plants and animals have also been subject to great change. The trend of
-this organic change is, in general, toward more complex and advanced
-forms of life. However, some forms have remained virtually unaltered
-while others have become extinct at different points in geologic time.
-
-In order to interpret earth history, the earth scientist gathers
-evidence of the great changes in climate, geography, and life that took
-place in the geologic past. He does this by studying the rock
-formations, the structural relationships of these formations, and the
-landforms of the area. The record of ancient events is pieced together
-by studying the stony layers of the earth as one might study a giant
-history book. Indeed, the sedimentary rocks are the rocky "pages" of
-earth history, for in them we find the tracks and trails, and bones and
-stones, which reveal the intriguing story of life long ago.
-
-Much of the basic information which the geologist uses to reconstruct
-the geologic history of a region comes from his examination and
-interpretation of _bedrock outcrops_. _Bedrock_ is the solid unweathered
-rock which underlies loose earth material such as soil, sand, and
-gravel. An _outcrop_, or _exposure_, is a place where bedrock is exposed
-at the surface.
-
-The first chapter of earth history begins with the most ancient rocks
-known. Because they were formed early in geologic time, these rocks are
-normally found deeply buried beneath younger rocks which have been
-deposited on top of them. It is for this reason that earth history is
-read from the bottom up, for the earliest formed rock layers correspond
-to the opening chapter in our earthen history book. The later chapters
-are found in the upper younger rocks which are located nearer the
-surface. Thus, in "reading" the geologic history of Palo Duro Canyon we
-start with the oldest "chapter" which is recorded in the Quartermaster
-Formation (p. 17) of Permian age, for these are the oldest rocks exposed
-in the canyon.
-
-But deciphering earth history is not as simple as it might appear. In
-many areas the rock layers are not always found in the sequence in which
-they were originally deposited. In places, great structural disturbances
-have caused some of the rocky "pages" to become shuffled and out of
-place; others may be missing completely. Many rocks have been destroyed
-by weathering and erosion or greatly altered by metamorphism. As a
-result, the story recorded in these particular rocks is lost forever.
-These missing "pages" make the ancient story even more difficult to
-interpret so the geologist must then depend on other evidence that will
-permit him to "fill in the blanks."
-
-The record revealed in the rocks indicates that our planet is at least
-4� billion years old and that life has been present for more than 3
-billion years. During this vast span of time the earth and its
-inhabitants have undergone many changes.
-
-
-              THE GEOLOGIC COLUMN AND GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
-
-The _geologic column_ refers to the total succession of rocks, from the
-oldest to the most recent, that are found in the entire earth or in a
-given area. For example, the geologic column of Texas includes all rock
-divisions known to be present in the State. By the same token, the
-geologic column of Palo Duro Canyon consists of the geologic formations
-exposed there. Thus, by referring to the geologic column previously
-determined for a specific area, the geologist can determine what type of
-rock he might expect to find in that particular region.
-
-The _geologic time scale_ (fig. 6) is composed of named intervals of
-geologic time during which were deposited the rocks of the geologic
-column. These time intervals bear the same names that are used to
-distinguish the various units of the geologic column. For example, one
-can speak of Permian _time_ (referring to the geologic time scale) or of
-Permian _rocks_ (referring to rock units of Permian age in the geologic
-column).
-
-Both the geologic column and the geologic time scale are based upon the
-_principle of superposition_. This basic geologic concept states that
-unless a series of sedimentary rock has been overturned, a given rock
-layer is older than the strata above it, and younger than all of the
-layers below it. Thus, the field relationship of the rocks plus the type
-of fossils (if present) give the geologist some indication of the
-_relative_ age of the rocks. Relative age does not imply age in years;
-rather, it fixes age in relation to other events that are recorded in
-the rocks.
-
-Within recent years, however, it has become possible to assign ages in
-years to certain rock units. This is accomplished by a system of rock
-dating based on very precise measurements of amounts of radioactive
-elements (such as uranium). When present in the rocks, radioactive
-minerals change or decay at a known rate so that they are natural
-"clocks." This method of dating has made it possible to devise a time
-scale in years which gives some idea of the tremendous amount of time
-that has passed since the oldest known rocks were formed. It has also
-been used to verify the previously determined relative ages of the
-various rock units.
-
-The largest unit of geologic time is an _era_, and each era is divided
-into smaller time units called _periods_. A period of geologic time is
-divided into _epochs_, which, in turn, may be subdivided into still
-smaller units. The geologic time scale might be roughly compared to the
-calendar in which the year is divided into months, months into weeks,
-and weeks into days. Unlike years, however, geologic time units are
-arbitrary and of unequal duration, and the geologist cannot be positive
-about the exact length of time involved in each unit. The time scale
-does, however, provide a standard by which he can discuss the age of
-fossils and their surrounding rocks. By referring to the time scale it
-may be possible, for instance, to state that a certain event occurred
-during the Paleozoic Era in the same sense that one might say that
-something happened during the American Revolution.
-
-There are five eras of geologic time, and each has been given a name
-that is descriptive of the degree of life development that characterizes
-that era. Hence, Paleozoic means "ancient-life" and the era was so named
-because of the relatively simple and ancient stage of life development.
-
-The eras, a guide to their pronunciation, and the literal translation of
-each name is shown below.
-
-    Cenozoic (SEE-no-zo-ic)--"recent-life"
-    Mesozoic (MES-o-zo-ic)--"middle-life"
-    Paleozoic (PAY-lee-o-zo-ic)--"ancient-life"
-    Proterozoic (PRO-ter-o-zo-ic)--"earlier-life"
-    Archeozoic (AR-kee-o-zo-ic)--"beginning-life"
-
-Archeozoic and Proterozoic rocks are commonly grouped together and
-referred to as Precambrian in age. In most places Precambrian rocks have
-been greatly contorted and metamorphosed, and the record of this portion
-of earth history is most difficult to interpret. Precambrian time
-represents that portion of geologic time from the beginning of earth
-history until the deposition of the earliest fossiliferous Cambrian
-strata. Precambrian time probably represents as much as 85 percent of
-all geologic time.
-
-The _oldest_ era is at the _bottom_ of the time scale because this part
-of geologic time transpired first and was then followed by the
-successively younger eras which are placed above it. This is, of course,
-the order in which the various portions of geologic time occurred and
-during which the corresponding rocks were formed.
-
-As mentioned above, each of the eras has been divided into periods, and
-most of these periods derive their names from the regions in which the
-rocks of each were first studied. For example, the Pennsylvanian rocks
-of North America were first studied in the State of Pennsylvania.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 7. Generalized geologic map of Palo Duro Canyon
-    State Park.]
-
-  EXPLANATION
-    Q & T   Pleistocene and Pliocene undifferentiated
-    Rdo   Dockum Group
-    P   Permian undifferentiated
-
-The Paleozoic Era has been divided into seven periods of geologic time.
-With the oldest at the bottom of the list, these periods and the source
-of their names are:
-
-    Permian (PUR-me-un)--from the Province of Perm in Russia
-    Pennsylvanian (pen-sil-VAIN-yun)--from the State of Pennsylvania
-    Mississippian (miss-i-SIP-i-un)--from the Upper Mississippi Valley
-    Devonian (de-VO-ni-un)--from Devonshire, England
-    Silurian (si-LOO-ri-un)--for the Silures, an ancient tribe of
-          Britain
-    Ordovician (or-doe-VISH-un)--for the Ordovices, an ancient tribe of
-          Britain
-    Cambrian (KAM-bri-un)--from the Latin word _Cambria_, meaning Wales
-
-The Carboniferous Period in Europe includes the Mississippian and
-Pennsylvanian Periods of North America. Although this classification is
-no longer used in the United States, the term Carboniferous is found in
-many of the earlier geological publications and on many of the earlier
-geologic maps.
-
-The periods of the Mesozoic Era and the source of their names are:
-
-    Cretaceous (cre-TAY-shus)--from the Latin word _creta_, meaning
-          chalky
-    Jurassic (joo-RAS-ik)--from the Jura Mountains of Europe
-    Triassic (try-ASS-ik)--from the Latin word _triad_, meaning three
-
-The Cenozoic periods derived their names from an old outdated system of
-classification which divided all of the earth's rocks into four groups.
-The two divisions listed below are the only names of this system which
-are still in use:
-
-    Quaternary (kwah-TUR-nuh-ri)
-    Tertiary (TUR-shi-ri)
-
-Although the units named above are the major divisions of geologic time
-and of the geologic column, the geologist generally works with smaller
-units of the column called _geologic formations_. A geologic formation
-is a unit of rock that is recognized by certain physical and chemical
-characteristics. A formation is generally given a double name which
-indicates both where it is exposed and the type of rock that makes up
-the bulk of the formation. For example, the Beaumont Clay is a formation
-consisting of clay deposits that are found in and around Beaumont,
-Texas. For convenience in study, two or more successive and adjoining
-formations may be placed together in a group. Thus, the Tecovas and
-Trujillo Formations have been placed in the Dockum Group. Likewise, a
-formation may be subdivided into smaller units such as members, which
-may also be given geographic or lithologic (rock type) names.
-
-
-            GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS EXPOSED IN PALO DURO CANYON
-
-As noted above, all of the rocks which crop out in Palo Duro Canyon are
-sedimentary in origin. They represent four different geological periods:
-the Permian, Triassic, Tertiary, and Quaternary (fig. 12).
-
-Although these rock formations differ considerably in composition and
-age, they do not tell the whole geologic story of the area. Long spans
-of geologic time are not represented by rock units because the region
-was undergoing erosion or no sediments were being deposited during
-certain portions of geologic time. Rocks that had formed during one
-geologic period were removed by erosion during a later period. Thus,
-segments of the geologic record were destroyed or never recorded. For
-this reason, much of the geologic history of the Palo Duro area is
-unrecorded and must be inferred from fragmentary evidence borrowed and
-pieced together from adjacent areas. Even so, an interesting story can
-be assembled from the rocks that remain in the canyon today.
-
-In general, the following descriptions of the formations exposed in Palo
-Duro Canyon State Park follow the procedure that most geologists use in
-presenting the results of their geologic investigations. The more
-distinctive characteristics of the rock units are described in order
-that they may be more easily recognized, and the ways in which the rocks
-were formed are also considered. With this background it is then
-possible to review the geologic history recorded in the bedrock of the
-canyon. A simplified geologic map is presented in figure 7; this shows
-the distribution of the major rock types in the canyon. The reader will
-find it helpful to refer to this map when reading the descriptions of
-the various formations.
-
-
-Quartermaster Formation.--
-
-The oldest formation exposed in the canyon is the Quartermaster
-Formation of Permian age (_see_ fig. 6) which is named from exposures
-along the banks of Quartermaster Creek in Roger Mills County, Oklahoma.
-One of the more colorful formations in the park, the Quartermaster is
-composed primarily of brick-red to vermilion shales which are
-interbedded with lenses of gray shales, clays, mudstones, and
-sandstones. Averaging about 60 feet thick where exposed in the park, the
-Quartermaster forms the floor and lower walls of the canyon.
-
-The rocks of this formation are easily examined at many places
-throughout the canyon and in them can be seen a number of interesting
-geologic phenomena. Probably the most noticeable of these features are
-the shining white veins of _gypsum_ that lace the face of the red shale
-outcrops (fig. 8). A soft, transparent to translucent mineral that can
-be scratched by a fingernail, gypsum is hydrous calcium sulfate
-(CaSO_{4}�2H_{2}O). Three varieties of gypsum are found in the canyon:
-(1) _satin spar_, a fibrous variety with a silky sheen; (2) _selenite_,
-a colorless, transparent variety which commonly occurs in sheet-like
-masses; and (3) a fine-grained massive variety called _alabaster_. Satin
-spar is the most common variety of gypsum present and it commonly occurs
-in thin bands interbedded with the mudstones and sandstones. It is much
-more noticeable in the shales, however, for it is typically seen in
-narrow veins which criss-cross the surface of the outcrop and intersect
-the bedding planes at various angles. Although normally white, some of
-the satin spar has a soft pink or bluish hue due to the presence of
-impurities in the mineral.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 8. Veins of selenite gypsum (top arrow) in
-    Quartermaster Formation. Notice diagonal joint to left of
-    geologist's hand (lower arrow).]
-
-The presence of gypsum in the Quartermaster red beds is of special
-significance to the geologist, for it provides valuable information
-about the geologic history of the Palo Duro area. It is known, for
-example, that when a landlocked body of sea water in an arid climate
-becomes separated from the ocean, one of the most common salts to
-precipitate is hydrous calcium sulfate, or gypsum. Gypsum may also be
-precipitated when a lake without an outlet evaporates in an arid
-climate. Geologic evidence suggests that the sediments which gave rise
-to the rocks of the Quartermaster Formation were deposited in a
-landlocked arm of the sea during the latter part of the Permian Period.
-As evaporation continued and the sea water was reduced to approximately
-one-third of its original volume, gypsum was precipitated. There must
-have been periodic influxes of silt- and mud-bearing waters entering the
-ancient Permian sea, for layers of shale and mudstone are interbedded
-with the gypsum.
-
-It is believed that much of the satin spar and selenite gypsum was
-originally _anhydrite_ (CaSO_{4}). Unlike gypsum, anhydrite does not
-contain water, but it can be changed to gypsum in the presence of
-moisture. There are two lines of evidence that indicate an anhydrite
-origin for the Quartermaster gypsum. First, microscopic examination of
-gypsum samples reveals the presence of residual anhydrite crystals
-embedded in the gypsum. Second, many of the gypsum beds have been
-squeezed into rather gentle _folds_. These consist of small
-_anticlines_, upfolds or arches, and _synclines_, downfolds or troughs
-(fig. 9). It has been suggested that this folding took place as the
-anhydrite underwent _hydration_, or took on water. As hydration occurred
-and the anhydrite was converted to gypsum, the gypsum expanded, thereby
-exerting both lateral and vertical pressure on the beds around it. This
-produced the crumpled, wave-like folding so characteristic of certain of
-the gypsum beds. However, there is not complete agreement that the
-folding in the gypsum is due to the hydration of anhydrite. Certain
-geologists attribute this deformation to slumping caused by solution
-cavities, for gypsum is relatively easily dissolved in water. As the
-gypsum was dissolved and carried away in solution, the removal of the
-supporting layers of gypsum permitted slumping and consequent
-deformation in the overlying shales and mudstones. Although some
-geologists believe that the folds were caused by expansion due to the
-hydration of anhydrite and others support deformation related to the
-removal of soluble gypsum, there is general agreement that the folding
-is local and not related to regional or widespread deformation.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 9. Sagging beds of Quartermaster Formation have
-    produced this gentle syncline, or downfolding, in the rocks. The
-    "dome" on Capitol Peak can be seen in the background.]
-
-Not all of the red Quartermaster shales are uniformly colored. Some of
-them contain gray-green, circular spots called _reduction halos_ (fig.
-10). These spots, which in places give the red shales a distinctive
-polka-dot appearance, have been produced as the result of chemical
-change of certain minerals within the shale.
-
-As noted earlier, sediments are usually laid down in horizontal layers.
-However, in certain environments, sediments may be deposited in such a
-way that the layers are inclined at angle to horizontal (fig. 11). This
-structure, called _cross-bedding_ or _cross-stratification_, is found in
-certain sandstones and other coarse-grained or fragmental sedimentary
-rocks. Cross-bedding typically consists of rather distinct inclined
-layers separated by _bedding planes_ (the surface of demarcation between
-two individual rock layers). Bedding of this type commonly occurs in
-sedimentary rocks formed in rivers, deltas, and along the margins of
-lakes or oceans. The cross-bedding in the Quartermaster and certain of
-the Triassic formations is believed to have been developed under similar
-conditions. Although cross-bedding is also common in certain rocks of
-_eolian_ origin (deposited by wind) none of the cross-bedding in the
-canyon's rocks is due to the action of wind.
-
-In addition, some of the Quartermaster strata have _ripple marks_ on
-their surfaces. These features are common in certain sedimentary rocks
-and were formed when the surface of a bed of sediment was agitated by
-waves or currents. The size, shape, and cross section of the ripple
-marks can be used to tell whether the marks were produced by waves or
-currents. The ripple marks in the Quartermaster appear to have been
-formed by the action of waves on a shallow sea floor.
-
-A number of interesting geologic features in the canyon have been formed
-in part in the Quartermaster Formation. These include the multi-hued
-Spanish Skirts (fig. 26), the Devil's Slide (fig. 35), Capitol Peak
-(fig. 32), and Catarina Cave (fig. 27). The latter is a rather unusual
-cave in that it has developed in a large mass of landslide debris
-divided by projecting bedrock of the Spanish Skirts. The cave has been
-formed by _suffosian_, a process whereby water enters the landslide
-debris on the upper slopes and follows buried channels in the landslide
-removing rock debris as it passes through. The flood water exits at the
-base of the landslide by means of Catarina Cave. The plan of the cave
-closely resembles the drainage patterns of surface gullies.
-
-
-Tecovas Formation.--
-
-Rocks of the Triassic System (fig. 6) are well represented in Palo Duro
-Canyon and consist of the _Tecovas_ and _Trujillo_ Formations. These
-formations are part of the Dockum Group of Late Triassic age.
-
-Having a total thickness of about 200 feet, the Tecovas (which is named
-from exposures found on Tecovas Creek in Potter County, Texas) consists
-largely of multicolored shales. Also present are thin layers of soft
-sandstone, which are disseminated throughout the shales, and a more
-prominent bed of white sandstone, which marks the middle of the
-formation. The Tecovas shales overlie the Quartermaster Formation, and
-the lower zone of lavender, gray, and white shales forms a relatively
-smooth slope that is easily distinguished from the steeper slopes of
-gullied red-and-white-banded shales beneath them (fig. 12).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 10. Chemical reactions in certain of the red
-    Quartermaster shales have produced reduction halos (p. 19) which
-    give the rocks a polka-dot appearance.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 11. This boulder, located near the foot of
-    Triassic Peak along the Sad Monkey Railroad track, exhibits the
-    cross-bedding typical of the Trujillo sandstones.]
-
-But the contact zone between the Tecovas and Quartermaster shales
-involves more than a mere change in color. Here is one of the missing
-"chapters" in the geologic history of the canyon, for part of the Late
-Permian record and all of the record of Early and Middle Triassic time
-are missing from the geologic column. Such gaps in the column are
-represented by _unconformities_ in the rocks. Here the unconformity is
-an ancient erosional surface between the Tecovas Formation of Late
-Triassic age and the Late Permian Quartermaster Formation, and there are
-many millions of years of earth history represented in this missing
-"chapter" in the geologic story of Palo Duro Canyon. During this vast
-span of time, thousands of feet of sediments were probably deposited,
-converted into rock, and then later removed by erosion.
-
-Near the middle of the Tecovas Formation there is a bed of white,
-crumbly (friable) sandstone. Averaging about 15 feet in thickness, this
-sandstone contains many _joints_ (small crack-like fractures) along
-which no appreciable movement has taken place (fig. 8). There are two
-distinct sets of these joints which intersect each other at right
-angles. The distinctive joint patterns, the color, and the friability of
-this sandstone clearly differentiate it from the harder, darker, and
-more coarse-grained sandstones of the overlying Trujillo Formation (p.
-22).
-
-The upper part of the Tecovas consists of a layer of orange shale which
-overlies the middle sandstone unit and is in contact with the lower part
-of the Trujillo Formation.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 12. Taken from the northwest rim near Coronado
-    Lodge, this photograph shows the four major rock units exposed in
-    the park: (1) The Quartermaster Formation which forms the lower wall
-    and canyon floor; (2) Tecovas Formation; (3) Trujillo Formation
-    which caps the mesas; and (4) Ogallala Formation.]
-
-The fossils which have been found in the Tecovas Formation suggest that
-these rocks were derived from sediments deposited in swamps and streams.
-Unlike the _marine_ deposits of the Quartermaster, the rocks of the
-Tecovas were formed from _continental_ deposits laid down on the land.
-Fossils found in the canyon include the bones and teeth of the extinct
-semi-aquatic reptiles known as _phytosaurs_ (fig. 13) and bone and skull
-fragments of a primitive amphibian called _Buettneria_ (fig. 14).
-_Coprolites_ (the fossilized excrement of animals), pieces of petrified
-wood, and the teeth and bones of lungfish have also been reported from
-the Tecovas.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 13. The skull of this crocodile-like creature
-    called a phytosaur is typical of the reptiles that inhabited the
-    Palo Duro area during the Triassic Period. (Photograph courtesy
-    Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]
-
-A number of minerals including _hematite_, an iron mineral, and
-_psilomelane_, a barium-magnesium oxide, occur in the Tecovas. Hematite
-is an ore of iron and psilomelane a manganese ore, though neither of
-these is present in commercial quantities in the canyon.
-
-The Tecovas also contains a number of _concretions_ which range from a
-fraction of an inch to as much as 6 inches in diameter. These spherical
-masses are generally harder than the fine-grained shaly sands in which
-they are found and were thus left behind when the surrounding rock was
-eroded away. Some of these concretions are marked by cracks or veins
-filled with the mineral _calcite_. Concretions bearing this type of
-structure are called _septaria_, or _septarian concretions_.
-
-_Geodes_ are also found in the Tecovas Formation. These are rounded
-concretionary rocks with a hollow interior that is frequently lined with
-mineral crystals. Well-formed crystals of clear calcite have been found
-in many of the geodes from the Tecovas.
-
-Among park landmarks that are characterized by the multi-hued Tecovas
-strata are the middle portion of Triassic Peak (fig. 25), the upper part
-of the Spanish Skirts (fig. 26), Capitol Peak (fig. 32), and the Devil's
-Slide (fig. 35).
-
-
-Trujillo Formation.--
-
-Named from rock exposures on Trujillo Creek in Oldham County, Texas, the
-Trujillo is easy to distinguish from the underlying Tecovas Formation.
-The contact is quite distinct and lies between the top of the orange
-Tecovas shale and the base of the massive-bedded, cliff-forming Trujillo
-sandstone (fig. 25). Although generally fine grained and thickly bedded,
-there are local concentrations of pebble-sized rock fragments in the
-Trujillo. The weathered surface of the lower sandstone is stained red or
-dark brown by iron oxides. However, a fresh, unweathered surface is
-typically gray or greenish gray in color, and careful examination of the
-unweathered rock reveals the presence of tiny flakes of mica.
-
-The basal Trujillo sandstone is one of the most conspicuous rock units
-in the canyon and forms many of the prominent benches and mesas so
-typical of the Palo Duro landscape. In places the sandstone is
-cross-bedded (p. 20) and contains channel deposits of coarse sand which
-suggest that the sediments from which it was derived were deposited in
-ancient stream beds.
-
-Red, maroon, and gray shales overlie the basal sandstone member of the
-Trujillo, and these shales are overlain by cross-bedded, coarse-grained
-sandstone. Another interval of varicolored shales separates the middle
-sandstone bed from the upper sandstone member. The middle sandstone unit
-is a conspicuous ledge- or cliff-forming rock and is medium to coarse
-grained and commonly cross-bedded. In most localities, the upper
-sandstone is overlain by a section of red and green shales which mark
-the uppermost limits of the Trujillo Formation. In places, however, this
-shale section has been removed by erosion and rocks of Tertiary age
-directly overlie the sandstone.
-
-Although fossils are not common, the remains of _Buettneria_ (fig. 14),
-leaf imprints, pieces of mineralized wood, and the scattered teeth and
-bone fragments of reptiles and amphibians have been found. Phytosaur
-remains, especially teeth, have also been collected from the Trujillo
-sandstones.
-
-The Indians who formerly inhabited the Palo Duro area (p. 3) put the
-rocks of the canyon to a number of uses. This appears to be especially
-true of the rather coarse-grained Trujillo sandstones, which were
-commonly used for constructing primitive rock shelters. The abrasive
-surface of the sandstone was especially well suited for grinding grain,
-and mortar holes have been found in a number of places. One of these
-(fig. 15) can be seen along the tracks of the Sad Monkey Railroad (p.
-35) near the foot of Triassic Peak. The Indians also used the clays of
-the Quartermaster, Tecovas, and Trujillo Formations to make pottery, and
-iron and copper minerals such as hematite and malachite were used to
-make red and green pigments for decoration and war paint.
-
-The Trujillo shales and sandstones can be seen in a number of Palo
-Duro's more spectacular geological oddities. These erosional remnants
-are best developed where blocks of erosion-resistant sandstone protect
-underlying pedestals of softer shale (fig. 15). This type of
-differential weathering (p. 31) has produced a number of interesting and
-unusually shaped pedestal rocks or "hoodoos" (figs. 16 and 20). The most
-spectacular erosional remnant--and one that has come to be the
-"trademark" of Palo Duro Canyon--is the Lighthouse (fig. 31). The great
-jumble of boulders called the Rock Garden (fig. 34) is also composed
-largely of massive blocks of dislodged Trujillo sandstone. These
-boulders accumulated on the canyon floor as a result of landslides. In
-addition, the rock profile known as Santana's Face (fig. 28) is a
-naturally sculptured profile in the Trujillo sandstone that forms the
-cap of Timber Mesa.
-
-
-Ogallala Formation.--
-
-The Ogallala Formation is named from exposures around Ogallala in Keith
-County, Nebraska. There is a major unconformity between the Trujillo
-Formation of the Triassic and the overlying Ogallala Formation of
-Pliocene (Late Tertiary) age. Missing here is the geologic evidence for
-what may have been some of the more exciting chapters in the canyon's
-history. There is no record, for example, of the Jurassic and Cretaceous
-Periods which together encompass almost 120 million years of earth
-history. Also missing is any evidence of what transpired during more
-than 90 percent of the Tertiary Period, for no rocks of Paleocene,
-Eocene, Oligocene, or Miocene age are exposed in the canyon. Together
-these four epochs comprise approximately 47 million years of earth
-history. It is impossible, of course, to determine how many geologic
-formations may have been formed and later eroded during the 167 million
-years represented by this unconformity. However, our knowledge of
-present-day deposition and erosion suggests that the missing geologic
-record undoubtedly represents many thousands of feet of rock.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 14. The skeleton of _Buettneria_, a large
-    amphibian, found in Upper Triassic strata in the canyon. (Photograph
-    courtesy Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]
-
-The lower portion of the Ogallala Formation is composed of a
-reddish-brown, fine- to medium-grained sandstone that contrasts sharply
-with the underlying red and green shales that are exposed in the top of
-the Trujillo Formation. Much of this sandy rock is characterized by
-pebbles consisting of a variety of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
-rocks. Because it consists of rock and mineral fragments of varied
-composition and size, this kind of sedimentary rock is called a
-_conglomerate_. The type of rock fragments found in basal Ogallala
-conglomerates suggests that they were transported to the
-Panhandle-Plains area by streams flowing southeastward from the Rocky
-Mountains. As these streams deposited their loads, they left behind a
-wide spread blanket of sand, gravel, and mud which formed an extensive
-alluvial plain that extended from western Nebraska to northwest Texas.
-Although it is less than 100 feet thick in Palo Duro Canyon, in places
-this great mantle of _fluvial_ (stream-deposited) sediments is as much
-as 900 feet thick.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 15. The depression in this boulder is a mortar
-    hole believed to have been used by the Indians for grinding corn.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 16. This pedestal rock, located near the
-    Lighthouse, is capped by a slab of weather-resistant Trujillo
-    sandstone.]
-
-Most of the Ogallala Formation consists of a mixture of diverse rock
-types such as conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, clay and marl. But the
-upper part of the formation is characterized by thick _caliche_
-deposits. A dull, earthy calcite deposit, caliche typically forms in
-areas of scant rainfall. It is believed to originate when ground
-moisture, containing dissolved calcium bicarbonate, moves to the surface
-where the moisture steadily evaporates leaving a calcium carbonate crust
-on or near the surface (fig. 17).
-
-Caliche, which derives its name from the Latin _calix_, meaning "lime,"
-may be firm and compact or loose and powdery. It is also commonly found
-mixed with other materials such as clay, sand, or gravel. Caliche
-commonly occurs in the Trans-Pecos, southwestern Gulf Coastal Plain, and
-the High Plains area of Texas (_see_ fig. 5, p. 8). In the latter area
-it typically makes up the "caprock." Caliche is commonly quarried in
-these parts of Texas where it is used as road material and as an
-aggregate.
-
-Good exposures of Ogallala caliche can be seen on the surface around the
-overlook at Coronado Lodge on the northwest rim of the canyon (fig. 17).
-Ogallala strata also crop out along the upper reaches of Park Road 5 as
-it starts to descend into the canyon. But probably the most spectacular
-exposures of the Ogallala are exposed in the precipitous face of the
-Fortress Cliff (fig. 33) which forms part of the eastern rim of the
-canyon.
-
-Also located within the Ogallala Formation is a very important
-_aquifer_--a porous, water-bearing rock formation. This fine-to
-coarse-grained sandstone is very porous and permeable and is the most
-important single water-producing formation in the Panhandle-Plains area.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 17. The white surface in the right foreground
-    consists of caliche (p. 26) in the Ogallala Formation. Coronado
-    Lodge can be seen in the right background.]
-
-Opal and chert are locally abundant in the Ogallala conglomerates. The
-opal, which is found in small cavities in the conglomerate is not of the
-gem variety but it does _fluoresce_. Minerals that exhibit
-_fluorescence_ emit visible colors when exposed to ultraviolet light.
-For this reason, the Ogallala opal is sought after by rock and mineral
-collectors. The chert, a flint-like variety of quartz, occurs as nodules
-in the conglomerate and in a well-developed layer near the base of the
-formation. Both of these _siliceous_ (silica-bearing) rocks were
-apparently prized by the Indians, who used them to fashion knives,
-scrapers, projectile points, and other artifacts. The Indians also
-learned that flat slabs of caliche were ideal for lining fireplaces and
-to construct primitive rock shelters.
-
-A number of Pliocene vertebrates have been found in the Palo Duro area.
-Known as the "Age of Mammals," the Tertiary Period was characterized by
-mammals as diverse as were the reptiles of the Mesozoic Era. Among these
-unusual creatures were such now-extinct species as the saber-tooth cat
-and the elephant-like shovel-jawed mastodon (fig. 18). The remains of
-these as well as bones of giraffe-like camels, pony-sized horses, and
-sloths have been found in the vicinity of the canyon. The grassy plains
-of Pliocene time were also inhabited by large tortoises which reached
-lengths of up to 3 feet (fig. 19). Dioramas showing how these animals
-might have looked, as well as their actual remains, are on display in
-the Hall of Pre-History in the lower floor of the Panhandle-Plains
-Historical Museum in Canyon, 13 miles west of the park (p. 35).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 18. This life-size model of a shovel-jawed
-    mastodon is typical of the now-extinct, elephant-like creatures that
-    lived in this area during the Pliocene Epoch. (Photograph courtesy
-    Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 19. The carapaces of giant tortoises as much as
-    3 feet long have been collected from Pliocene rocks in the Palo Duro
-    area. (Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]
-
-
-Rocks of the Pleistocene.--
-
-The youngest rocks in Palo Duro Canyon State Park were formed during the
-Pleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period of the Cenozoic Era (_see_
-geologic time scale, p. 11). Pleistocene rocks are rather widespread in
-much of the Panhandle-Plains area and they are mostly composed of
-sediments which were deposited in stream valleys, in lakes or ponds, or
-by the wind. Most of the Pleistocene strata in the park area consist of
-loose deposits of silt and sand which were deposited by wind action.
-Known locally as "blow sand," this reddish-brown, silty sand overlies
-the Ogallala caliche at most points along the canyon's rim.
-
-
-
-
-                       HOW THE CANYON WAS CARVED
-
-
-The visitor seeing Palo Duro Canyon for the first time may find it
-difficult to believe that this yawning chasm began as a simple gully.
-But to the _geomorphologist_--the geologist who studies the origin and
-development of landscapes--Palo Duro Canyon is but a gully magnified
-many times over. This is evident because the shape of the canyon, the
-nature of its tributaries, and the character of its walls indicate that
-it has been deepened and lengthened by the downcutting of a stream and
-widened by other geologic processes.
-
-
-                   THE GEOLOGIC WORK OF RUNNING WATER
-
-Palo Duro Canyon is a classic example of a land-form that has been
-created by the geologic work of _running water_. Undoubtedly the most
-important single agent of erosion, running water probably does more to
-wear away the land than all the other geologic agents combined. This is
-not surprising considering the fact that the earth's annual
-precipitation (such as rain and snow) equals about four billion tons of
-water. Although the amount of precipitation varies greatly from place to
-place, the average annual precipitation on land is about 40 inches of
-water. Of this, roughly 25 percent runs off from the land to form
-streams.
-
-When one drives through the park and fords the normally gently flowing
-waters of the Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River he may well wonder
-if this unimposing stream actually is the geologic agent that is
-responsible for this deep gorge. But the visitor who happens to be
-present during a severe rainstorm will soon be convinced, for during
-heavy rains this gentle stream becomes a raging torrent. As the river
-increases in size it also becomes a more effective land-shaping tool,
-for the larger and swifter the stream, the more rock material it can
-carry. Thus, when flowing at peak capacity, this branch of the Red River
-becomes a moving ribbon of sandpaper whose load of sand, silt, and
-gravel has cut and scoured the canyon walls and floor for hundreds of
-thousands of years. How long has it taken the river to carve this
-remarkable chasm? Although there is no way of knowing for sure, geologic
-evidence indicates that the canyon has formed during the last one
-million years--a relatively short time, geologically speaking.
-
-The work of the river is made still more effective by water and sediment
-which it receives from its tributaries; this added water substantially
-increases the volume and velocity of the river. Although many of the
-tributary streams are dry throughout much of the year, they carry large
-quantities of water during heavy rains. Moreover, because most of these
-streams flow over rock surfaces which are not protected by thick soil or
-vegetation, their waters are quickly transported to the master stream.
-Thus, the volume and velocity of the Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red
-River make it possible--especially during flood periods--for the river
-to carry a large load of rock particles which effectively erodes the
-stream channel. Where does this rock debris come from? Most of it is
-eroded from the sides and bottom of the river's channel.
-
-The river carries its load in a number of ways. Material such as salt
-and other soluble matter is transported in a dissolved state or in
-_solution_. Still more, for example, silt and fine sand, is carried in
-_suspension_. These sediments are suspended between the surface of the
-water and the bottom of the stream channel. Those particles that will
-not dissolve in water and are too heavy to be carried in suspension,
-constitute the _bottom load_ of the stream. These larger sediments, such
-as gravel, cobbles, and boulders, roll, bounce, or slide along the
-stream bed.
-
-As flash floods course through Palo Duro Canyon, the river uses its load
-to erode further the rocks over which it passes. Each moving rock
-fragment literally becomes a cutting tool for _abrasion_ as the loose
-rock particles slowly wear away the banks and bed of the stream.
-Eventually the abraded rock fragments become smooth and rounded and the
-stream channel is gradually worn down to a lower level; it is also
-widened.
-
-The river also erodes by _hydraulic action_ as loose rock fragments are
-lifted and moved by the force of the stream's current. This process is
-similar to the effect produced when soil is churned up and washed away
-when water from a garden hose is sprayed on loose earth. The effects of
-hydraulic action have played an important role in widening the canyon,
-for recession of the cliffs away from the middle of the canyons has been
-caused in part by undercutting. Thus, as the soft shale and gypsum beds
-were removed by the stream, the overlying sandstone formations gradually
-broke off and fell into the canyon. Once on the canyon floor, most of
-the slabs and blocks of sandstone were eventually broken up and carried
-away by the streams as sand and mud. Not all of the boulders have been
-destroyed in this manner; in places (for example, the Rock Garden)
-similar boulders are seen today (fig. 34).
-
-
-               WEATHERING AND GRAVITY ADD THE FINAL TOUCH
-
-Most of the energy of the river has been expended in downcutting, for
-the canyon has apparently been deepened more rapidly than it has been
-widened. But as the stream gouged its channel deeper into the bedrock,
-an ever-increasing expanse of canyon wall was exposed to other agents of
-erosion. Slowly--almost imperceptibly--the walls of the canyon have been
-eroded by the processes of weathering and mass-wasting.
-
-
-Weathering.--
-
-Wherever rocks are exposed on the earth's surface, they are attacked by
-the agents of _weathering_. They are dissolved by rainwater, pried apart
-by frost and ice, and blasted by windblown sand. Some of the changes
-produced by weathering are purely mechanical, that is, the rock is
-simply reduced to smaller fragments without being broken down chemically
-or undergoing any change in its mineral composition. This _mechanical
-weathering_, or _disintegration_, takes place in a number of ways.
-Changes are especially noticeable in rocks that are subjected to large
-daily temperature variations. If a crack in these rocks becomes filled
-with water and the temperature drops below freezing, ice forms. When
-water freezes it expands by about 10 percent of its volume--this is the
-reason why water pipes often split open during the winter. Just as in a
-water pipe, the pressure of the expanding ice is commonly great enough
-to widen and deepen the crack in the rock. This process, called _frost
-wedging_, may ultimately cause the rock to split and fall apart. The
-cumulative effects of frost wedging have probably played a significant
-role in prying off large blocks of rocks from the walls and rim of the
-canyon.
-
-Animals and plants may also hasten rock disintegration. Plant roots
-commonly grow in rock crevices and as the roots become larger they wedge
-the rock apart. Burrowing animals such as rabbits, gophers, and ground
-squirrels also promote rock disintegration. Although they do not attack
-the rocks directly, their digging exposes new rock surfaces to
-weathering processes. The holes these creatures make also permit water
-and air to enter the earth more easily, thereby hastening rock
-destruction.
-
-Man, of course, promotes more rock disintegration than all other animals
-combined. Thus, as one explores the canyon's trails and climbs its
-walls, he will not only see evidence of the various types of mechanical
-weathering, he will also be contributing to the further wearing away of
-the rocks.
-
-_Decomposition_, or _chemical weathering_, works hand in hand with
-mechanical weathering. But unlike disintegration, decomposition produces
-rock materials that are basically different from the original
-unweathered rock. These changes are brought about as the result of
-chemical reactions between minerals in the rocks and water, carbon
-dioxide, and oxygen. Although the arid climate and severe winters of the
-Panhandle generally facilitate mechanical weathering, some of the red
-shales and gypsum deposits show the effect of oxidation, hydration, and
-other forms of chemical weathering (fig. 10).
-
-
-Mass-wasting.--
-
-_Mass-wasting_, the erosional process by which rock and soil move
-downslope in response to the force of gravity, has also been
-instrumental in shaping Palo Duro Canyon. This type of erosion has been
-especially active on the walls of the canyon, for here the slopes are
-steep enough to promote downward movement of earth materials. In a few
-places there have been landslides which have moved large quantities of
-rock in a short span of time. But most mass movements have been
-imperceptibly slow as masses of _talus_ (accumulations of rock debris)
-on steeper slopes have inched slowly downhill because of their own
-weight. Talus deposits produced in this way can be seen at the foot of
-most of the cliffs and erosional remnants throughout the canyon (fig.
-20).
-
-
-Differential erosion.--
-
-Even the most casual observer will soon note that not all of the
-canyon's rocks have been equally affected by erosion. Indeed, it is the
-nature of this _differential erosion_ that gives Palo Duro Canyon the
-rugged sculptured appearance that accounts for much of its beauty.
-
-Visitors to Palo Duro Canyon commonly ask why the rock formations are so
-diversely shaped. The answer to this question lies in the rocks
-themselves. Because the various rock strata are of unequal hardness,
-they erode at different rates of speed. Hence, the harder, more
-resistant rocks, such as the sandstones and conglomerates of the
-Trujillo Formation, form the shelves, ledges, and "caps" of the rock
-sculptures. The Lighthouse (fig. 31) and other pedestal rocks (fig. 16)
-are good examples of land-forms produced by differential erosion. The
-"hoodoos" mentioned earlier are also the products of this type of
-erosion (figs. 16 and 20).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 20. Talus slopes (arrow) are well developed on
-    the east side of Capitol Peak and in places obscure the
-    Quartermaster red beds. Note the "hoodoo" at the south (left) end of
-    the structure.]
-
-Softer rocks like shales and clay are more readily eroded and they
-normally form slopes rather than cliffs or ledges (fig. 12). Grooves,
-recesses, and caves have also developed in some of the less resistant
-rocks such as the shales and gypsum beds of the Quartermaster Formation.
-Catarina Cave (fig. 27) which has formed in the red and white shales of
-the Spanish Skirts (fig. 26) is a good example of this type of feature.
-Caves of this type afforded protection to both man and wild animals
-since the dawn of history, for their remains have been found in a number
-of similar caves.
-
-Thus, within a relatively short time--geologically speaking--the
-familiar land-shaping processes described above have joined forces to
-provide Texas with one of its most remarkable natural attractions. But
-interestingly enough, the same geologic processes that created these
-unusual formations are busily at work destroying them. As time passes
-and erosion progresses, the caps of the pedestals are worn away and the
-underlying shales crumble and are washed into the valley below. Yet even
-as the old land-forms are being destroyed, wind, water, ice, and man are
-attacking the canyon walls to produce still more of these interesting
-erosional remnants.
-
-
-
-
-           WHAT TO DO AND SEE AT PALO DURO CANYON STATE PARK
-
-
-The visitor to Palo Duro Canyon can choose from a number of recreational
-and educational activities. Moreover, regardless of whether one visits
-for a few hours to picnic along the banks of the river, or spends a week
-at one of the well-kept campgrounds, the visit will probably be both
-pleasant and rewarding. In the pages that follow there is a brief
-description of certain of the park landmarks and some of the more
-popular attractions within the canyon. The numbers in parentheses refer
-to numbers which designate these places on the map of Palo Duro Canyon
-(fig. 2, pp. 4-5). Hopefully, this information will help one to plan his
-visit to the canyon and thereby make his stay more enjoyable and
-worthwhile.
-
-
-_Park Entrance_ (1).--
-
-The first stop in the park is the gate at the ranger station (fig. 21).
-Here one pays a modest admission fee and receives literature and
-information about the park. The park is open every day of the year, but
-the entrance gates close at sundown.
-
-
-_Coronado Lodge and Observation Point_ (2).--
-
-The overlook at Coronado Lodge (fig. 22), located about half a mile from
-the Park Entrance, is a good place to start one's visit. Situated on a
-ledge of Ogallala caliche (p. 26), the Lodge is an attractive, rustic
-structure constructed of blocks of Trujillo sandstone (p. 22). Its
-picture windows and outdoor overlook provide a matchless view of the
-canyon and make it possible to become oriented for the descent to the
-canyon floor. Large, coin-operated telescopes permit close-up views of
-distant parts of the canyon, and there are museum cases containing
-objects of historical and geological interest from the Palo Duro area.
-If possible one should visit the Coronado Observation Point more than
-once during the visit, preferably at different times of the day. Because
-of shifting clouds and changing lighting conditions, the canyon presents
-a continually changing panorama from sunrise to sunset. Open year-round,
-the Lodge offers a complete line of souvenirs, film, and camping
-supplies. There is also a snack bar where coffee, sandwiches, and cold
-drinks can be purchased.
-
-
-_The Scenic Drive_ (1-16).--
-
-After viewing the canyon from Coronado Lodge, one should take the scenic
-drive on Park Road 5. This paved, all-weather road descends the
-northwest rim of the canyon and continues on to the turnaround at Cow
-Camp, a distance of about 8 miles. Although the present scenic drive was
-completed in 1951, the path that it follows is essentially that which
-was laid out by Colonel Charles Goodnight when he established Palo Duro
-ranch in 1876. The road descends to the canyon floor in a series of
-well-engineered turns, but because it drops some 800 feet in little more
-than a mile it is wise to use second or low gear on the descent. One
-should also observe the posted speed limits (10 to 20 miles per hour)
-and keep to the right side of the road at all times.
-
-In the 800-foot drop from rim to floor, the complete geologic section of
-the canyon is traversed, as one passes from the Pleistocene sands
-through the Ogallala, Trujillo, and Tecovas Formations, before reaching
-the Quartermaster Formation which is exposed in the canyon floor. Each
-of these geologic formations is discussed elsewhere in this publication
-(pp. 16-28).
-
-
-_Pioneer Amphitheatre_ (3).--
-
-Upon reaching the canyon floor, Park Road 5 flattens out and from this
-point it is but a short distance to the Pioneer Amphitheatre, one of the
-canyon's newest and most popular attractions. Here, located at the foot
-of a colorful 600-foot cliff, is a remarkable 1500-seat outdoor theatre
-of latest design (fig. 23). Each evening during a ten-week summer
-season, a symphonic drama portraying the history of the Texas Panhandle
-is presented in the amphitheatre. Information about these productions
-can be obtained at the Park Entrance, Coronado Lodge, and other points
-within the park.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 21. The entrance gate to Palo Duro Canyon State
-    Park.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 22. Coronado Lodge on the canyon's northwest rim
-    affords panoramic views of the canyon.]
-
-
-_Sad Monkey Train Ride_ (4).--
-
-The Sad Monkey Railroad begins--and ends--at Sad Monkey, Texas, a small
-"community" that lies at the foot of Triassic Peak (fig. 24). Unlike
-most miniature railroads, the Sad Monkey Special is not a "kiddie" ride.
-Instead, this 2-mile journey provides an opportunity to get away from
-the road for a closer look at the geologic formations exposed along the
-track. There are especially good views of the Spanish Skirts (fig. 26),
-Catarina Cave (fig. 27), and Triassic Peak (fig. 25). These, and other
-features of geologic interest, are pointed out by an experienced
-lecturer who also presents a brief review of the geologic history of the
-area.
-
-
-_Triassic Peak_ (5).--
-
-Long used by Indians and ranchers as a Palo Duro landmark, the canyon
-visitor will find Triassic Peak to be equally useful as a geologic
-landmark. When viewed from the Sad Monkey Railroad Terminal, the south
-face of Triassic Peak clearly reveals three of the four major geologic
-formations of the canyon (fig. 25).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 23. Located on the canyon floor, Pioneer
-    Amphitheatre is a modern outdoor theatre where symphonic dramas are
-    presented each summer. (Courtesy Mrs. Ples Harper, Texas Panhandle
-    Heritage Foundation, Inc.; photograph by Ron Horn.)]
-
-The lower one-third of the peak consists of deeply furrowed, red and
-white banded shales of the Quartermaster Formation (p. 17). Overlying
-the Permian red beds are the brightly colored, multi-hued Tecovas shales
-of Triassic age (p. 19). The composition of the Tecovas is such that the
-lower shales tend to weather into relatively gentle slopes with rather
-smooth surfaces. Triassic Peak is capped by a weather-resistant layer of
-Trujillo sandstone, and this durable cliff-forming sandstone has served
-as a protective covering to impede the erosion of the softer rocks of
-the Tecovas and Quartermaster Formations. Although it has withstood the
-ravages of time exceedingly well, the large blocks of Trujillo sandstone
-which litter the flanks and foot of Triassic Peak clearly indicate that
-weathering and mass-wasting have exacted their toll in the geologic
-past.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 24. A trip on the Sad Monkey Railroad is a good
-    place to learn more about the canyon's geology and get a closer look
-    at the rocks.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 25. Excellent exposures of the Quartermaster
-    Formation of Permian age (1) and the Triassic Tecovas (2) and
-    Trujillo (3) Formations can be seen in the south face of Triassic
-    Peak. The feature known as the Sad Monkey is indicated by the
-    arrow.]
-
-Sad Monkey, Texas derives its name from the prominent mass of Trujillo
-sandstone at the southern extremity of Triassic Peak. When viewed in the
-proper perspective--and with the proper amount of imagination--this
-massive block of sandstone bears a striking resemblance to an aged and
-saddened monkey.
-
-
-_Spanish Skirts_ (6).--
-
-Few of the canyon's features are as well-named as the gaudy Spanish
-Skirts (fig. 26). The lower part of this multi-colored bluff consists of
-alternating layers of red and white Quartermaster shale, capped by the
-colorful maroon and lavender Tecovas shales. Located on the north flank
-of Timber Mesa, the Spanish Skirts and nearby Catarina Cave can be
-reached by an easy half-mile path. The trail begins on the west side of
-Park Road 5, just beyond the Timber Creek bridge located several hundred
-feet from the Sad Monkey Station.
-
-
-_Catarina Cave_ (7).--
-
-A short distance west of the Spanish Skirts lies Catarina Cave. This
-depression has been washed out of the relatively soluble Permian shales
-(fig. 27).
-
-
-_Santana's Face_ (8).--
-
-Like Triassic Peak, Timber Mesa is capped by a thick layer of massively
-bedded Trujillo sandstone. On the eastern tip of the mesa the sandstone
-has been eroded in such a fashion that it resembles the profile of an
-Indian (fig. 28). This feature, called Santana's Face, is best seen from
-the park road shortly after leaving Sad Monkey Station.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 26. The gaudy Spanish Skirts are a colorful
-    expanse of Quartermaster and Tecovas strata exposed on the north
-    flank of Timber Mesa. Note the contrast in weathering in the lower,
-    gullied Quartermaster Formation and the smooth slopes of the Tecovas
-    shales above it. Catarina Cave (arrow) is at the right.]
-
-
-_The Sky Ride_ (9).--
-
-The Sky Ride, located near the first water crossing on Park Road 5,
-transports visitors from the canyon floor to the top of Timber Mesa
-(fig. 28). The 300-foot ascent is made in ski-lift chairs that are
-comfortable and safe. The observation area atop the mesa offers an
-unusually fine view of most parts of the canyon.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 27. Catarina Cave (arrow) is easily reached by a
-    half-mile trail from Park Road 5.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 28. Santana's Face (left arrow) has been
-    sculptured from the Trujillo sandstone cap of Timber Mesa. The cable
-    for the Sky Ride (p. 37) passes through the notch indicated by arrow
-    at right.]
-
-
-_The First Water Crossing_ (10).--
-
-As it winds through the canyon, the park road crosses the Prairie Dog
-Town Fork of the Red River seven times in a distance of about 4 miles.
-These fords, or water crossings as they are called locally, are paved
-and are normally safe to pass through. They should, however, be avoided
-during times of heavy rains and flash flooding. Because of stream
-erosion, especially fine exposures of the Quartermaster Formation are
-revealed in the stream banks near several of the crossings.
-
-The first of these crossings (fig. 29) is about 1 mile from the Sad
-Monkey Station and is one of the more popular picnic areas in the park.
-This area was also popular with earlier residents of the park, for it is
-believed to have been the campgrounds of both the Kiowa and Comanche
-Indians.
-
-
-_Colonel Charles Goodnight's Dugout_ (11).--
-
-As mentioned earlier (p. 6) Colonel Charles Goodnight entered the canyon
-in 1876 with more than 16,000 head of cattle. Although he later
-established more comfortable quarters, Col. Goodnight first lived in a
-primitive dugout similar to the one shown in figure 30. A replica of
-this early shelter has been constructed of mud, stone, and logs and can
-be seen on the west side of the park road just beyond the first water
-crossing (_see_ fig. 29).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 29. Now a popular picnic spot, the wooded area
-    near the first water crossing through the Prairie Dog Town Fork of
-    the Red River was a favorite Indian campground.]
-
-
-_The Lighthouse_ (12).--
-
-The unpaved road to the Lighthouse enters Park Road 5 about two-tenths
-of a mile beyond the first water crossing. Although considered by many
-to be the canyon's best-known landmark, the Lighthouse is actually not
-within park boundaries. It is located in Little Sunday Canyon about 3
-miles west of the road and is not easily accessible to the average
-visitor. Like many of the park's natural attractions, the Lighthouse is
-an erosional remnant of colorful Trujillo shales and sandstones (fig.
-31). A similar pedestal rock, the Devil's Tombstone, can be reached by
-means of a trail which leaves the Lighthouse road and enters Sunday
-Canyon.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 30. When Colonel Charles Goodnight settled in
-    the canyon in 1876 he lived in a primitive dugout similar to the one
-    shown here.]
-
-
-_Capitol Peak_ (13).--
-
-Capitol Peak (figs. 20 and 32) is a rather imposing geologic feature
-that can be seen from a number of points along Park Road 5. There are
-especially good views in the vicinity of the second water crossing if
-one will look to the west of the road. Just beyond the crossing an
-unimproved road leads to the foot of Capitol Peak. The lower part of
-this feature is composed of Quartermaster shales of Permian age and the
-upper section consists largely of Triassic Tecovas shales. When viewed
-from the proper angle, the silhouette of Capitol Peak is thought to
-resemble the prostrate form of a human (fig. 32). For this reason it has
-also been called the Sleeping Indian.
-
-
-_Fortress Cliff_ (14).--
-
-The Ogallala Formation of Pliocene age (p. 23) forms the upper rim of
-the canyon and is well exposed in impressive Fortress Cliff (fig. 33).
-Although this precipitous cliff dominates the eastern rim of the canyon
-along most of the scenic drive, especially good views are afforded
-between the second and third water crossings.
-
-
-_The Rock Garden_ (15).--
-
-Shortly after fording the river at the fifth water crossing, there is a
-jumbled pile of boulders on the west side of the road (fig. 34). This
-accumulation of Trujillo sandstone blocks has been named the Rock
-Garden. Many boulders such as these have accumulated on the floor of the
-canyon in ages past. However, most of these have been destroyed by
-weathering and their fragments removed by the canyon's streams.
-
-
-_The Devil's Slide_ (16).--
-
-The Devil's Slide can be reached by an unimproved road that leads
-southwest from the scenic drive for a distance of about half a mile.
-Composed of upper Quartermaster and lower Tecovas shales, the surface of
-this eroded spur is laced with many trails and "slides" that have been
-made by previous visitors (fig. 35).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 31. The Lighthouse, an erosional remnant and the
-    "trademark" of Palo Duro Canyon, exhibits well the geologic
-    phenomenon of differential erosion (p. 31).]
-
-
-_The Turnaround_ (17).--
-
-A loop marks the end of Park Road 5 and the conclusion of the scenic
-drive. Located in this area are a number of fine camping areas, picnic
-grounds, the old stone cottages called the "Cow Cabins," and rest rooms
-with shower facilities (fig. 36).
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 32. The "dome" on Capitol Peak is a well-known
-    canyon landmark. Composed of the Tecovas and Quartermaster
-    Formations, the profile of Capitol Peak is referred to as the
-    Sleeping Indian. (The "Indian's" head can be seen in the right
-    background.)]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 33. Fortress Cliff is a prominent feature on the
-    eastern rim of the canyon. Seen here are the precipitous cliffs
-    developed in the Ogallala caliche (p. 26) and the sandstones and
-    shales of the Trujillo Formation.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 34. The Rock Garden is a jumbled mass of
-    Trujillo sandstone boulders that mark the site of an ancient
-    landslide.]
-
-
-_Hiking._--
-
-There are a number of established trails for the visitor who is
-interested in hiking. The more popular trails include those to the
-Spanish Skirts and Catarina Cave (p. 37), the Devil's Tombstone, the
-Lighthouse (p. 39), and the Devil's Slide (p. 40). Park rangers will be
-glad to provide more complete information about these and other trails
-within the canyon.
-
-
-_Horseback riding._--
-
-Saddle horses can be rented at the stables located east of the road near
-the Pioneer Amphitheatre. There are a number of trail rides that can be
-taken on well-trained horses accustomed to the rugged terrain of the
-canyon. Additional information may be obtained from the attendants at
-the stable.
-
-
-_Camping and picnicking._--
-
-An ample number of well-developed camping and picnic areas are scattered
-throughout the canyon. Most are located adjacent to or a short distance
-from Park Road 5; they are equipped with outdoor fireplaces and tables.
-Running water, rest rooms, and showers are provided in certain areas.
-Campsites are available on a first-come first-served basis, and there is
-a 10-day limit on overnight camping. Detailed information on camping
-regulations and camping areas is available from a park ranger or at the
-Entrance Station.
-
-
-_Photography._--
-
-Palo Duro Canyon offers many opportunities for both amateur and
-professional photography. The multi-colored rock formations, erosional
-land-forms, and plants and animals offer limitless possibilities to the
-creative and imaginative photographer. Color shots are especially
-effective, but a haze filter will be helpful when photographing distant
-objects. Morning and afternoon are the best times for picture taking as
-the mid-day sun is "flat" and lends little perspective to the canyon
-scene.
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 35. The Devil's Slide in the south end of the
-    park is an eroded spur of Tecovas shales. Some of the "slides" made
-    by visitors are indicated by the arrow.]
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 36. Outcrops of the Quartermaster (1) and
-    Tecovas (2) Formations provide a geological backdrop for this
-    campsite near the turnaround at the end of Park Road 5.]
-
-
-
-
-                   PANHANDLE-PLAINS HISTORICAL MUSEUM
-
-
-    [Illustration: Fig. 37. Located on the campus of West Texas State
-    University in Canyon, the Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum has
-    many exhibits of historical and geological interest that will
-    enhance one's visit to Palo Duro Canyon State Park. (Courtesy
-    Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]
-
-The visitor to Palo Duro Canyon State Park would do well to start his
-visit at the Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum located on the campus of
-West Texas State University in Canyon (fig. 37). Here all phases of
-history--recent, archeologic, and geologic--are depicted in the various
-halls. In the Hall of Pre-History are the fossilized remains and
-reconstructions of ancient animals that were entombed in the canyon
-walls as long as 200 million years ago. Elsewhere there are exhibits and
-dioramas that portray human history in the Palo Duro area. Beginning
-with the oldest known evidence of human occupation about 12,000 years
-ago, there is a succession of displays that tell the story of man in the
-Palo Duro--High Plains region. These exhibits follow man from the early
-Indians living in stone shelters, to the horse-using nomadic plains
-Indians who relied heavily on the great herds of bison and who fought a
-desperate but losing battle to save their homeland from invasion by the
-white man. Here, too, is the story of the coming of the Spanish
-conquistadores, the _comancheros_ (_see_ p. 6), and the advent of the
-anglican settler. All are portrayed by means of artifacts that represent
-the different cultures of the region's colorful past.
-
-The major theme of the Museum is the history of the High Plains during
-the period of the cattle industry of the open range. One entire hall is
-devoted to the display of saddles, spurs, lariats, barbed wire, branding
-irons, a chuck wagon, and a life size model of a typical cowboy of the
-Old West. The Museum also houses one of the nation's finest collections
-of guns of the Old West, the Old World, and guns of today. Other
-highlights include scale models depicting scenes of the Old West,
-exhibits of typical rooms from pioneer homes furnished with furniture of
-that era, a fine assortment of antique vehicles, and famous collections
-of Western art.
-
-The Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum is easily reached from any of the
-major highways that pass through Canyon. It is open from 9:00 a.m. to
-5:00 p.m. weekdays and from 2:00 p.m. to 6:00 p.m. Sundays.
-
-
-
-
-                         SELECTED REFERENCES[2]
-
-
-Brand, J. P. (1956) Triassic System, _in_ Eastern Llano Estacado and
-    adjoining Osage Plains: West Texas Geol. Soc. and Lubbock Geol.
-    Soc., Guidebook, Spring Field Trip, April 6-7, 1956, pp. 8-9.
-
-Cummins, W. F. (1890) The Permian of Texas and its overlying beds: Texas
-    Geol. Survey 1st Ann. Rept. (1889), pp. 183-197.
-
----- (1893) Notes on the geology of northwestern Texas: Texas Geol.
-    Survey 4th Ann. Rept. (1892), pt. 1, pp. 177-238.
-
-Drake, N. F. (1892) Stratigraphy of the Triassic formations of northeast
-    Texas: Texas Geol. Survey 3rd Ann. Rept. (1891), pp. 225-247.
-
-Evans, G. L. (1949) Upper Cenozoic of the High Plains: West Texas Geol.
-    Soc. and New Mexico Geol. Soc., Guidebook for Field Trip No. 2,
-    November 9, 1949, pp. 1-9.
-
-*----, and Meade, G. E. (1945) Quaternary of the Texas High Plains, _in_
-    Contributions to Geology, 1944: Univ. Texas Pub. 4401, pp. 485-507.
-
-*Frye, J. C., and Leonard, A. B. (1957) Studies of Cenozoic geology
-    along eastern margin of Texas High Plains, Armstrong to Howard
-    counties: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 32, 62 pp.
-
-*----, and ---- (1959) Correlation of the Ogallala Formation (Neogene)
-    in western Texas with type localities in Nebraska: Univ. Texas, Bur.
-    Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 39, 46 pp.
-
-*----, and ---- (1964) Relation of Ogallala Formation to the southern
-    High Plains in Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No.
-    51, 25 pp.
-
-*Girard, R. M. (1959) Bibliography and index of Texas geology: Univ.
-    Texas Pub. 5910, 238 pp.
-
-*---- (1964) Texas rocks and minerals: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol.
-    Guidebook No. 6, 109 pp.
-
-Gould, C. N. (1902) The geology and water resources of the eastern
-    portion of the Panhandle of Texas: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply
-    Paper 154, 64 pp.
-
----- (1907) The geology and water resources of the western portion of
-    the Panhandle of Texas: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 191,
-    70 pp.
-
-*Matthews, W. H., III (1960) Texas fossils: An amateur collector's
-    handbook: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Guidebook No. 2, 123 pp.
-
-*Patton, L. T. (1923) The geology of Potter County [Texas]: Univ. Texas
-    Bull. 2330, 180 pp.
-
-*Reed, L. C., and Longnecker, O. M. (1932) The geology of Hemphill
-    County, Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 3231, 98 pp.
-
-*Sellards, E. H., Adkins, W. S., and Plummer, F. B. (1933) The geology
-    of Texas, Vol. I, Stratigraphy: Univ. Texas Bull. 3232 (August 22,
-    1932), 1007 pp.
-
-West Texas State University Geological Society (1964) Palo Duro Field
-    Trip Guidebook: West Texas State Univ. Geol. Soc., Canyon, 18 pp.
-
----- (1960) Geology of Palo Duro Canyon State Park and the Panhandle of
-    Texas: West Texas State Univ. Geol. Soc., Guidebook for 1966 SASGS
-    Annual Field Trip, April 15-17, 1966, 58 pp.
-
-Smith, A. R. (1967) Caves of Palo Duro Canyon: The Texas Caver, Abilene,
-    Texas, vol. 12, pp. 145-148.
-
-
-
-
-                                GLOSSARY
-
-
-Abrasion--erosion of rock material by friction of solid particles moved
-    by water, ice, wind, or gravity.
-
-Absolute time--geologic time measured in years. Compare with relative
-    time.
-
-Amphibians--cold-blooded four-footed animals which have gills in youth
-    and lungs in maturity (e.g., frog).
-
-Anhydrite--the mineral calcium sulfate, CaSO_{4}. _See_ Gypsum.
-
-Anticline--an arch-like fold in the rocks, with the beds dipping in
-    opposite directions on the two sides.
-
-Aquifer--a water-bearing layer of porous and permeable rock.
-
-Aragonite--a form of calcium carbonate (CaCO_{3}).
-
-Archeozoic--the oldest known geological era; early Precambrian.
-
-Bedding plane--the plane of demarcation between two individual rock
-    layers or strata.
-
-Calcite--a mineral composed of calcium carbonate, CaCO_{3}.
-
-Caliche--an accumulation of calcium carbonate, commonly white in color,
-    in the soil profile.
-
-Cenozoic--the latest era of geologic time, containing the Tertiary and
-    Quaternary Periods and continuing to the present time.
-
-Chert--dense, hard rock of very fine-grained silica, usually in nodular
-    form. This material is also called flint.
-
-Concretion--a concentration, usually spherical, of mineral matter in
-    sedimentary rocks, produced by deposits from solution; it is harder
-    than the surrounding rock.
-
-Conglomerate--a sedimentary rock composed of rounded, water-worn gravel,
-    usually mixed with sand, and cemented together by another mineral
-    substance.
-
-Coprolite--the fossilized excrement of animals.
-
-Eolian--pertaining to the erosion and the deposits resulting from wind
-    action and to sedimentary rocks composed of wind-transported
-    material.
-
-Epoch--a subdivision of a geologic period, such as the Pliocene Epoch of
-    the Tertiary Period.
-
-Era--a major division of geologic time. All geologic time is divided
-    into five eras: the Archeozoic, Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic,
-    and Cenozoic Eras.
-
-Fluorescence--luminescence of a mineral during exposure to radiation
-    (such as from ultraviolet or X-rays).
-
-Fluvial deposit--sediment deposited by streams.
-
-Formation--a rock unit useful for mapping and distinguished primarily on
-    the basis of lithologic character.
-
-Fossil--any remains or traces of plants or animals preserved in deposits
-    of a past geologic age.
-
-Geode--a hollow stone, usually lined or filled with mineral matter.
-
-Geologic age--the age of an object as stated in terms of geologic time
-    (e.g., a Pennsylvanian fern, Cretaceous dinosaur).
-
-Geologic time--all time which has elapsed since the first known rocks
-    were formed and continuing until recent, or modern, times.
-
-Geologic time scale--record of the divisions of earth history.
-
-Gypsum--a mineral, hydrated calcium sulfate (CaSO_{4}�2H_{2}O). _See_
-    Anhydrite.
-
-Hoodoo--a form produced by erosion of rock.
-
-Ice age--the Pleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period, Cenozoic Era; a
-    time of extensive glaciation.
-
-Igneous rock--rocks which have solidified from lava or molten rock
-    called magma.
-
-Joint--a fracture in a rock along which there has been no displacement
-    on opposite sides of the break.
-
-Joint System--a series of two or more sets of joints passing through a
-    rock mass and separating it into blocks of more or less regular
-    pattern.
-
-Mass-wasting--erosion caused chiefly by gravity.
-
-Mesozoic--the geologic era between the Paleozoic and Cenozoic Eras; the
-    "Age of Reptiles."
-
-Metamorphic rock--rock formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks that
-    have been subjected to great changes in temperature, pressure, or
-    chemical environment.
-
-Metamorphism--the process whereby rocks are changed physically by heat,
-    pressure, or chemical environment into different kinds.
-
-Mineral--a naturally occurring inorganic substance possessing definite
-    chemical and physical properties.
-
-Nodule--rounded lump of rock or mineral.
-
-Outcrop--the area where a particular rock formation comes to the
-    surface.
-
-Paleontology--the science which deals with the study of fossils.
-
-Paleozoic--that era of geologic time following the Proterozoic and
-    preceding the Mesozoic.
-
-Period--a basic unit of the geologic time scale into which the eras are
-    divided, such as the Pennsylvanian Period of the Paleozoic Era.
-
-Permian--the seventh and last period of the Paleozoic Era.
-
-Pleistocene--the first of the two epochs of the Quaternary Period, and
-    that which precedes modern time, known as the Great Ice Age.
-
-Pliocene--last and youngest epoch of the Tertiary Period of the Cenozoic
-    Era.
-
-Proterozoic--youngest era of the Precambrian; follows the Archeozoic Era
-    and precedes the Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era.
-
-Red beds--a general term for red sandstone, shales, etc., which appear
-    to characterize arid periods in the past.
-
-Ripple marks--wave-like corrugations produced in unconsolidated
-    materials by wind or water.
-
-Rock--any natural aggregate of mineral matter, usually consisting of a
-    mixture of two or more minerals.
-
-Sandstone--sedimentary rock composed of cemented sand grains, usually
-    quartz.
-
-Sediment--material that has been deposited by settling from a
-    transportation agent such as water or air.
-
-Sedimentary rock--rocks formed by the accumulation of sediments.
-
-Shale--a sedimentary rock formed by the hardening of mud and clay and
-    usually tending to split into thin sheets or layers.
-
-Silica--an oxide of silicon (SiO_{2}).
-
-Siliceous--containing or pertaining to silica.
-
-Silt--fine muddy sediment consisting of particles intermediate in size
-    between clay particles and sand grains.
-
-Siltstone--a very fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of silt grains,
-    and intermediate between shale and sandstone.
-
-Stratified rocks--sedimentary rocks; those formed in beds, layers, or
-    strata.
-
-Stratum--an individual layer of rock formation. (Plural, _strata_.)
-
-Superposition, law of--in an undisturbed sequence of rocks younger beds
-    overlie older beds.
-
-Syncline--a trough-like fold in the rocks, with the beds dipping inward
-    on either side. _See_ Anticline.
-
-Talus--a mass of rock debris commonly on slopes or at the base of a
-    steep mountain or cliff.
-
-Topography--the configuration of a land surface.
-
-Unconformity--a break in the sequence of rock formations which separates
-    younger strata from older ones; caused primarily by removal of older
-    rocks by erosion before those of a later sequence were laid down.
-
-Weathering--any natural process, mechanical or chemical, whereby rocks
-    are disintegrated or decomposed into smaller particles and
-    ultimately into clay and soil.
-
-
-
-
-                                 Index
-
-
-                                   A
-  abrasion: 30
-  Adair, John: 6
-  "Age of Mammals": 27
-  alabaster: 17
-  ancient man in Palo Duro Canyon: 3
-  anhydrite: 18
-  anticlines: 18
-  Apaches: 1, 3
-  aquifer: 26
-  Arapahos: 3
-  Archeozoic rocks: 13
-
-
-                                    B
-  "blow sand": 28
-  bottom load: 29
-  Brazos River: 8
-  _Buettneria_: 22, 23, 24
-
-
-                                    C
-  calcite: 22
-  caliche: 26
-  camels: 27
-  camping and picnicking: 43
-  Canyon, Texas: 45
-  Capitol Peak: 1, 18, 19, 31, 40, 42
-  Carboniferous Period: 16
-  Catarina Cave: 19, 37, 38
-  chemical weathering: 30
-  chert: 26
-  Cheyennes: 3
-  Civilian Conservation Corps: 8
-  Colorado River: 8
-  _comancheros_: 6, 46
-  Comanches: 1, 3
-  concretions: 22
-  conglomerate: 24
-  coprolites: 22
-  Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de: 3
-  Coronado Lodge: 1, 21, 26, 33, 34
-  "Cow Cabins": 41
-  cross-bedding: 19, 20
-  cross-stratification: 19
-
-
-                                    D
-  decomposition: 30
-  Devil's Slide: 19, 40, 44
-  Devil's Tombstone: 40
-  differential erosion: 31, 41
-  disintegration: 30
-  dugout, Col. Charles Goodnight's: 39, 40
-
-
-                                    E
-  earth history: 10-12
-  Eastern Caprock Escarpment: 8
-  erosion, differential: 31, 41
-
-
-                                    F
-  flash floods: 29
-  fluorescence: 26
-  fluvial sediments: 24
-  Fortress Cliff: 1, 40, 42
-  fossils: 10
-  frost wedging: 30
-
-
-                                    G
-  geodes: 22
-  geologic column: 12
-  geologic time scale: 11, 12
-  geomorphologist: 29
-  Goodnight, Colonel Charles: 1, 39, 40
-  gypsum: 17
-
-
-                                    H
-  Harper, Mrs. Ples: 35
-  hematite: 22
-  Hester, W. A.: 1
-  High Plains: 8
-  hiking: 43
-  history of park: 3-8
-  "hoodoos": 23, 31
-  Horn, Ron: 35
-  horseback riding: 43
-  horses: 27
-  hydration: 18, 31
-  hydraulic action: 30
-
-
-                                    I
-  Ice Age: 3
-  igneous rocks: 10
-  Indian campground: 39
-  Indians of the Plains: 3
-
-
-                                    J
-  JA Ranch: 6
-
-
-                                    K
-  Kiowas: 1, 3
-
-
-                                    L
-  Lighthouse, The: 23, 25, 39, 41
-  Little Sunday Canyon: 39
-  Llano Estacado: 8
-
-
-                                    M
-  Mackenzie, Colonel Ranald: 3
-  mammals: 27
-  Marcy, Captain R. B.: 6
-  mass-wasting: 31
-  mastodon, shovel-jawed: 27
-  mechanical weathering: 30
-  metamorphic rocks: 10
-  mortar hole: 25
-
-
-                                    O
-  Observation Point: 33
-  Ogallala Formation: 21, 23-27, 42
-  opal: 26
-  oxidation: 31
-
-
-                                    P
-  Paleozoic Era: 13
-  Palo Duro Canyon State Park: 7, 14, 45
-  Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum: 2, 27, 45-46
-  Park Entrance: 33
-  park history: 3-8
-  Park Road 5: 33, 38, 50
-  Parker, Chief Quanah: 7
-  Pecos River: 8
-  pedestal rock: 25
-  petrified wood: 22
-  photography: 43
-  phytosaurs: 22
-  picnicking and camping: 43
-  Pioneer Amphitheatre: 33-34
-  Plains Indians: 3
-  Pleistocene rocks: 28
-      time: 3
-  Pliocene Epoch: 27
-  Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River: 1, 29, 39
-  Precambrian rocks: 13
-  principle of superposition: 13
-  Proterozoic rocks: 13
-  psilomelane: 22
-
-
-                                    Q
-  Quartermaster Formation: 12, 17-19, 20, 21, 31, 36, 37, 42, 44
-
-
-                                    R
-  Red River: 8, 29
-  reduction halos: 19, 20
-  ripple marks: 19
-  Rock Garden, The: 23, 40, 43
-  Rocky Mountains: 24
-
-
-                                    S
-  saber-tooth cat: 27
-  Sad Monkey, Texas: 36
-      Railroad: 6, 20, 23, 35
-  Santana's Face: 23, 37, 38
-  satin spar: 17
-  Scenic Drive, The: 33
-  sedimentary rocks: 10
-  sediments: 10
-  selenite: 17
-  septaria: 22
-  septarian concretions: 22
-  shovel-jawed mastodon: 27
-  Sky Ride, The: 37
-  Sleeping Indian: 40, 42
-  sloths: 27
-  siliceous rocks: 27
-  solution: 29
-  Spanish Skirts: 19, 37
-  suffosian: 19
-  Sunday Canyon: 40
-  superposition, principle of: 13
-  suspension: 29
-  synclines: 18
-
-
-                                    T
-  talus: 31
-  talus slopes: 31
-  Tecovas Formation: 19-22, 36, 37, 42, 44
-  Texas Panhandle: 9
-  Texas Panhandle Heritage Foundation, Inc.: 35
-  Texas Parks and Wildlife Department: 2
-  Texas-Santa Fe Expedition: 6
-  Timber Mesa: 1, 23, 37, 38
-  time scale, geologic: 11, 12
-  tortoises: 27
-  Triassic Peak: 1, 35
-  Trujillo Formation: 20, 21, 22-23, 36, 38, 42, 43
-  Turnaround, The: 1, 41, 44
-
-
-                                    U
-  unconformities: 21
-
-
-                                    W
-  water crossings: 39
-  weathering: 30
-  West Texas State University: 45
-  Wolfin, Charles A.: 1
-
-
-
-
-                                Footnotes
-
-
-[1]Professor of Geology, Lamar State College of Technology, Beaumont,
-    Texas.
-
-[2]Entries marked with asterisk are published by the Bureau of Economic
-    Geology, The University of Texas at Austin. Those not out of print
-    are distributed at nominal sale price; list sent on request.
-
-
-    [Illustration: Cover image, Aerial view of Palo Duro Canyon]
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber's Notes
-
-
---This book, published without copyright notice, is in the public
-  domain.
-
---Silently corrected a few palpable typos.
-
---Added links to glossary entries.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon, by 
-William A. Matthews
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-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon, by 
-William A. Matthews
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon
-       Guidebook 8
-
-Author: William A. Matthews
-
-Release Date: May 28, 2016 [EBook #52179]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGIC STORY--PALO DURO CANYON ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
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-</pre>
-
-<div id="cover" class="img">
-<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon" width="500" height="732" />
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<p class="center"><b>BUREAU OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
-<br />The University of Texas at Austin
-<br /><span class="small">Peter T. Flawn, Director</span></b></p>
-<hr />
-<p class="center"><span class="ss">Guidebook 8</span></p>
-<hr />
-<h1>The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon</h1>
-<p class="tbcenter">By
-<br /><span class="sc">William H. Matthews III</span></p>
-<div class="img" id="pic_1">
-<img src="images/pmg001.jpg" alt="THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN" width="300" height="304" />
-</div>
-<p class="center">August 1969
-<br /><span class="ss small">Second Printing
-<br />August 1983</span></p>
-</div>
-<h2>Contents</h2>
-<dl class="toc">
-<dt><a href="#c1">Introduction</a> 1</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c2">Acknowledgments</a> 2</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c3">Park history</a> 3</dt>
-<dd><a href="#c4">Ancient man in Palo Duro Canyon</a> 3</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c5">Indians of the Plains</a> 3</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c6">Advent of the White Man</a> 3</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c7">Regional setting</a> 8</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c8">The geologic story</a> 10</dt>
-<dd><a href="#c9">The canyon&rsquo;s rocks and minerals</a> 10</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c10">Unraveling earth history</a> 10</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c11">The geologic column and geologic time scale</a> 12</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c12">Geologic formations exposed in Palo Duro Canyon</a> 16</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c13">Quartermaster Formation</a> 17</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c14">Tecovas Formation</a> 19</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c15">Trujillo Formation</a> 22</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c16">Ogallala Formation</a> 23</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c17">Rocks of the Pleistocene</a> 28</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c18">How the canyon was carved</a> 29</dt>
-<dd><a href="#c19">The geologic work of running water</a> 29</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c20">Weathering and gravity add the final touch</a> 30</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c21">Weathering</a> 30</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c22">Mass-wasting</a> 31</dd>
-<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c23">Differential erosion</a> 31</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c24">What to do and see at Palo Duro Canyon State Park</a> 33</dt>
-<dd><a href="#c25">Park Entrance</a> 33</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c26">Coronado Lodge and Observation Point</a> 33</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c27">The Scenic Drive</a> 33</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c28">Pioneer Amphitheatre</a> 33</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c29">Sad Monkey Train Ride</a> 35</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c30">Triassic Peak</a> 35</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c31">Spanish Skirts</a> 37</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c32">Catarina Cave</a> 37</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c33">Santana&rsquo;s Face</a> 37</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c34">The Sky Ride</a> 37</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c35">The First Water Crossing</a> 39</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c36">Colonel Charles Goodnight&rsquo;s Dugout</a> 39</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c37">The Lighthouse</a> 39</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c38">Capitol Peak</a> 40</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c39">Fortress Cliff</a> 40</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c40">The Rock Garden</a> 40</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c41">The Devil&rsquo;s Slide</a> 40</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c42">The Turnaround</a> 41</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c43">Hiking</a> 43</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c44">Horseback riding</a> 43</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c45">Camping and picnicking</a> 43</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c46">Photography</a> 43</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c47">Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum</a> 45</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c48">Selected references</a> 47</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c49">Glossary</a> 48</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c50">Index</a> 50</dt>
-</dl>
-<h1 title="">Illustrations</h1>
-<dl class="toc">
-<dt><span class="jl sc">Figures&mdash;</span> <span class="sc">Page</span></dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig1">1. Aerial View of Palo Duro Canyon</a> Frontispiece</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig2">2. Place map of Palo Duro Canyon</a> 4-5</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig3">3. Indian carving on sandstone boulder</a> 6</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig4">4. War dress of Comanche Chief Quanah Parker</a> 7</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig5">5. Generalized geologic map of the Texas Panhandle</a> 9</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig6">6. Geologic time scale</a> 11</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig7">7. Generalized geologic map of Palo Duro Canyon State Park</a> 14-15</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig8">8. Joints and gypsum veins in Quartermaster Formation</a> 17</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig9">9. Syncline in Quartermaster red beds</a> 18</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig10">10. Reduction halos in Quartermaster shale</a> 20</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig11">11. Cross-bedded boulder of Trujillo sandstone</a> 20</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig12">12. Panoramic view of canyon showing major rock units exposed in canyon</a> 21</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig13">13. Phytosaur skull</a> 22</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig14">14. Skeleton of <i>Buettneria</i></a> 24</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig15">15. Mortar hole made by Indians</a> 25</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig16">16. Rock pedestal near the Lighthouse</a> 25</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig17">17. Outcrop of Ogallala caliche</a> 26</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig18">18. Life-sized model of shovel-jawed mastodon</a> 27</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig19">19. Fossilized carapaces of Pliocene tortoises</a> 27</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig20">20. Talus slopes and &ldquo;hoodoo&rdquo; on Capitol Peak</a> 31</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig21">21. Entrance to Palo Duro Canyon State Park</a> 34</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig22">22. Coronado Lodge</a> 34</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig23">23. Pioneer Amphitheatre</a> 35</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig24">24. Train on Sad Monkey Railroad track</a> 36</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig25">25. South face of Triassic Peak</a> 36</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig26">26. Spanish Skirts</a> 37</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig27">27. Catarina Cave</a> 38</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig28">28. Santana&rsquo;s Face</a> 38</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig29">29. Picnic area at first water crossing</a> 39</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig30">30. Colonel Charles Goodnight&rsquo;s Dugout</a> 40</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig31">31. The Lighthouse</a> 41</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig32">32. Capitol Peak</a> 42</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig33">33. Fortress Cliff</a> 42</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig34">34. The Rock Garden</a> 43</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig35">35. The Devil&rsquo;s Slide</a> 44</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig36">36. Campsite in south end of park</a> 44</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig37">37. Entrance to Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum</a> 45</dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="img" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/pmg003.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="621" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span> Aerial view of Palo Duro Canyon showing location of major points of interest: (1) Coronado
-Lodge; (2) Triassic Peak; (3) Timber Mesa; (4) Capitol Peak; (5) Fortress Cliff; (6)
-Prairie Dog Town Fork of Red River; (7) The Turnaround (termination of Park Road 5). (Courtesy
-of Charles A. Wolfin; photograph by W. A. Hester.)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div>
-<h1 title="">The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon</h1>
-<p class="center">William H. Mathews III<a class="fn" id="fr_1" href="#fn_1">[1]</a></p>
-<h2 id="c1">INTRODUCTION</h2>
-<p>Like the early Spanish explorers who
-first saw Palo Duro Canyon, today&rsquo;s visitor
-is likely to view the impressive canyon
-with surprise and awe. This great depression&mdash;it
-is more than 2 miles wide and as
-much as 800 feet deep within park boundaries&mdash;contains
-a fascinating assortment of
-multicolored <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">geologic formations</a> and erosion-produced
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> sculptures of many
-shapes, colors, and size. The geographic
-setting of the canyon further heightens its
-impact on the visitor, for it is surrounded
-by the level, virtually treeless plains of the
-Texas Panhandle. (<i>See</i> upper background
-area in <a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>, frontispiece).</p>
-<p>It is not surprising that this scenic area
-has been set aside as a State park, for Palo
-Duro Canyon has long been of interest to
-man. First, as the hunting grounds of prehistoric
-Indians who stalked the now-extinct
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_IceAge">Ice Age</a> mammoths and bison that
-roamed the valley floor. Later, the canyon
-was frequented by the Comanches,
-Apaches, Kiowas, and other Indians of
-historic time. These tribes, like those before
-them, found both food and refuge
-within the canyon. However, it was not
-until 1876 that Palo Duro Canyon was inhabited
-by the white man. It was during
-this year that pioneer cattleman Charles
-Goodnight herded some 1,600 head of
-cattle into the canyon and established a
-camp there (<a href="#Page_6">p. 6</a>).</p>
-<p>Today&rsquo;s visitor to Palo Duro Canyon
-can re-live some of the fascinating history
-of this interesting area. One can still see a
-replica of Colonel Goodnight&rsquo;s primitive
-dugout, follow the faint trace of the Comanche
-Trail, or perhaps find the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Fossil">fossil</a>
-bones of prehistoric creatures that lived
-hundreds of thousands&mdash;even millions&mdash;of
-years ago. But most visitors to Texas&rsquo; most
-colorful canyon are not attracted by its
-interesting history. They come instead to
-enjoy the scenery and recreational opportunities
-that are present. These are readily
-accessible, for a carefully engineered, hard-surface
-road leads from the rim of the
-canyon to the canyon floor. There are
-campgrounds, picnic areas, concessions,
-and even an outdoor theatre (<a href="#fig23">fig. 23</a>). The
-location of these facilities and some of the
-canyon&rsquo;s more interesting geologic features
-are shown on the generalized place
-map of the canyon (<a href="#fig2">fig. 2</a>).</p>
-<p>This publication does not attempt to
-describe the scenic beauty of Palo Duro
-Canyon, for this must be seen to be appreciated.
-Rather, it discusses the geologic setting and origin of the canyon, the
-methods by which some of the more interesting
-geologic features were formed, and
-briefly reviews the history of the area.
-Hopefully, it will enable the visitor to
-understand better the meaning behind the
-canyon scenery, thereby enhancing his
-visit.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div>
-<h2 id="c2">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</h2>
-<p>Many people have assisted in the preparation
-of <i>The Geologic Story of Palo Duro
-Canyon</i>, and their help is gratefully acknowledged:
-Professor Jack T. Hughes,
-Dr. Frank W. Daugherty, Dr. Robert C.
-Burton, Meade Humphries, and Jim
-Hughes of the West Texas State University
-Geology Department provided much information
-about the area and assisted in
-the field; help was also provided by Mr.
-Pete Cowart, Mr. Earl Burtz, Mr. Jerry
-Tschauner, Mr. Bob Watson, Mr. King,
-and other park personnel; Mr. C. Boone
-McClure, of the Panhandle-Plains Historical
-Museum, furnished some of the photographs;
-Mr. J. Dan Scurlock, Mr. Bill
-Collins, and Mr. Harold Allums, of the
-Texas Parks and Wildlife Department,
-made available certain maps and statistical
-data; Mrs. Ples Harper of Canyon assisted
-in assembling information and photographs
-for the Pioneer Amphitheatre; and
-the aerial photograph of Palo Duro Canyon
-was taken by Mr. W. A. Hester and
-made available through the courtesy of Mr.
-Charles A. Wolflin of Amarillo.</p>
-<p>Drs. Peter T. Flawn, Peter U. Rodda,
-and Ross A. Maxwell of the Bureau of
-Economic Geology read much of the
-manuscript and offered many helpful suggestions,
-and Mr. A. Richard Smith provided
-special information on caves in the
-Palo Duro area. Special thanks are due to
-Miss Josephine Casey who edited the manuscript
-and to Mr. J. W. Macon, cartographer,
-who assumed responsibility for
-preparing the maps. Thanks are due also
-to my wife, Jennie, who critically read the
-manuscript and took a number of the
-photographs. Finally, I would like to thank
-Dr. J. Daniel Powell of The University of
-Texas at Arlington for invaluable assistance
-in the field and his enthusiastic co-operation
-throughout the project.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div>
-<h2 id="c3">PARK HISTORY</h2>
-<p>Palo Duro Canyon&rsquo;s long and colorful
-past has created considerable interest
-among historians, archeologists, and geologists.
-Historians have traced the written
-history of man and his effect on the Palo
-Duro area, but archeologists have delved
-much further into the past. They have
-sought out and studied the more enduring
-records of the canyon&rsquo;s early inhabitants&mdash;their
-tools, utensils, and weapons. The
-geologist, however, is interested in history
-that far antedates even the most primitive
-human inhabitant of the canyon. The earth
-scientist has probed the geologic record of
-the Palo Duro area, using <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>, <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">minerals</a>,
-and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Fossil">fossils</a> as clues to the geologic history
-and development of the canyon.</p>
-<p>Palo Duro Canyon is unique among
-Texas&rsquo; State parks because of its many
-contributions to history, archeology, and
-geology. Here the written record, the artifacts
-of prehistoric man, and the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">geologic formations</a> overlap and complement each
-other in many respects. Although this
-guidebook is primarily concerned with the
-geologic history of the canyon, a brief review
-of its human history is also included.</p>
-<h3 id="c4">ANCIENT MAN IN PALO DURO CANYON</h3>
-<p>Archeological studies indicate that the
-earliest known inhabitants of Palo Duro
-Canyon lived in the canyon from about
-10,000 to 5,000 B.C. These early men apparently
-hunted the bison and now-extinct
-elephant-like mammoths that roamed the
-Palo Duro area during the <a class="gloss" href="#g_IceAge">Ice Age</a> of
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> time (<i>see</i> <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTimeScale">geologic time scale</a>,
-<a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>). Their stone weapons and other
-artifacts have been found in and around
-the canyon. It is assumed that these primitive
-people&mdash;like those who came later&mdash;were
-attracted by the streams and springs
-that are found in the canyon and by game
-that came there to feed. There is also evidence
-that the Indians took advantage of
-certain of the canyon&rsquo;s geologic features.
-They fashioned tools, weapons, and utensils
-from the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> exposed in the canyon and
-used certain of the shallow caves and rock
-shelters as their homes.</p>
-<h3 id="c5">INDIANS OF THE PLAINS</h3>
-<p>Various tribes of Plains Indians of historic
-times also used Palo Duro Canyon as
-a camping ground. The presence of these
-Indians is known from many campsites
-and burials. In addition, flint chips and
-stone artifacts, potsherds, ornaments of
-shell and bone, grinding slabs, stone mortars
-(<a href="#fig15">fig. 15</a>), and a few pictographs (<a href="#fig3">fig. 3</a>)
-have provided considerable information
-about the culture of these people.
-Among the tribes believed to have frequented
-the canyon at various times are the
-Apaches, Cheyennes, Arapahos, Kiowas,
-and Comanches. However, it is the Comanches
-who are most closely associated
-with the Palo Duro area, for the canyon is
-located near the center of their last homeland.
-Indeed it was here that the Comanches
-were finally defeated and driven from
-this part of the Plains. The battlefield
-where Colonel Ranald Mackenzie&rsquo;s troops
-fought the Comanches is located near the
-southeast corner of the park (<i>see</i> <a href="#fig7">fig. 7</a>).
-This skirmish, which took place in 1874, is
-believed to have been the last major Indian
-battle in Texas.</p>
-<p>Although most of the canyon&rsquo;s archeological
-sites have been picked over and
-many of the artifacts removed, important
-finds are still occasionally reported. Park
-visitors who make discoveries of this type
-are urged to report them to a park ranger
-in order that they might be called to the
-attention of the proper authorities.</p>
-<h3 id="c6">ADVENT OF THE WHITE MAN</h3>
-<p>Although the history of Palo Duro Canyon
-is rich in Indian lore, it was the coming
-of the white man that heralded the
-development of the area. Today it is generally
-believed that Francisco Vasquez de
-Coronado was the first white man to view
-the canyon. Coronado and his men are
-thought to have camped here during the
-winter of 1541, as they crossed the High
-Plains in search of the fabled Seven Cities
-of Cibola.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig2">
-<img src="images/pmg005.jpg" alt="" width="712" height="999" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2. Place map of Palo Duro Canyon.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div>
-<p>Later, during the 17th and 18th centuries,
-the canyon was a favorite resting
-place of the buffalo hunters and Indian
-traders who frequented the Plains. The
-canyon was also popular during the first
-half of the 19th century, for it was then
-that it was occupied by the Comanches and
-served as a trade center for the Spaniards
-and Indians who came from New Mexico.
-These traders, called <i>comancheros</i>, bartered
-for loot taken by the Comanches on
-their raids of early settlements and wagon
-trains that passed through the Panhandle-Plains
-region.</p>
-<p>This same <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">era</a> marked the beginning of
-American interest in the Palo Duro country.
-During this <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">period</a> the area was visited
-by several expeditions including those of
-Long and Pike and the Texas-Santa Fe
-Expedition of 1841. However, the canyon
-was not fully explored or mapped until
-1852. This important survey was carried
-out by a party which was under the supervision
-of Captain R. B. Marcy.</p>
-<p>But it was not until 1876 that the first
-white man established permanent residence
-in Palo Duro Canyon. In 1876&mdash;just
-two years after McKenzie&rsquo;s rout of the
-Comanches&mdash;Colonel Charles Goodnight
-herded more than 1,600 head of cattle into
-the canyon. Here he laid out his first permanent
-ranch and lived in a primitive
-earthen dugout. Not only was Goodnight&rsquo;s
-Palo Duro Ranch the first in the canyon,
-it is also thought to have been the first
-commercial cattle ranch in the Texas Panhandle.
-In later years Colonel Goodnight
-formed a partnership with John Adair of
-Ireland, and together they developed the
-famous JA Ranch&mdash;a vast spread of some
-600,000 acres. Today&rsquo;s visitor to Palo Duro
-Canyon can visit a partially restored dugout
-similar to that occupied by the canyon&rsquo;s
-early settlers (<a href="#fig30">fig. 30</a>).</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig3">
-<img src="images/pmg006.jpg" alt="" width="699" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span> The face carved on this boulder can be seen along the track of the Sad Monkey Railroad
-(<a href="#Page_35">p. 35</a>). It is believed to have been carved by Indians.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig4">
-<img src="images/pmg006a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="645" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span> The war bonnet, war lance, and head feathers of Comanche Chief Quanah Parker can be
-seen at the Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum in Canyon. (Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains
-Historical Museum.)</p>
-</div>
-<p>From the late 1800s until about 1930,
-the Palo Duro country remained the domain
-of the Panhandle-Plains cattleman.
-It was, nonetheless, a favorite picnic and
-camping spot of the residents of nearby
-towns and cities. In 1933 the recreational
-potential of the canyon was finally recognized
-and land for the Palo Duro Canyon
-State Park was purchased by the State of
-Texas with money obtained through a public
-revenue bond issue. Today, most of the
-park revenue received through gate admissions,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span>
-concession receipts, and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a>
-leases goes into a fund that pays off the
-remaining balance of the revenue bonds.
-During the initial phase of the park&rsquo;s development,
-most of the improvements in
-the area were made by members of the
-Civilian Conservation Corps who worked
-under the supervision of the National Park
-Service.</p>
-<p>Currently, Palo Duro Canyon State
-Park is visited by approximately 300,000
-visitors each year and is one of the State&rsquo;s
-more popular recreational and scenic areas.</p>
-<h2 id="c7">REGIONAL SETTING</h2>
-<p>Palo Duro Canyon State Park is located
-in the Panhandle of Texas (<a href="#fig5">fig. 5</a>) approximately
-13 miles east of Canyon on State
-Highway 217 (<i>see</i> <a href="#fig7">fig. 7</a>). It is about 12
-miles south and 8 miles east of Amarillo
-via Ranch Road 1541 which intersects
-State Highway 217. The park includes
-more than 15,000 acres of Palo Duro Canyon,
-a complexly dissected area which
-spreads into Randall, Armstrong, and Briscoe
-counties.</p>
-<p>More specifically, the Palo Duro area is
-situated on the Llano Estacado or High
-Plains area which comprises approximately
-20,000 square miles of Texas and New
-Mexico (<i>see</i> <a href="#fig5">fig. 5</a>). Generally speaking,
-the Llano Estacado is a high isolated plateau
-or broad mesa, rising above the surrounding
-rolling plains in a nearly flat,
-island-like mass. On the west, southwest,
-and south, the Llano Estacado is bounded
-by the valley of the Pecos River, while its
-eastern escarpment is drained by the headwaters
-of the Red, Brazos, and Colorado
-Rivers.</p>
-<p>The rim of Palo Duro Canyon is formed
-by the Eastern Caprock Escarpment. Caprock
-is the term used to describe a massive
-layer of calcareous <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> which supports the
-High Plains surface (<i>see</i> <a href="#Page_26">p. 26</a>). Because it
-is more resistant to forces of erosion than
-the softer, underlying more or less horizontal
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a>, the caprock forms an abrupt,
-precipitous escarpment at the edge of the
-High Plains. With the exception of the
-resistant caprock, however, the surficial deposits
-on the High Plains are for the most
-part unconsolidated <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a>.</p>
-<p>The Llano Estacado is essentially devoid
-of native trees and is characterized by a
-sparse, but uniform, covering of grasses.
-The surface <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> are of Tertiary and
-Quaternary age (<i>see</i> <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTimeScale">geologic time scale</a>,
-<a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>) and have a general easterly to
-southeasterly slope of about 9&frac12; feet per
-mile. In the vicinity of Palo Duro Canyon,
-rocks of Late <a class="gloss" href="#g_Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> age are directly
-underlain by <a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">Permian</a> and Triassic <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">formations</a>.
-These Permian and Triassic rocks,
-which are discussed elsewhere in this publication,
-are not normally exposed except in
-deeply eroded areas such as the canyon.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig5">
-<img src="images/pmg007.jpg" alt="" width="563" height="801" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span> Generalized geologic map of the Texas Panhandle showing location of Palo Duro Canyon.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div>
-<h2 id="c8">THE GEOLOGIC STORY</h2>
-<h3 id="c9">THE CANYON&rsquo;S <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">ROCKS</a> AND <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">MINERALS</a></h3>
-<p>Palo Duro visitors&mdash;regardless of age&mdash;seem
-to have an innate curiosity about the
-canyon&rsquo;s <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>. This is not surprising, for
-most of the features of the park landscape
-are composed of or have been sculptured
-from solid rock. In short, much of the natural
-beauty of Palo Duro Canyon has been
-derived from the character of its exposed
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">rock formations</a> and the effect of geologic agents upon them.</p>
-<p>Because <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> are the raw materials of
-geology and the stuff from which landscapes
-are formed, it will be helpful for the
-visitor to know something about the general
-characteristics of rocks and their role
-in the development of the landscape. Rock
-is everywhere around us and is one of the
-most common objects in the world, yet few
-people can actually define a rock. So, at
-the outset it should be stated that <i>a rock is
-a naturally formed aggregate of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">minerals</a></i>,
-and <i>a mineral is a naturally occurring substance
-which has a fairly definite chemical
-composition, distinctive physical properties,
-characteristic internal structure, and
-which commonly occurs in definite shapes
-called crystals</i>. Although not an exact scientific
-or legal definition of a mineral, the
-above explanation is satisfactory for the
-purposes of this publication.</p>
-<p>Although most visitors show considerable
-interest in the canyon&rsquo;s <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">minerals</a>,
-few of them know the story behind
-the rocks. They do not know how the rocks
-were formed, of what they are composed,
-how they change, and how they differ.
-More important, they fail to realize the
-historical significance of the rocks and
-how they can be used to interpret events
-that occurred in the canyon many millions
-of years ago. Thus, before one studies the
-geologic story of Palo Duro Canyon, it is
-helpful to know something about the various
-kinds of rocks. There are three major
-classes of rocks in the earth&rsquo;s crust: <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_IgneousRock">igneous</a></i>,
-<i><a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary</a></i>, and <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_MetamorphicRock">metamorphic rocks</a></i>.</p>
-<p><i><a class="gloss" href="#g_IgneousRock">Igneous rocks</a></i> solidified from an original
-molten state. Common examples of igneous rocks include granite, basalt, and volcanic
-ash. Although no igneous rocks are found
-in Palo Duro Canyon, they are widely exposed
-in parts of West and Central Texas.</p>
-<p><i><a class="gloss" href="#g_MetamorphicRock">Metamorphic rocks</a></i> were originally <a class="gloss" href="#g_IgneousRock">igneous</a> or <a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary</a> in origin. However,
-these <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> have undergone such great
-physical and chemical change that they
-have been transformed into a different
-kind of rock. Thus, metamorphic changes
-alter limestone to marble or <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a> to
-quartzite. No metamorphic rocks crop out
-in the canyon, but, like the igneous rocks,
-they are common in some parts of the
-State.</p>
-<p>All of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">geologic formations</a> exposed
-in Palo Duro Canyon are composed of
-<i><a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rocks</a></i>. These are <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> that
-have been formed by the compaction and
-cementation of rock and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a> fragments
-called <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a></i>, or by the precipitation
-of material from solution. <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">Sandstone</a>,
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Conglomerate">conglomerate</a>, <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shale</a>, and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Caliche">caliche</a>
-(<i>see</i> <a href="#Page_26">p. 26</a>) are examples of sedimentary rocks that are exposed in the canyon.</p>
-<p><a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">Sedimentary rocks</a> are typically <i>stratified</i>,
-that is, they occur in layers or beds
-called <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a></i>. In addition, sedimentary rocks&mdash;especially those of marine origin&mdash;commonly
-contain <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Fossil">fossils</a></i>. These fossils are
-traces or evidence of prehistoric plants and
-animals that have been preserved in the
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>, and they may provide clues as to
-the age of rocks and the manner in which
-they were formed. Fossil remains have
-been found at a number of places in the
-park and these are discussed later.</p>
-<h3 id="c10">UNRAVELING EARTH HISTORY</h3>
-<p>In order to understand better the geologic history and development of the canyon,
-one should also have some knowledge
-of the basic principles of earth history and
-should be familiar with the <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTimeScale">geologic time scale</a> (<a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>).</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig6">
-<img src="images/pmg008.jpg" alt="" width="534" height="800" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span> <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTimeScale">Geologic time scale</a>. Reproduced from <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Fossil">FOSSILS</a>: An Introduction to Prehistoric Life</i>,
-William H. Matthews III, Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1962.</p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="large"><a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTimeScale">GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE</a></span></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">ERA</a></dt>
-<dd><a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">PERIOD</a></dd>
-<dd class="t"><a class="gloss" href="#g_Epoch">EPOCH</a></dd>
-<dd class="t2">SUCCESSION OF LIFE</dd>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Cenozoic">CENOZOIC</a><span class="hst"><span class="small">&ldquo;RECENT LIFE&rdquo;</span></span></dt>
-<dd>QUATERNARY<span class="hst"><span class="small">0-1 MILLION YEARS</span></span></dd>
-<dd class="t">Recent</dd>
-<dd class="t"><a class="gloss" href="#g_Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a></dd>
-<dd>TERTIARY<span class="hst"><span class="small">62 MILLION YEARS</span></span></dd>
-<dd class="t"><a class="gloss" href="#g_Pliocene">Pliocene</a></dd>
-<dd class="t">Miocene</dd>
-<dd class="t">Oligocene</dd>
-<dd class="t">Eocene</dd>
-<dd class="t">Paleocene</dd>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Mesozoic">MESOZOIC</a><span class="hst"><span class="small">&ldquo;MIDDLE LIFE&rdquo;</span></span></dt>
-<dd>CRETACEOUS<span class="hst"><span class="small">72 MILLION YEARS</span></span></dd>
-<dd>JURASSIC<span class="hst"><span class="small">46 MILLION YEARS</span></span></dd>
-<dd>TRIASSIC<span class="hst"><span class="small">49 MILLION YEARS</span></span></dd>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Paleozoic">PALEOZOIC</a><span class="hst"><span class="small">&ldquo;ANCIENT LIFE&rdquo;</span></span></dt>
-<dd><a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">PERMIAN</a><span class="hst"><span class="small">50 MILLION YEARS</span></span></dd>
-<dd>CARBONIFEROUS</dd>
-<dd class="t">PENNSYLVANIAN<span class="hst"><span class="small">30 MILLION YEARS</span></span></dd>
-<dd class="t">MISSISSIPPIAN<span class="hst"><span class="small">35 MILLION YEARS</span></span></dd>
-<dd>DEVONIAN<span class="hst"><span class="small">60 MILLION YEARS</span></span></dd>
-<dd>SILURIAN<span class="hst"><span class="small">20 MILLION YEARS</span></span></dd>
-<dd>ORDOVICIAN<span class="hst"><span class="small">75 MILLION YEARS</span></span></dd>
-<dd>CAMBRIAN<span class="hst"><span class="small">100 MILLION YEARS</span></span></dd>
-<dt>PRECAMBRIAN ERAS</dt>
-<dd><a class="gloss" href="#g_Proterozoic">PROTEROZOIC</a> ERA</dd>
-<dd><a class="gloss" href="#g_Archeozoic">ARCHEOZOIC</a> ERA</dd>
-<dd class="t"><span class="small">APPROXIMATE AGE OF THE EARTH MORE THAN 4 BILLION 550 MILLION YEARS</span></dd></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div>
-<p>The geologist has learned that the earth&rsquo;s
-physical features have not always been as
-they are today. It is known, for example,
-that mountains now occupy the sites of
-ancient seas. Coal is now being mined
-where swamps existed many millions of
-years ago. Furthermore, the earth&rsquo;s plants
-and animals have also been subject to
-great change. The trend of this organic
-change is, in general, toward more complex
-and advanced forms of life. However, some
-forms have remained virtually unaltered
-while others have become extinct at different
-points in <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">geologic time</a>.</p>
-<p>In order to interpret earth history, the
-earth scientist gathers evidence of the
-great changes in climate, geography, and
-life that took place in the geologic past. He
-does this by studying the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">rock formations</a>,
-the structural relationships of these formations,
-and the landforms of the area. The
-record of ancient events is pieced together
-by studying the stony layers of the earth as
-one might study a giant history book. Indeed,
-the <a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rocks</a> are the rocky
-&ldquo;pages&rdquo; of earth history, for in them we
-find the tracks and trails, and bones and
-stones, which reveal the intriguing story of
-life long ago.</p>
-<p>Much of the basic information which
-the geologist uses to reconstruct the geologic history of a region comes from his
-examination and interpretation of <i>bedrock
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Outcrop">outcrops</a></i>. <i>Bedrock</i> is the solid unweathered
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> which underlies loose earth material
-such as soil, sand, and gravel. An <i>outcrop</i>,
-or <i>exposure</i>, is a place where bedrock is
-exposed at the surface.</p>
-<p>The first chapter of earth history begins
-with the most ancient <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> known. Because
-they were formed early in <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">geologic time</a>, these rocks are normally found deeply
-buried beneath younger rocks which
-have been deposited on top of them. It is
-for this reason that earth history is read
-from the bottom up, for the earliest formed
-rock layers correspond to the opening
-chapter in our earthen history book. The
-later chapters are found in the upper
-younger rocks which are located nearer
-the surface. Thus, in &ldquo;reading&rdquo; the geologic history of Palo Duro Canyon we start
-with the oldest &ldquo;chapter&rdquo; which is recorded
-in the Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a> (<a href="#Page_17">p. 17</a>)
-of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">Permian</a> age, for these are the oldest
-rocks exposed in the canyon.</p>
-<p>But deciphering earth history is not as
-simple as it might appear. In many areas
-the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> layers are not always found in the
-sequence in which they were originally
-deposited. In places, great structural disturbances
-have caused some of the rocky
-&ldquo;pages&rdquo; to become shuffled and out of
-place; others may be missing completely.
-Many rocks have been destroyed by <a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">weathering</a>
-and erosion or greatly altered by
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Metamorphism">metamorphism</a>. As a result, the story recorded
-in these particular rocks is lost forever.
-These missing &ldquo;pages&rdquo; make the ancient
-story even more difficult to interpret
-so the geologist must then depend on other
-evidence that will permit him to &ldquo;fill in the
-blanks.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>The record revealed in the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> indicates
-that our planet is at least 4&frac12; billion
-years old and that life has been present for
-more than 3 billion years. During this vast
-span of time the earth and its inhabitants
-have undergone many changes.</p>
-<h3 id="c11">THE GEOLOGIC COLUMN AND <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">GEOLOGIC TIME</a> SCALE</h3>
-<p>The <i>geologic column</i> refers to the total
-succession of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>, from the oldest to the
-most recent, that are found in the entire
-earth or in a given area. For example, the
-geologic column of Texas includes all rock
-divisions known to be present in the State.
-By the same token, the geologic column of
-Palo Duro Canyon consists of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">geologic formations</a> exposed there. Thus, by referring
-to the geologic column previously determined
-for a specific area, the geologist
-can determine what type of rock he might
-expect to find in that particular region.</p>
-<p>The <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTimeScale">geologic time scale</a></i> (<a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>) is composed
-of named intervals of <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">geologic time</a> during which were deposited the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> of
-the geologic column. These time intervals
-bear the same names that are used to distinguish
-the various units of the geologic column. For example, one can speak of
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">Permian</a> <i>time</i> (referring to the geologic time scale) or of Permian <i>rocks</i> (referring
-<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span>
-to rock units of Permian age in the geologic column).</p>
-<p>Both the geologic column and the <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTimeScale">geologic time scale</a> are based upon the <i>principle
-of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Superposition">superposition</a></i>. This basic geologic concept states that unless a series of <a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rock</a> has been overturned, a given
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> layer is older than the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a> above it,
-and younger than all of the layers below it.
-Thus, the field relationship of the rocks
-plus the type of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Fossil">fossils</a> (if present) give
-the geologist some indication of the <i>relative</i>
-age of the rocks. Relative age does not
-imply age in years; rather, it fixes age in
-relation to other events that are recorded
-in the rocks.</p>
-<p>Within recent years, however, it has become
-possible to assign ages in years to
-certain <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> units. This is accomplished by
-a system of rock dating based on very precise
-measurements of amounts of radioactive
-elements (such as uranium). When
-present in the rocks, radioactive <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">minerals</a>
-change or decay at a known rate so that
-they are natural &ldquo;clocks.&rdquo; This method of
-dating has made it possible to devise a time
-scale in years which gives some idea of the
-tremendous amount of time that has passed
-since the oldest known rocks were formed.
-It has also been used to verify the previously
-determined relative ages of the various
-rock units.</p>
-<p>The largest unit of <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">geologic time</a> is an
-<i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">era</a></i>, and each era is divided into smaller
-time units called <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">periods</a></i>. A period of geologic time is divided into <i>epochs</i>, which, in
-turn, may be subdivided into still smaller
-units. The <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTimeScale">geologic time scale</a> might be
-roughly compared to the calendar in which
-the year is divided into months, months
-into weeks, and weeks into days. Unlike
-years, however, geologic time units are
-arbitrary and of unequal duration, and the
-geologist cannot be positive about the exact
-length of time involved in each unit. The
-time scale does, however, provide a standard
-by which he can discuss the age of
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Fossil">fossils</a> and their surrounding <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>. By
-referring to the time scale it may be possible,
-for instance, to state that a certain
-event occurred during the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> Era
-in the same sense that one might say that
-something happened during the American
-Revolution.</p>
-<p>There are five eras of <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">geologic time</a>, and
-each has been given a name that is descriptive
-of the degree of life development that
-characterizes that <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">era</a>. Hence, <a class="gloss" href="#g_Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>
-means &ldquo;ancient-life&rdquo; and the era was so
-named because of the relatively simple and
-ancient stage of life development.</p>
-<p>The eras, a guide to their pronunciation,
-and the literal translation of each
-name is shown below.</p>
-<dl class="undent"><dd><a class="gloss" href="#g_Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> (SEE-no-zo-ic)&mdash;&ldquo;recent-life&rdquo;</dd>
-<dd><a class="gloss" href="#g_Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> (MES-o-zo-ic)&mdash;&ldquo;middle-life&rdquo;</dd>
-<dd><a class="gloss" href="#g_Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> (PAY-lee-o-zo-ic)&mdash;&ldquo;ancient-life&rdquo;</dd>
-<dd><a class="gloss" href="#g_Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a> (PRO-ter-o-zo-ic)&mdash;&ldquo;earlier-life&rdquo;</dd>
-<dd><a class="gloss" href="#g_Archeozoic">Archeozoic</a> (AR-kee-o-zo-ic)&mdash;&ldquo;beginning-life&rdquo;</dd></dl>
-<p><a class="gloss" href="#g_Archeozoic">Archeozoic</a> and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> are
-commonly grouped together and referred
-to as Precambrian in age. In most places
-Precambrian rocks have been greatly contorted
-and metamorphosed, and the record
-of this portion of earth history is most
-difficult to interpret. Precambrian time
-represents that portion of <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">geologic time</a> from the beginning of earth history until
-the deposition of the earliest fossiliferous
-Cambrian <a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a>. Precambrian time probably
-represents as much as 85 percent of
-all geologic time.</p>
-<p>The <i>oldest</i> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">era</a> is at the <i>bottom</i> of the
-time scale because this part of <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">geologic time</a> transpired first and was then followed
-by the successively younger eras which are
-placed above it. This is, of course, the order
-in which the various portions of geologic time occurred and during which the corresponding
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> were formed.</p>
-<p>As mentioned above, each of the eras
-has been divided into <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">periods</a>, and most of
-these periods derive their names from the
-regions in which the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> of each were
-first studied. For example, the Pennsylvanian
-rocks of North America were first
-studied in the State of Pennsylvania.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig7">
-<img src="images/pmg010.jpg" alt="" width="740" height="1000" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span> Generalized geologic map of Palo Duro Canyon State Park.</p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent"><dt>EXPLANATION</dt>
-<dd>Q &amp; T<span class="hst"><a class="gloss" href="#g_Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Pliocene">Pliocene</a> undifferentiated</span></dd>
-<dd>Rdo<span class="hst">Dockum Group</span></dd>
-<dd>P<span class="hst"><a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">Permian</a> undifferentiated</span></dd></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div>
-<p>The <a class="gloss" href="#g_Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">Era</a> has been divided into
-seven <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">periods</a> of geologic time. With the
-oldest at the bottom of the list, these
-periods and the source of their names are:</p>
-<dl class="undent"><dd><a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">Permian</a> (PUR-me-un)&mdash;from the Province of Perm in Russia</dd>
-<dd>Pennsylvanian (pen-sil-VAIN-yun)&mdash;from the State of Pennsylvania</dd>
-<dd>Mississippian (miss-i-SIP-i-un)&mdash;from the Upper Mississippi Valley</dd>
-<dd>Devonian (de-VO-ni-un)&mdash;from Devonshire, England</dd>
-<dd>Silurian (si-LOO-ri-un)&mdash;for the Silures, an ancient tribe of Britain</dd>
-<dd>Ordovician (or-doe-VISH-un)&mdash;for the Ordovices, an ancient tribe of Britain</dd>
-<dd>Cambrian (KAM-bri-un)&mdash;from the Latin word <i>Cambria</i>, meaning Wales</dd></dl>
-<p>The Carboniferous <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">Period</a> in Europe includes
-the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian
-Periods of North America. Although
-this classification is no longer used in the
-United States, the term Carboniferous is
-found in many of the earlier geological
-publications and on many of the earlier
-geologic maps.</p>
-<p>The <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">periods</a> of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">Era</a> and the
-source of their names are:</p>
-<dl class="undent"><dd>Cretaceous (cre-TAY-shus)&mdash;from the Latin word <i>creta</i>, meaning chalky</dd>
-<dd>Jurassic (joo-RAS-ik)&mdash;from the Jura Mountains of Europe</dd>
-<dd>Triassic (try-ASS-ik)&mdash;from the Latin word <i>triad</i>, meaning three</dd></dl>
-<p>The <a class="gloss" href="#g_Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">periods</a> derived their
-names from an old outdated system of
-classification which divided all of the
-earth&rsquo;s <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> into four groups. The two
-divisions listed below are the only names
-of this system which are still in use:</p>
-<dl class="undent"><dd>Quaternary (kwah-TUR-nuh-ri)</dd>
-<dd>Tertiary (TUR-shi-ri)</dd></dl>
-<p>Although the units named above are the
-major divisions of <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">geologic time</a> and of the
-geologic column, the geologist generally
-works with smaller units of the column
-called <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">geologic formations</a></i>. A geologic formation
-is a unit of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> that is recognized
-by certain physical and chemical characteristics.
-A formation is generally given a
-double name which indicates both where
-it is exposed and the type of rock that makes
-up the bulk of the formation. For example,
-the Beaumont Clay is a formation consisting
-of clay deposits that are found in and
-around Beaumont, Texas. For convenience
-in study, two or more successive and adjoining
-formations may be placed together
-in a group. Thus, the Tecovas and Trujillo
-Formations have been placed in the Dockum
-Group. Likewise, a formation may be
-subdivided into smaller units such as members,
-which may also be given geographic
-or lithologic (rock type) names.</p>
-<h3 id="c12"><a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS</a> EXPOSED IN PALO DURO CANYON</h3>
-<p>As noted above, all of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> which
-crop out in Palo Duro Canyon are <a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary</a> in origin. They represent four
-different geological <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">periods</a>: the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">Permian</a>,
-Triassic, Tertiary, and Quaternary (<a href="#fig12">fig. 12</a>).</p>
-<p>Although these <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">rock formations</a> differ
-considerably in composition and age, they
-do not tell the whole geologic story of the
-area. Long spans of <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">geologic time</a> are not
-represented by <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> units because the
-region was undergoing erosion or no <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a>
-were being deposited during certain
-portions of geologic time. Rocks that had
-formed during one geologic <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">period</a> were
-removed by erosion during a later period.
-Thus, segments of the geologic record were
-destroyed or never recorded. For this
-reason, much of the geologic history of the
-Palo Duro area is unrecorded and must be
-inferred from fragmentary evidence borrowed
-and pieced together from adjacent
-areas. Even so, an interesting story can be
-assembled from the rocks that remain in
-the canyon today.</p>
-<p>In general, the following descriptions of
-the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">formations</a> exposed in Palo Duro
-Canyon State Park follow the procedure
-that most geologists use in presenting the
-results of their geologic investigations. The
-more distinctive characteristics of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a>
-units are described in order that they may
-be more easily recognized, and the ways in
-which the rocks were formed are also considered.
-With this background it is then
-possible to review the geologic history
-recorded in the bedrock of the canyon. A
-<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span>
-simplified geologic map is presented in
-<a href="#fig7">figure 7</a>; this shows the distribution of the
-major rock types in the canyon. The reader
-will find it helpful to refer to this map
-when reading the descriptions of the various
-formations.</p>
-<h4 id="c13">Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>.&mdash;</h4>
-<p>The oldest
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">formation</a> exposed in the canyon is the
-Quartermaster Formation of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">Permian</a> age
-(<i>see</i> <a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>) which is named from exposures
-along the banks of Quartermaster
-Creek in Roger Mills County, Oklahoma.
-One of the more colorful formations in the
-park, the Quartermaster is composed primarily
-of brick-red to vermilion <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a>
-which are interbedded with lenses of gray
-shales, clays, mudstones, and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstones</a>.
-Averaging about 60 feet thick where exposed
-in the park, the Quartermaster forms
-the floor and lower walls of the canyon.</p>
-<p>The <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> of this <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">formation</a> are easily
-examined at many places throughout the
-canyon and in them can be seen a number
-of interesting geologic phenomena. Probably
-the most noticeable of these features
-are the shining white veins of <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Gypsum">gypsum</a></i> that
-lace the face of the red <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shale</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Outcrop">outcrops</a>
-(<a href="#fig8">fig. 8</a>). A soft, transparent to translucent
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a> that can be scratched by a fingernail,
-gypsum is hydrous calcium sulfate
-(CaSO&#8324;&middot;2H&#8322;O). Three varieties of gypsum
-are found in the canyon: (1) <i>satin spar</i>, a
-fibrous variety with a silky sheen; (2)
-<i>selenite</i>, a colorless, transparent variety
-which commonly occurs in sheet-like
-masses; and (3) a fine-grained massive
-variety called <i>alabaster</i>. Satin spar is the
-most common variety of gypsum present
-and it commonly occurs in thin bands interbedded
-with the mudstones and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstones</a>.
-It is much more noticeable in the
-shales, however, for it is typically seen in
-narrow veins which criss-cross the surface
-of the outcrop and intersect the <a class="gloss" href="#g_BeddingPlane">bedding planes</a> at various angles. Although normally
-white, some of the satin spar has a
-soft pink or bluish hue due to the presence
-of impurities in the mineral.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig8">
-<img src="images/pmg011.jpg" alt="" width="701" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span> Veins of selenite <a class="gloss" href="#g_Gypsum">gypsum</a> (top arrow) in Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>. Notice diagonal <a class="gloss" href="#g_Joint">joint</a> to left of geologist&rsquo;s hand (lower arrow).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div>
-<p>The presence of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Gypsum">gypsum</a> in the Quartermaster
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_RedBeds">red beds</a> is of special significance
-to the geologist, for it provides valuable
-information about the geologic history of
-the Palo Duro area. It is known, for example,
-that when a landlocked body of sea
-water in an arid climate becomes separated
-from the ocean, one of the most common
-salts to precipitate is hydrous calcium sulfate,
-or gypsum. Gypsum may also be precipitated
-when a lake without an outlet
-evaporates in an arid climate. Geologic evidence suggests that the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a> which
-gave rise to the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> of the Quartermaster
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a> were deposited in a landlocked
-arm of the sea during the latter part of the
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">Permian</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">Period</a>. As evaporation continued
-and the sea water was reduced to approximately
-one-third of its original volume,
-gypsum was precipitated. There must have
-been periodic influxes of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Silt">silt</a>- and mud-bearing
-waters entering the ancient Permian
-sea, for layers of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shale</a> and mudstone
-are interbedded with the gypsum.</p>
-<p>It is believed that much of the satin spar
-and selenite <a class="gloss" href="#g_Gypsum">gypsum</a> was originally <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Anhydrite">anhydrite</a></i>
-(CaSO&#8324;). Unlike gypsum, anhydrite
-does not contain water, but it can be
-changed to gypsum in the presence of
-moisture. There are two lines of evidence
-that indicate an anhydrite origin for the
-Quartermaster gypsum. First, microscopic
-examination of gypsum samples reveals the
-presence of residual anhydrite crystals embedded
-in the gypsum. Second, many of
-the gypsum beds have been squeezed into
-rather gentle <i>folds</i>. These consist of small
-<i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Anticline">anticlines</a></i>, upfolds or arches, and <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Syncline">synclines</a></i>,
-downfolds or troughs (<a href="#fig9">fig. 9</a>). It has been
-suggested that this folding took place as the
-anhydrite underwent <i>hydration</i>, or took on
-water. As hydration occurred and the anhydrite
-was converted to gypsum, the gypsum
-expanded, thereby exerting both
-lateral and vertical pressure on the beds
-around it. This produced the crumpled,
-wave-like folding so characteristic of
-certain of the gypsum beds. However,
-there is not complete agreement that the
-folding in the gypsum is due to the hydration
-of anhydrite. Certain geologists attribute
-this deformation to slumping caused
-by solution cavities, for gypsum is relatively
-easily dissolved in water. As the gypsum
-was dissolved and carried away in solution,
-the removal of the supporting layers of
-gypsum permitted slumping and consequent
-deformation in the overlying <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a>
-and mudstones. Although some geologists
-believe that the folds were caused by expansion
-due to the hydration of anhydrite
-and others support deformation related to
-the removal of soluble gypsum, there is
-general agreement that the folding is local
-and not related to regional or widespread
-deformation.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig9">
-<img src="images/pmg012.jpg" alt="" width="713" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span> Sagging beds of Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a> have produced this gentle <a class="gloss" href="#g_Syncline">syncline</a>, or downfolding,
-in the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>. The &ldquo;dome&rdquo; on Capitol Peak can be seen in the background.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div>
-<p>Not all of the red Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a>
-are uniformly colored. Some of them contain
-gray-green, circular spots called <i>reduction
-halos</i> (<a href="#fig10">fig. 10</a>). These spots, which in
-places give the red shales a distinctive
-polka-dot appearance, have been produced
-as the result of chemical change of certain
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">minerals</a> within the shale.</p>
-<p>As noted earlier, <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a> are usually
-laid down in horizontal layers. However,
-in certain environments, sediments may
-be deposited in such a way that the layers
-are inclined at angle to horizontal (<a href="#fig11">fig. 11</a>).
-This structure, called <i>cross-bedding</i>
-or <i>cross-stratification</i>, is found in certain
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstones</a> and other coarse-grained or
-fragmental <a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rocks</a>. Cross-bedding typically consists of rather distinct
-inclined layers separated by <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_BeddingPlane">bedding planes</a></i> (the surface of demarcation between
-two individual <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> layers). Bedding of this type commonly occurs in sedimentary rocks formed in rivers, deltas,
-and along the margins of lakes or oceans.
-The cross-bedding in the Quartermaster
-and certain of the Triassic <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">formations</a> is
-believed to have been developed under
-similar conditions. Although cross-bedding is also common in certain rocks of <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Eolian">eolian</a></i>
-origin (deposited by wind) none of the
-cross-bedding in the canyon&rsquo;s rocks is due
-to the action of wind.</p>
-<p>In addition, some of the Quartermaster
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a> have <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_RippleMarks">ripple marks</a></i> on their surfaces.
-These features are common in certain <a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rocks</a> and were formed when the
-surface of a bed of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediment</a> was agitated
-by waves or currents. The size, shape, and
-cross section of the ripple marks can be
-used to tell whether the marks were produced
-by waves or currents. The ripple marks in the Quartermaster appear to have
-been formed by the action of waves on a
-shallow sea floor.</p>
-<p>A number of interesting geologic features
-in the canyon have been formed in
-part in the Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>.
-These include the multi-hued Spanish
-Skirts (<a href="#fig26">fig. 26</a>), the Devil&rsquo;s Slide (<a href="#fig35">fig. 35</a>),
-Capitol Peak (<a href="#fig32">fig. 32</a>), and Catarina Cave
-(<a href="#fig27">fig. 27</a>). The latter is a rather unusual
-cave in that it has developed in a large
-mass of landslide debris divided by projecting
-bedrock of the Spanish Skirts. The
-cave has been formed by <i>suffosian</i>, a process
-whereby water enters the landslide
-debris on the upper slopes and follows
-buried channels in the landslide removing
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> debris as it passes through. The flood
-water exits at the base of the landslide by
-means of Catarina Cave. The plan of the
-cave closely resembles the drainage patterns
-of surface gullies.</p>
-<h4 id="c14">Tecovas <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>.&mdash;</h4>
-<p><a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">Rocks</a> of the Triassic
-System (<a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>) are well represented
-in Palo Duro Canyon and consist of the
-<i>Tecovas</i> and <i>Trujillo</i> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formations</a>. These
-formations are part of the Dockum Group
-of Late Triassic age.</p>
-<p>Having a total thickness of about 200
-feet, the Tecovas (which is named from
-exposures found on Tecovas Creek in Potter
-County, Texas) consists largely of
-multicolored <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a>. Also present are thin
-layers of soft <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a>, which are disseminated
-throughout the shales, and a
-more prominent bed of white sandstone,
-which marks the middle of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">formation</a>.
-The Tecovas shales overlie the Quartermaster
-Formation, and the lower zone of
-lavender, gray, and white shales forms a
-relatively smooth slope that is easily distinguished
-from the steeper slopes of gullied
-red-and-white-banded shales beneath
-them (<a href="#fig12">fig. 12</a>).</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig10">
-<img src="images/pmg013.jpg" alt="" width="691" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span> Chemical reactions in certain of the red Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a> have produced reduction
-halos (<a href="#Page_19">p. 19</a>) which give the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> a polka-dot appearance.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig11">
-<img src="images/pmg013a.jpg" alt="" width="697" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span> This boulder, located near the foot of Triassic Peak along the Sad Monkey Railroad track,
-exhibits the cross-bedding typical of the Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstones</a>.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div>
-<p>But the contact zone between the Tecovas
-and Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a> involves
-more than a mere change in color. Here is
-one of the missing &ldquo;chapters&rdquo; in the geologic history of the canyon, for part of the
-Late <a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">Permian</a> record and all of the record
-of Early and Middle Triassic time are
-missing from the geologic column. Such
-gaps in the column are represented by
-<i>unconformities</i> in the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>. Here the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Unconformity">unconformity</a>
-is an ancient erosional surface
-between the Tecovas <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a> of Late
-Triassic age and the Late Permian Quartermaster
-Formation, and there are many millions
-of years of earth history represented
-in this missing &ldquo;chapter&rdquo; in the geologic story of Palo Duro Canyon. During this
-vast span of time, thousands of feet of
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a> were probably deposited, converted
-into rock, and then later removed by
-erosion.</p>
-<p>Near the middle of the Tecovas <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>
-there is a bed of white, crumbly (friable)
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a>. Averaging about 15 feet
-in thickness, this sandstone contains many
-<i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Joint">joints</a></i> (small crack-like fractures) along
-which no appreciable movement has taken
-place (<a href="#fig8">fig. 8</a>). There are two distinct sets
-of these joints which intersect each other at
-right angles. The distinctive joint patterns,
-the color, and the friability of this sandstone
-clearly differentiate it from the harder,
-darker, and more coarse-grained sandstones
-of the overlying Trujillo Formation
-(<a href="#Page_22">p. 22</a>).</p>
-<p>The upper part of the Tecovas consists
-of a layer of orange <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shale</a> which overlies
-the middle <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a> unit and is in contact
-with the lower part of the Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig12">
-<img src="images/pmg013b.jpg" alt="" width="703" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span> Taken from the northwest rim near Coronado Lodge, this photograph shows the four major
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> units exposed in the park: (1) The Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a> which forms the lower wall and
-canyon floor; (2) Tecovas Formation; (3) Trujillo Formation which caps the mesas; and (4)
-Ogallala Formation.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The <a class="gloss" href="#g_Fossil">fossils</a> which have been found in the
-Tecovas <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a> suggest that these <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>
-were derived from <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a> deposited in
-swamps and streams. Unlike the <i>marine</i>
-<span class="pb" id="Page_22">22</span>
-deposits of the Quartermaster, the rocks of
-the Tecovas were formed from <i>continental</i>
-deposits laid down on the land. Fossils
-found in the canyon include the bones and
-teeth of the extinct semi-aquatic reptiles
-known as <i>phytosaurs</i> (<a href="#fig13">fig. 13</a>) and bone
-and skull fragments of a primitive amphibian
-called <i>Buettneria</i> (<a href="#fig14">fig. 14</a>). <i>Coprolites</i>
-(the fossilized excrement of animals),
-pieces of petrified wood, and the
-teeth and bones of lungfish have also been
-reported from the Tecovas.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig13">
-<img src="images/pmg014.jpg" alt="" width="637" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span> The skull of this crocodile-like creature called a phytosaur is typical of the reptiles that
-inhabited the Palo Duro area during the Triassic <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">Period</a>. (Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains
-Historical Museum.)</p>
-</div>
-<p>A number of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">minerals</a> including <i>hematite</i>,
-an iron mineral, and <i>psilomelane</i>, a
-barium-magnesium oxide, occur in the
-Tecovas. Hematite is an ore of iron and
-psilomelane a manganese ore, though neither
-of these is present in commercial quantities
-in the canyon.</p>
-<p>The Tecovas also contains a number of
-<i>concretions</i> which range from a fraction of
-an inch to as much as 6 inches in diameter.
-These spherical masses are generally harder
-than the fine-grained shaly sands in
-which they are found and were thus left
-behind when the surrounding <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> was
-eroded away. Some of these concretions
-are marked by cracks or veins filled with
-the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a> <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Calcite">calcite</a></i>. Concretions bearing
-this type of structure are called <i>septaria</i>,
-or <i>septarian concretions</i>.</p>
-<p><i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Geode">Geodes</a></i> are also found in the Tecovas
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>. These are rounded concretionary
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> with a hollow interior that is
-frequently lined with <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a> crystals.
-Well-formed crystals of clear <a class="gloss" href="#g_Calcite">calcite</a> have
-been found in many of the geodes from
-the Tecovas.</p>
-<p>Among park landmarks that are characterized
-by the multi-hued Tecovas <a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a>
-are the middle portion of Triassic Peak
-(<a href="#fig25">fig. 25</a>), the upper part of the Spanish
-Skirts (<a href="#fig26">fig. 26</a>), Capitol Peak (<a href="#fig32">fig. 32</a>),
-and the Devil&rsquo;s Slide (<a href="#fig35">fig. 35</a>).</p>
-<h4 id="c15">Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>.&mdash;</h4>
-<p>Named from <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a>
-exposures on Trujillo Creek in Oldham
-<span class="pb" id="Page_23">23</span>
-County, Texas, the Trujillo is easy to distinguish
-from the underlying Tecovas
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>. The contact is quite distinct
-and lies between the top of the orange
-Tecovas <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shale</a> and the base of the massive-bedded,
-cliff-forming Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a>
-(<a href="#fig25">fig. 25</a>). Although generally fine grained
-and thickly bedded, there are local concentrations
-of pebble-sized rock fragments in
-the Trujillo. The weathered surface of the
-lower sandstone is stained red or dark
-brown by iron oxides. However, a fresh,
-unweathered surface is typically gray or
-greenish gray in color, and careful examination
-of the unweathered rock reveals the
-presence of tiny flakes of mica.</p>
-<p>The basal Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a> is one of
-the most conspicuous <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> units in the canyon
-and forms many of the prominent
-benches and mesas so typical of the Palo
-Duro landscape. In places the sandstone is
-cross-bedded (<a href="#Page_20">p. 20</a>) and contains channel
-deposits of coarse sand which suggest that
-the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a> from which it was derived
-were deposited in ancient stream beds.</p>
-<p>Red, maroon, and gray <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a> overlie the
-basal <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a> member of the Trujillo,
-and these shales are overlain by cross-bedded,
-coarse-grained sandstone. Another
-interval of varicolored shales separates the
-middle sandstone bed from the upper sandstone
-member. The middle sandstone unit
-is a conspicuous ledge- or cliff-forming
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> and is medium to coarse grained and
-commonly cross-bedded. In most localities,
-the upper sandstone is overlain by a section
-of red and green shales which mark the
-uppermost limits of the Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>.
-In places, however, this shale section
-has been removed by erosion and rocks of
-Tertiary age directly overlie the sandstone.</p>
-<p>Although <a class="gloss" href="#g_Fossil">fossils</a> are not common, the
-remains of <i>Buettneria</i> (<a href="#fig14">fig. 14</a>), leaf imprints,
-pieces of mineralized wood, and the
-scattered teeth and bone fragments of reptiles
-and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Amphibians">amphibians</a> have been found.
-Phytosaur remains, especially teeth, have
-also been collected from the Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstones</a>.</p>
-<p>The Indians who formerly inhabited the
-Palo Duro area (<a href="#Page_3">p. 3</a>) put the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> of
-the canyon to a number of uses. This appears
-to be especially true of the rather
-coarse-grained Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstones</a>, which
-were commonly used for constructing
-primitive rock shelters. The abrasive surface
-of the sandstone was especially well
-suited for grinding grain, and mortar holes
-have been found in a number of places.
-One of these (<a href="#fig15">fig. 15</a>) can be seen along
-the tracks of the Sad Monkey Railroad
-(<a href="#Page_35">p. 35</a>) near the foot of Triassic Peak.
-The Indians also used the clays of the
-Quartermaster, Tecovas, and Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formations</a>
-to make pottery, and iron and
-copper <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">minerals</a> such as hematite and
-malachite were used to make red and green
-pigments for decoration and war paint.</p>
-<p>The Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a> and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstones</a> can
-be seen in a number of Palo Duro&rsquo;s more
-spectacular geological oddities. These erosional
-remnants are best developed where
-blocks of erosion-resistant sandstone protect
-underlying pedestals of softer shale
-(<a href="#fig15">fig. 15</a>). This type of differential <a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">weathering</a>
-(<a href="#Page_31">p. 31</a>) has produced a number of interesting
-and unusually shaped pedestal
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> or &ldquo;<a class="gloss" href="#g_Hoodoo">hoodoos</a>&rdquo; (figs. <a href="#fig16">16</a> and <a href="#fig20">20</a>). The
-most spectacular erosional remnant&mdash;and
-one that has come to be the &ldquo;trademark&rdquo; of
-Palo Duro Canyon&mdash;is the Lighthouse (<a href="#fig31">fig. 31</a>).
-The great jumble of boulders called
-the Rock Garden (<a href="#fig34">fig. 34</a>) is also composed
-largely of massive blocks of dislodged Trujillo
-sandstone. These boulders accumulated
-on the canyon floor as a result of landslides.
-In addition, the rock profile known
-as Santana&rsquo;s Face (<a href="#fig28">fig. 28</a>) is a naturally
-sculptured profile in the Trujillo sandstone
-that forms the cap of Timber Mesa.</p>
-<h4 id="c16">Ogallala <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>.&mdash;</h4>
-<p>The Ogallala <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>
-is named from exposures around
-Ogallala in Keith County, Nebraska. There
-is a major <a class="gloss" href="#g_Unconformity">unconformity</a> between the Trujillo
-Formation of the Triassic and the
-overlying Ogallala Formation of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Pliocene">Pliocene</a>
-(Late Tertiary) age. Missing here is the
-geologic evidence for what may have been
-some of the more exciting chapters in the
-canyon&rsquo;s history. There is no record, for
-example, of the Jurassic and Cretaceous
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">Periods</a> which together encompass almost
-<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span>
-120 million years of earth history. Also
-missing is any evidence of what transpired
-during more than 90 percent of the Tertiary
-Period, for no <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> of Paleocene, Eocene,
-Oligocene, or Miocene age are exposed
-in the canyon. Together these four
-epochs comprise approximately 47 million
-years of earth history. It is impossible, of
-course, to determine how many geologic formations may have been formed and
-later eroded during the 167 million years
-represented by this unconformity. However,
-our knowledge of present-day deposition
-and erosion suggests that the missing
-geologic record undoubtedly represents
-many thousands of feet of rock.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig14">
-<img src="images/pmg015.jpg" alt="" width="624" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span> The skeleton of <i>Buettneria</i>, a large amphibian, found in Upper Triassic <a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a> in the canyon.
-(Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)</p>
-</div>
-<p>The lower portion of the Ogallala <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>
-is composed of a reddish-brown,
-fine- to medium-grained <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a> that
-contrasts sharply with the underlying red and green <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a> that are exposed in the
-top of the Trujillo Formation. Much of this
-sandy <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> is characterized by pebbles consisting
-of a variety of <a class="gloss" href="#g_IgneousRock">igneous</a>, <a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary</a>,
-and <a class="gloss" href="#g_MetamorphicRock">metamorphic rocks</a>. Because it
-consists of rock and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a> fragments of
-varied composition and size, this kind of
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rock</a> is called a <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Conglomerate">conglomerate</a></i>.
-The type of rock fragments found in basal
-Ogallala conglomerates suggests that they
-were transported to the Panhandle-Plains
-area by streams flowing southeastward
-from the Rocky Mountains. As these
-streams deposited their loads, they left behind
-a wide spread blanket of sand, gravel,
-and mud which formed an extensive alluvial
-plain that extended from western Nebraska
-to northwest Texas. Although it is
-less than 100 feet thick in Palo Duro Canyon,
-in places this great mantle of <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_FluvialDeposit">fluvial</a></i>
-(stream-deposited) <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a> is as much
-as 900 feet thick.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig15">
-<img src="images/pmg015a.jpg" alt="" width="701" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span> The depression in this boulder is a mortar hole believed to have been used by the Indians
-for grinding corn.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig16">
-<img src="images/pmg015b.jpg" alt="" width="693" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span> This pedestal <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a>, located near the Lighthouse, is capped by a slab of weather-resistant
-Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a>.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div>
-<p>Most of the Ogallala <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a> consists
-of a mixture of diverse <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> types such as
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Conglomerate">conglomerate</a>, <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a>, <a class="gloss" href="#g_Siltstone">siltstone</a>, clay
-and marl. But the upper part of the formation
-is characterized by thick <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Caliche">caliche</a></i>
-deposits. A dull, earthy <a class="gloss" href="#g_Calcite">calcite</a> deposit,
-caliche typically forms in areas of scant
-rainfall. It is believed to originate when
-ground moisture, containing dissolved calcium
-bicarbonate, moves to the surface
-where the moisture steadily evaporates leaving
-a calcium carbonate crust on or near
-the surface (<a href="#fig17">fig. 17</a>).</p>
-<p><a class="gloss" href="#g_Caliche">Caliche</a>, which derives its name from the
-Latin <i>calix</i>, meaning &ldquo;lime,&rdquo; may be firm
-and compact or loose and powdery. It is
-also commonly found mixed with other
-materials such as clay, sand, or gravel. Caliche
-commonly occurs in the Trans-Pecos,
-southwestern Gulf Coastal Plain, and the
-High Plains area of Texas (<i>see</i> <a href="#fig5">fig. 5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">p. 8</a>).
-In the latter area it typically makes
-up the &ldquo;caprock.&rdquo; Caliche is commonly
-quarried in these parts of Texas where it
-is used as road material and as an aggregate.</p>
-<p>Good exposures of Ogallala <a class="gloss" href="#g_Caliche">caliche</a> can
-be seen on the surface around the overlook
-at Coronado Lodge on the northwest rim of
-the canyon (<a href="#fig17">fig. 17</a>). Ogallala <a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a> also
-crop out along the upper reaches of Park
-Road 5 as it starts to descend into the canyon.
-But probably the most spectacular exposures
-of the Ogallala are exposed in the
-precipitous face of the Fortress Cliff (<a href="#fig33">fig. 33</a>)
-which forms part of the eastern rim of
-the canyon.</p>
-<p>Also located within the Ogallala <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>
-is a very important <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Aquifer">aquifer</a></i>&mdash;a porous,
-water-bearing rock formation. This
-fine-to coarse-grained <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a> is very
-porous and permeable and is the most important
-single water-producing formation
-in the Panhandle-Plains area.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig17">
-<img src="images/pmg016.jpg" alt="" width="720" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span> The white surface in the right foreground consists of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Caliche">caliche</a> (<a href="#Page_26">p. 26</a>) in the Ogallala
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>. Coronado Lodge can be seen in the right background.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Opal and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Chert">chert</a> are locally abundant in
-the Ogallala conglomerates. The opal,
-which is found in small cavities in the
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Conglomerate">conglomerate</a> is not of the gem variety but
-it does <i>fluoresce</i>. <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">Minerals</a> that exhibit <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Fluorescence">fluorescence</a></i>
-emit visible colors when exposed
-to ultraviolet light. For this reason, the
-Ogallala opal is sought after by <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span>
-mineral collectors. The chert, a flint-like
-variety of quartz, occurs as <a class="gloss" href="#g_Nodule">nodules</a> in the
-conglomerate and in a well-developed layer
-near the base of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">formation</a>. Both of
-these <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Siliceous">siliceous</a></i> (<a class="gloss" href="#g_Silica">silica</a>-bearing) rocks were
-apparently prized by the Indians, who used
-them to fashion knives, scrapers, projectile
-points, and other artifacts. The Indians
-also learned that flat slabs of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Caliche">caliche</a> were
-ideal for lining fireplaces and to construct
-primitive rock shelters.</p>
-<p>A number of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Pliocene">Pliocene</a> vertebrates have
-been found in the Palo Duro area. Known
-as the &ldquo;Age of Mammals,&rdquo; the Tertiary
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">Period</a> was characterized by mammals as
-diverse as were the reptiles of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">Era</a>. Among these unusual creatures
-were such now-extinct species as the saber-tooth
-cat and the elephant-like shovel-jawed
-mastodon (<a href="#fig18">fig. 18</a>). The remains of
-these as well as bones of giraffe-like camels,
-pony-sized horses, and sloths have been
-found in the vicinity of the canyon. The
-grassy plains of Pliocene time were also
-inhabited by large tortoises which reached
-lengths of up to 3 feet (<a href="#fig19">fig. 19</a>). Dioramas
-showing how these animals might have
-looked, as well as their actual remains, are
-on display in the Hall of Pre-History in the
-lower floor of the Panhandle-Plains Historical
-Museum in Canyon, 13 miles west
-of the park (<a href="#Page_35">p. 35</a>).</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig18">
-<img src="images/pmg016b.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="342" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span> This life-size model of a shovel-jawed mastodon is typical of the now-extinct, elephant-like
-creatures that lived in this area during the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Pliocene">Pliocene</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Epoch">Epoch</a>. (Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains
-Historical Museum.)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig19">
-<img src="images/pmg016c.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="367" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span> The carapaces of giant tortoises as much as 3 feet long have been collected from
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Pliocene">Pliocene</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> in the Palo Duro area. (Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div>
-<h4 id="c17"><a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">Rocks</a> of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>.&mdash;</h4>
-<p>The youngest
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> in Palo Duro Canyon State Park
-were formed during the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Epoch">Epoch</a>
-of the Quaternary <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">Period</a> of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">Era</a> (<i>see</i> <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTimeScale">geologic time scale</a>, <a href="#Page_11">p. 11</a>). Pleistocene
-rocks are rather widespread in
-much of the Panhandle-Plains area and
-they are mostly composed of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a>
-which were deposited in stream valleys, in
-lakes or ponds, or by the wind. Most of the
-Pleistocene <a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a> in the park area consist
-of loose deposits of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Silt">silt</a> and sand which
-were deposited by wind action. Known
-locally as &ldquo;blow sand,&rdquo; this reddish-brown,
-silty sand overlies the Ogallala <a class="gloss" href="#g_Caliche">caliche</a> at
-most points along the canyon&rsquo;s rim.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div>
-<h2 id="c18">HOW THE CANYON WAS CARVED</h2>
-<p>The visitor seeing Palo Duro Canyon
-for the first time may find it difficult to believe
-that this yawning chasm began as a
-simple gully. But to the <i>geomorphologist</i>&mdash;the
-geologist who studies the origin and
-development of landscapes&mdash;Palo Duro
-Canyon is but a gully magnified many
-times over. This is evident because the
-shape of the canyon, the nature of its tributaries,
-and the character of its walls indicate
-that it has been deepened and lengthened
-by the downcutting of a stream and
-widened by other geologic processes.</p>
-<h3 id="c19">THE GEOLOGIC WORK OF RUNNING WATER</h3>
-<p>Palo Duro Canyon is a classic example
-of a land-form that has been created by
-the geologic work of <i>running water</i>. Undoubtedly
-the most important single agent
-of erosion, running water probably does
-more to wear away the land than all the
-other geologic agents combined. This is
-not surprising considering the fact that the
-earth&rsquo;s annual precipitation (such as rain
-and snow) equals about four billion tons
-of water. Although the amount of precipitation
-varies greatly from place to place,
-the average annual precipitation on land is
-about 40 inches of water. Of this, roughly
-25 percent runs off from the land to form
-streams.</p>
-<p>When one drives through the park and
-fords the normally gently flowing waters
-of the Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River he may well wonder if this unimposing
-stream actually is the geologic agent
-that is responsible for this deep gorge. But
-the visitor who happens to be present during
-a severe rainstorm will soon be convinced,
-for during heavy rains this gentle
-stream becomes a raging torrent. As the
-river increases in size it also becomes a
-more effective land-shaping tool, for the
-larger and swifter the stream, the more
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> material it can carry. Thus, when
-flowing at peak capacity, this branch of
-the Red River becomes a moving ribbon of
-sandpaper whose load of sand, <a class="gloss" href="#g_Silt">silt</a>, and
-gravel has cut and scoured the canyon walls
-and floor for hundreds of thousands of
-years. How long has it taken the river to
-carve this remarkable chasm? Although
-there is no way of knowing for sure, geologic evidence indicates that the canyon
-has formed during the last one million
-years&mdash;a relatively short time, geologically
-speaking.</p>
-<p>The work of the river is made still more
-effective by water and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediment</a> which it
-receives from its tributaries; this added
-water substantially increases the volume
-and velocity of the river. Although many
-of the tributary streams are dry throughout
-much of the year, they carry large
-quantities of water during heavy rains.
-Moreover, because most of these streams
-flow over <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> surfaces which are not protected
-by thick soil or vegetation, their waters
-are quickly transported to the master
-stream. Thus, the volume and velocity of
-the Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River make it possible&mdash;especially during
-flood <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">periods</a>&mdash;for the river to carry a
-large load of rock particles which effectively
-erodes the stream channel. Where
-does this rock debris come from? Most of
-it is eroded from the sides and bottom of
-the river&rsquo;s channel.</p>
-<p>The river carries its load in a number of
-ways. Material such as salt and other soluble
-matter is transported in a dissolved state
-or in <i>solution</i>. Still more, for example, <a class="gloss" href="#g_Silt">silt</a>
-and fine sand, is carried in <i>suspension</i>.
-These <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a> are suspended between the
-surface of the water and the bottom of the
-stream channel. Those particles that will
-not dissolve in water and are too heavy to
-be carried in suspension, constitute the
-<i>bottom load</i> of the stream. These larger
-sediments, such as gravel, cobbles, and
-boulders, roll, bounce, or slide along the
-stream bed.</p>
-<p>As flash floods course through Palo Duro
-Canyon, the river uses its load to erode
-further the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> over which it passes. Each
-<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span>
-moving rock fragment literally becomes a
-cutting tool for <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Abrasion">abrasion</a></i> as the loose rock
-particles slowly wear away the banks and
-bed of the stream. Eventually the abraded
-rock fragments become smooth and
-rounded and the stream channel is gradually
-worn down to a lower level; it is also
-widened.</p>
-<p>The river also erodes by <i>hydraulic action</i>
-as loose <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> fragments are lifted and
-moved by the force of the stream&rsquo;s current.
-This process is similar to the effect produced
-when soil is churned up and washed
-away when water from a garden hose is
-sprayed on loose earth. The effects of hydraulic
-action have played an important
-role in widening the canyon, for recession
-of the cliffs away from the middle of the
-canyons has been caused in part by undercutting.
-Thus, as the soft <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shale</a> and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Gypsum">gypsum</a>
-beds were removed by the stream, the overlying
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">formations</a> gradually
-broke off and fell into the canyon. Once
-on the canyon floor, most of the slabs and
-blocks of sandstone were eventually broken
-up and carried away by the streams as
-sand and mud. Not all of the boulders have
-been destroyed in this manner; in places
-(for example, the Rock Garden) similar
-boulders are seen today (<a href="#fig34">fig. 34</a>).</p>
-<h3 id="c20"><a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">WEATHERING</a> AND GRAVITY ADD THE FINAL TOUCH</h3>
-<p>Most of the energy of the river has been
-expended in downcutting, for the canyon
-has apparently been deepened more rapidly
-than it has been widened. But as the
-stream gouged its channel deeper into the
-bedrock, an ever-increasing expanse of
-canyon wall was exposed to other agents of
-erosion. Slowly&mdash;almost imperceptibly&mdash;the
-walls of the canyon have been eroded
-by the processes of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">weathering</a> and mass-wasting.</p>
-<h4 id="c21"><a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">Weathering</a>.&mdash;</h4>
-<p>Wherever <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> are exposed
-on the earth&rsquo;s surface, they are attacked
-by the agents of <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">weathering</a></i>. They
-are dissolved by rainwater, pried apart by
-frost and ice, and blasted by windblown
-sand. Some of the changes produced by
-weathering are purely mechanical, that is,
-the rock is simply reduced to smaller fragments
-without being broken down chemically
-or undergoing any change in its
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a> composition. This <i>mechanical
-weathering</i>, or <i>disintegration</i>, takes place
-in a number of ways. Changes are especially
-noticeable in rocks that are subjected
-to large daily temperature variations. If a
-crack in these rocks becomes filled with
-water and the temperature drops below
-freezing, ice forms. When water freezes it
-expands by about 10 percent of its volume&mdash;this
-is the reason why water pipes often
-split open during the winter. Just as in a
-water pipe, the pressure of the expanding
-ice is commonly great enough to widen and
-deepen the crack in the rock. This process,
-called <i>frost wedging</i>, may ultimately cause
-the rock to split and fall apart. The cumulative
-effects of frost wedging have probably
-played a significant role in prying off
-large blocks of rocks from the walls and
-rim of the canyon.</p>
-<p>Animals and plants may also hasten <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a>
-disintegration. Plant roots commonly grow
-in rock crevices and as the roots become
-larger they wedge the rock apart. Burrowing
-animals such as rabbits, gophers, and
-ground squirrels also promote rock disintegration.
-Although they do not attack the
-rocks directly, their digging exposes new
-rock surfaces to <a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">weathering</a> processes. The
-holes these creatures make also permit water
-and air to enter the earth more easily,
-thereby hastening rock destruction.</p>
-<p>Man, of course, promotes more <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> disintegration
-than all other animals combined.
-Thus, as one explores the canyon&rsquo;s
-trails and climbs its walls, he will not only
-see evidence of the various types of mechanical
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">weathering</a>, he will also be contributing
-to the further wearing away of
-the rocks.</p>
-<p><i>Decomposition</i>, or <i>chemical <a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">weathering</a></i>,
-works hand in hand with mechanical
-weathering. But unlike disintegration, decomposition
-produces <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> materials that
-are basically different from the original
-unweathered rock. These changes are
-<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span>
-brought about as the result of chemical
-reactions between <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">minerals</a> in the rocks
-and water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen.
-Although the arid climate and severe winters
-of the Panhandle generally facilitate
-mechanical weathering, some of the red <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a> and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Gypsum">gypsum</a> deposits show the effect
-of oxidation, hydration, and other forms
-of chemical weathering (<a href="#fig10">fig. 10</a>).</p>
-<h4 id="c22">Mass-wasting.&mdash;</h4>
-<p><i>Mass-wasting</i>, the erosional
-process by which <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> and soil move
-downslope in response to the force of gravity,
-has also been instrumental in shaping
-Palo Duro Canyon. This type of erosion
-has been especially active on the walls of
-the canyon, for here the slopes are steep
-enough to promote downward movement
-of earth materials. In a few places there
-have been landslides which have moved
-large quantities of rock in a short span of
-time. But most mass movements have been
-imperceptibly slow as masses of <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Talus">talus</a></i> (accumulations
-of rock debris) on steeper
-slopes have inched slowly downhill because
-of their own weight. Talus deposits produced
-in this way can be seen at the foot
-of most of the cliffs and erosional remnants
-throughout the canyon (<a href="#fig20">fig. 20</a>).</p>
-<h4 id="c23">Differential erosion.&mdash;</h4>
-<p>Even the most casual
-observer will soon note that not all of
-the canyon&rsquo;s <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> have been equally affected
-by erosion. Indeed, it is the nature
-of this <i>differential erosion</i> that gives Palo
-Duro Canyon the rugged sculptured appearance
-that accounts for much of its
-beauty.</p>
-<p>Visitors to Palo Duro Canyon commonly
-ask why the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">rock formations</a> are so diversely
-shaped. The answer to this question
-lies in the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> themselves. Because the
-various rock <a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a> are of unequal hardness,
-they erode at different rates of speed.
-Hence, the harder, more resistant rocks,
-such as the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstones</a> and conglomerates
-of the Trujillo Formation, form the shelves,
-ledges, and &ldquo;caps&rdquo; of the rock sculptures.
-The Lighthouse (<a href="#fig31">fig. 31</a>) and other pedestal
-rocks (<a href="#fig16">fig. 16</a>) are good examples of
-land-forms produced by differential erosion.
-The &ldquo;<a class="gloss" href="#g_Hoodoo">hoodoos</a>&rdquo; mentioned earlier are
-also the products of this type of erosion
-(figs. <a href="#fig16">16</a> and <a href="#fig20">20</a>).</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig20">
-<img src="images/pmg018.jpg" alt="" width="719" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Talus">Talus</a> slopes (arrow) are well developed on the east side of Capitol Peak and in places
-obscure the Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_RedBeds">red beds</a>. Note the &ldquo;<a class="gloss" href="#g_Hoodoo">hoodoo</a>&rdquo; at the south (left) end of the structure.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div>
-<p>Softer <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> like <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a> and clay are
-more readily eroded and they normally
-form slopes rather than cliffs or ledges (<a href="#fig12">fig. 12</a>).
-Grooves, recesses, and caves have
-also developed in some of the less resistant
-rocks such as the shales and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Gypsum">gypsum</a> beds
-of the Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>. Catarina
-Cave (<a href="#fig27">fig. 27</a>) which has formed in the red and white shales of the Spanish Skirts (<a href="#fig26">fig. 26</a>)
-is a good example of this type of feature.
-Caves of this type afforded protection
-to both man and wild animals since the
-dawn of history, for their remains have
-been found in a number of similar caves.</p>
-<p>Thus, within a relatively short time&mdash;geologically
-speaking&mdash;the familiar land-shaping
-processes described above have
-joined forces to provide Texas with one
-of its most remarkable natural attractions.
-But interestingly enough, the same geologic processes that created these unusual <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">formations</a>
-are busily at work destroying them.
-As time passes and erosion progresses, the
-caps of the pedestals are worn away and
-the underlying <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a> crumble and are
-washed into the valley below. Yet even as
-the old land-forms are being destroyed,
-wind, water, ice, and man are attacking
-the canyon walls to produce still more of
-these interesting erosional remnants.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div>
-<h2 id="c24">WHAT TO DO AND SEE AT PALO DURO CANYON STATE PARK</h2>
-<p>The visitor to Palo Duro Canyon can
-choose from a number of recreational and
-educational activities. Moreover, regardless
-of whether one visits for a few hours
-to picnic along the banks of the river, or
-spends a week at one of the well-kept campgrounds,
-the visit will probably be both
-pleasant and rewarding. In the pages that
-follow there is a brief description of certain
-of the park landmarks and some of
-the more popular attractions within the
-canyon. The numbers in parentheses refer
-to numbers which designate these places on
-the map of Palo Duro Canyon (<a href="#fig2">fig. 2</a>, pp. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>-5).
-Hopefully, this information will help
-one to plan his visit to the canyon and
-thereby make his stay more enjoyable and
-worthwhile.</p>
-<h4 id="c25"><i>Park Entrance</i> (1).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>The first stop in
-the park is the gate at the ranger station
-(<a href="#fig21">fig. 21</a>). Here one pays a modest admission
-fee and receives literature and information
-about the park. The park is open
-every day of the year, but the entrance
-gates close at sundown.</p>
-<h4 id="c26"><i>Coronado Lodge and Observation Point</i> (2).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>The overlook at Coronado Lodge
-(<a href="#fig22">fig. 22</a>), located about half a mile from
-the Park Entrance, is a good place to start
-one&rsquo;s visit. Situated on a ledge of Ogallala
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Caliche">caliche</a> (<a href="#Page_26">p. 26</a>), the Lodge is an attractive,
-rustic structure constructed of blocks of
-Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a> (<a href="#Page_22">p. 22</a>). Its picture
-windows and outdoor overlook provide a
-matchless view of the canyon and make it
-possible to become oriented for the descent
-to the canyon floor. Large, coin-operated
-telescopes permit close-up views of distant
-parts of the canyon, and there are museum
-cases containing objects of historical and
-geological interest from the Palo Duro
-area. If possible one should visit the Coronado
-Observation Point more than once
-during the visit, preferably at different
-times of the day. Because of shifting clouds
-and changing lighting conditions, the canyon
-presents a continually changing panorama
-from sunrise to sunset. Open year-round,
-the Lodge offers a complete line of
-souvenirs, film, and camping supplies.
-There is also a snack bar where coffee,
-sandwiches, and cold drinks can be purchased.</p>
-<h4 id="c27"><i>The Scenic Drive</i> (1-16).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>After viewing
-the canyon from Coronado Lodge, one
-should take the scenic drive on Park Road
-5. This paved, all-weather road descends
-the northwest rim of the canyon and continues
-on to the turnaround at Cow Camp,
-a distance of about 8 miles. Although the
-present scenic drive was completed in
-1951, the path that it follows is essentially
-that which was laid out by Colonel Charles
-Goodnight when he established Palo Duro
-ranch in 1876. The road descends to the
-canyon floor in a series of well-engineered
-turns, but because it drops some 800 feet
-in little more than a mile it is wise to use
-second or low gear on the descent. One
-should also observe the posted speed limits
-(10 to 20 miles per hour) and keep to the
-right side of the road at all times.</p>
-<p>In the 800-foot drop from rim to floor,
-the complete geologic section of the canyon
-is traversed, as one passes from the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>
-sands through the Ogallala, Trujillo,
-and Tecovas <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formations</a>, before reaching
-the Quartermaster Formation which is exposed
-in the canyon floor. Each of these
-geologic formations is discussed elsewhere
-in this publication (pp. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>-28).</p>
-<h4 id="c28"><i>Pioneer Amphitheatre</i> (3).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>Upon
-reaching the canyon floor, Park Road 5
-flattens out and from this point it is but
-a short distance to the Pioneer Amphitheatre,
-one of the canyon&rsquo;s newest and
-most popular attractions. Here, located at
-the foot of a colorful 600-foot cliff, is a
-remarkable 1500-seat outdoor theatre of
-latest design (<a href="#fig23">fig. 23</a>). Each evening during
-a ten-week summer season, a symphonic
-drama portraying the history of the
-Texas Panhandle is presented in the amphitheatre.
-Information about these productions
-can be obtained at the Park Entrance,
-Coronado Lodge, and other points within
-the park.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig21">
-<img src="images/pmg020.jpg" alt="" width="698" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span> The entrance gate to Palo Duro Canyon State Park.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig22">
-<img src="images/pmg020a.jpg" alt="" width="707" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span> Coronado Lodge on the canyon&rsquo;s northwest rim affords panoramic views of the canyon.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div>
-<h4 id="c29"><i>Sad Monkey Train Ride</i> (4).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>The Sad
-Monkey Railroad begins&mdash;and ends&mdash;at
-Sad Monkey, Texas, a small &ldquo;community&rdquo;
-that lies at the foot of Triassic Peak (<a href="#fig24">fig. 24</a>).
-Unlike most miniature railroads, the
-Sad Monkey Special is not a &ldquo;kiddie&rdquo; ride.
-Instead, this 2-mile journey provides an
-opportunity to get away from the road for
-a closer look at the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">geologic formations</a>
-exposed along the track. There are especially
-good views of the Spanish Skirts
-(<a href="#fig26">fig. 26</a>), Catarina Cave (<a href="#fig27">fig. 27</a>), and
-Triassic Peak (<a href="#fig25">fig. 25</a>). These, and other
-features of geologic interest, are pointed
-out by an experienced lecturer who also
-presents a brief review of the geologic history
-of the area.</p>
-<h4 id="c30"><i>Triassic Peak</i> (5).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>Long used by Indians
-and ranchers as a Palo Duro landmark,
-the canyon visitor will find Triassic
-Peak to be equally useful as a geologic landmark. When viewed from the Sad
-Monkey Railroad Terminal, the south face
-of Triassic Peak clearly reveals three of
-the four major <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">geologic formations</a> of the
-canyon (<a href="#fig25">fig. 25</a>).</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig23">
-<img src="images/pmg020b.jpg" alt="" width="728" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span> Located on the canyon floor, Pioneer Amphitheatre is a modern outdoor theatre where
-symphonic dramas are presented each summer. (Courtesy Mrs. Ples Harper, Texas Panhandle
-Heritage Foundation, Inc.; photograph by Ron Horn.)</p>
-</div>
-<p>The lower one-third of the peak consists
-of deeply furrowed, red and white banded
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a> of the Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a> (<a href="#Page_17">p. 17</a>).
-Overlying the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">Permian</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_RedBeds">red beds</a> are
-the brightly colored, multi-hued Tecovas
-shales of Triassic age (<a href="#Page_19">p. 19</a>). The composition
-of the Tecovas is such that the
-lower shales tend to weather into relatively
-gentle slopes with rather smooth surfaces.
-Triassic Peak is capped by a weather-resistant
-layer of Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a>, and
-this durable cliff-forming sandstone has
-served as a protective covering to impede
-the erosion of the softer <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> of the Tecovas
-and Quartermaster Formations. Although
-it has withstood the ravages of
-time exceedingly well, the large blocks of
-Trujillo sandstone which litter the flanks
-and foot of Triassic Peak clearly indicate
-that <a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">weathering</a> and mass-wasting have
-exacted their toll in the geologic past.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig24">
-<img src="images/pmg021.jpg" alt="" width="689" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span> A trip on the Sad Monkey Railroad is a good place to learn more about the canyon&rsquo;s
-geology and get a closer look at the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig25">
-<img src="images/pmg021a.jpg" alt="" width="695" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span> Excellent exposures of the Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a> of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">Permian</a> age (1) and the Triassic
-Tecovas (2) and Trujillo (3) Formations can be seen in the south face of Triassic Peak. The feature
-known as the Sad Monkey is indicated by the arrow.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div>
-<p>Sad Monkey, Texas derives its name
-from the prominent mass of Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a>
-at the southern extremity of Triassic
-Peak. When viewed in the proper perspective&mdash;and
-with the proper amount of imagination&mdash;this
-massive block of sandstone
-bears a striking resemblance to an aged
-and saddened monkey.</p>
-<h4 id="c31"><i>Spanish Skirts</i> (6).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>Few of the canyon&rsquo;s
-features are as well-named as the
-gaudy Spanish Skirts (<a href="#fig26">fig. 26</a>). The lower
-part of this multi-colored bluff consists of
-alternating layers of red and white Quartermaster
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shale</a>, capped by the colorful
-maroon and lavender Tecovas shales. Located
-on the north flank of Timber Mesa,
-the Spanish Skirts and nearby Catarina
-Cave can be reached by an easy half-mile
-path. The trail begins on the west side of
-Park Road 5, just beyond the Timber
-Creek bridge located several hundred feet
-from the Sad Monkey Station.</p>
-<h4 id="c32"><i>Catarina Cave</i> (7).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>A short distance
-west of the Spanish Skirts lies Catarina
-Cave. This depression has been washed
-out of the relatively soluble <a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">Permian</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a>
-(<a href="#fig27">fig. 27</a>).</p>
-<h4 id="c33"><i>Santana&rsquo;s Face</i> (8).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>Like Triassic
-Peak, Timber Mesa is capped by a thick
-layer of massively bedded Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a>.
-On the eastern tip of the mesa the
-sandstone has been eroded in such a fashion
-that it resembles the profile of an Indian
-(<a href="#fig28">fig. 28</a>). This feature, called Santana&rsquo;s
-Face, is best seen from the park
-road shortly after leaving Sad Monkey Station.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig26">
-<img src="images/pmg021b.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span> The gaudy Spanish Skirts are a colorful expanse of
-Quartermaster and Tecovas <a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a> exposed on the
-north flank of Timber Mesa. Note the contrast in <a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">weathering</a> in the lower, gullied
-Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a> and the smooth slopes of the Tecovas <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a> above it. Catarina Cave (arrow)
-is at the right.</p>
-</div>
-<h4 id="c34"><i>The Sky Ride</i> (9).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>The Sky Ride, located
-near the first water crossing on Park
-Road 5, transports visitors from the canyon
-floor to the top of Timber Mesa (<a href="#fig28">fig. 28</a>).
-The 300-foot ascent is made in ski-lift
-chairs that are comfortable and safe. The
-observation area atop the mesa offers an
-unusually fine view of most parts of the
-canyon.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_38">38</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig27">
-<img src="images/pmg022.jpg" alt="" width="710" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span> Catarina Cave (arrow) is easily reached by a half-mile trail from Park Road 5.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig28">
-<img src="images/pmg022a.jpg" alt="" width="710" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span> Santana&rsquo;s Face (left arrow) has been sculptured from the Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a> cap of Timber
-Mesa. The cable for the Sky Ride (<a href="#Page_37">p. 37</a>) passes through the notch indicated by arrow at right.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div>
-<h4 id="c35"><i>The First Water Crossing</i> (10).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>As it
-winds through the canyon, the park road
-crosses the Prairie Dog Town Fork of the
-Red River seven times in a distance of
-about 4 miles. These fords, or water crossings
-as they are called locally, are paved
-and are normally safe to pass through. They
-should, however, be avoided during times
-of heavy rains and flash flooding. Because
-of stream erosion, especially fine exposures
-of the Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a> are revealed
-in the stream banks near several of
-the crossings.</p>
-<p>The first of these crossings (<a href="#fig29">fig. 29</a>) is
-about 1 mile from the Sad Monkey Station
-and is one of the more popular picnic
-areas in the park. This area was also popular
-with earlier residents of the park, for
-it is believed to have been the campgrounds
-of both the Kiowa and Comanche Indians.</p>
-<h4 id="c36"><i>Colonel Charles Goodnight&rsquo;s Dugout</i> (11).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>As mentioned earlier (<a href="#Page_6">p. 6</a>) Colonel
-Charles Goodnight entered the canyon
-in 1876 with more than 16,000 head
-of cattle. Although he later established
-more comfortable quarters, Col. Goodnight
-first lived in a primitive dugout similar to
-the one shown in <a href="#fig30">figure 30</a>. A replica of
-this early shelter has been constructed of
-mud, stone, and logs and can be seen on
-the west side of the park road just beyond
-the first water crossing (<i>see</i> <a href="#fig29">fig. 29</a>).</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig29">
-<img src="images/pmg022b.jpg" alt="" width="720" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span> Now a popular picnic spot, the wooded area near the first water crossing through the
-Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River was a favorite Indian campground.</p>
-</div>
-<h4 id="c37"><i>The Lighthouse</i> (12).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>The unpaved
-road to the Lighthouse enters Park Road
-5 about two-tenths of a mile beyond the
-first water crossing. Although considered
-by many to be the canyon&rsquo;s best-known
-landmark, the Lighthouse is actually not
-within park boundaries. It is located in
-Little Sunday Canyon about 3 miles west
-of the road and is not easily accessible to
-the average visitor. Like many of the park&rsquo;s
-natural attractions, the Lighthouse is an
-erosional remnant of colorful Trujillo
-<span class="pb" id="Page_40">40</span>
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a> and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstones</a> (<a href="#fig31">fig. 31</a>). A similar
-pedestal <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a>, the Devil&rsquo;s Tombstone, can
-be reached by means of a trail which leaves
-the Lighthouse road and enters Sunday
-Canyon.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig30">
-<img src="images/pmg023.jpg" alt="" width="695" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span> When Colonel Charles Goodnight settled in the canyon in 1876 he lived in a primitive
-dugout similar to the one shown here.</p>
-</div>
-<h4 id="c38"><i>Capitol Peak</i> (13).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>Capitol Peak (figs. <a href="#fig20">20</a> and <a href="#fig32">32</a>)
-is a rather imposing geologic feature that can be seen from a number of
-points along Park Road 5. There are especially
-good views in the vicinity of the
-second water crossing if one will look to
-the west of the road. Just beyond the crossing
-an unimproved road leads to the foot
-of Capitol Peak. The lower part of this feature
-is composed of Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a>
-of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Permian">Permian</a> age and the upper section consists
-largely of Triassic Tecovas shales.
-When viewed from the proper angle, the
-silhouette of Capitol Peak is thought to
-resemble the prostrate form of a human
-(<a href="#fig32">fig. 32</a>). For this reason it has also been
-called the Sleeping Indian.</p>
-<h4 id="c39"><i>Fortress Cliff</i> (14).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>The Ogallala <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>
-of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Pliocene">Pliocene</a> age (<a href="#Page_23">p. 23</a>) forms the
-upper rim of the canyon and is well exposed
-in impressive Fortress Cliff (<a href="#fig33">fig. 33</a>).
-Although this precipitous cliff dominates
-the eastern rim of the canyon along most
-of the scenic drive, especially good views
-are afforded between the second and third
-water crossings.</p>
-<h4 id="c40"><i>The <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">Rock</a> Garden</i> (15).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>Shortly after
-fording the river at the fifth water crossing,
-there is a jumbled pile of boulders on
-the west side of the road (<a href="#fig34">fig. 34</a>). This
-accumulation of Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a> blocks
-has been named the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">Rock</a> Garden. Many
-boulders such as these have accumulated
-on the floor of the canyon in ages past.
-However, most of these have been destroyed
-by <a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">weathering</a> and their fragments
-removed by the canyon&rsquo;s streams.</p>
-<h4 id="c41"><i>The Devil&rsquo;s Slide</i> (16).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>The Devil&rsquo;s
-Slide can be reached by an unimproved
-road that leads southwest from the scenic
-drive for a distance of about half a mile.
-Composed of upper Quartermaster and
-lower Tecovas <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a>, the surface of this
-<span class="pb" id="Page_41">41</span>
-eroded spur is laced with many trails and
-&ldquo;slides&rdquo; that have been made by previous
-visitors (<a href="#fig35">fig. 35</a>).</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig31">
-<img src="images/pmg023a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="717" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span> The Lighthouse, an erosional remnant and the &ldquo;trademark&rdquo; of Palo Duro Canyon, exhibits
-well the geologic phenomenon of differential erosion (<a href="#Page_31">p. 31</a>).</p>
-</div>
-<h4 id="c42"><i>The Turnaround</i> (17).&mdash;</h4>
-<p>A loop marks
-the end of Park Road 5 and the conclusion
-of the scenic drive. Located in this area
-are a number of fine camping areas, picnic
-grounds, the old stone cottages called
-the &ldquo;Cow Cabins,&rdquo; and rest rooms with
-shower facilities (<a href="#fig36">fig. 36</a>).</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_42">42</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig32">
-<img src="images/pmg024.jpg" alt="" width="719" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span> The &ldquo;dome&rdquo; on Capitol Peak is a well-known canyon landmark. Composed of the Tecovas
-and Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formations</a>, the profile of Capitol Peak is referred to as the Sleeping Indian.
-(The &ldquo;Indian&rsquo;s&rdquo; head can be seen in the right background.)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig33">
-<img src="images/pmg024a.jpg" alt="" width="710" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span> Fortress Cliff is a prominent feature on the eastern rim of the canyon. Seen here are the
-precipitous cliffs developed in the Ogallala <a class="gloss" href="#g_Caliche">caliche</a> (<a href="#Page_26">p. 26</a>) and the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstones</a> and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a> of the
-Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_43">43</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig34">
-<img src="images/pmg024b.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span> The <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">Rock</a> Garden is a jumbled mass of Trujillo <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a> boulders that mark the site of
-an ancient landslide.</p>
-</div>
-<h4 id="c43"><i>Hiking.</i>&mdash;</h4>
-<p>There are a number of established
-trails for the visitor who is interested
-in hiking. The more popular trails include
-those to the Spanish Skirts and Catarina
-Cave (<a href="#Page_37">p. 37</a>), the Devil&rsquo;s Tombstone, the
-Lighthouse (<a href="#Page_39">p. 39</a>), and the Devil&rsquo;s Slide
-(<a href="#Page_40">p. 40</a>). Park rangers will be glad to provide
-more complete information about
-these and other trails within the canyon.</p>
-<h4 id="c44"><i>Horseback riding.</i>&mdash;</h4>
-<p>Saddle horses can
-be rented at the stables located east of the
-road near the Pioneer Amphitheatre. There
-are a number of trail rides that can be
-taken on well-trained horses accustomed
-to the rugged terrain of the canyon. Additional
-information may be obtained from
-the attendants at the stable.</p>
-<h4 id="c45"><i>Camping and picnicking.</i>&mdash;</h4>
-<p>An ample
-number of well-developed camping and
-picnic areas are scattered throughout the
-canyon. Most are located adjacent to or a
-short distance from Park Road 5; they are
-equipped with outdoor fireplaces and
-tables. Running water, rest rooms, and
-showers are provided in certain areas.
-Campsites are available on a first-come
-first-served basis, and there is a 10-day
-limit on overnight camping. Detailed information
-on camping regulations and
-camping areas is available from a park
-ranger or at the Entrance Station.</p>
-<h4 id="c46"><i>Photography.</i>&mdash;</h4>
-<p>Palo Duro Canyon offers
-many opportunities for both amateur and
-professional photography. The multi-colored
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">rock formations</a>, erosional land-forms,
-and plants and animals offer limitless possibilities
-to the creative and imaginative
-photographer. Color shots are especially
-effective, but a haze filter will be helpful
-when photographing distant objects. Morning
-and afternoon are the best times for
-picture taking as the mid-day sun is &ldquo;flat&rdquo;
-and lends little perspective to the canyon
-scene.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_44">44</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig35">
-<img src="images/pmg025.jpg" alt="" width="706" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span> The Devil&rsquo;s Slide in the south end of the park is an eroded spur of Tecovas <a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a>. Some
-of the &ldquo;slides&rdquo; made by visitors are indicated by the arrow.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig36">
-<img src="images/pmg025a.jpg" alt="" width="711" height="500" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Outcrop">Outcrops</a> of the Quartermaster (1) and Tecovas (2) <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formations</a> provide a geological
-backdrop for this campsite near the turnaround at the end of Park Road 5.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_45">45</div>
-<h2 id="c47">PANHANDLE-PLAINS HISTORICAL MUSEUM</h2>
-<div class="img" id="fig37">
-<img src="images/pmg025b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="727" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span> Located on the campus of West Texas State University in Canyon, the Panhandle-Plains
-Historical Museum has many exhibits of historical and geological interest that will enhance one&rsquo;s
-visit to Palo Duro Canyon State Park. (Courtesy Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)</p>
-</div>
-<p>The visitor to Palo Duro Canyon State
-Park would do well to start his visit at the
-Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum located
-on the campus of West Texas State
-University in Canyon (<a href="#fig37">fig. 37</a>). Here all
-phases of history&mdash;recent, archeologic, and
-geologic&mdash;are depicted in the various halls.
-In the Hall of Pre-History are the fossilized
-remains and reconstructions of ancient animals
-that were entombed in the canyon
-<span class="pb" id="Page_46">46</span>
-walls as long as 200 million years ago.
-Elsewhere there are exhibits and dioramas
-that portray human history in the Palo
-Duro area. Beginning with the oldest
-known evidence of human occupation
-about 12,000 years ago, there is a succession
-of displays that tell the story of man
-in the Palo Duro&mdash;High Plains region.
-These exhibits follow man from the early
-Indians living in stone shelters, to the
-horse-using nomadic plains Indians who
-relied heavily on the great herds of bison
-and who fought a desperate but losing battle
-to save their homeland from invasion
-by the white man. Here, too, is the story of
-the coming of the Spanish conquistadores,
-the <i>comancheros</i> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Page_6">p. 6</a>), and the advent
-of the anglican settler. All are portrayed
-by means of artifacts that represent
-the different cultures of the region&rsquo;s colorful
-past.</p>
-<p>The major theme of the Museum is the
-history of the High Plains during the
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">period</a> of the cattle industry of the open
-range. One entire hall is devoted to the display
-of saddles, spurs, lariats, barbed wire,
-branding irons, a chuck wagon, and a life
-size model of a typical cowboy of the Old
-West. The Museum also houses one of the
-nation&rsquo;s finest collections of guns of the
-Old West, the Old World, and guns of today.
-Other highlights include scale models
-depicting scenes of the Old West, exhibits
-of typical rooms from pioneer homes furnished
-with furniture of that <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">era</a>, a fine assortment
-of antique vehicles, and famous
-collections of Western art.</p>
-<p>The Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum
-is easily reached from any of the
-major highways that pass through Canyon.
-It is open from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m.
-weekdays and from 2:00 p.m. to 6:00 p.m.
-Sundays.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_47">47</div>
-<h2 id="c48">SELECTED REFERENCES<a class="fn" id="fr_2" href="#fn_2">[2]</a></h2>
-<p class="phang"><span class="sc">Brand, J. P.</span> (1956) Triassic System, <i>in</i> Eastern
-Llano Estacado and adjoining Osage Plains:
-West Texas Geol. Soc. and Lubbock Geol. Soc.,
-Guidebook, Spring Field Trip, April 6-7, 1956,
-pp. 8-9.</p>
-<p class="phang"><span class="sc">Cummins, W. F.</span> (1890) The Permian of Texas
-and its overlying beds: Texas Geol. Survey
-1st Ann. Rept. (1889), pp. 183-197.</p>
-<p class="phang">&mdash;&mdash; (1893) Notes on the geology of northwestern
-Texas: Texas Geol. Survey 4th Ann.
-Rept. (1892), pt. 1, pp. 177-238.</p>
-<p class="phang"><span class="sc">Drake, N. F.</span> (1892) Stratigraphy of the Triassic
-formations of northeast Texas: Texas Geol.
-Survey 3rd Ann. Rept. (1891), pp. 225-247.</p>
-<p class="phang"><span class="sc">Evans, G. L.</span> (1949) Upper Cenozoic of the High
-Plains: West Texas Geol. Soc. and New Mexico
-Geol. Soc., Guidebook for Field Trip No. 2,
-November 9, 1949, pp. 1-9.</p>
-<p class="phang">*&mdash;&mdash;, and <span class="sc">Meade, G. E.</span> (1945) Quaternary
-of the Texas High Plains, <i>in</i> Contributions
-to Geology, 1944: Univ. Texas Pub. 4401,
-pp. 485-507.</p>
-<p class="phang">*<span class="sc">Frye, J. C.</span>, and <span class="sc">Leonard, A. B.</span> (1957) Studies
-of Cenozoic geology along eastern margin of
-Texas High Plains, Armstrong to Howard
-counties: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Rept.
-Inves. No. 32, 62 pp.</p>
-<p class="phang">*&mdash;&mdash;, and &mdash;&mdash; (1959) Correlation
-of the Ogallala Formation (Neogene) in western
-Texas with type localities in Nebraska:
-Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No.
-39, 46 pp.</p>
-<p class="phang">*&mdash;&mdash;, and &mdash;&mdash; (1964) Relation of
-Ogallala Formation to the southern High Plains
-in Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Rept.
-Inves. No. 51, 25 pp.</p>
-<p class="phang">*<span class="sc">Girard, R. M.</span> (1959) Bibliography and index
-of Texas geology: Univ. Texas Pub. 5910,
-238 pp.</p>
-<p class="phang">*&mdash;&mdash; (1964) Texas rocks and minerals:
-Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Guidebook No.
-6, 109 pp.</p>
-<p class="phang"><span class="sc">Gould, C. N.</span> (1902) The geology and water resources
-of the eastern portion of the Panhandle
-of Texas: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply
-Paper 154, 64 pp.</p>
-<p class="phang">&mdash;&mdash; (1907) The geology and water resources
-of the western portion of the Panhandle
-of Texas: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply
-Paper 191, 70 pp.</p>
-<p class="phang">*<span class="sc">Matthews, W. H.</span>, III (1960) Texas fossils: An
-amateur collector&rsquo;s handbook: Univ. Texas,
-Bur. Econ. Geol. Guidebook No. 2, 123 pp.</p>
-<p class="phang">*<span class="sc">Patton, L. T.</span> (1923) The geology of Potter
-County [Texas]: Univ. Texas Bull. 2330, 180
-pp.</p>
-<p class="phang">*<span class="sc">Reed, L. C.</span>, and <span class="sc">Longnecker, O. M.</span> (1932) The
-geology of Hemphill County, Texas: Univ.
-Texas Pub. 3231, 98 pp.</p>
-<p class="phang">*<span class="sc">Sellards, E. H.</span>, <span class="sc">Adkins, W. S.</span>, and <span class="sc">Plummer,
-F. B.</span> (1933) The geology of Texas, Vol. I,
-Stratigraphy: Univ. Texas Bull. 3232 (August
-22, 1932), 1007 pp.</p>
-<p class="phang"><span class="sc">West Texas State University Geological Society</span>
-(1964) Palo Duro Field Trip Guidebook:
-West Texas State Univ. Geol. Soc., Canyon,
-18 pp.</p>
-<p class="phang">&mdash;&mdash; (1960) Geology of Palo Duro Canyon
-State Park and the Panhandle of Texas: West
-Texas State Univ. Geol. Soc., Guidebook for
-1966 SASGS Annual Field Trip, April 15-17,
-1966, 58 pp.</p>
-<p class="phang"><span class="sc">Smith, A. R.</span> (1967) Caves of Palo Duro Canyon:
-The Texas Caver, Abilene, Texas, vol. 12,
-pp. 145-148.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_48">48</div>
-<h2 id="c49">GLOSSARY</h2>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Abrasion">Abrasion</a></b>&mdash;erosion of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> material by friction
-of solid particles moved by water, ice, wind, or
-gravity.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_AbsoluteTime">Absolute time</a></b>&mdash;<a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">geologic time</a> measured in
-years. Compare with relative time.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Amphibians">Amphibians</a></b>&mdash;cold-blooded four-footed animals
-which have gills in youth and lungs in maturity
-(e.g., frog).</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Anhydrite">Anhydrite</a></b>&mdash;the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a> calcium sulfate, CaSO&#8324;.
-<i>See</i> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Gypsum">Gypsum</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Anticline">Anticline</a></b>&mdash;an arch-like fold in the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>, with
-the beds dipping in opposite directions on the
-two sides.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Aquifer">Aquifer</a></b>&mdash;a water-bearing layer of porous and
-permeable <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Aragonite">Aragonite</a></b>&mdash;a form of calcium carbonate
-(CaCO&#8323;).</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Archeozoic">Archeozoic</a></b>&mdash;the oldest known geological <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">era</a>;
-early Precambrian.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_BeddingPlane">Bedding plane</a></b>&mdash;the plane of demarcation between
-two individual <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> layers or <a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Calcite">Calcite</a></b>&mdash;a <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a> composed of calcium carbonate,
-CaCO&#8323;.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Caliche">Caliche</a></b>&mdash;an accumulation of calcium carbonate,
-commonly white in color, in the soil profile.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a></b>&mdash;the latest <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">era</a> of geologic time, containing
-the Tertiary and Quaternary <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">Periods</a>
-and continuing to the present time.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Chert">Chert</a></b>&mdash;dense, hard <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> of very fine-grained
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Silica">silica</a>, usually in nodular form. This material is
-also called flint.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Concretion">Concretion</a></b>&mdash;a concentration, usually spherical,
-of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a> matter in <a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>, produced
-by deposits from solution; it is harder
-than the surrounding rock.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Conglomerate">Conglomerate</a></b>&mdash;a <a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rock</a> composed
-of rounded, water-worn gravel, usually mixed
-with sand, and cemented together by another
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a> substance.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Coprolite">Coprolite</a></b>&mdash;the fossilized excrement of animals.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Eolian">Eolian</a></b>&mdash;pertaining to the erosion and the deposits
-resulting from wind action and to <a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rocks</a> composed of wind-transported
-material.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Epoch">Epoch</a></b>&mdash;a subdivision of a geologic <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">period</a>, such
-as the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Pliocene">Pliocene</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Epoch">Epoch</a> of the Tertiary Period.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Era">Era</a></b>&mdash;a major division of <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">geologic time</a>. All geologic time is divided into five eras: the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Archeozoic">Archeozoic</a>,
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a>, <a class="gloss" href="#g_Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>, <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>, and
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> Eras.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Fluorescence">Fluorescence</a></b>&mdash;luminescence of a <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a> during
-exposure to radiation (such as from ultraviolet
-or X-rays).</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_FluvialDeposit">Fluvial deposit</a></b>&mdash;<a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediment</a> deposited by streams.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Formation">Formation</a></b>&mdash;a <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> unit useful for mapping and
-distinguished primarily on the basis of lithologic
-character.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Fossil">Fossil</a></b>&mdash;any remains or traces of plants or animals
-preserved in deposits of a past <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicAge">geologic age</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Geode">Geode</a></b>&mdash;a hollow stone, usually lined or filled
-with <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a> matter.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_GeologicAge">Geologic age</a></b>&mdash;the age of an object as stated in
-terms of <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">geologic time</a> (e.g., a Pennsylvanian
-fern, Cretaceous dinosaur).</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_GeologicTime">Geologic time</a></b>&mdash;all time which has elapsed since
-the first known <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> were formed and continuing
-until recent, or modern, times.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_GeologicTimeScale">Geologic time scale</a></b>&mdash;record of the divisions of
-earth history.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Gypsum">Gypsum</a></b>&mdash;a <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a>, hydrated calcium sulfate
-(CaSO&#8324;&middot;2H&#8322;O). <i>See</i> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Anhydrite">Anhydrite</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Hoodoo">Hoodoo</a></b>&mdash;a form produced by erosion of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_IceAge">Ice age</a></b>&mdash;the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Epoch">Epoch</a> of the Quaternary
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">Period</a>, <a class="gloss" href="#g_Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">Era</a>; a time of extensive
-glaciation.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_IgneousRock">Igneous rock</a></b>&mdash;<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> which have solidified from
-lava or molten rock called magma.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Joint">Joint</a></b>&mdash;a fracture in a <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> along which there
-has been no displacement on opposite sides of
-the break.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_JointSystem">Joint System</a></b>&mdash;a series of two or more sets of
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Joint">joints</a> passing through a <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> mass and separating
-it into blocks of more or less regular
-pattern.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_MassWasting">Mass-wasting</a></b>&mdash;erosion caused chiefly by gravity.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a></b>&mdash;the geologic <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">era</a> between the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>
-and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> Eras; the &ldquo;Age of Reptiles.&rdquo;</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_MetamorphicRock">Metamorphic rock</a></b>&mdash;<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> formed from <a class="gloss" href="#g_IgneousRock">igneous</a> or <a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rocks</a> that have been subjected
-to great changes in temperature, pressure, or
-chemical environment.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Metamorphism">Metamorphism</a></b>&mdash;the process whereby <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> are
-changed physically by heat, pressure, or chemical
-environment into different kinds.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Mineral">Mineral</a></b>&mdash;a naturally occurring inorganic substance
-possessing definite chemical and physical
-properties.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Nodule">Nodule</a></b>&mdash;rounded lump of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> or <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Outcrop">Outcrop</a></b>&mdash;the area where a particular <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a>
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">formation</a> comes to the surface.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Paleontology">Paleontology</a></b>&mdash;the science which deals with the
-study of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Fossil">fossils</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a></b>&mdash;that <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">era</a> of <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTime">geologic time</a> following
-the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a> and preceding the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_49">49</div>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Period">Period</a></b>&mdash;a basic unit of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTimeScale">geologic time scale</a>
-into which the eras are divided, such as the
-Pennsylvanian <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">Period</a> of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">Era</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Permian">Permian</a></b>&mdash;the seventh and last <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">period</a> of the
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">Era</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a></b>&mdash;the first of the two epochs of the
-Quaternary <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">Period</a>, and that which precedes
-modern time, known as the Great <a class="gloss" href="#g_IceAge">Ice Age</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Pliocene">Pliocene</a></b>&mdash;last and youngest <a class="gloss" href="#g_Epoch">epoch</a> of the Tertiary
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">Period</a> of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">Era</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a></b>&mdash;youngest <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">era</a> of the Precambrian;
-follows the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Archeozoic">Archeozoic</a> Era and precedes the
-Cambrian <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">Period</a> of the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> Era.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_RedBeds">Red beds</a></b>&mdash;a general term for red <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a>,
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shales</a>, etc., which appear to characterize arid
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">periods</a> in the past.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_RippleMarks">Ripple marks</a></b>&mdash;wave-like corrugations produced
-in unconsolidated materials by wind or
-water.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Rock">Rock</a></b>&mdash;any natural aggregate of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Mineral">mineral</a> matter,
-usually consisting of a mixture of two or more
-minerals.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Sandstone">Sandstone</a></b>&mdash;<a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rock</a> composed of cemented
-sand grains, usually quartz.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Sediment">Sediment</a></b>&mdash;material that has been deposited by
-settling from a transportation agent such as
-water or air.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_SedimentaryRock">Sedimentary rock</a></b>&mdash;<a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> formed by the accumulation
-of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Shale">Shale</a></b>&mdash;a <a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rock</a> formed by the hardening
-of mud and clay and usually tending to
-split into thin sheets or layers.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Silica">Silica</a></b>&mdash;an oxide of silicon (SiO&#8322;).</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Siliceous">Siliceous</a></b>&mdash;containing or pertaining to <a class="gloss" href="#g_Silica">silica</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Silt">Silt</a></b>&mdash;fine muddy <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediment</a> consisting of particles
-intermediate in size between clay particles and
-sand grains.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Siltstone">Siltstone</a></b>&mdash;a very fine-grained <a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rock</a>
-composed of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Silt">silt</a> grains, and intermediate between
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Shale">shale</a> and <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sandstone">sandstone</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_StratifiedRocks">Stratified rocks</a></b>&mdash;<a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rocks</a>; those
-formed in beds, layers, or <a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Stratum">Stratum</a></b>&mdash;an individual layer of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">rock formation</a>.
-(Plural, <i><a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a></i>.)</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Superposition">Superposition</a>, law of</b>&mdash;in an undisturbed sequence
-of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> younger beds overlie older beds.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Syncline">Syncline</a></b>&mdash;a trough-like fold in the <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>, with
-the beds dipping inward on either side. <i>See</i>
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Anticline">Anticline</a>.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Talus">Talus</a></b>&mdash;a mass of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a> debris commonly on
-slopes or at the base of a steep mountain or
-cliff.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Topography">Topography</a></b>&mdash;the configuration of a land surface.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Unconformity">Unconformity</a></b>&mdash;a break in the sequence of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a>
-<a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">formations</a> which separates younger <a class="gloss" href="#g_Stratum">strata</a> from
-older ones; caused primarily by removal of
-older rocks by erosion before those of a later
-sequence were laid down.</p>
-<p class="phang"><b><a id="g_Weathering">Weathering</a></b>&mdash;any natural process, mechanical
-or chemical, whereby <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a> are disintegrated
-or decomposed into smaller particles and ultimately
-into clay and soil.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_50">50</div>
-<h2 id="c50">Index</h2>
-<p class="center"><b><a class="ab" href="#index_A">A</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_B">B</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_C">C</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_D">D</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_E">E</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_F">F</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_G">G</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_H">H</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_I">I</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_J">J</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_K">K</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_L">L</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_M">M</a> <span class="ab">N</span> <a class="ab" href="#index_O">O</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_P">P</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_Q">Q</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_R">R</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_S">S</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_T">T</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_U">U</a> <span class="ab">V</span> <a class="ab" href="#index_W">W</a> <span class="ab">X</span> <span class="ab">Y</span> <span class="ab">Z</span></b></p>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_A"><b>A</b></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Abrasion">abrasion</a>: <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
-<dt>Adair, John: <a href="#Page_6">6</a></dt>
-<dt>&ldquo;Age of Mammals&rdquo;: <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt>alabaster: <a href="#Page_17">17</a></dt>
-<dt>ancient man in Palo Duro Canyon: <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Anhydrite">anhydrite</a>: <a href="#Page_18">18</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Anticline">anticlines</a>: <a href="#Page_18">18</a></dt>
-<dt>Apaches: <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Aquifer">aquifer</a>: <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt>
-<dt>Arapahos: <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Archeozoic">Archeozoic</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>: <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_B"><b>B</b></dt>
-<dt>&ldquo;blow sand&rdquo;: <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
-<dt>bottom load: <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt>
-<dt>Brazos River: <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt><i>Buettneria</i>: <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_C"><b>C</b></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Calcite">calcite</a>: <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Caliche">caliche</a>: <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt>
-<dt>camels: <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt>camping and picnicking: <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt>Canyon, Texas: <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt>Capitol Peak: <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt>Carboniferous <a class="gloss" href="#g_Period">Period</a>: <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt>
-<dt>Catarina Cave: <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></dt>
-<dt>chemical <a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">weathering</a>: <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Chert">chert</a>: <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt>
-<dt>Cheyennes: <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-<dt>Civilian Conservation Corps: <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt>Colorado River: <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt><i>comancheros</i>: <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></dt>
-<dt>Comanches: <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-<dt>concretions: <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Conglomerate">conglomerate</a>: <a href="#Page_24">24</a></dt>
-<dt>coprolites: <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt>Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de: <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-<dt>Coronado Lodge: <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></dt>
-<dt>&ldquo;Cow Cabins&rdquo;: <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt>cross-bedding: <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt>cross-stratification: <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_D"><b>D</b></dt>
-<dt>decomposition: <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
-<dt>Devil&rsquo;s Slide: <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt>
-<dt>Devil&rsquo;s Tombstone: <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt>differential erosion: <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt>disintegration: <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
-<dt>dugout, Col. Charles Goodnight&rsquo;s: <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_E"><b>E</b></dt>
-<dt>earth history: <a href="#Page_10">10</a>-12</dt>
-<dt>Eastern Caprock Escarpment: <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt>erosion, differential: <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_F"><b>F</b></dt>
-<dt>flash floods: <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Fluorescence">fluorescence</a>: <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_FluvialDeposit">fluvial</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a>: <a href="#Page_24">24</a></dt>
-<dt>Fortress Cliff: <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Fossil">fossils</a>: <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt>frost wedging: <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_G"><b>G</b></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Geode">geodes</a>: <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt>geologic column: <a href="#Page_12">12</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_GeologicTimeScale">geologic time scale</a>: <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></dt>
-<dt>geomorphologist: <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt>
-<dt>Goodnight, Colonel Charles: <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Gypsum">gypsum</a>: <a href="#Page_17">17</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_H"><b>H</b></dt>
-<dt>Harper, Mrs. Ples: <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt>
-<dt>hematite: <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt>Hester, W. A.: <a href="#Page_1">1</a></dt>
-<dt>High Plains: <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt>hiking: <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt>history of park: <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-8</dt>
-<dt>&ldquo;<a class="gloss" href="#g_Hoodoo">hoodoos</a>&rdquo;: <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt>Horn, Ron: <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt>
-<dt>horseback riding: <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt>horses: <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt>hydration: <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt>hydraulic action: <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_I"><b>I</b></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_IceAge">Ice Age</a>: <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_IgneousRock">igneous rocks</a>: <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt>Indian campground: <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt>
-<dt>Indians of the Plains: <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_J"><b>J</b></dt>
-<dt>JA Ranch: <a href="#Page_6">6</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_K"><b>K</b></dt>
-<dt>Kiowas: <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_L"><b>L</b></dt>
-<dt>Lighthouse, The: <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt>Little Sunday Canyon: <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt>
-<dt>Llano Estacado: <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_M"><b>M</b></dt>
-<dt>Mackenzie, Colonel Ranald: <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-<dt>mammals: <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt>Marcy, Captain R. B.: <a href="#Page_6">6</a></dt>
-<dt>mass-wasting: <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt>mastodon, shovel-jawed: <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt>mechanical <a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">weathering</a>: <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_MetamorphicRock">metamorphic rocks</a>: <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt>mortar hole: <a href="#Page_25">25</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_O"><b>O</b></dt>
-<dt>Observation Point: <a href="#Page_33">33</a></dt>
-<dt>Ogallala <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>: <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-27, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt>opal: <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt>
-<dt>oxidation: <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_P"><b>P</b></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Era">Era</a>: <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt>
-<dt>Palo Duro Canyon State Park: <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt>Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum: <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-46</dt>
-<dt>Park Entrance: <a href="#Page_33">33</a></dt>
-<dt>park history: <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-8</dt>
-<dt>Park Road 5: <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt>Parker, Chief Quanah: <a href="#Page_7">7</a></dt>
-<dt class="pb" id="Page_51">51</dt>
-<dt>Pecos River: <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt>pedestal <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rock</a>: <a href="#Page_25">25</a></dt>
-<dt>petrified wood: <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt>photography: <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt>phytosaurs: <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt>picnicking and camping: <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt>Pioneer Amphitheatre: <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-34</dt>
-<dt>Plains Indians: <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> rocks: <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
-<dd>time: <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dd>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Pliocene">Pliocene</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Epoch">Epoch</a>: <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt>Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River: <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt>
-<dt>Precambrian rocks: <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt>
-<dt>principle of <a class="gloss" href="#g_Superposition">superposition</a>: <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a> rocks: <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt>
-<dt>psilomelane: <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_Q"><b>Q</b></dt>
-<dt>Quartermaster <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>: <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-19, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_R"><b>R</b></dt>
-<dt>Red River: <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt>
-<dt>reduction halos: <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_RippleMarks">ripple marks</a>: <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">Rock</a> Garden, The: <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt>Rocky Mountains: <a href="#Page_24">24</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_S"><b>S</b></dt>
-<dt>saber-tooth cat: <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt>Sad Monkey, Texas: <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dd>Railroad: <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dd>
-<dt>Santana&rsquo;s Face: <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></dt>
-<dt>satin spar: <a href="#Page_17">17</a></dt>
-<dt>Scenic Drive, The: <a href="#Page_33">33</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_SedimentaryRock">sedimentary rocks</a>: <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Sediment">sediments</a>: <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt>selenite: <a href="#Page_17">17</a></dt>
-<dt>septaria: <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt>septarian concretions: <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt>shovel-jawed mastodon: <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt>Sky Ride, The: <a href="#Page_37">37</a></dt>
-<dt>Sleeping Indian: <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt>sloths: <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Siliceous">siliceous</a> <a class="gloss" href="#g_Rock">rocks</a>: <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt>solution: <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt>
-<dt>Spanish Skirts: <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></dt>
-<dt>suffosian: <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt>
-<dt>Sunday Canyon: <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Superposition">superposition</a>, principle of: <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt>
-<dt>suspension: <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Syncline">synclines</a>: <a href="#Page_18">18</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_T"><b>T</b></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Talus">talus</a>: <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt>talus slopes: <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt>Tecovas <a class="gloss" href="#g_Formation">Formation</a>: <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-22, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt>
-<dt>Texas Panhandle: <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-<dt>Texas Panhandle Heritage Foundation, Inc.: <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt>
-<dt>Texas Parks and Wildlife Department: <a href="#Page_2">2</a></dt>
-<dt>Texas-Santa Fe Expedition: <a href="#Page_6">6</a></dt>
-<dt>Timber Mesa: <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></dt>
-<dt>time scale, geologic: <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></dt>
-<dt>tortoises: <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt>Triassic Peak: <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt>
-<dt>Trujillo Formation: <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>-23, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt>Turnaround, The: <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_U"><b>U</b></dt>
-<dt>unconformities: <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_W"><b>W</b></dt>
-<dt>water crossings: <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt>
-<dt><a class="gloss" href="#g_Weathering">weathering</a>: <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
-<dt>West Texas State University: <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt>Wolfin, Charles A.: <a href="#Page_1">1</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<h2 id="c51">Footnotes</h2>
-<div class="fnblock"><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_1" href="#fr_1">[1]</a>Professor of Geology, Lamar State College of Technology, Beaumont, Texas.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_2" href="#fr_2">[2]</a>Entries marked with asterisk are published by the Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas at Austin. Those not out of print are distributed at nominal sale price; list sent on request.
-</div>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="pic_2">
-<img src="images/pmg026.jpg" alt="Cover image, Aerial view of Palo Duro Canyon" width="800" height="586" />
-</div>
-<h2>Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes</h2>
-<ul><li>This book, published without copyright notice, is in the public domain.</li>
-<li>Silently corrected a few palpable typos.</li>
-<li>Added links to glossary entries.</li></ul>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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-William A. Matthews
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