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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6fa8f2b --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #52216 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52216) diff --git a/old/52216-8.txt b/old/52216-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 779cf5d..0000000 --- a/old/52216-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9609 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Glacières, by Edwin Swift Balch - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Glacières - or Freezing Caverns - -Author: Edwin Swift Balch - -Release Date: June 2, 2016 [EBook #52216] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GLACIÈRES *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Note - - -Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - - - - GLACIÈRES - - OR - - FREEZING CAVERNS - -[Illustration: ICE SLOPE AND BASIN, KOLOWRATSHÖHLE.] - - - - - GLACIÈRES - - OR - - FREEZING CAVERNS - - - BY - - EDWIN SWIFT BALCH - - A. B. (Harvard); F. R. G. S. - Member of the Franklin Institute - Of the Appalachian Mountain Club - Of the American Philosophical Society - Author of "Mountain Exploration," &c. - - - Philadelphia - ALLEN, LANE & SCOTT - 1900 - - - Copyright, 1900, by - EDWIN SWIFT BALCH. - - - Press of - ALLEN, LANE & SCOTT, - Philadelphia, Pa. - - - THIS BOOK IS - AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED TO - MY MOTHER, - WHOSE DEEP INTEREST IN - MY WORK HAS - HELPED ME GREATLY. - - -PRELIMINARY NOTE. - - -Many kind friends have given me information about glacières or -assistance in my work. I am especially indebted to Mr. Robert Butler, -of San José, Cal.; Mr. F. H. Cushing, of Washington, D. C.; Professor -Charles E. Fay, of Tufts College, Mass.; Professor Eberhard Fugger, of -Salzburg, Austria; Mr. Alois F. Kovarik, of Decorah, Iowa; Monsieur -E. A. Martel, of Paris, France; Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., of Boston, -Mass.; Professor I. C. Russell, of Ann Arbor, Mich.; Miss H. Varena, -of Wiesbaden, Germany; and Miss Mary Coxe, Mr. G. L. Farnum, Mr. J. -E. Farnum, Mr. F. L. Garrison, Mr. W. C. Hall, Mr. E. I. H. Howell, -Mrs. Horace Jayne, Mr. W. E. Meehan, Mr. C. J. Nicholson, Mr. G. B. -Phillips, Mr. Bunford Samuel, Mr. W. W. Wagner, and Dr. W. H. Wahl, of -Philadelphia. I wish to acknowledge also the help I have derived from -the Bibliothèque Nationale and the library of the British Museum. - - E. S. B. - -Philadelphia, February the 10th, 1900. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - Part I. Experiences in Glacières 1 - Part II. The Causes of Subterranean Ice 109 - Part III. List of Glacières 165 - Part IV. Some Opinions about Glacières 269 - Part V. List of Authors 313 - Index 329 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - Ice Slope and Basin, Kolowratshöhle Frontispiece - Glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant 8 - Ice Stalagmites, Chaux-les-Passavant 10 - Vertical Section of Chaux-les-Passavant 11 - Ice Stalagmites, Chaux-les-Passavant 12 - Vertical Section of Dóbsina 15 - The Lower Rositten Alp and the Untersberg 16 - The Entrance of the Kolowratshöhle 18 - Vertical Section of the Kolowratshöhle 19 - Top of Ice Slope, Kolowratshöhle 20 - At the Entrance of the Schafloch 22 - Hollow Cones and Fissure Columns, Schafloch 24 - On the Ice Slope, Schafloch 26 - In the Rear of the Schafloch 28 - Vertical Section of Déményfálva 29 - The Frauenmauer and the Gsoll Alp 38 - In the Frauenmauerhöhle 40 - Vertical Section of the Frauenmauerhöhle 42 - Ice Stalactite, Frauenmauerhöhle 42 - Vertical Section of the Suchenreuther Eisloch 57 - La Glacière de Saint-Georges 62 - Vertical Section of the Glacière de Saint-Georges 64 - Vertical Section of Grand Cave de Montarquis 72 - The Bluff at Decorah 86 - Entrance of the Cave of Decorah 88 - Locus Glacialis, Cave of Decorah 90 - Gorge at Ellenville 92 - Vertical Section of Pit near Summit 97 - Vertical Section of Freezing Cave near Williamstown 103 - Vertical Section of a Windhole 125 - Freezing Cavern at Brainard 180 - - - - -PART I. - -EXPERIENCES IN GLACIÈRES. - - - - -EXPERIENCES IN GLACIÈRES. - - -SUBTERRANEAN ICE IN KING'S RAVINE. - -Subterranean ice was brought to my notice by a mere accident, late in -the month of September, 1877, while on a descent of King's Ravine, -on Mount Adams, in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. We had just -descended the rock wall of the mountain and had reached the head of -the gorge, when my companion, Mr. Charles E. Lowe, the well-known -Appalachian guide of Randolph, suddenly said to me, "Would you like a -piece of ice? I can get you some presently." I answered, "Certainly," -wondering where he would find any. When we got among the big boulders, -which form so rough a path for the traveler at the bottom of the -ravine, Mr. Lowe climbed down under one of the biggest, and presently -reappeared with a good sized lump of ice. I was much impressed at -finding ice at the end of the summer in this gorge, when for months -past no ice or snow had been visible on the surrounding mountains. I -noticed also the peculiar, flaky formation of the ice, and saw at once -that it was something new to me, and in fact it was a piece of what I -have since learned to know as "prismatic ice." - - -GLACIÈRE NEAR BRISONS. - -In the summer of the year 1880, I traveled through the Alps, with a -friend from Philadelphia. On the 17th of September, we drove from -Geneva to Bonneville. Thence we started on foot without a guide, and as -a result got lost in the woods, from which we only extricated ourselves -at nightfall. After retracing our steps to Bonneville, we were glad to -find a man to show us the way we should have taken, and finally reached -the little village of Brisons in France, where we slept. The next day -we took a guide and made our way across the mountains to Annecy, at -one spot going out of our direct route to see a place spoken of by the -natives as a glacière. It was a little pit, and at the base of one -side thereof was the mouth of a small cave into which we could not see -any distance. At the bottom of the pit lay a mass of dirty snow and -ice to which we did not descend, as the sides of the pit were sheer -and smooth, and there was no ladder. This pit seemed to be more of -the nature of a gully filled with winter snow, than a true rock cave -containing ice. - - -THE GLACIÈRE DE L'HAUT-D'AVIERNOZ. - -Three days after this, on Tuesday, the 21st of September, 1880, we -visited the two largest glacières on the Mont Parmelan, near Annecy, -France. At Annecy we inquired at the hotel for a man who knew the Mont -Parmelan; and, after finding one, we made our way to Les Villaz, where -we spent the night in an _auberge_. Our companion was an odd personage. -He was small, about fifty years of age, and looked meek, crushed and -hungry. He wore a long black frock coat and black trousers, thin boots -and a linen shirt, certainly not the ideal outfit for a cave explorer. -Under his care we started early in the morning and toiled up a mountain -path some eight hundred or a thousand meters,[1] through woods and -pastures, to the higher plateau of Mont Parmelan, in which was situated -the first glacière. This was in a great pit, at the bottom of which, -on one side, was a big cave. On the side of the pit opposite to the -opening, there was a steep rock slope, forty or fifty meters long, -whose lower portion was covered with snow. Down this slope we descended -with but little difficulty, reaching at the bottom an almost level ice -floor which spread over the entire cave and was formed throughout of -thick, solid ice. A second and much smaller pit in the roof of the cave -opened directly over the ice floor; and under this pit rose a small -cone of ice, some two meters high, the only one in this glacière. - -[1] The metric system is used throughout this book, except in a few -quotations. Thermometric observations are given in degrees Centigrade. - -The glacière itself was approximately round in shape, and some twenty -meters in diameter. At one place the rock wall was broken and we could -look into a much smaller inner cave or chamber. Into this we could not -penetrate on account of a long, narrow crack or hole which yawned in -the ice floor for a distance of some five or six meters and continued -through the opening into the second chamber. We tried to cut our way -along the side of the hole, but had to give it up, finding the ice -too hard and our time too short. The crack or hole, whose sides were -solid ice, proved conclusively that the ice in this glacière was many -meters in thickness, for we could look a long way down into the hole, -certainly for ten or twelve meters, until the ice sides disappeared in -darkness, without any visible bottom. The hole cannot be spoken of as -a crevasse, for, besides not looking like a crevasse, it was certainly -formed by other causes than those which form the crevasses in glaciers, -since there is, as a rule, no perceptible movement in subterranean -ice. Doubtless, the hole was due to the drainage of the cave, which -undoubtedly passed off through the hole. There may be, nevertheless, -some little motion in the ice of this glacière, for it is evident that -it is fed principally directly by the winter snows; which, whether as -frozen or melted snow, descend gradually, by the force of gravitation, -from the slope of the pit into the glacière. - -As for any possibility of this great mass of ice melting away and -forming again in any one year, it passes belief; there must be at least -the cubic contents of a dozen ordinary houses in the cave, and such a -mass could hardly be destroyed or formed again in any such short space -of time as a fall or spring. This is, therefore, probably a permanent -or perennial glacière. - - -THE GLACIÈRE DE CHAPUIS. - -Starting out from the Glacière de l'Haut-d'Aviernoz we walked across -the plateau of the Mont Parmelan, _en route_ for the second glacière. -This plateau is a curious rock formation, consisting of what the -natives call _lapiaz_, which might be translated "stone-heaps." The -plateau is full of great projecting rocks; and myriads of cracks -and crevices everywhere rend the surface, and over these crevices -one sometimes has to jump. Still, I do not remember any particular -difficulty. It was certainly not nearly as bad walking as the taluses -of loose rocks one meets at the base of many mountains. - -Our guide led us for about an hour across the plateau in a southerly -direction, and then, looking over the side of the Parmelan, with a -sweep of the arm covering south, west and north, he told us that the -glacière lay between those points, but he did not know exactly where. -This seemed a rather hopeless prospect, so, as we had no clue to the -whereabouts of our prospective hole, we descended to a couple of -châlets we saw some two hundred meters below, but which at least were -in the direction of Annecy. We followed a goat-herd's path which led -to the châlets from the plateau, one of those dangerous grass tracks, -where nothing would be easier than to make a slip, and where a bad -slip might have unpleasant results. This is, however, just the kind -of place where every one is particularly careful not to slip. We were -careful and so reached the châlets all right, and there we found a -strong, intelligent boy, who at once pointed out the place where the -glacière was, about half way up the slope we had just come down. So we -took him with us, leaving our guide at the châlets to await our return. - -The entrance to the glacière was in a wall of rock, set at an angle of -some thirty-five degrees; at the bottom of this there was some grass. -An easy chimney some fifteen meters high led up to the glacière. Up -this chimney we climbed. At the top we entered a little cave about -two meters deep, by a sort of portal about two meters wide. The cave -made an elbow to the right, and passing this we found that it turned -to the left and pointed directly into the mountain. The rock went -down vertically in front of us, but the boy said we could get down, -so having first lowered a candle by a string to see the depth, which -turned out to be a perpendicular drop of some four or five meters, -with the help of the rope we all climbed down. We were already almost -entirely away from the daylight and a few steps took us into complete -darkness, except for the light we had from the candle each of us held -in his hand. - -The fissure led straight into the mountain. It was a couple of meters -wide at places, and there we moved along the bottom. In one place it -narrowed below to a wedge, and there we progressed either by climbing -along one side or by placing one foot on one side and the other -foot on the other. The fissure led downwards as well as inwards. It -would have been nothing in daylight to go through it; but in the -semi-darkness it was not easy. - -After a descent of some twenty-five meters or thereabouts, we arrived -at the glacière, and I have certainly never seen a weirder place. There -was a great arched rock dome, perhaps six meters in height, and some -twelve in diameter; the floor was a sheet of smooth, slippery ice, at -one end curling over, gently at first, afterwards more steeply, to a -lower depth; and on the sides were seven or eight ice columns streaming -from cracks in the rocks to the floor. Each of these columns was some -three or four meters high, and, small at the top and in the middle, -spread out at the base into the shape of fans. In the dim candle light -and the cold damp atmosphere, the columns loomed up like so many -ghosts, and the landscape impression was strange and solemn. The air -here seemed perfectly still. - -There was another curiosity. The fissure we had come down, at this -point some three meters wide, was filled, just beyond the glacière, -with pure, transparent water, which formed a little lake: this was -perhaps one meter deep, and extended across the fissure, barring -further progress. It certainly seems strange that in the same cavern, -under nearly the same conditions of temperature, there should be one -place covered with a flooring of ice and another filled with water. The -explanation, however, is perhaps not far to seek. Over the lake there -was a distinct draught of air. The draught probably melts the ice in -summer, if indeed it does not prevent any from forming in winter. There -are, so far, no winter observations reported of this cave, yet it would -seem to be one which would well repay the trouble. - - -THE GLACIÈRE DE CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT. - -On the 17th of August, 1894, my brother and I arrived at Besançon, -the Vesontio of the Romans, bent on seeing the Glacière de -Chaux-les-Passavant or de la Grâce-Dieu, which is not far distant -from the town. The hotel we stopped at was pretty bad; the beds were -surmounted with those old-fashioned curtains which were of use before -the invention of glass windows, but which now only serve to exclude air -and ventilation. However, I learnt something of the manners and customs -of the country, for on getting down at six o'clock the next morning -for breakfast, the first question the waiter asked was: _Quel vin -monsieur prendra-t-il?_ At seven o'clock we sallied forth in a little -open one-horse victoria, with a dull gray sky overhead. Besançon is -well down in a valley, so the first five miles of the road were a slow, -gradual rise to the surrounding levels. The scenery as we drove along -reminded us of Turner's pictures: distant vistas of hills and valleys -with factories blowing off their smoke and with tumble-down old houses -ensconced in picturesque nooks, just those long-distance effects that -Turner loved to paint and which, for some reason, the artists of the -present generation have generally neglected and usually speak of as -unpaintable or unpicturesque. There was a row of trees, the whole way, -on each side of the road, a bit of practical forestry, the wisdom of -which it would be well for Americans to recognize. After our poor horse -had pulled us up the long hills, we had an almost level road running in -a straight line as far as the eye could see. We saw at least a hundred -little hawks, who live on field mice and other rodents, and whose -preservation is another evidence of French wisdom. The last four miles -of the drive was up a ravine in the woods, near the beginning of which -we passed the Trappist convent of la Grâce-Dieu. - -[Illustration: GLACIÈRE DE CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT. - - From a Photograph by E. Mauvillier. -] - -Opposite the entrance of the glacière, there is a little restaurant -where the peasants come to dance and picnic, and where the few -travellers who get to these parts, can obtain a tolerable _déjeuner_. -They keep a fair _vin du pays_ there, and we had some trouble on the -way home in consequence. Our driver, a talkative specimen of the genus -and an old soldier of Bourbaki's, told us, on the way out, many things -about Besançon during the Franco-German war and of the retreat of the -French army into Switzerland; but on the way home, he showed that he -evidently was not a member of the blue ribbon army. He first seemed -desirous of not taking us back to Besançon, preferring to go in the -other direction towards Bale; and afterwards he evinced a violent -inclination to go to sleep. We thought we should have to request him -to change seats with us, and drive back ourselves, but we obviated the -difficulty by plying him with questions as soon as he began to nod on -his box. Eventually, we reached Besançon all right, only once bumping a -passing cart, and only once nearly capsizing into a ditch. If Americans -can learn some points from Europeans about forestry, I think the latter -might get some equally valuable information from us concerning the use -of water, externally and internally. - -The good lady at the restaurant acts the part of the old-fashioned -cave dragon, and we had to appease her by handing over four _sous_ as -a preliminary to exploration. She also had a sign up, saying that no -one is allowed to break off or take away any ice, which must sadly -interfere with the tourists' privilege of bringing away specimens. - -The entrance of the glacière was surrounded by woods, which formed -a natural rampart to anything like wind. As we stood facing the -glacière a great pit opened before us, with a slope about one hundred -and thirty-five meters long leading to the bottom. This slope is at -first gentle in its gradient, but lower down it steepens to an angle -of some thirty degrees so that we were glad to resort to the trail -which descends in regular Alpine zigzags. In one place, on the right -hand, there were the remains of a stone wall with a door, and local -tradition relates that in former times there was a sort of fortified -habitation there, which was used in war times as a place of retreat. -The lower part of the slope is covered by a protecting roof of rock -which, thin at the rim where it is edged with forest, gradually slopes -downward overhead so that at the mouth of the glacière we looked back -and up what might be described as an immense tunnel. The lower part -of the slope was a mixture of broken rocks, mud and ice: the last, -however, seemed to be all on the surface, although it was impossible to -determine whether it went to any depth. - -[Illustration: ICE STALAGMITES, CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT. - - From a Photograph by E. Mauvillier. -] - -At the base of the tunnel we found ourselves on the threshold of an -immense, almost circular cave, with a diameter of some fifty meters, -rising overhead into a regular vault or dome about twenty-seven meters -in height. The entrance to the cave is so large that plenty of daylight -is admitted, and the whole cave easily examined. The rocks are of a -yellowish brown hue, and I could not help thinking of Nibelheim in -Richard Wagner's Rheingold. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.[2] Vertical Section of Chaux-les-Passavant.] - -[2] The figures in this book are rough sketches, without pretense at -accuracy of measurement, and are only explanatory of the text. - -The bottom of the cave was entirely covered with a flooring of ice. How -thick this flooring was there was no means of judging, as there were -no holes, but it must have been at least two or three meters thick in -places. At the back of the cavern, directly facing the entrance, one -magnificent frozen water fall streamed from a fissure. It was perhaps -five meters high, and began to take the fan shape from its origin. The -base was about four meters wide, and did not rest on the ice floor, but -on a sloping rock extending out from the side of the cave. - -Perhaps the most remarkable feature of all, were six or seven great ice -stalagmites, shaped like cones or rough pyramids, which rose on the -floor of the cave. One of these was at least five meters in diameter -and six in height, and seemed perfectly solid. In the case of two of -the others, however, the cones were broken on one side, revealing in -each the stem and branches of a young pine tree. These evidently had -been planted in the ice and round them the columns had grown. Whether -all the ice cones were thus artificial in their origin I could not -determine, but it seemed probable that they were the result of years of -undisturbed accretion and growth. In both the cones where the break on -the side gave a view into the interior, the dark blue-green color of -deep glacier crevasses was present. - -A pool of water, perhaps thirty centimeters in depth and three or four -meters in diameter, lay at one place on the ice floor. The whole cave -was damp and the ice in places decidedly slushy, in fact all the signs -showed that it was thawing. In the case of this glacière as well as -in those of the Mont Parmelan, it seemed clear that it must be in the -winter months that the formation of ice takes place. - -[Illustration: ICE STALAGMITES, CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT. - - From a Photograph by E. Mauvillier. -] - - -DÓBSINA JEGBARLANG. - -The cavern of Dóbsina, in the Carpathian Mountains, is easily reached -either from Poprád to the north, or from Dóbsina to the south. The -hotel at Poprád is better, however, than the inn at Dóbsina, where -my brother and I spent two nights. It was decidedly primitive. The -food was not so bad, but the pigs ran round in the courtyard, and one -morning a gypsy band woke us at half-past three o'clock by playing -in front of our windows, in dreadful wailing tones, which were most -irritating at that hour. At the proper time, however, Hungarian gypsy -music,--despite the fact that none of the players ever seem to look at -the leader, and that each man appears to play the tune he likes the -best,--is strangely fascinating. - -Dóbsina itself lies in a hollow, surrounded with well-wooded hills, the -general appearance much resembling some of the valleys of the White -Mountains of New Hampshire. My brother and I started from Dóbsina on -the morning of the 27th of July, 1895, at half-past seven o'clock, in -a little open carriage with excellent horses and a Hungarian driver in -national costume. He was a nice fellow, but he did not understand a -word of German. The road reminded us of some of our own mountain roads, -as it was rough, full of holes and partly washed away by the rains. We -first ascended to the crest of the surrounding hills and then descended -to the Stracena Thal, a wild limestone valley covered with fine -forest. Two hours and a half driving landed us at the hotel-restaurant -near the cave, at which I should certainly stop on another visit. It -was half an hour's stroll thence, through beautiful woods, to the -cavern's entrance. Northwards in the distance the Tátra Range was -visible, a set of sharp bare rock peaks, at whose base, ensconced in -pine forests, is situated the famous Hungarian summer resort of Tátra -Füred, which much resembles Bar Harbor. - -The entrance to the cavern is enclosed by a fence with a gate, and here -the Dóbsina people have a high tariff and take toll from tourists. At -the gate, we waited for half an hour, until a sufficient number of -persons had arrived to form a party. This mode of visiting the cave -rather detracts from the pleasure, even though it does away with all -difficulty and makes the beauties of Dóbsina accessible to everyone. It -was also necessary to wait long enough to cool off thoroughly before -entering, on account of the icy air of the cavern, where heavy winter -clothes are indispensable. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. Vertical Section of Dóbsina.] - -The entrance to Dóbsina faces nearly due north. It is small, perhaps -two meters wide and three meters high, and is perfectly sheltered -from any wind. The sudden drop in temperature at the entrance was -startling; in fact it was the most extreme change I have noticed in any -cave. Within the length of an ordinary room, say in a distance of five -meters, we passed from an extremely hot summer morning to the chill of -a mid-winter afternoon. A slight air current, perhaps, issued from the -entrance, as we observed a faint mist there. At the rock portal there -was ice on the rocks overhead, and underfoot was the beginning of the -huge mass of ice which almost fills the cavern. A descent down eighteen -wooden steps landed us at the beginning of a great ice floor, in what -is called the _Grosser Saal_. It is a magnificent cave. The floor is -a sheet or rather a mass of solid ice, the surface of which is level -enough in one place to permit of skating; in other spots it is sloping -and covered with small ice hillocks. The ice is solid throughout, -without any holes or cracks. Several fissure columns stream to the -floor from cracks in the sides. Joining the roof to the floor are -numerous big ice stalactites, which form frozen pillars and columns. -These are from eight to eleven meters in height, and some two to three -meters in average breadth and width. Nearly translucent, they are -covered with all sorts of icy ornaments hanging about them in tufts and -fringes; they are beautiful in their shapes, as well as in their white -and blue colors. One of these columns is called the _Brunnen_, because -until about ten years ago, a small stream dribbled continuously from -the roof and cut a channel across the ice floor; but now the stream has -solidified into the pillar, and the channel is filled up, although it -can still be traced in the ice. - -The cavern is lighted by electricity, which has the merit, even if it -brings in an element of artificiality, of clearly revealing one of the -chief glories of Dóbsina. This is the rime or hoar frost, which in the -shape of ice or snow crystals, covers the entire limestone roof, and, -reflecting the electric light, shines like frosted silver. Some of -these frost crystals seem to be precipitated to the floor, and in one -place I found a small sheet of them, perhaps two meters in width each -way, which looked and felt like genuine snow. The general color effect -of all this upper cave is white, although there is some blue in the -ice, and gray and brown in the rocks and shadows. It would not be much -of a misnomer to call Dóbsina "the great white cave." - -The ice extended to the sides of the cave except in two places. Here -there were holes in the ice, bridged by low rock arches. We passed -through one of these and descended by a wooden staircase some eighty -steps, afterwards returning up through the other arch by another -staircase. At the bottom we stood in a magnificent gallery named the -_Korridor_, formed by a solid wall of ice on one side and by a wall -of limestone rock on the other. The ice wall is the lower portion of -the ice floor; the rock wall is the continuation of the roof. For the -entire distance the ice wall rises almost perpendicularly some fifteen -meters in height, while the rock wall arches overhead. - -[Illustration: THE LOWER ROSITTEN ALP AND THE UNTERSBERG.] - -The bottom of the _Korridor_ was filled with blocks of fallen -limestone, through which any water drains off, and on which there was a -wooden walk, so that we circled round the ice with the greatest ease. -At one place on the limestone wall hung a cluster of big icicles, -which, from their shape really deserved the name they bear, of the -_Orgel_. At another place a hole, some six or seven meters deep, was -hewn, in the form of a small chamber, directly into the ice mass. This -is the _Kapelle_, where we performed our devotions by leaving our -visiting cards on the floor. Near the middle of the _Korridor_ the ice -mass bulges out and extends to the limestone wall, breaking the whole -_Korridor_ into two parts, the western portion about eighty meters, and -the eastern about one hundred and twenty meters long. This necessitated -cutting a tunnel about eight meters long in the ice to get through. The -color of the _Korridor_ is a darkish gray and is much more sombre than -that of the _Grosser Saal_. A remarkable feature of the ice wall is the -fact that distinct bands of stratification are visible in the ice in -many places. Why the _Korridor_ is not filled up with ice and why the -ice is perpendicular for such a distance are questions I am unable to -answer satisfactorily; but it is probable that the temperature of the -rock walls is sufficiently high to prevent ice from forming in winter -or to melt it in summer if it does form in winter. - -The air in Dóbsina seemed still, and scarcely felt damp. In one or two -places in the _Grosser Saal_ there was a slight sloppiness, showing -incipient signs of thaw. In the _Korridor_ it was freezing hard. - - -THE KOLOWRATSHÖHLE. - -The Kolowratshöhle is situated on the north slope of the Untersberg, -near Salzburg, at an altitude of 1391 meters. My brother and I visited -it on the 2d of August, 1895. We had one of the patented guides of the -district, Jacob Gruber by name, in regular Tyrolese dress, with gray -_jacke_ and black chamois knee breeches. We left Salzburg in the early -morning in an _einspänner_ and drove to the foot of the Untersberg in -about an hour, whence, by a rough path passing by the Rositten Alp, we -ascended to the cave in about three hours. The last hundred and sixteen -meters of the path were cut across some moderately steep rock slabs and -a perfectly unnecessary iron hand-railing affixed. - -The entrance faces northeast. Here there must have been a slight -draught of cold air moving outwards, the effect of which was -perceptible to the eye, as at the point where the cold inside air -met the quiet warm outside air, a faint mist was visible. From the -entrance, a sharp slope, set at an angle of about forty degrees, led -to the lowest point of the cave. The upper half of this slope was -still covered with the winter snow which had blown or had slid in. We -descended on the right hand edge of the snow by means of some steps -cut in the rock by the _Deutschen-Oesterreichischen Alpen Club_. -These steps were covered with a sticky, red mud, which left almost -ineradicable stains on our clothing, and as there was also ice in -places, they were decidedly slippery. - -[Illustration: THE ENTRANCE OF THE KOLOWRATSHÖHLE.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. Vertical Section of the Kolowratshöhle.] - -At the bottom of the slope we were at the lowest point of the cave, -to which all the water flowed, and where it drained off into a crack -with a loud gurgling noise. Back of us was the daylight streaming -through the entrance; opposite to us was first an ice floor, then a -great ice slope, which came down from the further end of the cave. The -ice was transparent and of a pale ochre-greenish hue, and filled the -entire width of the cave. There is a streak of iron, probably, through -the limestone, which in places tints the rocks a dull red. The color -impression is a dull green-red, and, on account of the size of the -entrance, the light effect is only semi-subterranean. - -The ice floor was covered with a layer of slabs of ice, eight or ten -centimeters thick, which, earlier in the year, had evidently had water -under them. The ice wall or ice slope consisted of two big waves, one -above the other, the lower set at an angle of about ten degrees, the -upper set at an angle of about twenty-five degrees. To get up the upper -wave required about twelve steps cut with the axe. Behind the upper -wave, five or six fissure columns streamed out to the beginning of the -ice. One ice stalactite, at least two or three meters long, overhung -the ice floor, and Gruber said about this: "Well, I wonder it has not -fallen yet: they seldom last as late in the year," a confirmation of -what was clearly evident, namely, that the whole cave was in a state of -thaw. - -In two places there was a strong, continuous drip from the roof to the -ice floor, which formed, in each case, what I can only call an ice -basin. These basins were nearly circular; one was about four meters, -the other about two, in diameter. Around about two-thirds of the rim -of the larger one, ice rose in a surrounding ring two or three meters -high, suggesting that earlier in the year this basin was a cone, and -possibly a hollow cone. The depth in the ice floor, in both cases, -was about one and a half meters, and each basin contained some thirty -centimeters in depth of water. They reminded me of the rock basins one -sees in mountain torrents, where an eddying current has worn smooth all -the edges of the rocks. From the larger of these basins, a channel as -deep as the basin ran to the lowest point of the cave. This channel was -cut out by the overflow, which ran through it in a tiny stream.[3] - -[3] The photographs of the Rositten Alp, of the entrance of the -Kolowratshöhle, and of the interior of the Kolowratshöhle, were made -for me on the 16th of July, 1896, by Herr Carl Hintner, Jr., of -Salzburg. The two latter photographs are, I believe, the first good -ones ever obtained of the inside of the cave. They were taken without -artificial light on quick plates; the best of the two received an hour -and a half, the other two hours' exposure. The photographer said at -first that it was not possible to succeed, and it was only by promising -to pay him in any case, that he could be induced to try. - -[Illustration: TOP OF ICE SLOPE, KOLOWRATSHÖHLE.] - - -THE SCHAFLOCH. - -The Schafloch, on the Rothhorn, near the Lake of Thoune, is one of the -biggest glacières in the Alps. On the 15th of August, 1895, after early -coffee, made by the _portier_ of the Hotel Belvedère at Interlaken, -I drove to Merligen, on the north shore of the lake, with Emil Von -Allmen, an excellent guide. We left Merligen on foot at a quarter -before seven, and, making no stops on the way, reached the Schafloch at -ten minutes past ten. The path mounts gently up the Wüste Thal, which -higher up is called the Justiz Thal. The track through the latter is -almost on a level, over grassy alps. On the right hand rise the steep, -almost dolomitic, limestone cliffs of the Beatenberg. On the left is -the range of the Rothhorn, with steep grass and forest slopes below, -and limestone cliffs above. The last hour of the walk was up these -slopes, by what Baedeker calls a "giddy path." By leaving the word -"giddy" out, his description is accurate. The cavern is at the base of -the limestone cliff, and the grass slope extends up to it. - -The entrance to the Schafloch is at an altitude of 1752 meters: it -is a fine archway, and a low wall is built partly across it. In -front of this, we sat down and consumed our chicken and cheese, and -that best of a traveller's drinks, cold tea. The day was windless, -and when I lighted a cigar, to see whether there was any draught at -the entrance, the smoke rose straight up, showing that the air was -perfectly still. When we were sufficiently cooled off, we entered the -cave. The entrance faces east-south-east, but after about ten meters -the cavern takes a sharp turn to the left, forming a sort of elbow, -and runs about due south, constantly descending in an almost straight -line. For the first eighty meters or so, the floor was covered with -blocks of fallen limestone, among which we had to carefully pick our -way. Then we began to find ice, which, a few meters further on, spread -out across the entire width of the cave, with a gentle slope towards -the left. The surface of the ice was rather soft, and the whole cave -was evidently in a state of thaw. A few scratches with the axe--the -most invaluable friend in an ice cave--were necessary at one place to -improve our footing. It would have been impossible to move here without -a light, and I carried our torch, made of rope dipped in pitch, which -occasionally dropped black reminders on my clothes. We were in the -middle of a great ice sheet to which several fissure columns streamed. -On the right hand a beautiful ice stalactite flowed from the roof to -the floor; it was some five meters high, and perhaps seventy-five -centimeters in diameter, and swelled out slightly at the base. On the -left hand were three or four ice stalagmites, shaped like pyramids or -cones. - -[Illustration: AT THE ENTRANCE OF THE SCHAFLOCH.] - -One of these cones was especially remarkable. It was at least five -meters high--Von Allmen said eight--and at the bottom was about four -meters in diameter. The base of this cone was entirely hollow. There -was a break on one side by which we could enter, and we then stood -on a rock floor with a small ice dome or vault overhead. I have seen -no other hollow cone like this. The guide lighted a red Bengal fire -inside, when the whole pyramid glowed with a delicate pink light, -resembling _Alpenglühn_. Near this cone stood the half of another -ice cone. It was quite perfect, and the missing half was cut off -perpendicularly, as if with a huge cleaver. A hollow in the base of -the remnant showed that this cone must have been originally also a -hollow cone, and its destruction was probably due to the change in the -temperature of the drip from the roof, at the setting in of the summer -thaw. - -Just beyond the cones, the ice floor steepens and curls over into a -big ice slope, one of the finest I have seen. Von Allmen spoke of this -as _der gletscher_, an expression I never heard applied elsewhere to -subterranean ice. On the right side, the slope would be difficult -to descend in the darkness. On the left, the slope is gentle and a -rock juts out a little way down. Von Allmen insisted on roping--an -unnecessary safeguard--but he said: "If you slip, you will probably -break an arm or a leg, and then we shall be in a nice mess." He then -cut about twelve steps in the ice, down to the rock, while I shed light -on the performance with our torch. We were so completely away from -daylight that black was the predominating color; and even the ice was a -dark gray, and only appeared white in the high lights. Below the rock, -we found a narrow strip on the left side of the ice slope free from ice -and blocked with boulders, over which we carefully picked our way down. -At the bottom, the ice expanded into a level surface, stretching nearly -to the end of the cave. There were only a few fissure columns in this -part of the cavern, where the most remarkable feature was the cracks -in the rock walls, which were so regular in formation that they almost -looked like man's handiwork. The rocks are free from stalactites, and -in fact stalactites seem a good deal of a rarity in glacières. - -On retracing our steps, we saw, when the first glimmers of daylight -became perceptible, the rocks assume a brilliant blue color, as if they -were flooded with moonlight. This effect lasted until near the mouth of -the cavern. - -[Illustration: HOLLOW CONE AND FISSURE COLUMNS, SCHAFLOCH.] - - -DÉMÉNYFÁLVA JEGBARLANG. - -A little west of Poprád, in Northern Hungary, on the railroad between -Sillein and Kassa, is the village of Liptós Szt Miklós, to which place -I journeyed on the 12th of June, 1896. The conductor was the only man -on the train or at any of the stations who would admit that there was a -glacière at Déményfálva, and that it was feasible to get into it: every -one else professed entire ignorance on the subject. It is perhaps, -worth noting at this time that it is always difficult to get any -information about glacières; in fact, the advice about cooking a hare -might well be applied to glacière hunting: first catch your glacière. - -The scenery between Sillein and Miklós was picturesque. The hills were -covered with forest. In one place, the railroad ran through a beautiful -mountain gorge alongside a river, where a number of rafts were floating -down. There were also some primitive ferries, where a rope was -stretched across the river, and the force of the current carried the -ferryboat across, once it was started. Many peasants were at work in -the fields; often in squads. White, blue, brown, and a dash of red were -the predominating colors in their dress. The men wore white trousers, -made of a kind of blanket stuff, and a leather, heelless moccasin of -nearly natural shape. Almost all the women had bare feet; those of -the older ones were generally shaped according to Nature's own form, -while those of the younger ones were generally distorted from wearing -fashionable shoes. We went past several villages of huts with thatched -roofs, something like the Russian villages one sees beyond Moscow, only -less primitive. - -The inn at Miklós was poor, and as at Dóbsina, the pigs lived in the -yard and occasionally came for an interview under the covered doorway. -Inquiries elicited the information that Déményfálva could be reached -by carriage, so I engaged one at the livery stable. The owner told me -that about twenty years before, he leased the glacière and carried on a -regular business in supplying Buda-Pest with ice. He had thirty lamps -put in to give light to the workmen, who brought up the ice in baskets -on their backs. - -At half past five o'clock next morning the carriage, which was innocent -of paint, lined with a sort of basket work and without springs, but -certainly strongly built, stood at the door. A boy of about eighteen -years of age, who could speak German, went along as interpreter. The -morning was dismal, and, every quarter of an hour or so, a shower of -thick mist fell and gradually made us damp and uncomfortable. After -about twenty minutes on a pretty bad road, we came to a place where -there was a fork, and the driver turned to the left, over a track which -consisted of two deep ruts through the fields. Soon after, we heard -some shouting behind us, and a fierce-looking man, in a leather jacket -and carrying a large axe, came up and abused the driver. He was not -an agreeable person; however, presently he simmered down and began to -smile. It turned out that he was a _wächter_, that is, a guardian of -the fields, and that we were trespassing. The driver meekly promised -to return by the other route, and we went on our way in peace. After -awhile, we drove into some woods and then into a mountain gorge, with -forest-covered slopes at the base and with limestone cliffs jutting -out above. Here we came to the cottage of the _wächter_ or _förster_ -of the surrounding woods, who also acted as guide to the cave, for the -few tourists who came to see it; and when he heard of our destination, -he at once slipped on a second ragged coat, took a woodman's axe and -started on foot, going much faster than the carriage. This was not -surprising, for the road resembled nothing but the bed of a mountain -brook, a mass of boulders with ruts between them. This highway was made -by the peasants driving their carts over the plain in the same place, -and as the soil was cut away, the boulders appeared; and over and among -these we went banging along, and we were jolted about and bumped into -each other, until every bone in my body ached. - -[Illustration: ON THE ICE SLOPE, SCHAFLOCH.] - -At a quarter past seven o'clock we came to another house in a little -glade, where the carriage stopped; and on asking the _förster_ for -his name, he wrote down in my note book, in a clear well formed -hand:--Misura, Franz. From the glade, ten minutes' walk on a mountain -path, up an easy slope, took us to the entrance of Déményfálva. It is -about two meters wide by three quarters of a meter high. We passed -through and entered a large chamber, well lighted from the right by -another opening, which is higher up and bigger than the entrance. -The air in this chamber was at about the same temperature as that of -the outside air, and, on our return from the nether world, it seemed -positively balmy. In the floor at the end of the chamber, a small pit -yawns open. It is perpendicular on three sides and set at a sharp -angle on the fourth. A wooden staircase of some two hundred steps, many -of which are sadly out of repair, leads nearly straight down this slope -to the glacière. - -After descending about eighty steps of the staircase, bits of ice -appeared on the walls and floor and after some thirty steps more, a -lateral gallery opened to the right, and into this we turned. This may -be called the upper cave or story, for in Démenyfálva--besides the -entrance chamber--there are practically two stories, the upper one of -which is mainly ornamented with stalactites, the lower one with ice. -There was a little ice on the floor from which rose some small ice -columns, perhaps fifty centimeters in height. The cave or gallery had -a gentle downward slope and turned towards the left. After some little -distance, we came to another wooden staircase, of ten or twelve steps, -quite coated over with thick, solid ice. Misura had to cut away at it -for several minutes, before he could clear the steps enough to descend. -This was in fact the beginning of an ice wall, the _Eiswand_ or -_Eismauer_, which, turning to the right, flowed through a rock arch to -the lowest cave. The rock arch or portal was some three meters wide and -two meters high, and a fringe of beautiful organ-pipe like icicles hung -on it on the right hand. Just beyond the portal the ice sloped steeply -for a couple of meters; then it became level and on it rose a little -pyramid, a meter and a half in height perhaps, and a column; then the -ice sloped away again to the lower cave. - -[Illustration: IN THE REAR OF THE SCHAFLOCH.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. Vertical Section of Démenyfálva.] - -We then continued our course beyond the rock portal along the upper -cavern for about two hundred meters. It was a fine large gallery or -passage and during the first fifty meters or so, we found numerous -small ice cones, perhaps a hundred of them, from tiny little ones to -some about forty centimeters in height. Many of these were columnar in -form, nearly as large at the top as at the base: in some cases the top -was flat, and the columns then looked almost as if an upper portion -were sawn off. I have seen this shape of column nowhere else. In places -there were slabs and bits of ice on the floor. The last hundred meters -of this upper cave was free from ice and was exceptionally dry. It was -formed of a pale yellow limestone rock, almost dolomitic in color, and -many stalactites, in their thousand various shapes, hung from the roof -and on the sides. In one spot, one big limestone stalagmite towered up -directly in the middle of the gallery. We did not go to the end of the -cave, where ice has never been found. - -Retracing our course past the rock portal to the entrance pit, we -descended on the long staircase for some eighty steps more, the amount -of ice on the rocks steadily increasing. In places, frost crystals had -formed in small quantities on the roof and walls. At the bottom of the -pit, another lateral gallery, directly under the upper gallery, opened -to the right. Entering this, we passed over broken limestone débris, -which seemed to overlie a mass of ice. Limestone stalactites were -noticeable all through this lower cavern, and frost and icicles had -sometimes formed over them, in which case the ice stalactite assumed -the form of the limestone stalactite. Advancing a few meters, we went -by, on our right hand, an ice pyramid of a couple of meters in height. -Just beyond this, the cave turned to the left like the upper cave, -and we descended to a level floor of transparent ice, into which we -could see some distance. At this spot, numerous icicles, generally of -inconsiderable size, hung from the roof and on the sides of the cavern. - -At the further end of this ice floor or ice lake we reached an ice -slope, the _Eiswand_, which flowed to the ice floor from the upper -cave in several waves. It was some six meters wide and twenty-five -meters long; and it was not steep, perhaps fifteen degrees in the -steepest portions. On the slope some old, nearly obliterated steps were -visible, and at these Misura proceeded to cut, and with torch in one -hand and axe in the other, gradually worked his way up, until he once -more reached the level spot whence we had looked down the ice slope. -Here he stood waving his torch, a proceeding indeed he did constantly -throughout the trip, for he seemed exceedingly proud of the beauties of -his cavern. This waving of torches, however, is exceedingly foolish, -as their smoke quickly blackens stalactite, and in fact nothing but -candles and magnesium wire should be carried for lighting purposes -underground. The ice of the ice slope was hard, gray and opaque, quite -different from that of the ice lake. The ice floor is formed of new -ice, which is gradually refilling the place from which Misura said the -ice for Buda-Pest was taken out twenty-five years ago. To prove this -assertion, he called my attention to the side of the lake directly -opposite the ice slope. At that spot, under the limestone rubbish over -which we came, there was an outcrop of perpendicular opaque ice about a -meter high. Misura said that the workmen began to cut at the ice slope -and that they dug out a couple of meters in depth from the ice lake, -until they had cut back to where the vertical outcrop was standing. - -The explanation seemed to be in accord with the facts, and if so, it -would go to show that the ice in this cave is of slow formation and -great permanency; as seems also proved by the steps on the ice wall, -which--we were the first party in the cave in 1896--had remained over -from the preceding summer. Misura told me he had never seen so much -ice nor seen it so hard as during our visit, and he added that there -was generally water on the ice lake, and he thought there would be some -in two or three weeks more. The greatest quantity of ice in the upper -cave was at the head of the ice-slope, and it would seem as though -there must be cracks or fissures in the overhead rocks there, through -which the water is supplied to feed the ice, not only that of the upper -cave, but also the larger portion of that of the lower cave. - -The heavy winter air would naturally sink down into the entrance -pit to the lower cavern, and some of it diverge into the beginning -of the upper cavern, which at first is distinctly a down slope. A -little beyond the portal at the head of the ice slope, the upper cave -is either horizontal or in places slightly ascending. Probably this -prevents the cold air from entering further, and probably also, the -heat of the earth neutralizes the cold air of winter beyond a definite -spot. - -The air in the cave seemed absolutely still throughout; it was -also extremely dry, undoubtedly because melting had not yet begun. -The icicles evidently were formed by the slow drip freezing as it -descended, and there were no perceptible cracks nor fissures in the -rocks underneath them. The facts seem to me to prove that neither -evaporation nor regelation can be the factors at work in making the ice -and we may deduce an important rule therefrom. When a cave is dry, then -the air is dry; when a cave is wet, then the atmosphere is damp. In -other words, the state of dryness or dampness of glacière atmosphere -depends on how much the ice is thawing and parting with its moisture. - -On our return to the base of the long staircase, and while we ascended -it, we had an exquisite moonlight effect, much resembling the one at -the Schafloch. - - -THE FRAINER EISLEITHEN. - -About two hours by rail, north of Vienna, is the village of Schoenwald, -to which I journeyed on June the 15th, 1896. At the railroad station -there was a K. K. Post Omnibus in waiting, which, when it was packed -with passengers and luggage, drove over to Frain in an hour. The -admirable road lies across a rolling plain, until it reaches the -brink of the valley of the Thaya, to which it descends in long Alpine -zigzags. On the bluff overlooking the opposite side of the river, there -is a fine _schloss_. - -I secured the seat next to the driver and questioned him about the -Eisleithen. Although he had driven on this road for five years, without -visiting the Eisleithen, yet he was positive that they were warm in -winter, but cold in summer. He said more than once: _Desto heisser -der Sommer, desto mehr das Eis_, and in fact was an emphatic exponent -of the notions generally held by peasants, which some _savants_ have -adopted and tried to expound. At Frain, I applied at the little hotel -for a guide, and was entrusted to the care of the hotel boots. He was -an intelligent, talkative youth, but he insisted also that "the hotter -the summer, the more ice there is." However, he was polite, and made -up for any shortcomings by always addressing me as _der gnädige Herr_. - -The day was hot, so it took us three-quarters of an hour on foot, along -the valley of the Thaya, to reach the base of the bluff where the -Eisleithen are situated, at an altitude of about four hundred meters. -The hillside is covered with patches of scrubby forest; and towards -the summit, the entire mass of the hill is honey-combed with cracks -and the rocks are much broken up. After about ten minutes' ascent up -a little path, we came to small holes, from each of which a current -of cool air poured out; these holes seemed fairly horizontal, and the -temperatures were high enough to prove that there was no ice within. -A little further on, we came to a hole or tiny cave among a pile of -rocks, where there was a painted sign: _Eisgrube_. It went down from -the mouth, and I put my hand well in, but, beyond the length of my arm, -I could neither see nor measure its shape or depth. The air felt cold, -but was nowhere near freezing point; nor was it possible to determine -whether there was a draught: it may or may not be a wind cave. Not -far from this, there were two gullies, each terminating in a small -cave. The first gully was planned somewhat like certain traps for wild -animals, that is, it narrowed gradually from the entrance, then became -covered over; and then dwindled, after some four meters more, into a -small descending hole, the end of which we could not reach. But we got -in far enough, to come to large chunks or slabs of ice plastered about -on the floor and sides. In this cave, which was sheltered against sun -and wind, the air, as tested by the smoke of a cigar, was motionless, -and the cave seemed unconnected with any air current. The second gully -terminated in a somewhat larger cave, whose floor was well below the -entrance; no ice was visible, however, although the air was still and -the temperature low. This cave may or may not be a glacière; but surely -it is not a cold current cave. - -These Frainer Eisleithen certainly offer an interesting field to anyone -studying subterranean ice, from the fact that there are, in the same -rocks, caves without apparent draughts in summer and containing ice, -and caves with distinct draughts and no ice. The problem seems more -intricate than is usually the case, but the solution is simply that the -two classes of caves happen to be found together. - - -THE EISHÖHLE BEI ROTH. - -The Eifel is one of the bleakest districts of Central Europe, and to -one entering it from the vineyards and the well-inhabited basin of the -Rhine, the contrast is impressive. The railroad rises gradually to a -land of comparatively desert appearance, with rocks and trees on the -heights and a sparse cultivation in the valleys. But, if the country is -unattractive to the agriculturist, it is interesting to the geologist, -on account of the great number of extinct volcanoes. Almost in the -centre of the Eifel is the little town of Gerollstein, famed for the -_Gerollsteiner Sprudel_, which gives forth an effervescence undreamed -of by anyone, who has not visited the birth place of some of these -German table waters. - -About an hour's walk from Gerollstein, on the side of a small hill, -is situated the little Eishöhle bei Roth, named after a neighboring -village. I went to this place, on the 25th of June, 1896, with a young -boy as guide. The cave is sheltered from the wind by a wood around it, -among which are many large trees. It is at the base of a wall of piled -up lava, or at least volcanic, rocks which form a sort of cauldron. The -entrance is a small tunnel some five meters long, which goes straight -down at an angle of about twenty-five degrees and then turns sharply to -the left. At the turn, the cave may be perhaps one meter in height. We -did not go beyond this spot, where the air was icy and the temperature -sub-normal, as the tunnel was blocked up by a large boulder, which -had evidently recently fallen from the rocks in front. There was no -ice, as far as we went, and the boy said it began three or four meters -further in. He told me that there was no ice in the cavern in winter, -but admitted that he had not entered it at that season, so that was -hearsay. He had heard also that the ice was sometimes taken out for -sick people, but otherwise it was not used. - -It seemed to me that the conditions at Roth show that the ice is formed -by the cold of winter alone: the cave is well below the entrance; it is -the lowest point of the surrounding cauldron of rocks and all the cold -air naturally gravitates to it; it is sheltered by rocks and trees -from wind or exposure to the rays of the sun; the tunnel faces nearly -due north; and the water necessary to supply the ice, easily soaks -between the lava blocks. - - -THE FRAUENMAUERHÖHLE. - -Eisenerz, in Eastern Tyrol, is a picturesquely situated little town. It -is at the bottom of a great valley, with mountains all around it. Two -of these are bare, gaunt limestone peaks, which are decidedly dolomitic -in form and color. The sharpest of these is to the north. It is called -the Pfaffenstein and is the beginning of the range culminating in the -Frauenmauer. On a mountain to the east of the town, one sees the iron -mines and works, whence the town takes its name "Ironore," and whence -quantities of iron are taken out every year. The mines are said to have -been in operation for over a thousand years, since about A. D. 800. -After the ore is taken from the mine and roughly prepared, it is run -down in small cars through a covered way to the railroad station to be -shipped; and at certain times there is a seemingly endless procession -of these cars, each bearing, besides its load of ore, a miner, with -clothes and person entirely begrimed to the yellow-brown color of the -iron. - -As I walked out of the Eisenerz railroad station, an old man in -Tyrolese costume asked me if I wanted a _träger_ and a guide, so, while -he was carrying my valise to the hotel, we came to terms. He was one of -the patented guides of the district and wore the large badge of the -Austrian guides. If the size of the badge made the guide, one should -be safe with Tyrolese, but for difficult excursions, it will not do -to trust to a guide simply because he happens to be "patented"; that -is, not if one values the safety of one's neck. Next morning, July the -9th, 1896, the old guide arrived betimes at the hotel and roused me by -tapping on the wall below my window with his stick. We left at half -past five o'clock. My companion, who should have known better, had not -breakfasted, so by the time we reached the Gsoll Alp at a quarter-past -seven, he was almost tired out. He wore the regulation black chamois -knee breeches and a _gamsbart_ in his hat. He picked many flowers en -route, ostensibly because they were pretty; but in reality, I think, -because it gave him the opportunity to recover his wind. He told me -he was sixty-three years old, and he certainly went up hill with some -difficulty, and for the first time in my life, I fairly succeeded in -showing a clean pair of heels to a _patentirter führer_ on a mountain -side. At one place he found a large snail in the road. This he wrapped -up in leaves and placed on a rock, and on our return he picked the -leaves and snail up, and rammed the whole bundle into his pocket, -informing me that it was excellent _Arznei_, although he did not -mention for what complaint. - -[Illustration: THE FRAUENMAUER AND THE GSOLL ALP.] - -The road led up a wooded valley, in a sort of series of steps, -bits of even ground interspersed by steeper ones, with the -Pfaffenstein-Frauenmauer limestone peaks poking up their jagged summits -on the left. The sky was clear at starting, except in the west, where -clouds were forming, and these gradually overspread the whole sky, and -finally turned to rain. Just before we reached the Gsoll Alp, we went -by a huge snow avalanche, which had fallen in February and torn a lane -clear through the pines, bringing down numbers of them with it. The -remains of the avalanche were banked up on the side of the road, which -was cut out, and many of the pines were still piled on and in the snow. -Stopping ten minutes at the alp to allow my guide to recuperate on some -bread and milk, we then crossed the pastures and pushed up a rather -steep slope by a small path, at one place crossing the remains of -another avalanche. We also came near having the attentions of a little -bull which was screaming viciously. My guide said it was an extremely -disagreeable beast, but he did not think it would attack him, as he -always made a point of giving it bread when at the châlet. We reached -the entrance of the cave at a quarter-past eight. - -A man and a boy from Eisenerz, who had heard I was going to the cavern -and who wished to profit by my guide, caught up with us here. They were -much disappointed when I told them I should visit only the _Eiskammer_. -They went into the cave at the same time that we did, and eventually -we left them pushing up one of the side chambers, with only one torch -in their possession. My guide said he thought they were risking their -lives, as there were many holes they might fall into, besides the -probability of their finding themselves in total darkness. He told me -that once, while in the cavern, he heard distant yells, and, going up -the gallery whence they proceeded, found a man half dead, who said -he had tried to come through the mountain by himself, had broken his -lantern and had remained in the darkness an indefinite number of hours; -a situation, the horror of which could not be realized by anyone -who has not been underground without a light and felt the absolute -blackness of a cavern. - -The Frauenmauer is a limestone peak, 1828 meters in height, one of -several forming a horseshoe round the Gsoll Alp. It presents on that -side a sheer wall of rock, in which there are two holes close together, -at an altitude of 1335 meters. These are the lower openings of the -Frauenmauerhöhle, of which the higher and biggest one is used for -an entrance. They are some thirty or forty meters from the base of -the rock wall, and a flight of wooden steps leads up to the entrance -opening, which is narrow and high. At the top of the steps, we stood -in the mouth of the cave; and, going in four or five meters, saw the -other opening to the left, below us. About five meters further, there -was one small lump of ice, as big as a pumpkin, lying on the ground, -but this may have been carried there from within. The cavern went -nearly straight for some twenty-five meters from the entrance, rising -all the time gently. Then came a steep little drop, of some four or -five meters, in the rock floor, and here a small wooden staircase was -placed. A gallery opened to the right and this was the cavern proper, -which leads through the mountain. It rose considerably and contained -no ice as far as we went, which was for some distance. The walking was -bad, as the floor was covered with _geröll_, that is broken detritus. - -[Illustration: IN THE FRAUENMAUERHÖHLE. - - From a Photograph by A. Kurka. -] - -Returning and continuing towards the freezing chamber, the floor of the -cavern began to rise once more, continuing for some forty-five meters -to its highest point, which is lower, however, than the top of the -entrance, an important fact to notice. For, although the floor of the -cave is considerably higher, at a distance of seventy meters within, -than the level of the bottom of the entrance; still, that highest spot -is below the level of the top of the entrance. This fact, and also the -size of the gallery, unquestionably explains why the cold air can get -in as far as it does. At this highest spot we found a considerable mass -of ice, a couple of cartloads in bulk perhaps, which the guide said -would melt away later in the summer. This was, perhaps, the remains -of a fallen stalactite. This mass of ice is an interesting point in -connection with the Frauenmauerhöhle, for it shows that ice in a cave -sometimes forms, even if in small quantities, above the level of the -base of the entrance. There seems no reason why it should not do so, -provided there is the necessary water supply. Such ice would, however, -suffer more, as soon as the outside air was over freezing point, than -would ice which was below the level of the entrance. It would probably -disappear early in the year, unless the cave were in a latitude or at -an altitude where snow remained in the open during most of the year. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. Vertical Section of the Frauenmauerhöhle.] - -From this highest point, the cave turns somewhat to the left, and the -floor begins to slope downward, sinking gradually to some six meters -below the level of the entrance. Ten meters or so from the highest -point, we began to find icicles and fissure columns, and about twenty -meters further, we reached an almost level ice floor, stretching across -the entire width of the cave--some seven meters--and extending about -fifty meters more to the end of the cave. In several places there was -much frozen rime on the rock walls. There were also a number of columns -and icicles, though none of any special beauty. I broke a piece off one -of them, and the ice was transparent and free from prisms, showing that -this column was probably of fairly recent origin. Letting a bit melt in -my mouth, the water tasted pure and sweet. - -[Illustration: ICE STALACTITE, FRAUENMAUERHÖHLE. - - From a Photograph by A. Kurka. -] - -In two places, there were _abgrunds_, that is, holes in the ice. One -of these was a wide, deep hole on the left side of the cave, between -the rock and the ice floor. The other was a great hole in the ice floor -itself. As the edges of both holes sloped sharply, it was impossible -to get near enough to look into either, but I threw in lumps of ice, -and from the sound should judge that the holes were about three meters -deep. The hole in the ice floor seemed to be cut by drip, and I think -they both carried off the drainage. - -The ice floor was sloppy and thawing rapidly. At the furthest point we -reached, within about fifteen meters from the end of the ice chamber, -we were stopped by an accumulation of water lying on the ice. I poked -into it with my ice axe and found it about twenty centimeters in depth. -There was a crust of ice on top in places. The lake was cold, but I am -sure the water was not freezing, as I held my hand in it at least a -minute without pain. The guide assured me that in two weeks or so the -lake would be completely frozen, provided there was some fine, warm -weather; but, if there was rain, he said that it would not freeze. By -this statement, he unintentionally explained, what he asserted was -true, namely, that the cave froze harder in August than in July. The -explanation of course is, that in fine, dry weather, water does not run -into the cavern, and then the lake gradually drains off, leaving the -ice floor free from water; and this the natives interpret to mean that -the water has frozen up. - -At the edge of the lake there was a fissure in the left hand rock -wall, in which my companion assured me that a column would shortly -form. I absolutely doubt this statement, as, if it were true, it -would be contrary to everything I have seen; still, I wish I could -have returned in August, to verify the matter. I poked my torch up -the fissure, also felt in with my hand. It was cold, and on the rocks -inside there was much hoar frost, but I could neither see nor feel any -ice mass, nor am I sure how far the fissure extended. - -The air was still, damp and over freezing point throughout the -_Eiskammer_, and all the signs showed that the cave was in a state -of thaw. Although the rocks are limestone and scarcely blackened by -smoke anywhere, yet as our torches did not give much light, the color -impression was black and gray, like the Schafloch. - -At the hotel the landlord confirmed in every particular the story of -the cave freezing hardest in August or September. He had never been -there himself, but stated that everyone said the same thing, and -that many people had "broken their heads" trying to account for it. -At eight o'clock in the evening, my guide came to let me know that -the man and boy, whom we left trying to penetrate the cave, had just -turned up after making all their relatives extremely anxious. They -were nearly lost, and had in general an extremely uncomfortable time. -It is scarcely to be wondered at that accidents occur in caves and on -mountains when people, with neither knowledge nor proper preparation, -go wandering off by themselves into the unknown.[4] - -[4] On the evening of June 29th, 1897, I met at Hieflau three Viennese -tourists who had come that day through the Frauenmauer. They found the -lake on the ice floor of the _Eiskammer_, just as I had in 1896. They -said also, moreover, that they found ice and icicles or ice columns -in the main cave; unfortunately, they did not explain clearly in what -part. - - -THE MILCHHÄUSER OF SEELISBERG. - -The summer of 1896, will long be remembered by Alpine climbers for -the pitiless rain storm, which kept coming steadily down during the -vacation months. It was in the midst of this that I arrived at Trieb, -on the Lake of Lucerne, on the 6th of August, to see whether I could -find the windholes which were reported near Seelisberg. At the landing -place I found Herr J. M. Ziegler, the owner of the Hotel Bellevue at -Seelisberg, who promptly secured a nice, blond bearded young fellow, -a relative of his and his _knecht_, as a guide. It was pouring when -we started, a proceeding which kept on during our entire excursion. -We tramped up a narrow road, paved with great stones in the old Swiss -fashion, and, as my guide truly said, awfully steep for horses. - -Half an hour from the boat landing, took us to the first milkhouse, -which belonged to Herr Ziegler. It was in a small patch of woods, and -was placed against a cliff, where rocks had fallen down and formed a -talus of broken detritus. The side walls of the house were built out -from the cliff and roofed over, and the front wall had a doorway closed -with a wooden door. At the back the detritus or _geröll_ was built into -a vertical, unplastered wall between most of the interstices of which, -cool air came forth. Several of these interstices were fairly large -holes of uncertain depth. It was a cool day and the air currents were -only a little cooler than the temperature outside. - -Another half an hour of uphill walking, partly on roads and partly -over soaking meadows, took us to Seelisberg, where we stopped at the -house of the owner of the second milkhouse, to get the key. The owner -could not go with us because he had damaged his foot, by wearing great -wooden shoes or _sabots_ armed with enormous spikes, while cutting -grass on steep slopes. He was hospitable enough: unlike his dog, who -was exceedingly anxious to attack us. The owner said--in the intervals -of the dog's howls--that ice formed during the winter in the rear wall -of his milkhouse and remained until about June. The milkhouse was in -a little patch of woods against a small cliff, at the bottom of which -were broken rocks. We had some difficulty in getting in, working for -at least ten minutes at the lock, while drops of rain-water would -occasionally drip into our coat collars. Just as I had given up hope, -my companion succeeded in getting the key to turn. There were several -pans, full of milk, placed to cool, and several barrels of potatoes; -and, as at the first milkhouse, we found that the rear wall consisted -simply of heaped up detritus built into a vertical position. Gentle air -currents flowed from several large holes and from the cracks between -the stones. - -From here we went by a path through woods and over meadows down to the -lake, coming to the shore some distance to the west of the steamboat -landing. Everything was soaking wet, and as we proceeded, I felt my -clothes getting wetter and my shoes absorbing water like sponges until, -when we came to an overflowing brook, wading through seemed rather -pleasant. There is one advantage of getting thoroughly wet feet in the -mountains: it makes crossing streams so much easier, as one does not -delay, but simply steps right in. - -The lower milkhouse was on the shore of the lake, near the house of -a fisherman, whose wife opened the door for us. There was some milk -in pans and several barrels of wine; and on a board were a number of -_ferras_ from the lake; the result of two days' catching in nets. This -was the largest of the three milkhouses; although it did not have as -many big holes in the rock wall as the others, but only the interstices -between the blocks of rock, whence we could feel cool air flowing out. -The woman said that the ice melted away by April or May, but that in -winter the wine barrels were all covered with frost. She also said that -the air coming from the clefts in summer was colder when the weather -was warm, than when it was rainy. Doubtless the temperature of the -draughts remains the same during the summer, but the air feels cooler -to the hand when the outside air is hot. - -A walk of another half hour, through more soaking wet grass, brought -us back to the steamboat landing at Trieb, where I touched my guide's -heart with the gift of a five franc piece, and had a talk with Herr -Ziegler. He said that there were a number of places in the neighborhood -whence cold air came forth during the summer from cracks in the rocks: -that there were also other milkhouses, notably one at Tell's Platte, on -the lake: and that the milkhouses were not generally used in winter, -when the doors were left open, to allow the cold air to penetrate as -much as possible through the rocks behind. During the winter the -draughts were reversed, and poured in instead of out of the openings, -and Herr Ziegler thought that at that time the interior of the rock -cracks became chilled, and that possibly ice formed in them which -helped to chill the summer currents, when the draughts poured out from -the holes. - - -THE GLACIÈRE DE LA GENOLLIÈRE. - -On Tuesday, the 11th of August, 1896, a cool and rainy day, I left -Geneva and went by train to Nyon, where I found at the station a little -victoria, in which I drove up to Saint-Cergues. The road lay across -the plain to the base of the slopes of the Jura, and then up these in -long zigzags; it was admirably built and on the hill slopes passed -the whole way through a beautiful thick forest, principally beeches -and birches. At Saint-Cergues, I went to the Pension Capt, where -the landlady soon found a guide in the shape of the gendarme of the -district, a right good fellow, Amy Aimée Turrian by name. He was in -uniform, with an army revolver in a holster at his belt. We then drove -about half an hour beyond Saint-Cergues, the road rising but little, -and the thick forest giving place to a more open wood of evergreens, -with patches of pasturage. As a forest sanitarium, Saint-Cergues seems -unsurpassed in the whole of Europe. The carriage turned up a little -country road, which soon became too rough for driving, so we proceeded -on foot for about another half hour, through pine woods and pastures, -to the glacière. Turrian enlivened the way with an account of his life -as a gendarme, of the long solitary six hour patrols in the woods in -winter, and of how he lay in ambush for poachers. He said he would not -take long to fire on anyone resisting arrest, as that was _sérieux_. - -The glacière is in the middle of a pasture, with several pine trees -overhanging it. It is surrounded by a wall, built to prevent the cows -from falling in. There are two pits, side by side and about three -meters apart: they are some thirteen meters in depth, with a width of -five or six meters. They open into one another at the bottom; the rock -separating them, forming a natural bridge overhead. One of the pits is -vertical on all sides. The other is vertical all around, except on the -side furthest away from the natural bridge. Here the side of the pit -is in the shape, so usual in glacières, of a steep slope. Down this -slope we descended. It was slippery and muddy, owing to the recent -heavy rains, and my ice axe proved invaluable and probably saved me -some unpleasant falls. Under the bridge, the floor was covered with a -mass of shattered limestone debris, among which there was neither ice -nor snow; both of which my guide said he had found in abundance the -preceding June. A little limestone cavern opened on one side below the -bridge. A great, flat limestone slab formed a natural lintel, and, -lighting our candles, we stooped down and passed under it into the -cave, which was about the size of a room and in which we could just -stand up. At the entrance and over most of the floor there was ice, in -one place thirty or forty centimeters in depth, as I could see where a -drip from the roof had cut a hole. There were no signs of icicles or -columns. My guide said he had never penetrated into this chamber, which -he thought, on his earlier visit, was blocked with ice and snow. I did -not see any limestone stalactites anywhere, and I am inclined to think -that the low temperatures of glacières have a tendency to prevent their -formation. - -After our visit, we went to the Châlet de La Genollière close by, where -there were some thirty cows and calves. The intelligent _berger_ or -manager said that most of the ice from the glacière was used for butter -making during the hot weather; and that between the inroads thus made -upon it and from other causes, the ice disappeared every year before -autumn, but that it formed afresh every winter; pretty good evidence to -show that the ice in this cave has nothing to do with a glacial period. -He also stated that when he first entered the inner chamber in the -spring there were four ice columns there. - -The glacière de La Genollière is a clear exemplification of the theory -that the cold of winter is the sole cause for the ice. The whole -glacière is rather small and is fairly well protected against wind. -Although snow cannot fall directly under the rock arch, yet I should -imagine it drifts under, or after melting, runs in and refreezes. To -the inner cave snow, as snow, could hardly reach; and the cavern is -probably filled, like most cave glacières, from frozen drip. The inner -cave is, therefore, a true cave glacière, while the outer pits and the -bridge are something between a gorge and a cave. La Genollière should, -I think, be visited about the end of June, when the ice formations are -certainly larger and more interesting than in August. - - -THE FRIEDRICHSTEINER OR GOTTSCHEER EISHÖHLE. - -A little to the east of, and in about the same latitude as Trieste, -is the small town of Gottschee, now reached by a branch railroad from -Laibach. Gottschee is a German settlement almost in the centre of -the district known as the Duchy of Krain, Austria, which is mainly -inhabited in the north by Slavonians and in the south by Croatians. -Gottschee lies directly at the western base of the Friedrichsteiner -Gebirge, one of whose peaks is the Burgernock. On the eastern slopes of -this mountain is situated the Friedrichsteiner or Gottscheer Eishöhle, -at an altitude of about nine hundred meters. - -On the 24th of June, 1897, I left Gottschee at half past six o'clock in -the morning with Stefan Klenka, a nice little man. I had asked to have -him come at six o'clock, but he did not turn up and I had to send for -him. His excuse was, that tourists always ordered him for six o'clock, -but when the time came, they were still in bed. He had taken a German -officer and his wife to the cave the year before, and after keeping -him waiting three hours, they started at nine o'clock. The result was -that they did not get to the cave until two o'clock, and returned to -Gottschee just at nightfall. - -We reached the cave at half past eight o'clock. The steep and rough -path went uphill through a fine forest, which my guide said was -_Urwald_, _i. e._, primeval forest; and there were certainly some -big trees and many fallen ones, and much underbrush. He assured me -that bears were still plentiful in the neighborhood, and that Prince -Auersperg, who owns the shooting, does not allow them to be killed, -preferring to pay for any damage they may cause to the peasants' -fields or for any cattle they may dine on, rather than to have these -interesting animals exterminated from his woods. He also said that -there was a two meter snowfall in Gottschee in winter: a sufficient -quantity to account for the glacières. At one place on the road we -stopped before a small crack in the rocks, and Klenka dropped in some -small stones, which we could hear strike two or three times a long -distance below. There is surely an unexplored cavern at this spot. - -The Friedrichsteiner Eishöhle is a large pit cave, well lighted by -daylight. It is sheltered from any winds by the great trees which grow -all around it and even over the rock roof. A long, steep slope leads -straight into the pit and from the top the ice floor is in full sight. -On both sides of the slope the rocks are almost sheer. Over the bottom -of the slope the rock roof projects at a great height. The sides of the -cave rise perpendicularly at least forty meters, and in fact, the cave -suggests an unfinished tunnel set on end. - -Some years ago, the _Deutschen und Oesterreichischen Alpen Verein_ -built a wooden staircase, in a series of zigzags, on the slope. This -staircase should have been cleared off earlier in the year, but, of -course, the matter was neglected. Down these steps we descended until -they became covered with snow, and lower down with hard ice. All this -was winter's snow which fell directly on to the slope and gradually -melted and froze again, so this was really a miniature glacier. It was -not subterranean ice at all. We cut down the snow, but had to stop when -we came to the ice, as it would have involved a couple of hours at -least of the hardest kind of step cutting; and this my guide did not -care to undertake, especially as he was nearly killed on this slope the -week before. He had reached, with some tourists from Trieste, a place -above that where we stopped, when he slipped and fell down the slope, -shooting clear across the cave, where he remained until ropes were -procured, and he was dragged out. He afterwards showed me the numerous -cuts and bruises he had received on his perilous glissade. - -We had to stop also for another reason. I had unwisely brought as wrap, -a thick overcoat reaching to the knees, and this was such an impediment -on the icy staircase, that I took it off, and soon began to feel long -shivers creeping down my spine. This question of extra clothing for -glacière exploration is hard to arrange. One must guard against most -trying changes of temperature. For, on entering a big glacière, the -heat of a July day without, will, at a distance of only a few meters, -give place to the cold of a January day within, and nothing could be -better devised than a big glacière to lay the seeds of rheumatism. -It is difficult to plan a garb suitable to meet all the varying -conditions, but the dress must be cool and warm, and light enough to -permit free motion. The clothes I have found most practical are a thin -waistcoat and thick trousers, and two short sack coats, one of them -a heavy winter one. The coats should button at the throat, and it is -well to place straps round the bottom of the trousers. Thick kid gloves -should always be worn in caves, to save cutting the hands on rocks or -ice in the darkness, and hobnails may prevent some unpleasant slips. - -From the point where we stopped, some ten meters away from the ice -floor, the largest portion of the cave was visible. The finest object -was a big ice curtain or _vorhang_, as my guide called it, which, from -a height of five or six meters, flowed down from fissures to the ice -floor, and which covered the rocks on the eastern side. Under one point -of this curtain, Klenka said that there was a deep hole in the ice. -Smaller fissure columns also streamed from the rear wall to the ice -floor. The ice floor itself was flat, of an ochre greenish tinge, and -was covered with broken ice fragments. We could not see the western -portion of the cavern, as the rocks jutted out in a sort of corner. -Klenka said that there were several small pyramids there; a large one -which he spoke of as the _Altar_; and a small ice slope, plastered on -the side rocks. - -The sides of the cave were of a dark gray limestone rock, and from -the top of the slope they assumed a decidedly bluish tone, and I -am inclined to think that there was already--we were there from -eight-thirty A. M. until ten A. M.--a faint mist in the cavern. This -is the most interesting phenomenon connected with the Friedrichsteiner -Eishöhle. The cavern faces due south, and about midday, in clear -weather, the sun shines directly into it, causing a mist or cloud to -form in the cave on warm days; a mute witness that evaporation is -connected with the melting, not with the forming, of the ice. The air -at every point seemed still. - -On my return to Gottschee, I called on one of the professors of the -K. K. Gymnasium, and he told me many interesting facts about the -surrounding country. Among other things he said that no traces of a -glacial period or indeed of glaciers were found in the Krain; and as -this district is particularly rich in glacières, this fact is a strong -proof against the glacial period theory. He assured me also that many -bears still existed in the neighborhood; that one family was known to -inhabit the woods round the Friedrichsteiner Eishöhle, and that he had -often seen bear tracks on his own shooting, some ten kilometers to the -south. - - -THE SUCHENREUTHER EISLOCH. - -On the 25th of June, 1897, I left Gottschee at six-thirty A. M. in an -_einspänner_, and drove thirteen kilometers southward, over a good -road, albeit hilly in places, to Mrauen, which we reached in about -two hours. The weather was exceedingly hot. I took Klenka along, as -he spoke German, and he entertained me on the drive by telling me -that there were many poisonous snakes in the country, of which the -_kreuzotters_ or vipers were the worst, and that three or four persons -were bitten every year. - -Mrauen is in Croatia, and I could see a slight difference in the people -and their dress from those of Gottschee. From Mrauen, the landlord of -the _Gasthaus Post_, Josef Sirar, led us to the Grosses Eisloch. This -is sometimes spoken of as the Eisloch bei Skrill, but as it lies in -a patch of woods below the village of Suchenreuth, the Suchenreuther -Eisloch seems the correct name. At least that was what Sirar called it. -It took us about an hour on foot from Mrauen to get into the woods. -On the way we met two guards in uniform, carrying Männlicher carbines -with fixed bayonets, and it was agreeable to feel that the strong arm -of the Austrian government extended over this semi-wild land. In the -woods, following Sirar's able guidance, we took a short cut--always a -mistake--and were lost temporarily in a maze of bushes and brambles, in -which I thought of the _kreuzotters_. After that, Sirar at first could -not find the cave and had to hunt around for it, while I sat on a stone -and waited impatiently. - -At the cave a rather steep slope of wet mud, covered with dead leaves, -led down through a rock arch. Sirar had to cut several steps in the -mud with his hatchet, or we should probably have sat down suddenly. -The archway opened into a moderately large cavern, which was about -twenty meters deep, almost round and some fifteen meters in diameter. -The slope continued right across the cave, and on some parts of it -were logs of wood and much débris. On the wall hung a few limestone -stalactites. In the roof of the cave was a great hole, and under -this was a big cone of old winter snow, which had become icy in its -consistency, and on which there was much dirt and many leaves. The -temperature in the cave was several degrees above freezing point, and -there was no ice hanging anywhere. Sirar said that when the weather got -hotter, the ice would come; but as he said also, that he had been only -once before in the cave, some ten years ago, his opinion was not worth -much. Both men said that the preceding winter was unusually warm. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6. Vertical Section of the Suchenreuther Eisloch.] - - -THE NIXLOCH. - -Near Hallthurm in Bavaria, a railroad station between Reichenhall and -Berchtesgaden, is a well known congeries of windholes, called the -Nixloch. I visited it on Friday, July the 2d, 1897, with a railroad -employee, whom I found at the peasants' _gasthaus_. - -The Nixloch is ten minutes distant in the forest, on the slopes of the -Untersberg. It is among a mass of big limestone blocks, and close by -are the remains of the walls of an old castle or fortification. The -Nixloch descends from the entrance for about two meters nearly sheer, -and there is just room to get through. As I sat within the outside edge -of the mouth of the cave, the smoke of my cigar was slowly carried -downward into it. - -Dropping down through the hole, we found ourselves in a small cavern -formed of rough limestone blocks overhead and underfoot. It is possible -to go still further down and my companion said that formerly it was -possible to go through the cave and come out at a lower opening; this -exit, however, was destroyed when the railroad was built. The draught, -as tested by the flame of a candle, was still drawing in some seven or -eight meters from the entrance. There is a second cavity immediately -next to the entrance, and at the bottom of these holes, the inward -draught was so violent as to blow the candle out. The thermometer -outside in the shade was 28°C.; inside the cave, where the draught was -still perceptible, it was about 20°C. Within the cave I noticed two -large, dark brown spiders. - -On returning to the _gasthaus_, I had a talk with some peasants who -were dining there, and they told me that it was warm in winter in the -Nixloch, and that ice never formed there. - - -THE DORNBURG. - -If one draws a line northeast from Coblentz and another northwest from -Frankfort-on-the-Main, they will intersect nearly at the Dornburg. The -railroad from Frankfort goes, via Limburg and Hadamar, to Frickhofen -and Wilsenroth, from either of which villages the ice formations of the -Dornburg are easily reached on foot in half an hour. - -I arrived at Wilsenroth on the 26th of July, 1897, and soon found -an old forester, who said he had lived in the neighborhood for over -fifty years, to show me the way. The Dornburg is a low hill, perhaps a -hundred meters high and a kilometer long. It is basaltic and covered -with sparse woods. The forester said that on top were the remains of -the foundations of an old castle, and that this was possibly the origin -of the name Dornburg. We circled round the eastern base of the hill -for some ten minutes, when we came to a little depression, filled with -basalt debris, among which were several small holes, out of which came -currents of cool air. - -Ten minutes further in the woods, we arrived at the _Dornburg -Restauration_ and then almost immediately at the glacière. It is at the -bottom of a talus of broken basaltic rocks and has been much affected -by the agency of man. In it are two _eislöcher_ or _stollen_, as the -forester called them. These are little artificial pits or cellars, dug -into the talus. They are side by side, opening about southeast, and -each is about one and a half meters wide, three meters long, and two -meters high. The sides are built up with wooden posts and overhead is -a thick roof of logs strewn with dirt. The day was cool and at the -mouth of each _eisloch_, a faint outward current of air was discernible -at nine-thirty A. M. I could not find any currents coming into the -_eislöcher_. Inside it was cold and damp, and evidently thawing. There -was a good heap of ice in each _eisloch_; it was clear, and I could -detect no trace of prisms. - -By much questioning, I dug out something of the history of these -_stollen_ from the forester. Formerly the ice was found at this spot, -among the boulders at the base of the slope. But the people gradually -took many of these basaltic blocks away, to break up for road making, -and then the ice diminished. About 1870, a brewery, since burnt, was -built at the Dornburg and the brewer had these _stollen_ built, a sort -of semi-natural, semi-artificial ice house. Every winter, the present -owner of the _stollen_ throws a quantity of snow into them, and this -helps materially in forming the mass of ice. - -Just below the restaurant there is a spring, which was said to be -extremely cold, but there was nothing icy nor apparently unusual about -it. - -Under the restaurant itself is an interesting cellar. It was closed by -wooden doors. First there was a passage way which turned steadily to -the right, and which we descended by some ten steps. This was about -two meters wide and was full of beer bottles and vegetables. On the -left of the passage was a large double chamber where meat is kept. At -eleven-thirty A. M. a faint draught blew down the passage and into the -hall, the outside door being then open. The double hall was perhaps six -meters each way, and I could detect no air currents coming into it at -any place, except from the passage way. Both passage and halls were, as -far as I could see, entirely built over with masonry. There was no ice -and the temperature was some 7° or 8° above freezing point. - -The daughter of the proprietor of the restaurant said that ice began -to form in the cellar in February and that it lasted generally until -October; but that this year it was destroyed early because the masonry -was repaired, although it was still possible to skate in the cellar as -late as March. In the beginning of winter the cellar was warm, and as -she expressed it, _der Keller schwitzt dann_, which I suppose means -that the walls are damp. She also said that it was a _naturlicher -Keller_, and I am inclined to think that it was a natural glacière, -converted into a cellar. - -This visit to the Dornburg gave me many new ideas about classifying -glacières, especially in relation to the movements of air. I was -long puzzled by the German terms, _Eishöhlen_ and _Windröhren_; and -it suddenly struck me, at the Dornburg, that this terminology is -incorrect, when used as a classification of glacières. The presence or -absence of strong, apparent draughts, cannot be considered as a test -as to whether a place is or is not a glacière; the presence of ice, -for at least part of the year, alone makes a glacière, and this it -does whether there are or are not draughts. It seems to me more than -ever clear, however, that it all depends on the movements of air, as -to whether ice forms in a cave. If the movements of air take the cold -air of winter into a cave, then and then only--provided there is also -a water supply--do we have ice. I am now inclined to think that caves, -as far as their temperatures are concerned, should be classified into -caves containing ice, cold caves, ordinary normal caves, and hot caves, -without reference to the movements of air. - - -THE GLACIÈRE DE SAINT-GEORGES. - -From Rolle, on the north shore of the Lake of Geneva; an excellent -carriage road leads in two hours and a half to Saint-Georges in the -Jura. At first the way goes steeply uphill and passes through many -vineyards, and afterwards it crosses level fields to Gimel, then rises -through woods to Saint-Georges. On arriving there on the afternoon of -August 3d, 1897, I found the street filled with evergreens, and long -benches and tables; the débris of a _fête de tir_, which had lasted for -two days, with dancing and banquets and, I suspect, much _vin du pays_. - -When I got down stairs at six o'clock next morning, all the people -of the inn were sound asleep recovering from the effects of the -_fête_, and instead of their calling me, I had to call them. Finally I -succeeded in getting breakfast and then started in company with a first -rate fellow, named Aymon Émery. - -[Illustration: LA GLACIÈRE DE SAINT-GEORGES. - - From a Photograph by E. Truand. -] - -We walked up through woods, in about an hour and a half, to the -Glacière de Saint-Georges, which lies at an altitude of 1287 meters in -the midst of the forest. There are two holes close together. One of -these descends vertically and is partly roofed over with logs on which -is rigged a pulley. Émery, who was the _entrepreneur_ of the glacière, -which means that he attended to getting out the ice, told me that they -pulled the ice up through this vertical hole, making a noose with a -rope round each block. - -The other and shallower opening ended in a rock floor, which was -reached by a short ladder. To the right was an arch, under which the -rock terminated as a floor and descended vertically, forming the wall -of the cave. On this wall two ladders, spliced at the end into one long -ladder, were placed in a nearly vertical position. I tied the end of my -rope round my waist, and got a workman, who had come to cut ice, to pay -out the rope to me, while I went down. - -The cave is rather long and narrow, perhaps twenty-five meters by -twelve meters, and the limestone roof forms an arched descending curve -overhead. I could not see any limestone stalactites; neither were there -any ice stalactites or stalagmites in the cave, but a good part of the -wall, against which the long ladder was placed, was covered by an ice -curtain. It was thin and had evidently been damaged by the ice cutters -or I think it would have covered the entire lower portion of the wall. - -The base of the long ladder rested on an ice floor which filled the -bottom of the cave, and which would probably have been level if it had -not been cut out here and there in places, leaving many holes. A good -many broken ice fragments lay on the floor and in some of the holes -were pools of water. Some of the floor ice was exceedingly prismatic in -character, and I was able to flake it off or break it easily with my -hands into prisms. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7. Vertical Section of the Glacière de -Saint-Georges.] - -Under the vertical shaft, which is at one end of the cave, was a mass -of winter's snow which had fallen through the opening. Under this snow -was a deep hole, which I believe was the drain hole of the glacière -before the ice floor was cut away to a level below its mouth. Into -this hole I threw lumps of ice and heard them go bumping down for three -or four seconds. - -The atmosphere was not uncomfortable, although the temperature was -about 7° C. The air did not feel damp, and seemed almost still, but -standing on the ice floor nearly under the vertical hole, I found that -the smoke from my cigar ascended rapidly, and it seemed as if there -were a rising air current, which sucked up the smoke. - -Saint-Georges is a fine cavern and well worth visiting. Émery said that -the ice was not cut out for eight years preceding the summer of 1897, -and that for several years it was not possible to go down at all, as -there were no ladders, until he put in the two we utilized.[5] All the -natives of Saint-Georges believed that the ice was a summer formation -and that it was warm in the cave in winter. - -[5] In the illustration of the Glacière de Saint-Georges, the opening -to the left is the vertical pit, through which the ice is taken out: -underneath it, is the heap of winter snow. The man in the upper part -of the picture is standing on the rock shelf at the base of the upper -ladder and at the top of the lower ladder. To the right of the lower -ladder near the bottom, a bit of the ice curtain is visible. - - -THE GLACIÈRE DU PRÉ DE SAINT-LIVRES. - -From the Glacière de Saint-Georges, Émery and I pushed on through the -woods to the Pré de Saint-Livres. In several places we came on the -tracks of deer, and my guide told me he had killed eleven roe during -the last hunting season. He said also that an attempt is being made to -introduce the red deer into the Jura, and that the experiment seemed to -be meeting with success. We kept to the crest of the ridge along wood -paths, and, as the day was fortunately cool and cloudy, we were able to -walk fast and reached the Pré de Saint-Livres in two hours. At a spot -called La Foiraudaz we met the workmen coming down with a cartload of -ice, which they were taking to Bière. Some of this ice was extremely -prismatic. - -The Pré de Saint-Livres is a big mountain pasture or meadow, surrounded -with hills covered with pine trees. In the middle of it is the Châlet -de Saint-Livres, round which numerous cows and calves were congregated -and where a small shepherd gave us some milk. The châlet is not one -of the old picturesque Swiss châlets with great stones on the roof to -keep it from being blown away by the wind, but a strongly built single -storied stone structure, which looks extremely modern among the green -hills. - -The glacière lies close to the châlet, on the southern side of the -meadows, just on the edge of the woods, and is surrounded with trees. -It is at an altitude of 1362 meters and faces nearly due north. To -prevent the cattle from falling in, it is enclosed with a stone wall, -except in front, where there is a fence formed of an abattis of pine -trees. The cave belongs to the pit variety, and the pit is a big one. -As you stand at the top, you can look down to the end of the glacière. -The rocks are vertical all round the pit, and in front there is a small -rock shelf, one-third of the way down, which divides the rock wall -into two long drops. Against each of these was a rickety ladder, so we -fixed the end of my rope to the pine trees of the fence, and hung on -to it while we climbed down. The base of the lower and longer ladder -rested on a mass of snow. This was the beginning of a long snow slope -which gradually turned to ice and filled the cave. The cave itself, -measuring along the snow slope, is some forty meters long and some ten -to fifteen meters wide, and is entirely lighted by daylight. - -The snow and ice slope fell in a series of small waves, and the upper -portion was rather dirty. On the right hand the workmen had fixed a -rope as a handrail, and all the way down had cut a staircase in the -ice, so that the descent was not difficult. Some of the ice was sloppy. -The ice mass did not abut entirely against the end of the cave, but -left an open space between the ice and the rock, some three or four -meters wide and some four or five meters deep. Here the workmen had -been getting their ice, and had cut into the ice mass for several -meters, forming a little tunnel. - -There were no ice cones nor stalactites, neither did I see any -limestone stalactites. Much of the ice was prismatic; in fact, together -with that at Saint-Georges, it was the most strongly prismatic I have -seen. I can perhaps best describe it, by saying that it was brittle -in texture, as I could break up small lumps in my hands. There was -more prismatic ice at Saint-Livres, however, than at Saint-Georges. -The air in the cave was still and decidedly damp; and the temperature -was several degrees above freezing point. The day, however, was almost -windless, and I would not assert that movements of air, due to the -wind, might not sometimes take place in the pit. - -The Glacière du Pré de Saint-Livres is one of those caves which may -be looked on as a transitional form between gorges containing ice and -caves containing ice. The winter snow falls into the mouth of the pit, -and is the chief foundation of the ice mass. It would be interesting -to make a series of observations in this cave to see whether there was -anything like glacier motion. Émery, of his own accord, expressed the -opinion that much of the ice here was due to the winter snows; in fact, -he thought that it was all due to it, and that it gradually descended -into the cave and turned, little by little, into ice. He told me that -some years ago a cow was found by the workmen, frozen into the ice, -at a depth of four meters; the flesh was perfectly preserved, and was -eaten. I asked him if he had ever seen insects in either cave, and he -said he had not. - -From the glacière we walked back to the village of Saint-Georges. On -asking my guide how much I owed him, he said he received four francs -for a _journée_, so I gave him six francs, and we parted the best of -friends. - - -GLACIER ICE CAVE IN THE FEE GLACIER. - -During a rather protracted stay at Saas-Fee in Switzerland, I visited -the glacier ice cave of the Fee Glacier on the 15th and 16th of -August, 1897, both cool and rainy days. It is about half an hour's -walk from the hotel to the ice cave, which is in the snout of the Fee -glacier, below the Eggfluh. A considerable stream issued from the cave. -On nearing the opening, a strong cold air current poured out above -the stream. At the front edge of the ice, the height of the ice roof -in the centre was perhaps twelve meters and the width fifteen meters. -Around the edge, the roof formed an almost perfect curve. The ice walls -contracted in a regular manner within, and the cave became narrower and -lower, and suggested an enormous funnel cut in half, into which you -looked from the larger end. The cave also grew gradually darker, and -the darkness prevented seeing further than to a depth of some fifteen -meters. In the ice walls, just inside the entrance, were several -crevasses, of the ordinary blue-green color. They followed nearly the -same curve as the roof, but did not go through to the outside. There -were no icicles. The ice was faintly stratified in places, and at the -outer edge was brittle. It did not break into the long narrow prisms -of the ice at Saint-Georges and the Pré de Saint-Livres, but rather -into small lumps with facets, of all sorts of shapes. It was evidently -unsafe to penetrate under the ice roof, for while I stood in front of -the cave, a large lump broke off from the roof and fell with a clatter -among a lot of other ice fragments already on the moraine floor. In two -places there was a steady rain of drops from the roof, showing that the -ice was melting. - -This is perhaps the glacier cave in Switzerland which is easiest to -visit, and my inspection intensified my belief in what I consider -the correct explanation of some of the phenomena in glacières. The -suggestion was that as soon as the temperature gets above freezing -point in a glacier ice cave, the only process is that of destruction of -the ice, which seems to be also the case with glacières. - - -LA GRAND CAVE DE MONTARQUIS. - -My brother and I left Cluses, in Savoie, a railroad station on the line -between Geneva and Chamonix, at two o'clock on the afternoon of the -22d of August, 1897, and drove up in two hours and a half to Pralong -du Reposoir, a distance of eleven kilometers. The road is a _route -nationale_, fine and broad, with parapets in many places. After passing -Scionzier, it mounts gradually, passing through a tremendous wild -gorge, cut by the waters and heavily clad with firs. We reached Pralong -at four-thirty, and stopped at a primitive inn, still in process of -construction, and tenanted only by blue-bloused peasants, who, as it -was Sunday night, sat up late, drinking and making a heathenish noise -they mistook for singing. I talked to some of these men, and they all -insisted that there was no ice at the Grand Cave in winter, but that -it came in summer. _Plus il fait chaud, plus ça gêle_, they said. One -man explained the formation of the ice in an original way, and with -an intelligence far above that of the average peasant. He considered -that it was due to air currents, and thought that in winter the snow -stopped up the holes in the rocks, through which the currents came; but -that when the snow melted, the draughts could work, and that then they -formed the ice. - -The weather was abominable next morning, the clouds lying along and -dripping into the valley; but the inn was so awful that we decided to -try to reach the cave. We had a nice little blue-bloused peasant for -a guide, Sylvain Jean Cotterlaz by name. We went first for about an -hour on foot towards Le Grand Bornant on a fair road, to an alp called -La Salle. This was surrounded by a herd of cows, some of whom seemed -interested in our party. It now began to rain fiercely, and except for -my brother's perseverance, I should certainly have given in. A fair -path led up steep grass slopes into the clouds covering the Mont Bargy. -Each of us had his umbrella raised, and the ascent was slippery and -uninspiring. An hour took us to two deserted huts, the Alpe Montarquis, -and half an hour beyond, we came to the caves; by which time we were -thoroughly soaked. - -The caves are on Mont Bargy, at the base of a limestone precipice, -which, I think, faces nearly north. There are three caves close -together. The lowest, or Petite Cave de Montarquis, Cotterlaz said is -also called La Cave des Faux-Monayeurs; as according to a, probably -untrue, tradition, it was once used by counterfeiters. Above this is a -small rock pocket, accessible down an easy slope. We went in and found -that there was no ice and indeed scarcely any water in it. - -The Grand--not Grande--Cave is a little higher up, and as we came -to it, several sheep, which had taken refuge in the mouth from the -storm, hastily skipped away, evidently distrusting our intentions. The -altitude of the cave is said to be 2078 meters. The entrance must face -about north east; it is elliptical in shape, about fifteen meters wide, -and six meters high, and is badly sheltered against the wind. The cave -is of moderate size, about sixty meters in length and forty-five meters -in width, and the average height of the roof is not over four or five -meters. A gentle slope leads downwards. Many blocks of rock in the -front part had bits of moss growing on them, and some of the mud there -was of a dull purple color, as if some dark madder was mixed with it. -There was a red streak in the right hand wall, probably caused by iron. -I observed no limestone stalactites nor stalagmites in the cave, the -main body of which was well lighted throughout by daylight. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8. Vertical Section of Grand Cave de Montarquis.] - -The ice was in the shape of a nearly level floor, about twelve meters -long and eight meters wide: the shape was irregular, and the ice so -smooth that it was hard to stand up. The rocks in the rear overhung the -ice floor at one spot; and here, there streamed from a fissure to the -ice floor an ice column, some three meters high, whose base was fully -two meters distant from the rock wall. Near this column was a tiny ice -cone, which evidently had been bigger. Cotterlaz seemed impressed with -the fact that there was only one column in the cave, as he said that -in June, there would have been many columns and a larger and deeper -ice floor. The ice was sloppy in places, with several small hollows -cut by the drip and containing water. In one place there was a tiny -runnel filled with water, but there was no current. There was a good -deal of drip all through the cave, and in fact in one or two places we -might have kept on holding up our umbrellas with advantage. I hacked at -several pieces of ice, but none of it was prismatic. - -At the rear of the cave, the ice ran, in a tongue, up the entrance of -an ascending fissure in the rocks. My brother cut here six or seven -steps in the ice; and he found them difficult to make, as the ice was -hard and thin, and not in a melting state. Above the ice tongue we -clambered up the rocks of the fissure some four or five meters further, -finding there some lumps of ice which were not melting. At this spot we -were almost in darkness. A lighted match burned steadily, so that there -was evidently not much draught, but the smoke gradually descended, -showing a slight downward current. This was the coldest, as well as the -furthest point of the cave we could reach, and we there heard a tiny -waterfall trickling within the fissure, although we could not see it. - -By this time we were all chilled to the bone, so, abandoning the -idea of entering the Petite Cave, we retreated down the sopping wet, -slippery grass slopes to Pralong, and then immediately walked all -the way to Cluses to avoid taking cold. The Grand Cave was the most -fatiguing trip I ever made after glacières, but the circumstances were -rather unusual. - - -THE FREEZING WELL OF OWEGO. - -On Thursday, June 23d, 1898, I went to Owego, in Tioga County, New -York. Inquiries at the Lehigh Valley railroad station and at the chief -hotel failed to elicit any information about a freezing well; and in -fact, I soon found that the existence of such a thing was a blank to -the rising generation. So I called on an old resident of Owego, who -told me that he knew of the well in question and that it was filled up -with stones many years ago; but that he remembered that, when he was a -boy, it used to freeze, and that it was spoken of as the deep well or -freezing well. I then walked up to the site of the well, which is about -one and a half kilometers to the northwest from the centre of Owego and -about one kilometer from the Susquehanna River. It is directly in the -middle of the highway, and nothing is now visible but a heap of stones. - -Near by was the house of a Mr. Preston, who told me he was born in -1816, and had lived all his life at this spot. He said that the well -was about twenty-eight meters deep, and that it went first through -a layer of sand and then through a layer of gravel. He had more than -once been down the well and had seen the sides covered with ice. A -bucket sent down for water would sometimes come up with ice on the -sides. Whether the water at the bottom ever froze, no one knew, for -the ice caked and filled up the bore at about two-thirds of the way -down and became so thick, that as Mr. Preston put it, "it was just like -hammering on an anvil to try to break it." He also stated that another -well was dug about one hundred meters further down the road, and that -originally this sometimes had a little ice on the sides. Of late years -however, it was covered over with a wooden top and since then no ice -was known to form. I could obtain no information about any other wells -in the neighborhood ever showing similar peculiarities. - - -THE ICY GLEN, NEAR STOCKBRIDGE. - -The Icy Glen is situated on Bear Mountain, about one kilometer from -Stockbridge, Massachusetts. It is in the midst of fine woods and there -are many big trees in it. The bottom of the glen is full of rocks -and boulders, among which there is a rough path. I was told that ice -remained over there much longer than anywhere else in the neighborhood, -sometimes as late as May. On the 3d of July, 1898, I not only found no -traces of ice or snow, but the temperatures under the boulders showed -nothing abnormal. To make up for this, however, there were legions of -mosquitoes. - - -FREEZING MARBLE CAVE, NEAR MANCHESTER. - -Near Manchester, Vermont, there is a little cave,[6] which is -noteworthy, in that it is in a marble formation. It is known as -Skinner's Cave, because it was owned for many years by Mr. Mark -Skinner. It lies in Skinner's Hollow, some five or six kilometers from -the centre of Manchester, at the base of the eastern slope of Mount -Equinox, of the Taghconic Range of the Green Mountains. - -[6] My attention was called to this cave, by Messrs. John Ritchie, Jr., -of Boston, and Byerly Hart of Philadelphia, who visited it some years -ago. Mr. Ritchie's opinion is that it is simply a refrigerator. - -The cave is on the property of Mr. N. M. Canfield, who, on learning the -object of my visit, on the 5th of July, 1898, with true native American -courtesy, walked up to it with me. The last two kilometers were over a -rough logging road, which towards the end was steep and covered with -many broken logs. I could not have found the cave alone, as it was -so surrounded with bushes, that the entrance was invisible until we -actually reached it. It is in a gorge of Mount Equinox, in the midst -of a beautiful forest, which effectually cuts off any wind. The cave -faces nearly north and can scarcely ever, if indeed at any time, be -reached by the rays of the sun. The moment we got into the entrance, we -found the chilly, damp, summer atmosphere of true glacière caves. The -rocks were brown and mossy on the outside, but Mr. Canfield called my -attention to the fact that they were marble, and on his knocking off -a small piece, a section of pure white marble was exposed. In no other -instance have I heard of a marble cave in connection with ice. There -were scarcely any cracks or crevices in the rock. - -The cave goes down with a steep slope from the entrance, much in the -shape of a tunnel, for some ten meters. The slope was covered with -slippery mud and decayed leaves, and at the bottom expanded into a -little chamber, in which lay a mass of wet, compact snow, some two by -three meters. It was evident that the snow was simply drifted in during -the winter, and was in too large a mass and too well protected to melt -easily, and there could be no question but that this place was purely -a refrigerator. The air was tranquil throughout and there were no -draughts. On the same day, a good breeze was blowing in the Manchester -Valley. - - -THE FREEZING WELL OF BRANDON. - -The Freezing Well of Brandon is situated on the western or southwestern -outskirts of the village of Brandon, Vermont, not far from the railroad -station. I visited it on the 7th of July, 1898. The well was protected -by a wooden cover. On raising this, a faint stream of cool air seemed -to issue forth; but this was probably only imagination. The sides, as -far down as one could see, were built in with rather large blocks of -stone without cement. At the bottom water was visible and there were -no signs of ice. We drew up some water in a bucket, and although it -was cool there was nothing icy about it. I twice lowered a thermometer -nearly to the water and each time after ten minutes it registered only -13° C. There was certainly nothing abnormal in this temperature, in -fact it was strictly normal and my thermometer showed conclusively by -its actions that it could not have been near any ice mass. The people -at the house, however, assured me that a month before there was ice in -the well. - -Afterwards I called on Mr. C. O. Luce, the owner of the well. He stated -that it was eleven and a half meters deep to the bottom, that it was -dug in 1858, and that the ground through which it goes was found frozen -at a depth of about four and a half meters. Here there is a stratum of -gravel and this is where the freezing occurs. Mr. Luce thought that -the water was under the ice, that is, that the water came up from the -bottom. He said also that the well usually froze solid in winter; but, -that as this winter was an open one, there was less ice this year than -usual. He thought that there was less ice anyway now than in former -years, partly because of the cover which was put over the well, and -which keeps out some of the cold; and partly because a neighboring -gravel hillock, called the Hogback, was a good deal cut away, and this -in some way affects the supply of cold in the gravel. He added that the -sandy soil round Brandon does not as a rule freeze to a greater depth -than two meters each winter. The house built beside the well was said -to be comfortable in winter. - -There seems no doubt that this is another refrigerator. The cold water -of the winter snows percolates into the gravel mass and refreezes, and, -owing to the bad conductive quality of the material, the gravel remains -frozen later than the soil elsewhere in the neighborhood. The fact that -the well went through a frozen gravel stratum when dug, proves that it -is not alone the air that sinks into the well itself, which makes the -ice. The fact that the well freezes on the whole less than formerly, -apparently partly owing to the digging up of some of the gravel close -by, goes to prove the same thing. The fact that the well generally -freezes solid every winter, shows that although some of the gravel -mass possibly remains frozen all the time, much of the ice is renewed -each year. This is especially important as proving that the ice found -in gravel deposits is due to the cold of winter and not to a glacial -period, although, of course, no one could say for how long a time the -ice was forming and melting; and this process might date back to the -time of the formation of the gravel mass. - -I could learn nothing of any similar place near Brandon, except that -Mr. Luce said that in an old abandoned silver mine in the neighborhood, -he had once seen ice during hot weather. - - -FREEZING TALUS ON LOWER AUSABLE POND. - -On the eastern side of Lower Ausable Pond, Essex County, New York, -at the foot of Mount Sébille or Colvin, there is a talus of great -Laurentian boulders, which fell from the mountain and lie piled up -on the edge of the lake. Among these boulders, at a distance of -about five hundred meters from the southern end of the lake, there -are spaces, several of which might be called caves, although they are -really hollows between the boulders. On the 12th of July, 1898, I -visited this spot with Mr. Edward I. H. Howell of Philadelphia. From -several of the rock cracks we found a draught of air flowing strongly -out, as tested by the smoke of a cigar. The air was distinctly icy and -there could be no question that there was a considerable quantity of -ice among the rocks to produce the temperature. - -In three places we found masses of ice. One of these hollows was small, -and the other two were much larger. One of the latter was almost round -in shape, and perhaps three meters in diameter; with a little snow near -the mouth and with plenty of ice at the bottom. The other was a long -descending crack between two boulders which joined overhead, and with -the bottom filled by a long, narrow slope of ice, perhaps seventy-five -centimeters in width and six meters in length, set at an angle of about -thirty-five degrees. The ice was hard and non-prismatic. - -The cold air affects a large area of land around the boulders. Mr. -Howell called my attention to the flowers of the bunch-berry, which he -said were at least two weeks behind those on the surrounding mountains. -The same was true of _oxalis_, a pretty white flower, of which we found -several beds in full bloom. - -Mr. Howell went to this talus, on the 4th of July previous, with Mr. -Niles, President of the Appalachian Mountain Club, on which occasion -they found plenty of snow near the entrance of the larger hollow. Mr. -Howell, indeed, has repeatedly visited this place, and always found -ice, which must, therefore, be looked on as perennial. At all times -also he has felt cold draughts flowing out; sometimes they were so -strong as to lower the temperature over the lake to a distance of -thirty meters or more: on hot days he has seen occasionally a misty -cloud form on the lake in front of the boulders. Mr. Howell considers -that the draughts so affect the surrounding air, that an artificial -climate is produced, and it is owing to this that spring flowers bloom -late in July and sometimes in August. Another fact well known to him, -is that in hot weather, the spot in front of the boulders is the best -in the whole lake to catch trout, as they always congregate in the -coldest water. The Adirondack guides use these ice retaining hollows, -which they call ice-caves, as refrigerators for their provisions and -game in hot weather: they say that the ice is formed in winter and -remains over during the summer, as it is so well sheltered. - - -FREEZING TALUS OF THE GIANT OF THE VALLEY. - -On the indications of Mr. Otis, chief guide of the Adirondack Reserve, -I explored with Mr. C. Lamb, a guide from Keene Valley, the southern -base of the Giant of the Valley Mountain, Essex County, New York, on -the 14th of July, 1898. A road runs from Keene Heights to Port Henry, -through the gap between the south base of the Giant of the Valley and -the north base of Round Mountain, and passes close to a small lake -called Chapel Pond. Some three hundred meters west of this lake, we -left the road and struck north, across the brook, into the thick, mossy -woods. After perhaps one hundred meters, we came to a talus of great -boulders of Laurentian rock, with the cliffs of the Giant, whence the -boulders had fallen, rising steeply above. We found ice under several -of them, although never in any quantity. The thermometer, after an -exposure of fifteen minutes in one of these little hollows, registered -6° C., although not more than one meter from where the sunshine fell on -the moss. In the shade of a tree one meter distant from the same hollow -it registered 26° C.; a difference of 20° C. at a distance of only two -meters. - -Perhaps one kilometer east of Chapel Pond, there is a place, where the -bases of the mountains come much nearer together, which bears the name -of "The Narrows." Here we crossed the brook again, and, after some -fifteen or twenty meters of scrambling through rough woods, reached -once more the talus of the Giant, composed of tremendous boulders. -Among these we found ice in many places and this time in large -quantities. Within one boulder cave we found an ice slab some four -meters in length, by two meters in width, and one meter in thickness. -This was pure, hard and non-prismatic ice, and was evidently not formed -of compressed snow: in fact snow could not have drifted in under the -boulder. We broke off a large piece of ice and took it back to Saint -Hubert's Inn, and it melted rather slowly. From the mouth of this cave -an icy draught issued, and, as it struck the warmer air outside, a -slight mist was formed. Mr. Lamb said that from the road itself he had -sometimes seen mist rising from this talus. Further explorations of the -talus of the Giant would probably reveal ice in many other places than -those we examined.[7] - -[7] Mr. E. I. H. Howell examined several times, in 1899, the talus of -the Giant of the Valley. He found ice in many places; also cold air -currents blowing out. At one spot, there is a spring which flows all -through the summer, and the water is so cold, that its temperature is -little above that of melting ice. Mr. Howell found, as at Ausable Pond, -spring flowers growing in mid-summer among the rocks of the talus. - -Mr. Lamb told me of two other places in the Adirondacks, where he -found ice in similar boulder formations. One was in the talus of Mount -Wallface in Indian Pass, between Mounts Wallface and McIntyre. The -other was in the talus of Mount McIntyre in Avalanche Pass, between -Mounts McIntyre and Colden. At the latter place, he found it near the -trail going round the lake in the pass. - - -THE ICE GULCH, RANDOLPH. - -The Randolph Ice Gulch is situated in Randolph Township, New Hampshire, -about eight kilometers from Randolph Station, on the Boston and Maine -Railroad.[8] I visited it on August 11th, 1898. At the Mount Crescent -House, I found a guide in the person of Mr. Charles E. Lowe, Jr. The -excursion took us about six hours. The trail was a rough bush path, -cut by the Appalachian Mountain Club, and which had not been cleaned -out that year. It was a cloudy but hot day and this, combined with the -badness of the road, made the walk fatiguing. - -[8] I first heard of the Ice Gulch from Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., of -Boston. Some years ago in the middle of July, he found ice plentiful in -the second chamber. He thought the Gulch only a refrigerator. - -The Gulch lies between Crescent and Black Mountains. The altitude of -the upper end of the Gulch is something over eight hundred meters, -that of the lower end about six hundred meters. It is some fifteen -hundred meters long, and averages perhaps one hundred meters in width -at the top, and only a few meters at the bottom. The depth may be about -seventy-five meters and the sides are steep, in some places sheer. -The bottom is a mass of broken, fallen rocks, with a good many trees -growing among them. There are several steps, so to speak, in the Gulch, -which are called chambers, although the term seems rather meaningless. -Promenading through the bottom of the Gulch was fraught with -difficulty, because the rocks were placed in most unsuitable positions -for human progression, and my hands were certainly as useful to me as -my feet in preserving equilibrium. We found ice in one or two places, -but not in any great quantity. In one spot it was overlaid by water. My -guide said that there was less ice than the year before. A large piece -which we broke off, and which furnished us with a cooling morsel of -frozen fluid, was full of air bubbles. It was not prismatic ice, and -was certainly unusual in formation. It crunched up under the teeth and, -although it did not look like solidified snow, yet, judging from its -position among the boulders, it was doubtless formed from the melting -and refreezing of snow.[9] My guide said he had heard that fresh ice -began to form sometimes in September. The Gulch is well protected -against wind, and I detected no draughts among the rocks. Except in the -immediate vicinity of the ice, the temperature was not abnormally low. - -[9] On the 17th of February, 1899, four days after the greatest snow -storm in Philadelphia in many years, I noticed that the snow on my -roof solidified slowly into a mass of ice which contained a good -many air-bubbles. It strikingly resembled the ice of the Ice Gulch, -only that it was more solid and did not have more than half as many -air-bubbles. - -On returning to the Mount Crescent House, I had a talk with Mr. Charles -E. Lowe, Sr., who told me that Alpine plants, like those which grow on -Mount Washington and Mount Adams, are found in the Gulch; but that they -do not exist on the neighboring Black and Crescent Mountains. He said -also that ice was present in more than one place in King's Ravine, and -that it was always there. - - -FREEZING BOULDER TALUS AT RUMNEY. - -About three kilometers south of Rumney, New Hampshire, there is a hill -called Bald Mountain, which, about three hundred meters west of the -carriage road from Rumney to Plymouth, descends as a big cliff, with -an exposure facing nearly southeast. At the base of this cliff, there -is a talus[10] which I visited on the 27th of August, 1898, with the -Sheriff of Rumney, Mr. Learned. He said he had found plenty of ice -there on the 18th of August, 1897, but he doubted whether there would -be any left this year, on account of the hot weather. Effectively a -careful hunt failed to reveal any ice, although the talus was just -the kind of place where it might have been expected, as the boulders -were piled one over the other and in one or two places there were -considerable hollows. The temperatures were normal, and there were -no draughts. The talus is exposed to the sun, and only moderately -sheltered against wind by a scrub forest. But there can be no doubt, -that ice lingers there long after it has disappeared from every other -spot in the neighborhood, and it seems as if our not finding any, is -another proof that it is the heat of summer which melts it away. - -[10] Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., wrote me about this place, where he had -found ice plentiful some years ago in August, within two or three -meters from the outside: he considered it only a refrigerator. - - -ICE FORMATIONS AND WINDHOLES AT WATERTOWN. - -At Watertown, New York, on the south side of the Black River, in the -town itself, are some natural cracks or crevices in the limestone -rocks. They are only a short distance from the New York Central -Railroad station. The cracks enter the northern side of the railroad -embankment, pass under the railroad tracks, and extend some distance -back. In front of them are four cellars, used for storing beer kegs. -The lessor, Mr. Ehrlicher, obligingly had the cellars opened for me, on -the 12th of September, 1898. There was neither ice nor draughts in the -cellars, and the temperature was normal. Mr. Ehrlicher said that in the -spring there was ice in the cracks, but that it had all melted away as -the result of the hot summer. - -[Illustration: THE BLUFF AT DECORAH. - - From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik. -] - -About four kilometers west of Watertown, on the south bank of the Black -River, is the picnic ground of Glen Park, which is reached by trolley. -The manager of the restaurant walked around the park with me. In one -spot is a hollow or glen at the base of a small, much cracked limestone -cliff, which has a northern exposure. The manager said that snow and -ice usually lies in this place until June, not only among the broken -rocks, but even in the open. Sometimes ice remains among the boulders -all summer, but only near the front of the boulders, and by pushing -in, one soon gets beyond it: we found none, a fact showing once more -the effect of the unusually warm summer. On hot days, draughts issue -from between the boulders, but as the day was cool, we did not notice -any. The spot is well sheltered against the wind by a number of trees; -and the shape of the hollow reminded me of the glen in front of the -Eishöhle bei Roth. - -Not one hundred meters from this hollow, is a little limestone cave, -closed by a wooden door, which excludes any cold air in winter. -The cave is lighted by electric lights, and is a narrow, crooked, -descending fissure, a _ganghöhle_, where the marks of water action are -plainly visible. At the bottom a little stream, evidently the active -agent in forming the cave, ran through the fissured limestone. In the -stream a large toad or frog was swimming about. There was nothing icy -about the cave or the water, and the temperature was normal. Ice was -never known to form in the cave. These two places, so close together, -are an interesting confirmation that it is only where the outside cold -can get in, that we find subterranean ice. - - -THE FREEZING CAVE AND FREEZING WELLS OF DECORAH. - -Near Decorah, Iowa, is a freezing cavern, which is more frequently -referred to in cave literature than is generally the case. I visited it -on Friday, September the 30th, 1898, with an old English resident of -Decorah, Mr. W. D. Selby-Hill. The cave is situated about one kilometer -to the northward of Decorah, on the north bank of the Upper Iowa River, -at the base of a bluff. It is some thirty to forty meters above the -stream, and faces southward. It looks like a fault or fissure in the -rocks, with the sides meeting a few meters overhead. It is a true -cave, but probably in an early stage of formation, for there are no -apparent traces of water action, nor any stalagmites nor stalactites. -The absence of the latter may, however, be due to the fact that it is a -periodic glacière. The rock is a white limestone, rich in fossils. The -cave is some two to three meters in width and is rather winding, with a -short arm or pocket branching out on the west side. The main cave runs -back some thirty meters from the entrance. In one place it is necessary -to stoop, to get past some overhanging rock slabs. By candle light, we -went to the rear of the cave, and found it warm, dry, and free from -ice. There were no draughts, possibly because the day was cool. - -[Illustration: ENTRANCE OF THE CAVE OF DECORAH. - - From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik. -] - -I looked in vain for _tubular fissures_, or indeed any fissures, -through which _water might freeze by pressure in its descent_, as the -believers in the capillary theory say it does. Nothing of the kind -existed, and I wrote in my note-book: "Writing on the very spot about -which this theory was started, I feel justified in asserting that the -theory amounts to absolutely nothing and is entirely incorrect." - -Mr. Hill told me that there were two wells in the southern portion of -Decorah Township, where ice was found in summer. I visited them both, -but found no ice, and the temperatures normal. Mr. Hill said that one -of the wells was dug about thirty years ago, and that the workman told -him that the ground which he went through was frozen; and that at one -place he struck an opening, from which came so strong a current of icy -air, that it was hard to keep at work. - -I talked to several persons afterwards. _Inter alia_, they told me that -the bluff was a great place for rattlesnakes, sometimes big ones. They -admitted also generally that they were puzzled about the formation of -ice in the cave. Some claimed that the ice formed in summer--the old -story once more. I met, however, Mr. Alois F. Kovarik of the Decorah -Institute, who had made a series of regular observations for over a -year and found that the ice begins to form about the end of March and -beginning of April, and is at its maximum towards the beginning of -June. Mr. Kovarik also told me, that he had found ice in one of the -wells in the beginning of August. - -This was an especially satisfactory trip to me, for it did away, once -for all, with any possible belief that there was any basis of fact for -the capillary theory. It also seems to me important to find that the -ice of these freezing wells melts in summer. For it shows that their -ice is due to the same causes as those which form the ice in the cave, -and is another proof against the validity of the glacial period theory. - - -FREEZING ROCK TALUS ON SPRUCE CREEK. - -On Spruce Creek, Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania, about four kilometers -north of the Pennsylvania Railroad depot, is an ice bearing talus, -known locally as the Ice Holes or Ice Caves. I visited this spot, on -October the 5th, 1898, with Mr. Benner, of Spruce Creek. We walked -up the pretty valley along the old Pittsburgh turnpike, at one place -finding some papaw trees, whose fruit had a horrible sickening taste; -then we crossed Spruce Creek by a footbridge and followed the other -bank back for some five hundred meters, until we were nearly opposite -the old Colerain Forge, which is located in a piece of land called by -the curious name of Africa. About half way from the bridge we smelt -a strange odor, which my companion thought came from a copperhead or -rattlesnake: we did not investigate. - -[Illustration: LOCUS GLACIALIS--CAVE OF DECORAH. - - From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik. -] - -The freezing talus is situated at the foot of Tussey Mountain: it is -big, and is composed of small sandstone (?) rock débris. The talus is -at least thirty meters high and one hundred and twenty meters long. -As I stood at the bottom, I was reminded strongly of the talus at the -Dornburg. At the base were a number of small pits, evidently dug by -man. From the interstices between the rocks, icy cold draughts issued -in some places, and there was no doubt that there was plenty of ice -beneath the stones. In one place we thought we could see ice, and I -poked at the white substance with my stick, but I am not positive -that it was ice. All over the talus, the temperature was strikingly -colder than a few meters away, and in the pits we could see our breaths -distinctly. Although I am not much of a botanist, yet it seemed to me -that the flora immediately near the talus was somewhat different in -character from that of the surrounding country. - -Mr. Benner told me that he saw, three or four weeks before, plenty of -ice in the pits; that they were made by farmers who formerly came to -this spot to get ice; and that parties occasionally picnic here in the -summer and make ice cream. He stated also that he saw, some years ago, -a small cave or hole containing ice near Mapleton, Pennsylvania, but -that it was destroyed by quarrying the rock away. - - -FREEZING GORGE NEAR ELLENVILLE. - -On Sunday, October the 9th, 1898, with a young man from Ellenville, -I visited the well known Ellenville Gorge, in the Shawangunk Range, -Ulster County, New York. We left the hotel at eight-forty A. M. and -reached the gorge, known locally as the Ice Cave, at ten-five A. M. -It is about four kilometers northeast from Ellenville. The path rises -steadily uphill and is of the roughest description; it is covered with -loose stones, and looks as if it might become the bed of a mountain -brook in wet weather. - -I call this place a gorge, instead of a cave, because it is uncovered -at the top, but probably originally it was covered. It is shaped like -a pit cave minus a roof, and it reminded me of the Friedrichsteiner -Eishöhle, and the Glacières de Saint-Georges and du Pré de -Saint-Livres. It is entered by a long slope from the western end, the -gorge turning northward further back. I estimated its width, at the -bottom at some five to seven meters, at the top at some three to four -meters; its length at some thirty meters and the deepest point we -reached, at some twenty meters below the surface. These are guesses, -however. In one place, a great rock slab overhangs the gorge. At nearly -the lowest point of the rock floor, there is a hole which extends -perpendicularly downwards some five or ten meters more; this opening -is partly blocked up with fallen masses of rock which would make a -further descent perilous. The north end of the gorge is also filled up -with a mass of great broken rocks; in fact, the whole place is out of -repair, as the rocks are cracked and creviced on both sides to a great -extent. The rock is friable and seems to be all breaking up, or rather -down, and I think there is some danger from falling stones, although -I did not see any fall. There is a good deal of moss on the sides of -the gorge, and on some ledges small evergreens are growing. The gorge -is sheltered thoroughly from winds by its formation and position, and -somewhat by the scrub forest surrounding it. There are several long, -deep crevices a few meters further up the mountain side, and I think -one of them is an extension of the main gorge. - -[Illustration: GORGE AT ELLENVILLE. - - From a Photograph by Mr. Davis. -] - -We found no ice. It generally lasts till about the beginning of -September; and Professor Angelo Heilprin, and Miss Julia L. Lewis, of -Philadelphia, have found plenty of it in July and August. But the ice -had evidently now been gone for some time, for the temperature at the -bottom of the gorge was about 11° C. at ten-thirty A. M. This was but -little colder than the temperature v outside, which at ten-fifteen A. -M. was 14° C. - -On returning to Ellenville, I learnt that there was another somewhat -similar smaller gorge, some eight kilometers away, at a place called -Sam's Point. This, however, is said to retain only snow, while in the -Ellenville gorge much ice is sometimes formed, and icicles a couple of -meters long are said to hang on the sides of the cliffs. The proprietor -of the hotel told me he had heard of a cave which contained ice not far -from Albany, at a place called Carlisle, on the Delaware and Hudson -Railroad. - - -FREEZING CAVE AND WINDHOLES NEAR FARRANDSVILLE. - -I arrived at Farrandsville, Clinton County, Pennsylvania, early on -Tuesday morning, October the 11th, 1898, and found a boy, who worked -in a brick mill, as guide to the caves.[11] After emptying a small, -flat bottomed boat of the water of which it was half full, we rowed -across the Susquehanna River; then we walked up the road, along the -river bank, for a couple of hundred meters, and struck up the so-called -path to the caves. Although the whole of the mountain side was at the -disposal of the road maker, no better plan seems to have suggested -itself than to make the track go straight up. This saved making -zigzags, yet the result is that the path is steep, and as it is rocky -and slippery, it is hard travelling without bootnails or alpenstock. - -[11] I learned of this cave from Mr. Eugene F. McCabe, of Renovo, -Pennsylvania. Mr. McCabe took out large pieces of ice from it in the -month of August. On December 23d, 1896, he found no ice inside the -cave, but a hoar frost covered the rocks; the temperature outside -was -5.6°; inside -4.5°: the day was clear and there was no breeze; -several matches lighted in the cave were almost instantly blown out by -a current of air coming from crevices in the rocks. - -Mr. Ira C. Chatham, postmaster at Farrandsville, wrote to me on the -19th of October, 1898, as follows: "Your paper on Ice Caves [Journal -of the Franklin Institute, March, 1897] at pp. 177 and 178 describes -the Farrandsville Cave as near as is possible, as the ice forms in the -spring from the snow melting and dropping through the rocks into the -cave, and the rocks face directly north as stated." - -As we went up, I noticed, in one or two places, cold draughts issuing -from crevices in the rocks. We soon came to a hollow under a rock, -where there were a number of cracks and crevices: the boy spoke of it -as the lower cave. It is some sixty meters above the Susquehanna River -and cold draughts flowed from the cracks, although we saw no ice. The -cave was about twenty meters higher up. One could crawl into it for -a couple of meters, and all round it the rocks are somewhat creviced; -in fact, I think there are a good many cracks in the entire hill. -There was no ice in sight in this hole, but a strong, cold draught -poured from it. After an exposure of fifteen minutes the thermometer -registered 6° C.; while outside, in the shade, it stood at 15° C. This -decidedly sub-normal temperature proved unmistakably, in my opinion, -the presence of ice a little further than we could see in. Both holes -face about north and are sheltered, by their position and by the sparse -forest which covers the ridge, against all winds except those from the -north. - -I talked to the postmaster and the railroad agent at Farrandsville -on my return, and they stated that there was no ice in the hole in -winter, but that it formed about April and remained over until towards -September, showing that the cave is a normal glacière on a small scale. - - -GLACIÈRES NEAR SUMMIT. - -In the search for coal, the mountains of the Appalachian Chain between -the little town of Summit, and the neighboring village of Coaldale, -Carbon County, Pennsylvania, were mined and tunneled in every -direction. Owing to the caving in of some of these mines, depressions -formed in certain places along the ridge in the upper surface of the -ground, and in two of these hollows natural refrigerators occur. These -were brought to my notice by Mr. C. J. Nicholson of Philadelphia, and I -visited them on May the 5th, 1899, in company with two coal miners of -Summit. - -Starting from Summit, we passed across some rough ground under which -there was a mine on fire; and the miners showed me the tops of two -pipes sticking out of the ground, from which issued a smoke or steam, -too hot to hold the hand in more than a few seconds. Going beyond -through brushwood, for a couple of hundred meters, we came to the -first glacière, which was also the nearest to Summit. It faced almost -due north and looked as if it was formerly the entrance to a mine. It -was fairly big, and my companions assured me that, until within about -a year, ice was always found in it. Recently, however, part, of the -rock roof fell in, blocking up the entrance with a mass of débris and -making it unsafe to venture in. Formerly parties of tourists constantly -visited this place, after coming over the Switchback, but this is no -longer done and there has been some talk of cleaning away the broken -rocks and making the glacière accessible. The men also said that -occasionally people living in the neighborhood had dug out the ice for -their own use. - -The other glacière was a short distance further, in the direction of -Coaldale. It is in a pit, which may have been the mouth of a disused -shaft or only a depression resulting from a cave-in. A scrubby forest, -which surrounds the hollow, acts as a windbrake. A rather steep slope -leads down into the pit, and at the end passes under the wall of rock -of the opposite side for a short distance, forming a small cave, which -faces almost due south and whose floor is choked up with broken rock -fragments. At the bottom of the slope we found some snow, and among -the boulders a good deal of snow-ice as well as several long icicles -hanging from the rocks. All the ice and snow lay on the north side of -the rocks, or underneath them, so that it was in shady places where the -sun could not reach it. The temperature was not at all uncomfortable, -although somewhat cool and damp. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9. Vertical Section of Pit near Summit.] - -There was nothing in either glacière, to show that the ice was formed -from any other cause than the drifting in, and melting and refreezing -of the winter's snow; and my impression is that the ice in the second -glacière could not last through the summer. - - -THE SNOW HOLE NEAR WILLIAMSTOWN. - -The Snow Hole near Williamstown (Massachusetts) is situated near the -northern end of the Petersburgh Mountain of the Taghconic Range; it is -slightly below the watershed on the Williamstown side, at an altitude -of about seven hundred meters. The Snow Hole is in the State of New -York, near the boundary between New York and Massachusetts. It is a -long two hours' drive from Williamstown, the last four kilometers -or so, over an exceedingly steep and rough road, which is, in fact, -nothing but an old logging road, and the worst I ever drove over except -the road to Démenyfálva. - -I visited the Snow Hole with my brother on Friday, September the 29th, -1899. It is surrounded by a dense forest, mainly of recent growth, -which thoroughly shelters it from all winds. In shape and appearance -it resembles the Gorge at Ellenville, except that it is smaller: its -location on the ridge is not unlike that of the Friedrichsteiner -Eishöhle. It is a narrow crack--or cave minus a roof--about fifteen -meters long, six to seven meters deep and from two to five meters wide. -It faces nearly north, and the bottom is in perpetual shadow. From the -northern end, a gentle slope leads to the rear. The slope was a good -deal blocked up by a big tree with large branches, which had fallen -directly into the fissure. There was some moss or greenish mould on -the rocks in places, and at the rear end of the slope there were -some fissures in the rocks, into which one might perhaps have crawled -a little farther, which formed a tiny cave. There was also a similar -incipient cave at the northern end. I could not detect any draughts -issuing from these rock fissures, and the air throughout was still, -although the wind was blowing hard on the ridge. The rocks were moist -in places and the air damp, but there was neither snow nor ice and the -temperatures were normal. The driver told me that he had found plenty -of snow in the base of the gorge some years ago in July; and he said -that he had always heard that snow was found in the Snow Hole all the -year round. All the conditions of the place, the shape of the fissure, -and its sheltered northern exposition, are favorable to the retention -of ice and snow, and it is not surprising that they remain over every -spring. - - -ICY GULF NEAR GREAT BARRINGTON. - -The Icy Gulf or Icy Glen is some eight kilometers from Great -Barrington, Massachusetts. I have not been in it, but was told in -October, 1899, by the farmers living near by, that after snowy winters, -ice remains over through July. It must be similar to the Icy Glen at -Stockbridge. - - -THE ICE BED OF WALLINGFORD. - -The Ice Bed of Wallingford is situated about three kilometers to the -east of Wallingford, Vermont. A drive of half an hour, over the Mount -Holly and Hearburrow roads, takes the visitor to the entrance of a -rough wood path, which, at a distance of three or four hundred meters, -leads to the Ice Bed. This is a huge talus, at the base of the White -Rock Mountain, whose cliffs rise steeply overhead for some three or -four hundred meters. The talus, which was doubtless formed by a great -slide at some distant date, consists of granite boulders, some of which -are big ones. The ice-bearing portion may be some thirty or forty -meters high vertically. It lies in a sort of gully or rock basin, and -at the top is about thirty meters broad, tapering to a point at the -bottom. The talus faces southward, and during a good part of the day -the sun shines full upon it. A thin forest fringes the sides and grows -round the bottom, but this can afford but little protection from the -winds, especially to those from the south. - -I visited this place on the 5th of October, 1899. There was a distinct -drop in temperature as we neared the base of the talus, and a cool air -drew gently down over the rocks. I think slight draughts issued from -some of the crevices; but of this I am not sure. The temperature was -sub-normal, about 8°, but hardly low enough to prove the presence of -ice, although we could see our breaths distinctly. We looked carefully -under a number of the boulders, but neither ice nor snow was visible. -I was assured that ice was abundant there in the past July and August, -and I should think it had melted away only shortly before my visit. My -impression is, that this is a periodic glacière. - - -CAVES NEAR WILLIAMSTOWN. - -On the eastern slope of the Petersburgh Mountain of the Taghconic Range -in Massachusetts, at a good deal lower altitude than the Williamstown -Snow Hole and about southeast of it are some caverns, which are but -little known. A five or six kilometer drive from Williamstown takes the -visitor to the base of the mountain, whence a rather steep ascent of -about a kilometer and a half brings him to the caves, which are in the -midst of a dense, scrub forest. - -The caves were first entered, and possibly discovered, by Mr. W. F. -Williams, of Williamstown, when a boy. Since then, he has visited them -many times and explored them a good deal. They do not appear to have -any name as yet, and it would seem only fitting to christen them after -their explorer: the Williams Caves. - -There are several unimportant holes in the immediate neighborhood of -the two main caves. The latter lie side by side. The rock formation is -the same as that of the Snow Hole, a dark gray slate with a few veins -of quartz, and they are due also evidently to the same geological -causes. It would seem as though the mountain had tended to open or -crack at these spots and fallen apart. This seems probable, because -wherever there is a projection on one side of the cracks, there is a -corresponding hollow in the opposite side. After this, water action has -come, and erosion and corrosion have worn out and carried away earthy -matter, and slowly deepened and widened the fissures. The remarkable -point in connection with the main caves, however, is that one is a -normal cave and the other a periodic glacière. - -I went with Mr. Williams to these caves on the 6th of October, 1899, -and partially explored the glacière. On the way up, just as we left the -carriage road, a fine, three-year-old buck, in his winter coat, came -bounding out of the forest; on seeing us he stopped, and after taking a -good look, quietly trotted off into the bushes. - -The glacière is rather peculiar in shape and may be described as two -storied. A long slope, set at an angle of some forty degrees, and -covered with mud and dead leaves, leads down into the crack, which -is from one to three meters in width. The first half of the slope is -open to the sky; the last half is covered by the rock roof, and is a -real cave. In this the floor is horizontal, the place forming a little -chamber in which the daylight has almost vanished. At the exact summit -of the slope a big tree grew most conveniently; and we tied to this one -end of a twenty-meter Austrian Alpine Club rope, and by holding fast -to it, and kneeling or sitting down in the mud in two or three places, -the descent was easy enough. It was rather difficult to scramble up the -slope again, however. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10. Vertical Section of Freezing Cave near -Williamstown.] - -In the floor of the little chamber there are two holes, and, stepping -over these, we stood at the rear end, about eighteen meters distant -from the beginning of the slope. My companion now set some birchbark -on fire and dropped it into the innermost hole, and we laid down in -turn, flat on the rock floor, and craned our necks through the hole. -Mr. Williams thought he could see ice below us. I looked down after -him and found that I was looking into a lower chamber whose sides were -invisible. The floor was some three meters below vertically, and on -this the birchbark was burning brightly. I think I saw some ice, but -I could not be sure, as there was too much smoke to see distinctly. -My companion offered to go down through the hole and get some ice; a -proposition I promptly vetoed, as had anything gone wrong, I could not -possibly have given him any assistance, as there was no extra rope. -Mr. Williams told me that he went down several times before in July or -August, and always found ice on the slanting floor. He said he did not -know how far this lower chamber extended, nor the length of the ice -floor. One thing which makes me hesitate to think that we saw ice was, -that the temperature of the chamber where we were was not at all icy; -but probably--I had forgotten my thermometer--nearly normal. - -When we stood once more by the tree at the top of the slope, the mouth -of another cave was visible about two meters below us. Mr. Williams -said it had never looked more than a little crack before, and that the -opening was much bigger than at his last visit. It was directly under -the slope by which we descended and it vanished into darkness. Its -direction led straight towards the lower chamber, and it almost surely -leads to it. It seems thus that there are two hollows, one directly -above the other; and that the lower one is a glacière, while the upper -one is not. The cold air of winter would naturally sink into the lower -chamber, and the spring thaws would furnish plenty of drip, so that -this place seems to answer every requirement of a cave glacière. - -But the most interesting fact about these caves is that, while the -shallower one is a glacière, the bigger and deeper one is not. This -is situated about ten meters north of the glacière and the direction -of the entrance is about the same. Mr. Williams has found snow and -ice in May in the entrance pit as far as the daylight goes, but none -beyond. I am inclined to think that the explanation of this is the fact -that the cave is a _ganghöhle_ or tunnel cave. Mr. Williams described -it as a narrow passage with chambers, and at least a hundred meters -long, and fifty meters in depth below the surface. The cold air sinks -in a certain distance, but as the passage is narrow and long, and too -winding for any strong draughts, the cold air which enters is soon -neutralized by the supply of warmer air within and by contact with the -rocks. I cannot help thinking that it is by some such explanation that -we must hope to solve the problem of why certain caves are glacières -and others in the immediate neighborhood normal caves; and the caves -near Williamstown are exceptional in presenting the problem so -patently. - - - - -PART II. - -THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. - - - - -THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. - - - - -I. - - -_Terminology._--Ice enduring the entire year is found, in temperate -latitudes, in a variety of forms and in several different kinds of -places. In some cases it is entirely above the surface of the earth; -in others it is entirely beneath the surface of the earth. These are -the extremes, and between them there are certain intermediate forms. -The perennial ice above ground of temperate regions has gradually -become known in English by the French word _glacier_, but strange to -say, there is no term in use in English which accurately describes the -perennial ice formations which are partially or completely underground. -Thus the term "ice cave" is applied to a rock cavern containing ice, -and the term "ice gorge" to a rock gorge containing ice. Both terms -are misleading, because the character of the contents is mentioned -before the nature of the geological formation. We say correctly enough -"limestone cave" or "lava cave" and, in my opinion, we should apply the -term "ice cave" in a similar manner to the hollows in the ice at the -lower end of glaciers, whence the glacier waters make their exit. These -are really "ice caves," that is caves with sides and roof made of ice. -Another trouble of the term "ice cave," as applied to rock formations -containing ice, is that it is not generic: not only is it incorrect, -but also it is not comprehensive. It does not apply to mines, tunnels, -wells, gullies, boulder taluses, or underground ice sheets. If "ice -cave" is used, except in its true sense of glacier ice cave, it seems -at least as though it should be so only for real caves which retain -ice, as opposed to taluses and wells. Curiously enough, the Germans -are just as inaccurate as ourselves, for their terms _eishöhle_ -and _eisloch_ are absolute translations of our "ice cave" and "ice -hole." Indeed, there is no doubt that some of the incorrect notions -about subterranean ice formations, are due to the inaccuracy of the -terminology. - -The only language, so far as I know, which has a correct and really -generic term for subterranean ice formations, is the French in its word -_glacière_. The French and Swiss say _glacières naturelles_ of ice -deposits formed naturally underground; and _glacières artificielles_ -of ice houses. _Glacière naturelle_ is comprehensive and accurate. It -covers all the rock formations and suggests also the mode of formation -of the ice. It likewise implies the strong resemblance between natural -ice deposits and artificial ice houses. It might be well, therefore, -if the French term _glacière_ were adopted as a generic term for all -underground ice formations. As, however, there is little likelihood of -this happening, the question arises as to the best English equivalent -or equivalents. These seem to be "freezing cavern, freezing talus," -etc., "natural refrigerator" or "subterranean ice formation." "Natural -refrigerator" and "subterranean ice formation" are more generic than -"freezing cavern, freezing well," etc.; but the latter have the -advantage of suggesting immediately that reference is made to the -hollows of the earth which at times contain ice; and, therefore, they -are the best terms, perhaps, which can be chosen in English. - -Another point in the terminology of this subject has reference to -subterranean hollows where draughts issue or enter. Such hollows are -found in all parts of the world and are known usually in English as -"blowing caves" or "cold current caves." The Germans speak of them as -_windröhren_ or _windlöcher_. In my first paper about caves,[12] I -used the word "windhole" which I translated from the German. The term -"windhole" seems to me preferable to "blowing cave" or "cold current -cave" in that it is more generic. It applies to taluses or boulder -heaps, or in fact, to any hollows where draughts issue or enter, -whether these hollows are genuine caverns or not. - -[12] _Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean Ice_, November 1896, and -March 1897. - -It is necessary also to explain here that "glacière" and "windhole" are -not synonymous terms. It must be understood that a glacière or natural -refrigerator is a place where ice forms and endures in a subterranean -or semi-subterranean situation; and that _the presence of ice_ is the -criterion of whether a place is or is not a glacière. Likewise it must -be understood that a windhole or blowing cave is an underground hollow -with at least two openings, and in which distinct draughts occur; and -that the _presence of draughts_ is necessary to constitute a place -a windhole or blowing cave. A freezing cavern may or may not be a -windhole, and a windhole may or may not be a freezing cavern. - - -_Temperatures._--The phenomena of glacières are so closely connected -with temperatures that it seems necessary at this point to mention -some general facts in connection with subterranean temperatures, even -if these still form a subject of some uncertainty, and one about -which further observation is desirable. Subterranean temperatures may -be grouped under three heads: 1, Ordinary or normal temperatures; -2, Temperatures above the normal or super-normal temperatures; 3, -Temperatures below the normal or sub-normal temperatures. - -1. In the great majority of caves, cellars and subterranean places -of all descriptions, the temperature of the air is about the same, -all the year round, as that of the ground. The frost of winter and -the heat of summer penetrate the earth for some trivial distance, a -few meters perhaps, and lower or raise the temperature of the ground -temporarily. Below this there is a stratum where the temperature is -found to vary but little the entire year and which, in a majority -of cases, approximates the mean annual temperature of the district. -Below this invariable stratum, the temperature generally rises -slowly, not at exactly the same rate everywhere, but in a regular -increase. This increase of temperature averages 1° C. for every 32 -meters. As most caves and cellars are of small depth and as they take -their temperatures from that of the ground, it follows that as a rule -their temperatures are moderate and pleasant. And as the air of the -majority of caves and subterranean hollows is about the same as the -temperature of the surrounding rock, it is correct to call subterranean -air temperatures closely approximating the ordinary temperature of the -ground, ordinary or normal temperatures. - -As already stated, with an increase of depth, there is, in almost all -cases, a regular increase of temperature. For this reason, mines, which -are much the deepest hollows reached by man in the surface of the -earth, are, as a rule, warmer in the lower levels: if deep, they are -also hot. And this is so generally the case that warmer temperatures at -the bottom of mines may be considered as normal. - -2. In a few hollows close to the surface, there are temperatures much -above the normal temperature of the ground. Such places are rare and -abnormal.[13] The heat is generally due to the presence of hot springs -or to some volcanic action in the immediate neighborhood. In the case -of one cave close to the surface, the heat is due to some limekilns -which are situated immediately overhead.[14] Where these warm hollows -are genuine caves it seems proper to call them "hot caves." - -[13] Kraus. _Höhlenkunde_, page 86. - -[14] Grotte du Jaur. _Les Abimes_, page 160. - -3. In a number of places, there are abnormally low temperatures -underground either for the whole or only for part of the year. -Although commoner than hot caves, yet the underground places with low -temperatures are also rare and abnormal. They may be divided into two -groups: 1, Those where the temperatures are lower than the normal, -without becoming low enough for ice to form; and 2, Those where the -temperature sinks so low, that ice forms. - - -It is difficult to make definite divisions among the various forms of -natural refrigerators, but it is correct, probably, to classify them -under five heads, in accordance with the different kinds of formations -of the hollows in the rocks: - -1. Gullies, gorges, and troughs where ice and snow remain. - -2. Soil or rocks overlaying ice sheets. - -3. Taluses and boulder heaps retaining ice. - -4. Wells, mines and tunnels in which ice sometimes forms. - -5. Caves with abnormally low temperatures, and often containing ice. - - -1. _Gorges and Troughs._--Gullies, gorges and basins which retain snow -and ice are fairly numerous in mountain districts. They are generally -ravines, or rock fissures, or hollows, in positions below the snow line -where snow and ice are sufficiently protected, from sun and wind, to -remain long after snow in the surrounding open country, at the same -altitude, has melted away. Some of these gorges are small, some big. As -a rule, they are deep and narrow. - -In north-eastern Siberia, a form of permanent surface ice is found, -which the Tungusses speak of as _tarinnen_, which means "ice troughs" -or "ice valleys."[15] These _tarinnen_ are broad valleys, with either -a horizontal floor or one sloping gently in the form of a trough, over -which the ice is spread in the form of a sheet. The Tungusses assert -that the ice in some of these troughs never wholly melts away, although -it lessens in quantity from the beginning of May till the end of -August, after which it once more increases. - -[15] _Bulletin de la classe physico-mathématique de l'Académie -Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg._ 1853. Vol. XI, pages -305-316. - - -_Subterranean Ice Sheets._--In several places in different parts of -the world there are underground ice sheets which extend over large -spaces; they are common under the tundras of Alaska; and there are fine -examples on Kotzebue Sound,[16] on the Kowak River,[17] and along the -Yukon River.[18] The "Ice Spring" in Oregon seems to be a formation of -the same kind. Several examples of these subterranean ice sheets are -reported also from different parts of the Russian Empire. - -[16] See Part III: page 167. - -[17] See Part III: page 167. - -[18] See Part III: page 166. - -A somewhat different kind of ice sheet was observed on Mount Etna. Sir -Charles Lyell[19] speaks of it as a "glacier preserved by a covering -of lava." He says Signor Mario Gemmellaro satisfied himself that -nothing but a flowing of lava over snow could account for the position -of the glacier. Ice sheets somewhat similar to these are reported -from Tierra del Fuego,[20] and probably also such sheets occur in -Iceland; and enormous heaps of ice covered with sand are found on Mount -Chimborazo.[21] On the northwestern coast of Greenland, glaciers, whose -flow has stopped, were observed buried under an accumulation of moss -and grass.[22] - -[19] _Principles of Geology_, 11th Edition, Chap. XXVI. - -[20] See Part III: page 190. - -[21] See Part III: page 189. - -[22] See Part III: page 165. - - -_Taluses and Boulder Heaps._--Taluses and broken debris, and in general -boulder heaps of all sorts, have interstices and openings between the -boulders, and in these it occasionally happens that ice is found. This -is most common among the taluses at the base of cliffs, but in some -cases ice is found among broken rocks on the sides of gently sloping -hills, or even on the plateaus of their summits. Sometimes the ice -and snow on the bottom of rock gorges all melts away, while further -down, in the hollows of the boulders forming the floor, ice still -remains. The rocks of which these ice bearing taluses are formed are -generally gneiss, granite, limestone, sandstone, basalt or porphyry. -Among such boulder taluses the phenomenon designated as _Windröhren_ -or _Ventarolen_, that is, windholes, is frequently found. Sometimes -the air among such boulder formations is quiet, but as a general thing -draughts pour out at the lower openings during the hot months, and blow -into them during the cold ones. - - -_Freezing Wells, Mines and Tunnels._--Subterranean ice is also found in -certain places in connection with man's handiwork. In a few wells in -the United States, the temperature in winter becomes abnormally low, -and for four or five months these wells freeze up and become useless. -A case of a freezing well was recently observed near la Ferté Milon in -Central France.[23] Ice is reported also as forming in various mines in -Europe, Asia and America; in fact, it is not an uncommon occurrence. -Occasionally, also, ice forms in tunnels. - -[23] See Part I.: pages 74, 79, 89. Part III.: page 206. - - -_Cold Caves._--Caves with abnormally low temperatures may be divided -into two classes. First, caves where the temperatures are lower than -the normal, without becoming low enough for ice to form; and second, -caves where the temperatures sink so low, that ice forms. - -Caves where the temperatures sink below the normal, but in which ice -does not form either in winter or in summer, are found in several -places in different parts of the world. They are termed in French -_cavernes froides_ and in German _kalte höhlen_. There are but few data -from reliable observers about such cold caves. Some descriptions are -given without thermometric measurements, and the statements that the -caves are cold, mean nothing beyond the fact that they feel colder than -the outside air. It is, however, conclusively proved that cold caves -exist, and that while they are not freezing caverns, yet that they have -a temperature lower than the mean annual temperature of their district. -In fact, the assumption, which had passed into an axiom, that caves -always have the same temperatures as the mean annual temperature of -the district, must certainly be given up. Cold caves are generally in -one of two shapes: 1, in the shape of a sand glass,--two cones above -each other meeting at the narrowest point--where the upper cone lets -the heavy cold air descend easily, while the lower bell shaped cone -prevents its escape; and 2, where two sink holes open into one pit, -which is in the shape of a bell.[24] - -[24] _Les Abimes_, page 563. - - -_Glacière Caves or Freezing Caves._--Caves where the temperatures -sink so low that ice is able to form, are found in many different -rock formations and in various positions, shapes and sizes. The rock -formation of freezing caverns is generally limestone, but sometimes it -is marble, lava, basalt, gneiss or granite. In all cases, however, the -rock is either porous or else it is broken and fissured, as otherwise -the water supply necessary to the formation of ice could not find its -way in. - -Glacière caverns may, for the sake of convenience, be classified into -several classes, according to their position or to their form. The -lines of transition between them, however, are so indefinite in nature, -that it is often difficult to specify a cavern as belonging to any -special type. The most important factor in classifying glacière caves -is their position. Under this head there are two main divisions: first, -pit caves; second, cliff caves. - -Pit caves are those where a pit or pits open into the ground, and the -ice is found at the bottom. Sometimes there is no roof, when the place -may be called a gorge: this occurs at Ellenville, where the roof has -fallen. Again, the pit itself is more or less roofed over and the ice -is found mainly or wholly under the roof: this is the case at Haut -d'Aviernoz, at the Friedrichsteinerhöhle, at Saint-Livres, and at -Saint-Georges. Sometimes the pit takes the form of a descending tunnel, -leading into a hall or chamber, in which the ice lies under a rock -roof: this happens at Chaux-les-Passavant. In all these pit caves the -body of the cave is below the entrance, and most of them are fairly -well lighted by daylight throughout. Generally there is only one pit, -but occasionally there are two connected underground, as is the case at -La Genollière. - -Cliff caves are those where the entrance is at the base or in the -side of a cliff. Frequently the cave is in the shape of a hall or -chamber, which begins directly at the entrance, and which may be large -or small. This kind always has a down slope directly from the mouth. -The Kolowratshöhle, Dóbsina and the Grand Cave de Montarquis may be -mentioned as examples. In some cases there is a pit at the base of -a cliff and there is a slope leading down to the cave, somewhat in -the form of a tunnel: this is the case at Manchester and practically -also at Roth. Again there is a more or less long gallery between the -entrance and the glacière, which is always below the level of the -entrance. The Schafloch, Démenyfálva and Decorah may be cited as -examples. As a rule the gallery slopes down from the entrance, but -sometimes the floor rises and then sinks to the glacière. The top of -the entrance, however, is always higher than the highest point of the -floor, as otherwise the cold air could not get in. This is the case at -the Frauenmauerhöhle, and, apparently, also at the Posselthöhle. In one -case, at Amarnath in Kashmere, the floor is said to rise to the roof at -the back; but as the entrance is nearly as big as the floor area, the -ice formations must also be below the level of the top of the entrance. - -The dimensions of glacière caves vary greatly. Some are large, others -are small. Saint Georges, a roofed pit cave, is some twenty-five -meters by twelve meters, with a depth of about twelve meters. -Chaux-les-Passavant, a cave at the end of a pit tunnel, has a diameter -of some twenty-seven meters. The measures of Dóbsina, a cave at the -bottom of a cliff, are given as follows: Height of roof above ice -floor, 10 to 11 meters; length 120 meters; breadth, 35 to 60 meters, -and surface about 4644 meters. The Frauenmauerhöhle is a gallery about -one hundred meters long before the ice floor is reached, and this is -some fifty meters more in length by about seven meters in width. The -glacière cave near Frain, on the contrary, is so small that one can -only crawl in some two or three meters. In fact, glacière caves vary in -size between great halls and little tunnels where one cannot stand up -straight. - -The entrances of glacière caves also vary greatly in their dimensions. -For instance, the Friedrichsteinerhöhle is on one side of a huge pit -and is as large and deep as the pit. Saint Georges, on the contrary, -has, near one end of the roof, a couple of holes, some three meters in -diameter. The entrance to the Schafloch is four meters wide by four -meters seventy centimeters high, while the entrance to Roth is not over -one meter each way. - -A classification of subterranean ice formations, and one which applies -to all the different forms, is into permanent and periodic glacières. -When in any underground spot, ice remains throughout the year, the -place may be called a permanent glacière; when on the contrary the ice -melts away for part of the year, the place may be called a periodic -glacière. This classification, which several observers have used -already, is convenient and valuable. - - -_Movements of Air._--Another classification of glacières can be made -in accordance with the movements of air underground. Glacières may be -divided into those where there are no strong draughts in summer and -those where there are draughts: or into "apparently static caves"; and -"dynamic caves" or "windholes." The first class includes those caves -where there is one or more openings close together and those above the -body of the cave. In such hollows the air in summer is nearly still, -while in winter there are distinct rotary movements of the air as -soon as the temperature outside is lower than that within. Almost all -glacière caves belong to this class of caves without strong draughts -in summer. Sometimes, however, ice is found in hollows where there are -two or more openings, at different altitudes and at different ends of -the hollow, and where there are draughts. Occasionally, also, there are -fissures in the sides or rear of apparently static caves, which allow -something like draughts at times, as is the case at the Grand Cave de -Montarquis. - -Professor Thury of Geneva coined the terms "static cave" and "dynamic -cave" which have come largely into use since, and which practically -correspond to the German terms _eishöhle_ and _windröhre_. I do not -think the term "static cave" accurate, and prefer the term "apparently -static cave" or "cave without distinct draughts." For although there -are many caves where the air seems stagnant at times, and there are no -distinct perceptible draughts, still that the air is really stagnant -all summer appears to me doubtful, and it seems as if the movements of -air were distinctly apparent only in certain caves and not in others. -Air which is apparently stagnant is found in both pit and cliff caves -mainly in the summer months, but even in these I have noticed several -times in summer slight movements of air, especially near the entrance. -I could not exactly feel the air moving, but by lighting a cigar the -smoke could be seen borne outwards exceedingly slowly. At the entrance -of the Kolowratshöhle I think there was a faint outward current when I -was there. The day was hot and windless, and as the cold air met the -hot outside air it formed a faint cloud or mist at the mouth of the -cavern. At Saint-Georges, although the air seemed tranquil, I found -that the smoke of my cigar ascended rapidly just below the hole in the -roof, showing an ascending air current. In the double cave of Chapuis, -I found one cavern filled by a little lake over which there was a -draught.[25] - -[25] See Part IV.: Butler, page 308. - -From the few winter observations we have, there can be no doubt that in -winter the movements of the atmosphere are lively, the break in the air -column occurring as soon as the outside temperature is lower than that -within, when the outer air immediately begins to sink into the cave.[26] - -[26] See Part III.: Chaux-les-Passavant, page 203; Saint-Georges, page -220. - -If I have doubts as to the existence of absolutely static caves, it is -different about dynamic caves. When a subterranean hollow goes through -rocks, with one opening higher than the other, there will surely be -distinct draughts. These dynamic caves exist in many parts of the world -under such names as cold current caves or blowing caves or windholes. -Sometimes they are fissures in broken limestone. Often they are the -cracks between piles of boulders. A cool air generally pours from the -lower opening in summer while the cold air pours into it in winter, the -draught being then reversed. At the upper opening the operation takes -place in the opposite way, the hot air being sucked in in summer, and -given out in winter. Sometimes, however, changes take place, according -to the differences in the outside temperature, in the direction of the -air current in the course of a single day. - -The causes of the movements of air in these windholes are exceedingly -simple. The movements of air depend on the fact that in summer the air -in the tube becomes colder from contact with the rocks and, therefore, -heavier than the air outside, and by gravity the heavy inside air -displaces the lighter outside air and comes rushing out at the lower -opening. This leaves a vacuum, which is filled by the warmer air -dropping into the tube from above. In winter on the contrary, the air -within the tube is warmed by contact with the rocks and becomes lighter -than the air outside. It, therefore, rises and streams out from the -upper opening, and the vacuum is filled by the heavy cold air pushing -in at the lower opening. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11. Vertical Section of a Windhole.] - -G. F. Parrot's[27] explanation is so satisfactory that I give it with -one or two changes. He considers the air movements an ordinary statical -phenomenon of the air, in caves which have two openings at different -altitudes. Let E G D represent the section of such a cave with the -openings A and B. Let us think that there are over C and B two vertical -air columns and from B to C a horizontal air column B C; then the two -air columns over B and C are at all times of the year equal in weight. -Not so the air columns A C and A E G D B, because their temperatures -are different. Assume the temperature in the cave G is +12° the whole -year round. If in summer the air column A C is at a temperature of -+25°, then the heavy air in the cave G pours out through A and is -replaced by air flowing in through B. If in winter the air column A -C is at a temperature of -1°, then the air pours with equal inverse -velocity at A into the cave, and out at B. The velocity of the current -in both cases depends on the difference of temperature within and -without. - -[27] _Grundriss der Physik der Erde und Geologie_, 1815, pages 92-99. - -The foregoing explanation makes it evident that the movements of air -in these windholes do not depend on the presence of ice. In many of -those I have examined myself there was no ice visible, and from the -temperature of the air current, there could not have been any ice -within the mountain. Still, there are numerous cases where ice is found -in windholes among boulders, and a few cases where windholes exist in -connection with apparently static glacière caves. Undoubtedly the great -majority of windholes do not contain ice in summer, or, indeed, at any -time of the year, and, as far as I can see, windholes, according to -their temperatures, belong rather to the class of normal caves than to -that of glacières. - - -_Forms of Ice._--Almost all the forms assumed by underground ice are -different from those assumed by overground ice. This is not surprising, -as the conditions, under which the ice is formed, are so different. -Almost all the lines of underground ice are rounded. The sharp angles -and fractures visible on glacier or iceberg are absent. Instead of -seracs and crevasses, broken ice falls, or piled up ice floes, we have -hanging stalactites and rising stalagmites, smooth ice floors and -curved ice slopes. This difference is of course due to the fact that -most subterranean ice is formed from the drip from the roof or the -sides of caves, and because the factor of motion--which plays so large -a part in the shaping by fracture of overground ice--is practically -wanting. - -The most striking forms of subterranean ice are the ice stalactites -and stalagmites. They descend from the roof as icicles or rise from it -as rough cones or pyramids. The icicles are of all sorts of shapes and -sizes: sometimes they are tiny; sometimes they grow downward till they -reach the floor and form regular columns, in some cases no less than -eleven meters in height. - -The ice stalagmites likewise are of all sorts of shapes and sizes, some -of them growing to a height of seven or eight meters. Occasionally they -have hollow bases, but this is rare. How these hollow cones are formed -is a still uncertain matter; but it is in some way by the action of -the drip. At the Kolowratshöhle I saw the drip from the roof cutting -out in July the basin, whose tall remaining sides suggested that early -in the spring it was probably a hollow cone. The cone at the Schafloch -of which I saw one half remaining, could only be accounted for by -some action from the drip.[28] The warmth of the rock floor may help -perhaps also, in melting away some of the base of the hollow columns. - -[28] See Part IV.: Thury, page 287; Browne, page 290. - -The frozen waterfalls which issue from fissures in the rock walls of -caves are another form of ice seen only below ground. For lack of a -better name, I call them fissure columns. A peculiarity of these is -that, while the rock fissure is more or less rectangular or at least -sharp angled, the ice column issues in a rounded stream. Sometimes -these fissure columns stream over the rock; sometimes they spring out -far enough from the rock to be quite away from it. They vary from about -one to five meters in height, and at the base they almost always spread -out in a shape resembling that of a fan. - -The ice on the bottom of caverns of course takes its shape from the -form and angles of the floor of the caves. If the bottom is level or -nearly so, the ice lies on it as a sheet or floor. If the bottom of the -cave is sloping, the ice follows the angles of the slope, forming an -ice slope or ice wall, and sometimes becoming nearly or quite vertical. -These ice slopes distantly resemble the portions of glaciers called -an ice fall, with the great difference, however, that there are no -crevasses, not even tiny ones. - -Occasionally, slabs of ice are found reposing in a fractured sheet over -a solid ice floor. This means that a lake has formed on this spot in -the spring, frozen over, and then run off, leaving its frozen surface -in broken pieces on top of the under ice. - -Another kind of frozen water is the hoar frost which forms on the -rock roofs and walls. This is not at all rare. It is an open question -whether this is not the same thing as that which has been described as -subterranean snow.[29] I found myself in Dóbsina a small sheet of what -to look and touch was snow. I wrote of this as snow in my first paper -about glacières[30], but I am of the opinion now that it was the hoar -frost detached from the roof and not genuine snow. - -[29] See Part III.: Ziegenloch, page 247; Creux de Souci, page 207. - -[30] _Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean Ice_, November, 1896, -and March, 1897. - -At Dóbsina, also, I noticed that the ice of the ice wall of the -Korridor assumed a stratified or laminated form. Mr. John F. Lewis -of Philadelphia suggested to me that this was probably due to a -precipitation of the hoar frost from the roof, and I think his -explanation is correct. The hoar frost forming at a certain degree of -cold, would doubtless be precipitated at a rise of temperature, and -would then act much as do the different layers of snow in the upper -portion of glaciers.[31] It would consolidate gradually, layer over -layer, and form strata, producing the banded or laminated structure -visible in the vertical ice of the Dóbsina Korridor. - -[31] Whymper: _Scrambles amongst the Alps_, 1871, page 426. - -The ice in caverns is sometimes found with a structure which is, I -believe, of rare occurrence above ground. This is when it takes the -shape known as prismatic ice, which means that if a lump is broken -from a column or icicle, the fracture will show regular prisms. This -phenomenon is not as yet satisfactorily accounted for; the only thing -certain about it is, that it does not occur in ice of recent formation. -From my own observations, I should say that ice became prismatic at the -end of summer; at least I have always found it in August or September -rather than in June or July.[32] - -[32] See Part IV.: Browne, page 289; Lohmann, page 303. - -Besides building up ice heaps, the drip, also, has the function of -destroying its own creations. If there are no crevasses, there are -holes and runnels. These are generally found at or leading to the -lowest point of the ice floor. Occasionally the holes are deep, -sometimes many meters in depth. They are certainly cut out by the -melting water, to which they offer an exit; in fact they are a part of -the drainage system present in all glacière caves, where there must be -some outlet for surplus water at or near the lowest point: and as the -caves are always in porous or broken rock, the drainage takes place -through the cracks and fissures. - -The drip produces also the exact opposite of pyramids in the shape of -ice basins. These are cut in the floor by an extra strong drip from -the roof at those spots. Basins exactly like these are not seen on -glaciers. Not infrequently they are full of water of considerable depth. - -Lakes and pools are found in glacière caves. Sometimes they are on -the ice floor, and in this case they are due either to rain-water -collecting faster than it can flow off, or else because the cave is in -a state of thaw. Sometimes these pools are among the rocks in one part -of a cave, while the ice is in another part. - -I have said above that motion in subterranean ice is practically -wanting. This is proved by the lack of crevasses on the ice slopes -or ice walls, and also by the fact that basins and cones appear year -after year in the same spots, where they remain whether they are -increasing or diminishing. But this statement cannot be held to cover -the entrance snow and ice slopes of some of the open pit caves such as -the Gottscheer cave, or Saint-Livres or Haut d'Aviernoz. Here the snow, -which falls on the entrance slope, must gradually gravitate to the -bottom. The question is whether it only descends in the shape of water -after melting or as snow before solidifying; or whether it ever slides -down at all after becoming somewhat solidified. Probably, however, the -ice of these slopes, judging from the fact that crevasses are entirely -lacking, remains stationary. - - -_Color Effects._--The color effect of every glacière cavern has a -certain individuality, according to the color of the rocks, the -quantity of ice, and the amount of daylight admitted through the -entrance. In my opinion, the white note given by the ice, makes a fine -glacière cave the most beautiful of all subterranean hollows. In this -respect it seems to me that they are similar to high Alps, which are -certainly most impressive with coverings of snow and glacier. - -There are, however, two distinct notes in the color effects of glacière -caves and these may be described as the partly subterranean, or as the -wholly subterranean. In the former case the local tints stand out more -clearly. For instance, at the Kolowratshöhle the ice is beautifully -transparent and of a pale ochre-greenish hue: the limestone rocks -are streaked with iron, and thus have a reddish hue, while, owing -to the entrance admitting plenty of daylight, the effect is only -semi-subterranean. Again, at Chaux-les-Passavant plenty of daylight is -admitted: the rocks are a yellowish brown, and the ice is white and -blue. At the Schafloch or the Frauenmauer, on the contrary, the effect -is wholly subterranean: daylight is so completely absent that black -is the predominating note, the ice itself looking gray. Dóbsina is an -exception, as, thanks to the electric light, white is the conspicuous -tone, even though rocks and shadows dull many places and corners into a -sombre gray. - -More than once, on returning to daylight from the intense blackness -of a cave, I have seen the rocks near the entrance appear a dark -blue color, exactly simulating moonlight. This effect is common to -both glacière caves and ordinary caverns. It is a striking but rare -phenomenon, and depends apparently on the shape of the cave. This -moonlight effect only seems to occur when a cave makes an elbow -directly after the mouth and then goes straight for some distance. When -the daylight is actually in sight, the moonlight impression vanishes. - - -_Carbonic Acid Gas._--Carbonic acid gas, judging from the most -recent explorations, is more of a rarity in rock caves with normal -temperatures than is generally supposed. There appears to be only one -case on record where this gas was observed in a cold cave. This was -in the Creux-de-Souci,[33] which is rather a cold than a freezing -cavern, but which on one occasion was found to contain snow, and -whose temperature is always extremely low. From the present state of -knowledge, therefore, it may be assumed that if carbonic acid gas does -form in glacière caves, it does so only seldom. - -[33] See Part III.: page 207. - - -_Fauna._--No attention whatever has been paid, practically as yet, as -to whether any distinctive animal life exists in glacières. So far, I -have seen none myself. The Rev. G. F. Browne, in four instances, found -a large red-brown fly nearly an inch long, which is supposed to be -_Stenophylax Hieroglyphicus_ of Stephens; and at Chapuis, he obtained -an ichneumon of the genus _Paniscus_. At Font d'Urle, Monsieur Villard -captured a blind specimen of a coleoptera, _Cytodromus dapsoïdes_. -A variety of rotifer, _Notholca longispina_, is now living in the -Creux-de-Souci. In Skerisora, remains of bats have been found, not very -different from those now living in the neighborhood.[34] It is, in any -case, certainly remarkable that the same kind of fly should have been -discovered in several glacières in different localities; and it may -some day be shown that there is a special insect fauna. Certainly the -subject is worth investigating.[35] - -[34] See Part I.: Ausable Pond, page 81, and Part III.: Creux-de-Souci, -page 207; Font d'Urle, page 213; Chapuis, page 216; La Genollière, page -219; Skerisora, page 245. - -[35] In June, 1899, I mentioned these facts to Monsieur Armand Viré, -director of the Biologic Laboratory in the catacombs of the Jardin -des Plantes in Paris. He was much interested, and promised to make a -careful investigation of the matter. - - -_Flora._--The flora of glacières has been as little observed as the -fauna. There are scarcely any references to such a thing as glacière -plant life in literature. Whether there is a special flora in any -glacière cave is still an open question. In the cases of several -boulder taluses, there is no doubt that, even if there is not a special -flora, at least that the plants near the ice beds are greatly retarded -every year in their development. Probably the flora among the boulders -blooms a month or six weeks later than the flora in the immediate -vicinity. In the cases of the Cave of Paradana and of the Kuntschner -Eishöhle it is reported that the plant life becomes more and more -arctic in character towards the bottom of the pit.[36] - -[36] See Part I.: Ausable Pond, page 80; Giant of the Valley, page 83, -note 7; Ice Gulch, page 85; Spruce Creek, page 91. See Part III: Spruce -Creek, page 188; Paradana, page 237; Kuntschner Eishöhle, page 241. - - -_Paleontology._--No paleontological remains have as yet been reported -from glacière caves. No bones of animals have been found, except those -of bats in Skerisora[37] and a few of the common genus _bos_.[38] -No relics of the handiwork of man have been discovered; nor, indeed, -with the exception of the skeletons found in the cave of Yeermallik in -Kondooz,[39] anything which reveals the presence of man in glacières or -that they were ever used for habitation. The reason that there are so -few remains in glacière caves is undoubtedly because their temperatures -are too low for their occupation by animal or man; but, from the -evidence afforded by their non-occupation, may be drawn the valuable -inference that the glacière caves of to-day were glacière caves long -ago. - -[37] See Part III.: Skerisora, page 245. - -[38] See Part I.: Saint-Livres, page 68. - -[39] See Part III.: Yeermallik, page 261. - - -_Legends and Religion._--There are scarcely any legends connected -with glacières. I know only of one about one of the caves of the Mont -Parmelan.[40] Nor does there seem to be any reference to glacière caves -in works of fiction. Dante makes his last hell full of an ice lake, but -an attentive perusal fails to reveal a single line which in any way -describes or suggests a glacière. In at least two cases,[41] however, -the ice in caves is connected with religion, as in Kashmere, the -Hindoos, and in Arizona, the Zuni Indians, either worship or pray at -glacière caves, overawed, from some mystical feeling, by the permanence -of the ice formations which they connect with their deities. - -[40] See Part III.: Glacière de l'Enfer, page 216. - -[41] See Part III.: Amarnath, page 262; Cave, White Mountains, Arizona, -page 176. - - - - -II. - - -The cause of the formation of subterranean ice is undoubtedly one -of the most intricate problems in connection with caverns. Various -theories have been advanced why ice is found in certain caves and not -in others. Some writers have held that it is a remnant of a glacial -period; others that it is owing to the presence of salts in the rocks; -some have said that it is due to the rocks retarding waves of heat -and cold; and still others think that it is formed by pressure on -the percolating waters. Many of these theories were formulated in -explanation of the belief of peasants living near the caves, who almost -always say that the ice is formed in summer and melts in winter. Most -scientific observers on the other hand claim that the ice is due to the -cold of winter, and a few think that it is formed or helped by draughts -and by evaporation and expansion of the air. The variety of opinions -put forth, show at any rate the intricacy of the problem. - -All my own observations have tended more and more to make me believe -that the cold of winter is the cause of the ice. Before elaborating my -own views, however, I wish to take up seriatim the theories which have -been formulated, principally in explanation of the belief that the ice -was a summer product, and to give my reasons for my disbelief in them. - - -_Glacial Period._--The first theory, perhaps, to touch on, is the one -that the ice is a remnant of a glacial period. This seems to occur -to many persons as a solution of the question when they first hear -of glacières, and it has been several times propounded to me, and -naturally enough, always by scientific men.[42] Still I do not think it -has ever been held by anyone who had made a study of glacières. - -[42] See Part IV.: Hitchcock, page 284; Bonney, page 291; Dawkins, page -292. - -The theory is, indeed, untenable in regard to freezing caves, as it -does not accord with the observed facts of the yearly disappearance of -the ice in many caves and taluses. At Szilize every year the ice has -disappeared pretty completely by November, and the cave is free; but -in April or May the floor is again covered with ice, and columns and -icicles have formed on the roof and sides. At La Genollière the cave -is used by the people of the neighboring châlets, through the spring -and early summer, to help in the operation of butter making; by the -middle or the end of August it has entirely disappeared, but is found -formed afresh the following spring. At the Rumney Talus, at the Cave of -Decorah, at the Gorge of Ellenville, and at the Williamstown Snow Hole, -I found no snow or ice.[43] Yet it is abundant in all these localities -in the spring. Too many examples of the complete melting away of the -ice every year can be cited, to permit any doubt: glacière caves are -not connected with a glacial period. - -[43] See Part I.: Rumney, page 85; Decorah, page 88; Ellenville, page -91; Williamstown, page 98. - -Though it may be stated positively that the ice in caves is not a -remnant of a glacial period, yet this cannot be done so authoritatively -about subsoil ice sheets and freezing wells. At Brandon, Owego and -Decorah the gravel was found frozen at the time the wells were dug, and -it is of course impossible to determine for how long a time this was -the case previous to the digging. The proofs, however, are so strong -that the ice re-forms every winter at such freezing wells, that they -may be considered as in every respect following the same general laws -as glacière caves. That the ice in these wells is not the remains of a -glacial period, seems proved moreover by the work of the Boston Natural -History Society, which sank two wells at Brandon near to the Freezing -well. One of these was only twenty-one meters distant and went through -the same gravel drift. Yet it did not strike ice.[44] A somewhat -similar state of things appears to be the case with the Centennial Lode -and other lodes on Mount McClellan,[45] where the causes also seem to -be local, as there is no ice in mines on neighboring mountains. - -[44] See Part IV.: Hager, page 282; Hitchcock, page 284. - -[45] See Part III.: Rifts of Ice, etc., page 174. - - -_The Summer's Heat Theory._--The natives and peasants in the -neighborhood of glacière caves generally believe that the ice of -caves is formed in summer and melts in winter. I have met with this -belief everywhere in Europe; in the Eifel, Jura, Swiss Alps, Tyrolese -Alps, and Carpathians: and also occasionally in the United States. -Peasants and guides tell you with absolute confidence: "The hotter the -summer the more ice there is." The strange thing is that any number -of writers[46]--sometimes scientific men--have accepted the ideas and -statements of the peasants about the formation of ice in summer, and -have tried to account for it. - -[46] Among them may be mentioned: Boisot, 1686; Valvasor, 1689; -Behrens, 1703; Billerez, 1712; Bel, 1739; Rosenmüller and Tillesius, -1799; Sartori, 1809; Pictet, 1822; Scrope, 1826; Murchison, 1845. - -The belief of the peasants is founded on the fact that they scarcely -ever go to any cave except when some tourist takes them with him, and, -therefore, they rarely see one in winter, and their faith is not based -on observation. It is, however, founded on an appearance of truth: -and that is on the fact that the temperatures of glacière caves, like -that of other caves or that of cellars, are colder in summer than the -outside air, and warmer in winter than the outside air. Possessing -neither reasoning powers nor thermometers, the peasants simply go a -step further and say that glacière caves are cold in summer and hot in -winter. - -Professor Thury tells a story to the point. He visited the Grand Cave -de Montarquis in mid-winter. All the peasants told him there would be -no use going, as there would be no ice in the cave. He tried to find -even one peasant who had been to the cave in winter, but could not. He -then visited it himself and found it full of hard ice. On his return -he told the peasants of his discovery. They were staggered at first, -finally one exclaimed: "It makes no difference; in genuine glacières -there is no ice in winter." - -It will be difficult, probably, to eradicate this belief and the -consequent theories among the uneducated people in the vicinity of -glacière caves, for their imperfect observations will keep it alive. In -refutation, it may be said that the winter's cold theory is the direct -opposite of the summer's heat theory, and that all the observations and -all the facts which prove the one, disprove the other. - -Within two or three years, however, the formation of small quantities -of ice has been observed during the summer months in one or two caves. -This has taken place in mountain caves situated at a high altitude at -times when the air outside has dropped below freezing point during the -night. There is, therefore, nothing inconsistent in this fact with the -winter's cold theory: indeed it is only a widening of it in the meaning -of the word winter.[47] - -[47] See Part III.: Beilsteinhöhle, page 235. Part IV.: Professor -Cranmer, page 310. - - -_Chemical Causes._--Non-scientific persons, on first hearing of -glacière caves, almost always suggest that to form the ice there must -be salts in the rocks. Probably they connect unconsciously in their -minds "ice caves" and "ice cream." - -Chemical causes, however, have never appealed to scientific men.[48] -There are only two places I know of where salt is reported. One is the -Ice Spring in Oregon, which is said to be slightly saline in taste; the -other is the Cave of Illetzkaya-Zatschita, where the gypsum hillock, -in which the ice is found, overlies a bed of rock salt. Repeated -experiments in letting lumps of glacière ice melt in my mouth have -convinced me personally that in all cases the water is exceedingly -pure and sweet, a fact mentioned in the very first notice extant about -glacières, the letter of Benigne Poissenot in 1586, who speaks of the -deliciousness of the water in Chaux-les-Passavant. To sum this matter -up briefly, it can be safely asserted that all causes, which would fall -under the head of "Chemical causes," must be entirely eliminated as -possible cold producers. - -[48] See Part IV.: Billerez, page 270; Hacquet, page 271. - - -_Waves of Heat and Cold._--While Sir Roderick Murchison was studying -the geology of Russia,[49] he visited Illetzkaya-Zatschita and was -puzzled to account for the ice formations. He thought, at first, that -they were due to the presence of salt, but recognizing that this was -not correct he submitted the case to Sir John Herschel, who, rejecting -the evaporation or condensation of vapor as the cause, argued that -the ice was due to waves of heat and cold, and that at certain depths -in the interior, the cold wave arrived in mid-summer and the heat in -mid-winter. Murchison declined to assent to this doctrine, asking why -one cave should present this exceptional occurrence, when the numerous -other rents and openings in the same hillock were free from ice. The -impossibility of the heat and cold wave theory was so completely shown -by Murchison's objection, that it has never again been brought forward. - -[49] _The Geology of Russia and the Ural Mountains_, vol. I., pages -184-198. - - -_Capillary or Compressed Air Theory._--The possibility of compressed -air causing subterranean ice to form seems to have been first -authoritatively formulated by Mr. N. M. Lowe, of Boston.[50] His theory -in brief is this:--Bubbles of air drawn into water flowing down through -fissures in rocks are liable to a continually increasing pressure. When -the air has reached the bottom and is liberated in the cave, it will be -from a pressure equal to the height of the column of water, and it will -have lost by connection in the mass through which the conduit passes, -the heat due to its compression; and on being liberated, it will -immediately absorb from the air and the water in the cave, the heat -which it has lost in its downward passage. - -[50] _Science Observer._ Boston, 1879, vol. II., page 57. See Part IV.: -Silliman, page 279; Olmstead, page 282. - -Several scientific observers have rallied to this idea.[51] One of -the Hungarian residents at Dóbsina, a doctor, whose opportunities -for observations are unrivalled, told me--if I understood him -correctly--that he believed in the capillary theory. - -[51] See B. Schwalbe, _Ueber Eishöhlen und Eislöcher_, page 56. - -There are many facts, however, which militate against the compressed -air theory as applied to caves. Almost all caves receive some drip -through fissures, and yet there are many thousands of caves which never -contain ice, and whose temperature scarcely varies the year round. -Especially against the theory is the fact that glacière caves are -never known in hot countries. If the theory were correct we should, -for instance, sometimes find ice in such caves as those of Yucatan -described by Mr. Mercer.[52] - -[52] _The Hill Caves of Yucatan._ - -There are also some mechanical difficulties in the way. Mr. John -Ritchie[53] touches them when he says: "If the passage through which -the water flows down is at all tubular the column will be subjected to -the usual hydrostatic pressure." The word _tubular_ is the hard one to -answer. Limestone rock fissures are certainly not tubular. They have -all sorts of shapes and angles and corners, every one of which would -interfere with anything like a regular pressure. - -[53] _Boston Transcript_, January 2d, 1897. - -This latter objection would not apply to borings in mines. I have been -assured that in some borings in Western mines ice has been formed by -pressure, and there may be truth in this, although I doubt it, as -I have yet to hear of ice in any mines in warm latitudes. Mr. John -Ritchie[54] has suggested, also, that if compressed air does not -perhaps act strongly enough to form ice, yet it may help in keeping -the temperature low and aid in the formation of draughts in caves and -boulder heaps. At present, however, I can see no reason to think that -the ice in caves is due to compressed air.[55] - -[54] _The Happy Thought._ Boston, January 23d, 1897. - -[55] See Part I.: page 89. - - - - -III. - - -I have already said that I believe that the cold of winter is the -cause of the ice in caves. To make this clearer, I may say that I look -on glacières as the last outcrop, the outside edge, so to speak, of -the area of low temperatures, which has its culminating point in the -Northern Hemisphere in the Arctic Ocean, Greenland and Siberia, and in -the Southern Hemisphere in the Antarctic; and which is manifested to -us in the snows of mountain peaks, and immediately round us in frozen -ponds and rivers and snowy blizzards; and which, as it disappears each -summer, leaves its last traces in our latitudes in sequestered gorges -and convenient caverns. In every case, it seems to me, glacières are -simply refrigerators, which preserve the ice and snow accumulated in -them during the winter. They all follow the same general laws as to -the origin of their contents, modified only in slight degree according -to the varying natural local conditions, such as the water supply, or -the protection from sun and wind, or the thickness of the overhead -rock, or the altitude or latitude. I cannot see that there is anything -remarkable about the fact that the cold of winter is able to penetrate -and make itself felt sometimes for a slight depth in the earth's -crust; a depth, so far as yet known, never exceeding one hundred and -fifty meters. It seems to me that glacières only emphasize a law of -nature, which has doubtless been formulated many times in connection -with springs and phreatic waters, and that is, that where we find cold -waters underground, we may be sure that they have penetrated from the -outside. - -If we look first at the mode of formation of overground perennial ice, -that is, of the ice of glaciers and of rock gorges; and then at the -evidences of the mode of formation of underground perennial ice, in -boulder heaps, wells and caves; we will soon see that the transitions -between them are gentle in character and that there is nothing -unnatural about the formation of the ice in glacières. - - -_Glaciers._--Everyone now knows the main characteristics of glaciers. -They are formed in parts of the earth where the land or the mountains -reach to the region of perpetual snow. The snows fall from the sky, and -accumulate into a snow cap, which by its own weight and by melting and -regelation, gradually changes to ice. This, by the laws of gravitation, -descends to lower levels, and in mountain valleys extends sometimes -far below the snow line into the region of cultivated fields. These -valley prolongations of the perpetual snow caps are the glaciers. The -important point to notice here, is that the formation of glaciers is -originally entirely due to the precipitation of moisture by cold in the -upper portions; while the destruction of glaciers is due to the action -of heat melting the ice in the lower portions, where they disappear in -the shape of streams of running water. It is, therefore, not surprising -that the greatest glaciers are found in the Arctic and Antarctic -regions and in the highest mountain ranges; and that in the tropics -glaciers are either wanting or exceedingly small. - - -_Gorges and Troughs._--Gorges and gullies, where ice remains over, -are a transitional form between glaciers and glacières. In many -mountain ravines or canyons, the enduring snow consists principally -of the avalanches which have fallen from the heights above during the -winter and solidified in the bottom of the ravines. Freezing gorges -proper, however, are not dependent on avalanches for their supply, -but they receive the accretions to their ice directly from the winter -snows. These fall into the gorge itself and by melting and regelation -gradually solidify into a mass of ice which, when well sheltered -against sun and wind, remains over sometimes till the following winter. -By their mode of formation, therefore, it is evident that the ice in -these gorges has some of the characteristics of glaciers; that it is -due to the same prime causes as the ice of glaciers or the ice on ponds -and rivers, namely the cold of winter; and in fact, it is not far -wrong to consider these gorges as miniature glaciers. - -Freezing gorges, however, show, also, certain degrees of kinship to -freezing caverns and taluses, principally in the protection afforded -to the ice against external destructive influences. The ice is almost -always found in positions where it receives little, if any, of the -direct rays of the sun and, also, where it is scarcely, if at all, -exposed to any winds. The sides of the fissures and surrounding trees -generally afford the necessary protection. Some of the forms which the -ice assumes in gorges, such as long pendent icicles, are also more -characteristic of underground than of overground ice. - -The freezing troughs or basins found in Siberia are evidently closely -related to gorges, and the fact that the ice is found in less sheltered -places may be explained by the high northerly latitudes of these -troughs, in general between fifty-seven and sixty degrees. - - -_The Winter's Cold Theory._--The places where ice is found underground -differ in one important respect from gullies and troughs, and that -is, in the fact that above the ice there is rock or soil, which, in -true caves, takes the form of a roof. This causes some important -distinctions between overground and underground perennial ice. It means -that the ice is formed directly in the caves, and that it is genuine -subterranean ice, and not, except perhaps near the entrance, solidified -snow. The roof, while not admitting the winter snows, is, however, a -protection against warm summer rains, and, of course, entirely cuts -off radiation from the sky. If, therefore, it keeps out some cold, it -also acts as a protector against heat. - -That the cold of winter is the source of the cold which produces the -ice which forms underground, and that it is through its influence, -with the assistance of certain secondary causes, that some caves are -converted into what are practically natural ice houses, seems to me -the true explanation of the phenomenon of subterranean ice, not only -since it is the simple and obvious explanation, but also because all -the facts, so far as I have myself observed, are in accord with this -theory.[56] - -[56] Among those who have written or said that the cold of winter plays -a more or less important part in the formation of subterranean ice -may be mentioned: Poissenot, 1586; Gollut, 1592; DeBoz, 1726; Nagel, -1747; Cossigny, 1750; Jars, 1774; Hacquet, 1778; Girod-Chantrans, 1783; -Hablizl, 1788; Prévost, 1789; Townson, 1797; Humboldt, 1814; Dearborn, -1822; Deluc, 1822; Dewey, 1822; Lee, 1824; Reich, 1834; Hayden, 1843; -Guyot, 1856; Rogers, 1856; Petruzzi, 1857; Smyth, 1858; Hager, 1861; -Thury, 1861; Browne, 1865; Raymond, 1869; Krenner, 1874; Ritchie, -1879; Benedict, 1881; Schwalbe, 1881; Fugger, 1883; Trouillet, 1885; -Girardot, 1886; Russell, 1890; Martel, 1892; Krauss, 1894; Lohmann, -1895; Balch, 1896; Cvijic, 1896; Butler, 1898; Kovarik, 1898; Cranmer, -1899. - -To form subterranean ice, just as to form any other ice, two things are -necessary: the first is cold, the second is water. Cold is supplied by -the cold air of winter, and water must in some manner find its way into -the cave while the cold air is there. - -The process is as follows: The cold air of winter sinks into and -permeates the cave, and in course of time freezes up all the water -which, in the shape of melting snow or cold winter rain or spring -water, finds its way in; and once ice is formed it remains long after -ice in the surrounding open country has melted away, because heat -penetrates with difficulty into the cave. The only effect of the heat -of summer is to melt the ice. - -The proofs, to my mind, of the truth of this view are: 1--Glacières -are always found in parts of the world where, during part of the -year at least, the temperatures of the surrounding country fall -below freezing point. 2--All observations by reliable observers -show that the temperatures of glacière caves vary, but in a much -narrower thermometric scale, with those of the outside air: that the -temperatures are lowest, and as a rule below freezing point, during the -winter months; and that the temperatures are highest, and as a rule -above freezing point, during the summer months. 3--Ice is never found -far from the mouth of caves, but always near enough for the cold air -to get in. 4--Evaporation, according to my observations, is, as in all -other forms of ice in nature, connected mainly with the melting, not -the freezing of the ice. - - -_Geographical Distribution and Altitudes._--Glacière caves proper -are found in various parts of Europe, Asia, and America, mostly in -the smaller mountain ranges or in the outliers of the snowy mountain -chains; generally in limestone and occasionally in basaltic formations. -There are a good many in the Jura; a few in the Swiss and the Italian -Alps; a number in the Eastern Alps of Tyrol and Carinthia. There are -some in Hungary, several in Russia, one in Iceland, one on the Peak -of Teneriffe, a number in Siberia, one in Kondooz in Central Asia, -one in the Himálaya, one in Japan, and one in Korea. I have heard so -far of over fifty glacières in North America, several of which are in -Pennsylvania. From all over the world there are some three hundred -places reported where subterranean ice is said to occur. This includes -gorges, boulder heaps and freezing mines and wells, all of which exist -in much the same localities as glacière caves. - -All the glacières which I know of, are situated in a latitude or at -an altitude where ice and snow forms for part of the year in the -surrounding open country. None are reported from India or Africa, or -in fact from any low-lying places in tropical latitudes. Most of them -are found in middle latitudes, and only where during part of the year, -at least, there is a cold season, that is, where for some time the -thermometer stands below freezing point. - -Glacières are, in general, at fairly high altitudes. The Schafloch -is at 1780 meters; Skerisora in Transylvania at 1127 meters; Dóbsina -at 1100 meters; the Glacière de Saint-Georges at 1208 meters. It is -true that there is one freezing cavern in the sub-tropical latitude -of Teneriffe, La Cueva de la Nieve; but it is at an altitude of 3300 -meters, and where snow falls every year in the open on the Peak. -Unless some freezing cave is hereafter discovered in a region where -there is no ice in the open in winter, I do not see how the imperative -necessity of the cold air of winter for forming the supply of ice can -be controverted. - - -_Thermometric Observations._--That the cold air of winter is the -important factor in the production of cold is proved, also, by the -thermometric observations recorded in various caves by different -observers. They all tell the same tale: that the temperatures vary with -those of the outside air, that they are lowest in winter and highest -in summer. I quote in the "List of Glacières"[57] a few of those -published; but there are many more, and they all show the same general -characteristics. - -[57] See Part III.: Decorah, page 178; Chaux-les-Passavant, pages -203-5; La Poujade, page 208; Montarquis, page 218; Saint-Georges, page -219; Schafloch, page 223; Kolowratshöhle, page 227; Schellenberger -Eisgrotte, page 228; Frain, page 252; Dóbsina, page 253; etc. - -A comparison of all the figures recorded proves that, as a rule--inside -of glacière caves--from about the first of November to the first -of July, there are winter temperatures, that is temperatures below -freezing point; and from about the first of July to the first of -November, there are summer temperatures, that is temperatures above -freezing point. - -The observations prove also that the inner temperatures vary less than -the outer, that is that they range within narrower limits. They also -show that the inner air is but slowly affected by the outer air when -the latter is above freezing point, the inner temperature rising -then only gradually. Per contra, when the outside temperature drops -quickly much below freezing point, the inside temperature generally -drops correspondingly at once, proving that the cold air has sunk by -its weight into the cave. The observations also prove that the old idea -that the temperature of caves is the same throughout, can no longer -be considered correct. The observations also appear to show, that the -temperature of a cave does not necessarily represent the mean annual -temperature of a surrounding district. Observation is still entirely -lacking on the mean annual temperature of glacières, so that one cannot -speak definitely about the matter; but it seems likely that the mean -annual temperature of a glacière cave is lower than the isotherm of its -locality; and it seems more than probable that on the same isotherm -different glacière caves may have different mean annual temperatures, -varying with the elements of size, quantity of ice, position of body of -cave and of entrance, water supply and other factors. - - -_Ice near the Entrance of Caves and the Surface of the Soil._--An -important proof that it is the cold air of winter which forms the ice -is the fact that the latter is always found near the entrance of caves -or near the surface of the soil. It never extends far within. To the -best of my knowledge, ice has never been found two hundred meters from -the entrance nor at any depth beyond one hundred and fifty meters. In -all caves of great extent, the temperature far in is about the same as -that of the surrounding rock, and in all deep borings the temperature -increases with the depth and at great depths the temperature becomes -high. This nearness of subterranean ice to the outside air is one of -the best proofs, that, paradoxical as the whole phenomenon appears at -first, yet in reality it is an extremely simple matter. - -The position of the entrance of a cave in relation to the body of the -cave is an important factor in permitting the cold air to permeate -and remain in the cave. In all the caves or gullies I have examined -myself, the main mass of ice is well below the level of the entrance, -and even if the latter is sheltered against the wind, it is not -sheltered against the cold air of winter. This is heavy, and by its own -weight sinks well down to the bottom, freezing up in course of time -all the moisture that may drip from the roof, or that may come into -the cave in the shape of melted snow or cold winter rain. The summer -air, which is warm and, therefore, light, can only enter the cave with -great difficulty; and, as a rule, before it dislodges the winter air -and destroys the ice, another winter's freeze reverses once more the -conditions. These principles seem to hold of every known glacière. -It is true, that at the Frauenmauer, the floor of the cavern rises -somewhat from the entrance; but the highest point of the floor is still -below the level of the top of the entrance, so that the cold air can -flow over the highest point without difficulty. The same appears to be -the case at the Posselthöhle; while at Amarnath in Kashmere, where the -floor is said to rise to the back wall, the entrance is about as large -as the area of the floor, so that the ice must also be below the level -of the top of the entrance. - -The position or situation of the entrance is important. In almost all -cases it has a northerly exposure, and is sheltered against entering -winds. If these two conditions do not exist the ice supply surely -suffers. Sometimes the entrance is more or less tortuous. In some cases -it is protected by a fringe of trees. Still, there is no absolute rule -about entrances. The Friedrichsteinerhöhle faces about due south, and -at midday in summer, the sun shines all the way down to the ice floor, -causing mists to form. In the Kolowratshöhle, the entrance is badly -sheltered against the wind and this undoubtedly affects the supply in -summer and causes more rapid melting there than in some other cases.[58] - -[58] See Part III.: Decorah, page 178. - -Freezing boulder taluses invariably have the ice near the surface, -and probably it is never a dozen meters distant from the open air. -These taluses are one of the strongest links in the chain of evidence -proving the winter's cold theory. The snow and ice on the surface of -the taluses and on the surface of the boulders in gullies melts away, -while it still lingers underneath the boulders. It seems self-evident -that the melting snow water has run to the lowest level and there -congealed, and then remained because it was better sheltered than the -ice outside. - -The subsoil ice of the tundras of Siberia and Alaska is almost -identical with the ice of boulder formations, except that it extends -under larger areas. It is the product of a climate where there is a -long, rigorous winter and it is not surprising that the ice is found at -greater depths than in more southerly latitudes.[59] The depth to which -the ice extends is, of course, determined by the depth to which the -winter's cold can penetrate the soil. There is no doubt that the causes -of this ice are local, that is, that it is due to the long prevailing -low temperatures. - -[59] See Part III.: Alaska, page 166; Klondike, page 167; Kowak River, -page 166; Kotzebue Sound, page 166. - -The freezing wells of which the most conspicuous examples are at -Brandon, Owego, Decorah, and in Montana, seem also due to local causes -and the ice is never far from the surface, that is, not over twenty -meters; and apparently also it forms above the water horizons which -supply the wells. - -The ice sheet on Mount Etna[60] does not seem to be at any great depth. -It apparently had a different origin from most subterranean ice masses, -in that the snow probably fell first and was then covered by a flow of -lava. It is, therefore, almost _sui generis_ in its mode of formation, -unless there are similar sheets on other volcanoes, which is probable -in a country like Iceland, and which is said to be the case in Tierra -del Fuego,[61] But the original cause of the ice sheet on Etna was the -same as all other subterranean ice masses, namely the cold of winter. - -[60] See Part III., page 210. - -[61] See Part III., page 190. - - -_Evaporation and Movements of Air._--The formation of subterranean ice -is sometimes assigned partly to evaporation or to expansion of the air. -The theory is an old one, and both scientific and non-scientific men -have advanced it.[62] - -[62] Among those who have written that evaporation is a factor in the -formation of subterranean ice, may be mentioned: Pictet, 1822; Scrope, -1827; Reich, 1834; Pleischl, 1841; Murchison, 1845; Olmstead, 1856; -Hitchcock, 1861; White, 1870; Kirchhoff, 1876; Krauss, 1895. - -I have already said that I believe it is the movements of the air -which cause a cave to be a glacière cave or a normal cave. When they -act in such a way as to permit the cold air of winter to permeate a -cave, we find low temperatures and ice; when they do not, we find the -temperature about the same as that of the ground and no ice. - -That the ice is not formed in apparently static caves, by movements -of air producing evaporation, seems to me proved by what I have -noticed in regard to the atmosphere. The dryness or moistness of the -air within a glacière cave is coincident with the state of freezing -or thawing of the cave. When I have visited a large cave in June, -everything was frozen tight, there were no drips nor mushy ice, the -air was relatively dry and the sensation of cold not unpleasant. When -I have visited a cave in August, the ice was soft and mushy, water -was dripping from the roof, the atmosphere was moist, and the cold -penetrating. It seems to me that the facts go to show that it is not -evaporation which forms the ice, but the melting of the ice which -fills the cave with moisture. If there are any draughts or movements -of the atmosphere when above freezing point, then their tendency is to -vaporize the ice. - -The process of the formation of ice in relation to the atmosphere is as -follows: the cold air permeates the cave and freezes up all the drip: -the atmosphere becomes dry: gradually warmer air gets in and the ice -begins to melt: then the atmosphere gets charged slowly with the vapor -of the melting ice. This process is the exact opposite of the formation -of ice by evaporation; it is the atmosphere which is made humid by the -vaporizing of the ice, and by the drip. When the air is thoroughly -saturated with the vapor, being scarcely renewed from outside and but a -few degrees above freezing point, it undoubtedly retards evaporation, -acts like a blanket and lessens the rate of melting of the ice.[63] - -[63] See Part IV.: Thury, page 285; Fugger, page 296; Trouillet, page -298. - -Everything I have personally observed in freezing windholes shows -that in them also the cold of winter and not evaporation is the -cause of the ice. They answer to the same tests as other glacières, -of geographical distribution and altitude, nearness of ice to the -outside, thermometric observations, and dampness of the air when the -ice melts. Equally with other glacières, the movements of air in -windholes do not depend on the presence of ice, but the ice does depend -on the movements of air and a water supply at the proper time. A proof -that it is the cold of winter which makes the ice in windholes, is that -the ice is always found at the lower extremity, for the reason that it -is at that end that the cold air enters and to that end that the water -gravitates. The reason that ice is more rarely found in windholes than -in apparently static caves, is due to the movements of air. Unlike the -caves where the heavy cold air preserves the ice by remaining pent -up, as soon as the outside temperature rises the heavy cold air in -windholes tumbles out at the lower opening and is replaced gradually by -air at a higher temperature. This also flows out and when it is above -freezing point, it naturally melts the ice and becomes humid: in fact, -it vaporizes the ice as it passes, and dissipates the moisture into the -outer air. - -It is, however, certain, that in caves with a temperature some degrees -above freezing point, when there is either running water or strong -drips, evaporation may be, and sometimes undoubtedly is, a factor in -lowering the temperature somewhat.[64] As in some windholes there -is occasionally moisture on the rock surfaces where the air current -passes, the evaporation from these surfaces doubtless lowers the -temperature of the draughts, and it may be, also those of the rock -surfaces, a little. - -[64] See Part IV.: De Saussure, page 274. See also _Les Abimes_, 1894, -page 564. - -Further observations, however, will be necessary in regard to -evaporation underground, as the data are still insufficient to make -absolutely positive statements.[65] I fail to see any evidence to show -that evaporation ever lowers the temperature of draughts underground -below freezing point, only that it may help to lower them to something -less than they would otherwise be. Taking all the facts which I have -myself observed, and all I have read of in the reports of others, my -own conclusion is that we have no proof that evaporation underground is -ever strong enough to produce ice. - -[65] Several observers consider evaporation as more or less of a factor -in the production of cold underground. It is suggested also, that in -certain cases, at high altitudes, evaporation tends to prevent the -melting of the ice in windholes, but this is not proved, as yet. See -Part IV.: De Saussure, page 274; Fugger, page 296; Trouillet, page 298; -Martel, page 300; Lohmann, page 302. - - -_Time of Formation of Ice._--Everything I have seen points to the fact -that ice begins to form in a cave as soon as the temperature of the -cave has sunk below freezing point, whenever, from any cause, water -gets into the cave. The cold may begin to penetrate caves as soon -as outside frosts have occurred, that is in the fall months, about -November; and as soon as the temperature inside sinks below freezing -point, ice will begin to form, provided also that water gets into the -cave, from rains or springs or any other source. - -In the mid-winter months, although there is then plenty of cold, the -water supply is generally lacking, as the outside moisture is mostly -frozen up and the result is that the winter months are not those -when the ice is mainly formed. Some is undoubtedly formed in certain -caves whenever during the course of the winter a surface thaw outside -furnishes water to the cave,[66] but in other cases this is not so and -the ice does not appear before the spring. In all cases it is in the -spring, before the cave has parted with its store of cold, and when -both the air and the rock walls are chilled below freezing point[67] -that the ice forms fastest. Then plenty of water is furnished by the -melting of the snows and the unlocking of the brooks, and also by early -spring rains. All this surface water runs through the fissures into -the still freezing cave and there becomes ice. Not only the air, but -also the rock walls are chilled below freezing point, and as the rocks -part slowly with the cold stored in them, this cold helps to freeze the -water pouring in. - -[66] See Part III.: Chaux-les-Passavant, page 203; Saint-Georges, page -220. - -[67] See Part IV.: Townson, page 275; Thury, page 285; Trouillet, page -297; Schwalbe, page 298; Terlanday, page 301; Kovarik, page 307. - -The natural law in relation to time seems to be this: Ice may be formed -in caves as soon as the outside temperature sinks below freezing point. -In some caves it forms intermittently all through the cold months -because there is a water supply. In other caves it only forms in the -spring, because there is no water supply in the winter months. In all -cases, however, the end of winter is the time when most of the ice is -formed. - - - - -PART III. - -LIST OF GLACIÈRES. - - - - -LIST OF GLACIÈRES.[68] - -[68] This list is necessarily incomplete, and only approximately -accurate in many cases. - - -NORTH AMERICA. - -Buried or Fossil Glaciers, North Greenland. (W. E. Meehan, -_Philadelphia Ledger_, 1896.)--On Robertson's Bay is the plateau of -the Verhoef Glacier, which is about 1500 meters long and 400 meters -wide, and stands back only a few meters from the edge of the sea. This -plateau, both top and sides, is a mass of flourishing vegetation, -chiefly grass, which reaches above a man's knee. From among this -verdure buttercups, poppies, cinquefoils and dandelions thrust their -golden heads in wild profusion. Similar buried glaciers are found in -many places along the fiords of North Greenland. - -Mr. Meehan gives a simple explanation in connection with the Verhoef -Glacier. He says that this glacier formerly extended out into the sea, -and that while it moved forward, the clump moss, which struggles for -existence in Greenland gorges, could do little more than hold its own. -In course of time, from some unknown cause, the glacier receded to the -point where it now discharges, the part in the water floating away in -the shape of icebergs, and the part on the shore remaining stationary. -This was the opportunity for the clump mosses. Caring nothing for the -cold they crept slowly over the quiet mass of ice and made their way -first in thin net-like layers, later in thick masses, till they reached -the rocky shore. Year after year the mosses grew, the young plants -trampling underfoot the older; until the latter, rotting, turned into -a rich mould. The seeds of grasses and flowers found their way to -this, blown by the wind or carried on the feet of birds. The plateau -now is a garden of green, gold and white. How long this will last it -is impossible to say, as any time nature may unloose its hold, and the -frozen river once more pour down into the bay. - - -Subsoil Ice in Alaska. (I. C. Russell, _A Journey up the Yukon -River_, page 149, and _Second Expedition to Mount Saint Elias_, page -19.)--Professor Russell found ice covered by rocks and vegetation -in several places in Alaska, especially along the southern edge of -the Malaspina Glacier and on the Yukon River. He gives the following -interesting account in 1890 of these ice sheets: "Throughout the length -of the Yukon, one is frequently reminded of the high latitude drained -by the great river, by seeing strata of ice in the recently cut banks, -beneath the dense layer of moss and roots forming the surface on which -the forests grow. One may frequently find ice even on a hot summer's -day, by scraping away the moss at his feet. In some instances the -frozen layer has been penetrated to the depth of twenty-five feet, but -its full depth has never been ascertained. In the banks of some of the -streams to the north of the lower Yukon, strata of ice over a hundred -feet thick have been observed, and the indications are that its total -depth is considerably greater than the portion exposed. This subsoil -ice is stagnant and without the characteristics of glaciers." - - -Subsoil Ice in the Klondike Region. (_Philadelphia Ledger_, December -30th, 1897.)--The Klondike mining country is covered with snow most of -the year. The ground is frozen for ten or twelve meters in depth, down -to bed rock. In some places the ground, which is protected by a thick -moss, is not thawed out by the sun in summer. The miner cuts off the -moss with a shovel, and then builds a fire, which thaws out the ground -for five or ten centimeters. He digs this out, rebuilds a fire, and -then continues this process. - - -Ice Cliffs on the Kowak River, Alaska. (Lieutenant J. C. Cantwell, -_National Geographic Magazine_, October, 1896.)--On the shores of the -Kowak River are a series of ice cliffs of from about 25 meters to -45 meters in height. On top of these ice cliffs is a layer of black -silt-like soil some 2 meters in thickness, and from this springs a -luxuriant growth of mosses, grass and Arctic shrubbery. The melted ice -shows a residuum of fine dust, which while fresh emits a pungent odor. - - -Subterranean Ice Sheet on Kotzebue Sound. (Otto von Kotzebue, -_Entdeckungsreise in die Südsee_, etc. Weimar, 1821. Vol. IV., page -140.)--Dr. Eschholz discovered near Kotzebue Sound, in 1816, a mass of -ice more than 30 meters thick, and entirely covered with a layer at -least 15 centimeters thick of clay, sand, and earth, on which heavy, -long grass was growing. In the ice and in the soil overlaying it, were -many remains of extinct animals. On the side towards the ocean the ice -was entirely bare, exposed to sun and air, and much of it was melting -away in streamlets. - - -Freezing Lava Caves, Washington. (R. W. Raymond, _Overland Monthly_, 3d -November, 1869, page 421. Th. Kirchhoff, _Reisebilder und Skizzen aus -America_, 1876, vol. II., page 211. _Philadelphia Ledger_, September -25th, 1899.)--These caves are distant about four hours from the foot of -Mount Adams, and about 56 kilometers from the mouth of the White Salmon -River, where it falls into the Columbia River. The caves are in basalt, -and they are connected at both ends with the open air. Only a few of -them contain any ice, which in the largest cave is about 6 meters below -the entrance, from which one descends by a ladder. The cave opens on -one side and is some 15 meters in depth, 6 meters or 8 meters in width -and 3 meters or 4 meters in height. This part contains the most ice. -The other side gradually narrows from the entrance, is longer, and -reaches out through fallen rocks and rubbish to daylight. In the lower -portion, there are a few ice stalactites and stalagmites: one a superb, -transparent hillock, which rises nearly to the roof, is called the -Iceberg. A strong draught flows into the cave in summer through the -open arm. - -The following paragraphs from the _Philadelphia Ledger_ probably refer -to the same locality:-- - -"Ice for the cutting, and that in August and early in September, is a -novelty not often found in regions as far south as the Columbia River -basin; but the novelty is enjoyed every year by people who visit the -ice caves under the shadow of Mount Adams, about 100 miles northeast -of Portland. It is a very extensive region. Frank McFarland, who has -just returned from a six weeks' vacation camping trip there, gives an -interesting account of its general make up. - -"At the ice caves, which are six miles from Trout Lake, the stalactites -are more beautiful and wonderful this year than ever before, and this -was Mr. McFarland's fifteenth trip there. He broke off and took to camp -chunks of ice weighing 100 pounds. Pleasure parties who come to the -lake use considerable of the ice for packing their trout to take home. -All you have to do is to take a torch of pitch pine or a lantern, and -go into the big caves and pack off all the ice you want. It is a sure -crop, and never fails." - - -Ice Spring in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon. (G. Gibbs, _American Journal -of Science and Arts_, 1853, Second Series, vol. XV., page 146.)--The -Ice Spring is about 60 kilometers from the South Pass to the right of -the Sweetwater River. It is situated in a low marshy swale, where the -ground is filled with springs; and about 60 centimeters below the turf -is a sheet of horizontal ice, some 10 centimeters to 30 centimeters -thick, lasting throughout the year. The ice is clear and is disposed -in hexagonal prisms; it has a slightly saline taste, the ground above -it being impregnated with salt and the water near by tasting of sulphur. - - -Freezing Lava Caves in Modoc County, California. (_Dispatch_, -Frankford, Pennsylvania, 22d January, 1897, reprinted from another -paper.)--The lava beds, where the Modoc Indians made their last stand -against the United States troops, are described as an immense field of -lava covered with a beautiful forest of conifers. Numerous caves of -varying shapes and dimensions are scattered throughout these lava beds. -Some are mere covert ways, with an arch of stone thrown over them; -others are immense chambers some meters from the surface; another kind -sinks deeply and may be in a series of chambers united by a corridor -that opens at the surface; while another kind seems to go directly to -the centre of the earth without stopping. Some of these caves contain -ice and from them the Modocs drew their water supply while besieged by -the troops. Judging from what is reported of the caves the quantity of -ice in them must be large. The thermometer in winter in the region is -said to go as low as -30° C. - - -Freezing Lava Beds near Medicine Lake, Siskiyou County, Northern -California. (M. S. Baker, _Sierra Club Bulletin_, 1899. Vol. II., page -318.)--"One other feature of the lava region must be mentioned--the ice -caves. There are several of these known, and very likely many more -remain undiscovered. Those located along the edge of the lava, near the -cinder cone, I have known to contain ice and water as late as August. -The largest I have seen is on the Mayfield Road, about twenty miles -east of Bartles. It is situated in the barren lava, and in one of the -warmest localities of the region,--and there are few cool spots in the -lava anywhere. One enters the cave by crawling down a hole none too -large. The instant the interior is reached the temperature falls in a -surprising way. Not more than ten feet below the surface of the hot -rocks is a bed of ice, covered by a foot or so of ice water. The body -of ice was perhaps twelve or fifteen feet long, by five feet across -in the widest places. This cave is formed by a fissure that extends a -distance of twenty miles from the ice cave to Pittville, and nearly -coincides with the 4000 foot level, as shown in the map. Along the -southeastern half of this earth fissure the southwest wall has faulted, -leaving a cliff, which, in places, must be nearly 200 feet high." - - -Freezing Shafts, Montana.--Mr. Robert Butler, of San José, Cal., has -given me much information about glacières in Montana. He visited one -miners' shaft which is situated about 80 kilometers up the Rosebud -River from Rosebud Station on the Northern Pacific R. R., and about 10 -kilometers northeast of the Cheyenne Indian Agency. It is on the north -slope of the Little Wolf Mountains, near the summit, at the head of -Greenleaf Creek. The canyon and surrounding slopes are covered with -a dense growth of pine. The rock has the appearance of scoriæ caused -by the burning of immense beds of coal in recent geological times. The -rock is broken into comparatively small pieces. The altitude is some -1200 meters. The forest, the volcanic ash and the altitude, besides -the loose rock formation, makes this place a natural ice house. Ten or -twelve years ago three prospectors, looking for silver, sunk a shaft -here. At a depth of about 4 meters it began to grow cold, and at 6 -meters they found ice and imagined they could feel an upward draught. -Being ignorant and superstitious, they became frightened and abandoned -the shaft. During the winter, the snow fills the shaft half full of -ice, which then remains over through the summer. There is a general -report and belief among those who have visited the well, that it -freezes in summer and thaws in winter. There are thousands of mining -shafts in Montana, and if they are on the north slope of a mountain -of considerable altitude and under a dense forest and not too deep, -they generally have ice at the bottom during the summer. It is also -said to be nothing new for a miner in following crevices to find them -filled with ice, especially if near the surface on the north slope of a -mountain. - - -Freezing Cave, Fergus County, Montana.--Mr. Robert Butler, of San José, -Cal., visited this place, which is about 35 kilometers southeast of -Lewistown. It is on the north side of a butte. Masses of ice and great -icicles form in some parts of the cave in such quantities during the -latter part of winter that the cave furnishes ice for cooling the -drinking water for several dozen families. During July and August the -people come from some distance around to get the ice. The people in the -neighborhood believe that the ice forms in summer and thaws away in -winter. They also speak of the ever upward draught of cold air coming -possibly from some great hidden cavern in the lower recesses of the -mountain. - - -Freezing Well at Horse Plains, Montana. (Levi Allen, _Scientific -American_. New Series, 27th October, 1883.)--The well is described as -13.60 meters deep. It is dug through solid gravel, and in sinking it -there was encountered, at a depth of 10.60 meters, a current of air -strong enough to blow out a candle. It began to freeze in September, -1882, and in November it was frozen solid. - - -Freezing Silver Mine, Bighorn County, Wyoming.--This place is in the -Sunlight Basin of the Shoshone Mountains. Mr. William Worrell Wagner, -of Philadelphia, informs me that he visited it in August, 1897. It is -a silver mine or tunnel, running straight into the mountain for about -60 meters, at an altitude of about 3300 meters. The peaks of the Teton -range were in sight from the mouth of the tunnel. For the first half of -the way in, a good many icicles were hanging from the rocks. The last -half of the tunnel was thickly coated with ice and looked like a cold -storage plant. Snow disappears on the rocks outside about June, and -begins to fall again in September, so that Mr. Wagner's visit was at -about the hottest time of the year. Mr. Wagner presented the meat of a -bull wapiti he had shot to the miners, and they stored it in the mine -as if it had been an artificial refrigerator. - - -Rifts of Ice, Mount McClellan, Colorado. (Edward L. Berthoud, _American -Journal of Science and Arts_. Third Series, 1876, vol. XI., page -108.)--Near the summit of Mount McClellan, is the Centennial Lode, -which runs into the mountain, at an altitude of about 3900 meters. -Intercalated in the mineral vein are three or four well defined veins -of solid ice parallel with the bedding of the rock and filling all its -inner side-cracks and fissures. The same frozen substratum is found in -two other lodes near by on the same mountain. Nothing of the kind is -known on other Colorado mountains. The soil is loose and largely made -up of rocky débris, which shows that the ice is probably due to local -causes. - - -Freezing Tunnel on the Hagerman Pass, Colorado. (_Philadelphia Press_, -October 16th, 1897.)--The Hagerman Pass Railroad line is said to -have been abandoned after the completion of the Busk-Ivanhoe tunnel, -but to have been rebuilt. The Hagerman tunnel for a distance of over -700 meters was filled with solid ice, and it required blasting with -dynamite, and a month's continuous labor, day and night, to dig the ice -out. - - -Freezing Cavern in Cow Mountain, Colorado. (_Post Dispatch_, St. Louis, -Mo., July 13th, 1897, and September 5th, 1897. _Mail Order Monthly_, -St. Paul, Minn., October, 1899.)--The cave was discovered by parties -doing assessment work on a group of claims. A man was picking in a -three meter hole when he struck his pick into an opening, which was -gradually enlarged and showed a deep pit underneath. The men got a rope -and descended into an immense cavern full of ice. Later exploration -led to a small hall, some 5 meters in diameter, full of icicles. From -here a fissure led into a second rock chamber larger than the first. A -small hole in the floor at an angle of some 45° gave access to a third -and larger hall, about 25 meters by 40 meters. Great masses of ice were -found in this, also a small lake, about 12 meters by 20 meters. "Some -who have visited the wonderful discovery are of the opinion that it -is a great cave or fissure in a glacier which for centuries has been -slowly making its way down from Pike's Peak and whose waters are now -feeding the Arkansas River." - - -Windhole, Arizona. (_Christian Herald_, March 24th, 1897.)--Mr. Cofman, -while drilling a well on his place, is said to have opened a windhole -from which the escaping air current was strong enough to blow off the -hats of the men who were recovering the lost drill. Some days the air -escapes with such force that pebbles the size of peas are thrown up, -accompanied by a sound much like the distant bellowing of a fog horn. -Again for days there will be a suction current, unaccompanied by -sound, in which the current of air passes into the earth with somewhat -less force than when escaping, and any light object, as a feather or a -piece of paper, will be immediately sucked in. The account is probably -exaggerated. - - -Freezing Lava Cave near Flagstaff, Arizona.--Professor W. B. Scott of -Princeton University told me of this cave, which he had not visited -himself. It lies 14.5 kilometers south of Flagstaff, on the Mesa -table land, at an altitude of about 2000 meters. It was described to -Professor Scott as a double cave, with two floors, one over the other, -the lower containing the most ice. It is in lava, and can only be -entered by crawling in on hands and knees. - - -Freezing Cave or Gorge, White Mountains, Arizona.--Mr. Frank Hamilton -Cushing has told me of this place. It is a cleft among lava rock, which -being roofed at the further end, might be described as a cave. In this -the ice remains until June or July, much later than anywhere else in -the neighborhood. The Zuni Indians worship before this, calling the -ice the breath of the Gods, the snow they consider as a sort of down. -The region is arid, which makes any water precious, and this fact has -developed the element of mysticism about snow and ice among the Indians. - - -Freezing Cave near Galena, Black Hills, South Dakota. (Miss L. A. -Owen, _Cave Regions of the Ozarks and Black Hills_. Cincinnati, 1898, -page 209): "At Galena, a new mining town of golden promise, there is -reported to be an Ice Cave, where ice forms at all seasons, and during -the warm weather is a source of comfort and pleasure to the miners." - - -Windholes in the Ozark Mountains, Missouri.--Mr. H. F. Brinckerhoff, -of Aurora, Mo., informs me that there are a number of cold air current -caves in the Ozark Mountain region. One of them is some 19 kilometers -south of Aurora, Lawrence County, and is used for cold storage in -summer. There is a cave in a limestone bluff about 15 meters above a -river, and in the rear is this windhole, which is an opening about 30 -centimeters high and 3 meters wide. A strong current of air comes out -from it in summer, and the hotter the air outside, the stronger is the -outward coming current. In winter the current is reversed. The outward -current is so strong in very hot weather that a handkerchief held in it -is straightened out to an angle of about 45°. - - -Freezing Cave and Well at Decorah, Iowa. Described in Part I. (Dr. C. -A. White, _Report of Geological Survey of State of Iowa_, 1870, vol. -I., page 80. A. F. Kovarik, _Scientific American Supplement_, No. 1195, -November 26th, 1898, pages 19,158, 19,159). - -On June 1st, 1869, Dr. White found the ice dry and well frozen, and he -thought it was then accumulating. The cave was cool and apparently dry, -and no strong air current was passing through. - -Mr. Alois F. Kovarik, of the Decorah Institute, has made a valuable -series of observations about the Decorah Cave. The temperatures he -observed were the following: - - IN THE VALLEY, LOCUS - SHADE. DIVISION. GLACIALIS. END. - - July 1, 1897 +33.3° +2.2° 0.0° 0.0° - " 27, " +21.1° +5.0° 0.0° 0.0° - Aug. 14, " +32.2° +5.8° +3.1° 0.0° - Sept. 3, " +32.2° +7.2° +3.1° +8.3° - " 18, " +33.9° +8.6° +6.1° +8.3° - Oct. 16, " +24.0° +10.0° +8.3° +8.3° - " 30, " +10.0° +7.2° +4.7° +5.0° - Dec. 11, " -2.2° -2.7° -1.1° -2.0° - Jan. 8, 1898 -0.0° -2.7° -3.9° 0.0° - " 22, " -5.0° -6.1° -3.9° -3.9° - Feb. 26, " -0.0° -6.6° -6.6° -5.0° - March 12, " +2.8° -1.6° -2.7° -2.7° - " 26, " +8.8° -1.7° -1.6° -1.1° - April 16, " +25.6° -1.4° +1.1° -1.1° - " 30, " +13.9° +1.1° -1.1° -1.1° - May 28, " +17.2° +1.7° -0.3° 0.0° - June 9, " +25.0° +1.7° -0.3° 0.0° - " 18, " +22.3° +1.7° -0.2° 0.0° - July 16, " +35.0° +7.2° 0.0° +2.2° - -On the 1st of July, 1897, a cold breeze was noticed coming from the -cave to a distance of at least 30 meters. At the entrance the breeze -was strong enough to blow out a candle. This breeze was not noticed at -other times. From December to February inclusive, on the contrary, the -breeze was reversed. From July to October, 1897, the walls of the cave -were moist. From October to February they were dry. In February frost -began to appear on the walls. On March 12th, 1898, the walls were -covered with frost. The ice appeared at a spot nearly at the end of the -cave on the 26th of March, 1898. At a place about 6.50 meters nearer -the entrance, however, is where most ice forms. This place Mr. Kovarik -calls _Locus Glacialis_. The ice appeared here about the 29th of May, -1898. It increased rapidly up to June 12th, when it was at its maximum, -and was about two meters in width. It generally covers the north wall -from top to base. The greatest thickness in 1898 was 29 centimeters. - -The temperature which Mr. Kovarik recorded on the 16th of April at -_Locus Glacialis_ of +1.1 seems an anomalous one. On writing to him -he sent me the following explanation: "April 16th, after I left the -thermometer at _Locus Glacialis_ the usual time, I noticed that it -registered +1.1° C. It seemed singular, for at both the Division and -the End, the thermometer registered considerably lower. I left the -thermometer at its place for about an hour longer, and noticed then -that it did not register differently. I would suggest this explanation: -This is true about water that upon freezing it gives off its latent -heat. Now on April 16th some water dripped into the cave on the wall -near where the thermometer was, about 1.50 meters from the floor. The -amount of water was very small, but as it came in contact with the cold -wall it began to give out its latent heat which affected the close by -thermometer. The temperature of the rock was without doubt between -1.° -and -3°." - - -Freezing Cavern at Brainard, Iowa. (Alois F. Kovarik, _Decorah Public -Opinion_, September 20th, 1899.)--This little cave is situated on the -north side of a hill about 1.5 kilometers northwest of Brainard. It is -about 4.50 meters deep. On June 10th, 1899, Mr. Kovarik found the floor -and walls covered with ice. The temperature was 0° C. The owner claims -to have taken enough ice out of it on July 4th, 1897, to freeze cream. - - -Freezing Cave near Elkinsville, Brown County, Indiana. (Clipping from -a western newspaper, 1896.)--The entrance is said to be overlapped by -trees and to resemble a mine shaft. The winding way leads to a hollow -some 15 meters below the surface, resembling a broad vaulted corridor, -which is known to the natives as the devil's chamber and where the -temperature is low. From this point several galleries lead further in, -and from one of them comes a blast of icy cold air. This passage is -similar to the one at the entrance to the cave, but after a few meters -frost is visible, and further on it is thick on all sides, like the -crust that is formed on the pipes of an ice plant. The narrow way leads -to a big chamber, known as the ice vault. In this dome, which is fully -30 meters in width, the ice forms a large stalagmite and is of unknown -depth. - - -Freezing Gully on Mount Abraham, Maine. (Jackson, _Report of the -Geology of Maine_, 1839, III.)--Ice was found in June at an altitude of -1032 meters among the boulders in one of the gullies of Mount Abraham. - -[Illustration: FREEZING CAVERN AT BRAINARD. - - From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik. -] - - -Subterranean Ice in King's Ravine, Mount Adams, New -Hampshire.--Described in Part I., page 1. - - -Ice Gulch on Crescent Mountain, Randolph, New Hampshire.--Described in -Part I., page 83. - - -Ice in a Hole at Dixville Notch, New Hampshire.--Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., -of Boston, has examined this place, which he is sure is a refrigerator. -It is in a hole north of the cliff and near its top. - - -Ice on Mount Garfield, New Hampshire.--Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., informs -me that ice was discovered among the boulders on the summit of Mount -Garfield during the summer of 1897. - - -Freezing Talus near Rumney, New Hampshire.--Described in Part I., page -85. - - -Freezing Talus near North Woodstock, New Hampshire.--Mr. John Ritchie, -Jr., has examined this locality. He thinks the ice was gone in July, -but judges it to be on the level of an old talus and a couple of meters -down. - - -Freezing Well at Lyman, Grafton County, New Hampshire. (_Geology of -Vermont_, 1861, I., page 197.)--A well in that town is reported as -having been frozen solid in June, 1816, at a depth of about 2.60 meters -from the surface. - - -Icy Wells at the Foot of Mount Mansfield, Vermont. (N. M. Lowe, -_Science Observer_, vol. II., page 58.)--These are described as being -really "incipient caves." - - -Freezing Cave near Manchester, Vermont.--Described in Part I., page 76. - - -Ice Bed of Wallingford, Rutland County, Vermont. Described in Part I., -page 99. (S. Pearl Lathrop, _American Journal of Science and Arts_, -1844, XLVI., page 331.)--Dr. Lathrop says that ice has been found at -the Ice Bed as late as September. - - -Freezing Wells at Brandon, Vermont. Described in Part I., page 77. -(_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page 192.)--Mr. Hager says that -the well was dug into a mass of sand and gravel, of the kind known -as modified drift. The gravel was frozen at the time of digging. The -Boston Natural History Society, in 1859, sank two wells, one 21 meters -southeast of the original one, the other 21 meters northwest. The first -was 10 meters in depth and did not reach ice; the second was 11 meters -in depth, and came to the layer of frozen gravel. - - -Cave near Brandon, Vermont. (_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page -197.)--Mr. Hager heard that about 3 kilometers north of Brandon village -was a cavern, in a hill, in which ice is found most of the summer. - - -Icy Gulf near Great Barrington, Massachusetts.--Mentioned in Part I., -page 99. - - -Icy Glen near Stockbridge, Massachusetts.--Described in Part I., page -75. - - -The Snow Hole, New York: near Williamstown, Massachusetts. Described in -Part I., page 98. (Dewey, _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1819, -vol. I., page 340; and 1822, vol. V., page 398.)--Mr. Dewey found, in -June, snow 2 meters deep on ice of unknown depth. On his second visit -he found less ice and snow than on his first visit, as the trees in the -neighborhood had been cut down. - - -Glacière near Williamstown, Massachusetts.--Described in Part I., page -101. - - -Freezing Well near Ware, Massachusetts.--(_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, -vol. I., page 197.)--Depth 11.5 meters. This is in a sand and gravel -formation much like that at Brandon, except that there is less clay, -and that none of the pebbles are limestone. - - -Wolfshollow near Salisbury, Connecticut. (C. A. Lee, _American Journal -of Science and Arts_, 1824, vol. VIII., page 254.)--In the eastern -portion of the township, at an altitude of about 800 meters, is a chasm -about 100 meters long, 18 meters deep and 12 meters wide. It is in -mica-slate, and is sheltered by large trees. At the bottom at one end -is a spring of cold water and a cave of considerable extent, in which -ice and snow is found the greater part of the year. - - -Natural Ice House, near Meriden, Connecticut. (Benjamin Silliman, -_American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1822, vol. IV., page 174.)--It -lies between New Haven and Hartford, about 32 kilometers from the sea, -at an altitude of about 60 meters. The ice is found in a narrow defile -of perpendicular trap rock, at the bottom filled with broken stones. -The defile is so placed that in summer the sun only shines into it for -about an hour each day; it is also well protected by surrounding trees, -the leaves from which form beds at the bottom among the rocks and help -to protect the ice. - - -Natural Ice House of Northford, Connecticut. (Benjamin Silliman, -_American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1822, vol. IV., page -177.)--About 11 kilometers from New Haven on the Middletown road -between Branford and Northford, is a gorge where ice remains throughout -the year. In this case the ice is mixed with a considerable quantity of -leaves and dirt; it has sometimes been brought to New Haven. - - -Ice in an Old Iron Mine, near Port Henry, Lake Champlain. (_Geology of -Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page 199.)--Ice was found during the summer at -a depth of from 15 meters to 30 meters, and a current of cold air was -issuing from the opening. There seems to be more than one opening to -the mine. - - -Freezing Talus on Lower Ausable Pond, Essex County, New -York.--Described in Part I., page 79. - - -Freezing Talus at the South Base of the Giant of the Valley, Essex -County, New York.--Described in Part I., page 81. - - -Freezing Boulder Talus, Indian Pass, New York. See Part I., page 83. - - -Freezing Boulder Talus, Avalanche Pass, New York.--See Part I., page 83. - - -Freezing Cave near Carlisle, New York.--See Part I., page 93. - - -Ice among the Catskill Mountains, New York.--Mr. George Brinton -Phillips informs me that he has seen subterranean ice in August among -boulders in a gorge in the Catskills near the Stony Cloves road, -starting out from Haines' Falls. The people in the neighborhood speak -of the place as an ice cave. - - -Gorge in the Shawangunk Mountains, near Ellenville, Ulster County, New -York. Described in Part I., page 91. (Heilprin, _Around the World_, -1894, page 194.)--Professor Heilprin found in July a mass of ice -measuring about thirty meters in length and 1 meter in depth. The -thermometer near the ice read about 1° C. above freezing point, the day -being hot. Icicles hung from the ledges on the side of the gorge. - - -Freezing Gorge at Sam's Point, New York.--See Part I., page 93. - - -Ice Deposits and Windholes at Watertown, New York.--Described in Part -I., page 86. - - -Freezing Well near Tioga, New York.--Depth, 23 meters. No information. - - -Freezing Well near Prattsburg, New York.--Depth, 6.5 meters. No -information. - - -Freezing Well near Owego, New York. Described in Part I., page 74. -(D. O. Macomber, _American Journal of Arts and Sciences_, 1839, vol. -XXXVI., page 184. _Well's Annual of Scientific Discovery_, 1856, page -190.)--The thermometer is said to have stood at--1.2° at the bottom of -the biggest well when it registered--20° outside. When a candle was -let down, the flame became agitated and was thrown in one direction -at the depth of 9 meters; at the bottom the flame was still, but soon -died out. Large masses of ice were found in the biggest well as late -as July, and the men who made the well were forced to put on thick -clothing in June, and even so could not work for more than two hours at -a time. - - -Cave in the Panama Rocks, Chautauqua, New York. The Rev. Horace C. -Hovey informs me that he has been in a small cave in this locality, and -that he found ice in it. - - -Cave in Sussex County, New Jersey.--A clipping from a newspaper, with -neither name nor date, says that new ice is found daily on the land of -Peter Feather, in the mouth of an unexplored cavern. A small stream of -water runs out of the cavern and forms a pool at the opening, and here -it is that the ice forms. Enough has been taken in one day to freeze -two cans of ice cream. A cold draught of air issues continuously from -the cavern. - - -Hole Containing Ice on Blue Mountain, New Jersey. Reported; no -information. - - -Gorge Containing Ice on Bald Eagle Mountain, Clinton County, -Pennsylvania.--Mr. Henry Chapman Mercer, of Doylestown, learned of -the existence of this gorge during the summer of 1897. It is near the -village of McElhatten, in the neighborhood of Lock Haven, and is some -3 kilometers distant from the Susquehanna River. Ice is said to remain -over during the entire summer. - - -Freezing Cave and Windholes near Farrandsville, Clinton County, -Pennsylvania.--Described in Part I., page 93. - - -Underground Ice Formations, Sullivan County, Pennsylvania, on the -southwestern borders of Lycoming County.--Mr. W. Coleman Hall of -Philadelphia, about twenty years ago, found ice in two or three -places, on Bear Creek, north of Muncy Creek, about 25 kilometers north -of the Susquehanna River, and southwest of Eagles Mere. The ice was -under rocks, in what may be described as limestone sinks. Since the -destruction of the forest, the ice has become less abundant, if indeed -any still forms. - - -Glacières in Abandoned Coal Mines near Summit, Carbon County, -Pennsylvania.--Described in Part I., page 95. - - -Ice Cave Railroad Station, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. On the Bowman -Creek branch of the Lehigh Valley R. R.--Mr. F. Holschuh, agent at -Luzerne, informs me that about 2 kilometers from Ice Cave Station is a -little waterfall on the side of a mountain which was formerly covered -with dense forest. A short distance below the fall, a large hollow -place has been worn out of the rocks by the action of the water. The -overhanging rocks give this almost the appearance of a cave. While -the forest was still thick and when the winter was cold, ice would -form under these rocks and would not disappear until summer was well -advanced. The station was called Ice Cave on account of this place. - - -Hole Containing Ice at Millerstown, Pennsylvania.--Reported; no -information. - - -Freezing Talus at Spruce Creek, Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania. -Described in Part I., page 90. The _Philadelphia Ledger_ of July 6th, -1896, states that around the boulders where the ice lies, there are -found varieties of plants strongly arctic in character. - - -Ice Mountain, Hampshire County, Virginia. (C. B. Hayden, _American -Journal of Science and Arts_, 1843, vol. XLV., page 78.)--It lies on -the North River, near the road leading from Winchester to Romney, at -an altitude of from about 220 meters to 240 meters. One side of the -hill is entirely composed of loose stones, among which an abundance -of ice is found at all times, although the sun shines on the upper -surface of the stones from ten in the morning until sunset. The ice is -regularly used in summer by the people near by. Constant and strong air -currents issue from the crevices in the rocks. Similar, but smaller -accumulations, are said to occur in the same county. Mrs. George B. -Balch visited the Ice Mountain in August, 1878. She saw no ice, but the -air under the stones was very cold. - - -Blowing Cave, Bath County, Virginia.--Mrs. Horace Jayne informs me that -there is a blowing cave near the Cowpasture River, about half way on -the old stage road between Millboro and Warm Springs. A draught flows -out from it, strong enough to blow the grass about, three or four -meters away. The draught is cold, perhaps abnormally so. The cave has -not yet been explored. - - -SOUTH AMERICA. - -Ice Sheets on Mount Chimborazo. (A. von Humboldt, _Travels to -the Equinoctial Regions_, London, 1814, vol. I., page 156.)--"On -Chimborazo, enormous heaps of ice are found covered with sand, and in -the same manner as at the Peak [of Teneriffe] far below the inferior -limit of the perpetual snows." - - -Tierra del Fuego. (A. Winchel, _Walks and Talks_, 1898, page 122.)--"On -Tierra del Fuego ice and lava are found interstratified for a great -depth, each winter's snow being covered by a new lava sheet." - - -TENERIFFE. - -La Cueva de la Nieve or del Hielo. (Humboldt, _Travels to the -Equinoctial Regions_, 1814, vol. I., pages 154, 156. C. Piazzi Smyth, -_Teneriffe, an Astronomer's Experiment_, 1858, page 348.)--La Cueva de -la Nieve lies at an altitude of 3267 meters in the Malpays on the Peak -of Teneriffe, just below the snow line. It is in obsidian. The entrance -is 3.6 meters high and 2.7 meters broad. The grotto is 36 meters long, -6 meters wide, and 4 meters high. The descent into the cave is so steep -that it is necessary to be lowered by ropes. Professor Smyth found in -July an ice floor about 60 centimeters thick which was covered with -water. A good deal of snow was lying near the mouth of the cave. The -walls were covered with ice and icicles and a few small ice cones rose -on the ice floor. - - -ICELAND. - -The Surtshellir or Cave of Surtur. (Olafsen and Povelsen, _Voyage en -Islande_, Paris, 1802. Henderson, _Iceland_, 1819, 2d ed., page 420. -Guimard, _Voyage en Islande_, page 481.)--The Surtshellir lies in the -volcanic waste of Westisland, and is in lava which has flowed from the -Bald Jokul. The approach is through an open chasm. The length of the -cave is 1534 meters, with an average width of from 15 meters to 17 -meters, and a nearly uniform height of from 9 meters to 11 meters. In -four places the roof is broken and allows daylight to enter. A great -deal of ice is sometimes found in the cave, in the shape of an ice -floor, transparent icy pillars, hanging icy pendants, and columns and -arches of ice along the walls. Some of the pillars have been found 2.50 -meters high. - - -Kutlagaya. (A. Winchel, _Walks and Talks_, 1898, page 122.)--"In -1860 the crater of the mountain Kutlagaya, in Iceland, hurled out -simultaneously into the air lumps of lava and ice, all intermingled -together." - - -SCANDINAVIA. - -Ice in the Mines of Nordmark. (Jars, _Voyages Métallurgiques_, 1774, -page 105.)--13 kilometers north of Philipstadt, Wermeland, Sweden, a -number of holes were dug, some to a depth of 120 meters. Ice of some -thickness formed in some of these towards the end of winter, and lasted -until about September, despite the fires of the workmen. - - -Persberg Iron Mines, Sweden. (J. Prestwich, _Collected papers_, etc., -on page 206, quotes Dr. Clark's _Travels in Scandinavia._)--Ice is said -to have been found on the sides and bottom of the mine to a depth of -about 135 meters. - - -Ice Caves Reported in Norway.--I was told in Norway that some of the -caves in the mountains near the Swartisen ice field contained ice, but -I do not know whether this is true. I suspect that there are glacier -ice caves which have given rise to this report. - - -ENGLAND. - -Helvellyn, Cumberland. (Wordsworth, _Fidelity_.)--The following verses -were pointed out to me by Mr. Bunford Samuel. As far as I know they are -the only poetry about glacières:-- - - "It was a cove, a huge recess - That keeps, till June, December's snow; - A lofty precipice in front, - A silent tarn below! - Far in the bosom of Helvellyn, - Remote from public road or dwelling - Pathway or cultivated land - From trace of human foot or hand." - - -Ice in an Old Copper Mine, Cumberland. (J. Clifford Ward, _Nature_, -vol. XI., page 310.)--Ice reported as a rare occurrence. - - -Ludchurch Chasm, Staffordshire. (R. K. Dent and Joseph Hill's _Historic -Staffordshire_, quote Dr. Plot, 1686.)--Mr. Bunford Samuel called my -attention to this book, in which Dr. Plot is quoted as saying that -as late as the 17th of July, snow has been found in Ludchurch Chasm. -Messrs. Dent and Hill do not mention anything of the kind as occurring -now. - - -Blowing Cave in Denbighshire, Wales.--A newspaper cutting says -that there are such strong eruptions of winds from a cave in this -neighborhood as to toss back to a great height in the air any article -of apparel thrown in. - - -Tin Croft Mine, Cornwall. (J. Prestwich, _Collected papers_, etc., page -206, quotes Mr. Moyle.)--Ice has been found in abundance in this mine -at a depth of nearly 100 meters. - - -CENTRAL EUROPE. - -Glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant. Described in Part I., page 8. -(Poissenot, _Nouvelles Histoires Tragiques de Benigne Poissenot, -licencié aux lois. A Paris, chez Guillaume Bichon, rue S. Jacques, a -l'enseigne du Bichot, 1586, avec privilege du Roy_, pages 436-453. -Gollut, _Les Mémoires historiques de la Repub. Sequanoise, et des -princes de la Franche Comté de Bourgogne, par M. Lois Gollut, Advocat -au Parlement de Dôle; A Dôle, 1592_. Trouillet, _Mémoires de la -Société d'Émulation du Doubs, 1885_. Girardot, _Mémoires de la Société -d'Émulation du Doubs, 1886_.) - -The earliest notice of a glacière which I have been able to find is in -the shape of a letter giving an account of a visit to the Glacière de -Chaux-les-Passavant in 1584, by Benigne Poissenot, a French lawyer. -The account, which I have translated as literally as possible, is in a -special chapter, as follows:-- - -"Sir:--Since our separation, I have had this pleasure (_heut_) to -hear news of you only once, having found your brother in Paris; who, -having assured me of your good health (_disposition_), informed me of -how since we had seen each other you had travelled to Italy, even as -far as Greece, of which you had seen a large portion: and that sound -and safe, after so long a journey, you had reappeared and landed at -Havre de Grace where you wished to go, that is to say at home. All the -pleasure which a friend can receive, knowing the affairs of another -self, joined to such a happy result, seized my heart, at the recital -of such agreeable news: and I did not fail shortly after, to write you -amply all which had happened to me since I left you until my return to -France: congratulating you at having escaped from marine abysses and -perilous passages on land, on which travellers are often constrained -to risk their life. From this time, I have always stayed in Paris or -in the neighborhood, according to the good pleasure of dame fortune, -who ruled me in her wise and fed me with her dishes the most common -and ordinary until the first day of January of the year 1584, when I -received my first gift in the shape of a strong and violent disease, -which tormented me more than a month: from which, having become cured -with the help of God, and having with time recovered my health and my -strength at the arrival of spring, I was seized with the desire to -smell the air of the country. And in fact having thrown away my pen -and travelled about (_battu l'estrade_) through high and low Burgundy, -I stopped at Bezenson, Imperial City, to spend the summer. This city -is still to day just the same as Julius Cæsar describes it, in the -notable mention he makes of it, in the first book of his commentaries -of the war in Gaul, there remaining there all the vestiges of the -most remarkable things, which he tells of in his description. There -are also very fine fountains, from all of which water streams from -the representation of some god of antiquity, as a Neptune, a Bacchus, -a Pan, a Nereide or others: except before the state house, where the -statue of Charles the Fifth, representing him in a most natural manner, -is placed on an eagle, which from its beak, pours out such a great -quantity of water that this is the most beautiful, among all the other -fountains. And as I do not doubt that while traversing Italy, you both -saw and examined with curiosity the most handsome singularities, which -presented themselves to your eyes and that on your return, passing -through Avignon and Dauphiné, as your brother informed me, you had -the advantage over me of seeing the wonders of the country, of which -you had heard me speak sometimes, regretting that the war, during the -time I was in that quarter, had prevented my going to the spot, to see -the burning fountain as in Dodone, and the fountain called Jupiter, -which torches of fire light up and which grows less till midday and -then grows till midnight, and then diminishes and fails at midday: -and another in Epirus which we call to day Albania, the tower without -venom and the inaccessible mountain: then as I said, since you have -contemplated these things and several others not less admirable, I -wish to entertain you about a marvel which I saw, during my sojourn -in Bezenson, to know from you, whether in all your journey, you saw -a similar thing. Know then that the day of the festival of St. John -Baptist, a young man, provided with an honest knowledge, with whom I -had made some little acquaintance, presented me with an icicle, to -cool my wine at dinner, and which I admired greatly, on account of the -time of the year in which we then were, begging him who gave it to me -to tell me where he had discovered this rare present for that time. He -answered me that every year, the day of the solemnity of the festival -of St. John Baptist, the inhabitants of a village, which he named, were -bound to come to offer the great church of St. John of Bezenson, a -goodly quantity of ice, which they got in a wood, and brought to town -at night on horses, for fear that by day it should melt, and that one -of his cronies had given to him what he had given to me. - -"Suddenly there flamed up in me a desire to see this place, where -in the height of the summer, ice was to be found. When he who had -presented me with the icicle saw this, he promised to accompany me, not -having as yet, any more than myself, seen this marvel. I did not hatch -very long this decision, all the more as all those, to whom I mentioned -it, encouraged me to carry it out as soon as I could, assuring me that -I should see a strange thing, and that even the Duke of Alva on his -return from Flanders, passing through Franche Comté, had wished to -see this novelty. Therefore calling on the promise of the one who was -the cause of undertaking this journey, we went together to Versey, a -fine town, distant five leagues from Bezenson, turning a little off -our direct route, to go to see a literary man, at this said Versey, -who having called on me at Bezenson, had extracted from me the promise -of going to see him. There happened to me in this spot, what the poet -du Bellay says happened to him, on his return from Italy, passing -through the Grisons, to go into France: who, after having chanted the -troubles there are in the passage, says that the Swiss made him drink -so much, that he does not remember anything he saw in that country. -Likewise, I can assure you that my host, following the custom of those -of the country (who do not think they are treating a man properly if -they do not make him drink a lot, taking that from the Germans, their -neighbors) made us carouse so well, that when we went to bed, we were -very gay boys. For although we had both made an agreement on the road, -yet our host knew so well how to win us over, saying that those who -would not drink, gave reason to think badly of them, and that they had -committed, or wished to commit some great crime, which they feared to -give away in drinking, that in the end we let ourselves go, passing -the time in Pantagruelic fashion. The next morning having taken some -"hair from the beast" and a guide which our host gave to us to conduct -us to the _Froidiere_--we continued our wanderings, and arrived at a -little village called Chaud, joining a large wood, where our guide told -us, that although he had been more than six times to the _Froidiere_, -yet the road was so tortuous and so cut up by small paths, that if we -did not take a man from this village, to be more sure, we might spend -more than half a day in the wood, before finding what we were seeking. -Getting off our horses now, we added to our company a native of the -place, who having led us by crooked roads, about a quarter of a league, -through the forest, made us enter into a close thicket and by a little -path led us to a pleasant meadow; where, looking down, we saw a hole, -of difficult descent, at the bottom of which was the opening of a -grotto, pretty big, and so awful and terrifying to see, that one would -have said, it was the mouth of Hell. And in truth, I remembered then, -the hole of St. Patrick, which is said to be in Hibernia. We were not -brave enough knights, to try the adventure, my companion and I, if our -guides had not taken the lead. After whom we descended as magnanimously -as the Trojan Duke followed the Sybil to the Plutonic realms, the sword -half drawn from the scabbard, and well determined to make test of the -Platonic doctrine, which teaches that demons can be dissected, in case -any shade or spook should have come to meet us. About the middle of -the way, we began to feel in descending a very agreeable freshness; -for it was the second day of July and the sun shone very warmly, which -made us sweat drop by drop. But we had good opportunity to refresh -ourselves and put ourselves to cool, having reached the grotto which -we found of the length and breadth of a large hall, all paved with ice -in the bottom, and where a crystalline water, colder than that of the -mountains of Arcadia Nonacris, streamed from many small brooklets, -which formed very clear fountains, with the water of which I washed -myself and drank so eagerly, that I had wished the thirst of Tantalus, -or else that I had been bitten by a Dipsas, in order to be always -thirsty, amid such a pleasant beverage. A great lord, who in some -pleasure resort, should have such a refrigerator in summer, could boast -according to my judgment, to be better provided with drink, than the -kings of Persia were with their river Coaspis, which engulphs itself -into the Tigris, the water whereof was so sweet, that the use of it -was allowed only to the great King, for the retinue and cronies of his -household. Do not think, that among these delights, I was at all free -from fear, for never did I raise my eyes above that from terror my -whole body shivered and the hair stood up on my head, seeing the whole -roof of the grotto, covered with big massive icicles, the least of -which, falling on me, had been sufficient to scramble up my brains and -knock me to pieces; so much so that I was like to that criminal, whom -they say is punished in Hell, by the continual fear of a big stone, -which seems as though it must suddenly fall on his ears. There are -besides the large hall of the grotto, some rather roomy corners, where -the gentlemen of the neighborhood, put their venison to cool in summer, -and we saw the hooks, where they hang the wild fowl. It is true, that -when we were there, we saw neither game nor wild fowl, and I think, -that if we had found any of it, we were men to carry off some of it. -We walked around for about a quarter of an hour, in this _Froidiere_ -and we should have staid there longer if the cold had not driven us -out; which struck in to our backs, even to make our teeth crack; we -reascended the slope, not forgetting, all of us as many as we were, to -provide and load ourselves with ice, which served us at lunch in the -little village mentioned above to drink most delightfully, assuring -you that it is impossible to drink more freshly than we drank then. I -thought of those old voluptuaries, who cooled their wine with snow, and -it seemed to me, as though they might have had it much cheaper if in -their time there had been many such _Froidieres_, to refresh it with -ice, instead of with snow, as some of the gentlemen of the neighborhood -of the _Froidiere_ and some of the most notable persons of the -neighborhood of Bezenson do; who by night, have a good supply brought -on horses, which they keep in their caves, and use at their meals and -banquets. Turning back towards the Imperial city of Bezenson, I carried -for about two great leagues, a rather large icicle in my hands, which -little by little melted and was a pleasant and agreeable cooler, on -account of the great heat of the weather. After having thought over in -my mind, the cause of this _antiperistase_, I could find none other but -this: to wit, that as heat domineers in summer, the cold retires to -places low and subterranean, such as is this one, to which the rays of -the sun cannot approach, and that in such an aquatic and humid place, -it operates the results, which we have shown above. Which seemed to me -so much more likely, that on asking the peasants of the neighboring -village, if in winter there was ice in this _Froidiere_, they answered -me that there was none, and that on the contrary, it was very warm -there. Whatever may be the cause, whether this or another, I can assure -you, that I admired this singularity as much as any I have seen, -since a large church, cut into a rock which I had seen a few years -previously, in a little town of Gascony called St. Milion, distant -seven leagues from Bordeaux; on the steeple of which is the cemetery, -where they bury the dead; a thing to be marvelled at by him who has not -seen it. - -"I have made trial, to enrich this missive, with all the artifice -which has come into my head, using the leisure, which the present time -brings me: as the temple of Janus is open, the air beyond breathing -nothing but war: which forces me, against my wish, to sojourn in this -place longer than I had intended. If these troubles settle down, and if -after the rain, God sends us fine weather as requires the calamitous -state in which is now the flat country, I shall return to my Parnassus; -from which if I go out hereafter, believe that it will be very much in -spite of myself, or that my will will have very much changed. You will -be able to let me hear from you there, and take your revenge for the -prolixity of this letter, by sending me one still longer, which you -will write to me with more pleasure, as I shall take much in reading -it. However as it is becoming time to sound taps, I will pray the -sovereign creator for my affectionate recommendations to your graces. - -"Sir, and best friend, may you keep in health and have a long and happy -life. From Sens this 20th of June 1585. - -"Your obedient friend, BENIGNE POISSENOT. - -"End of the description of the marvel, called the _Froidiere_." - -The next notice about the Glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant is by Gollut -in 1592, as follows:-- - -[Sidenote: "Ices in summer."] - -"I do not wish however to omit (since I am in these waters) to bring to -mind the commodity, which nature has given to some dainty men, since -at the bottom of a mountain of Leugné ice is found in summer, for the -pleasure of those who wish to drink cool. Nevertheless at this time, -this is disappearing, for no other reason (as I think) except, that -they have despoiled the top of the mountain, of a thick and high mass -of woods, which did not permit that the rays of the sun came to warm -the earth, and dry up the distillations, which slipped down to the -lowest and coldest part of the mountain where (_by antiperistase_) the -cold got thicker, and contracted itself against the heats surrounding -and in the neighborhood during the whole summer, all the external -circumference of the mountain." - -The ice at Chaux-les-Passavant is said to have been entirely cleared -out, by the Duc de Lévi, in 1727, for the use of the Army of the Saone. -In 1743, when de Cossigny visited the cave, the ice was formed again. -There are no reports about the intervening time between 1727 and 1743. -The ice probably all re-formed the winter after it was taken away. - -Captain Trouillet in 1885 writes of Chaux-les-Passavant: "The following -winter had shown itself unfavorable to the production of ice, the -periods of humidity preceding too long ahead the periods of frost. -Finally last summer, coming after a wet spring, was exceptionally -warm. Such were the circumstances which brought about in the glacière -the ruin which could be seen at the end of last October. * * * On -the 11th of November, the first effects of frost are felt and the -temperature falls in the glacière to -2°: outside the thermometer -drops to -3°. On the morning of the 12th, same result, and ice makes -its appearance in the grotto, as the report of the observer shows: but -the quantity produced is so small that the internal thermometer soon -goes above 0°. It is only on the 9th of December that the frost wins -definitely; on the 11th, 12th and 13th the chill is intense and reaches --19° outside, stopping at -15° in the glacière. The water coming from -the rains between the 5th and the 9th drip at this time through the -roof and the big side crevasse: circumstances grow favorable and the -ice accumulates. From the 17th, the entrance slope becomes almost -impracticable; the icicles grow on the roof, as big as the body of a -man. * * * From this time to the end of December, the ice sheet does -not increase, for water only arrives by the rare drip of the roof, -and only the stalactites increase slowly. Outside, however, the cold -continues vigorously, the thermometer on the 31st of December dropping -to -15° and to -13° in the glacière. If the production of the ice -stops, it is not the cold which is wanting, but the other element, -the one which as our former study showed, is the most rarely exact at -the meeting. The winter is only favorable on condition that it offers -alternating periods of freezing and thawing; so the observer writes in -his report: 'it is the water which is wanting, otherwise the glacière -would be magnificent.'" - -Trouillet speaks of the difficulty of winter observations in the -following words: "Mons. Briot, the present lessor of the glacière, has -the unpaid mission of going every week to the bottom of the grotto to -get and put in place the interior thermometer. It is a really hard -piece of work at this time of the year: each journey takes about one -hour. Besides the chance that a visitor has of receiving on his head -one of those magnificent stalactites 1 meter or 2 meters long which -fall continually from the roof, it is perfectly disagreeable to him -to arrive at the base of the slope otherwise than on the sole of his -boots, and to face thus the frequent and painful meeting with rocks -whose angular edges dot the surface of the descent, smooth as a mirror -set at an angle of 30°." - -Trouillet and Girardot obtained a series of observations with maxima -and minima thermometers at Chaux-les-Passavant during the winter of -1885-1886. At the end of November the temperature inside was +2°. -On the 2d of December it rose to +2.5°. On the 10th of December, it -sank to -1°, and after this date, it remained below freezing point -all winter. The observations were not continuous, but they showed -that every time the temperature outside dropped considerably, the -temperature inside immediately did likewise. For instance, on the -12th of January, the outside air dropped to -18°, and the inside air -responded by falling to -15°. On the other hand, when the temperature -outside rose above freezing point, the temperature inside remained -stationary or fluctuated only gently. For instance, from the 24th -of March to the 8th of April, the outside air went up and down -perpetually, the extremes being -2° and +16°; while in the same time -the inside air rose continuously from -2° to -0.5°. - - -Windholes and Ice Formations near Gérardmer, Vosges. (Rozet, in -_Encyclopédie Moderne_, Didot Frères, Paris, 1853, vol. XVI., page 503.) - - -L'Abime du Creux-Percé or Glacière de Pasques. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, -1894, page 394; _Annuaire du Club Alpin Français_, vol. XIX., page -38.)--On the plateau of Langres, Côte d'Or. It lies 15 kilometers -from Dijon, and is really a limestone rock gorge, of 55 meters in -depth, which at the top is 40 meters long and 20 meters wide, and at -the bottom is 15 meters long and 12 meters wide. In March 1892, Mons. -Martel found the north side covered with large icicles 15 meters long. -The ice seems to remain throughout the year. The bottom of the Abime -has been reached only by means of two long rope ladders. - - -Creux de Chevroche or Roche Chèvre, Côte d'Or. (Clément Drioton, -_Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie_, 1897, vol. I., page 209.)--"In -the woods of Mavilly, near Bligny-sur-Ouches, is a little cave, called -Creux de Chevroche or Roche-Chèvre, where one can find ice until the -month of July." - - -Freezing Well of Marolles, at La Ferté-Milon, Aisne. (Martel, _Les -Abimes_, page 563, note 2.)--This well is 8.15 meters deep; the -altitude is 70 meters. During the winter of 1892-93 the water in -it froze for a thickness of 15 centimeters. The minimum outside -temperature that year was -17°. - - -Windholes near Pontgibaud, Puy de Dome. (G. Poulett-Scrope, _The -Geology and Extinct Volcanoes of Central France_, 1858, page -60.)--These windholes are in basalt. There are many cracks, whence cold -air currents issue, and where ice has been found, sometimes in summer. -There are cold storage huts over some of the cracks. - - -Le Creux-de-Souci, Puy de Dome. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, 1894, Page -387.)--This is situated 5 kilometers southeast of Besse-en-Chandesse. -It is a large lava cavern with the entrance directly in the middle of -the roof. The bottom is partly filled by a lake. The depth from the -surface of the ground to the lake is 33 meters; from the smallest part -of the opening to the lake the depth is 21.50 meters. Down this last -portion one can descend only by means of a rope ladder. The temperature -is extremely low; in general near freezing point. In June, July, August -and November 1892, Monsieur Berthoule, _maire_ of Besse, did not find -any snow. On the 10th of August, 1893, on the contrary, he found at the -bottom a heap of snow, which he thinks was formed in the cave itself, -by the freezing during their descent of the drops of water which are -constantly dripping from the roof. He reports landing on _une montagne -de neige, de neige blanche_. On several visits, Mons. Berthoule noticed -carbonic acid gas in dangerous quantities. There was none at the time -he observed the snow heap, but ten days later he found it impossible -to descend into the cave as the carbonic acid gas came up in puffs to -the entrance. In the lake, Mons. Berthoule discovered a variety of -Rotifer, _Notholca longispina_, and also several algæ and diatoms. -The _Asterionella formosa_ is the most remarkable from its abundance: -it exists in some of the lakes of the Alps, but not in those of the -Pyrenees. - - -Aven de Lou Cervi, Vaucluse. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 563.)--This is -a cold cave. It belongs to the class which Mons. Martel calls _avens -à rétrécissement_, or _abimes à double orifice_. In September, 1892, -Mons. Martel noted a temperature of 6.5° at 53 meters; of 6.8° at 64 -meters. Mean temperature of locality, 8.75°. - - -Igue de Biau, Lot. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 304.)--Cold cave. -Temperature on 13th July, 1891: 5°. - - -Fosse Mobile, Charente. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 380.)--Cold cave. -Temperature on 11th April, 1893: 7°. - - -Aven de Deidou, Causse Méjean. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 223.)--Cold -cave. Temperatures on 14th October, 1892: outside air, 4°; at bottom, -6.5°. - - -Aven des Oules, Causse Méjean. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 227.)--Cold -cave. Temperatures on 21st October, 1892: outside air, 2.5°; at bottom, -4°. - - -Windhole Cold Caves near Roquefort, Aveyron.--They lie 13 kilometers -from Millau, at an altitude of about 600 meters, and are utilized in -the manufacture of Roquefort cheese. - - -Aven de Carlet, near la Roche Giron, Basses Alpes. (Martel, _Les -Abimes_, page 53.)--Lumps of ice are reported to have been taken from -it. - - -La Poujade, Cévennes. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, pages 212-215.)--An -intermittent spring in limestone rock. At the bottom of the first -gallery, on the 18th of September, 1892, the temperature of the air was -12.3°, and that of a pool of water supplied by drip 11.5°. Mons. Martel -thought that the drip brought to the pool the mean annual temperature -of the ground through which it had come. A little further within and 5 -meters lower, the temperature of the air was 7.3° and that of another -pool of water 6.8°. This pool was not supplied by drip and must have -been left over by the last flow of the spring. Mons. Martel thought -that the lower temperatures at this spot were due to the cold air of -winter dropping to the bottom of the cave and on account of its density -not being able to get out. - - -Snow Preserved in Chasms in the Italian Mountains. (_The Penny -Magazine_, London, August, 1834, page 335.)--Mr. Bunford Samuel called -my attention to an article in which the Southern Italians are said to -dig wells or cellars on the mountain sides, and to throw snow into them -in winter. The snow is well pressed together and straw, dried leaves, -etc., is thrown on top. By having a northern exposure for these pits, -and seeing that they are in thick forest, or in rifts where the sun -does not penetrate, these depots may be safely placed as low down the -mountain as the snow falls and lies. Naples is largely supplied [1834] -with snow in summer from such snow wells situated on Monte Angelo, the -loftiest point of the promontory separating the Bay of Naples from the -Bay of Salerno. - - -Cold Caves of San Marino, Apennines. (De Saussure, _Voyages dans les -Alpes_, 1796, III., page 211.)--These are probably windholes. - - -La Bocche dei Venti di Cesi. (De Saussure, _Voyages dans les Alpes_, -1796, III., page 211.)--These windholes were in the cellar of the -house of Don Giuseppe Cesi, in the town of Cesi. The cellar acted as a -natural refrigerator. The air stream was so strong, that it nearly blew -out the torches. In winter the wind rushed into the holes. De Saussure -was shown the following Latin verses by the owner:-- - - "Abditus hic ludit vario discrimine ventus - Et faciles miros exhibet aura jocos. - Nam si bruma riget, quaecumque objeceris haurit. - Evomit aestivo cum calet igne dies," - - -Windholes or "Ventarole" on Monte Testaceo, near Rome. (De Saussure, -_Voyages dans les Alpes_, 1796, III., page 209.)--There are a number -here among heaps of broken pottery. The temperatures seem abnormally -low. - - -Krypta Sorana. (Kircher, _Mundus Subterraneus_, 1664, page 118 and -page 239.)--This has been spoken of as a glacière cave, but as there -is much doubt in the matter, I quote the passages, on which the -reports are based, in the original Latin: "Cryptae sunt naturales, -quarum innumerae sunt species, juxta vires naturales iis inditas. Sunt -nonnullae medicinali virtute praeditae, quaedam metallicis vaporibus, -exhalationibus, aquis scatent, sunt et glaciales, plenae nivibus et -crystallo, uti in Monte Sorano me vidisse memini." And further: "Vidi -ego in Monte Sorano cryptam veluti glacie incrustatam, ingentibus in -fornice hinc inde stiriis dependentibus, e quibus vicini montis accolae -pocula aestivo tempore conficiunt, aquae vinoque, quae iis infunduntur, -refrigerandis aptissima, extremo rigore in summas bibentium delicias -commutato." - - -Subterranean Ice Sheet, Mount Etna, Sicily. (Lyell, _Principles of -Geology, 11th Edition_, chapter XXVI.)--This ice sheet is near the -Casa Inglese. Sir Charles Lyell ascertained the fact of its existence -in 1828, and in 1858 he found the same mass of ice, of unknown extent -and thickness, still unmelted. In the beginning of the winter of -1828, Lyell found the crevices in the interior of the summit of the -highest cone of Etna encrusted with thick ice, and in some cases hot -vapors actually streaming out between masses of ice and the rugged and -steep walls of the crater. Lyell accounts for this ice sheet by the -explanation that there must have been a great snow bank in existence -at the time of an eruption of the volcano. This deep mass of snow -must have been covered at the beginning of the eruption by volcanic -sand showered on it, followed by a stream of lava. The sand is a bad -conductor of heat and together with the solidified lava, preserved the -snow from liquefaction. - - -Glacière on the Moncodine. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 13.)--The -Moncodine is described as a Dolomite near the Lago di Como. The cave -lies up the Val Sasina, two hours from Cortenuova, at an altitude of -1675 meters. The entrance faces north, and is 2.5 meters high and 1.5 -meters wide. The average diameter of the cave is 16 meters. The floor -is solid ice, which has been sometimes cut for use in the hotels on the -Lago di Como and even been sent to Milan. - - -La Ghiacciaia del Mondole. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 8.)--The Mondole -is a mountain 2375 meters high, near Mondovi, south of Turin. The cave -lies on the eastern slope, at an altitude of about 2000 meters. It is -hard to get at. The entrance is to the east, and is 2 meters wide and -1.5 meters high. A passageway some 25 meters long leads to a large -chamber where there is plenty of ice. In hot summers ice is brought -from the cave to Mondovi. _Ghiacciaia_ means freezing cavern in Italian. - - -La Ghiacciaia del Val Séguret. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 8.)--It lies -near Susa at the base of chalk cliffs, at an altitude of about 1500 -meters. The cave is said to be about 40 meters deep, 50 meters wide and -50 meters high. Bonetti in May, 1874, found many icicles and ice cones. - - -La Borna de la Glace. (Chanoine Carrel, _Bibliothèque Universelle de -Genève_, 1841, vol. XXXIV., page 196.)--It lies in the Duchy of Aosta, -commune of La Salle, on the northern slope of the hills near Chabauday, -in a spot called Plan Agex. The altitude is 1602 meters. The entrance -opens to the east and is 60 centimeters wide and 80 centimeters high. -One can descend for 4 meters. There are two branches in the rear of -the entrance. Chanoine Carrel found an ice pillar 1 meter high in the -western branch. He recorded these temperatures on the 15th of July, -1841: Outside +15°. Entrance +2.9°. East branch +0.9°. West branch -+0.5°. - - -Windholes in the Italian Alps. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, pages 94-97.)--A -number of these seem to have abnormally low temperatures. Some are in -the mountains around Chiavenna, and are sometimes, by building small -huts over them, utilized as refrigerators. Some are reported in the -neighborhood of the Lago di Como near Dongo, near Menaggio, and in the -villa Pliniana near Curino; in the neighborhood of the Lake of Lugano -at the base of Monte Caprino, near Melide, near Mendrisio and near -Sertellino; and in the Val Maggia near Cevio. - - -The Glacière de Font d'Urle, or Fondurle, Dauphiné. (Héricart de Thury, -_Annales des Mines_, vol. XXXIII., page 157; G. F. Browne, _Ice Caves_, -etc., page 212; E. A. Martel, _Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie_, -vol. I., page 37; L. Villard, _Spélunca_, 1896, vol. II., page 39.)--It -lies on the Foire de Font d'Urle, 16 kilometers north of Dié, 48 -kilometers east of Valence, and 80 kilometers south of Grenoble. The -glacière consists of two large pits, lying east and west, and with -underground communication. From this tunnel a long low archway leads to -a broad slope of chaotic blocks of stone, which is 60 meters long and -42 meters in greatest width. The ice begins half way down this slope, -fitfully at first and afterwards in a tolerably continuous sheet. Thury -found many icicles hanging from the roof. Browne found four columns -of ice, of which the largest was 5.80 meters across the base. On his -visit, in the middle of August, the ice was strongly thawing. Both -explorers noted the extremely prismatic character of the ice. Browne -found a temperature of +0.5°. Martel gives a section and plan of Font -d'Urle. Mons. Villard says about this cavern: "A curious thing: I found -in this cave, motionless on a piece of rock, entirely surrounded by ice -for a distance of several meters, a blind specimen of a coleoptera, -_Cytodromus dapsoïdes_." - - -The Chourun Clot. (E. A. Martel, _Sous Terre_. _Annuaire du Club Alpin -Français_, vol. XXIII., 1896, pages 42, 43; _Mémoires de la Société -de Spéléologie_, vol. I., page 31.)--In Dauphiné, half way between -Agnières and the Pic Costebelle, at an altitude of 1,740 meters. There -is first a pit 18 meters long, 4.50 meters wide and 25 meters deep. In -the bottom of this is a vertical hole 15 meters deep and from 1 meter -to 2 meters in diameter, in which there was much ice on the 31st of -July, 1896. Then the pit changes to a sloping gallery which terminates -in a little hall, full of ice, at a depth of 70 meters. Martel gives a -cut and section of this glacière. - - -The Glacière du Trou de Glas. (E. A. Martel, _La Géographie_, 1900, -vol. I., page 52.)--In the range of the Grande Chartreuse. - - -The Chourun Martin. (E. A. Martel, _La Géographie_, 1900, vol. I., page -53.)--In the range of the Dévoluy, Hautes-Alpes; altitude 1,580 meters. -An extremely deep pit, which on July 31st, 1899, was much blocked up -with snow. - - -The Chourun de la Parza. (E. A. Martel, _La Géographie_, 1900, vol. I., -page 54.)--In the range of the Dévoluy, Hautes-Alpes; altitude 1,725 -meters. A fine pit, 25 meters in diameter, and 74 meters in depth. -Filled with snow or rather névé, in which are deep holes. - - -The Glacière de l'Haut-d'Aviernoz. Described in Part I., page 2. (C. -Dunant, _Le Parmelan et ses Lapiaz_, page 26; Browne, _Ice Caves_, -etc., page 157.)--Mons. Dunant calls this glacière l'Haut d'Aviernoz; -Mr. Browne calls it the Glacière du Grand Anu. By a plumb line held -from the edge of the larger pit, Browne found that the ice floor was -about 35 meters from the surface, which would give a level for the ice -floor closely identical to the one I found. In July, 1864, he recorded -a temperature of +1.1°. - - -The Glacière de l'Enfer. (G. F. Browne, _Good Words_, November, 1866; -T. G. Bonney, _The Alpine Regions_, 1868, pages 95, 96; C. Dunant, _Le -Parmelan et ses Lapiaz_, page 25.)--On Mont Parmelan. A pit cave with -a steep slope of broken rock leading to a rock portal in the face of -a low cliff. This opens into a roughly circular hall about 22 meters -in diameter and 3 meters to 4 meters in height. A chink between the -rock and the ice permitted Mr. Browne to scramble down three or four -meters to where a tunnel entered the ice mass. Throwing a log of wood -down this tunnel, a crash was heard and then a splash of water, and -then a strange gulping sound. "The tunnel obviously led to a subglacial -reservoir and this was probably covered by a thin crust of ice; the -log in falling had broken this and then disturbed the water below, -which then commenced bubbling up and down through the hole, and making -a gulping noise, just as it does sometimes when oscillating up and down -in a pipe." - -Mons. C. Dunant of the _Club Alpin Français_ describes a visit to -the Glacière de l'Enfer. He mentions also a legend of a witch from a -neighboring village who would get the ice from these caves and bring -it down in the shape of hail on the crops of the peasants who were -inhospitable to her. - - -The Glacière de Chapuis. Described in Part I., page 5. (Browne, _Ice -Caves_, etc., page 182, and _Good Words_, November, 1866.)--Mr. Browne -calls it the Glacière de Chappet-Sur-Villaz. Mr. Browne and Professor -T. G. Bonney found several flies in the Glacière de Chapuis. Three of -them were specimens of _Stenophylax_, the largest being probably, but -not certainly, _S. hieroglyphicus_ of Stephens. Two smaller caddis -flies were either _S. testaceus_ of Pictet or some closely allied -species. One other insect was an ichneumon of the genus _Paniscus_, -of an unidentified species. It differed from all its congeners in the -marking of the throat, resembling in this respect some species of -_Ophion_. Mr. Browne thinks that the case flies may have been washed -into the cave somehow or other in the larva form, and come to maturity -on the ice where they had lodged. But this explanation will not hold -in the case of the ichneumon, which is a parasitic genus on larvæ of -terrestrial insects. - - -The Glacière de Le Brezon. (Pictet, _Bibliothèque Universelle de -Genève_, 1822, vol. XX., page 270, and Thury, _Bibliothèque Universelle -de Genève_, 1861, vol. X., pages 139 and 152.)--It lies southeast of -Bonneville near the foot of Mount Lechaud, at an altitude of 1276 -meters. The cave is 9.7 meters long, about 8 meters wide and the -greatest height is about 4 meters. The entrance is small and is at the -base of a cliff, in some places of which cold air currents issue. The -ice lies on the floor. Some of it is probably winter snow. - - -The Glacière de Brisons.--Described in Part I., page 1. - - -The Grand Cave de Montarquis. Described in Part I., page 70. -(Thury, _Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, vol. X., pages -135-153.)--Professor Thury describes two visits to this cave. On the -16th of August, 1859, he found no ice stalactites or stalagmites. On -the 19th of January, 1861, he did not find a single drop of water in -the cave, but many stalactites and stalagmites of beautiful clear ice, -one of which resembled porcelain more than any other substance. In -August, Thury found an air current streaming into the cave at the rear, -but this did not, however, disturb the air of the interior, for in one -part it was in perfect equilibrium: along the line of the draughts -the ice was more melted than elsewhere in the cave. In January, the -current was reversed and poured into the fissure, with the temperature -varying between -1.5° and -2.5°. He observed the following temperatures -at the Grand Cave:-- - - TIME. OUTSIDE. INSIDE. - 16th August, 1859 +8.6° +2.5° - 19th January, 1861 1.25 P. M. +2.6° -4.° - " " " 2.12 " +2.1° -4.° - " " " 3.50 " -1.1° -4.° - - -The Petite Cave de Montarquis. Mentioned in Part I., page 71. (Thury, -_Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, 1861, vol. X., page 150. Also -quotes Morin.)--At the end of a crooked fissure 10 meters deep, a -passage 6 meters long, leads into a cave 8 meters high and 5 meters in -diameter. In August, 1828, Morin found an ice stalagmite of 5 meters in -height in the middle of the cave. - - -Cave Containing Ice on the Southern Shore of Lake Geneva.--Reported; no -information. - - -The Glacière and Neigière d'Arc-Sous-Cicon. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, -etc., page 118.)--These lie close together in the Jura about twenty -kilometers from Pontarlier. The little glacière is formed by a number -of fissures in the rock, disconnected slits in the surface opening into -larger chambers where the ice lies. The neigière is a deep pit, with a -collection of snow at the bottom, much sheltered by overhanging rocks -and trees. A huge fallen rock covers a large part of the sloping bottom -of the pit, which forms a small cave in the shape of a round soldier's -tent, with walls of rock and floor of ice. - - -The Glacière de la Genollière. Described in Part I., page 48. (Browne, -_Ice Caves_, etc., page 1.)--Mr. Browne observed in 1864 a temperature -of +1.1°, and two days later of +0.8°. He also found a number of flies -running rapidly over the ice and stones. He was told in England, -from the specimen he brought away, that it was the _Stenophylax -hieroglyphicus_ of Stephens or something very like that fly. - - -The Glacière de Saint-Georges. Described in Part I., page 62. (Thury, -_Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, 1861, vol. X.)--Professor Thury -obtained the following temperatures at the Glacière de Saint-Georges:-- - - OUTSIDE. INSIDE. - - 9th January, 1858 7.36 P. M., -4.5° 7.16 P. M., -0.6° - " " " 7.20 " -1.2° - " " " 7.27 " -2.5° - " " " 7.50 " -2.9° - Minimum of night -5.8° -4.9° - 10th January, 1858 10.53 A. M., -3.4° 10.12 A. M., -4.6° - " " " 11.14 " -3.1° 10.30 " -4.5° - " " " 11.45 " -2.2° 11.20 " -4.4° - " " " 12.32 P. M., -2.4° 12.14 P. M., -4.4° - " " " 1.12 " -0.9° 1.30 " -4.2° - " " " 3.03 " -2.9° 2.30 " -4.1° - " " " 3.56 " -3.5° 3.14 " -4.0° - " " " 4.26 " -3.7° 4.00 " -3.8° - Minimum of night -7.6° -6.8° - 11th January, 1858 9.34 A. M., -5.6° - 2d April, 1858 6.20 P. M., +0.7° -0.2° - Minimum of night + 1.1° - 3d April, 1858 10.00 A. M., +4.0° 9.00 A. M., -1.0° - -Professor Thury's winter excursions caused him to accept as proved that -part of the mountaineers' belief, which holds that there is no ice -formed in caves in winter. One of the main grounds for his opinion was -the series of observations he made in the Glacière de Saint-Georges. -He found no ice forming there in winter and the natives said it did -not because the cavern was not cold enough. So he placed large dishes -filled with water in the cave and found that they froze solid during -the night, which he had been assured was impossible. Thury also found -violent movements of the air at Saint-Georges in January, 1858. A -candle burned steadily for some time, but at 7.16 P. M. it began to -flicker and soon inclined downwards through an angle of about 45°; and -in the entrance, the flame assumed an almost horizontal position. At 8 -P. M., the current of air nearly disappeared. Thury thought that this -violent and temporary disturbance of equilibrium was due to the fact -that as the heavier air outside tended to pass into the cave, the less -cold air within tended to pass out; and the narrow entrance confining -the struggle to a small area, the weaker current was able for a while -to hold its own. - - -The Glacière du Pré de Saint-Livres. Described in Part I., page -65. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, page 40.)--Mr. Browne found, in 1864, a -temperature of 0°. - - -The Petite Glacière du Pré de Saint-Livres. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, page -46.)--This is near the last cave at a slightly higher altitude. There -is first a small pit, then a little cave, in which there is an ice -slope. This passes under a low arch in the rock wall, and leads down -into another small cave. Mr. Browne descended this ice stream, which -was itself practically a fissure column and spread into the fan shape -at the base. The lower cave was 22 meters long and 11 meters wide, and -contained an ice floor and several fissure columns. - - -The Glacière de Naye, above Montreux, Switzerland. (E. A. Martel, _Les -Abimes_, page 397; _Spélunca_, 1895, vol. I., pages 107, 108; _Mémoires -de la Société de Spéléologie_, vol. III., pages 246-254.)--This is -called a _glacier souterrain_. It was discovered in 1893 by Professor -Dutoit. There are fifty-four caves known among the Rochers de Naye, and -only this one contains ice. It is a long narrow cave with two entrances -and widest towards the base, which opens over a precipice. The altitude -is high, the upper entrance being at an altitude of 1820 meters, and -the lower of 1750 meters. The place is both a passage cave and a -windhole. The snow falls into the upper entrance, and slides down, -becoming ice in the lower portion. There are other connecting passages -and hollows where the cold air cannot get in, and there ice does not -form. Mons. Martel thinks that the ice formed during the winter is -preserved by the draughts--due to the difference in level of the two -openings--causing an evaporation and chill sufficient for the purpose. - - -The Creux Bourquin. (E. A. Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 397.)--At -Mauberget, near Grandson. This is a rock gorge 25 meters deep. At the -bottom, on the 9th of July, 1893, was a mass of ice 38 meters long and -8 meters wide. - - -The Glacière de Monthézy. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, page 97.)--This lies -to the west of Neufchâtel, between the Val de Travers and the Val de -Brévine, on the path between the villages of Couvet and Le Brévine, -at an altitude of 1100 meters. The cave is nearly oval in shape, with -a length of 34 meters and a width of 29 meters. The roof is from 1 -meter to 3 meters high. There are three pits, about 20 meters deep, on -different sides of the cave. The descent is made through the largest -pit. On the 6th of July, 1864, Mr. Browne found the floor of the cave -covered with ice, and icicles and columns in some places; he also saw -a clump of cowslips (_primula elatior_) overhanging the snow at the -bottom of the pit through which he descended. - - -Pertius Freiss. (T. G. Bonney, _Nature_, vol. XI., page 327.)--It lies -on the way to the Pic d'Arzinol, near Evolène, in the Val d'Hérens. -A slip or subsidence of part of a cliff has opened two joints in the -rock, in both of which fissures Professor Bonney found ice on July 23d. - - -The Schafloch. Described in Part I., page 21. (Körber, _Jahrbuch des -Schweizer Alpen Club_, 1885, vol. XX., pages 316, 343.)--Herr Körber -gives some of the dimensions as follows: Entrance 14 meters wide -and 4.70 meters high. Length of cave 206.8 meters: average width -20 meters and greatest width 23.5 meters. Height from 5 meters to 7 -meters. Length of ice slope 29 meters and breadth 12.5 meters; for 16 -meters the slope has an inclination of 32°. Körber made the following -observations in the Schafloch:-- - - 14 METERS 100 METERS 160 METERS - DATE. OUTSIDE. FROM FROM FROM - ENTRANCE. ENTRANCE. ENTRANCE. - - 21 September, 1884, 10.5° 5.6° 0.2° 0.2° - 18 January, 1885, 2.7° -1.0° -1.3° -- - -The Rev. G. F. Browne, in 1864, found a temperature of +0.5°. - - -The Eisloch of Unterfluh. (Baltzer, _Jahrbuch des Schweizer Alpen -Club_, 1892-93, pages 358-362.)--Twenty minutes from Unterfluh near -Meiringen. A long narrow rock crack, some 30 meters deep and running -some distance underground. - - -Windholes and Milkhouses of Seelisberg.--Described in Part I., page 45. - - -Windholes on the Spitzfluh. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 92.)--These are -situated between Oltingen and Zeylingen, Canton Bâle: they generally -contain ice till the end of July. - - -Windholes on the Blummatt. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 93.)--On the -northwestern slope of the Stanzerberg. Ice sometimes lies over in these -windholes. - - -Windholes near Bozen. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 97.)--On the Mendel -ranges in Eppan, southwest of Bozen, among porphyry rocks. There are -strong wind-streams. Ice is said to remain till late in the summer. - - -Grotto on Monte Tofana, Dolomites. (T. G. Bonney, _Nature_, vol. XI., -page 328.)--This is probably a rudimentary glacière. - - -Holes with Ice near Lienz. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 97.)--One hour -and a half distant near Aineth, is a small cave containing ice, and -further up the valley towards Huben, are several windholes. - - -Eishöhle am Birnhorn. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 131.)--Near Leogang in -the Pinzgau. Altitude 2150 meters. There are two entrances, from which -a slope 10 meters long, set at an angle of 25°, leads to an ice floor -12 meters long and 3 meters high. Then comes a small ice slope, and a -little horizontal floor at the back. Explored by Fugger. - - -Glacières on the Eiskogel. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 19.)--The -Eiskogel is in the Tennengebirge, a mountain mass lying east of Pass -Lueg. At an altitude of about 1900 meters, are two small caves, about -30 meters to 40 meters apart. They are some 25 meters in length and get -smaller towards the bottom. - - -Holes with Ice in the Tennengebirge, between the Schallwand and the -Tauernkogel. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 20.)--In this gorge are some -small holes at an altitude of about 2000 meters, which are said to -contain ice in summer. - - -The Seeofen. (A. Posselt-Csorich, _Zeitschrift des Deutschen und -Oesterreichischen Alpen Verein_, 1880, page 270.) On the Hean Krail in -the Tennengebirge, at an altitude of about 1900 meters. The entrance -faces southwest, and is 6 meters high and 4.5 meters wide. The cave is -25 meters long, and 8 meters wide. The floor of the cave is 13 meters -below the entrance. - - -The Posselthöhle. (A. Posselt-Csorich, _Zeitschrift des Deutschen -und Osterreichischen Alpen Verein_, 1880, page 273.)--Named after -its discoverer. It lies on the Hochkogel in the Tennengebirge, at an -altitude of about 1900 meters. The entrance faces southwest, and is -about 8 meters high and 8 meters wide. From the entrance the cave first -rises, then sinks again below the level of the entrance, where the -ice begins. The cave is about 20 meters wide. About 180 meters were -explored, to a point where a perpendicular ice wall, 6 meters high, -barred the way. About 125 meters from the entrance, there was an ice -cone about 7 meters high. - - -The Gamsloch or Diebshöhle. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 14.)--It lies -on the Breithorn of the Steinernes Meer, near the Riemannhauss, at an -altitude of about 2180 meters. The entrance faces south. There is first -a small, then a larger chamber. The latter is some 40 meters long, by -5 meters or 6 meters wide. The ice is in the large chamber. - - -Eishöhle am Seilerer. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 15.)--On the -eastern side of the Seilerer arête on the Ewigen Schneeberg, west of -Bischofshofen, at an altitude of about 2400 meters, is a small glacière -cave. - - -Cave in the Hagengebirge, West of Pass Lueg. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page -15.)--It lies about 2 kilometers east of Kalbersberg, at an altitude of -about 2000 meters. A snow slope, with an ice floor at the bottom, leads -into a long cave, about which little is known. - - -The Nixloch. Described in Part I., page 57. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, -page 98.)--Professor Fugger gathered some valuable data in connection -with the Nixloch. In August, 1879, he found the air current entering -downwards; on September 14th, 1879, there was no current either way. -On Christmas day, 1878, on the contrary, the draughts were reversed, -pouring out of the hole with a temperature of +7.4°: the outside air -then being -7.4°. At this time the known lower opening was in existence. - - -The Kolowratshöhle. Described in Part I., page 18. (Fugger, -_Beobachtungen_, etc., page 7.)--This cavern has been more carefully -studied than any other glacière cave. Some of its dimensions are given -by Professor Fugger as follows: From the entrance to the ice floor, -26.6 meters; surface covered by ice as measured on a plane, 2940 -square meters; approximate cubical measure of entire cave, 92,000 cubic -meters. The height of the entrance is 7 meters, with a width at the -base of 2.7 meters, and at the top of 6.6 meters. - -On the entrance slope occurred the only fatal accident I know of in -glacières. In 1866, the Bavarian minister Freiherr von Lerchenfeld -tried to descend; a wooden handrail which had been erected over the -snow broke under his weight; von Lerchenfeld fell to the bottom of the -cave and died a few days after from the injuries he received. - -Of the Kolowratshöhle, we have numerous thermometric observations by -Professor Fugger, of which I select a few. - - DATE. OUTSIDE. ENTRANCE. INSIDE. REAR. - 21 May 1876 +6.5° +0.7° +0.03° 0°& +0.08° - 18 June 1876 +5.1° +1.6° +0.23° +0.4° - 24 June 1876 +10.° +1.6° +0.4° -- - 5 July 1876 -- -- +0.4° -- - 22 July 1876 +11.3° +1.5° +0.4° +0.2° - 29 July 1876 +15.2° +2.4° +0.3° +0.2° - 22 Aug. 1876 +19.8° +4.0° +0.4° +0.25° - 20 Sept. 1876 +7.2° +3.0° +0.45° +0.6° - 22 Sept. 1876 -- -- +0.30° -- - 16 Oct. 1876 +14.8° +2.05° +0.2° +0.2° - 22 Oct. 1876 +5.6° +2.5° +0.25° +0.4° - 26 Nov. 1876 +4.4° +0.4° -1.0° -- - 6 Jan. 1877 +2.1° +1.2° -1.65° -0.6° - - -The Schellenberger Eisgrotte. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen in den Eishöhlen -des Untersberges_, page 80.)--On the southeast slope of the Untersberg -near Salzburg, at an altitude of 1580 meters. The path leads past the -Kienbergalp over the Mitterkaser and the Sandkaser. In front of the -entrance is a sort of rock dam, 30 meters long and 5 meters or 6 meters -higher than the entrance. Masses of snow fill the space between the -two. The entrance is about 20 meters wide and from 2 meters to 3 meters -high. A snow slope of 25 meters in length, set at an angle of 25°, -leads to the ice floor. The cave is 54 meters long, from 13 meters to -22 meters broad and from 4 meters to 10 meters high. The cave has been -repeatedly examined by Fugger, who has always found most snow and ice -in the beginning of the hot weather, after which it gradually dwindles -away. - -Of the Schellenberger Eisgrotte, we have the following thermometric -observations by Professor Fugger:-- - - DATE. OUTSIDE. ENTRANCE. INSIDE. - 29 June, 1877 +18° -- +0.38° - 24 " 1881 +21° +2.3° +0.24° - 28 Aug., 1878 +14.6° -- +0.2° - 12 " 1879 +17.8° -- +0.3° - 4 Oct., 1876 +16.7° +1.4° +0.3° - 9 " 1880 +3.6° +3.5° +0.3° - 2 " 1887 +5.4° -- +0.4° - 9 " 1887 +8.2° -- +0.4° - 11 Nov., 1877 +7.4° -- +0.2° - - -The Grosser Eiskeller or Kaiser Karls Höhle. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, -etc., page 58.)--On the Untersberg, between the Salzburger Hochthron -and the Schweigmüller Alp. Altitude 1687 meters. A stony slope of 26 -meters in length leads to an ice floor which is 26 meters long and 6 -meters to 8 meters wide. - - -The Kleiner Eiskeller. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page 73.)--Near -the last. A small cave 8 meters long, 6 meters wide, 8 meters high. - - -The Windlöcher on the Untersberg. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page -73.)--On the Klingersteig, at an altitude of 1300 meters. Four small -caves of about 12 meters each in length and 8 meters in depth, and -communicating at the bottom. There are strong draughts among them. In -one of the caves is a small pit of great depth. - - -The Eiswinkel on the Untersberg. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page -77.)--Between the Klingeralp and the Vierkaser, at an altitude of 1600 -meters. A small cave or rather rock shelter. - - -Windholes on the Untersberg. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, pages 103, -104.)--Windholes have been found by Fugger on the lower slopes of the -Untersberg: - -Near the Hochbruch at Fürstenbrunn. - -In the débris of the Neubruch. - -In the débris of the Veitlbruch. - - -Hotel Cellar at Weissenbach on the Attersee. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page -20.)--There is a small cave here, at an altitude of 452 meters, which -is utilized as a cellar, and which is said to contain ice in summer. - - -Cave near Steinbach. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 20.)--A small cave -containing ice on the northwest slopes of the Höllengebirge. Altitude -about 700 meters. - - -The Kliebensteinhöhle or Klimmsteinhöhle. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page -20.)--On the north slope of the Höllengebirge, near the Aurachkar Alp, -between Steinbach and the Langbath Lakes. Altitude about 1300 meters. -Length about 40 meters, width 20 meters, height 15 meters. - - -The Wasserloch. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 21.)--On the south slope of -the Höllengebirge, near the Spitzalpe. Altitude about 1350 meters. At -the bottom of a gorge is a snow heap and a small cave. The snow becomes -ice in the cave. - - -Cave on the Zinkenkogl near Aussee. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page -21.)--Altitude about 1800 meters. A snow slope leads to an ice floor 18 -meters long and 4 meters wide. - - -Cave on the Kasberg. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 22.)--South of Grünau -near Gmunden. Altitude about 1500 meters. Small cave 12 meters long, 4 -meters wide. - - -The Wasseraufschlag on the Rothen Kogel. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page -22.)--A tunnel near Aussee. The ice in it was formerly used. - - -The Gschlösslkirche. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 22.)--On the Dachstein -range, facing the Lake of Gosau. A small cave, mostly filled with snow. - - -Cave with Ice on the Mitterstein. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 23.)--On -the Dachstein, one hour and a quarter from the Austria hut. Altitude -about 1800 meters. Cave 5 meters to 6 meters wide, 30 meters long. In -the rear a passage leads apparently to a windhole where there is a -strong draught. - - -Windholes in the Obersulzbach Valley in the Pinzgau. (Fugger, -_Eishöhlen_, page 105.)--Fugger found ice among these on the 1st of -August, 1886. - - -Ice in an Abandoned Nickel Mine on the Zinkwand, in the Schladming -Valley. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 105.) - - -Windholes on the Rothen Kogel near Aussee. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page -106.)--These were found to contain ice on the 2d of September, 1848. - - -Cave on the Langthalkogel. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 23.)--On the -Dachstein plateau between Hallstatt and Gosau. A small cave which -contains ice. - - -Eislunghöhle. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 24.)--A small cave between the -Hochkasten and Ostrowiz in the Priel range. - - -The Geldloch or Seelücken on the Oetscher. (Schmidl, _Die Höhlen -des Ötscher and Die Oesterreichischen Höhlen_; Cranmer and Sieger, -_Globus_, 1899, pages 313-318, and 333-335.)--The second known notice -of a glacière cave is the account of a visit to the Oetscher Caves -in 1591. After lying in manuscript for two and a half centuries, it -was published by Dr. A. Schmidl in 1857, in _Die Höhlen des Ötscher_, -pages 21-36. According to the account, which is naive, but evidently -truthful, Kaiser Rudolf II. ordered Reichard Strein, owner of the -Herrschaff Friedeck, to investigate the Ötscher and especially its -caves. He did so, with the title of _Kaiserlicher Commissarius_, and -accompanied by the _Bannerherr_ Christoph Schallenberger, Hans Gasser, -and eleven porters. On September the 16th, 1591, they visited the -Seelücken, where they found a lake in the front of the cave, and where -the party had great difficulties in climbing round on to the ice. - -The Seelücken on the Oetscher is situated at an altitude of 1470 -meters. It opens nearly due south. The ice floor is about 20 meters -below the entrance and is about 38 meters long and 24 meters wide; at -the rear, it rises for some 15 meters as an ice wall at an angle of -about 60°, and then forms a second ice floor about 45 meters long by -19 meters wide. The front part of the ice is sometimes, about July, -covered with water. The cave continues further back, in two branches, -and Professors Cranmer and Sieger consider that it is a large windhole, -in which draughts are infrequent, on account of its length and because -the openings are near the same level. There are also several up and -down curves and in these cold air remains and acts something like a -cork in stopping draughts. - -On the 13th of September there were no draughts, and the temperatures -between 11 A. M. and 12 M. were:-- - - Outside air +7.1° - Inside near entrance +1.5° - A little further in +1.1° - At the lowest point near ice +0.8° - -On the 31st of October, 1897, there was a draught, which followed the -curves of the cavern, and which flowed out at the southern end. The -temperatures were:-- - - Outside air +3.7° - Inside near entrance +1.3° - At the lowest point near ice +0.8° - On the second, higher ice floor +1.0° - In the main passage behind ice +1.4° - - -Cave on the Kühfotzen near Warscheneck. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page -25.)--A small cave containing ice. - - -Eiskeller on the Rax. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 25; Cranmer, -_Eishöhlen_, etc., page 61.)--Altitude about 1660 meters. A doline with -a small cave at the bottom, in which melting snow was found on the 19th -of September, 1896. - - -The Tablerloch. (Cranmer, _Eishöhlen_, etc., pages 19-60.)--On the -Dürren-Wand in the mountains south of Vienna, 2 hours distant from -Miesenbach R. R. station. Altitude about 1000 meters. Entrance 7 meters -wide, 3.5 meters high. Slope 30° from entrance. Lowest point 22 meters -below entrance. Extreme length of cave 50 meters, width 23 meters, -height 15 meters. Professor Cranmer found fresh ice beginning to form -on the 12th of November, 1893; on the 1st of December, 1894; and on -the 20th of October, 1895. He found it melting away on the 3d of June, -1894; on the 1st of June, 1895; and on the 31st of May, 1896. The rates -at which the ice formed or melted, however, were not always the same in -different parts of the cave. The greatest amount of ice observed seems -to have been in March and April. In the summer months no perceptible -movements of air seem to have been noticed. This was also sometimes the -case in the winter months, during which, however, movements of air were -at other times plainly perceptible. - - -The Gipsloch. (Cranmer, _Eishöhlen_, etc., page 60.)--A small cave on -the Hohen-Wand near Wiener-Neustadt. It is rather a cold cave than a -glacière. - - -The Windloch. (Cranmer, _Eishöhlen_, etc., page 61.)--On the Hohen-Wand -near Wiener Neustadt. Small cave. Snow found in it on June the 2d, 1895. - - -Eisloch in the Brandstein on the Hochschwab. (Cranmer, _Eishöhlen_, -etc., page 64.)--Altitude about 1600 meters. A moderately large cave. -On the 21st of August, 1895, there was an ice floor 10 meters long and -5 meters broad. Temperature in rear of cave, -0.2°. - - -Caves on the Beilstein. (Krauss, _Höhlenkunde_, 1894, pages 207-219; -Cranmer, _Eishöhlen_, etc., page 63.)--These lie about 4 hours on foot -from Gams in Steiermark, at an altitude of 1260 meters, in a place -where the mountain is much broken up by fissures and snow basins. The -large cave has two openings, from which steep snow slopes descend. -The cave is 60 meters long, 15 meters to 18 meters broad, and about 7 -meters high. Clefts in the rock in two places lead to two lower, small -ice chambers. In the neighborhood of the large cave are two small ones. -Prof. Cranmer found fresh ice in the Beilsteinhöhle on the 20th of -August, 1895. Two days before, fresh snow had fallen on the neighboring -mountain peaks. - - -Eishöhle on the Brandstein. (Cranmer, _Eishöhlen_, etc., page 62.)--A -small cleft cave near the Langriedleralm near Gams in Steiermark. On -the 20th of August, 1895, it contained some ice. - - -The Frauenmauerhöhle.--Described in Part I., page 37. - - -The Bärenloch near Eisenerz. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 28.)--In the -neighborhood of the Frauenmauerhöhle. Altitude 1600 meters. A steep -snow slope leads to an ice floor 13 meters long. - - -The Katerloch. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 29.)--On the Göserwand near -Dürnthal, Glemeinde Gschaid in Steiermark. A large cave, some 190 -meters long and 80 meters wide. A thin ice crust has been found on -parts of the walls in the rear. - - -Caves in the Stein Alps. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 29.)--The plateau -of Velica Planina lies, at an altitude of 1600 meters, 9 kilometers -north of Stein in the Duchy of Krain. There are three caves containing -ice on the plateau. The first is a big one and is called V. Kofcih. The -second is called Mala Veternica. The third and biggest is called Velika -Veternica; its length is about 100 meters and its breadth 30 meters. - - -Glacière Caves on the Nanos Mountain. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page -34.)--In the southwestern Krain, 5 kilometers from Präwald. There are -four caves containing ice reported on the Nanos mountain. Two of them -are big. The altitude of one of these is 1300 meters, of the other 1350 -meters. - - -Brlowa Jama. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 36.)--Seven kilometers from -Adelsberg. Small glacière cave. - - -Kosova Jama. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 38.)--Near Divacca. Forty -meters long, 20 meters broad. - - -Glacière near Adelsberg. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 36.)--Small cave. -One hour from Adelsberg. - - -Kacna Jama. (J. Marinitsch, _La Kacna Jama_, _Mémoires de la Société de -Spéléologie_, vol. I., page 83.)--A great pit near the railroad station -of Divacca. Herr Marinitsch observed the following temperatures on -January 2d, 1896:-- - - At Divacca -2° C. - In the Kacna Jama at 40 meters -1.1° C. - " " " " " 100 meters +1.2° C. - " " " " " 210 meters +2.1° C. - - -Sanct Canzian, Karst. (E. A. Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 564, -note.)--During the winter of 1889-1890, Herr Marinitsch found -stalactites of ice as far as the seventeenth cascade of the Recca; 1000 -meters from the third entrance of the river. The temperature of the -Recca was then at 0°; during the summer, the temperature of the water -rises to 27° (?). - - -The Grosses Eisloch of Paradana. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 36.)--On -the high plateau of the forest of Tarnowa, east of Görz. A large pit -cave, 30 meters to 40 meters deep. Professor Fugger says of it: "The -flora in the basin-like depression has the character of high mountain -vegetation, with every step it resembles more this flora as it exists -in the neighborhood of glaciers, until finally in the deepest point of -the basin all vegetation stops." - - -The Kleines Eisloch of Paradana. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 37.)--A -small pit glacière, 500 meters distant from the Grosses Eisloch of -Paradana. - - -Suchy Brezen. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 37.)--A small pit glacière, -situated about midway between the Grosses and Kleines Eisloch of -Paradana. - - -Prevalo Cave. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 37.)--In the Buchenhochwald, -south of Karnica. Small glacière. - - -Cave of Dol. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 38.)--On a mountain near -Haidenschaft. Small glacière. - - -Glacière near Matena in Bezirke Radmansdorf. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's -_Berichte_, etc., vol. VII., page 68.)--On a wooded height. The ice -commences to melt in the early summer. - - -Glacière on the Schutzengelberge near the Golac. (Petruzzi in -Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., vol. VII., page 64.)--A small glacière. - - -Glacière Cave near Lazhna-gora or Latzenberg. (Valvasor, _Die Ehre des -Herzogthumes Crain_, vol. I., pages 242, 243; Hacquet, _Oryctographia -Carniolica_, 1778, III., page 159.)--In the neighborhood of Vishnagora -in the Krain. The entrance is under a church. It is a large cave, 40 -meters long and 20 meters high, where the ice all melts by the end of -the summer. Valvasor gives the following account of this cave in 1689, -which seems the first printed notice of a glacière in German:-- - -"Near to Lazchenberg up by the church of St. Nicholas, where a _Thabor_ -stands, one finds a big hole, which sinks into the stony rocks. Through -this one descends deep with torches: there opens then underneath as -big a cavity as the biggest church could be, and the same is extremely -high, in the form of a cupola. One sees there different teeth, formed -and hardened from the water turned to stone. Further down one arrives -to a deep gully: into which, however, I have not been. On the other -side one must again ascend, and then one comes again to a cupola: in -which cupola ice stands up like an organ from the earth. - -"There also one sees icicles of pure ice of different sizes and -heights, of which many are one or two _klafters_ high and as thick as -a man; but many only two or three spans high or higher, and as thick -as an arm, and some also thinner. This ice is formed from the drops -of falling water; and indeed in summer; for in winter there is no ice -therein. Over such ice one must then ascend, as there are then said to -be separate holes and grottoes. But no one has been any further." - - -Glacière on the Dini Verh. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., -vol. VII., page 67.)--Near Tomischle in the Krain. Small glacière. - - -Eiskeller near Rosseck. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., vol. -VII., page 64.)--On the Pograca Mountain in the Krain, northeast of the -Hornwald, near the Meierhof Rosseck. Small glacière cave. - - -Gorge near Rosseck. (Valvasor, _Die Ehre des Herzogthumes Crain_, vol. -I., page 243 and page 517 ; Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., -vol. VII., page 64.)--Behind the ruined castle of Rosseck, on the -Pograca Mountain in the Krain, is a gorge, at whose bottom are four -little holes containing ice most of the year. - -Valvasor wrote of this cave in 1689: "Near Rosseck immediately back -of the castle there opens a mighty cavern entirely in stony rock, and -yawns in the shape of a cauldron down into the earth. Above as wide as -a good rifle shot, but below quite narrow. And there underneath there -are many holes where the ice remains through the whole summer. From -such ice have Duke Frederick Graf and Duke von Gallenberg daily made -use in summer to cool their wine. Six years ago I descended there in -the month of August, and found ice enough in all the holes." - -In the same volume Freiherr Valvasor elaborates his remarks about this -cave and that at Latzenberg, repeating in the main the observations -in the paragraph just given. He says: "There hang also long icicles -which are quite pleasant to look at. * * * This ice breaks all too -easily and quickly. * * * Contrarywise, however, this ice lasts much -longer in the sun and the heat than other ice. * * * Some might think -it would eventually turn into stone: this, however, does not happen: -for it remains only in summer and disappears in winter: as I can say -for certain, as I have been in myself in the winter as well as in the -summer time. * * * For as in the summer the floor is quite covered with -ice: it makes walking so dangerous and bad that one cannot take a step -without climbing irons; but in the winter time one goes safely and -well. * * *" - -Freiherr Valvasor was evidently an accurate observer, and, if for his -word "winter" we substitute "autumn," his account will be much more -nearly correct than might have been expected two centuries ago. - - -The Kuntschner Eishöhle. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., -vol. VII., pages 65, 66.)--This is known also as the Töplitzer, -Unterwarmberger or Ainödter Grotto. It lies 2 kilometers from -Kuntschen, and 12 kilometers from Töplitz near Neustädtel, in the -Krain. Altitude about 630 meters. Petruzzi says: "Of all so far -noticed ice grottoes it is the most wonderful and splendid." In August -and September, 1849, the temperatures near the ice were about two -degrees above freezing. On the 16th of August, there were many long -ice stalagmites and stalactites; on the 29th of September they had -diminished materially. Petruzzi says also: "One leaves the abundant -vegetation of the Alpine summer flora, and through bushes and dwarf -underbrush, through bare and half moss covered rocks and débris, -through rotten and twisted tree stems, one comes to the hall of eternal -winter, where the microscopic mosses of the north surround the thousand -year old stalactites, hanging from the dripping vault, with an always -passing, always freshly forming, tender sulphur colored down." Dr. -Schwalbe has also examined this cave. - - -The Friedrichsteiner or Gottscheer Eishöhle.--Described in Part I., -page 51. - - -The Handler Eisloch.--7 kilometers south of Gottschee and about twenty -minutes from the village of Handlern, near Rieg. Altitude 596 meters. -Small cave. Professor Hans Satter of Gottschee told me he doubted -whether ice ever formed there now. - - -The Suchenreuther Eisloch.--Described in Part I., page 55. - - -Ledenica na Veliki Gori. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., -vol. VII., page 67.)--In the Krain, 11 kilometers from Reifnitz, on the -Balastena Mountain. Altitude 1253 meters. Much ice was found there on -the 10th of July, 1834. - - -Mrzla Jama. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 34.)--On the Innerkrainer -Schneeberg, 13 kilometers from Laas. - - -Glacière Caves on the Kapella. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 39.)--On a -pass in the neighborhood of Piacenza. Altitude 800 meters. - - -Glacière Cave in West Bosnia. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_. page 39.)--West of -Kljuc, county Petrovac, district Smoljama, near village Trvanj. Called -Trvanj, also Ledenica. Altitude about 1000 meters, length 170 meters, -breadth from 4 meters to 30 meters. - - -Rtanj, Servia. (A. Boué, _La Turquie d'Europe_, 1840, vol. I., page -132; Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, pages 72-74.)--This -glacière is on the south side of Siljak, near the village Muzinac. A -passage 60 meters long leads to a hall about 10 meters in height. Dr. -Boué found snow here in August, the thermometer standing below freezing -point. The people in the neighborhood told Dr. Boué that the snow is -formed in June and disappears in September and that it is sometimes -carried to Nisch. He also heard of similar cavities on the Bannat -Mountain. Dr. Cvijic observed in the hall a temperature of +0.4° C. - - -Ledena Pec, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, pages -68, 69.)--On the Ledini Verh or Glacial Peak, at an altitude of 800 -meters; distant one hour and a half from the village of Souvold. Length -of passage 108 meters; at entrance about 6 meters, at end about 15 -meters in height. On the 10th of May, 1893, there was plenty of ice and -snow. Temperature of outside air +19° C.; inside air at rear +0.5° C. -Probably permanent glacière. - - -Dobra Ledenica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, -page 70.)--West of Ledeno Brdo. Probably periodic glacière. On July -25th, 1890, the temperature of the outside air was +26° C.; of the -inside air +3.5°C. _Ledenica_ is the name for a glacière in Servia. - - -Ledenica in the Mala Brezovica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, -vol. II., 1896, page 70.)--Length 43 meters. A large, permanent -glacière. On July 28th, 1890, the outside air was +23°: inside air +2°. - - -Ledenica Treme in the Souva Planina, Servia. (Cvijic, Dr. A., -_Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, page 71.)--Altitude 1600 meters to 1700 -meters. A rather large, probably permanent glacière. Plenty of ice in -it on April 21st, 1894. - - -Zla Ledenica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, page -72.)--On the Kucaj. A permanent glacière, 7 meters or 8 meters deep. On -July 25th, 1890, outside air +25°; inside air at snow +6°. - - -Glacière on the Devica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., -1896, page 74.)--Under the peak Lazurevica. Altitude 1000 meters. A -narrow passage leads to a hall 17 meters long by 12 meters wide and -20 meters high. On June 30th, 1893, there was plenty of snow in the -passage and ice in the hall. - - -Glacière Vlaska Pecura, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., -1896, page 74.)--On the Devica, under the Golemi Vech. A small periodic -glacière. - - -Glacière in the Zdrebica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., -1896, page 74.)--On the southeast side of the Souva Planina, near the -village Veliki Krtchimir. A small periodic glacière. On April 20th, -1874, plenty of snow and ice. - - -Glacière Stoykova, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, vol. II., 1896, -pages 75, 76.)--On the Kucaj. A large pit cave with a total depth of 23 -meters. Probably a permanent glacière. On July 21st, 1890, plenty of -ice and snow. Outside air +21°; inside air in hall +0.5°. - - -Glacière on the Topiznica Mountain, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spélunca_, -vol. II., 1896, page 76.)--Altitude 1100 meters. A large pit cave with -an extreme depth of 27 meters. In August, 1893, there was plenty of -snow and ice, and the inside temperature was +1°. - - -Glacière Cave near Borszék. (Bielz, _Siebenbürgen_, 1885, page -334.)--About an hour distant from the baths, in broken limestone. It -seems to be a rock fissure, at the end of which ice is found till -towards the middle of July. - - -Glacière Cave near Sonkolyos in the Korös Valley. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, -page 51.)--Small cave. - - -Glacière near Zapodia. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 50.)--Near Petrosc in -the Bihar Mountains. Altitude 1140 meters; length 20 meters, width 7 -meters. - - -Pescerca la Jesere. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 50.)--Between Vervul la -Belegiana and the Batrina in the Bihar Mountains. Small freezing cave. - - -Glacière Cave near Verespatak, in Transylvania. (Bielz, _Siebenbürgen_, -page 52.)--Small cave. - - -Gietariu near Funacza. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 50.)--In the Bihar -Mountains. Small glacière cave. - - -Cave of Skerizora. (Karl F. Peters, _Sitzungsbericht der K. K. -Akademie der Wissenchaften_, Wien, vol. XLIII., 1861, page 437; Bielz, -_Siebenbürgen_, 1885, page 37.)--This is one of the greatest glacière -caves known. It lies in the Bihar Mountains, three hours from the -village of Ober-Girda, which can be reached from Gyula Fehérvar, via -Topánfalva. It is a pit cave, in limestone, at an altitude of 1127 -meters. The pit is about 57 meters broad, and 45 meters deep, with -exceedingly steep walls. The entrance is in the northeast wall and -is about 10 meters high. This leads into a nearly circular hall 47 -meters in diameter and about 20 meters high. The floor is ice. In the -southeast corner is a hole over 75 meters deep. In the northwest wall -is an opening 14 meters wide, which forms the beginning of a sort of -gallery 54 meters long and which at its further end is 24 meters wide -and 8 meters high. This is also covered with a flooring of ice, which -in some places can only be descended by step cutting. This passage -is also richly adorned with ice stalactites and stalagmites. At its -end is another also nearly circular hall, 21 meters in diameter and -about 22 meters high. This is called the '_Beszerika_' or church. In -one place there is a magnificent collection of ice stalagmites called -the "Altar." Peters found in dirt on the sides of the cave remains -of bats not very different from those now living in the vicinity. He -thinks the bats may have come there before the cave became a glacière; -or else that they may even now sometimes get into the first hall and -there perish from cold. This makes it uncertain, therefore, whether the -remains can be considered as of the past or the present. - - -Eishöhle bei Roth.--Described in Part I., page 35. - - -Mines on the Eisenberg. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 59.)--These lie near -Blankenburg in the Thüringer Wald and have been known to contain ice. - - -The Ziegenloch or Grosses Kalte Loch, and the Kleines Kalte Loch. -(Behrens, _Hercynia Curiosa_, pages 68, 70.)--These lie near -Questenberg in the Southern Harz Mountains, at an altitude of about 300 -meters. The Grosses Loch is described as a sort of small pit some 8 -meters deep, in one side of which opens a small fissure some 10 meters -long. Ice has been found in this in April; Schwalbe found none there in -July. The Kleines Loch was another small cold cave near the Ziegenloch, -but it has been filled up. Behrens says that the dampness at the cave -at Questenberg is precipitated as snow. - - -Holes with Ice near Sanct Blasien. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 109.)--In -the Black Forest, among boulders at an altitude of 820 meters. - - -Holes with Ice near Hochenschwand. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 109.)--In -the Black Forest, among boulders at an altitude of 820 meters. - - -Eisstollen and Eiskeller at the Dornburg. Described in Part I., page -59. (Poggendorff's _Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Ergänzungsband_, -1842, pages 517-519.)--Ice appears to have been discovered at the -Dornburg in June, 1839. It was found from a depth of 60 centimeters -down to 8 meters. The width of the ice-bearing talus was from 12 -meters to 15 meters; and it is said that it becomes wider in winter and -narrower in summer. - - -Beschertgluck Mine, Freiberg District. (Prestwich, _Collected papers_, -etc., page 206.)--Mr. Prestwich quotes Daubuisson as having seen the -shaft of the mine lined with ice to a depth of 80 toises (144 meters?). - - -Ice in the Zinc Mines on the Sauberg. (Reich, _Beobachtungen über die -Temperatur des Gesteines_, 1834, pages 175 and 205.)--These are near -Ehrenfriedersdorf in Saxony and formerly contained ice in winter. They -are reported now to be destroyed. - - -The Garische Stollen. (Lohman, _Das Höhleneis_, etc., page 3.)--Near -Ehrenfriedersdorf in the Freiwald. Lohman found much ice in this in -January, less in March, and scarcely any in May. - - -The Ritterhöhle. (Lohman, _Das Höhleneis_, page 5.)--Near -Ehrenfriedersdorf in the Freiwald. Small ice deposit. The rock is -granite. - - -The Stulpnerhöhle. (Lohman, _Das Höhleneis_, page 6.)--Near the -Ritterhöhle. Small ice deposit in granite rock. - - -Eisloch and Eishöhle near Geyer in Saxony. (Lohman, _Das Höhleneis_, -page 7.)--These are in a place called die Binge. Both are small. - - -The Alte Thiele. (Lohman, _Das Höhleneis_, page 8.)--Near Buchholz in -Saxony. Small ice deposit. - - -Mine Pits in the Saxon Erzgebirge. (Reich, _Beobachtungen über die -Temperatur des Gesteines_, 1834.)--Extremely low temperatures have been -found in several of these pits:-- - -In the Churprinz Friedrich August Erbstollen near Freiberg. - -In the Heinrichs-Sohle in the Stockwerk near Altenberg. - -In the Henneberg Stollen, on the Ingelbach, near Johanngeorgenstadt. - -In the Weiss-Adler-Stollen, on the left declivity of the valley of the -Schwarzwasser, above the Antonshütte. - - -Holes Holding Ice on the Saalberg. (_Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, -1850, LXXXI., page 579.)--These lie between Saalberg and the Burgk. Ice -is found here on the surface from June to the middle of August. From -the observations of Professor Hartenstein, Fugger deduces that this -place must be the lower end of one or more windholes. - - -Millstone Quarry of Niedermendig. (M. A. Pictet, _Mémoires de la -Société d'Histoire Naturelle de Genève_, 1821, vol. I., page 151.)--On -the Niederrhein. There are many connecting pits and galleries here, in -which ice has been found in the hottest days of summer as well as in -March. The abandoned shafts are utilized as beer cellars. - - -Eisgrube on the Umpfen. (Voigt, _Mineralogische Reisen durch das -Herzogthum Weimar_, 1785, vol. II., page 123.)--In the Rhöngebirge, -twenty minutes from Kaltennordheim, are some irregular masses of -columnar basalt, at an altitude of about 500 meters, among which -abundant ice has been found up to late in the summer. - - -Cave near Muggendorf, Franconia.--The landlord of the Kurhaus Hotel at -Muggendorf, told me that there was a small cave in the vicinity where -there was ice in the winter and spring, but that it all melted away -before August. - - -Cave on the Dürrberg. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 59.)--Near Zwickau in -Bohemia. Small cave which sometimes contains ice. - - -The Schneebinge. (Lohman, _Das Höhleneis_, page 11.)--Near Platten in -Bohemia. A small ice deposit in an old mine. - - -Ice among Basaltic Rocks on the Pleschiwitz. (Pleischl, in -Poggendorff's _Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, vol. LIV., 1841, -pages 292-299.)--Above Kameik near Leitmeritz in Bohemia. Professor -Pleischl, in May, 1834, found ice under the rocks a little distance -from the surface. The surface of the rocks was then warm. On the 21st -of January, 1838, Professor Pleischl found snow on the outside of -the rocks, but no ice underneath. He was assured by the people of the -district that the hotter the summer, the more ice is found. - - -Glacière on the Zinkenstein. (Pleischl, in Poggendorff's _Annalen der -Physik und Chemie_, vol. LIV., 1841, page 299).--The Zinkenstein is one -of the highest points of the Vierzehnberge, in the Leitmeritz Kreis. -There is a deep cleft in basalt, where ice has been found in summer. - - -Eislöcher on the Steinberg. (Pleischl, in Poggendorffs _Annalen der -Physik und Chemie_, vol. LIV., 1841, page 299.)--In the Herrschaft -Konoged. Small basalt talus where ice is found in the hottest weather. - - -Windholes in Bohemia. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 109.)--In the -neighborhood of Leitmeritz. These are in basaltic rock. Ice sometimes -forms at the lower extremity. The most notable are-- - -On the Steinberg near Mertendorf on the Triebschbach; - -On the Kelchberg near Triebsch; - -On the Kreuzberg near Leitmeritz; - -On the Rodersberg near Schlackenwerth; - -In the Grossen Loch near Tschersink. - - -Ice in a Pit near Neusohl. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 109.) - - -The Frainer Eisleithen. Described in Part I., page 33. (Fugger, -_Eishöhlen_, page 163.) Professor Fugger quotes the following -observations by Forester Wachtl at Frain:-- - - 1861. 1862. - January -7° to -2° -5° - February -2° to 0° -5° to -2° - March 0° to +1° -1° to 0° - April +1° to +2° 0° - May +2° +2° to +5° - June +2° to +3° +3° to +6° - July +3° +3° to +5° - August +3° to +7° +5° - September +7° to +6° +3° to +6° - October +6° +5° - November -- +5° - December -1° to -3° 0° to -2° - - -Démenyfálva Jegbarlang. Described in Part I., page 24. - - -Dóbsina Jegbarlang. Described in Part I., page 13. (Pelech; _The Valley -of Stracena and the Dobschau Ice Cavern_; Schwalbe, _Über Eishöhlen und -Eislöcher_, page 31.)--Pelech gives the following measurements: The -Grosser Saal is 120 meters long, 35 meters to 60 meters wide, and 10 -meters to 11 meters high, with a surface area of 4644 square meters. -The ice mass is estimated as 125,000 cubic meters in volume. The length -of the Korridor is 200 meters; the left wing being 80 meters, and the -right wing 120 meters long. The cave was first entered on July 15th, -1870, by Herr Eugene Ruffiny, of Dóbsina, and some friends. He had -happened to fire a gun in front of it, and hearing a continuous muffled -rolling echo within, determined to explore it. - -Dr. Schwalbe quotes the following series of observations in Dóbsina -during the year 1881: - - DEEPEST POINT FROM KORRIDOR - ENTRANCE. GROSSER SAAL. OF KORRIDOR. TO KLEINEN SAAL. - - January -2.2° -4.2° -2.2° -0.6° - February -1.2° -3.4° -1.9° -0.3° - March -1.4° -2.1° -0.9° -0.2° - April -0.25° -1.25° -0.7° +0.3° - May +0.7° +0.9° -0.5° +0.5° - June +1.0° +1.5° -0.5° +0.5° - July +1.8° +2.1° +0.2° +1.1° - August +3.4° +3.8° +0.24° +0.80 - September +2.00 +2.3° -0.3° -0.15° - October -0.2° +0.2° -0.5° -0.2° - November -1.3° -1.9° -0.6° -0.3° - December -2.2° -3.2° -0.65° -1.75° - ------ ------ ------ ------ - Year +0.04° -0.44° -0.69° -0.02° - -The Philadelphia _Evening Bulletin_, March, 1st, 1899, printed the -following note about Dóbsina: "In this cave, some sixteen years ago, -a couple named Kolcsey elected to pass the week immediately following -their marriage. They took with them a plentiful supply of rugs, -blankets and warm clothing, but notwithstanding all precautions, -their experience was not of a sufficiently pleasant nature to tempt -imitators." - - -Lednica of Szilize. (M. Bel, _Philosophical Transactions_, London, -1739, vol. XLI., page 41 _et seq._; Townson, _Travels in Hungary_, -1797; Terlanday, _Petermann's Mittheilungen_, 1893, page 283.)--It lies -1.5 kilometers from the village of Szilize, near Rosenau, in Gomör -County, in the Carpathians, at an altitude of 460 meters. A pit about -35 meters deep, 75 meters long, and 48 meters wide opens in the ground, -and at the southern end, in the perpendicular wall, is the cave. The -entrance is 22 meters wide, 15 meters high, and faces north. A slope 4 -meters long sinks with an angle of 35° to the floor of the cave, which -is nearly circular in form, with a diameter of about 10 meters. On -the east side of the cave there seems to be a hole in the ice some 10 -meters deep. - -In 1739, there was published in London a curious letter in Latin from -Matthias Bel, a Hungarian _savant_, about the cavern of Szilize. He -says: "The nature of the cave has this of remarkable, that, when -outside the winter freezes strongest, inside the air is balmy: but it -is cold, even icy, when the sun shines warmest. As soon as the snow -melts and spring begins, the inner roof of the cave, where the midday -sun strikes the outside, begins to sweat clear water, which drops -down here and there; through the power of the inner cold it turns to -transparent ice and forms icicles, which in thickness equal large -barrels and take wonderful shapes. What as water drops from the icicles -to the sandy floor, freezes up, even quicker, than one would think. - -"The icy nature of the cave lasts through the whole summer, and what -is most remarkable, it increases with the increasing heat of the sun. -In the beginning of the spring the soft winter's warmth begins to give -way soon thereafter, and when spring is more advanced, the cold sets -in, and in such a manner, that the warmer does the (outside) air -grow, the more does the cave cool off. And when the summer has begun -and the dog days glow, everything within goes into icy winter. Then do -the drops of water pouring from the roof of the cave change into ice, -and with such rapidity that where to-day delicate icicles are visible, -to-morrow masses and lumps, which fall to the ground, appear. Here -and there, where the water drips down the walls of the cave, one sees -wonderful incrustations, like an artificial carpeting. The rest of the -water remains hanging on the ice, according to the warmth of the day. -For when for a longer time it is warmer, the ice of the stalactites, -of the walls and of the floor increases; but when the ruling heat, as -sometimes happens, is diminished through north winds or rainstorm, -the waters freeze more slowly, the ice drips more fully and begins to -form little brooklets. When however the temperature gets warmer, the -icy nature of the cave begins once more. Some have observed, that the -nature of the grotto receives the changes of temperature ahead, like a -barometer. For, when a warmer temperature sets in outside, the waters -change into ice, several hours before the heat sets in, while the -opposite takes place, when by day the temperature is colder; for then -even by the warmest sky the ice begins to melt noticeably. - -"When the dog days have passed and the summer has already changed -into fall, the cave with its own nature follows the conditions of the -external air. In the early months and while the nights are growing -colder, the ice diminishes visibly; then when the air cools off more -and more and when the brooks and side are rigid with frost, it begins -to melt as though there was a fire built underneath, until, when winter -reigns, it is entirely dry in the cave, without a sign of ice being -left behind. Then gentle warmth spreads into the entire cave, and this -icy grave becomes a safety resort for insects and other small animals, -which bear the winter with difficulty. But besides swarms of flies and -gnats, troops of bats and scores of owls, hares and foxes take up their -abode here, until with the beginning of spring, the cave once more -assumes its icy appearance." - -These assertions of Bel are the most inaccurate ones made about -glacières. Yet, strange to say, they have colored the literature of -the subject down to our own times; and have been repeated many times, -sometimes with, sometimes without, the hares and foxes; the latest -repetition seeming to occur in 1883. - - -Cave near the Village of Borzova, Torna County, Carpathians. (Fugger, -_Eishöhlen_, page 52.)--Reported to contain ice, but nothing certainly -known. - - -CRIMEA. - -Ledianaia Yama. (Montpeyreux, _Voyage autour du Caucase_ V., page 440; -Hablizl, _Description physique de la Tauride_, 1783, pages 43-45.)--On -the Karabi-Yaïla, 32 kilometers southwest of Karasubazar. Altitude -about 1800 meters. A fairly large pit glacière cave. The name means an -abyss of ice. - - -Glacière Cave on the Yaïla of Oulouzène at Kazauté. (Montpeyreux, -_Voyage autour du Caucase_, II., page 380.)--A small pit cave. - - -CAUCASUS. - -Glacière Cave in the Khotevi Valley. (Montpeyreux, _Voyage autour -du Caucase_, II., page 379.)--In the province of Radscha, near the -Monastery Nikortsminda. A large pit cave which must be of the same -order as that of Chaux-les-Passavant and from which the inhabitants of -Koutaïs get ice. - - -Glacières near Koutaïs. (E. A. Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 397.)--"Dr. -A. Sakharov, it appears, has recently discovered in the government of -Koutaïs caves containing ice." - - -Cave of Sabazwinda. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 126.)--Near the town of -Zorchinwall, on the river Liachwa, province of Gori, in Georgia, near -the Ossete Mountains. Ice has been found in the cave in summer. In -December there was none. - - -URAL. - -Glacière Cave near Sukepwa. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 63.)--On the -Volga, province of Zlatoust. Small cave on the river bank. - - -Glacière Cave on the Tirmen Tau. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., -vol. II., page 28.)--Near the village of Chaszina, 160 kilometers from -Orenburg. Small cave. - - -Glacière Cave of Kurmanajeva. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., -vol. II., page 5.)--Near Kurmanajeva, a village 49 kilometers from -Tabinsk, in the Government of Orenburg. A large cave. Lepechin found -ice in one part of the cave and deep water in another. There were -draughts in some places. - - -Cave on the Baislan Tasch. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II., -page 40.)--The Baislan Tasch is a mountain on the right bank of the -Bielaja River, which flows into the Kama. There is a large cave in the -mountain in which ice has been found. - - -Cave on the Muinak Tasch. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II., -page 38.)--The Muinak Tasch is a mountain on the Bielaja River. There -is a large cave in it, in which a little ice has been found. - - -Cave of Kungur. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II., page 137; -Rosenmüller and Tilesius, I., page 79.)--The Cavern of Kungur is near -the town of Kungur in the Government of Perm. There are in it many -passages and grottoes connecting with one another, some of which -contain ice. It is a fine, large cave, whose greatest length is 400 -meters. - - -Mines of Kirobinskoy. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 65.)--These mines are -53 kilometers southeast of Miask in the Ural; they have been abandoned. -One of them contains ice all the year round. - - -Caves of Illetzkaya-Zatschita. (Murchison, Vernieul and Keyserling, -_The Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains_, 1845, vol. -I., page 186.)--72 kilometers southeast from Orenburg. The caves are in -the Kraoulnaïgora, a gypsum hillock 36 meters high, rising in the midst -of an undulating steppe, which lies on a vast bed of rock salt. Only -one of the caves contains ice. There are strong draughts in places. - - -SIBERIA. - -Cave near the Fortress Kitschigina. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 66.)--A -small cave, 17 kilometers east of Kajilskoi, 192 kilometers from -Petropaulowsk, 605 kilometers from Tobolsk. The cave is in an open -plain, and sometimes contains ice. - - -Wrechneja Petschera. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 66.)--Near the village -Birjusinska, in the neighborhood of Krasnojarsk, on the right bank of -the Yenisei. Large glacière cave. - - -Glacière Cave of Balagansk. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 66.)--A narrow -cleft, 80 meters long; 192 kilometers downstream from Irkutsk on the -left bank of the Angora River; at a distance of 2 kilometers from the -river. - - -Glacière Cave on the Onon River. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 66.)--A -small cave; 48 kilometers from the Borsja Mountain. - - -Mines of Siranowsk. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 126.)--In the Altai -Mountains, on the Buchtorma River, an affluent of the Irtysch. -Magnificent ice formations have been found in these mines. - - -Mines of Seventui. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 126.)--Near Nertschinsk, -on the Amoor River. Two of the levels contain perennial ice and hence -are called _Ledenoi_. These are at a depth of about 60 meters in porous -lava. The rest of the mine is in more solid rock. - - -Glacière Cave near Lurgikan. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 67.)--Near -the confluence of the Lurgikan and Schilka Rivers, in the province -Nertschinsk. From 2 meters to 7 meters wide. Length 280 meters. - - -Basins or Troughs Retaining Ice. (Dittmar, _Ueber die Eismülden im -Östlichen Siberien_; Middendorff, _Zusatz_; _Bulletin de la classe -physico-mathématique de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. -Pétersbourg_, 1853, vol. XI., pages 305-316.)--These troughs are nearly -akin to gorges and gullies, but their water supply seems to come -from a cause which is not usually present in gorges. Their principal -observer, M. de Dittmar, thought that a cold and snowy winter would add -materially to the supply of ice, but he also thought that a necessity -to the existence of the ice in these troughs was an abundant water -supply from a spring, whose temperature should be so high as not to -freeze in winter. The cold is supplied by the winter temperatures. -Some of the most important are reported-- - -In the Turachtach Valley. - -Near Kapitanskji Sasiek. - -In the valley of the River Belvi. - -In the valley of the River Antscha. - -In the Kintschen Valley. - -In the neighborhood of Kolymsk. - -In the Werchojanski Mountains. - -In the Stanowáj Mountains. - - -KONDOOZ. - -Cave of Yeermallik. (Burslem, _A peep into Toorkisthan_, 1846, chaps. -X., XI.)--In the valley of the Doaub, northwest of Kabul. The entrance -is half way up a hill, and is about 15 meters wide and 15 meters high. -This is a large cave, with many ramifications and galleries. In the -centre of a hall far within, Captain Burslem found a mass of clear ice, -smooth and polished as a mirror, and in the form of a beehive, with its -dome-shaped top just touching the long icicles which depended from the -jagged surface of the rock. A small aperture led into the interior of -this cone, whose walls were about 60 centimeters thick and which was -divided into several compartments. Some distance from the entrance of -this cave there is a perpendicular drop of 5 meters. A short distance -beyond this, in one of the halls, were hundreds of skeletons of men, -women and children, in a perfectly undisturbed state, also the prints -of a naked human foot and the distinct marks of the pointed heel of an -Afghan boot. The moollah, who was acting as guide, said the skeletons -were the remains of seven hundred men of the Huzareh tribe who took -refuge in the cave with their wives and children during the invasion of -Genghis Khan, and who defended themselves so stoutly, that after trying -in vain to smoke them out, the invader built them in with huge natural -blocks of stone, and left them to die of hunger. Some of the Afghans -said that the cave was inhabited by Sheitan, a possibility denied by -the moollah who guided Captain Burslem, on the philosophical plea that -the cave was too cold for such an inhabitant. - - -HIMÁLAYA. - -Glacière Cave of Amarnath. (Miss Mary Coxe of Philadelphia showed me -a copy of a letter of Dr. Wilhelmine Eger describing a visit to this -cave.)--It lies three days' journey from Pailgam in Kashmere, on the -borders of Little Tibet. The altitude is evidently high as one crosses -snow fields to get to it. A small path zigzagging up a grassy slope -leads to the cave and is a stiff climb from the valley. The cave opens -on the side of a mountain and has a large, almost square mouth at -least as big as the floor area within. The floor of the cave is the -continuation of the grass slope and slants upwards and backwards to the -back wall, the only case of the kind so far reported. This cave is most -curiously connected with religion. Dr. Eger says that there are two -small blocks of ice in it which never melt. From time immemorial these -blocks of ice have been sacred to the Hindoos who worship them--as -re-incarnations--under the names of Shiva and Ganesh. Dr. Eger saw -offerings of rice and flowers on them. Thousands of pilgrims come every -year at the end of July or beginning of August from all parts of India. -Thousands of miles have been traversed and hundreds of lives laid down -through this journey. Every year people die either before reaching -the cave or after. The trip from Pailgam in Kashmere takes three days -up and two days down, if one returns by a shorter route where the way -is unsafe because of avalanches. So many have perished there that the -pass is called "The Way of Death." This must be taken by one class of -pilgrims, _Sardhas_ or Holy Men, to complete the sacred circuit, but -the Hindoos say any one dying on the pass will go straight to heaven. - - -Icicles Formed by Radiation. (General Sir Richard Strachey, -_Geographical Journal_, 1900, vol. XV., page 168.)--On the Balch pass -of the Balch range in Tibet, General Strachey, in 1848, saw icicles of -which he says: "On the rocks exposed to the south were very curious -incrustations of ice, icicles indeed, but standing out horizontally -like fingers towards the wind. I was not able to understand how they -were caused, nor can I tell why they were confined to particular spots. -The thermometer stood at 41°[F.], and though the dew point at the -time would probably have been below 32°[F.], and the cold produced by -evaporation sufficient therefore to freeze water, yet it is evident -that no condensation could ever take place simultaneously with the -evaporation. * * * It has since occurred to me that these icicles were -formed by radiation. I found, subsequently, in a somewhat similar -position, that a thermometer suspended vertically, and simply exposed -to the sky in front of it, was depressed as much as 20° F. below the -true temperature of the surrounding air. This result was, of course, -due to the radiation through the extremely dry and rarefied atmosphere -at the great elevation at which the thermometer was exposed. As -radiation takes place freely from a surface of ice, the growth of such -icicles as those described might be due to the condensation of vapour -brought up by the southerly day winds that so constantly blow over -these passes, and its accumulation in the form of ice on the exposed -extremity of the icicle, the temperature of which might thus have been -greatly reduced." - - -INDIA. - -Ice Formed by Radiation. (T. A. Wise, _Nature_, vol. V., page 189; R. -H. Scott, _Elementary Meteorology_, Third Ed., pages 61, 62.)--Mr. -Bunford Samuel called my attention to the mode of manufacturing ice by -radiation in India. It is as follows:-- - -"A very practical use of nocturnal radiation has been made from time -immemorial in India in the preparation of ice, and on such a scale that -about 10 tons of ice can be procured in a single night from twenty -beds of the dimensions about to be given, when the temperature of the -air is 15° or 20° [F.] above the freezing point. * * * The locality -referred to is the immediate neighborhood of Calcutta. A rectangular -piece of ground is marked out, lying east and west, and measuring 120 -by 20 feet. This is excavated to the depth of two feet and filled with -rice straw rather loosely laid, to within six inches of the surface of -the ground. The ice is formed in shallow dishes of porous earthenware, -and the amount of water placed in each is regulated by the amount of -ice expected. - -"In the cold weather, when the temperature of the air at the ice fields -is under 50°, ice is formed in the dishes. The freezing is most active -with N. N. W. airs, as these are driest; it ceases entirely with -southerly or easterly airs, even though their temperature may be lower -than that of the N. N. W. wind. - -"No ice is formed if the wind is sufficiently strong to be called a -breeze, for the air is not left long enough at rest, above the bed, for -its temperature to fall sufficiently, by the action of radiation. - -"The rice straw, being kept loose and perfectly dry, cuts off the -access of heat from the surface of the ground below it, and, when the -sun goes down, the straw being a powerful radiator, the temperature -of the air in contact with the dishes is reduced some 20° below that -prevailing some two or three feet above them. The rapid evaporation of -the water into the dry air above creates also an active demand for heat -to be rendered latent in the formation of steam, and the result of all -these agencies is the formation of ice, under favorable circumstances, -on the extensive scale above mentioned." - - -KOREA. - -Glacière Cave on the Han Gang.--Messrs. J. Edward Farnum and George -L. Farnum, of Philadelphia, inform me that they saw a small cave -containing ice on the banks of one of the Korean rivers. It is about -75 kilometers from Seoul, nearly northeast, near the ferry where the -old road leading from Seoul towards northern Korea crosses the Han -Gang, the river which passes by Seoul. The entrance is small; perhaps -2 meters wide. The cave is not thoroughly explored. Ice lies near the -entrance, and as far back as the Messrs. Farnum could see. - - -JAPAN. - -Glacière Lava Cave near Shoji. (_Evening Telegraph, Philadelphia, -January 2d, 1896._)--The cave is about 12 kilometers from Shoji, and is -in lava. First there is a pit in the forest, some 5 meters wide by 15 -meters deep. The cave opens into this. It seems to be some 400 meters -long and from 2 meters to 12 meters high. There is an ice floor in -places, also many ice stalagmites. At the furthest point reached there -is a strong air current, which extinguishes torches and so far has -prevented further exploration. Ice from the cave has been cut by the -country people for sale at Kofu, which is not far distant. - - - - -PART IV. - -SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIÈRES. - - - - -SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIÈRES. - - -Benigne Poissenot, in 1586, hinted that the cold of winter produced the -ice at Chaux-les-Passavant.[69] - -[69] See Part III.: page 193. - - -Reichard Strein and Christoph Schallenberger visited the caves on the -Ötscher in 1591.[70] - -[70] See Part III.: page 231. - - -Gollut, in 1592, suggested the cold of winter as the cause of the ice -at Chaux-les-Passavant.[71] - -[71] See Part III.: page 202. - - -In the _Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences_, 1686, Tome -II., pages 2, 3, there is an account, with no author's name, of -Chaux-les-Passavant. The memoir states that in winter the cave is -filled with thick vapors and that after some trees were cut down near -the entrance, the ice was less abundant than formerly: that people -come for ice with carts and mules, but that the ice does not become -exhausted, for one day of great heat forms more ice than could be -carried away in eight days in carts and wagons: and that when a fog -forms in the cave, there is assuredly rain the following day, and that -the peasants in the neighborhood consult this curious "almanac" to know -the weather which is coming. - - -Freiherr Valvasor, in 1689, wrote about some of the glacières of the -Krain.[72] - -[72] See Part III.: pages 238, 239. - - -Behrens, in 1703, thought it was colder in summer than in winter in the -caves near Questenberg in the Harz. - - -M. de Billerez, in 1712, writes that at Chaux-les-Passavant it is -really colder in summer than in winter; and that the ice is harder than -river ice, and this he thinks is due to the presence of a nitrous or -ammoniacal salt, which he says he found in the rocks. - - -M. de Boz made four trips to Chaux-les-Passavant on the 15th of May -and 8th of November, 1725; and the 8th of March and 20th of August, -1726. His memoir says that his observations tend to disprove those -of M. de Billerez, and that "the cause for the great cold, which is -less great in summer, although always remaining, is quite natural." -He cites as causes for the ice the exposure to the north-north-east; -the rock portal sheltering the entrance, and all the forest covering -the surrounding lands; and adds that some veracious persons told him -that since some of the big trees above the grotto had been cut down -there was less ice than before. He found no traces of salt, nor any -springs, and that the water supply came from the rains and melted snows -filtering through the ground. - - -In 1739, Matthias Bel published his curious account of Szilize.[73] - -[73] See Part III.: page 254. - - -J. N. Nagel, a Vienna mathematician, visited the Ötscher in 1747. He -concluded that the ice was made in winter and preserved in summer as in -an ice house. - - -M. de Cossigny wrote, in 1750, about Chaux-les-Passavant. He made -a plan of the cave and took many observations in April, August and -October, and concluded that the interior condition of the cave does not -change noticeably from winter to summer, no matter what the external -conditions of temperature may be; that what people say of greater cold -in summer, vanishes before actual experience and that, as a state -of freezing reigns more or less continuously in the cave, it is not -surprising if the ice accumulates. Apparently he was the first to -notice and insist on the necessity of drainage to the cave through -cracks in the rocks. He also made a series of observations disproving -those of M. de Billerez, as to the presence of any kinds of salts in -the rocks or ice. - - -Hacquet, in 1778, thought that the ice in the cave at Lazhna-gora -formed in winter, but he also thought that there must undoubtedly be -some salt in the water. He says he found ice in the cave in the spring, -and that his companion, a priest, had never found any in winter. He -therefore concluded that by that time it had all melted. - - -Romain Joly, in 1779, claims to have visited Chaux-les-Passavant on the -19th of September (year not given). His account seems largely borrowed -from the one in the _Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences_, in -1686. He says: "This ice is formed by the drops of water which fall -from the roof, and which freeze because of the chill of the cave. -In the winter there is no ice, but running water." He says nothing, -however, about the ice forming in summer. - - -The _Citoyen_ Girod-Chantrans visited Chaux-les-Passavant in August, -1783, and reached the conclusion, from all he saw and heard, that the -cave did not freeze in summer nor thaw in winter, and that it was -really a natural ice house. He was aided by the notes of a neighboring -physician, Dr. Oudot, who had made observations in the cave, and among -others, had placed stakes of wood, on the 8th of January, 1779, in -the heads of the columns he had found in the cave; and on the 22d of -February, 1780, had found these stakes completely covered with ice, -forming columns 30 centimeters in diameter. - - -Hablizl, in 1788, wrote that the ice in the cave near Karassoubazar -formed in the spring by the snows which melt, run into the cave, and -refreeze. He also thought that there was less ice there in the fall -than in the spring, that it diminishes in July and August, and that the -idea, current in the neighborhood, of the formation of ice in summer, -is a mistake. - - -Professor Pierre Prévost, in 1789, gave an accurate explanation of -the formation of the ice in Chaux-les-Passavant. He says: "Weighing -carefully the local circumstances, one discovers in truth a few causes -of permanent cold. But these causes seem rather suited to keep up a -great freshness or to diminish the heat of summer, than to produce a -cold such as that which reigns in the cavern. First of all, big trees -throw shade over the entrance; it is, I was told, forbidden under -severe penalties to cut down any of them, for fear of depriving the -grotto of a necessary shelter. In the second place, this entrance is -situated almost due north, leaning a little to the east, which is the -coolest exposure one can choose, and the one most suited to help the -effect of the icy winds which blow from that quarter. Finally the slope -is steep and the grotto deep and covered with a thick vault. These -three conditions united constitute, as it seems to me, a very good _ice -house_; by which I mean a reservoir fit to preserve during the summer, -the ice which may bank up in winter. - -"But how does this ice bank up? One knows that the outside waters -above form on the roof, during the winter, long drops and stalactites -of ice. These icicles, which hang down and increase constantly by the -drip from the same source which formed them, fall at last, carried away -by their own weight, and form so many centres, around which freeze -the waters with which the floor of the grotto is always inundated. At -the same time, the blowing of the north wind accumulates snow at the -base of the slope, which is uncovered in part and exposed above to all -the vicissitudes of the weather. Thus during the winter is formed an -irregular heap of ice and snow, which the first heats of spring begin -to make run, but which the heats of summer cannot finish dissolving. -The winter following has therefore even more facility to augment the -mass of these ice pyramids, which have resisted until the fall. And if -men did not work at diminishing it, it might happen that it would fill -the entire cavern at last to a great height. - -"I am therefore strongly inclined to think that the process of nature -is here precisely similar to that of art; that without any especial -cause of cold, the natural glacière of Besançon conserves in the -moderate temperature of deep caverns, the heaps of snow and ice which -the winds and the outside waters accumulate there during the winter; -and that the melting of these snows and of these accumulated ices -forms little by little the ice floor, scattered over with blocks and -pyramids, which one observes there during the summer." - - -Horace Bénédict de Saussure, the great Swiss scientist and mountaineer, -in 1796, published a number of observations about cold current caves -in various parts of the Alps. He found that in summer the air blows -outward at the lower end, and that in winter it draws inward. His -explanation is that in summer the colder air in the tube is heavier -than the outside air and displaces it by gravity; while in winter the -rupture takes place in the other direction, since the column within the -tube is warmer than the outside air and therefore is pushed upwards by -the heavy air flowing in. He concludes that evaporation due to the air -passing internally over moist rocks suffices to explain the phenomenon -of low temperatures and that such caves have a rather lower temperature -in the Alps than in Italy owing to the greater natural cold of the -Swiss lake region. An experiment of his is worth mentioning. He passed -a current of air through a glass tube, 2.5 centimeters in diameter, -filled with moistened stones, and found that the air current which -entered with a temperature of 22.5° came out with a temperature of -18.75°, that is with a loss of 3.75° of heat. - - -Robert Townson, LL.D., in 1797, published an account, perhaps the first -in English, of a glacière cave. He says of Szilize: "Ice I truly found -here in abundance, and it was mid-summer, but in a state of thaw; the -bed of ice, which covered the floor of the cavern was thinly covered -with water and everything announced a thaw. I had no need to use my -thermometer: however I placed it in the ice and it fell to 0° of -Réaumur: I then wiped it and placed it in a niche in the rock, at the -furthest part of the cavern, a yard above the ice and here it remained -near an hour: when I returned I found it at 0°. * * * Everything -therefore, ice, water and atmosphere in the neighborhood had the same -temperature, and that was the temperature of melting ice: 0° Réaumur. - -"When then is the ice which is found here, and in such quantities -that this cavern serves the few opulent nobility in the neighborhood -as an ice house, formed? Surely in winter, though not by the first -frost, not so soon as ice is formed in the open air. No doubt, from -the little communication this cavern has with the atmosphere, it will -be but little and slowly affected by the change. Should therefore, -Mr. Bel, or any of his friends, have come here to verify the common -report at the commencement of a severe frost, when the whole country -was covered with ice and snow, they might still have found nothing here -but water, or the ice of the preceding winter in a state of thaw, and -the cavern relatively warm; and likewise, should they have visited it -in a warm spring, which had succeeded to a severe winter, they might -have found nothing here but frost and ice; and even the fresh melted -snow, percolating through the roof of this cavern, might again have -been congealed to ice. I observed frequently in Germany in the severe -winter of 1794-5, on a sudden thaw, that the walls of churches and -other public buildings, on the outside were white and covered with a -hoar frost, and the windows on the same side covered with a rime." - - -Dr. Franz Sartori, in 1809, was a strong believer in the summer ice -theory, and wrote of the flies and the gnats, the bats and the owls, -and the foxes and the hares coming to Szilize to winter. - - -Alexander von Humboldt, in 1814, says about the Cueva del Hielo on the -Peak of Teneriffe that so much snow and ice are stored up in winter -that the summer heat cannot melt it all, and also adds that permanent -snow in caves must depend more on the amount of winter snow, and the -freedom from hot winds, than on the absolute altitude of the cave. - - -Dewey, in 1819, thought that the ice in the Snow Glen at Williamstown -was a winter formation. - - -Professor M. A. Pictet visited Saint-Georges, Le Brezon and Montarquis -and in 1822 endeavored to prove that they are cold current caves and -that the ice in them is due entirely to draughts causing evaporation. -He believed in the theory of the ice forming in summer more than in -winter and that it could not be the residue of a winter deposit. He -therefore argued that it must be due to descending currents of air -which he thought would be most energetic in summer; that they would -become at least as low as the mean annual temperature of the place -and be still further cooled by evaporation. The strange thing about -his theories is that he does not seem to have personally observed any -draughts either at Saint-Georges or Le Brezon, but the fact that the -ice was evidently not an accumulation of winter snow led him to try to -reconcile what he had himself seen with de Saussure's theories about -windholes. - - -Jean André Deluc in 1822 published a paper discussing the theories of -MM. de Cossigny, Prévost and Pictet. Deluc had never visited a glacière -himself, but he explains clearly the impossibility of Professor -Pictet's cold current theory, on the simple ground that Professor -Pictet himself did not find any cold currents. He takes up Professor -Prévost's theories warmly; using also the manuscript notes of Mons. -Colladon who had visited the Grand Cave de Montarquis. Deluc says: -"that the winter's cold penetrates into these caves, freezes the water -which collects there and that the ice thus formed has not the time to -melt during the following summer." He says further: "It seems that in -the three glacières with which we have been occupied there is a flat -or rather hollow bottom, where the waters can form a more or less deep -pond, and whence they therefore cannot flow away; it is there they -flow in winter; and as these are shut in places where the air cannot -circulate, the heats of summer can only penetrate very feebly. The ice -once formed in such cavities, only melts slowly; for one knows that ice -in melting, absorbs 60° of heat; and where find this heat in an air -always very cold and nearly still? During a great cold, the ice forms -with great promptness, while it melts with much slowness, even when -the temperature of the air is several degrees above zero; what must -then not be this slowness when the temperature of the interior air only -rises in summer one degree above freezing point. It would need several -summers to melt this ice if it did not reform each winter." - - -C. A. Lee, in 1825, wrote that the ice in the Wolfshollow near -Salisbury was a winter formation. - - -G. Poulett Scrope, in 1826, accepted as the truth the statement that -the cave of Roth was filled with ice in summer, but that it was -warm during the winter. In 1827, he explained the presence of ice at -Pontgibaud as follows: "The water is apparently frozen by means of the -powerful evaporation produced by a current of very dry air issuing from -some long fissures or arched galleries which communicate with the cave, -and owing its dryness to the absorbent qualities of the lava through -which it passes." - - -F. Reich, in 1834, thought that there were two possible causes which -might produce subterranean ice: 1, the difference in specific gravity -between warm and cold air; 2, evaporation. He thought the cold air a -sufficient cause in most caves, but he considered that evaporation also -played a part not infrequently. - - -Professor Silliman, in 1839, gave the first hint, in the negative, -about compressed air as a cause for subterranean ice. He said about -Owego that if one could suppose that compressed gases or a compressed -atmosphere were escaping from the water or near it, this would indicate -a source of cold, but that as there is no indication of this in the -water, the explanation is unavailable. - - -Professor A. Pleischl wrote in 1841 that he was told that ice formed on -the Pleschiwetz and on the Steinberge in summer. Continuing, he says: -"The author is therefore, as well as for other reasons, of the opinion, -that the ice is not remaining winter ice, but a summer formation, and -one formed by the cold of evaporation. * * * The basalt is, as a thick -stone, a good conductor for the heat, and takes up therefore easily -the sun's warmth, but parts with it easily to other neighboring bodies. -In the hollows, between the basalt blocks, is found, as I already -mentioned, rotting moss, which forms a spongy mass, which is wet -through with water. The basalt heated by the sun's rays now causes a -part of the water in the spongy mass to vaporize; for this evaporation -the water needs heat, which it withdraws from the neighboring bodies -and in part from water, and makes the water so cold, that it freezes -into ice, as, under the bell of an air pump--Nature therefore makes -here a physical experiment on the largest scale." - -Much stress appears to have been laid on the paper of Professor -Pleischl by Professor Krauss and one or two others. The weak point in -it is that Pleischl did not see the ice form in summer, but was only, -as usual, told that it did so. There is nothing in the facts given to -show that the places mentioned are different from any other taluses, -where ice does not form as the result of heat. - - -Mr. C. B. Hayden, in 1843, wrote about the Ice Mountain in Virginia, -and held that the porous nature of the rocks makes them poor conductors -of heat, and that the mountain is a huge sandstone refrigerator. - - -Dr. S. Pearl Lathrop, in 1844, wrote of the Ice Bed at Wallingford, -Vermont, as a great natural refrigerator. - - -Sir Roderick Impey Murchison wrote in 1845 about the salt mine and -freezing cave of Illetzkaya-Zatschita. He visited them during a hot -August, and was assured that the cold within is greatest when the -external air is hottest and driest; that the fall of rain and a moist -atmosphere produce some diminution in the cold of the cave and that on -the setting in of winter the ice disappears entirely. He accepted these -statements evidently only in a half hearted way, submitting them to -Sir John Herschel, who tried to explain them, in case they were true, -of which Herschel was likewise doubtful. Murchison at first thought -that the ice was due to the underlying bed of salt, but soon recognized -that this explanation could not be correct. He also rejected Herschel's -"heat and cold wave" theory. Shortly after this he came across -Pictet's memoir, and on the strength of it concluded that the ice in -Illetzkaya-Zatschita could not be the residue of a winter deposit, but -must be due to descending currents of air; to the previously wet and -damp roof affording a passage to water; and to the excessive dryness of -the external air of these southern steppes contributing powerfully to -the refrigerating effects of evaporation. - - -Professor Arnold Guyot, in 1856, said that the well at Owego admitted -large quantities of snow which melts, but not readily, because it -is not accessible to the sun. It therefore goes through the same -process as glaciers, of partly melting and refreezing; and we have the -formation of a glacier without movement. - - -Professor W. B. Rogers, in 1856, held that the well at Owego became the -recipient of the coldest air of the neighborhood, and the temperature -remained abnormal because the bad conducting power of the materials of -the well retained the cold. - - -Professor D. Olmstead, in 1856, held about Owego that cold air exists -in the interior of the earth which may have found a ventilating shaft -in the well. - - -Professor Petruzzi, in 1857, considered the following requirements -necessary for a glacière: A high altitude above the sea; a decided drop -into the interior of the mountain; absence of all draught; protection -against all warm and moist winds, therefore the opening to north and -east. He also says about the glacière on the Pograca: that it is in -shadow; that the thick forest round the mouth keeps the temperature -down; that it begins to freeze below when it does above; that the cold -remains there into the spring; and that the water from rain or other -sources, which flows into the cave, must freeze there, and the ice form -in greater quantities than the heat of summer can melt away. - - -Mr. Albert D. Hager wrote in 1859: "The question now arises, why it -was that such a congealed mass of earth was found in Brandon at the -time the frozen well was dug. My opinion is, that the bad conducting -property of the solids surrounding it, the absence of ascending -currents of heated air, and of subterranean streams of water in this -particular locality favored such a result; and that the bad conducting -property of clay, as well as that of the porous gravel associated -with it, taken in connection with the highly inclined porous strata, -and the disposition of heated air to rise, and the cold air to remain -below, contribute to produce in the earth, at this place, a _mammoth -refrigerator_, embracing essentially the same principle as that -involved in the justly celebrated refrigerator known as 'Winship's -Patent.' - -"Clay is not only nearly impervious to air and water, but it is one of -the worst conductors of heat in nature. (Note.--To test the question -whether clay was a poor conductor of heat or not, I took two basins -of equal size, and in one put a coating of clay one-half inch thick, -into which I put water of a temperature of 52° Fahrenheit. Into the -other dish, which was clean, I put water of the same temperature, and -subjected the two basins to equal amounts of heat; and in five minutes -the water in the clean dish indicated a temperature of 70° while that -of the one coated with clay was raised only to 56°.) If we can rely -upon the statements of those who dug out the frozen earth, it rested -upon a stratum of clay that lay upon the bed of pebbles in which the -water was found, for it was described as being a very sticky kind of -hard pan. - -"This being the case, if the water contained in the pebbly mass had a -temperature above the freezing point, the heat would be but imperfectly -transmitted to the frost, through the clay, provided there was no other -way for its escape. But we have seen that the stratum of clay that -overlays the bed of pebbles in the side of the gravel pit was not -horizontal, but inclined towards the well at an angle of 25°. Now if -this drip was continued to the well, and existed there (which is highly -probable), it will be seen that the ascending current of heated air, in -the pebbly bed, would be checked upon meeting the overlying barrier of -clay and be deflected out of its upward course. The tendency of heated -air is to rise, hence it would continue its course along the under -side of the clay, through the interstices in the bed of pebbles, till -it found a place of escape at the surface, which in this case may have -been at the gravel pit before named." - - -Professor Edward Hitchcock wrote in 1861: "The presence of a mass of -frozen gravel deep beneath the surface in Brandon, was first made known -by digging a well in it in the autumn of 1858. * * * The gravel, also, -rises into occasional knolls and ridges. In short, it is just such -a region of sand and gravel as may be seen in many places along the -western side of the Green Mountains; and indeed, all over New England. -It is what we call modified drift, and lies above genuine drift, having -been the result of aqueous agency subsequent to the drift period. * * -* The well was stoned up late in the autumn of 1858, and during the -winter, ice formed upon the water in one night, two inches thick. It -continued to freeze till April; after which no ice was formed on the -surface, but we can testify that as late as June 25th, the stones of -the well for four or five feet above the surface of the water were -mostly coated with ice; nay, it had not wholly disappeared July 14th. -The temperature of the water was only one degree of Fahrenheit above -freezing point. The ice did however disappear in the autumn but was -formed again (how early we did not learn) in the winter, and so thick -too that it was necessary to send some one into the well to break it. -We visited the well August 18th, 1860, and found the temperature 42°. -Yet only the week previous ice was seen upon the stones, and we were -even told by one of the family, that a piece of ice had been drawn up -the day before in the bucket. * * * These frozen deposits may have been -produced during the glacial period that accompanied the formation of -drift, and continued far down into the subsequent epochs of modified -drift. * * * But in all the excavations both gravel and clay occur: -and how almost impervious to heat must such a coating 20 feet thick, -be! It would not, however, completely protect the subjacent mass from -solar heat. But there is another agency still more powerful for this -end, namely, evaporation, which we think has operated here, as we shall -more fully describe further on; and we think that these two agencies, -namely, non-conduction and evaporation, may have preserved this frozen -deposit for a very long period, from exterior influences." - - -Professor Thury in 1861 says about Saint-Georges: "Such is the -_résumé_, concise but exact, of the results of our winter excursion. -They furnish proof to the fact generally borne witness to by the -mountaineers, that ice does not form in winter in the interior of -caverns. But if this is so, it is for a very simple reason: two things -are necessary for the formation of ice: cold and water. In winter, the -cold is not wanting: but if there is no spring opening in the cave, the -water is absent, and then no ice forms. - -"It is in the spring, at the time of the first melting of the snows, -that the ice must form. Then water at 0° pours over the surface, and -penetrates by the fissures of the rock and by the large openings into -the chilled cavern, which is also receiving the freezing air of the -nights. The grotto then makes its annual provision of ice, which after -this could only diminish little by little during the whole duration of -the warm season." - -Professor Thury writes about the Grand Cave de Montarquis: "Here it -must be when water and cold meet, that is autumn and especially spring, -the time of the first melting of the snows." - -"During the winter * * * the colder, heavier air comes to freeze the -water of the grotto, and chill the ice and the wall of rock." - -"During the summer, the radiation of the vaults and the proper heat of -the ground only melt a small quantity of ice because this absorbs much -heat to pass into a liquid state." - -"The heat of the air is entirely used to melt the ice; it does not -therefore manifest itself as sensible heat." - -"The contact of the ice ready to melt, plays in a certain way, towards -the air a little warmer than itself, the rôle of an extremely absorbing -body, or one which has an excessive caloric conductibility." - -"Here the formation of the ice could not possibly be attributed to the -cold caused by evaporation. The psychrometer indicated ninety-two per -cent, of relative humidity: the atmosphere of the grotto was therefore -almost saturated with evaporation of water, and the maximum of cold -caused by evaporation was not over half a degree centigrade." - -About prismatic ice and a hollow pyramid, he says: "The prismatic -(_aréolaire_) structure is produced later on in the ice, by a new and -particular arrangement of the molecules of the already solidified -water. Therefore the recent stalactites are never crystallized." - -"In the beginning of the hot season, the atmospheric temperature of -the grotto rises slowly. Inferior to zero by some tenths of a degree, -it produces first on the surface, in the stalactites, the prismatic -structure. The temperature continues to rise, the central portions -of the stalactites, still composed of ordinary ice, liquefy, and if -the melting water finds some issue, either by accidental openings -left between some prisms, or by the extremity of the stalactite or by -some point of its surface which had escaped the action of the regular -crystallization; by this opening the water escapes, and the tubular -stalactite has been formed." - -"The column was composed of a very special ice, perfectly dry, -perfectly homogeneous, translucid and whose appearance could only -be compared to that of the most beautiful porcelain. I am inclined -to believe that we had under our eyes a special molecular state of -congealed water. This state would be produced under the influence of -a constant temperature of a certain degree (Note--perhaps not far from -4°--the actual temperature of the grotto) long prolonged. These causes -can be realized more completely in glacières than anywheres else." - - -The Reverend George Forrest Browne, published in 1865, _Ice Caves in -France and Switzerland_, one of the most delightful books of travel -ever written, on account of the scientific accuracy and the humor of -the author. He visited La Genollière, Saint-Georges, Saint-Livres, -Chaux-les-Passavant, Monthézy, Arc-sous-Çicon, the Schafloch, -Haut-d'Aviernoz, which he calls Grand Anu, Chapuis, and Font-d'Urle. -He says: "The view which Deluc adopted was one which I have myself -independently formed. * * * The heavy cold air of winter sinks down -into the glacières, and the lighter warm air of summer cannot on -ordinary principles of gravitation dislodge it, so that heat is very -slowly spread in the caves; and even when some amount of heat does -reach the ice, the latter melts but slowly, for ice absorbs 60° C. -of heat in melting; and thus, when ice is once formed, it becomes a -material guarantee for the permanence of cold in the cave. For this -explanation to hold good it is necessary that the level at which the -ice is formed should be below the level of the entrance to the cave; -otherwise the mere weight of the cold air would cause it to leave its -prison as soon as the spring warmth arrived. In every single case that -has come under my observation, this condition has been emphatically -fulfilled. It is necessary, also, that the cave should be protected -from direct radiation, as the gravitation of cold air has nothing to -do with resistance to that powerful means of introducing heat. This -condition, also, is fulfilled by nature in all the glacières I have -visited, excepting that of S. Georges; and there art has replaced the -protection formerly afforded by the thick trees which grew over the -hole of entrance. The effect of the second hole in the roof of this -glacière is to destroy all the ice which is within range of the sun. -A third and very necessary condition is, that the wind should not be -allowed access to the cave; for if it were, it would infallibly bring -in heated air, in spite of the specific weight of the cold air stored -within. It will be understood from my description of such glacières as -that of the Grand Anu, of Monthézy, and the lower glacière of the Pré -de S. Livres, how completely sheltered from all winds the entrances to -those caves are. There can be no doubt, too, that the large surfaces -which are available for evaporation have much to do with maintaining a -somewhat lower temperature than the mean temperature of the place where -the cave occurs." - -Browne noticed prismatic ice several times. He says of it: "M. Thury -suggests also, as a possibility, what I have found to be the case by -frequent observations, that the prismatic ice has greater power of -resisting heat than ordinary ice. * * * A Frenchman who was present -in the room in which the Chemical Section of the British Association -met at Bath, and heard a paper which I read there on this prismatic -structure, suggested that it was probably something akin to the -rhomboidal form assumed by dried mud; and I have since been struck by -the great resemblance to it, as far as the surface goes, which the pits -of mud left by the coprolite workers near Cambridge offer, of course -on a very large scale. This led me to suppose that the intense dryness -which would naturally be the result of the action of some weeks or -months of great cold upon subterranean ice might be one of the causes -of its assuming this form, and the observations at Jena would rather -confirm than contradict this view: competent authorities, however, seem -inclined to believe that warmth, and not cold, is the producing cause." - -Mr. Browne found a hollow cone at La Genollière, for which he accounted -as follows: "In the loftier part of the cave * * * ninety six drops -of water in a minute splashed on to a small stone immediately under -the main fissure. This stone was in the centre of a considerable area -of the floor which was clear of ice. * * * I found that the edge -of the ice round this clear area was much thicker than the rest of -the ice on the floor, and was evidently the remains of the swelling -pedestal of the column. * * * When the melted snows of spring send -down to the cave, through the fissures of the rock, an abundance of -water at a very low temperature and the cave itself is stored with the -winter's cold, these thicker rings of ice catch first the descending -water, and so a circular wall, naturally conical, is formed around the -area of stones; the remaining water either running off through the -interstices, or forming a floor of ice of less thickness, which yields -to the next summer's drops. In the course of time, this conical wall -rises, narrowing always, till a dome-like roof is at length formed and -thenceforth the column is solid." From what I have observed myself, -this explanation seems to fairly meet the facts. - - -Professor T. G. Bonney, in 1868, was inclined to believe that there was -some connection between glacières and a glacial period. - - -Mr. W. R. Raymond, in 1869, concluded from his own observations about -the lava cave in Washington: that the cold air of winter freezes up the -percolating waters from the surface, layer upon layer, solid from the -bottom, and the accumulated ice thaws slowly in summer, being retarded -by the covering which keeps out the direct rays of the sun, and by the -fact that the melting ice at one end of the cave, through which the -summer draught enters, itself refrigerates the air and maintains a -freezing temperature at the other end. - - -Dr. C. A. White, in 1870, says of the cavern at Decorah: "The formation -of the ice is probably due to the rapid evaporation of the moisture -of the earth and rocks, caused by the heat of the summer sun upon the -outer wall of the fissure and valley side. This outer wall is from ten -to twenty feet in thickness where the ice was seen to be most abundant. -The water for its production seems to be supplied by slow exudation -from the inner wall of the cave." - - -Dr. Krenner, in 1874, wrote of Dóbsina as "a natural ice cellar of -giant dimensions, whose ice masses formed in winter, the summer does -not succeed in melting." - - -Professor W. Boyd Dawkins wrote in 1874: "The apparent anomaly that one -only out of a group of caves exposed to the same temperature should -be a glacière, may be explained by the fact that these conditions -[those formulated by the Rev. G. F. Browne] are found in combination -but rarely, and if one were absent there would be no accumulation of -perpetual ice. It is very probable that the store of cold laid up in -these caves, as in an ice house, has been ultimately derived from the -great refrigeration of climate in Europe in the Glacial Period." - - -Mr. Theodore Kirchhoff examined the lava caves in the State of -Washington and in 1876 wrote that he considered that the ice in the -smaller ones were simply remains of the winter's cold. He thought -that the ice in the large cave where there is a draught could not be -accounted for in the same way, so he concluded that the ice must be due -to the draught. - - -Mr. N. M. Lowe, in 1879, proposed the Compressed Air or Capillary -theory[74] about the Cave at Decorah. - -[74] See Part II., page 142. - - -Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., in 1879, gave an exceedingly clear exposition of -the theory in the same journal. - - -Mr. Aden S. Benedict, in 1881, published his observations about -Decorah. He found that there was no water falling in the cave to -compress the air, that there was no water falling near enough to be -heard, nor any aperture giving vent to cold air in the cave. He thought -that the cold of winter cools the sides of the cave several degrees -below freezing point and that these rocks are so far underground that -it would take a long season of hot weather to raise this temperature to -the melting point of ice. In the spring the water percolates through -the soil and drips on to the yet freezing rocks; on which it freezes -and remains until the heat of summer penetrates to a sufficient depth -to melt it away. The rocks once raised above 0° remain so until the -following winter and consequently if there are heavy autumn rains there -is water on the rocks but no ice. Mr. Benedict concluded that there was -nothing more mysterious about Decorah than the fact that if you drop -water on a cold stone it will freeze. - - -Professor Friederich Umlauft in 1883 wrote about glacières "that as -moreover they were generally protected against warm winds and strong -draughts and as their entrances look towards the north or east, there -is consequently more ice formed under these conditions in winter than -can melt away in summer. Other ice grottoes however show the remarkable -characteristic, that it is warm in them in winter, in the summer on the -contrary it becomes so cold that all the dripping water freezes. They -are found near snow clefts and gorges; when in the hot summer months -the snow melts, then the cold which has become free presses down the -temperature in the cave so much that the water freezes into ice. Such -grottoes are in Austria at * * * Frauenmauer, * * * Brandstein, * * * -Teplitz, * * * Scilize, * * * Dobschauer." - - -Herr Körber in 1885 wrote about the Schafloch, that the stored-up -winter's cold stands out as permanent adversary of the higher -temperature of the earth. The thermometer proved this by its action at -the end of the cave in a rock cleft, which is warmer than the rest of -the cave. In September Herr Körber found the masses of ice less and -the stalagmites smaller than in January, especially a column which in -January had become a stately mountain of transparent ice. - - -Professor Eberhard Fugger of Salzburg, has studied the caves of the -Untersberg carefully, having paid over eighty visits to them. He -classifies freezing caverns into the following types, according to -their position and their shape: - -According to position: 1, open caves, that is those whose entrance is -free on a rock wall; 2, pit caves, where the entrance is at the bottom -of a pit; 3, pit caves, where the pit is covered and the opening is in -the roof. - -According to shape: 1, _sackhöhlen_ or chamber caverns, into which one -enters immediately at the entrance; 2, _ganghöhlen_, or passage caves -terminating in a chamber; 3, _röhrenhöhlen_, or passage caves where -the passages continue further than the chamber. - -He is a strong advocate of the winter's cold theory. He says: "The ice -of caves is formed by the cold of winter, and remains despite the heat -of summer, as through local circumstances the quantity of heat brought -to the ice is not great enough to melt it by the time when ice and snow -in the open at the same altitude have already disappeared." - -"In order that ice may form in a cave in winter, two factors are -necessary. There must be water present in some form or other, and in -some way the outside cold air must be able to sink into the cave." - -"When the bottom of a cave is below the entrance, the outside cold -winter air sinks into the cave from its weight, when the temperature of -the cave air is higher than that of the outside air; and it will remain -there during the warmer weather, as the warm outside air on account of -its lighter weight cannot drive out the cold heavy cave air." - -"The most important factor for the formation of ice is the drip water. -The more drip flows into a cave during the cold season, the more ice is -formed; the more drip, on the contrary, flows into the cave during the -warm season, the more ice is destroyed." - -"The warmth, which the roof of the cave gives out, is also a cause -which helps to melt the ice, and a cause in fact which works the -harder, the higher the temperature of the roof and the dirtier the ice -floor." - -"If direct rays of the sun penetrate a cave, they scarcely warm up the -air which they traverse, but they raise the temperature of the floor -or of the walls, which they touch. They are therefore a very important -factor, which may bring about the melting of the ice." - -"The snow slope at the mouth of a cave offers some protection against -the rays of the sun, especially if it is no longer white, but covered -with all sorts of dirt." - -"The larger the mass of ice, the longer is its duration." "A certain -thickness to the roof is of importance in preserving the ice. If it -is less than 8 meters, then it is well if it is covered with outside -vegetation." - -I entirely agree with these _dicta_ of Professor Fugger. - -In 1893, Fugger writes: "The peculiar readings of temperature, which -I made in August 1877, in the Kolowratshöhle, namely on the 13th at -12 M., 0.5°, on the 15th at 4 P. M., 0.35°, on the 23d at 10 A. M., -0.12°, on the 26th at 10 A. M., 0.17°, and on the 30th at 2.15 P. -M., -0.10°, I think I can attribute to the workings of the winds. In -the observations themselves there could scarce be an error. All five -observations were made at the same place, with the same thermometer, -after at least half an hour's exposure. In the time from the 13th to -the 30th of August, the temperature minimum in the town of Salzburg, -was 12°; before the 30th were several cloudless nights. During the -whole of August scarcely any but southeast and northwest winds were -blowing. The Kolowratshöhle opens in a rock wall to the east; the above -named winds therefore affected during the entire month the entrance -to the cave and may have produced a lively evaporation in the cave, -through a sort of sucking up of the cave air, and thus have created the -rather decided cooling off of 0.6° within seventeen days." - -This statement, coming from Professor Fugger, deserves particular -attention, because it would go to show: first, that the air in -the Kolowratshöhle, a _sackhöhle_ with only one entrance, is only -apparently stagnant in summer and not really so; and second, that -evaporation may act to a limited extent in a cavern where there is -almost no running water. - - -Captain Trouillet, in 1885, published a paper about -Chaux-les-Passavant. He found that when it was colder inside than -outside, the internal air was nearly cut off from the outside; when it -was coldest outside there was a lively disturbance. He called these -two classes _périodes fermées_ and _périodes ouvertes_. He says: -"The duration of a _closed period_ is measured then on the curves -[of a maximum and minimum thermometer] of the interior temperatures, -between a minimum and the following maximum; that of an _open period_ -is between a minimum and the preceding maximum. One can thus count -from the 25th November to the 31st December 25 _open periods_ of a -total duration of 200 hours or 8 times 24 hours: which gives for each -a duration of 7½ hours. The shortest lasted 2 hours and the longest -16 hours. During the same interval, the _closed periods_ numbered 26, -making a total duration of about 28 days; the longest, which lasted -from the 3d to the 8th December, was 126 hours long." - -Trouillet also says: "From the 23d to the 30th December, the grotto -was completely isolated from the external air, and yet during three -consecutive nights, the interior had three marked chills. Such is -the phenomenon whose cause can only lay, in our opinion, in the -introduction of the dry air driven to the cave by the winds between -north and east. This air on entering comes in contact with the ice -and the humid roof of the cave; it saturates itself in producing a -formation of vapors, and therefrom a consumption of heat which may be -considerable." - -There are some discrepancies in this last paragraph which must be -noted, for the reason that Trouillet's observations are so valuable. He -does not mention having seen the vapors himself, in fact the production -of these vapors seems only an inference. Nor is it easy to understand -how the grotto could be "completely isolated from the external air" if -the phenomenon lay "in the introduction of the dry air driven to the -cave by the winds north and east." - - -Dr. B. Schwalbe, in 1886, wrote that "all my observations point to -the fact that the rock is the cooling factor in summer, and that the -cold goes out from it." He says also that "when I saw for the first -time the little cave of Roth, which was filled with fairly numerous -ice formations, it was precisely the smallness of the volume of air -and the strange appearance of the ice which made the simple cold air -theory seen insufficient, nor could I later, by widening the theory and -observing the localities from the basis of DeLuc's theory, accept it. -It always seemed by all my observations that in the rock there must be -a lasting source of cold. There must be a cause present, which prevents -the rapid warming of the cave wall through the temperature of the -ground, which also keeps the stone cool in summer and induces the main -ice formation in the spring." He also hints that Mr. Lowe's compressed -air theory may be the correct one. Dr. Schwalbe's work, _Über Eishöhlen -und Eislöcher_, is one of the four or five most important contributions -to glacière literature, and his opinion is entitled to great respect on -account of his many observations. - - -Professor Israel C. Russell wrote in 1890, about the ice beds on the -Yukon: "It is thought by some observers, to be an inheritance from a -former period of extreme cold; but under existing climatic conditions, -when ice forms beneath a layer of moss, it is preserved during the -short summer, and may increase as it does on the tundras, to an -astonishing thickness." - -In 1897, Professor Russell says: "It is not probable that all the -subsoil ice of northern regions has been formed in one way. Along the -flood plains and on the deltas of rivers where layers of clear ice are -interbedded with sheets of frozen gravel and vegetable matter, as is -frequently the case, it seems evident that the growth of the deposit is -due, in some instances, to the flooding of previously frozen layers, -and the freezing and subsequent burial of the sediment thus added to -their surfaces. When spring freshets spread out sheets of débris over -the flood plain of a river, as frequently happens when streams in high -latitudes flow northward, the previously frozen soil and the ice of -ponds and swamps may be buried and indefinitely preserved." "There is -still another process by which frozen subsoil may be formed in high -latitudes: this is, the effects of the cold during the long winters -are not counteracted by the heat during the short summers. Under the -conditions now prevailing in northern Alaska, where the mean annual -temperature is below 32° Fahrenheit, the frozen layer tends to increase -the thickness from year to year just as the depth of frozen soil in -more temperate latitudes may increase from month to month during the -winter season. During the short northern summers, especially where the -ground is moss covered, melting only extends a few inches below the -surface." - - -Mons. E. A. Martel, in 1892, wrote of the Creux-Percé: "I incline -only, as in all the pits which narrow at the bottom (_avens à -rétrécissement_) to attribute the chilling to the fall of the cold -air of winter and to its non-renewal in summer." And at page 564 of -_Les Abimes_ he says: "One knows that _evaporation_ is an active cause -of cooling; therefore it is always cooler in caves near the drips of -water. * * * I have positively noted this influence of evaporation -near the drips of Tabourel (8° instead of 9.5°), of Dargilan, of the -Cerna Jama, and in abysses with double mouths where there were strong -draughts (Rabanel, Biau, Fosse-Mobile, etc.)." In December, 1897, -Mons. Martel writes: "In short, the action of the winter's cold is -the real cause accepted by * * * and recently confirmed by Fugger, -Trouillet and Martel." And also: "It is probable that this influence -[evaporation] is only real at rather high altitudes; this is at least -what seems the result of the studies of the caves of Naye (1700 to 1900 -meters) begun by Professor Dutoit." - -In 1899, Mons. Martel gave an account of the Glacière de Naye. In this -paper, he abandons definitely fossil ice, salts and the capillary -theory as possible causes of underground ice. He considers that there -are four causes: 1, shape of the cavity; 2, free access of snow in -winter; 3, high altitude; 4, evaporation due to wind currents. The last -two causes he thinks are not necessarily always present. For instance -he considers that, at the Creux-Percé, and at Chaux-les-Passavant, the -ice is due especially to the sack or hour-glass shape of these hollows -where the summer air cannot get in on account of its lightness. At the -Glacière de Naye, which is a big windhole, situated at an altitude of -1750 to 1820 meters, Mons. Martel thinks that the ice is formed by the -snow and cold of winter, but that its preservation is assured by the -evaporation caused by the action of the windhole. - - -Dr. Terlanday, in 1893, asserted that ice does not form in Szilize in -winter, and that the ice first forms in the winter in the upper part -of rock fissures and that in the spring, at the time of an increase of -temperature, this fissure ice is brought to the melting point by the -successive entering of heat into the earth and that it then arrives at -the cave, where it aids the formation of icicles. This theory about -fissure ice is probably in so far correct, that the ice in the upper -parts of fissures, near the surface of the ground, melts before the ice -in the lower parts of fissures. The drip would then naturally run into -the cave and, as long as the temperature of the cave was low, help to -form cave ice. - - -Dr. Hans Lohmann, in 1895, published some valuable notes about several -glacières. While considering the cold of winter as the main cause of -the ice, he thought evaporation a secondary cause of cold. He says: -"That the cold from evaporation bears its share in cooling a cave, -will not be denied. * * * The air saturated with aqueous vapor makes -one think of constant evaporation. The aqueous vapor spreads itself -by diffusion throughout the entire cave, and if the outside air is -driest, goes to that. Through this, more ice and water can always be -vaporized, and to the warming elements there is furnished a cooling -one. If dry winds get into the cave, then must evaporation be very -lively and the chilling especially strong. Through this cause alone -can be explained the remarkably low temperature of +6.3° in the new -part of the Garischen Stollen, in contrast to the temperature of +7.9° -in the old part. The strong draught in the last drew out through its -suction the damp air of the new adit, so that there had to be a strong -evaporation." - -Dr. Lohmann gives some exhaustive notes about prismatic ice. He found -it a product of the fall months. He thinks all the observations show -that "the beginning of all prismatic formation in the ice may be looked -for in the changes of temperature in the cave at the time of the -formation of the ice. These cause the everywhere recognized splitting, -vertically to the outer surface. The further development hangs, as -shown by Hagenbach and Emden, on the attempt of the neighboring cells, -to join into larger unities. The increase of the larger crystals is -finally prevented by the melting out of the openings between the -separate crystals. Through this may be explained the difference in the -prismatic ice in different parts of the same cave." - - -Regierungsrath Franz Kraus, in 1895, wrote a short essay on glacières -in _Höhlenkunde_. He seems to have seen but few glacières himself, and -considers the scientific side of the question by no means solved as -yet. He says: "The last word will not be spoken by the geographers and -the Alpine climbers * * * but by the physicists, in whose field both -questions really belong. Only then, when the physical circumstances -of the formation of the ice in glacières have been so thoroughly -understood, that under the same circumstances it may be possible to -build artificial glacières, only then could one say: the glacière -question is definitely settled. The best proof is always experiment." - -He lays down several dicta which he says are universally recognized, -among which is this: "2. The ice formations in the débris heaps of -basaltic mountains are summer ice formations. The evaporation of the -infiltration water is recognized on all sides as the cause of this -ice." I differ in opinion from Herr Kraus about this matter, and think -that, on the contrary, every proof shows that the ice of basaltic -taluses is not a summer formation and is not due to evaporation. - -Herr Kraus also says: "The _Eishöhlen_ resemble so little the -_Windröhren_, that for these a proper name is quite correct. Just -as one cannot draw a sharp line between _Einstürzschlünden_ and -_Einstürzdolinen_, so one cannot draw a sharp line between _eishöhlen_ -and _windröhren_. A stagnation of cave air does not exist, and no cave -student would pretend to say it existed. The circulation of air may in -certain caves take place almost entirely through the mouth and it then -depends largely on the shape of the latter; in other caves are crevices -and erosion holes, which allow a circulation of air. Again in other -caves air may come through the floor into the cave, as is proved by -certain places always remaining free from ice." - -He also says: "The formation of dripstone is also diminished about -thick roofs, when the cracks are too broad to permit a slow dripping -process. In caves with sufficient air movements, that is ventilation, -the dripstone formation takes place faster than in those in which -the air is only slowly renewed. Also in such caves, in which the air -is strongly filled with moisture, the dripstone formation process -is materially hindered. Therefore in water caves and in _eishöhlen_ -one finds only rarely dripstone formations, and these mainly of poor -appearance. But in all cases the carbonic acid of the infiltration -water plays an important part." - - -In 1896, a Western newspaper published the following explanation about -the presence of ice in the cave at Elkinsville, Indiana; and it shows -how the idea--long since exploded--of the ice being due to chemical -causes, serenely bobs up on the discovery of a new cave: "Some have -advanced the theory that the air is forced through under passages -of the earth with such pressure as to make the strange formation; -some have attributed the cause to an underlying bed of alkali, whose -chemical change to a gaseous form has produced the phenomenon. Others -have thought that the interior heat of the earth, acting upon the -iron pyrites, or fool's gold, which largely abounds in this country, -is the true source of this unparalleled discovery. Still others think -that the sudden expansion of the carbonic acid gas given off by the -heated limestone, which is also common in this country, could have -easily produced the ice. But thus far the theories are nothing more -than speculation, and further than the fact that the ice cave exists, -and is, indeed, a remarkable phenomenon, none has been able to further -determine." - - -In 1896, Dr. A. Cvijic wrote that the cold air of winter is the source -of cold in the glacières of Servia. The mountains have so little water -that the shepherds constantly take the ice out in summer for their own -use. - - -In 1897, numerous newspapers, among others, the _Philadelphia Press_ -of August 1st, romanced as follows about the cave at Decorah: "In the -summer its temperature is far below freezing. * * * From some unknown -source in the impenetrable rear of the cave comes a blast of cold air -as chill as from the Arctic region. In the winter the temperature of -the cave is like summer. * * * We followed the winding passage in and -out for more than 1000 feet. * * * I took out the thermometer and laid -it upon the floor of the cavern for three minutes. When I took it up -again I found that the mercury had fallen to 5 degrees below zero." - -"What is it that causes this phenomenon? Scientific men are said to -have visited the cave within the last day or two who have declared that -it had in some manner a subterranean connection with the polar regions, -and that the cold air from the North coming in contact with the warm -moist atmosphere from outside converted the vapor into water on the -walls of the cavern where it straightway congealed. * * * It seems to -me possible after thinking the matter over carefully, that in some -mysterious manner the same influences that work the changes in climate -in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are operating in this cave. It is -a well-known fact that in the regions referred to the seasons are the -reverse of what they are here." - -Mr. W. S. Auchincloss writes in 1897: "We also notice the working of -the same principle during summer days. The hottest part does not occur -at the noon hour--when the sun is on the meridian--but several hours -later in the afternoon. In this case the accessions of heat arrive more -rapidly than radiation is able to carry off. Radiation, however, keeps -on apace, and, at last attaining the mastery, temperature falls. Ice -caves furnish another example of the gradual procession in the seasons." - - -Mr. Alois F. Kovarik writes about Decorah in 1898 that "the length of -duration of the ice in the cave during the spring and summer depends -upon the quantity of cold stored up in the walls and this again upon -the coldness and the length of coldness of the previous winter. If -the winter be severe and long, the walls will store up a great supply -of cold for the gradual dissipation in the spring and summer and -consequently the phenomenon of the ice in the ice chambers will last -longer. Last winter, with an exception of the fore part of December, -was quite mild. As a result, the ice began to disappear with the latter -part of June, and totally disappeared by the end of July. * * * The -time of the lowest temperature in the cave depends upon how soon the -cold spells of the winter begin; for the sooner the walls begin to -freeze to a greater depth, the sooner have they stored up the greatest -amount of cold. * * * February 28th, 1898, when the walls contained -the greatest amount of cold, there was no ice in the cave, for the -reason that no water made appearance. Could water have appeared, no -doubt a great amount of ice would have formed; but as the conditions -are, the water has to come from the ground outside, and this being -frozen at the time, water could not in any natural way appear. If in -early spring, sufficiently warm days should come to melt the snow and -open the ground, the water not taken up by the ground would flow and -seep through crevices into the cave and ice consequently would appear -early. Somewhat such conditions prevailed this year, for warm days -appeared quite early in the spring. If _per contra_ the ground does not -open until in April, as was the case in 1895 and 1896, the appearance -of the ice is consequently delayed. * * * Naturally this opening [the -entrance] was small, but to give easier entrance, it was enlarged to -its present size. * * * If the entrance had been left a small opening, -as it naturally was, it is my belief that the temperature of the -interior of the cave would be lower in summer than it is, and the ice -would not disappear as soon as it does." - - -Mr. Robert Butler, of San José, Cal., investigated the question of cold -air draughts coming from the glacière cave and from the freezing shaft -he examined in Montana. He wrote to me, in 1898, that he found that one -notices or imagines to notice a draught of air, especially on hot days. -Rapidly walking into the cave from the hot air without to the rapidly -cooling air within produces the same nervous sensations as though one -were to remain stationary and the air were to pass by from the warm to -the colder portions. A distance of twelve meters finds a difference -in temperature of fifteen degrees Centigrade. Twelve meters can be -walked quickly, so quickly that the nerves cannot become accustomed -gradually to the change of temperature. The rapidly cooling air does -actually produce the sensation of cool air passing by one's face. It -produces somewhat the same sensation as the evaporation of ether on -the surface of the body. Mr. Butler satisfied himself that as far as -he had observed all the seemingly peculiar conditions and places where -the ice has been found do not indicate any other causes when carefully -investigated than those of the seasons of the year, and that the ice -was formed by no other cause than the natural cold of winter. - - -Professor Cranmer, in 1899, added some important contributions to our -knowledge of freezing caverns. All his work goes to prove the winter's -cold theory, but he has brought out some new details. He found warm and -cold periods in the Tablerloch during the winter months. The coldest -air sank to the bottom and the air in the cave stratified itself -according to its specific gravity and its temperature. During a cold -period, the outside air sank into the cave only to the air stratum, -whose temperature, from the preceding warm period, was as much higher -as that of the outer air, as this had become warmer in sinking to that -stratum. The air which enters falls down the slope and displaces an -equal volume of air which streams out under the roof. - -Water will sometimes drip through a crack in winter until that crack -freezes up, when the water may then find some other crack to drip -through; at this second place a stalagmite may then grow, while at the -first place the stalagmite may stop growing and even begin to diminish -from evaporation. - -Ice begins to form, whenever water gets into a cave, if the cave -temperature is below 0°; ice begins to melt as soon as the temperature -is over 0°. - -Professor Cranmer found that occasionally small quantities of ice form -in caves in the summer months: this was in mountain caves, where there -was snow on the mountains and the temperature of the nights at least, -had sunk below freezing point: in fact when the conditions were those -of the winter months. - - - - -PART V. - -LIST OF AUTHORS. - - - - -LIST OF AUTHORS.[75] - -[75] This list of authors includes all the authorities which I -have personally consulted. Several papers, such as Dr. Schwalbe's -"_Uebersichtliche Zusammenstellung Literarischer Notizen ueber -Eishöhlen_" and the works of Dr. Listoff, I have been unable to find in -any library. - - - Allen, Levi. _Scientific American, New Series_, October 27th, 1883, - page 259. - - _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1839, vol. XXXVI., page 184. - - Auchincloss, W. S., C. E. _Waters within the Earth and the Laws of - Rainflow_, Philadelphia, 1897. - - - Badin, Adolphe. _Grottes et Cavernes_, Paris, Hachette, 1867. - - Baedeker, Karl. _Handbook of Austria._ _Handbook of the Eastern - Alps._ _Handbook of South Eastern France._ _Handbook of - Switzerland._ _Handbook of the United States._ - - Baker, M. S. _The Lava Region of Northern California: Sierra Club - Bulletin_, San Francisco, Cal., 1899, vol. II., page 318. - - Balch, Edwin Swift. _Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean - Ice_: Allen, Lane & Scott, Philadelphia, November, 1896, and - _The Journal of the Franklin Institute_, Philadelphia, March, - 1897, vol. CXLIII., pages 161-178. _Ice Cave Hunting in Central - Europe: Appalachia_, Boston, 1897, vol. VIII., pages 203-209. - _Subterranean Ice Deposits in America: Journal of the Franklin - Institute_, Philadelphia, April, 1899, vol. CXLVII., pages - 286-297. - - Baltzer, Dr. A. _Eine Neue Eishöhle im Berner Oberland: Jahrbuch des - Schweizer Alpen Club_, Bern, 1892-1893, pages 358-362. - - Behrens, Dr. Georg Henning. _Hercynia Curiosa_, Nordhausen, 1703. - - Bel, Matthias. _Philosophical Transactions_, London, 1739, vol. XLI., - page 41 _et seq._ - - Benedict, Aiden S. _Decorah Republican_, June 19th, 1881. - - Berthoud, Edward L. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, Third - Series, 1876, vol. XI., page 108. - - Bielz, E. Albert. _Siebenbürgen, Handbuch_, Carl Graeser, Wien, 1885. - - Billerez, Mons. de. _Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences_, - 1712, page 22 _et seq._ - - Bonney, T. G. _The Alpine Regions, 1868._ _Nature_, vol. XI., pages - 310, 327, 328. - - Boué, Dr. Ami. _La Turquie d'Europe_, Paris, 1840, vol. I., page 132. - _Sitzungsbericht der K. K. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien_, - 1864, I. Theil, page 321 _et seq._ - - Boz, Mons. de, Ingénieur du Roy. _Histoire de l'Académie Royale des - Sciences_, 1726, pages 16, 17. - - Browne, The Reverend G. F. _Ice Caves in France and Switzerland_, - London, Longmans, 1865. _Ice Caves of Annecy: Good Words_, - Edinburgh, November, 1866. - - _Bulletin, The Evening_, Philadelphia, March 1st, 1899. - - Burslem, Captain Rollo. _A Peep into Toorkisthan_, 1846. - - - C. B. A. _Scientific American_, May 3d, 1879. - - Cantwell, Lieutenant J. C. _Ice Cliffs on the Kowak River: National - Geographic Magazine_, October, 1896. - - Carrel, Chanoine G. _Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, 1841, vol. - XXXIV., page 196. - - _Christian Herald_, March 24th, 1897. - - Colladon. His manuscript notes were used by J. A. Deluc in _Annales - de Chimie et de Physique_, Paris, 1822, vol. XXI., page 113 _et - seq._ - - Cossigny, Mons. de, Ingénieur en chef de Besançon. _Mémoires de - Mathématique et de physique présentés à l'Académie Royale des - Sciences_, 1750, vol. I., page 195 _et seq._ - - Cranmer, Professor Hans. _Eishöhlen und Windröhren Studien: - Abhandlungen der K. K. Geographischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, vol. - I., 1899. - - Cranmer, Professor Hans, and Sieger, Professor Dr. Rob. - _Untersuchungen in den Oetscherhöhlen: Globus_, 1899, vol. LXXV., - pages 313-318, and 333-335. - - Cvijic, Dr. A. _Les Glacières Naturelles de Serbie: Spélunca, - Bulletin de la Société de Spéléologie_, 2^{me} Année, Paris, - 1896, pages 64-77. - - - Dawkins, Professor W. Boyd. _Cave Hunting_, London, Macmillan, 1874. - - DeLuc, Jean André, Neveu. _Des Glacières Naturelles et de la cause - qui forme la glace dans ces cavités_, Genève 12 October, 1822: - _Annales de Chimie et de Physique_, Paris, 1822, vol. XXI., page - 113 _et seq._ - - Dent, R. K., and Hill, Joseph. _Historic Staffordshire_, Birmingham, - 1896. - - Dewey. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1819, vol. I., page - 340, and 1822, vol. V., page 398. - - _Dispatch_: Frankford, Pennsylvania, 22d January, 1897. - - Dittmar, C. v. _Ueber die Eismülden im Östlichen Sibirien: Bulletin - de la classe Physico-mathématique de l'Académie Impériale des - Sciences de St. Pétersbourg_, 1853, Tome XI., pages 305-312. - - Drioton, Clément. _Les Cavernes de la Côte d'Or: Mémoires de la - Société de Spéléologie_, Paris, 1897, vol. I., page 209. - - Dufour, Lieutenant-Colonel. _Notice sur la caverne et glacière - naturelle du Rothhorn: Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève_, 1822, - vol. XXI., page 113 _et seq._ - - Dufour, L. _Ueber das Gefrieren des Wassers und über die Bildung des - Hagels: Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, 1861, vol. - CXIV., pages 530-554. - - Dunant, C. _Le Parmelan et ses Lapiaz: Annuaire du Club Alpin - Français_, 2^{me} vol., Paris, 1875. - - - Fugger, Professor Eberhard. _Über Eishöhlen: Petermann's - Mittheilungen_, vol. XXIX., 1883, pages 12-19. _Beobachtungen - in den Eishöhlen des Untersberges_, Salzburg, 1888. _Eishöhlen - und Windröhen_, Salzburg, 1891, 1892, 1893. _Eishöhlen und - Windröhren: Mittheilungen der K. K. Geographischen Gesellschaft_, - Vienna, 1894, pages 97-134. - - - _Géographie, La: Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_, Paris, 1900, - vol. I., pages 52-54. - - Georgi, John Gottl. _Bemerkungen einer Reise im Russischen Reich_, - Saint Petersburg, 1775, vol. I., page 369. - - Gibbs, G. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1853, Second - Series, vol. XV., page 146. - - Girardot, Albert. _Les dernières observations du Capitaine L. - Trouillet à la glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant: Mémoires de la - Société d'Émulation du Doubs_, 1886. - - Girod-Chantrans, Le Citoyen. _Journal des Mines_, Prairial, An. IV., - pages 65-72. - - Gollut, Lois. _Les Mémoires Historiques de la Repub. 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A. _Ice Making in the Tropics: Nature_, Macmillan, London - and New York, 1872, vol. V., pages 189-190. - - - - -INDEX. - - - - -INDEX. - - - PAGE - - Adirondack guides, Opinions of, 81 - Alaska, Subsoil ice in, 166, 167 - Allmen, Emil von, guide, 21 - Altitude of glacières, 150 - Amarnath, Cave of, 262 - Apparently static caves, 122 - Arizona, Glacières in, 175, 176 - Auchincloss, Mr. W. S., 307 - Auersperg, Prince, 52 - Ausable Pond, Freezing talus at, 79 - - Balch, Mrs. Geo. B., 189 - Balch Pass, The, 263 - Bargy, Mont, 71 - Basins, Ice, 20, 130 - Behrens, 270 - Beilstein, Caves on the, 234 - Bel, Matthias, 254, 271 - Benedict, Mr. A. S., 293 - Benner, Mr., 90 - Berthoule, Mons., 206 - Besançon, 8 - Billerez, Mons. de, 270 - Bonney, Professor T. G., 216, 222, 291 - Boston Natural History Society, 138, 182 - Boué, Dr. A., 242 - Boulder heaps, 116 - Boz, Mons. de, 270 - Brandon, Freezing well of, 77, 182, 283, 284 - Brinckerhoff, Mr. F. H., 177 - Briot, Mons., 204 - Brisons, Glacière de, 2 - Browne, The Rev. G. F., 133, 213, 215, 216, 219, 220, 221, 222, 288 - _Bulletin, The Evening_, 253 - Buried glaciers, 165 - Burslem, Captain, 261 - Butler, Mr. R., 171, 172, 308 - - California, Glacières in, 170, 171 - Canfield, Mr. N. M., 76 - Capillary or Compressed Air Theory, 142 - Carbonic acid gas, 133 - Carrel, Chanoine, 212 - Caucasus, Glacières in the, 257 - Cesi, Don Giuseppe, 209 - Chapuis, Glacière de, 5, 216 - Chatham, Mr. I. C., 94 - Chaux-les-Passavant, Glacière de, 8, 193 - Chemical causes theory, 140 - Cliff caves, 6, 18, 22, 27, 40, 70, 76, 120 - Clothes for glacière exploration, 53 - Cold caves, 117 - Colladon, Mons, 278 - Color effects, 131 - Colorado, Glacières in, 174, 175 - Cossigny, Mons. de, 202, 271 - Cotterlaz, S. J., guide, 71 - Coxe, Miss Mary, 262 - Cranmer, Professor H., 232, 234, 235, 309 - Creux-de-Souci, Le, 206 - Crevasses, 4 - Crimea, Glacières in the, 256 - Cushing, Mr. F. H., 176 - Cvijic, Dr. A., 243, 305 - - Dante, 135 - Daubuisson, 248 - Dawkins, Professor W. Boyd, 292 - Decorah, Freezing cave of, 88, 177 - Decorah, Freezing well of, 89 - Deluc, Mons. J. A., 277 - Démenyfálva Jegbarlang, 24 - Dewey, Mr., 183, 277 - Dimensions of glacières, 120 - Dittmar, Mons. de, 260 - Dóbsina Jegbarlang, 13, 252 - Dóbsina, Village of, 13 - Dornburg, Freezing talus at the, 59, 247 - Dornburg, Freezing cellar at the, 60 - Draughts, 8, 45, 47, 58, 80 - Dripstone formations in glacières, 24, 30, 57, 63, 67, 304 - Duc de Lévy, 202 - Dunant, Mons. C., 215, 216 - Dutoit, Professor, 221 - - Eastern Alps, Glacières in the, 224-236 - Eastern United States, Glacières in the, 180-189 - Eger, Dr. W., 262 - Ehrlicher, Mr., 86 - Eisenerz, 37 - Elkinsville, Glacière at, 180, 305 - Ellenville, Freezing gorge at, 91, 185 - Émery, Aymon, guide, 62, 65 - Enfer, Glacière de l', 215 - England, Glacières in, 192, 193 - Entrances of glacières, 121 - Eschholz, Dr., 167 - Evaporation, 156, 275, 287, 296, 298, 300, 302, 304 - - Farrandsville, Cave at, 93 - Farnum, Mr. G. L., 266 - Farnum, Mr. J. E., 266 - Fauna of glacières, 133, 207, 214, 216, 219, 246 - Fee Glacier, Ice Cave in, 68 - Flora of glacières, 80, 83, 85, 91, 134, 188, 222, 237, 240 - Fondurle, Glacière de, 213 - Forms of Ice, 126 - Frainer Eisleithen, The, 33, 251 - France, Glacières in, 193-208, 213-218 - Frauenmauerhöhle, The, 37 - Freezing mines and tunnels, 117 - Freezing wells, 74, 77, 89, 117, 206 - Friedrichsteinerhöhle, 51 - Fugger, Professor E., 224, 226, 227, 228, 237, 249, 251, 294 - - Genollière, Glacière de la, 48, 219 - Geographical distribution of glacières, 149 - Germany, Glacières in, 246-250 - Giant of the Valley, Talus of the, 81 - Girardot, Mons. A., 204 - Girod-Chantrans, Le citoyen, 272 - Glacial period theory, The, 136 - Glacière, Advantage of term, 110 - Glacière caves, 118 - Glaciers, 145 - Gollut, Lois, 202, 269 - Gorges and troughs, 146, 260 - Great Barrington, Icy gulf near, 99 - Gruber, J., guide, 18 - Gsoll-Alp, 38 - Guyot, Professor A., 281 - - Hablizl, 272 - Hacquet, 271 - Hager, Mr. A. D., 182, 282 - Hall, Mr. W. Coleman, 187 - Hart, Mr. B., 76 - Hartenstein, Professor, 249 - Haut-d'Aviernoz, Glacière de l', 2, 215 - Hayden, Professor C. B., 280 - Heilprin, Professor A., 93, 185 - Herschel, Sir John, 141 - Hitchcock, Professor E., 284 - Hoar frost, 16, 30, 129 - Holes in ice, 4, 42, 64, 130 - Hollow ice stalagmites, 23, 127, 287, 290 - Holschuh, Mr. F., 188 - Hovey, The Rev. H. C., 186 - Howell, Mr. E. I. H., 80, 83 - Humboldt, Alexander von, 276 - - Ice floors, 4, 7, 11, 15, 19, 22, 30, 42, 54, 64, 72 - Ice formed by radiation, 263-266 - Iceland, Glacières in, 190, 191 - Ice near entrance of caves, 152 - Ice sheets, Subterranean, 115 - Ice slabs on floor, 20 - Ice slopes, 4, 17, 19, 23, 52, 67 - Ice Spring, Oregon, The, 169 - Ice stalactites and stalagmites, 3, 7, 12, 23, 30, 42, 73, 127 - Italy, Glacières in, 208-213 - - Japan, Glacière in, 266 - Jayne, Mrs. Horace, 189 - Joly, Capucin Romain, 272 - - Karst, Glacières in the, 236-242 - King's Ravine, Subterranean ice in, 1 - Kirchhoff, Mr. T., 292 - Klenka, S., guide, 51 - Kolowratshöhle, The, 18, 226 - Körber, Herr B., 222, 294 - Korea, Glacière in, 266 - Kovarik, Mr. A. F., 89, 178, 180, 307 - Krain, Glacières in the, 236-242 - Krauss, Regierungsrath F., 303 - Krenner, Dr., 292 - - Lakes, Subterranean, 7, 43 - Lamb, Mr. C., guide, 81 - Lathrop, Mr. S. P., 280 - Lava caves, Washington, 168 - Learned, Mr., 86 - Lee, Mr. C. A., 278 - Legends about glacières, 135, 216 - Lepechin, 258 - Lerchenfeld, Freiherr von, 227 - Lewis, Miss J. F., 93 - Lewis, Mr. J. F., 129 - Liptós Szt Miklós, 24 - Lohmann, Dr. H., 302 - Lowe, Mr. C. E., Jr., 83 - Lowe, Mr. C. E., Sr., 1, 85 - Lowe, Mr. N. M., 142, 292 - Luce, Mr. C. O., 78 - Lyell, Sir Charles, 116, 210 - - Manchester, Marble freezing cave at, 76 - Marinitsch, Herr J., 236 - Martel, Mons. E. A., 205, 207, 208, 214, 221, 300 - McCabe, Mr. E., 94 - Meehan, Mr. W. E., 165 - Mercer, Mr. H. C., 143, 187 - Metric system, 3 - Mist in caves, 18, 55 - Misura, F., forester, 27 - Montana, Glacières in, 171-173 - Montarquis, Grand Cave de, 70, 217, 286 - Montarquis, Petite Cave de, 71 - Moonlight effects, 24, 33, 132 - Morin, Mons., 218 - Motion in subterranean ice, 131 - Movements of air, 122, 156 - Murchison, Sir R. I., 141 - - Nagel, J. N., 271 - Naye, Glacière de, 221 - Nicholson, Mr. C. J., 95 - Niles, Mr., 81 - Nixloch, The, 57, 226 - - Oetscher, The Seelücken on the, 231 - Olmstaed, Professor D., 282 - Otis, Mr., 81 - Oudot, Dr., 272 - Owego, Freezing well of, 74, 186 - - Paleontological remains, 134 - Parmelan, Mont, 3, 5 - Parrot, G. F., 125 - Peasants, Opinions of, 33, 70, 139 - Pelech, Dr. J. E., 252 - Periods in glacières, Open and closed, 297 - Peters, K. F., 246 - Petruzzi, Professor, 241, 282 - Phillips, Mr. G. B., 185 - Pictet, Professor M. A., 277 - Pit caves, 2, 3, 10, 48, 52, 63, 66, 119 - Pleischl, Professor A., 250, 279 - Poissenot, Benigne, 193, 269 - Poprád, 13 - Pralong du Reposoir, 70 - _Press, The Philadelphia_, 306 - Preston, Mr., 74 - Prestwich, Mr., 248 - Prévost, Professor P., 273 - Prismatic ice, 64, 67, 129, 287, 289, 303 - _Public Ledger, The_, 169 - - Randolph, The Ice Gulch,, 83 - Raymond, Mr. W. R., 291 - Reich, F., 279 - Religious feeling about ice, 135, 176, 262 - Ritchie, Mr. John, Jr., 76, 83, 85, 143, 181, 292 - Rogers, Professor W. B., 281 - Roth, Eishöhle bei, 35 - Rudolf II., Kaiser, 232 - Ruffiny, Herr E., 252 - Rumney, Freezing talus at, 85 - Russell, Professor I. C., 166, 299 - - Saint-Georges, Glacière de, 62, 219, 285 - Saint-Georges, Village of, 62 - Saint-Livres, Glacière de, 65 - Saint-Livres, Pré de, 66 - Sakharov, Dr. A., 257 - Samuel, Mr. B., 192, 209, 264 - Sartori, Dr. F., 276 - Satter, Professor H., 241 - Saussure, H. B. de, 209, 274 - Scandinavia, Glacières in, 191 - Schafloch, The, 21, 222 - Schallenberger, C., 232, 269 - Schellenberger Eisgrotte, The, 227 - Schwalbe, Dr. B., 241, 253, 298 - Scott, Professor W. B., 176 - Scrope, Mr. G. P., 278 - Seelisberg, The Milchhaüser of, 45 - Selby-Hill, Mr. W. D., 88 - Servia, Glacières in, 242-245 - Skerizora, Cave of, 245 - Skinner's Cave, 76 - Siberia, Glacières in, 259-261 - Sieger, Professor, 232 - Silliman, Professor, 279 - Sirar, J., guide, 56 - Snow, Subterranean, 16, 129, 206, 247 - South America, Subsoil ice in, 189, 190 - Spruce Creek, Freezing talus at, 90, 188 - Stockbridge, Icy glen near, 75 - Strachey, Gen. Sir R., 263 - Strein, R., 232, 269 - Suchenreuther Eisloch, The, 55 - Summer's heat theory, The, 138 - Summit, Glacières near, 95 - Switzerland, Glacières in, 219-223 - Szilize, Cave of, 253 - - Tablerloch, The, 233 - Taluses, 79, 81, 85, 90, 100, 116 - Temperatures, Subterranean, 112 - Teneriffe, Glacière on the Peak of, 190 - Terlanday, Dr., 301 - Terminology, 109 - Thermometric observations, 151, 178, 219, 227, 228, - 233, 237, 252, 253 - Thury, Professor, 122, 139, 213, 217, 219, 220, 285 - Time of formation of ice, 159 - Townson, R., 275 - Trouillet, Captain, 202, 297 - Turrian, A. A., gendarme, 48 - - Umlauft, Professor F., 293 - Ural, Glacières in the, 257-259 - - Valvasor, Freiherr, 238, 240, 270 - Villard, Mons. L., 133, 214 - Viré, Mons. A., 134 - - Wachtl, Forester, 252 - Wagner, Mr. W. W., 173 - Wallingford, The ice beds of, 99 - Watertown, Cave at, 87 - Watertown, Windholes at, 86 - Waves of heat and cold, Theory of, 141 - White, Dr. C. A., 291 - Williams, Mr. W. F., 101 - Williamstown, Caves near, 101 - Williamstown, The snow hole near, 98, 183 - Winter's cold theory, The, 147 - Windholes, 61, 111, 117 - Windholes, The theory of, 124 - Wordsworth, Verses by, 192 - - - Yeermallik, Cave of, 261 - - - Ziegler, Herr J. M., 45 - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - - -Images were moved so as to not split paragraphs. Accents were -standardized. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Glacières - or Freezing Caverns - -Author: Edwin Swift Balch - -Release Date: June 2, 2016 [EBook #52216] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GLACIÈRES *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 385px;"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="385" height="500" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - - - - -<h1 class="pmt4">GLACIÈRES</h1> - -<p class="center" style="padding-top: 2em;">OR</p> - -<p class="caption1 pmb4">FREEZING CAVERNS</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 618px;"> -<img src="images/frontis.png" width="618" height="405" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">ICE SLOPE AND BASIN, KOLOWRATSHÖHLE.</div> -</div> - - - - -<h1 class="pmt4">GLACIÈRES</h1> - -<p class="center" style="padding-top: 2em;">OR</p> - -<p class="caption1 pmb4">FREEZING CAVERNS</p> - -<p class="center">BY</p> - -<p class="caption2">EDWIN SWIFT BALCH</p> - -<p class="center pmb4">A. B. (<span class="smcap">Harvard</span>); F. R. G. S.<br /> -<span class="smcap">Member of the Franklin Institute<br /> -Of the Appalachian Mountain Club<br /> -Of the American Philosophical Society<br /> -Author of “Mountain Exploration,” &c.</span></p> - -<p class="caption3 pmb4"><span class="smcap">Philadelphia</span><br /> -ALLEN, LANE & SCOTT<br /> -1900</p> - - -<p class="center" style="padding-top: 2em;">Copyright, 1900, by<br /> -EDWIN SWIFT BALCH.</p> - - - -<p class="caption4 pmb4"><span class="smcap">Press of</span><br /> -ALLEN, LANE & SCOTT,<br /> -<span class="smcap">Philadelphia, Pa.</span></p> - - -<p class="center pmt4 pmb4"> -THIS BOOK IS<br /> -AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED TO<br /> -<span class="larger">MY MOTHER,</span><br /> -WHOSE DEEP INTEREST IN<br /> -MY WORK HAS<br /> -HELPED ME GREATLY.</p> - - -<p class="caption2">PRELIMINARY NOTE.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 116px;"> -<img src="images/line_dots.png" width="116" height="13" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Many kind friends have given me information about -glacières or assistance in my work. I am especially -indebted to Mr. Robert Butler, of San José, Cal.; Mr. -F. H. Cushing, of Washington, D. C.; Professor -Charles E. Fay, of Tufts College, Mass.; Professor -Eberhard Fugger, of Salzburg, Austria; Mr. Alois F. -Kovarik, of Decorah, Iowa; Monsieur E. A. Martel, of -Paris, France; Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., of Boston, Mass.; -Professor I. C. Russell, of Ann Arbor, Mich.; Miss H. -Varena, of Wiesbaden, Germany; and Miss Mary Coxe, -Mr. G. L. Farnum, Mr. J. E. Farnum, Mr. F. L. Garrison, -Mr. W. C. Hall, Mr. E. I. H. Howell, Mrs. Horace -Jayne, Mr. W. E. Meehan, Mr. C. J. Nicholson, Mr. G. B. -Phillips, Mr. Bunford Samuel, Mr. W. W. Wagner, and -Dr. W. H. Wahl, of Philadelphia. I wish to acknowledge -also the help I have derived from the Bibliothèque Nationale -and the library of the British Museum.</p> - -<p class="tdr2"> -E. S. B.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="pmb4"><span class="smcap">Philadelphia</span>, February the 10th, 1900.</p> - - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</a></h2> - -<hr class="r40" /> - -<table summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td colspan="4" class="tdr smaller">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Part</td> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Experiences in Glacières</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PART_I">1</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Part</td> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Causes of Subterranean Ice</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PART_II">109</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Part</td> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">List of Glacières</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PART_III">165</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Part</td> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Some Opinions about Glacières</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PART_IV">269</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Part</td> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">List of Authors</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PART_V">313</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">329</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - - - -<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS">ILLUSTRATIONS.</a></h2> - -<hr class="r40" /> - - -<table summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ice Slope and Basin, Kolowratshöhle</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Frontispiece">Frontispiece</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8f">8</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ice Stalagmites, Chaux-les-Passavant</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10f">10</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vertical Section of Chaux-les-Passavant</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11f">11</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ice Stalagmites, Chaux-les-Passavant</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12f">12</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vertical Section of Dóbsina</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15f">15</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Lower Rositten Alp and the Untersberg</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16f">16</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Entrance of the Kolowratshöhle</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18f">18</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vertical Section of the Kolowratshöhle</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_19f">19</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Top of Ice Slope, Kolowratshöhle</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20f">20</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">At the Entrance of the Schafloch</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22f">22</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Hollow Cones and Fissure Columns, Schafloch</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24f">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">On the Ice Slope, Schafloch</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26f">26</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">In the Rear of the Schafloch</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28f">28</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vertical Section of Déményfálva</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29f">29</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Frauenmauer and the Gsoll Alp</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38f">38</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">In the Frauenmauerhöhle</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_40f">40</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vertical Section of the Frauenmauerhöhle</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42a">42</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ice Stalactite, Frauenmauerhöhle</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42f">42</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vertical Section of the Suchenreuther Eisloch</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57f">57</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">La Glacière de Saint-Georges</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_62f">62</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vertical Section of the Glacière de Saint-Georges</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64f">64</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vertical Section of Grand Cave de Montarquis</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72f">72</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Bluff at Decorah</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_86f">86</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Entrance of the Cave of Decorah</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88f">88</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Locus Glacialis, Cave of Decorah</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90f">90</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Gorge at Ellenville</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92f">92</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vertical Section of Pit near Summit</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_97f">97</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vertical Section of Freezing Cave near Williamstown</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103f">103</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vertical Section of a Windhole</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_125f">125</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Freezing Cavern at Brainard</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_180f">180</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<h2 class="pmt4"><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I">PART I.</a></h2> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<p class="caption2 pmb4">EXPERIENCES IN GLACIÈRES.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">« 1 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption2">EXPERIENCES IN GLACIÈRES.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 116px;"> -<img src="images/line_dots.png" width="116" height="13" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption2">SUBTERRANEAN ICE IN KING’S RAVINE.</p> - -<p>Subterranean ice was brought to my notice by a -mere accident, late in the month of September, 1877, -while on a descent of King’s Ravine, on Mount Adams, -in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. We had -just descended the rock wall of the mountain and had -reached the head of the gorge, when my companion, -Mr. Charles E. Lowe, the well-known Appalachian guide -of Randolph, suddenly said to me, “Would you like a -piece of ice? I can get you some presently.” I answered, -“Certainly,” wondering where he would find -any. When we got among the big boulders, which form -so rough a path for the traveler at the bottom of the -ravine, Mr. Lowe climbed down under one of the biggest, -and presently reappeared with a good sized lump of -ice. I was much impressed at finding ice at the end -of the summer in this gorge, when for months past no -ice or snow had been visible on the surrounding mountains. -I noticed also the peculiar, flaky formation of the -ice, and saw at once that it was something new to me, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">« 2 »</a></span> -and in fact it was a piece of what I have since learned -to know as “prismatic ice.”</p> - - -<p class="caption3">GLACIÈRE NEAR BRISONS.</p> - -<p>In the summer of the year 1880, I traveled through -the Alps, with a friend from Philadelphia. On the 17th -of September, we drove from Geneva to Bonneville. -Thence we started on foot without a guide, and as a -result got lost in the woods, from which we only extricated -ourselves at nightfall. After retracing our steps -to Bonneville, we were glad to find a man to show -us the way we should have taken, and finally reached -the little village of Brisons in France, where we slept. -The next day we took a guide and made our way across -the mountains to Annecy, at one spot going out of our -direct route to see a place spoken of by the natives as -a glacière. It was a little pit, and at the base of one -side thereof was the mouth of a small cave into which -we could not see any distance. At the bottom of the -pit lay a mass of dirty snow and ice to which we did -not descend, as the sides of the pit were sheer and -smooth, and there was no ladder. This pit seemed to -be more of the nature of a gully filled with winter -snow, than a true rock cave containing ice.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE GLACIÈRE DE L’HAUT-D’AVIERNOZ.</p> - -<p>Three days after this, on Tuesday, the 21st of September, -1880, we visited the two largest glacières on the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">« 3 »</a></span> -Mont Parmelan, near Annecy, France. At Annecy we -inquired at the hotel for a man who knew the Mont -Parmelan; and, after finding one, we made our way to -Les Villaz, where we spent the night in an <i>auberge</i>. -Our companion was an odd personage. He was small, -about fifty years of age, and looked meek, crushed and -hungry. He wore a long black frock coat and black -trousers, thin boots and a linen shirt, certainly not the -ideal outfit for a cave explorer. Under his care we -started early in the morning and toiled up a mountain -path some eight hundred or a thousand meters,<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> through -woods and pastures, to the higher plateau of Mont Parmelan, -in which was situated the first glacière. This was -in a great pit, at the bottom of which, on one side, was -a big cave. On the side of the pit opposite to the -opening, there was a steep rock slope, forty or fifty -meters long, whose lower portion was covered with snow. -Down this slope we descended with but little difficulty, -reaching at the bottom an almost level ice floor which -spread over the entire cave and was formed throughout -of thick, solid ice. A second and much smaller pit in the -roof of the cave opened directly over the ice floor; and -under this pit rose a small cone of ice, some two meters -high, the only one in this glacière.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The metric system is used throughout this book, except in a few -quotations. Thermometric observations are given in degrees Centigrade.</p></div> - -<p>The glacière itself was approximately round in shape, -and some twenty meters in diameter. At one place the -rock wall was broken and we could look into a much -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">« 4 »</a></span> -smaller inner cave or chamber. Into this we could not -penetrate on account of a long, narrow crack or hole -which yawned in the ice floor for a distance of some -five or six meters and continued through the opening -into the second chamber. We tried to cut our way -along the side of the hole, but had to give it up, -finding the ice too hard and our time too short. The -crack or hole, whose sides were solid ice, proved conclusively -that the ice in this glacière was many meters -in thickness, for we could look a long way down into -the hole, certainly for ten or twelve meters, until the -ice sides disappeared in darkness, without any visible -bottom. The hole cannot be spoken of as a crevasse, -for, besides not looking like a crevasse, it was certainly -formed by other causes than those which form -the crevasses in glaciers, since there is, as a rule, no -perceptible movement in subterranean ice. Doubtless, -the hole was due to the drainage of the cave, which -undoubtedly passed off through the hole. There may -be, nevertheless, some little motion in the ice of this -glacière, for it is evident that it is fed principally directly -by the winter snows; which, whether as frozen or melted -snow, descend gradually, by the force of gravitation, from -the slope of the pit into the glacière.</p> - -<p>As for any possibility of this great mass of ice melting -away and forming again in any one year, it passes -belief; there must be at least the cubic contents of a -dozen ordinary houses in the cave, and such a mass -could hardly be destroyed or formed again in any such -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">« 5 »</a></span> -short space of time as a fall or spring. This is, therefore, -probably a permanent or perennial glacière.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE GLACIÈRE DE CHAPUIS.</p> - -<p>Starting out from the Glacière de l’Haut-d’Aviernoz -we walked across the plateau of the Mont Parmelan, -<i>en route</i> for the second glacière. This plateau is a curious -rock formation, consisting of what the natives call <i>lapiaz</i>, -which might be translated “stone-heaps.” The plateau -is full of great projecting rocks; and myriads of cracks -and crevices everywhere rend the surface, and over -these crevices one sometimes has to jump. Still, I do -not remember any particular difficulty. It was certainly -not nearly as bad walking as the taluses of loose rocks -one meets at the base of many mountains.</p> - -<p>Our guide led us for about an hour across the plateau -in a southerly direction, and then, looking over the side of -the Parmelan, with a sweep of the arm covering south, -west and north, he told us that the glacière lay between -those points, but he did not know exactly where. This -seemed a rather hopeless prospect, so, as we had no -clue to the whereabouts of our prospective hole, we -descended to a couple of châlets we saw some two -hundred meters below, but which at least were in the -direction of Annecy. We followed a goat-herd’s path -which led to the châlets from the plateau, one of those -dangerous grass tracks, where nothing would be easier -than to make a slip, and where a bad slip might have -unpleasant results. This is, however, just the kind of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">« 6 »</a></span> -place where every one is particularly careful not to slip. -We were careful and so reached the châlets all right, -and there we found a strong, intelligent boy, who at once -pointed out the place where the glacière was, about -half way up the slope we had just come down. So we -took him with us, leaving our guide at the châlets to -await our return.</p> - -<p>The entrance to the glacière was in a wall of rock, -set at an angle of some thirty-five degrees; at the bottom -of this there was some grass. An easy chimney some -fifteen meters high led up to the glacière. Up this chimney -we climbed. At the top we entered a little cave -about two meters deep, by a sort of portal about two -meters wide. The cave made an elbow to the right, and -passing this we found that it turned to the left and -pointed directly into the mountain. The rock went down -vertically in front of us, but the boy said we could get -down, so having first lowered a candle by a string to -see the depth, which turned out to be a perpendicular -drop of some four or five meters, with the help of the -rope we all climbed down. We were already almost -entirely away from the daylight and a few steps took us -into complete darkness, except for the light we had from -the candle each of us held in his hand.</p> - -<p>The fissure led straight into the mountain. It was a -couple of meters wide at places, and there we moved -along the bottom. In one place it narrowed below to a -wedge, and there we progressed either by climbing along -one side or by placing one foot on one side and the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">« 7 »</a></span> -other foot on the other. The fissure led downwards as -well as inwards. It would have been nothing in daylight -to go through it; but in the semi-darkness it was not -easy.</p> - -<p>After a descent of some twenty-five meters or thereabouts, -we arrived at the glacière, and I have certainly -never seen a weirder place. There was a great arched -rock dome, perhaps six meters in height, and some twelve -in diameter; the floor was a sheet of smooth, slippery ice, -at one end curling over, gently at first, afterwards more -steeply, to a lower depth; and on the sides were seven -or eight ice columns streaming from cracks in the rocks -to the floor. Each of these columns was some three or -four meters high, and, small at the top and in the middle, -spread out at the base into the shape of fans. In -the dim candle light and the cold damp atmosphere, the -columns loomed up like so many ghosts, and the landscape -impression was strange and solemn. The air here -seemed perfectly still.</p> - -<p>There was another curiosity. The fissure we had -come down, at this point some three meters wide, was -filled, just beyond the glacière, with pure, transparent -water, which formed a little lake: this was perhaps -one meter deep, and extended across the fissure, barring -further progress. It certainly seems strange that in the -same cavern, under nearly the same conditions of temperature, -there should be one place covered with a flooring of -ice and another filled with water. The explanation, however, -is perhaps not far to seek. Over the lake there -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">« 8 »</a></span> -was a distinct draught of air. The draught probably -melts the ice in summer, if indeed it does not prevent -any from forming in winter. There are, so far, no winter -observations reported of this cave, yet it would seem to -be one which would well repay the trouble.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE GLACIÈRE DE CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT.</p> - -<p>On the 17th of August, 1894, my brother and I arrived -at Besançon, the Vesontio of the Romans, bent on seeing -the Glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant or de la Grâce-Dieu, -which is not far distant from the town. The -hotel we stopped at was pretty bad; the beds were surmounted -with those old-fashioned curtains which were of -use before the invention of glass windows, but which now -only serve to exclude air and ventilation. However, I -learnt something of the manners and customs of the country, -for on getting down at six o’clock the next morning -for breakfast, the first question the waiter asked -was: <i>Quel vin monsieur prendra-t-il?</i> At seven o’clock -we sallied forth in a little open one-horse victoria, with a -dull gray sky overhead. Besançon is well down in a -valley, so the first five miles of the road were a slow, -gradual rise to the surrounding levels. The scenery -as we drove along reminded us of Turner’s pictures: -distant vistas of hills and valleys with factories blowing -off their smoke and with tumble-down old houses -ensconced in picturesque nooks, just those long-distance -effects that Turner loved to paint and which, for some -reason, the artists of the present generation have generally -neglected and usually speak of as unpaintable or unpicturesque. -There was a row of trees, the whole way, on each -side of the road, a bit of practical forestry, the wisdom of -which it would be well for Americans to recognize. -After our poor horse had pulled us up the long hills, we -had an almost level road running in a straight line as far -as the eye could see. We saw at least a hundred little -hawks, who live on field mice and other rodents, and -whose preservation is another evidence of French wisdom. -The last four miles of the drive was up a ravine in the -woods, near the beginning of which we passed the Trappist -convent of la Grâce-Dieu.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8f" id="Page_8f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 432px;"> -<img src="images/i008fp.png" width="432" height="614" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">GLACIÈRE DE CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT.<br /> - -<div class="tdr">From a Photograph by E. Mauvillier.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">« 9 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Opposite the entrance of the glacière, there is a little -restaurant where the peasants come to dance and picnic, -and where the few travellers who get to these parts, can -obtain a tolerable <i>déjeuner</i>. They keep a fair <i>vin du pays</i> -there, and we had some trouble on the way home in consequence. -Our driver, a talkative specimen of the genus -and an old soldier of Bourbaki’s, told us, on the way out, -many things about Besançon during the Franco-German -war and of the retreat of the French army into Switzerland; -but on the way home, he showed that he evidently -was not a member of the blue ribbon army. -He first seemed desirous of not taking us back to Besançon, -preferring to go in the other direction towards Bale; -and afterwards he evinced a violent inclination to go to -sleep. We thought we should have to request him to -change seats with us, and drive back ourselves, but we -obviated the difficulty by plying him with questions as -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">« 10 »</a></span> -soon as he began to nod on his box. Eventually, we -reached Besançon all right, only once bumping a passing -cart, and only once nearly capsizing into a ditch. If -Americans can learn some points from Europeans about -forestry, I think the latter might get some equally valuable -information from us concerning the use of water, -externally and internally.</p> - -<p>The good lady at the restaurant acts the part of the -old-fashioned cave dragon, and we had to appease her by -handing over four <i>sous</i> as a preliminary to exploration. -She also had a sign up, saying that no one is allowed to -break off or take away any ice, which must sadly interfere -with the tourists’ privilege of bringing away specimens.</p> - -<p>The entrance of the glacière was surrounded by -woods, which formed a natural rampart to anything like -wind. As we stood facing the glacière a great pit opened -before us, with a slope about one hundred and thirty-five -meters long leading to the bottom. This slope is at first -gentle in its gradient, but lower down it steepens to an -angle of some thirty degrees so that we were glad to -resort to the trail which descends in regular Alpine zigzags. -In one place, on the right hand, there were the -remains of a stone wall with a door, and local tradition -relates that in former times there was a sort of fortified -habitation there, which was used in war times as a place -of retreat. The lower part of the slope is covered by a -protecting roof of rock which, thin at the rim where it is -edged with forest, gradually slopes downward overhead -so that at the mouth of the glacière we looked back and -up what might be described as an immense tunnel. The -lower part of the slope was a mixture of broken rocks, -mud and ice: the last, however, seemed to be all on -the surface, although it was impossible to determine -whether it went to any depth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10f" id="Page_10f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 619px;"> -<img src="images/i010fp.png" width="619" height="414" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">ICE STALAGMITES, CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT.<br /> - -<div class="tdr">From a Photograph by E. Mauvillier.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">« 11 »</a></span></p> - -<p>At the base of the tunnel we found ourselves on the -threshold of an immense, almost circular cave, with a -diameter of some fifty meters, rising overhead into a regular -vault or dome about twenty-seven meters in height. -The entrance to the cave is so large that plenty of daylight -is admitted, and the whole cave easily examined. -The rocks are of a yellowish brown hue, and I could -not help thinking of Nibelheim in Richard Wagner’s -Rheingold.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11f" id="Page_11f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 426px;"> -<img src="images/i011.png" width="426" height="149" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span><a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> -<span class="smcap">Vertical Section of Chaux-les-Passavant.</span></div> -</div> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The figures in this book are rough sketches, without pretense -at accuracy of measurement, and are only explanatory of the text.</p></div> - -<p>The bottom of the cave was entirely covered with a -flooring of ice. How thick this flooring was there was -no means of judging, as there were no holes, but it must -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">« 12 »</a></span> -have been at least two or three meters thick in places. -At the back of the cavern, directly facing the entrance, -one magnificent frozen water fall streamed from a fissure. -It was perhaps five meters high, and began -to take the fan shape from its origin. The base was -about four meters wide, and did not rest on the ice -floor, but on a sloping rock extending out from the -side of the cave.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most remarkable feature of all, were six -or seven great ice stalagmites, shaped like cones or rough -pyramids, which rose on the floor of the cave. One of -these was at least five meters in diameter and six in -height, and seemed perfectly solid. In the case of two of -the others, however, the cones were broken on one side, -revealing in each the stem and branches of a young pine -tree. These evidently had been planted in the ice and -round them the columns had grown. Whether all the -ice cones were thus artificial in their origin I could not -determine, but it seemed probable that they were the -result of years of undisturbed accretion and growth. In -both the cones where the break on the side gave a -view into the interior, the dark blue-green color of deep -glacier crevasses was present.</p> - -<p>A pool of water, perhaps thirty centimeters in depth -and three or four meters in diameter, lay at one place -on the ice floor. The whole cave was damp and the -ice in places decidedly slushy, in fact all the signs showed -that it was thawing. In the case of this glacière as well -as in those of the Mont Parmelan, it seemed clear that -it must be in the winter months that the formation of -ice takes place.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12f" id="Page_12f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 621px;"> -<img src="images/i012fp.png" width="621" height="416" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">ICE STALAGMITES, CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT.<br /> - -<div class="tdr">From a Photograph by E. Mauvillier.</div> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">« 13 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">DÓBSINA JEGBARLANG.</p> - -<p>The cavern of Dóbsina, in the Carpathian Mountains, -is easily reached either from Poprád to the north, or -from Dóbsina to the south. The hotel at Poprád is better, -however, than the inn at Dóbsina, where my brother -and I spent two nights. It was decidedly primitive. The -food was not so bad, but the pigs ran round in the courtyard, -and one morning a gypsy band woke us at half-past -three o’clock by playing in front of our windows, in dreadful -wailing tones, which were most irritating at that hour. -At the proper time, however, Hungarian gypsy music,—despite -the fact that none of the players ever seem to -look at the leader, and that each man appears to play the -tune he likes the best,—is strangely fascinating.</p> - -<p>Dóbsina itself lies in a hollow, surrounded with well-wooded -hills, the general appearance much resembling -some of the valleys of the White Mountains of New -Hampshire. My brother and I started from Dóbsina -on the morning of the 27th of July, 1895, at half-past -seven o’clock, in a little open carriage with excellent -horses and a Hungarian driver in national costume. He -was a nice fellow, but he did not understand a word of -German. The road reminded us of some of our own -mountain roads, as it was rough, full of holes and partly -washed away by the rains. We first ascended to the -crest of the surrounding hills and then descended to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">« 14 »</a></span> -Stracena Thal, a wild limestone valley covered with fine -forest. Two hours and a half driving landed us at the -hotel-restaurant near the cave, at which I should certainly -stop on another visit. It was half an hour’s stroll thence, -through beautiful woods, to the cavern’s entrance. Northwards -in the distance the Tátra Range was visible, a set -of sharp bare rock peaks, at whose base, ensconced -in pine forests, is situated the famous Hungarian summer -resort of Tátra Füred, which much resembles Bar -Harbor.</p> - -<p>The entrance to the cavern is enclosed by a fence with -a gate, and here the Dóbsina people have a high tariff -and take toll from tourists. At the gate, we waited for -half an hour, until a sufficient number of persons had -arrived to form a party. This mode of visiting the cave -rather detracts from the pleasure, even though it does -away with all difficulty and makes the beauties of Dóbsina -accessible to everyone. It was also necessary to wait long -enough to cool off thoroughly before entering, on account -of the icy air of the cavern, where heavy winter clothes -are indispensable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15f" id="Page_15f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 409px;"> -<img src="images/i015.png" width="409" height="190" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2. Vertical Section of Dóbsina.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The entrance to Dóbsina faces nearly due north. It -is small, perhaps two meters wide and three meters high, -and is perfectly sheltered from any wind. The sudden -drop in temperature at the entrance was startling; in fact -it was the most extreme change I have noticed in any cave. -Within the length of an ordinary room, say in a distance -of five meters, we passed from an extremely hot summer -morning to the chill of a mid-winter afternoon. A slight -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">« 15 »</a></span> -air current, perhaps, issued from the entrance, as we -observed a faint mist there. At the rock portal there -was ice on the rocks overhead, and underfoot was the -beginning of the huge mass of ice which almost fills the -cavern. A descent down eighteen wooden steps landed -us at the beginning of a great ice floor, in what is called -the <i>Grosser Saal</i>. It is a magnificent cave. The floor is -a sheet or rather a mass of solid ice, the surface of which -is level enough in one place to permit of skating; in other -spots it is sloping and covered with small ice hillocks. -The ice is solid throughout, without any holes or cracks. -Several fissure columns stream to the floor from cracks in -the sides. Joining the roof to the floor are numerous big -ice stalactites, which form frozen pillars and columns. -These are from eight to eleven meters in height, and some -two to three meters in average breadth and width. Nearly -translucent, they are covered with all sorts of icy ornaments -hanging about them in tufts and fringes; they are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">« 16 »</a></span> -beautiful in their shapes, as well as in their white and -blue colors. One of these columns is called the <i>Brunnen</i>, -because until about ten years ago, a small stream dribbled -continuously from the roof and cut a channel across the -ice floor; but now the stream has solidified into the pillar, -and the channel is filled up, although it can still be traced -in the ice.</p> - -<p>The cavern is lighted by electricity, which has the -merit, even if it brings in an element of artificiality, -of clearly revealing one of the chief glories of -Dóbsina. This is the rime or hoar frost, which in the -shape of ice or snow crystals, covers the entire limestone -roof, and, reflecting the electric light, shines like frosted -silver. Some of these frost crystals seem to be precipitated -to the floor, and in one place I found a small -sheet of them, perhaps two meters in width each way, -which looked and felt like genuine snow. The general -color effect of all this upper cave is white, although there -is some blue in the ice, and gray and brown in the rocks -and shadows. It would not be much of a misnomer -to call Dóbsina “the great white cave.”</p> - -<p>The ice extended to the sides of the cave except in -two places. Here there were holes in the ice, bridged by -low rock arches. We passed through one of these and -descended by a wooden staircase some eighty steps, afterwards -returning up through the other arch by another -staircase. At the bottom we stood in a magnificent -gallery named the <i>Korridor</i>, formed by a solid wall of ice -on one side and by a wall of limestone rock on the other. -The ice wall is the lower portion of the ice floor; the rock -wall is the continuation of the roof. For the entire distance -the ice wall rises almost perpendicularly some -fifteen meters in height, while the rock wall arches overhead.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16f" id="Page_16f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 441px;"> -<img src="images/i016fp.png" width="441" height="627" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">THE LOWER ROSITTEN ALP AND THE UNTERSBERG.</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">« 17 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The bottom of the <i>Korridor</i> was filled with blocks of -fallen limestone, through which any water drains off, and -on which there was a wooden walk, so that we circled -round the ice with the greatest ease. At one place on the -limestone wall hung a cluster of big icicles, which, from -their shape really deserved the name they bear, of the -<i>Orgel</i>. At another place a hole, some six or seven meters -deep, was hewn, in the form of a small chamber, directly -into the ice mass. This is the <i>Kapelle</i>, where we performed -our devotions by leaving our visiting cards on the -floor. Near the middle of the <i>Korridor</i> the ice mass -bulges out and extends to the limestone wall, breaking the -whole <i>Korridor</i> into two parts, the western portion about -eighty meters, and the eastern about one hundred and -twenty meters long. This necessitated cutting a tunnel -about eight meters long in the ice to get through. The -color of the <i>Korridor</i> is a darkish gray and is much more -sombre than that of the <i>Grosser Saal</i>. A remarkable -feature of the ice wall is the fact that distinct bands of -stratification are visible in the ice in many places. Why -the <i>Korridor</i> is not filled up with ice and why the ice -is perpendicular for such a distance are questions I am -unable to answer satisfactorily; but it is probable that -the temperature of the rock walls is sufficiently high to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">« 18 »</a></span> -prevent ice from forming in winter or to melt it in -summer if it does form in winter.</p> - -<p>The air in Dóbsina seemed still, and scarcely felt damp. -In one or two places in the <i>Grosser Saal</i> there was a -slight sloppiness, showing incipient signs of thaw. In -the <i>Korridor</i> it was freezing hard.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE KOLOWRATSHÖHLE.</p> - -<p>The Kolowratshöhle is situated on the north slope of -the Untersberg, near Salzburg, at an altitude of 1391 -meters. My brother and I visited it on the 2d of August, -1895. We had one of the patented guides of the district, -Jacob Gruber by name, in regular Tyrolese dress, with -gray <i>jacke</i> and black chamois knee breeches. We left -Salzburg in the early morning in an <i>einspänner</i> and drove -to the foot of the Untersberg in about an hour, whence, -by a rough path passing by the Rositten Alp, we ascended -to the cave in about three hours. The last hundred and -sixteen meters of the path were cut across some moderately -steep rock slabs and a perfectly unnecessary iron -hand-railing affixed.</p> - -<p>The entrance faces northeast. Here there must have -been a slight draught of cold air moving outwards, the -effect of which was perceptible to the eye, as at the point -where the cold inside air met the quiet warm outside air, -a faint mist was visible. From the entrance, a sharp slope, -set at an angle of about forty degrees, led to the lowest -point of the cave. The upper half of this slope was still -covered with the winter snow which had blown or had -slid in. We descended on the right hand edge of the -snow by means of some steps cut in the rock by the -<i>Deutschen-Oesterreichischen Alpen Club</i>. These steps -were covered with a sticky, red mud, which left almost -ineradicable stains on our clothing, and as there was also -ice in places, they were decidedly slippery.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18f" id="Page_18f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 615px;"> -<img src="images/i018fp.png" width="615" height="411" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">THE ENTRANCE OF THE KOLOWRATSHÖHLE.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19f" id="Page_19f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 421px;"> -<img src="images/i019.png" width="421" height="199" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3. Vertical Section of the Kolowratshöhle.</span></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">« 19 »</a></span></p> - -<p>At the bottom of the slope we were at the lowest -point of the cave, to which all the water flowed, and -where it drained off into a crack with a loud gurgling -noise. Back of us was the daylight streaming through -the entrance; opposite to us was first an ice floor, -then a great ice slope, which came down from the further -end of the cave. The ice was transparent and of a pale -ochre-greenish hue, and filled the entire width of the cave. -There is a streak of iron, probably, through the limestone, -which in places tints the rocks a dull red. The -color impression is a dull green-red, and, on account -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">« 20 »</a></span> -of the size of the entrance, the light effect is only semi-subterranean.</p> - -<p>The ice floor was covered with a layer of slabs of -ice, eight or ten centimeters thick, which, earlier in the -year, had evidently had water under them. The ice -wall or ice slope consisted of two big waves, one above -the other, the lower set at an angle of about ten -degrees, the upper set at an angle of about twenty-five -degrees. To get up the upper wave required about -twelve steps cut with the axe. Behind the upper wave, -five or six fissure columns streamed out to the beginning -of the ice. One ice stalactite, at least two or -three meters long, overhung the ice floor, and Gruber -said about this: “Well, I wonder it has not fallen yet: -they seldom last as late in the year,” a confirmation of -what was clearly evident, namely, that the whole cave -was in a state of thaw.</p> - -<p>In two places there was a strong, continuous drip -from the roof to the ice floor, which formed, in each -case, what I can only call an ice basin. These basins -were nearly circular; one was about four meters, the -other about two, in diameter. Around about two-thirds -of the rim of the larger one, ice rose in a surrounding -ring two or three meters high, suggesting that -earlier in the year this basin was a cone, and possibly -a hollow cone. The depth in the ice floor, in both cases, -was about one and a half meters, and each basin -contained some thirty centimeters in depth of water. -They reminded me of the rock basins one sees in -mountain torrents, where an eddying current has worn -smooth all the edges of the rocks. From the larger of -these basins, a channel as deep as the basin ran to the -lowest point of the cave. This channel was cut out by -the overflow, which ran through it in a tiny stream.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The photographs of the Rositten Alp, of the entrance of the Kolowratshöhle, -and of the interior of the Kolowratshöhle, were made for -me on the 16th of July, 1896, by Herr Carl Hintner, Jr., of Salzburg. -The two latter photographs are, I believe, the first good ones ever -obtained of the inside of the cave. They were taken without artificial -light on quick plates; the best of the two received an hour and a half, -the other two hours’ exposure. The photographer said at first that -it was not possible to succeed, and it was only by promising to pay -him in any case, that he could be induced to try.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20f" id="Page_20f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 618px;"> -<img src="images/i020fp.png" width="618" height="428" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">TOP OF ICE SLOPE, KOLOWRATSHÖHLE.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">« 21 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE SCHAFLOCH.</p> - -<p>The Schafloch, on the Rothhorn, near the Lake of -Thoune, is one of the biggest glacières in the Alps. -On the 15th of August, 1895, after early coffee, made -by the <i>portier</i> of the Hotel Belvedère at Interlaken, I -drove to Merligen, on the north shore of the lake, with -Emil Von Allmen, an excellent guide. We left Merligen -on foot at a quarter before seven, and, making no stops -on the way, reached the Schafloch at ten minutes past -ten. The path mounts gently up the Wüste Thal, which -higher up is called the Justiz Thal. The track through -the latter is almost on a level, over grassy alps. On the -right hand rise the steep, almost dolomitic, limestone cliffs -of the Beatenberg. On the left is the range of the -Rothhorn, with steep grass and forest slopes below, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">« 22 »</a></span> -limestone cliffs above. The last hour of the walk was -up these slopes, by what Baedeker calls a “giddy path.” -By leaving the word “giddy” out, his description is accurate. -The cavern is at the base of the limestone cliff, -and the grass slope extends up to it.</p> - -<p>The entrance to the Schafloch is at an altitude of 1752 -meters: it is a fine archway, and a low wall is built partly -across it. In front of this, we sat down and consumed our -chicken and cheese, and that best of a traveller’s drinks, -cold tea. The day was windless, and when I lighted a -cigar, to see whether there was any draught at the entrance, -the smoke rose straight up, showing that the air -was perfectly still. When we were sufficiently cooled -off, we entered the cave. The entrance faces east-south-east, -but after about ten meters the cavern takes a sharp -turn to the left, forming a sort of elbow, and runs about -due south, constantly descending in an almost straight -line. For the first eighty meters or so, the floor was -covered with blocks of fallen limestone, among which we -had to carefully pick our way. Then we began to find ice, -which, a few meters further on, spread out across the -entire width of the cave, with a gentle slope towards the -left. The surface of the ice was rather soft, and the whole -cave was evidently in a state of thaw. A few scratches -with the axe—the most invaluable friend in an ice cave—were -necessary at one place to improve our footing. It -would have been impossible to move here without a light, -and I carried our torch, made of rope dipped in pitch, which -occasionally dropped black reminders on my clothes. We -were in the middle of a great ice sheet to which several -fissure columns streamed. On the right hand a beautiful -ice stalactite flowed from the roof to the floor; it was -some five meters high, and perhaps seventy-five centimeters -in diameter, and swelled out slightly at the base. -On the left hand were three or four ice stalagmites, shaped -like pyramids or cones.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22f" id="Page_22f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 619px;"> -<img src="images/i022fp.png" width="619" height="419" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">AT THE ENTRANCE OF THE SCHAFLOCH.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">« 23 »</a></span></p> - -<p>One of these cones was especially remarkable. It was -at least five meters high—Von Allmen said eight—and -at the bottom was about four meters in diameter. The -base of this cone was entirely hollow. There was a break -on one side by which we could enter, and we then stood on -a rock floor with a small ice dome or vault overhead. I -have seen no other hollow cone like this. The guide -lighted a red Bengal fire inside, when the whole pyramid -glowed with a delicate pink light, resembling <i>Alpenglühn</i>. -Near this cone stood the half of another ice cone. It was -quite perfect, and the missing half was cut off perpendicularly, -as if with a huge cleaver. A hollow in the base of -the remnant showed that this cone must have been originally -also a hollow cone, and its destruction was probably -due to the change in the temperature of the drip from -the roof, at the setting in of the summer thaw.</p> - -<p>Just beyond the cones, the ice floor steepens and curls -over into a big ice slope, one of the finest I have seen. -Von Allmen spoke of this as <i>der gletscher</i>, an expression -I never heard applied elsewhere to subterranean -ice. On the right side, the slope would be difficult to -descend in the darkness. On the left, the slope is gentle -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">« 24 »</a></span> -and a rock juts out a little way down. Von Allmen -insisted on roping—an unnecessary safeguard—but he -said: “If you slip, you will probably break an arm or -a leg, and then we shall be in a nice mess.” He then -cut about twelve steps in the ice, down to the rock, while -I shed light on the performance with our torch. We -were so completely away from daylight that black was -the predominating color; and even the ice was a dark -gray, and only appeared white in the high lights. Below -the rock, we found a narrow strip on the left side -of the ice slope free from ice and blocked with boulders, -over which we carefully picked our way down. At -the bottom, the ice expanded into a level surface, stretching -nearly to the end of the cave. There were only a -few fissure columns in this part of the cavern, where the -most remarkable feature was the cracks in the rock -walls, which were so regular in formation that they -almost looked like man’s handiwork. The rocks are -free from stalactites, and in fact stalactites seem a good -deal of a rarity in glacières.</p> - -<p>On retracing our steps, we saw, when the first glimmers -of daylight became perceptible, the rocks assume a -brilliant blue color, as if they were flooded with moonlight. -This effect lasted until near the mouth of the -cavern.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24f" id="Page_24f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 626px;"> -<img src="images/i024fp.png" width="626" height="410" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">HOLLOW CONE AND FISSURE COLUMNS, SCHAFLOCH.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">« 25 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">DÉMÉNYFÁLVA JEGBARLANG.</p> - -<p>A little west of Poprád, in Northern Hungary, on -the railroad between Sillein and Kassa, is the village of -Liptós Szt Miklós, to which place I journeyed on the -12th of June, 1896. The conductor was the only man -on the train or at any of the stations who would admit -that there was a glacière at Déményfálva, and that it -was feasible to get into it: every one else professed -entire ignorance on the subject. It is perhaps, worth -noting at this time that it is always difficult to get any -information about glacières; in fact, the advice about -cooking a hare might well be applied to glacière hunting: -first catch your glacière.</p> - -<p>The scenery between Sillein and Miklós was picturesque. -The hills were covered with forest. In one place, -the railroad ran through a beautiful mountain gorge -alongside a river, where a number of rafts were floating -down. There were also some primitive ferries, where a -rope was stretched across the river, and the force of the -current carried the ferryboat across, once it was started. -Many peasants were at work in the fields; often in -squads. White, blue, brown, and a dash of red were -the predominating colors in their dress. The men wore -white trousers, made of a kind of blanket stuff, and a -leather, heelless moccasin of nearly natural shape. Almost -all the women had bare feet; those of the older ones were -generally shaped according to Nature’s own form, while -those of the younger ones were generally distorted from -wearing fashionable shoes. We went past several villages -of huts with thatched roofs, something like the Russian -villages one sees beyond Moscow, only less primitive.</p> - -<p>The inn at Miklós was poor, and as at Dóbsina, the -pigs lived in the yard and occasionally came for an -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">« 26 »</a></span> -interview under the covered doorway. Inquiries elicited -the information that Déményfálva could be reached by -carriage, so I engaged one at the livery stable. The -owner told me that about twenty years before, he leased -the glacière and carried on a regular business in supplying -Buda-Pest with ice. He had thirty lamps put in -to give light to the workmen, who brought up the ice in -baskets on their backs.</p> - -<p>At half past five o’clock next morning the carriage, -which was innocent of paint, lined with a sort of basket -work and without springs, but certainly strongly built, -stood at the door. A boy of about eighteen years of -age, who could speak German, went along as interpreter. -The morning was dismal, and, every quarter of an hour -or so, a shower of thick mist fell and gradually made -us damp and uncomfortable. After about twenty minutes -on a pretty bad road, we came to a place where -there was a fork, and the driver turned to the left, over -a track which consisted of two deep ruts through the -fields. Soon after, we heard some shouting behind us, -and a fierce-looking man, in a leather jacket and carrying -a large axe, came up and abused the driver. He -was not an agreeable person; however, presently he -simmered down and began to smile. It turned out that -he was a <i>wächter</i>, that is, a guardian of the fields, and -that we were trespassing. The driver meekly promised -to return by the other route, and we went on our way -in peace. After awhile, we drove into some woods and -then into a mountain gorge, with forest-covered slopes -at the base and with limestone cliffs jutting out above. -Here we came to the cottage of the <i>wächter</i> or <i>förster</i> -of the surrounding woods, who also acted as guide to -the cave, for the few tourists who came to see it; and -when he heard of our destination, he at once slipped -on a second ragged coat, took a woodman’s axe and -started on foot, going much faster than the carriage. -This was not surprising, for the road resembled nothing -but the bed of a mountain brook, a mass of boulders -with ruts between them. This highway was made by -the peasants driving their carts over the plain in the -same place, and as the soil was cut away, the boulders -appeared; and over and among these we went banging -along, and we were jolted about and bumped into each -other, until every bone in my body ached.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26f" id="Page_26f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 622px;"> -<img src="images/i026fp.png" width="622" height="414" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">ON THE ICE SLOPE, SCHAFLOCH.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">« 27 »</a></span></p> - -<p>At a quarter past seven o’clock we came to another -house in a little glade, where the carriage stopped; and on -asking the <i>förster</i> for his name, he wrote down in my note -book, in a clear well formed hand:—Misura, Franz. From -the glade, ten minutes’ walk on a mountain path, up an -easy slope, took us to the entrance of Déményfálva. It is -about two meters wide by three quarters of a meter high. -We passed through and entered a large chamber, well -lighted from the right by another opening, which is -higher up and bigger than the entrance. The air in -this chamber was at about the same temperature as that -of the outside air, and, on our return from the nether -world, it seemed positively balmy. In the floor at the end -of the chamber, a small pit yawns open. It is perpendicular -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">« 28 »</a></span> -on three sides and set at a sharp angle on the fourth. -A wooden staircase of some two hundred steps, many of -which are sadly out of repair, leads nearly straight down -this slope to the glacière.</p> - -<p>After descending about eighty steps of the staircase, -bits of ice appeared on the walls and floor and after some -thirty steps more, a lateral gallery opened to the right, -and into this we turned. This may be called the upper -cave or story, for in Démenyfálva—besides the entrance -chamber—there are practically two stories, the upper one -of which is mainly ornamented with stalactites, the lower -one with ice. There was a little ice on the floor from -which rose some small ice columns, perhaps fifty centimeters -in height. The cave or gallery had a gentle -downward slope and turned towards the left. After some -little distance, we came to another wooden staircase, of -ten or twelve steps, quite coated over with thick, solid ice. -Misura had to cut away at it for several minutes, before he -could clear the steps enough to descend. This was in -fact the beginning of an ice wall, the <i>Eiswand</i> or <i>Eismauer</i>, -which, turning to the right, flowed through a rock -arch to the lowest cave. The rock arch or portal was -some three meters wide and two meters high, and a -fringe of beautiful organ-pipe like icicles hung on it on -the right hand. Just beyond the portal the ice sloped -steeply for a couple of meters; then it became level and -on it rose a little pyramid, a meter and a half in height -perhaps, and a column; then the ice sloped away again -to the lower cave.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28f" id="Page_28f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 623px;"> -<img src="images/i028fp.png" width="623" height="414" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">IN THE REAR OF THE SCHAFLOCH.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29f" id="Page_29f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 434px;"> -<img src="images/i029.png" width="434" height="265" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4. Vertical Section of Démenyfálva.</span></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">« 29 »</a></span></p> - -<p>We then continued our course beyond the rock portal -along the upper cavern for about two hundred meters. -It was a fine large gallery or passage and during the -first fifty meters or so, we found numerous small ice -cones, perhaps a hundred of them, from tiny little ones -to some about forty centimeters in height. Many of -these were columnar in form, nearly as large at the top -as at the base: in some cases the top was flat, and -the columns then looked almost as if an upper portion -were sawn off. I have seen this shape of column nowhere -else. In places there were slabs and bits of ice -on the floor. The last hundred meters of this upper -cave was free from ice and was exceptionally dry. It -was formed of a pale yellow limestone rock, almost dolomitic -in color, and many stalactites, in their thousand -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">« 30 »</a></span> -various shapes, hung from the roof and on the sides. -In one spot, one big limestone stalagmite towered up -directly in the middle of the gallery. We did not go to -the end of the cave, where ice has never been found.</p> - -<p>Retracing our course past the rock portal to the entrance -pit, we descended on the long staircase for some -eighty steps more, the amount of ice on the rocks steadily -increasing. In places, frost crystals had formed in small -quantities on the roof and walls. At the bottom of the -pit, another lateral gallery, directly under the upper -gallery, opened to the right. Entering this, we passed -over broken limestone débris, which seemed to overlie a -mass of ice. Limestone stalactites were noticeable all -through this lower cavern, and frost and icicles had sometimes -formed over them, in which case the ice stalactite -assumed the form of the limestone stalactite. Advancing -a few meters, we went by, on our right hand, an ice pyramid -of a couple of meters in height. Just beyond this, the -cave turned to the left like the upper cave, and we descended -to a level floor of transparent ice, into which we -could see some distance. At this spot, numerous icicles, -generally of inconsiderable size, hung from the roof and on -the sides of the cavern.</p> - -<p>At the further end of this ice floor or ice lake we -reached an ice slope, the <i>Eiswand</i>, which flowed to the ice -floor from the upper cave in several waves. It was some -six meters wide and twenty-five meters long; and it was -not steep, perhaps fifteen degrees in the steepest portions. -On the slope some old, nearly obliterated steps were visible, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">« 31 »</a></span> -and at these Misura proceeded to cut, and with torch in -one hand and axe in the other, gradually worked his way -up, until he once more reached the level spot whence we -had looked down the ice slope. Here he stood waving his -torch, a proceeding indeed he did constantly throughout -the trip, for he seemed exceedingly proud of the beauties -of his cavern. This waving of torches, however, is exceedingly -foolish, as their smoke quickly blackens stalactite, -and in fact nothing but candles and magnesium wire -should be carried for lighting purposes underground. The -ice of the ice slope was hard, gray and opaque, quite -different from that of the ice lake. The ice floor is -formed of new ice, which is gradually refilling the place -from which Misura said the ice for Buda-Pest was taken out -twenty-five years ago. To prove this assertion, he called -my attention to the side of the lake directly opposite the -ice slope. At that spot, under the limestone rubbish over -which we came, there was an outcrop of perpendicular -opaque ice about a meter high. Misura said that the -workmen began to cut at the ice slope and that they -dug out a couple of meters in depth from the ice lake, -until they had cut back to where the vertical outcrop -was standing.</p> - -<p>The explanation seemed to be in accord with the facts, -and if so, it would go to show that the ice in this cave is of -slow formation and great permanency; as seems also -proved by the steps on the ice wall, which—we were the first -party in the cave in 1896—had remained over from the preceding -summer. Misura told me he had never seen so much -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">« 32 »</a></span> -ice nor seen it so hard as during our visit, and he added -that there was generally water on the ice lake, and he -thought there would be some in two or three weeks more. -The greatest quantity of ice in the upper cave was at the -head of the ice-slope, and it would seem as though there -must be cracks or fissures in the overhead rocks there, -through which the water is supplied to feed the ice, not -only that of the upper cave, but also the larger portion of -that of the lower cave.</p> - -<p>The heavy winter air would naturally sink down into -the entrance pit to the lower cavern, and some of it diverge -into the beginning of the upper cavern, which at first is -distinctly a down slope. A little beyond the portal at -the head of the ice slope, the upper cave is either horizontal -or in places slightly ascending. Probably this prevents -the cold air from entering further, and probably -also, the heat of the earth neutralizes the cold air of -winter beyond a definite spot.</p> - -<p>The air in the cave seemed absolutely still throughout; -it was also extremely dry, undoubtedly because melting -had not yet begun. The icicles evidently were formed by -the slow drip freezing as it descended, and there were no -perceptible cracks nor fissures in the rocks underneath -them. The facts seem to me to prove that neither -evaporation nor regelation can be the factors at work in -making the ice and we may deduce an important rule -therefrom. When a cave is dry, then the air is dry; -when a cave is wet, then the atmosphere is damp. In -other words, the state of dryness or dampness of glacière -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">« 33 »</a></span> -atmosphere depends on how much the ice is thawing and -parting with its moisture.</p> - -<p>On our return to the base of the long staircase, and -while we ascended it, we had an exquisite moonlight effect, -much resembling the one at the Schafloch.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE FRAINER EISLEITHEN.</p> - -<p>About two hours by rail, north of Vienna, is the village -of Schoenwald, to which I journeyed on June the -15th, 1896. At the railroad station there was a K. K. -Post Omnibus in waiting, which, when it was packed -with passengers and luggage, drove over to Frain in an -hour. The admirable road lies across a rolling plain, -until it reaches the brink of the valley of the Thaya, to -which it descends in long Alpine zigzags. On the bluff -overlooking the opposite side of the river, there is a fine -<i>schloss</i>.</p> - -<p>I secured the seat next to the driver and questioned -him about the Eisleithen. Although he had driven on -this road for five years, without visiting the Eisleithen, -yet he was positive that they were warm in winter, but -cold in summer. He said more than once: <i>Desto heisser -der Sommer, desto mehr das Eis</i>, and in fact was an emphatic -exponent of the notions generally held by peasants, -which some <i>savants</i> have adopted and tried to expound. -At Frain, I applied at the little hotel for a guide, and was -entrusted to the care of the hotel boots. He was an -intelligent, talkative youth, but he insisted also that “the -hotter the summer, the more ice there is.” However, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">« 34 »</a></span> -he was polite, and made up for any shortcomings by -always addressing me as <i>der gnädige Herr</i>.</p> - -<p>The day was hot, so it took us three-quarters of an -hour on foot, along the valley of the Thaya, to reach -the base of the bluff where the Eisleithen are situated, -at an altitude of about four hundred meters. The hillside -is covered with patches of scrubby forest; and towards -the summit, the entire mass of the hill is honey-combed -with cracks and the rocks are much broken up. -After about ten minutes’ ascent up a little path, we came -to small holes, from each of which a current of cool air -poured out; these holes seemed fairly horizontal, and -the temperatures were high enough to prove that there -was no ice within. A little further on, we came to a hole -or tiny cave among a pile of rocks, where there was -a painted sign: <i>Eisgrube</i>. It went down from the mouth, -and I put my hand well in, but, beyond the length of my -arm, I could neither see nor measure its shape or depth. -The air felt cold, but was nowhere near freezing point; -nor was it possible to determine whether there was a -draught: it may or may not be a wind cave. Not far from -this, there were two gullies, each terminating in a small -cave. The first gully was planned somewhat like certain -traps for wild animals, that is, it narrowed gradually from -the entrance, then became covered over; and then dwindled, -after some four meters more, into a small descending -hole, the end of which we could not reach. But we -got in far enough, to come to large chunks or slabs of -ice plastered about on the floor and sides. In this cave, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">« 35 »</a></span> -which was sheltered against sun and wind, the air, as tested -by the smoke of a cigar, was motionless, and the cave -seemed unconnected with any air current. The second -gully terminated in a somewhat larger cave, whose floor -was well below the entrance; no ice was visible, however, -although the air was still and the temperature low. This -cave may or may not be a glacière; but surely it is not -a cold current cave.</p> - -<p>These Frainer Eisleithen certainly offer an interesting -field to anyone studying subterranean ice, from the fact -that there are, in the same rocks, caves without apparent -draughts in summer and containing ice, and caves -with distinct draughts and no ice. The problem seems -more intricate than is usually the case, but the solution -is simply that the two classes of caves happen to be -found together.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE EISHÖHLE BEI ROTH.</p> - -<p>The Eifel is one of the bleakest districts of Central -Europe, and to one entering it from the vineyards and -the well-inhabited basin of the Rhine, the contrast is impressive. -The railroad rises gradually to a land of comparatively -desert appearance, with rocks and trees on the -heights and a sparse cultivation in the valleys. But, if -the country is unattractive to the agriculturist, it is interesting -to the geologist, on account of the great -number of extinct volcanoes. Almost in the centre of -the Eifel is the little town of Gerollstein, famed for the -<i>Gerollsteiner Sprudel</i>, which gives forth an effervescence -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">« 36 »</a></span> -undreamed of by anyone, who has not visited the birth -place of some of these German table waters.</p> - -<p>About an hour’s walk from Gerollstein, on the side -of a small hill, is situated the little Eishöhle bei Roth, -named after a neighboring village. I went to this place, -on the 25th of June, 1896, with a young boy as guide. -The cave is sheltered from the wind by a wood around -it, among which are many large trees. It is at the base -of a wall of piled up lava, or at least volcanic, rocks -which form a sort of cauldron. The entrance is a small -tunnel some five meters long, which goes straight down -at an angle of about twenty-five degrees and then turns -sharply to the left. At the turn, the cave may be perhaps -one meter in height. We did not go beyond this -spot, where the air was icy and the temperature sub-normal, -as the tunnel was blocked up by a large boulder, -which had evidently recently fallen from the rocks in -front. There was no ice, as far as we went, and the boy -said it began three or four meters further in. He told -me that there was no ice in the cavern in winter, but -admitted that he had not entered it at that season, so -that was hearsay. He had heard also that the ice was -sometimes taken out for sick people, but otherwise it -was not used.</p> - -<p>It seemed to me that the conditions at Roth show -that the ice is formed by the cold of winter alone: the -cave is well below the entrance; it is the lowest point -of the surrounding cauldron of rocks and all the cold -air naturally gravitates to it; it is sheltered by rocks -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">« 37 »</a></span> -and trees from wind or exposure to the rays of the -sun; the tunnel faces nearly due north; and the water -necessary to supply the ice, easily soaks between the -lava blocks.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE FRAUENMAUERHÖHLE.</p> - -<p>Eisenerz, in Eastern Tyrol, is a picturesquely situated -little town. It is at the bottom of a great valley, -with mountains all around it. Two of these are bare, -gaunt limestone peaks, which are decidedly dolomitic in -form and color. The sharpest of these is to the north. -It is called the Pfaffenstein and is the beginning of the -range culminating in the Frauenmauer. On a mountain -to the east of the town, one sees the iron mines and -works, whence the town takes its name “Ironore,” and -whence quantities of iron are taken out every year. The -mines are said to have been in operation for over a -thousand years, since about A. D. 800. After the ore -is taken from the mine and roughly prepared, it is run -down in small cars through a covered way to the railroad -station to be shipped; and at certain times there -is a seemingly endless procession of these cars, each -bearing, besides its load of ore, a miner, with clothes -and person entirely begrimed to the yellow-brown color -of the iron.</p> - -<p>As I walked out of the Eisenerz railroad station, an -old man in Tyrolese costume asked me if I wanted a -<i>träger</i> and a guide, so, while he was carrying my valise -to the hotel, we came to terms. He was one of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">« 38 »</a></span> -patented guides of the district and wore the large badge -of the Austrian guides. If the size of the badge made -the guide, one should be safe with Tyrolese, but for -difficult excursions, it will not do to trust to a guide -simply because he happens to be “patented”; that is, -not if one values the safety of one’s neck. Next morning, -July the 9th, 1896, the old guide arrived betimes at -the hotel and roused me by tapping on the wall below -my window with his stick. We left at half past five -o’clock. My companion, who should have known better, -had not breakfasted, so by the time we reached the -Gsoll Alp at a quarter-past seven, he was almost tired -out. He wore the regulation black chamois knee breeches -and a <i>gamsbart</i> in his hat. He picked many flowers en -route, ostensibly because they were pretty; but in reality, -I think, because it gave him the opportunity to recover -his wind. He told me he was sixty-three years -old, and he certainly went up hill with some difficulty, -and for the first time in my life, I fairly succeeded in -showing a clean pair of heels to a <i>patentirter führer</i> on -a mountain side. At one place he found a large snail -in the road. This he wrapped up in leaves and placed -on a rock, and on our return he picked the leaves and -snail up, and rammed the whole bundle into his pocket, -informing me that it was excellent <i>Arznei</i>, although he -did not mention for what complaint.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38f" id="Page_38f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 630px;"> -<img src="images/i038fp.png" width="630" height="426" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">THE FRAUENMAUER AND THE GSOLL ALP.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">« 39 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The road led up a wooded valley, in a sort of series of -steps, bits of even ground interspersed by steeper ones, -with the Pfaffenstein-Frauenmauer limestone peaks poking -up their jagged summits on the left. The sky was clear -at starting, except in the west, where clouds were forming, -and these gradually overspread the whole sky, and -finally turned to rain. Just before we reached the Gsoll -Alp, we went by a huge snow avalanche, which had -fallen in February and torn a lane clear through the -pines, bringing down numbers of them with it. The -remains of the avalanche were banked up on the side -of the road, which was cut out, and many of the pines -were still piled on and in the snow. Stopping ten -minutes at the alp to allow my guide to recuperate on -some bread and milk, we then crossed the pastures and -pushed up a rather steep slope by a small path, at one -place crossing the remains of another avalanche. We -also came near having the attentions of a little bull which -was screaming viciously. My guide said it was an extremely -disagreeable beast, but he did not think it would -attack him, as he always made a point of giving it -bread when at the châlet. We reached the entrance of -the cave at a quarter-past eight.</p> - -<p>A man and a boy from Eisenerz, who had heard I -was going to the cavern and who wished to profit by -my guide, caught up with us here. They were much -disappointed when I told them I should visit only the -<i>Eiskammer</i>. They went into the cave at the same time -that we did, and eventually we left them pushing up -one of the side chambers, with only one torch in -their possession. My guide said he thought they were -risking their lives, as there were many holes they might -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">« 40 »</a></span> -fall into, besides the probability of their finding themselves -in total darkness. He told me that once, while -in the cavern, he heard distant yells, and, going up the -gallery whence they proceeded, found a man half dead, -who said he had tried to come through the mountain -by himself, had broken his lantern and had remained in -the darkness an indefinite number of hours; a situation, -the horror of which could not be realized by anyone who -has not been underground without a light and felt the -absolute blackness of a cavern.</p> - -<p>The Frauenmauer is a limestone peak, 1828 meters -in height, one of several forming a horseshoe round the -Gsoll Alp. It presents on that side a sheer wall of rock, -in which there are two holes close together, at an altitude -of 1335 meters. These are the lower openings of the -Frauenmauerhöhle, of which the higher and biggest one -is used for an entrance. They are some thirty or forty -meters from the base of the rock wall, and a flight of -wooden steps leads up to the entrance opening, which -is narrow and high. At the top of the steps, we stood -in the mouth of the cave; and, going in four or five -meters, saw the other opening to the left, below us. -About five meters further, there was one small lump of -ice, as big as a pumpkin, lying on the ground, but this -may have been carried there from within. The cavern -went nearly straight for some twenty-five meters from -the entrance, rising all the time gently. Then came a -steep little drop, of some four or five meters, in the -rock floor, and here a small wooden staircase was -placed. A gallery opened to the right and this was -the cavern proper, which leads through the mountain. -It rose considerably and contained no ice as far as we -went, which was for some distance. The walking was -bad, as the floor was covered with <i>geröll</i>, that is broken -detritus.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40f" id="Page_40f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 619px;"> -<img src="images/i040fp.png" width="619" height="401" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">IN THE FRAUENMAUERHÖHLE.<br /> - -<div class="tdr">From a Photograph by A. Kurka.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">« 41 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Returning and continuing towards the freezing chamber, -the floor of the cavern began to rise once more, continuing -for some forty-five meters to its highest point, -which is lower, however, than the top of the entrance, -an important fact to notice. For, although the floor of -the cave is considerably higher, at a distance of seventy -meters within, than the level of the bottom of the entrance; -still, that highest spot is below the level of the -top of the entrance. This fact, and also the size of the -gallery, unquestionably explains why the cold air can get -in as far as it does. At this highest spot we found a -considerable mass of ice, a couple of cartloads in bulk -perhaps, which the guide said would melt away later in -the summer. This was, perhaps, the remains of a fallen -stalactite. This mass of ice is an interesting point in -connection with the Frauenmauerhöhle, for it shows that -ice in a cave sometimes forms, even if in small quantities, -above the level of the base of the entrance. There -seems no reason why it should not do so, provided -there is the necessary water supply. Such ice would, -however, suffer more, as soon as the outside air was -over freezing point, than would ice which was below the -level of the entrance. It would probably disappear early -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">« 42 »</a></span> -in the year, unless the cave were in a latitude or at an -altitude where snow remained in the open during most -of the year.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42a" id="Page_42a"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 425px;"> -<img src="images/i042.png" width="425" height="120" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5. Vertical Section of the Frauenmauerhöhle.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>From this highest point, the cave turns somewhat to -the left, and the floor begins to slope downward, sinking -gradually to some six meters below the level of the entrance. -Ten meters or so from the highest point, we -began to find icicles and fissure columns, and about twenty -meters further, we reached an almost level ice floor, -stretching across the entire width of the cave—some seven -meters—and extending about fifty meters more to the end -of the cave. In several places there was much frozen -rime on the rock walls. There were also a number of -columns and icicles, though none of any special beauty. -I broke a piece off one of them, and the ice was transparent -and free from prisms, showing that this column -was probably of fairly recent origin. Letting a bit melt -in my mouth, the water tasted pure and sweet.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42f" id="Page_42f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 617px;"> -<img src="images/i042fp.png" width="617" height="415" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">ICE STALACTITE, FRAUENMAUERHÖHLE.<br /> - -<div class="tdr">From a Photograph by A. Kurka.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">« 43 »</a></span></p> - -<p>In two places, there were <i>abgrunds</i>, that is, holes -in the ice. One of these was a wide, deep hole on the -left side of the cave, between the rock and the ice floor. -The other was a great hole in the ice floor itself. As -the edges of both holes sloped sharply, it was impossible -to get near enough to look into either, but I threw -in lumps of ice, and from the sound should judge that the -holes were about three meters deep. The hole in the ice -floor seemed to be cut by drip, and I think they both -carried off the drainage.</p> - -<p>The ice floor was sloppy and thawing rapidly. At the -furthest point we reached, within about fifteen meters -from the end of the ice chamber, we were stopped by an -accumulation of water lying on the ice. I poked into it -with my ice axe and found it about twenty centimeters in -depth. There was a crust of ice on top in places. The -lake was cold, but I am sure the water was not freezing, -as I held my hand in it at least a minute without pain. -The guide assured me that in two weeks or so the lake -would be completely frozen, provided there was some fine, -warm weather; but, if there was rain, he said that it -would not freeze. By this statement, he unintentionally -explained, what he asserted was true, namely, that the -cave froze harder in August than in July. The explanation -of course is, that in fine, dry weather, water does -not run into the cavern, and then the lake gradually -drains off, leaving the ice floor free from water; and this -the natives interpret to mean that the water has frozen up.</p> - -<p>At the edge of the lake there was a fissure in the -left hand rock wall, in which my companion assured me -that a column would shortly form. I absolutely doubt -this statement, as, if it were true, it would be contrary to -everything I have seen; still, I wish I could have returned -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">« 44 »</a></span> -in August, to verify the matter. I poked my torch up -the fissure, also felt in with my hand. It was cold, and on -the rocks inside there was much hoar frost, but I could -neither see nor feel any ice mass, nor am I sure how -far the fissure extended.</p> - -<p>The air was still, damp and over freezing point throughout -the <i>Eiskammer</i>, and all the signs showed that the cave -was in a state of thaw. Although the rocks are limestone -and scarcely blackened by smoke anywhere, yet as our -torches did not give much light, the color impression was -black and gray, like the Schafloch.</p> - -<p>At the hotel the landlord confirmed in every particular -the story of the cave freezing hardest in August or September. -He had never been there himself, but stated -that everyone said the same thing, and that many people -had “broken their heads” trying to account for it. At -eight o’clock in the evening, my guide came to let me -know that the man and boy, whom we left trying to penetrate -the cave, had just turned up after making all their -relatives extremely anxious. They were nearly lost, and -had in general an extremely uncomfortable time. It is -scarcely to be wondered at that accidents occur in caves -and on mountains when people, with neither knowledge -nor proper preparation, go wandering off by themselves -into the unknown.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> On the evening of June 29th, 1897, I met at Hieflau three Viennese -tourists who had come that day through the Frauenmauer. They found -the lake on the ice floor of the <i>Eiskammer</i>, just as I had in 1896. They -said also, moreover, that they found ice and icicles or ice columns in the -main cave; unfortunately, they did not explain clearly in what part.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">« 45 »</a></span></p></div> - - -<p class="caption3">THE MILCHHÄUSER OF SEELISBERG.</p> - -<p>The summer of 1896, will long be remembered by -Alpine climbers for the pitiless rain storm, which kept coming -steadily down during the vacation months. It was in the -midst of this that I arrived at Trieb, on the Lake of Lucerne, -on the 6th of August, to see whether I could find -the windholes which were reported near Seelisberg. At -the landing place I found Herr J. M. Ziegler, the owner of -the Hotel Bellevue at Seelisberg, who promptly secured -a nice, blond bearded young fellow, a relative of his and -his <i>knecht</i>, as a guide. It was pouring when we started, -a proceeding which kept on during our entire excursion. -We tramped up a narrow road, paved with great stones -in the old Swiss fashion, and, as my guide truly said, -awfully steep for horses.</p> - -<p>Half an hour from the boat landing, took us to the first -milkhouse, which belonged to Herr Ziegler. It was in a -small patch of woods, and was placed against a cliff, -where rocks had fallen down and formed a talus of broken -detritus. The side walls of the house were built out from -the cliff and roofed over, and the front wall had a doorway -closed with a wooden door. At the back the detritus or -<i>geröll</i> was built into a vertical, unplastered wall between -most of the interstices of which, cool air came forth. Several -of these interstices were fairly large holes of uncertain -depth. It was a cool day and the air currents were only -a little cooler than the temperature outside.</p> - -<p>Another half an hour of uphill walking, partly on roads -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">« 46 »</a></span> -and partly over soaking meadows, took us to Seelisberg, -where we stopped at the house of the owner of the second -milkhouse, to get the key. The owner could not go with -us because he had damaged his foot, by wearing great -wooden shoes or <i>sabots</i> armed with enormous spikes, while -cutting grass on steep slopes. He was hospitable enough: -unlike his dog, who was exceedingly anxious to attack us. -The owner said—in the intervals of the dog’s howls—that -ice formed during the winter in the rear wall of his -milkhouse and remained until about June. The milkhouse -was in a little patch of woods against a small cliff, -at the bottom of which were broken rocks. We had -some difficulty in getting in, working for at least ten -minutes at the lock, while drops of rain-water would occasionally -drip into our coat collars. Just as I had given -up hope, my companion succeeded in getting the key to -turn. There were several pans, full of milk, placed to cool, -and several barrels of potatoes; and, as at the first milkhouse, -we found that the rear wall consisted simply of -heaped up detritus built into a vertical position. Gentle -air currents flowed from several large holes and from the -cracks between the stones.</p> - -<p>From here we went by a path through woods and over -meadows down to the lake, coming to the shore some distance -to the west of the steamboat landing. Everything -was soaking wet, and as we proceeded, I felt my clothes -getting wetter and my shoes absorbing water like sponges -until, when we came to an overflowing brook, wading -through seemed rather pleasant. There is one advantage -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">« 47 »</a></span> -of getting thoroughly wet feet in the mountains: it makes -crossing streams so much easier, as one does not delay, -but simply steps right in.</p> - -<p>The lower milkhouse was on the shore of the lake, near -the house of a fisherman, whose wife opened the door for -us. There was some milk in pans and several barrels of -wine; and on a board were a number of <i>ferras</i> from the -lake; the result of two days’ catching in nets. This was -the largest of the three milkhouses; although it did not -have as many big holes in the rock wall as the others, but -only the interstices between the blocks of rock, whence -we could feel cool air flowing out. The woman said that -the ice melted away by April or May, but that in winter -the wine barrels were all covered with frost. She also said -that the air coming from the clefts in summer was colder -when the weather was warm, than when it was rainy. -Doubtless the temperature of the draughts remains the -same during the summer, but the air feels cooler to the -hand when the outside air is hot.</p> - -<p>A walk of another half hour, through more soaking wet -grass, brought us back to the steamboat landing at Trieb, -where I touched my guide’s heart with the gift of a five -franc piece, and had a talk with Herr Ziegler. He said -that there were a number of places in the neighborhood -whence cold air came forth during the summer from cracks -in the rocks: that there were also other milkhouses, notably -one at Tell’s Platte, on the lake: and that the milkhouses -were not generally used in winter, when the doors were left -open, to allow the cold air to penetrate as much as possible -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">« 48 »</a></span> -through the rocks behind. During the winter the draughts -were reversed, and poured in instead of out of the openings, -and Herr Ziegler thought that at that time the interior -of the rock cracks became chilled, and that possibly ice -formed in them which helped to chill the summer currents, -when the draughts poured out from the holes.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE GLACIÈRE DE LA GENOLLIÈRE.</p> - -<p>On Tuesday, the 11th of August, 1896, a cool and rainy -day, I left Geneva and went by train to Nyon, where I -found at the station a little victoria, in which I drove up to -Saint-Cergues. The road lay across the plain to the base of -the slopes of the Jura, and then up these in long zigzags; it -was admirably built and on the hill slopes passed the whole -way through a beautiful thick forest, principally beeches -and birches. At Saint-Cergues, I went to the Pension -Capt, where the landlady soon found a guide in the shape -of the gendarme of the district, a right good fellow, Amy -Aimée Turrian by name. He was in uniform, with an army -revolver in a holster at his belt. We then drove about -half an hour beyond Saint-Cergues, the road rising but little, -and the thick forest giving place to a more open wood of -evergreens, with patches of pasturage. As a forest sanitarium, -Saint-Cergues seems unsurpassed in the whole of -Europe. The carriage turned up a little country road, -which soon became too rough for driving, so we proceeded -on foot for about another half hour, through pine woods -and pastures, to the glacière. Turrian enlivened the way -with an account of his life as a gendarme, of the long solitary -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">« 49 »</a></span> -six hour patrols in the woods in winter, and of how -he lay in ambush for poachers. He said he would not -take long to fire on anyone resisting arrest, as that was -<i>sérieux</i>.</p> - -<p>The glacière is in the middle of a pasture, with several -pine trees overhanging it. It is surrounded by a wall, -built to prevent the cows from falling in. There are two -pits, side by side and about three meters apart: they are -some thirteen meters in depth, with a width of five or six -meters. They open into one another at the bottom; the -rock separating them, forming a natural bridge overhead. -One of the pits is vertical on all sides. The other is vertical -all around, except on the side furthest away from the -natural bridge. Here the side of the pit is in the shape, -so usual in glacières, of a steep slope. Down this slope -we descended. It was slippery and muddy, owing to the -recent heavy rains, and my ice axe proved invaluable and -probably saved me some unpleasant falls. Under the -bridge, the floor was covered with a mass of shattered -limestone debris, among which there was neither ice nor -snow; both of which my guide said he had found in -abundance the preceding June. A little limestone cavern -opened on one side below the bridge. A great, flat -limestone slab formed a natural lintel, and, lighting our -candles, we stooped down and passed under it into the -cave, which was about the size of a room and in which -we could just stand up. At the entrance and over most -of the floor there was ice, in one place thirty or forty -centimeters in depth, as I could see where a drip from -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">« 50 »</a></span> -the roof had cut a hole. There were no signs of icicles or -columns. My guide said he had never penetrated into this -chamber, which he thought, on his earlier visit, was blocked -with ice and snow. I did not see any limestone stalactites -anywhere, and I am inclined to think that the low -temperatures of glacières have a tendency to prevent -their formation.</p> - -<p>After our visit, we went to the Châlet de La Genollière -close by, where there were some thirty cows and calves. -The intelligent <i>berger</i> or manager said that most of the ice -from the glacière was used for butter making during the -hot weather; and that between the inroads thus made -upon it and from other causes, the ice disappeared every -year before autumn, but that it formed afresh every winter; -pretty good evidence to show that the ice in this cave has -nothing to do with a glacial period. He also stated that -when he first entered the inner chamber in the spring -there were four ice columns there.</p> - -<p>The glacière de La Genollière is a clear exemplification -of the theory that the cold of winter is the sole cause for -the ice. The whole glacière is rather small and is fairly -well protected against wind. Although snow cannot fall -directly under the rock arch, yet I should imagine it drifts -under, or after melting, runs in and refreezes. To the -inner cave snow, as snow, could hardly reach; and the -cavern is probably filled, like most cave glacières, from -frozen drip. The inner cave is, therefore, a true cave -glacière, while the outer pits and the bridge are something -between a gorge and a cave. La Genollière should, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">« 51 »</a></span> -I think, be visited about the end of June, when the ice -formations are certainly larger and more interesting than -in August.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE FRIEDRICHSTEINER OR GOTTSCHEER EISHÖHLE.</p> - -<p>A little to the east of, and in about the same latitude -as Trieste, is the small town of Gottschee, now reached by -a branch railroad from Laibach. Gottschee is a German -settlement almost in the centre of the district known as the -Duchy of Krain, Austria, which is mainly inhabited in -the north by Slavonians and in the south by Croatians. -Gottschee lies directly at the western base of the Friedrichsteiner -Gebirge, one of whose peaks is the Burgernock. -On the eastern slopes of this mountain is situated the -Friedrichsteiner or Gottscheer Eishöhle, at an altitude of -about nine hundred meters.</p> - -<p>On the 24th of June, 1897, I left Gottschee at half past -six o’clock in the morning with Stefan Klenka, a nice little -man. I had asked to have him come at six o’clock, but he -did not turn up and I had to send for him. His excuse -was, that tourists always ordered him for six o’clock, but -when the time came, they were still in bed. He had taken -a German officer and his wife to the cave the year before, -and after keeping him waiting three hours, they started at -nine o’clock. The result was that they did not get to the -cave until two o’clock, and returned to Gottschee just at -nightfall.</p> - -<p>We reached the cave at half past eight o’clock. The -steep and rough path went uphill through a fine forest, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">« 52 »</a></span> -which my guide said was <i>Urwald</i>, <i>i. e.</i>, primeval forest; and -there were certainly some big trees and many fallen ones, -and much underbrush. He assured me that bears were -still plentiful in the neighborhood, and that Prince Auersperg, -who owns the shooting, does not allow them to be -killed, preferring to pay for any damage they may cause -to the peasants’ fields or for any cattle they may dine on, -rather than to have these interesting animals exterminated -from his woods. He also said that there was a two meter -snowfall in Gottschee in winter: a sufficient quantity to -account for the glacières. At one place on the road we -stopped before a small crack in the rocks, and Klenka -dropped in some small stones, which we could hear strike -two or three times a long distance below. There is surely -an unexplored cavern at this spot.</p> - -<p>The Friedrichsteiner Eishöhle is a large pit cave, well -lighted by daylight. It is sheltered from any winds by -the great trees which grow all around it and even over the -rock roof. A long, steep slope leads straight into the pit -and from the top the ice floor is in full sight. On both -sides of the slope the rocks are almost sheer. Over the -bottom of the slope the rock roof projects at a great -height. The sides of the cave rise perpendicularly at -least forty meters, and in fact, the cave suggests an unfinished -tunnel set on end.</p> - -<p>Some years ago, the <i>Deutschen und Oesterreichischen -Alpen Verein</i> built a wooden staircase, in a series of zigzags, -on the slope. This staircase should have been -cleared off earlier in the year, but, of course, the matter -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">« 53 »</a></span> -was neglected. Down these steps we descended until they -became covered with snow, and lower down with hard ice. -All this was winter’s snow which fell directly on to the -slope and gradually melted and froze again, so this was -really a miniature glacier. It was not subterranean ice at -all. We cut down the snow, but had to stop when we came -to the ice, as it would have involved a couple of hours at -least of the hardest kind of step cutting; and this my guide -did not care to undertake, especially as he was nearly -killed on this slope the week before. He had reached, -with some tourists from Trieste, a place above that where -we stopped, when he slipped and fell down the slope, shooting -clear across the cave, where he remained until ropes -were procured, and he was dragged out. He afterwards -showed me the numerous cuts and bruises he had received -on his perilous glissade.</p> - -<p>We had to stop also for another reason. I had unwisely -brought as wrap, a thick overcoat reaching to -the knees, and this was such an impediment on the icy -staircase, that I took it off, and soon began to feel -long shivers creeping down my spine. This question -of extra clothing for glacière exploration is hard to arrange. -One must guard against most trying changes of -temperature. For, on entering a big glacière, the heat -of a July day without, will, at a distance of only a few -meters, give place to the cold of a January day within, -and nothing could be better devised than a big glacière -to lay the seeds of rheumatism. It is difficult to plan a -garb suitable to meet all the varying conditions, but the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">« 54 »</a></span> -dress must be cool and warm, and light enough to permit -free motion. The clothes I have found most practical -are a thin waistcoat and thick trousers, and two short -sack coats, one of them a heavy winter one. The coats -should button at the throat, and it is well to place straps -round the bottom of the trousers. Thick kid gloves -should always be worn in caves, to save cutting the hands -on rocks or ice in the darkness, and hobnails may prevent -some unpleasant slips.</p> - -<p>From the point where we stopped, some ten meters -away from the ice floor, the largest portion of the cave -was visible. The finest object was a big ice curtain or -<i>vorhang</i>, as my guide called it, which, from a height of -five or six meters, flowed down from fissures to the ice -floor, and which covered the rocks on the eastern side. -Under one point of this curtain, Klenka said that there -was a deep hole in the ice. Smaller fissure columns -also streamed from the rear wall to the ice floor. The -ice floor itself was flat, of an ochre greenish tinge, and -was covered with broken ice fragments. We could not -see the western portion of the cavern, as the rocks jutted -out in a sort of corner. Klenka said that there -were several small pyramids there; a large one which -he spoke of as the <i>Altar</i>; and a small ice slope, plastered -on the side rocks.</p> - -<p>The sides of the cave were of a dark gray limestone -rock, and from the top of the slope they assumed a decidedly -bluish tone, and I am inclined to think that there -was already—we were there from eight-thirty A. M. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">« 55 »</a></span> -until ten A. M.—a faint mist in the cavern. This is the -most interesting phenomenon connected with the Friedrichsteiner -Eishöhle. The cavern faces due south, and -about midday, in clear weather, the sun shines directly -into it, causing a mist or cloud to form in the cave on -warm days; a mute witness that evaporation is connected -with the melting, not with the forming, of the ice. The -air at every point seemed still.</p> - -<p>On my return to Gottschee, I called on one of the -professors of the K. K. Gymnasium, and he told me -many interesting facts about the surrounding country. -Among other things he said that no traces of a glacial -period or indeed of glaciers were found in the Krain; -and as this district is particularly rich in glacières, this -fact is a strong proof against the glacial period theory. -He assured me also that many bears still existed in the -neighborhood; that one family was known to inhabit the -woods round the Friedrichsteiner Eishöhle, and that he -had often seen bear tracks on his own shooting, some -ten kilometers to the south.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE SUCHENREUTHER EISLOCH.</p> - -<p>On the 25th of June, 1897, I left Gottschee at six-thirty -A. M. in an <i>einspänner</i>, and drove thirteen kilometers -southward, over a good road, albeit hilly in -places, to Mrauen, which we reached in about two hours. -The weather was exceedingly hot. I took Klenka along, -as he spoke German, and he entertained me on the drive -by telling me that there were many poisonous snakes in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">« 56 »</a></span> -the country, of which the <i>kreuzotters</i> or vipers were the -worst, and that three or four persons were bitten every -year.</p> - -<p>Mrauen is in Croatia, and I could see a slight difference -in the people and their dress from those of Gottschee. -From Mrauen, the landlord of the <i>Gasthaus Post</i>, -Josef Sirar, led us to the Grosses Eisloch. This is -sometimes spoken of as the Eisloch bei Skrill, but as it -lies in a patch of woods below the village of Suchenreuth, -the Suchenreuther Eisloch seems the correct name. At -least that was what Sirar called it. It took us about an -hour on foot from Mrauen to get into the woods. On -the way we met two guards in uniform, carrying Männlicher -carbines with fixed bayonets, and it was agreeable -to feel that the strong arm of the Austrian government -extended over this semi-wild land. In the woods, -following Sirar’s able guidance, we took a short cut—always -a mistake—and were lost temporarily in a maze -of bushes and brambles, in which I thought of the <i>kreuzotters</i>. -After that, Sirar at first could not find the cave -and had to hunt around for it, while I sat on a stone and -waited impatiently.</p> - -<p>At the cave a rather steep slope of wet mud, covered -with dead leaves, led down through a rock arch. -Sirar had to cut several steps in the mud with his -hatchet, or we should probably have sat down suddenly. -The archway opened into a moderately large cavern, -which was about twenty meters deep, almost round and -some fifteen meters in diameter. The slope continued -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">« 57 »</a></span> -right across the cave, and on some parts of it were logs -of wood and much débris. On the wall hung a few -limestone stalactites. In the roof of the cave was a -great hole, and under this was a big cone of old winter -snow, which had become icy in its consistency, and on -which there was much dirt and many leaves. The temperature -in the cave was several degrees above freezing -point, and there was no ice hanging anywhere. Sirar -said that when the weather got hotter, the ice would come; -but as he said also, that he had been only once before -in the cave, some ten years ago, his opinion was not -worth much. Both men said that the preceding winter -was unusually warm.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57f" id="Page_57f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 430px;"> -<img src="images/i057.png" width="430" height="205" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6. Vertical Section of the Suchenreuther Eisloch.</span></div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3">THE NIXLOCH.</p> - -<p>Near Hallthurm in Bavaria, a railroad station between -Reichenhall and Berchtesgaden, is a well known congeries -of windholes, called the Nixloch. I visited it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">« 58 »</a></span> -on Friday, July the 2d, 1897, with a railroad employee, -whom I found at the peasants’ <i>gasthaus</i>.</p> - -<p>The Nixloch is ten minutes distant in the forest, on -the slopes of the Untersberg. It is among a mass of -big limestone blocks, and close by are the remains of -the walls of an old castle or fortification. The Nixloch -descends from the entrance for about two meters nearly -sheer, and there is just room to get through. As I sat -within the outside edge of the mouth of the cave, the -smoke of my cigar was slowly carried downward into it.</p> - -<p>Dropping down through the hole, we found ourselves -in a small cavern formed of rough limestone blocks overhead -and underfoot. It is possible to go still further -down and my companion said that formerly it was possible -to go through the cave and come out at a lower -opening; this exit, however, was destroyed when the -railroad was built. The draught, as tested by the flame -of a candle, was still drawing in some seven or eight -meters from the entrance. There is a second cavity -immediately next to the entrance, and at the bottom -of these holes, the inward draught was so violent as to -blow the candle out. The thermometer outside in the -shade was 28°C.; inside the cave, where the draught -was still perceptible, it was about 20°C. Within the -cave I noticed two large, dark brown spiders.</p> - -<p>On returning to the <i>gasthaus</i>, I had a talk with some -peasants who were dining there, and they told me that -it was warm in winter in the Nixloch, and that ice never -formed there.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">« 59 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE DORNBURG.</p> - -<p>If one draws a line northeast from Coblentz and -another northwest from Frankfort-on-the-Main, they will -intersect nearly at the Dornburg. The railroad from -Frankfort goes, via Limburg and Hadamar, to Frickhofen -and Wilsenroth, from either of which villages the ice -formations of the Dornburg are easily reached on foot -in half an hour.</p> - -<p>I arrived at Wilsenroth on the 26th of July, 1897, -and soon found an old forester, who said he had lived -in the neighborhood for over fifty years, to show me the -way. The Dornburg is a low hill, perhaps a hundred -meters high and a kilometer long. It is basaltic and -covered with sparse woods. The forester said that on -top were the remains of the foundations of an old castle, -and that this was possibly the origin of the name Dornburg. -We circled round the eastern base of the hill for -some ten minutes, when we came to a little depression, -filled with basalt debris, among which were several small -holes, out of which came currents of cool air.</p> - -<p>Ten minutes further in the woods, we arrived at the -<i>Dornburg Restauration</i> and then almost immediately at -the glacière. It is at the bottom of a talus of broken basaltic -rocks and has been much affected by the agency of -man. In it are two <i>eislöcher</i> or <i>stollen</i>, as the forester -called them. These are little artificial pits or cellars, dug -into the talus. They are side by side, opening about -southeast, and each is about one and a half meters wide, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">« 60 »</a></span> -three meters long, and two meters high. The sides are -built up with wooden posts and overhead is a thick roof -of logs strewn with dirt. The day was cool and at the -mouth of each <i>eisloch</i>, a faint outward current of air was -discernible at nine-thirty A. M. I could not find any currents -coming into the <i>eislöcher</i>. Inside it was cold and -damp, and evidently thawing. There was a good heap of -ice in each <i>eisloch</i>; it was clear, and I could detect no trace -of prisms.</p> - -<p>By much questioning, I dug out something of the history -of these <i>stollen</i> from the forester. Formerly the ice -was found at this spot, among the boulders at the base of -the slope. But the people gradually took many of these -basaltic blocks away, to break up for road making, and -then the ice diminished. About 1870, a brewery, since -burnt, was built at the Dornburg and the brewer had -these <i>stollen</i> built, a sort of semi-natural, semi-artificial ice -house. Every winter, the present owner of the <i>stollen</i> -throws a quantity of snow into them, and this helps materially -in forming the mass of ice.</p> - -<p>Just below the restaurant there is a spring, which was -said to be extremely cold, but there was nothing icy nor -apparently unusual about it.</p> - -<p>Under the restaurant itself is an interesting cellar. It -was closed by wooden doors. First there was a passage -way which turned steadily to the right, and which we descended -by some ten steps. This was about two meters -wide and was full of beer bottles and vegetables. On -the left of the passage was a large double chamber where -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">« 61 »</a></span> -meat is kept. At eleven-thirty A. M. a faint draught blew -down the passage and into the hall, the outside door being -then open. The double hall was perhaps six meters each -way, and I could detect no air currents coming into it at -any place, except from the passage way. Both passage -and halls were, as far as I could see, entirely built over -with masonry. There was no ice and the temperature -was some 7° or 8° above freezing point.</p> - -<p>The daughter of the proprietor of the restaurant said -that ice began to form in the cellar in February and that -it lasted generally until October; but that this year it -was destroyed early because the masonry was repaired, -although it was still possible to skate in the cellar as late -as March. In the beginning of winter the cellar was warm, -and as she expressed it, <i>der Keller schwitzt dann</i>, which -I suppose means that the walls are damp. She also -said that it was a <i>naturlicher Keller</i>, and I am inclined -to think that it was a natural glacière, converted into a -cellar.</p> - -<p>This visit to the Dornburg gave me many new ideas -about classifying glacières, especially in relation to the -movements of air. I was long puzzled by the German -terms, <i>Eishöhlen</i> and <i>Windröhren</i>; and it suddenly struck -me, at the Dornburg, that this terminology is incorrect, -when used as a classification of glacières. The presence -or absence of strong, apparent draughts, cannot be considered -as a test as to whether a place is or is not a -glacière; the presence of ice, for at least part of the -year, alone makes a glacière, and this it does whether -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">« 62 »</a></span> -there are or are not draughts. It seems to me more -than ever clear, however, that it all depends on the -movements of air, as to whether ice forms in a cave. If -the movements of air take the cold air of winter into a -cave, then and then only—provided there is also a water -supply—do we have ice. I am now inclined to think -that caves, as far as their temperatures are concerned, -should be classified into caves containing ice, cold caves, -ordinary normal caves, and hot caves, without reference -to the movements of air.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE GLACIÈRE DE SAINT-GEORGES.</p> - -<p>From Rolle, on the north shore of the Lake of -Geneva; an excellent carriage road leads in two hours -and a half to Saint-Georges in the Jura. At first the way -goes steeply uphill and passes through many vineyards, -and afterwards it crosses level fields to Gimel, then rises -through woods to Saint-Georges. On arriving there on -the afternoon of August 3d, 1897, I found the street -filled with evergreens, and long benches and tables; the -débris of a <i>fête de tir</i>, which had lasted for two days, -with dancing and banquets and, I suspect, much <i>vin du -pays</i>.</p> - -<p>When I got down stairs at six o’clock next morning, -all the people of the inn were sound asleep recovering -from the effects of the <i>fête</i>, and instead of their calling -me, I had to call them. Finally I succeeded in getting -breakfast and then started in company with a first rate -fellow, named Aymon Émery.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62f" id="Page_62f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 405px;"> -<img src="images/i062fp.png" width="405" height="307" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">LA GLACIÈRE DE SAINT-GEORGES.<br /> - -<div class="tdr">From a Photograph by E. Truand.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">« 63 »</a></span></p> - -<p>We walked up through woods, in about an hour and a -half, to the Glacière de Saint-Georges, which lies at an -altitude of 1287 meters in the midst of the forest. There -are two holes close together. One of these descends -vertically and is partly roofed over with logs on which is -rigged a pulley. Émery, who was the <i>entrepreneur</i> of the -glacière, which means that he attended to getting out the -ice, told me that they pulled the ice up through this -vertical hole, making a noose with a rope round each -block.</p> - -<p>The other and shallower opening ended in a rock -floor, which was reached by a short ladder. To the right -was an arch, under which the rock terminated as a floor -and descended vertically, forming the wall of the cave. -On this wall two ladders, spliced at the end into one -long ladder, were placed in a nearly vertical position. I -tied the end of my rope round my waist, and got a workman, -who had come to cut ice, to pay out the rope to me, -while I went down.</p> - -<p>The cave is rather long and narrow, perhaps twenty-five -meters by twelve meters, and the limestone roof -forms an arched descending curve overhead. I could not -see any limestone stalactites; neither were there any ice -stalactites or stalagmites in the cave, but a good part of -the wall, against which the long ladder was placed, was -covered by an ice curtain. It was thin and had evidently -been damaged by the ice cutters or I think it would have -covered the entire lower portion of the wall.</p> - -<p>The base of the long ladder rested on an ice floor -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">« 64 »</a></span> -which filled the bottom of the cave, and which would -probably have been level if it had not been cut out here -and there in places, leaving many holes. A good many -broken ice fragments lay on the floor and in some of -the holes were pools of water. Some of the floor ice -was exceedingly prismatic in character, and I was able to -flake it off or break it easily with my hands into prisms.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64f" id="Page_64f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 424px;"> -<img src="images/i064.png" width="424" height="316" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7. Vertical Section of the Glacière de Saint-Georges.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>Under the vertical shaft, which is at one end of the -cave, was a mass of winter’s snow which had fallen -through the opening. Under this snow was a deep hole, -which I believe was the drain hole of the glacière before -the ice floor was cut away to a level below its mouth. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">« 65 »</a></span> -Into this hole I threw lumps of ice and heard them go -bumping down for three or four seconds.</p> - -<p>The atmosphere was not uncomfortable, although the -temperature was about 7° C. The air did not feel damp, -and seemed almost still, but standing on the ice floor -nearly under the vertical hole, I found that the smoke -from my cigar ascended rapidly, and it seemed as if -there were a rising air current, which sucked up the -smoke.</p> - -<p>Saint-Georges is a fine cavern and well worth visiting. -Émery said that the ice was not cut out for eight years -preceding the summer of 1897, and that for several years -it was not possible to go down at all, as there were no -ladders, until he put in the two we utilized.<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> All the -natives of Saint-Georges believed that the ice was a -summer formation and that it was warm in the cave in -winter.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> In the illustration of the Glacière de Saint-Georges, the opening -to the left is the vertical pit, through which the ice is taken out: underneath -it, is the heap of winter snow. The man in the upper part of -the picture is standing on the rock shelf at the base of the upper -ladder and at the top of the lower ladder. To the right of the lower -ladder near the bottom, a bit of the ice curtain is visible.</p></div> - - -<p class="caption3">THE GLACIÈRE DU PRÉ DE SAINT-LIVRES.</p> - -<p>From the Glacière de Saint-Georges, Émery and I -pushed on through the woods to the Pré de Saint-Livres. -In several places we came on the tracks of deer, and my -guide told me he had killed eleven roe during the last -hunting season. He said also that an attempt is being -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">« 66 »</a></span> -made to introduce the red deer into the Jura, and that -the experiment seemed to be meeting with success. We -kept to the crest of the ridge along wood paths, and, as -the day was fortunately cool and cloudy, we were able to -walk fast and reached the Pré de Saint-Livres in two -hours. At a spot called La Foiraudaz we met the workmen -coming down with a cartload of ice, which they -were taking to Bière. Some of this ice was extremely -prismatic.</p> - -<p>The Pré de Saint-Livres is a big mountain pasture or -meadow, surrounded with hills covered with pine trees. -In the middle of it is the Châlet de Saint-Livres, round -which numerous cows and calves were congregated and -where a small shepherd gave us some milk. The châlet -is not one of the old picturesque Swiss châlets with great -stones on the roof to keep it from being blown away by -the wind, but a strongly built single storied stone -structure, which looks extremely modern among the green -hills.</p> - -<p>The glacière lies close to the châlet, on the southern -side of the meadows, just on the edge of the woods, and -is surrounded with trees. It is at an altitude of 1362 -meters and faces nearly due north. To prevent the cattle -from falling in, it is enclosed with a stone wall, except in -front, where there is a fence formed of an abattis of -pine trees. The cave belongs to the pit variety, and the -pit is a big one. As you stand at the top, you can look -down to the end of the glacière. The rocks are vertical -all round the pit, and in front there is a small rock -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">« 67 »</a></span> -shelf, one-third of the way down, which divides the rock -wall into two long drops. Against each of these was a -rickety ladder, so we fixed the end of my rope to the pine -trees of the fence, and hung on to it while we climbed -down. The base of the lower and longer ladder rested -on a mass of snow. This was the beginning of a long -snow slope which gradually turned to ice and filled the -cave. The cave itself, measuring along the snow slope, -is some forty meters long and some ten to fifteen meters -wide, and is entirely lighted by daylight.</p> - -<p>The snow and ice slope fell in a series of small waves, -and the upper portion was rather dirty. On the right -hand the workmen had fixed a rope as a handrail, and all -the way down had cut a staircase in the ice, so that the -descent was not difficult. Some of the ice was sloppy. -The ice mass did not abut entirely against the end of the -cave, but left an open space between the ice and the rock, -some three or four meters wide and some four or five -meters deep. Here the workmen had been getting their -ice, and had cut into the ice mass for several meters, -forming a little tunnel.</p> - -<p>There were no ice cones nor stalactites, neither did I -see any limestone stalactites. Much of the ice was prismatic; -in fact, together with that at Saint-Georges, it -was the most strongly prismatic I have seen. I can perhaps -best describe it, by saying that it was brittle in -texture, as I could break up small lumps in my hands. -There was more prismatic ice at Saint-Livres, however, -than at Saint-Georges. The air in the cave was still -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">« 68 »</a></span> -and decidedly damp; and the temperature was several -degrees above freezing point. The day, however, was -almost windless, and I would not assert that movements -of air, due to the wind, might not sometimes take place -in the pit.</p> - -<p>The Glacière du Pré de Saint-Livres is one of those -caves which may be looked on as a transitional form -between gorges containing ice and caves containing ice. -The winter snow falls into the mouth of the pit, and -is the chief foundation of the ice mass. It would be -interesting to make a series of observations in this cave -to see whether there was anything like glacier motion. -Émery, of his own accord, expressed the opinion that -much of the ice here was due to the winter snows; in -fact, he thought that it was all due to it, and that it -gradually descended into the cave and turned, little by -little, into ice. He told me that some years ago a cow -was found by the workmen, frozen into the ice, at a depth -of four meters; the flesh was perfectly preserved, and was -eaten. I asked him if he had ever seen insects in either -cave, and he said he had not.</p> - -<p>From the glacière we walked back to the village -of Saint-Georges. On asking my guide how much I -owed him, he said he received four francs for a <i>journée</i>, -so I gave him six francs, and we parted the best of friends.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">GLACIER ICE CAVE IN THE FEE GLACIER.</p> - -<p>During a rather protracted stay at Saas-Fee in Switzerland, -I visited the glacier ice cave of the Fee Glacier on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">« 69 »</a></span> -the 15th and 16th of August, 1897, both cool and rainy -days. It is about half an hour’s walk from the hotel to -the ice cave, which is in the snout of the Fee glacier, -below the Eggfluh. A considerable stream issued from -the cave. On nearing the opening, a strong cold air -current poured out above the stream. At the front edge -of the ice, the height of the ice roof in the centre was -perhaps twelve meters and the width fifteen meters. -Around the edge, the roof formed an almost perfect -curve. The ice walls contracted in a regular manner -within, and the cave became narrower and lower, and -suggested an enormous funnel cut in half, into which -you looked from the larger end. The cave also grew -gradually darker, and the darkness prevented seeing -further than to a depth of some fifteen meters. In the ice -walls, just inside the entrance, were several crevasses, of -the ordinary blue-green color. They followed nearly the -same curve as the roof, but did not go through to the -outside. There were no icicles. The ice was faintly -stratified in places, and at the outer edge was brittle. It -did not break into the long narrow prisms of the ice at -Saint-Georges and the Pré de Saint-Livres, but rather into -small lumps with facets, of all sorts of shapes. It was -evidently unsafe to penetrate under the ice roof, for while -I stood in front of the cave, a large lump broke off from -the roof and fell with a clatter among a lot of other ice -fragments already on the moraine floor. In two places -there was a steady rain of drops from the roof, showing -that the ice was melting.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">« 70 »</a></span></p> - -<p>This is perhaps the glacier cave in Switzerland which -is easiest to visit, and my inspection intensified my belief -in what I consider the correct explanation of some of -the phenomena in glacières. The suggestion was that as -soon as the temperature gets above freezing point in a -glacier ice cave, the only process is that of destruction of -the ice, which seems to be also the case with glacières.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">LA GRAND CAVE DE MONTARQUIS.</p> - -<p>My brother and I left Cluses, in Savoie, a railroad -station on the line between Geneva and Chamonix, at -two o’clock on the afternoon of the 22d of August, -1897, and drove up in two hours and a half to -Pralong du Reposoir, a distance of eleven kilometers. -The road is a <i>route nationale</i>, fine and broad, with parapets -in many places. After passing Scionzier, it mounts -gradually, passing through a tremendous wild gorge, cut -by the waters and heavily clad with firs. We reached -Pralong at four-thirty, and stopped at a primitive inn, still -in process of construction, and tenanted only by blue-bloused -peasants, who, as it was Sunday night, sat up -late, drinking and making a heathenish noise they mistook -for singing. I talked to some of these men, and they all -insisted that there was no ice at the Grand Cave in -winter, but that it came in summer. <i>Plus il fait chaud, -plus ça gêle</i>, they said. One man explained the formation -of the ice in an original way, and with an intelligence -far above that of the average peasant. He considered -that it was due to air currents, and thought that in winter -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">« 71 »</a></span> -the snow stopped up the holes in the rocks, through which -the currents came; but that when the snow melted, the -draughts could work, and that then they formed the ice.</p> - -<p>The weather was abominable next morning, the clouds -lying along and dripping into the valley; but the inn was -so awful that we decided to try to reach the cave. We had -a nice little blue-bloused peasant for a guide, Sylvain Jean -Cotterlaz by name. We went first for about an hour on -foot towards Le Grand Bornant on a fair road, to an alp -called La Salle. This was surrounded by a herd of cows, -some of whom seemed interested in our party. It now -began to rain fiercely, and except for my brother’s perseverance, -I should certainly have given in. A fair path led -up steep grass slopes into the clouds covering the Mont -Bargy. Each of us had his umbrella raised, and the ascent -was slippery and uninspiring. An hour took us to two -deserted huts, the Alpe Montarquis, and half an hour -beyond, we came to the caves; by which time we were -thoroughly soaked.</p> - -<p>The caves are on Mont Bargy, at the base of a limestone -precipice, which, I think, faces nearly north. There -are three caves close together. The lowest, or Petite -Cave de Montarquis, Cotterlaz said is also called La Cave -des Faux-Monayeurs; as according to a, probably untrue, -tradition, it was once used by counterfeiters. Above this -is a small rock pocket, accessible down an easy slope. -We went in and found that there was no ice and indeed -scarcely any water in it.</p> - -<p>The Grand—not Grande—Cave is a little higher up, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">« 72 »</a></span> -and as we came to it, several sheep, which had taken -refuge in the mouth from the storm, hastily skipped away, -evidently distrusting our intentions. The altitude of the -cave is said to be 2078 meters. The entrance must face -about north east; it is elliptical in shape, about fifteen -meters wide, and six meters high, and is badly sheltered -against the wind. The cave is of moderate size, about -sixty meters in length and forty-five meters in width, and -the average height of the roof is not over four or five -meters. A gentle slope leads downwards. Many blocks -of rock in the front part had bits of moss growing on -them, and some of the mud there was of a dull purple -color, as if some dark madder was mixed with it. There -was a red streak in the right hand wall, probably caused -by iron. I observed no limestone stalactites nor stalagmites -in the cave, the main body of which was well -lighted throughout by daylight.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72f" id="Page_72f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 426px;"> -<img src="images/i072.png" width="426" height="130" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8. Vertical Section of Grand Cave de Montarquis.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The ice was in the shape of a nearly level floor, about -twelve meters long and eight meters wide: the shape -was irregular, and the ice so smooth that it was hard -to stand up. The rocks in the rear overhung the ice -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">« 73 »</a></span> -floor at one spot; and here, there streamed from a fissure -to the ice floor an ice column, some three meters -high, whose base was fully two meters distant from the -rock wall. Near this column was a tiny ice cone, which -evidently had been bigger. Cotterlaz seemed impressed -with the fact that there was only one column in the -cave, as he said that in June, there would have been -many columns and a larger and deeper ice floor. The -ice was sloppy in places, with several small hollows cut by -the drip and containing water. In one place there was -a tiny runnel filled with water, but there was no current. -There was a good deal of drip all through the cave, and -in fact in one or two places we might have kept on holding -up our umbrellas with advantage. I hacked at several -pieces of ice, but none of it was prismatic.</p> - -<p>At the rear of the cave, the ice ran, in a tongue, up -the entrance of an ascending fissure in the rocks. My -brother cut here six or seven steps in the ice; and he -found them difficult to make, as the ice was hard and thin, -and not in a melting state. Above the ice tongue we -clambered up the rocks of the fissure some four or five -meters further, finding there some lumps of ice which were -not melting. At this spot we were almost in darkness. A -lighted match burned steadily, so that there was evidently -not much draught, but the smoke gradually descended, -showing a slight downward current. This was the coldest, -as well as the furthest point of the cave we could reach, -and we there heard a tiny waterfall trickling within the -fissure, although we could not see it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">« 74 »</a></span></p> - -<p>By this time we were all chilled to the bone, so, -abandoning the idea of entering the Petite Cave, we retreated -down the sopping wet, slippery grass slopes to -Pralong, and then immediately walked all the way to -Cluses to avoid taking cold. The Grand Cave was the -most fatiguing trip I ever made after glacières, but the -circumstances were rather unusual.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE FREEZING WELL OF OWEGO.</p> - -<p>On Thursday, June 23d, 1898, I went to Owego, in -Tioga County, New York. Inquiries at the Lehigh -Valley railroad station and at the chief hotel failed to -elicit any information about a freezing well; and in fact, -I soon found that the existence of such a thing was a -blank to the rising generation. So I called on an old -resident of Owego, who told me that he knew of the -well in question and that it was filled up with stones -many years ago; but that he remembered that, when he -was a boy, it used to freeze, and that it was spoken of as -the deep well or freezing well. I then walked up to the -site of the well, which is about one and a half kilometers -to the northwest from the centre of Owego and about one -kilometer from the Susquehanna River. It is directly in -the middle of the highway, and nothing is now visible but -a heap of stones.</p> - -<p>Near by was the house of a Mr. Preston, who told me -he was born in 1816, and had lived all his life at this spot. -He said that the well was about twenty-eight meters deep, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">« 75 »</a></span> -and that it went first through a layer of sand and then -through a layer of gravel. He had more than once been -down the well and had seen the sides covered with ice. -A bucket sent down for water would sometimes come up -with ice on the sides. Whether the water at the bottom -ever froze, no one knew, for the ice caked and filled up -the bore at about two-thirds of the way down and became -so thick, that as Mr. Preston put it, “it was just like -hammering on an anvil to try to break it.” He also -stated that another well was dug about one hundred -meters further down the road, and that originally this -sometimes had a little ice on the sides. Of late years -however, it was covered over with a wooden top and since -then no ice was known to form. I could obtain no information -about any other wells in the neighborhood -ever showing similar peculiarities.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE ICY GLEN, NEAR STOCKBRIDGE.</p> - -<p>The Icy Glen is situated on Bear Mountain, about -one kilometer from Stockbridge, Massachusetts. It is in -the midst of fine woods and there are many big trees in -it. The bottom of the glen is full of rocks and boulders, -among which there is a rough path. I was told that ice -remained over there much longer than anywhere else in -the neighborhood, sometimes as late as May. On the 3d -of July, 1898, I not only found no traces of ice or snow, -but the temperatures under the boulders showed nothing -abnormal. To make up for this, however, there were -legions of mosquitoes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">« 76 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">FREEZING MARBLE CAVE, NEAR MANCHESTER.</p> - -<p>Near Manchester, Vermont, there is a little cave,<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> -which is noteworthy, in that it is in a marble formation. It -is known as Skinner’s Cave, because it was owned for -many years by Mr. Mark Skinner. It lies in Skinner’s -Hollow, some five or six kilometers from the centre of -Manchester, at the base of the eastern slope of Mount -Equinox, of the Taghconic Range of the Green Mountains.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> My attention was called to this cave, by Messrs. John Ritchie, Jr., -of Boston, and Byerly Hart of Philadelphia, who visited it some years -ago. Mr. Ritchie’s opinion is that it is simply a refrigerator.</p></div> - -<p>The cave is on the property of Mr. N. M. Canfield, -who, on learning the object of my visit, on the 5th of -July, 1898, with true native American courtesy, walked -up to it with me. The last two kilometers were over a -rough logging road, which towards the end was steep -and covered with many broken logs. I could not have -found the cave alone, as it was so surrounded with -bushes, that the entrance was invisible until we actually -reached it. It is in a gorge of Mount Equinox, in the -midst of a beautiful forest, which effectually cuts off any -wind. The cave faces nearly north and can scarcely -ever, if indeed at any time, be reached by the rays of the -sun. The moment we got into the entrance, we found -the chilly, damp, summer atmosphere of true glacière -caves. The rocks were brown and mossy on the outside, -but Mr. Canfield called my attention to the fact that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">« 77 »</a></span> -they were marble, and on his knocking off a small piece, -a section of pure white marble was exposed. In no other -instance have I heard of a marble cave in connection -with ice. There were scarcely any cracks or crevices -in the rock.</p> - -<p>The cave goes down with a steep slope from the -entrance, much in the shape of a tunnel, for some ten -meters. The slope was covered with slippery mud and -decayed leaves, and at the bottom expanded into a little -chamber, in which lay a mass of wet, compact snow, some -two by three meters. It was evident that the snow was -simply drifted in during the winter, and was in too large -a mass and too well protected to melt easily, and there -could be no question but that this place was purely a -refrigerator. The air was tranquil throughout and there -were no draughts. On the same day, a good breeze was -blowing in the Manchester Valley.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE FREEZING WELL OF BRANDON.</p> - -<p>The Freezing Well of Brandon is situated on the -western or southwestern outskirts of the village of -Brandon, Vermont, not far from the railroad station. I -visited it on the 7th of July, 1898. The well was protected -by a wooden cover. On raising this, a faint stream -of cool air seemed to issue forth; but this was probably -only imagination. The sides, as far down as one could -see, were built in with rather large blocks of stone without -cement. At the bottom water was visible and there -were no signs of ice. We drew up some water in a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">« 78 »</a></span> -bucket, and although it was cool there was nothing icy -about it. I twice lowered a thermometer nearly to the -water and each time after ten minutes it registered only -13° C. There was certainly nothing abnormal in this -temperature, in fact it was strictly normal and my thermometer -showed conclusively by its actions that it could -not have been near any ice mass. The people at the -house, however, assured me that a month before there -was ice in the well.</p> - -<p>Afterwards I called on Mr. C. O. Luce, the owner of -the well. He stated that it was eleven and a half meters -deep to the bottom, that it was dug in 1858, and that the -ground through which it goes was found frozen at a depth -of about four and a half meters. Here there is a stratum -of gravel and this is where the freezing occurs. Mr. -Luce thought that the water was under the ice, that is, -that the water came up from the bottom. He said also -that the well usually froze solid in winter; but, that as -this winter was an open one, there was less ice this year -than usual. He thought that there was less ice anyway -now than in former years, partly because of the cover -which was put over the well, and which keeps out some -of the cold; and partly because a neighboring gravel -hillock, called the Hogback, was a good deal cut away, -and this in some way affects the supply of cold in the -gravel. He added that the sandy soil round Brandon -does not as a rule freeze to a greater depth than two -meters each winter. The house built beside the well was -said to be comfortable in winter.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">« 79 »</a></span></p> - -<p>There seems no doubt that this is another refrigerator. -The cold water of the winter snows percolates into the -gravel mass and refreezes, and, owing to the bad conductive -quality of the material, the gravel remains frozen later -than the soil elsewhere in the neighborhood. The fact that -the well went through a frozen gravel stratum when dug, -proves that it is not alone the air that sinks into the well -itself, which makes the ice. The fact that the well freezes -on the whole less than formerly, apparently partly owing -to the digging up of some of the gravel close by, goes to -prove the same thing. The fact that the well generally -freezes solid every winter, shows that although some of -the gravel mass possibly remains frozen all the time, -much of the ice is renewed each year. This is especially -important as proving that the ice found in gravel deposits -is due to the cold of winter and not to a glacial period, -although, of course, no one could say for how long a time -the ice was forming and melting; and this process might -date back to the time of the formation of the gravel mass.</p> - -<p>I could learn nothing of any similar place near Brandon, -except that Mr. Luce said that in an old abandoned -silver mine in the neighborhood, he had once seen ice -during hot weather.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">FREEZING TALUS ON LOWER AUSABLE POND.</p> - -<p>On the eastern side of Lower Ausable Pond, Essex -County, New York, at the foot of Mount Sébille or Colvin, -there is a talus of great Laurentian boulders, which -fell from the mountain and lie piled up on the edge of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">« 80 »</a></span> -lake. Among these boulders, at a distance of about five -hundred meters from the southern end of the lake, there -are spaces, several of which might be called caves, -although they are really hollows between the boulders. -On the 12th of July, 1898, I visited this spot with Mr. -Edward I. H. Howell of Philadelphia. From several of -the rock cracks we found a draught of air flowing strongly -out, as tested by the smoke of a cigar. The air was -distinctly icy and there could be no question that there -was a considerable quantity of ice among the rocks to -produce the temperature.</p> - -<p>In three places we found masses of ice. One of these -hollows was small, and the other two were much larger. -One of the latter was almost round in shape, and perhaps -three meters in diameter; with a little snow near -the mouth and with plenty of ice at the bottom. The -other was a long descending crack between two boulders -which joined overhead, and with the bottom filled by a -long, narrow slope of ice, perhaps seventy-five centimeters -in width and six meters in length, set at an angle of -about thirty-five degrees. The ice was hard and non-prismatic.</p> - -<p>The cold air affects a large area of land around the -boulders. Mr. Howell called my attention to the flowers -of the bunch-berry, which he said were at least two weeks -behind those on the surrounding mountains. The same -was true of <i>oxalis</i>, a pretty white flower, of which we found -several beds in full bloom.</p> - -<p>Mr. Howell went to this talus, on the 4th of July -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">« 81 »</a></span> -previous, with Mr. Niles, President of the Appalachian -Mountain Club, on which occasion they found plenty of -snow near the entrance of the larger hollow. Mr. Howell, -indeed, has repeatedly visited this place, and always found -ice, which must, therefore, be looked on as perennial. -At all times also he has felt cold draughts flowing out; -sometimes they were so strong as to lower the temperature -over the lake to a distance of thirty meters or -more: on hot days he has seen occasionally a misty cloud -form on the lake in front of the boulders. Mr. Howell -considers that the draughts so affect the surrounding air, -that an artificial climate is produced, and it is owing to -this that spring flowers bloom late in July and sometimes -in August. Another fact well known to him, is that in hot -weather, the spot in front of the boulders is the best in the -whole lake to catch trout, as they always congregate in the -coldest water. The Adirondack guides use these ice retaining -hollows, which they call ice-caves, as refrigerators for -their provisions and game in hot weather: they say that -the ice is formed in winter and remains over during the -summer, as it is so well sheltered.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">FREEZING TALUS OF THE GIANT OF THE VALLEY.</p> - -<p>On the indications of Mr. Otis, chief guide of the Adirondack -Reserve, I explored with Mr. C. Lamb, a guide -from Keene Valley, the southern base of the Giant of -the Valley Mountain, Essex County, New York, on the -14th of July, 1898. A road runs from Keene Heights -to Port Henry, through the gap between the south base -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">« 82 »</a></span> -of the Giant of the Valley and the north base of Round -Mountain, and passes close to a small lake called Chapel -Pond. Some three hundred meters west of this lake, -we left the road and struck north, across the brook, into -the thick, mossy woods. After perhaps one hundred -meters, we came to a talus of great boulders of Laurentian -rock, with the cliffs of the Giant, whence the boulders had -fallen, rising steeply above. We found ice under several -of them, although never in any quantity. The thermometer, -after an exposure of fifteen minutes in one of -these little hollows, registered 6° C., although not more -than one meter from where the sunshine fell on the moss. -In the shade of a tree one meter distant from the same -hollow it registered 26° C.; a difference of 20° C. at a -distance of only two meters.</p> - -<p>Perhaps one kilometer east of Chapel Pond, there is a -place, where the bases of the mountains come much nearer -together, which bears the name of “The Narrows.” Here -we crossed the brook again, and, after some fifteen or -twenty meters of scrambling through rough woods, reached -once more the talus of the Giant, composed of tremendous -boulders. Among these we found ice in many places and -this time in large quantities. Within one boulder cave we -found an ice slab some four meters in length, by two -meters in width, and one meter in thickness. This was -pure, hard and non-prismatic ice, and was evidently not -formed of compressed snow: in fact snow could not have -drifted in under the boulder. We broke off a large piece -of ice and took it back to Saint Hubert’s Inn, and it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">« 83 »</a></span> -melted rather slowly. From the mouth of this cave an -icy draught issued, and, as it struck the warmer air outside, -a slight mist was formed. Mr. Lamb said that from -the road itself he had sometimes seen mist rising from -this talus. Further explorations of the talus of the -Giant would probably reveal ice in many other places -than those we examined.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Mr. E. I. H. Howell examined several times, in 1899, the talus -of the Giant of the Valley. He found ice in many places; also cold air -currents blowing out. At one spot, there is a spring which flows all -through the summer, and the water is so cold, that its temperature is -little above that of melting ice. Mr. Howell found, as at Ausable -Pond, spring flowers growing in mid-summer among the rocks of the -talus.</p></div> - -<p>Mr. Lamb told me of two other places in the Adirondacks, -where he found ice in similar boulder formations. -One was in the talus of Mount Wallface in Indian Pass, -between Mounts Wallface and McIntyre. The other was -in the talus of Mount McIntyre in Avalanche Pass, between -Mounts McIntyre and Colden. At the latter place, he -found it near the trail going round the lake in the pass.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE ICE GULCH, RANDOLPH.</p> - -<p>The Randolph Ice Gulch is situated in Randolph -Township, New Hampshire, about eight kilometers from -Randolph Station, on the Boston and Maine Railroad.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> I -visited it on August 11th, 1898. At the Mount Crescent -House, I found a guide in the person of Mr. Charles E. -Lowe, Jr. The excursion took us about six hours. The -trail was a rough bush path, cut by the Appalachian -Mountain Club, and which had not been cleaned out that -year. It was a cloudy but hot day and this, combined -with the badness of the road, made the walk fatiguing.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> I first heard of the Ice Gulch from Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., of Boston. -Some years ago in the middle of July, he found ice plentiful in -the second chamber. He thought the Gulch only a refrigerator.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">« 84 »</a></span></p></div> - -<p>The Gulch lies between Crescent and Black Mountains. -The altitude of the upper end of the Gulch is -something over eight hundred meters, that of the lower -end about six hundred meters. It is some fifteen hundred -meters long, and averages perhaps one hundred -meters in width at the top, and only a few meters at the -bottom. The depth may be about seventy-five meters and -the sides are steep, in some places sheer. The bottom is -a mass of broken, fallen rocks, with a good many trees -growing among them. There are several steps, so to -speak, in the Gulch, which are called chambers, although -the term seems rather meaningless. Promenading through -the bottom of the Gulch was fraught with difficulty, because -the rocks were placed in most unsuitable positions -for human progression, and my hands were certainly as -useful to me as my feet in preserving equilibrium. We -found ice in one or two places, but not in any great -quantity. In one spot it was overlaid by water. My -guide said that there was less ice than the year before. -A large piece which we broke off, and which furnished us -with a cooling morsel of frozen fluid, was full of air -bubbles. It was not prismatic ice, and was certainly unusual -in formation. It crunched up under the teeth and, -although it did not look like solidified snow, yet, judging -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">« 85 »</a></span> -from its position among the boulders, it was doubtless -formed from the melting and refreezing of snow.<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> My -guide said he had heard that fresh ice began to form -sometimes in September. The Gulch is well protected -against wind, and I detected no draughts among the -rocks. Except in the immediate vicinity of the ice, the -temperature was not abnormally low.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> On the 17th of February, 1899, four days after the greatest snow -storm in Philadelphia in many years, I noticed that the snow on my -roof solidified slowly into a mass of ice which contained a good many -air-bubbles. It strikingly resembled the ice of the Ice Gulch, only that -it was more solid and did not have more than half as many air-bubbles.</p></div> - -<p>On returning to the Mount Crescent House, I had a -talk with Mr. Charles E. Lowe, Sr., who told me that -Alpine plants, like those which grow on Mount Washington -and Mount Adams, are found in the Gulch; but that -they do not exist on the neighboring Black and Crescent -Mountains. He said also that ice was present in more -than one place in King’s Ravine, and that it was always -there.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">FREEZING BOULDER TALUS AT RUMNEY.</p> - -<p>About three kilometers south of Rumney, New Hampshire, -there is a hill called Bald Mountain, which, about -three hundred meters west of the carriage road from -Rumney to Plymouth, descends as a big cliff, with an -exposure facing nearly southeast. At the base of this -cliff, there is a talus<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> which I visited on the 27th of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">« 86 »</a></span> -August, 1898, with the Sheriff of Rumney, Mr. Learned. -He said he had found plenty of ice there on the 18th of -August, 1897, but he doubted whether there would be -any left this year, on account of the hot weather. Effectively -a careful hunt failed to reveal any ice, although the -talus was just the kind of place where it might have been -expected, as the boulders were piled one over the other -and in one or two places there were considerable hollows. -The temperatures were normal, and there were -no draughts. The talus is exposed to the sun, and only -moderately sheltered against wind by a scrub forest. But -there can be no doubt, that ice lingers there long after it -has disappeared from every other spot in the neighborhood, -and it seems as if our not finding any, is another -proof that it is the heat of summer which melts it away.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., wrote me about this place, where he had -found ice plentiful some years ago in August, within two or three -meters from the outside: he considered it only a refrigerator.</p></div> - - -<p class="caption3">ICE FORMATIONS AND WINDHOLES AT WATERTOWN.</p> - -<p>At Watertown, New York, on the south side of the -Black River, in the town itself, are some natural cracks or -crevices in the limestone rocks. They are only a short -distance from the New York Central Railroad station. -The cracks enter the northern side of the railroad embankment, -pass under the railroad tracks, and extend some -distance back. In front of them are four cellars, used for -storing beer kegs. The lessor, Mr. Ehrlicher, obligingly -had the cellars opened for me, on the 12th of September, -1898. There was neither ice nor draughts in the -cellars, and the temperature was normal. Mr. Ehrlicher -said that in the spring there was ice in the -cracks, but that it had all melted away as the result of -the hot summer.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86f" id="Page_86f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 397px;"> -<img src="images/i086fp.png" width="397" height="324" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">THE BLUFF AT DECORAH.<br /> - -<div class="tdr">From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">« 87 »</a></span></p> - -<p>About four kilometers west of Watertown, on the -south bank of the Black River, is the picnic ground of Glen -Park, which is reached by trolley. The manager of the -restaurant walked around the park with me. In one -spot is a hollow or glen at the base of a small, much -cracked limestone cliff, which has a northern exposure. -The manager said that snow and ice usually lies in this -place until June, not only among the broken rocks, but -even in the open. Sometimes ice remains among the -boulders all summer, but only near the front of the -boulders, and by pushing in, one soon gets beyond it: -we found none, a fact showing once more the effect of -the unusually warm summer. On hot days, draughts -issue from between the boulders, but as the day was -cool, we did not notice any. The spot is well sheltered -against the wind by a number of trees; and the shape -of the hollow reminded me of the glen in front of the -Eishöhle bei Roth.</p> - -<p>Not one hundred meters from this hollow, is a little -limestone cave, closed by a wooden door, which excludes -any cold air in winter. The cave is lighted by electric -lights, and is a narrow, crooked, descending fissure, a <i>ganghöhle</i>, -where the marks of water action are plainly visible. -At the bottom a little stream, evidently the active agent in -forming the cave, ran through the fissured limestone. In -the stream a large toad or frog was swimming about. -There was nothing icy about the cave or the water, and the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">« 88 »</a></span> -temperature was normal. Ice was never known to form -in the cave. These two places, so close together, are an -interesting confirmation that it is only where the outside -cold can get in, that we find subterranean ice.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE FREEZING CAVE AND FREEZING WELLS OF DECORAH.</p> - -<p>Near Decorah, Iowa, is a freezing cavern, which is -more frequently referred to in cave literature than is generally -the case. I visited it on Friday, September the 30th, -1898, with an old English resident of Decorah, Mr. W. D. -Selby-Hill. The cave is situated about one kilometer to -the northward of Decorah, on the north bank of the -Upper Iowa River, at the base of a bluff. It is some -thirty to forty meters above the stream, and faces southward. -It looks like a fault or fissure in the rocks, with -the sides meeting a few meters overhead. It is a true -cave, but probably in an early stage of formation, for -there are no apparent traces of water action, nor any -stalagmites nor stalactites. The absence of the latter -may, however, be due to the fact that it is a periodic -glacière. The rock is a white limestone, rich in fossils. -The cave is some two to three meters in width and is -rather winding, with a short arm or pocket branching -out on the west side. The main cave runs back some -thirty meters from the entrance. In one place it is -necessary to stoop, to get past some overhanging rock -slabs. By candle light, we went to the rear of the cave, -and found it warm, dry, and free from ice. There were -no draughts, possibly because the day was cool.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88f" id="Page_88f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 375px;"> -<img src="images/i088fp.png" width="375" height="443" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">ENTRANCE OF THE CAVE OF DECORAH.<br /> - -<div class="tdr">From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">« 89 »</a></span></p> - -<p>I looked in vain for <i>tubular fissures</i>, or indeed any -fissures, through which <i>water might freeze by pressure in -its descent</i>, as the believers in the capillary theory say it -does. Nothing of the kind existed, and I wrote in my -note-book: “Writing on the very spot about which this -theory was started, I feel justified in asserting that the -theory amounts to absolutely nothing and is entirely incorrect.”</p> - -<p>Mr. Hill told me that there were two wells in the -southern portion of Decorah Township, where ice was -found in summer. I visited them both, but found no ice, -and the temperatures normal. Mr. Hill said that one of -the wells was dug about thirty years ago, and that the -workman told him that the ground which he went through -was frozen; and that at one place he struck an opening, -from which came so strong a current of icy air, that it was -hard to keep at work.</p> - -<p>I talked to several persons afterwards. <i>Inter alia</i>, they -told me that the bluff was a great place for rattlesnakes, -sometimes big ones. They admitted also generally that -they were puzzled about the formation of ice in the cave. -Some claimed that the ice formed in summer—the old -story once more. I met, however, Mr. Alois F. Kovarik -of the Decorah Institute, who had made a series of regular -observations for over a year and found that the ice begins -to form about the end of March and beginning of April, -and is at its maximum towards the beginning of June. -Mr. Kovarik also told me, that he had found ice in one -of the wells in the beginning of August.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">« 90 »</a></span></p> - -<p>This was an especially satisfactory trip to me, for it -did away, once for all, with any possible belief that there -was any basis of fact for the capillary theory. It also -seems to me important to find that the ice of these -freezing wells melts in summer. For it shows that their -ice is due to the same causes as those which form the ice -in the cave, and is another proof against the validity of -the glacial period theory.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">FREEZING ROCK TALUS ON SPRUCE CREEK.</p> - -<p>On Spruce Creek, Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania, -about four kilometers north of the Pennsylvania Railroad -depot, is an ice bearing talus, known locally as the Ice -Holes or Ice Caves. I visited this spot, on October the -5th, 1898, with Mr. Benner, of Spruce Creek. We -walked up the pretty valley along the old Pittsburgh -turnpike, at one place finding some papaw trees, whose -fruit had a horrible sickening taste; then we crossed -Spruce Creek by a footbridge and followed the other bank -back for some five hundred meters, until we were nearly -opposite the old Colerain Forge, which is located in a -piece of land called by the curious name of Africa. -About half way from the bridge we smelt a strange -odor, which my companion thought came from a copperhead -or rattlesnake: we did not investigate.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90f" id="Page_90f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 453px;"> -<img src="images/i090fp.png" width="453" height="369" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">LOCUS GLACIALIS—CAVE OF DECORAH.<br /> - -<div class="tdr">From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">« 91 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The freezing talus is situated at the foot of Tussey -Mountain: it is big, and is composed of small sandstone -(?) rock débris. The talus is at least thirty meters -high and one hundred and twenty meters long. As I -stood at the bottom, I was reminded strongly of the talus -at the Dornburg. At the base were a number of small -pits, evidently dug by man. From the interstices between -the rocks, icy cold draughts issued in some places, -and there was no doubt that there was plenty of ice -beneath the stones. In one place we thought we could -see ice, and I poked at the white substance with my stick, -but I am not positive that it was ice. All over the talus, -the temperature was strikingly colder than a few meters -away, and in the pits we could see our breaths distinctly. -Although I am not much of a botanist, yet it seemed to -me that the flora immediately near the talus was somewhat -different in character from that of the surrounding -country.</p> - -<p>Mr. Benner told me that he saw, three or four weeks -before, plenty of ice in the pits; that they were made by -farmers who formerly came to this spot to get ice; and -that parties occasionally picnic here in the summer and -make ice cream. He stated also that he saw, some years -ago, a small cave or hole containing ice near Mapleton, -Pennsylvania, but that it was destroyed by quarrying the -rock away.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">FREEZING GORGE NEAR ELLENVILLE.</p> - -<p>On Sunday, October the 9th, 1898, with a young man -from Ellenville, I visited the well known Ellenville Gorge, -in the Shawangunk Range, Ulster County, New York. -We left the hotel at eight-forty A. M. and reached the -gorge, known locally as the Ice Cave, at ten-five A. M. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">« 92 »</a></span> -It is about four kilometers northeast from Ellenville. The -path rises steadily uphill and is of the roughest description; -it is covered with loose stones, and looks as if it -might become the bed of a mountain brook in wet -weather.</p> - -<p>I call this place a gorge, instead of a cave, because it is -uncovered at the top, but probably originally it was -covered. It is shaped like a pit cave minus a roof, and -it reminded me of the Friedrichsteiner Eishöhle, and the -Glacières de Saint-Georges and du Pré de Saint-Livres. -It is entered by a long slope from the western end, the -gorge turning northward further back. I estimated its -width, at the bottom at some five to seven meters, at the -top at some three to four meters; its length at some thirty -meters and the deepest point we reached, at some twenty -meters below the surface. These are guesses, however. -In one place, a great rock slab overhangs the gorge. -At nearly the lowest point of the rock floor, there is -a hole which extends perpendicularly downwards some -five or ten meters more; this opening is partly blocked -up with fallen masses of rock which would make a further -descent perilous. The north end of the gorge is also filled -up with a mass of great broken rocks; in fact, the whole -place is out of repair, as the rocks are cracked and creviced -on both sides to a great extent. The rock is friable and -seems to be all breaking up, or rather down, and I think -there is some danger from falling stones, although I did -not see any fall. There is a good deal of moss on the sides -of the gorge, and on some ledges small evergreens are -growing. The gorge is sheltered thoroughly from winds -by its formation and position, and somewhat by the -scrub forest surrounding it. There are several long, -deep crevices a few meters further up the mountain -side, and I think one of them is an extension of the -main gorge.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92f" id="Page_92f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 354px;"> -<img src="images/i092fp.png" width="354" height="618" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">GORGE AT ELLENVILLE.<br /> - -<div class="tdr">From a Photograph by Mr. Davis.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">« 93 »</a></span></p> - -<p>We found no ice. It generally lasts till about the -beginning of September; and Professor Angelo Heilprin, -and Miss Julia L. Lewis, of Philadelphia, have found -plenty of it in July and August. But the ice had evidently -now been gone for some time, for the temperature -at the bottom of the gorge was about 11° C. at -ten-thirty A. M. This was but little colder than the -temperature v outside, which at ten-fifteen A. M. was -14° C.</p> - -<p>On returning to Ellenville, I learnt that there was -another somewhat similar smaller gorge, some eight kilometers -away, at a place called Sam’s Point. This, however, -is said to retain only snow, while in the Ellenville gorge -much ice is sometimes formed, and icicles a couple of -meters long are said to hang on the sides of the cliffs. -The proprietor of the hotel told me he had heard of a cave -which contained ice not far from Albany, at a place called -Carlisle, on the Delaware and Hudson Railroad.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">FREEZING CAVE AND WINDHOLES NEAR FARRANDSVILLE.</p> - -<p>I arrived at Farrandsville, Clinton County, Pennsylvania, -early on Tuesday morning, October the 11th, 1898, -and found a boy, who worked in a brick mill, as guide to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">« 94 »</a></span> -the caves.<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> After emptying a small, flat bottomed boat -of the water of which it was half full, we rowed across -the Susquehanna River; then we walked up the road, -along the river bank, for a couple of hundred meters, and -struck up the so-called path to the caves. Although the -whole of the mountain side was at the disposal of the road -maker, no better plan seems to have suggested itself than -to make the track go straight up. This saved making -zigzags, yet the result is that the path is steep, and as -it is rocky and slippery, it is hard travelling without -bootnails or alpenstock.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> I learned of this cave from Mr. Eugene F. McCabe, of Renovo, -Pennsylvania. Mr. McCabe took out large pieces of ice from it in -the month of August. On December 23d, 1896, he found no ice -inside the cave, but a hoar frost covered the rocks; the temperature -outside was -5.6°; inside -4.5°: the day was clear and there was no -breeze; several matches lighted in the cave were almost instantly -blown out by a current of air coming from crevices in the rocks. -</p> -<p> -Mr. Ira C. Chatham, postmaster at Farrandsville, wrote to me on the -19th of October, 1898, as follows: “Your paper on Ice Caves -[Journal of the Franklin Institute, March, 1897] at pp. 177 and 178 -describes the Farrandsville Cave as near as is possible, as the ice -forms in the spring from the snow melting and dropping through the -rocks into the cave, and the rocks face directly north as stated.”</p></div> - -<p>As we went up, I noticed, in one or two places, cold -draughts issuing from crevices in the rocks. We soon -came to a hollow under a rock, where there were a number -of cracks and crevices: the boy spoke of it as the lower -cave. It is some sixty meters above the Susquehanna -River and cold draughts flowed from the cracks, although -we saw no ice. The cave was about twenty meters -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">« 95 »</a></span> -higher up. One could crawl into it for a couple of meters, -and all round it the rocks are somewhat creviced; -in fact, I think there are a good many cracks in the entire -hill. There was no ice in sight in this hole, but a strong, -cold draught poured from it. After an exposure of fifteen -minutes the thermometer registered 6° C.; while outside, -in the shade, it stood at 15° C. This decidedly sub-normal -temperature proved unmistakably, in my opinion, the -presence of ice a little further than we could see in. -Both holes face about north and are sheltered, by their -position and by the sparse forest which covers the ridge, -against all winds except those from the north.</p> - -<p>I talked to the postmaster and the railroad agent at -Farrandsville on my return, and they stated that there -was no ice in the hole in winter, but that it formed -about April and remained over until towards September, -showing that the cave is a normal glacière on a -small scale.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">GLACIÈRES NEAR SUMMIT.</p> - -<p>In the search for coal, the mountains of the Appalachian -Chain between the little town of Summit, and the -neighboring village of Coaldale, Carbon County, Pennsylvania, -were mined and tunneled in every direction. Owing -to the caving in of some of these mines, depressions -formed in certain places along the ridge in the upper surface -of the ground, and in two of these hollows natural -refrigerators occur. These were brought to my notice by -Mr. C. J. Nicholson of Philadelphia, and I visited them on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">« 96 »</a></span> -May the 5th, 1899, in company with two coal miners of -Summit.</p> - -<p>Starting from Summit, we passed across some rough -ground under which there was a mine on fire; and the -miners showed me the tops of two pipes sticking out of -the ground, from which issued a smoke or steam, too hot -to hold the hand in more than a few seconds. Going -beyond through brushwood, for a couple of hundred -meters, we came to the first glacière, which was also the -nearest to Summit. It faced almost due north and looked -as if it was formerly the entrance to a mine. It was fairly -big, and my companions assured me that, until within -about a year, ice was always found in it. Recently, however, -part, of the rock roof fell in, blocking up the entrance -with a mass of débris and making it unsafe to venture in. -Formerly parties of tourists constantly visited this place, -after coming over the Switchback, but this is no longer -done and there has been some talk of cleaning away the -broken rocks and making the glacière accessible. The -men also said that occasionally people living in the -neighborhood had dug out the ice for their own use.</p> - -<p>The other glacière was a short distance further, in the -direction of Coaldale. It is in a pit, which may have -been the mouth of a disused shaft or only a depression -resulting from a cave-in. A scrubby forest, which surrounds -the hollow, acts as a windbrake. A rather steep -slope leads down into the pit, and at the end passes -under the wall of rock of the opposite side for a short -distance, forming a small cave, which faces almost due -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">« 97 »</a></span> -south and whose floor is choked up with broken rock -fragments. At the bottom of the slope we found some -snow, and among the boulders a good deal of snow-ice as -well as several long icicles hanging from the rocks. All -the ice and snow lay on the north side of the rocks, or -underneath them, so that it was in shady places where the -sun could not reach it. The temperature was not at all -uncomfortable, although somewhat cool and damp.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97f" id="Page_97f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 360px;"> -<img src="images/i097.png" width="360" height="332" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9. Vertical Section of Pit near Summit.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>There was nothing in either glacière, to show that the -ice was formed from any other cause than the drifting in, -and melting and refreezing of the winter’s snow; and my -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">« 98 »</a></span> -impression is that the ice in the second glacière could -not last through the summer.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE SNOW HOLE NEAR WILLIAMSTOWN.</p> - -<p>The Snow Hole near Williamstown (Massachusetts) is -situated near the northern end of the Petersburgh Mountain -of the Taghconic Range; it is slightly below the watershed -on the Williamstown side, at an altitude of about -seven hundred meters. The Snow Hole is in the State of -New York, near the boundary between New York and -Massachusetts. It is a long two hours’ drive from Williamstown, -the last four kilometers or so, over an exceedingly -steep and rough road, which is, in fact, nothing but -an old logging road, and the worst I ever drove over -except the road to Démenyfálva.</p> - -<p>I visited the Snow Hole with my brother on Friday, -September the 29th, 1899. It is surrounded by a dense -forest, mainly of recent growth, which thoroughly shelters -it from all winds. In shape and appearance it resembles -the Gorge at Ellenville, except that it is smaller: its location -on the ridge is not unlike that of the Friedrichsteiner -Eishöhle. It is a narrow crack—or cave minus a -roof—about fifteen meters long, six to seven meters -deep and from two to five meters wide. It faces nearly -north, and the bottom is in perpetual shadow. From -the northern end, a gentle slope leads to the rear. The -slope was a good deal blocked up by a big tree with -large branches, which had fallen directly into the fissure. -There was some moss or greenish mould on the rocks in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">« 99 »</a></span> -places, and at the rear end of the slope there were some -fissures in the rocks, into which one might perhaps have -crawled a little farther, which formed a tiny cave. There -was also a similar incipient cave at the northern end. -I could not detect any draughts issuing from these rock -fissures, and the air throughout was still, although the -wind was blowing hard on the ridge. The rocks were -moist in places and the air damp, but there was neither -snow nor ice and the temperatures were normal. The -driver told me that he had found plenty of snow in the -base of the gorge some years ago in July; and he -said that he had always heard that snow was found -in the Snow Hole all the year round. All the conditions -of the place, the shape of the fissure, and its -sheltered northern exposition, are favorable to the retention -of ice and snow, and it is not surprising that -they remain over every spring.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">ICY GULF NEAR GREAT BARRINGTON.</p> - -<p>The Icy Gulf or Icy Glen is some eight kilometers -from Great Barrington, Massachusetts. I have not been -in it, but was told in October, 1899, by the farmers living -near by, that after snowy winters, ice remains over -through July. It must be similar to the Icy Glen at -Stockbridge.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE ICE BED OF WALLINGFORD.</p> - -<p>The Ice Bed of Wallingford is situated about three -kilometers to the east of Wallingford, Vermont. A drive -of half an hour, over the Mount Holly and Hearburrow -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">« 100 »</a></span> -roads, takes the visitor to the entrance of a rough wood -path, which, at a distance of three or four hundred meters, -leads to the Ice Bed. This is a huge talus, at the base of -the White Rock Mountain, whose cliffs rise steeply overhead -for some three or four hundred meters. The talus, -which was doubtless formed by a great slide at some -distant date, consists of granite boulders, some of which -are big ones. The ice-bearing portion may be some -thirty or forty meters high vertically. It lies in a sort of -gully or rock basin, and at the top is about thirty meters -broad, tapering to a point at the bottom. The talus faces -southward, and during a good part of the day the sun -shines full upon it. A thin forest fringes the sides and -grows round the bottom, but this can afford but little -protection from the winds, especially to those from the -south.</p> - -<p>I visited this place on the 5th of October, 1899. There -was a distinct drop in temperature as we neared the base -of the talus, and a cool air drew gently down over the -rocks. I think slight draughts issued from some of the -crevices; but of this I am not sure. The temperature was -sub-normal, about 8°, but hardly low enough to prove the -presence of ice, although we could see our breaths distinctly. -We looked carefully under a number of the -boulders, but neither ice nor snow was visible. I was -assured that ice was abundant there in the past July -and August, and I should think it had melted away only -shortly before my visit. My impression is, that this is a -periodic glacière.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">« 101 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">CAVES NEAR WILLIAMSTOWN.</p> - -<p>On the eastern slope of the Petersburgh Mountain of -the Taghconic Range in Massachusetts, at a good deal -lower altitude than the Williamstown Snow Hole and -about southeast of it are some caverns, which are but -little known. A five or six kilometer drive from Williamstown -takes the visitor to the base of the mountain, whence -a rather steep ascent of about a kilometer and a half -brings him to the caves, which are in the midst of a dense, -scrub forest.</p> - -<p>The caves were first entered, and possibly discovered, -by Mr. W. F. Williams, of Williamstown, when a boy. -Since then, he has visited them many times and explored -them a good deal. They do not appear to have any name -as yet, and it would seem only fitting to christen them -after their explorer: the Williams Caves.</p> - -<p>There are several unimportant holes in the immediate -neighborhood of the two main caves. The latter lie side -by side. The rock formation is the same as that of the -Snow Hole, a dark gray slate with a few veins of quartz, -and they are due also evidently to the same geological -causes. It would seem as though the mountain had -tended to open or crack at these spots and fallen apart. -This seems probable, because wherever there is a projection -on one side of the cracks, there is a corresponding -hollow in the opposite side. After this, water action -has come, and erosion and corrosion have worn out and -carried away earthy matter, and slowly deepened and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">« 102 »</a></span> -widened the fissures. The remarkable point in connection -with the main caves, however, is that one is a -normal cave and the other a periodic glacière.</p> - -<p>I went with Mr. Williams to these caves on the 6th -of October, 1899, and partially explored the glacière. -On the way up, just as we left the carriage road, a fine, -three-year-old buck, in his winter coat, came bounding out -of the forest; on seeing us he stopped, and after taking -a good look, quietly trotted off into the bushes.</p> - -<p>The glacière is rather peculiar in shape and may be -described as two storied. A long slope, set at an angle -of some forty degrees, and covered with mud and dead -leaves, leads down into the crack, which is from one to -three meters in width. The first half of the slope is open -to the sky; the last half is covered by the rock roof, -and is a real cave. In this the floor is horizontal, the -place forming a little chamber in which the daylight has -almost vanished. At the exact summit of the slope a big -tree grew most conveniently; and we tied to this one -end of a twenty-meter Austrian Alpine Club rope, and -by holding fast to it, and kneeling or sitting down in the -mud in two or three places, the descent was easy enough. -It was rather difficult to scramble up the slope again, -however.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103f" id="Page_103f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 437px;"> -<img src="images/i103.png" width="437" height="307" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10. Vertical Section of Freezing Cave near Williamstown.</span></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">« 103 »</a></span></p> - -<p>In the floor of the little chamber there are two holes, -and, stepping over these, we stood at the rear end, about -eighteen meters distant from the beginning of the slope. -My companion now set some birchbark on fire and -dropped it into the innermost hole, and we laid down in -turn, flat on the rock floor, and craned our necks through -the hole. Mr. Williams thought he could see ice below -us. I looked down after him and found that I was looking -into a lower chamber whose sides were invisible. -The floor was some three meters below vertically, and on -this the birchbark was burning brightly. I think I saw -some ice, but I could not be sure, as there was too much -smoke to see distinctly. My companion offered to go -down through the hole and get some ice; a proposition I -promptly vetoed, as had anything gone wrong, I could -not possibly have given him any assistance, as there was -no extra rope. Mr. Williams told me that he went down -several times before in July or August, and always found -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">« 104 »</a></span> -ice on the slanting floor. He said he did not know how -far this lower chamber extended, nor the length of the -ice floor. One thing which makes me hesitate to think -that we saw ice was, that the temperature of the chamber -where we were was not at all icy; but probably—I had -forgotten my thermometer—nearly normal.</p> - -<p>When we stood once more by the tree at the top of -the slope, the mouth of another cave was visible about -two meters below us. Mr. Williams said it had never -looked more than a little crack before, and that the opening -was much bigger than at his last visit. It was directly -under the slope by which we descended and it vanished -into darkness. Its direction led straight towards the -lower chamber, and it almost surely leads to it. It seems -thus that there are two hollows, one directly above the -other; and that the lower one is a glacière, while the -upper one is not. The cold air of winter would naturally -sink into the lower chamber, and the spring thaws would -furnish plenty of drip, so that this place seems to answer -every requirement of a cave glacière.</p> - -<p>But the most interesting fact about these caves is -that, while the shallower one is a glacière, the bigger -and deeper one is not. This is situated about ten meters -north of the glacière and the direction of the entrance -is about the same. Mr. Williams has found snow and -ice in May in the entrance pit as far as the daylight -goes, but none beyond. I am inclined to think that the -explanation of this is the fact that the cave is a <i>ganghöhle</i> -or tunnel cave. Mr. Williams described it as a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">« 105 »</a></span> -narrow passage with chambers, and at least a hundred -meters long, and fifty meters in depth below the surface. -The cold air sinks in a certain distance, but as the passage -is narrow and long, and too winding for any strong -draughts, the cold air which enters is soon neutralized -by the supply of warmer air within and by contact with -the rocks. I cannot help thinking that it is by some -such explanation that we must hope to solve the problem -of why certain caves are glacières and others in -the immediate neighborhood normal caves; and the caves -near Williamstown are exceptional in presenting the -problem so patently.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">« 106 »</a><br /><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">« 107 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 class="pmt4"><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II">PART II.</a></h2> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<p class="caption2 pmb4">THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE.</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">« 108 »</a><br /><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">« 109 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="THE_CAUSES_OF_SUBTERRANEAN_ICE" id="THE_CAUSES_OF_SUBTERRANEAN_ICE">THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE.</a></h2> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 116px;"> -<img src="images/line_dots.png" width="116" height="13" alt="" /> -</div> - -<h2><a name="I" id="I">I.</a></h2> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Terminology.</i>—Ice enduring the entire year is found, -in temperate latitudes, in a variety of forms and in -several different kinds of places. In some cases it is -entirely above the surface of the earth; in others it is -entirely beneath the surface of the earth. These are the -extremes, and between them there are certain intermediate -forms. The perennial ice above ground of temperate -regions has gradually become known in English -by the French word <i>glacier</i>, but strange to say, there is -no term in use in English which accurately describes the -perennial ice formations which are partially or completely -underground. Thus the term “ice cave” is applied to -a rock cavern containing ice, and the term “ice gorge” -to a rock gorge containing ice. Both terms are misleading, -because the character of the contents is mentioned -before the nature of the geological formation. We -say correctly enough “limestone cave” or “lava cave” -and, in my opinion, we should apply the term “ice cave” -in a similar manner to the hollows in the ice at the lower -end of glaciers, whence the glacier waters make their -exit. These are really “ice caves,” that is caves with -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">« 110 »</a></span> -sides and roof made of ice. Another trouble of the term -“ice cave,” as applied to rock formations containing -ice, is that it is not generic: not only is it incorrect, but -also it is not comprehensive. It does not apply to mines, -tunnels, wells, gullies, boulder taluses, or underground -ice sheets. If “ice cave” is used, except in its true -sense of glacier ice cave, it seems at least as though it -should be so only for real caves which retain ice, as -opposed to taluses and wells. Curiously enough, the -Germans are just as inaccurate as ourselves, for their -terms <i>eishöhle</i> and <i>eisloch</i> are absolute translations of our -“ice cave” and “ice hole.” Indeed, there is no doubt -that some of the incorrect notions about subterranean -ice formations, are due to the inaccuracy of the terminology.</p> - -<p>The only language, so far as I know, which has a -correct and really generic term for subterranean ice -formations, is the French in its word <i>glacière</i>. The -French and Swiss say <i>glacières naturelles</i> of ice deposits -formed naturally underground; and <i>glacières artificielles</i> -of ice houses. <i>Glacière naturelle</i> is comprehensive and -accurate. It covers all the rock formations and suggests -also the mode of formation of the ice. It likewise implies -the strong resemblance between natural ice deposits and -artificial ice houses. It might be well, therefore, if the -French term <i>glacière</i> were adopted as a generic term for -all underground ice formations. As, however, there is -little likelihood of this happening, the question arises as -to the best English equivalent or equivalents. These -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">« 111 »</a></span> -seem to be “freezing cavern, freezing talus,” etc., “natural -refrigerator” or “subterranean ice formation.” “Natural -refrigerator” and “subterranean ice formation” are more -generic than “freezing cavern, freezing well,” etc.; but -the latter have the advantage of suggesting immediately -that reference is made to the hollows of the earth which -at times contain ice; and, therefore, they are the best -terms, perhaps, which can be chosen in English.</p> - -<p>Another point in the terminology of this subject -has reference to subterranean hollows where draughts -issue or enter. Such hollows are found in all parts of -the world and are known usually in English as “blowing -caves” or “cold current caves.” The Germans speak -of them as <i>windröhren</i> or <i>windlöcher</i>. In my first paper -about caves,<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> I used the word “windhole” which -I translated from the German. The term “windhole” -seems to me preferable to “blowing cave” or “cold -current cave” in that it is more generic. It applies to -taluses or boulder heaps, or in fact, to any hollows -where draughts issue or enter, whether these hollows -are genuine caverns or not.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean Ice</i>, November 1896, -and March 1897.</p></div> - -<p>It is necessary also to explain here that “glacière” -and “windhole” are not synonymous terms. It must be -understood that a glacière or natural refrigerator is a -place where ice forms and endures in a subterranean -or semi-subterranean situation; and that <i>the presence of -ice</i> is the criterion of whether a place is or is not a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">« 112 »</a></span> -glacière. Likewise it must be understood that a windhole -or blowing cave is an underground hollow with at -least two openings, and in which distinct draughts occur; -and that the <i>presence of draughts</i> is necessary to constitute -a place a windhole or blowing cave. A freezing -cavern may or may not be a windhole, and a windhole -may or may not be a freezing cavern.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Temperatures.</i>—The phenomena of glacières are so -closely connected with temperatures that it seems necessary -at this point to mention some general facts in -connection with subterranean temperatures, even if these -still form a subject of some uncertainty, and one about -which further observation is desirable. Subterranean -temperatures may be grouped under three heads: 1, -Ordinary or normal temperatures; 2, Temperatures -above the normal or super-normal temperatures; 3, -Temperatures below the normal or sub-normal temperatures.</p> - -<p>1. In the great majority of caves, cellars and subterranean -places of all descriptions, the temperature of the -air is about the same, all the year round, as that of the -ground. The frost of winter and the heat of summer -penetrate the earth for some trivial distance, a few -meters perhaps, and lower or raise the temperature of -the ground temporarily. Below this there is a stratum -where the temperature is found to vary but little the entire -year and which, in a majority of cases, approximates -the mean annual temperature of the district. Below -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">« 113 »</a></span> -this invariable stratum, the temperature generally rises -slowly, not at exactly the same rate everywhere, but in a -regular increase. This increase of temperature averages -1° C. for every 32 meters. As most caves and cellars -are of small depth and as they take their temperatures -from that of the ground, it follows that as a rule their -temperatures are moderate and pleasant. And as the -air of the majority of caves and subterranean hollows -is about the same as the temperature of the surrounding -rock, it is correct to call subterranean air temperatures -closely approximating the ordinary temperature of -the ground, ordinary or normal temperatures.</p> - -<p>As already stated, with an increase of depth, there -is, in almost all cases, a regular increase of temperature. -For this reason, mines, which are much the deepest hollows -reached by man in the surface of the earth, are, as a -rule, warmer in the lower levels: if deep, they are also -hot. And this is so generally the case that warmer -temperatures at the bottom of mines may be considered -as normal.</p> - -<p>2. In a few hollows close to the surface, there are -temperatures much above the normal temperature of the -ground. Such places are rare and abnormal.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> The -heat is generally due to the presence of hot springs or -to some volcanic action in the immediate neighborhood. -In the case of one cave close to the surface, the heat -is due to some limekilns which are situated immediately -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">« 114 »</a></span> -overhead.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Where these warm hollows are genuine -caves it seems proper to call them “hot caves.”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Kraus. <i>Höhlenkunde</i>, page 86.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Grotte du Jaur. <i>Les Abimes</i>, page 160.</p></div> - -<p>3. In a number of places, there are abnormally low -temperatures underground either for the whole or only -for part of the year. Although commoner than hot caves, -yet the underground places with low temperatures are -also rare and abnormal. They may be divided into two -groups: 1, Those where the temperatures are lower -than the normal, without becoming low enough for ice -to form; and 2, Those where the temperature sinks so -low, that ice forms.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">It is difficult to make definite divisions among the -various forms of natural refrigerators, but it is correct, -probably, to classify them under five heads, in accordance -with the different kinds of formations of the hollows in -the rocks:</p> - -<p>1. Gullies, gorges, and troughs where ice and snow -remain.</p> - -<p>2. Soil or rocks overlaying ice sheets.</p> - -<p>3. Taluses and boulder heaps retaining ice.</p> - -<p>4. Wells, mines and tunnels in which ice sometimes -forms.</p> - -<p>5. Caves with abnormally low temperatures, and often -containing ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">1. <i>Gorges and Troughs.</i>—Gullies, gorges and basins -which retain snow and ice are fairly numerous in mountain -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">« 115 »</a></span> -districts. They are generally ravines, or rock -fissures, or hollows, in positions below the snow line -where snow and ice are sufficiently protected, from sun -and wind, to remain long after snow in the surrounding -open country, at the same altitude, has melted -away. Some of these gorges are small, some big. As -a rule, they are deep and narrow.</p> - -<p>In north-eastern Siberia, a form of permanent surface -ice is found, which the Tungusses speak of as <i>tarinnen</i>, -which means “ice troughs” or “ice valleys.”<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> -These <i>tarinnen</i> are broad valleys, with either a horizontal -floor or one sloping gently in the form of a -trough, over which the ice is spread in the form of -a sheet. The Tungusses assert that the ice in some -of these troughs never wholly melts away, although it -lessens in quantity from the beginning of May till the -end of August, after which it once more increases.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>Bulletin de la classe physico-mathématique de l’Académie Impériale -des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg.</i> 1853. Vol. XI, pages 305-316.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Subterranean Ice Sheets.</i>—In several places in different -parts of the world there are underground ice sheets -which extend over large spaces; they are common under -the tundras of Alaska; and there are fine examples -on Kotzebue Sound,<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> on the Kowak River,<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> and -along the Yukon River.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> The “Ice Spring” in Oregon -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">« 116 »</a></span> -seems to be a formation of the same kind. Several examples -of these subterranean ice sheets are reported -also from different parts of the Russian Empire.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> See Part III: <a href="#Page_167">page 167</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See Part III: <a href="#Page_167">page 167</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> See Part III: <a href="#Page_166">page 166</a>.</p></div> - -<p>A somewhat different kind of ice sheet was observed -on Mount Etna. Sir Charles Lyell<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> speaks of it -as a “glacier preserved by a covering of lava.” He -says Signor Mario Gemmellaro satisfied himself that -nothing but a flowing of lava over snow could account -for the position of the glacier. Ice sheets somewhat -similar to these are reported from Tierra del Fuego,<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> -and probably also such sheets occur in Iceland; and -enormous heaps of ice covered with sand are found -on Mount Chimborazo.<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> On the northwestern coast -of Greenland, glaciers, whose flow has stopped, were -observed buried under an accumulation of moss and -grass.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Principles of Geology</i>, 11th Edition, Chap. XXVI.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> See Part III: <a href="#Page_190">page 190</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> See Part III: <a href="#Page_189">page 189</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> See Part III: <a href="#Page_165">page 165</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Taluses and Boulder Heaps.</i>—Taluses and broken -debris, and in general boulder heaps of all sorts, have -interstices and openings between the boulders, and in -these it occasionally happens that ice is found. This is -most common among the taluses at the base of cliffs, -but in some cases ice is found among broken rocks on -the sides of gently sloping hills, or even on the plateaus -of their summits. Sometimes the ice and snow on the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">« 117 »</a></span> -bottom of rock gorges all melts away, while further -down, in the hollows of the boulders forming the floor, -ice still remains. The rocks of which these ice bearing -taluses are formed are generally gneiss, granite, limestone, -sandstone, basalt or porphyry. Among such boulder -taluses the phenomenon designated as <i>Windröhren</i> -or <i>Ventarolen</i>, that is, windholes, is frequently found. -Sometimes the air among such boulder formations is -quiet, but as a general thing draughts pour out at the -lower openings during the hot months, and blow into -them during the cold ones.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Freezing Wells, Mines and Tunnels.</i>—Subterranean -ice is also found in certain places in connection with -man’s handiwork. In a few wells in the United States, -the temperature in winter becomes abnormally low, and -for four or five months these wells freeze up and become -useless. A case of a freezing well was recently observed -near la Ferté Milon in Central France.<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Ice is -reported also as forming in various mines in Europe, -Asia and America; in fact, it is not an uncommon occurrence. -Occasionally, also, ice forms in tunnels.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> See Part I.: pages <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>. Part III.: <a href="#Page_206">page 206</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Cold Caves.</i>—Caves with abnormally low temperatures -may be divided into two classes. First, caves where the -temperatures are lower than the normal, without becoming -low enough for ice to form; and second, caves -where the temperatures sink so low, that ice forms.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">« 118 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Caves where the temperatures sink below the normal, -but in which ice does not form either in winter or in -summer, are found in several places in different parts of -the world. They are termed in French <i>cavernes froides</i> -and in German <i>kalte höhlen</i>. There are but few data -from reliable observers about such cold caves. Some -descriptions are given without thermometric measurements, -and the statements that the caves are cold, mean -nothing beyond the fact that they feel colder than the -outside air. It is, however, conclusively proved that cold -caves exist, and that while they are not freezing caverns, -yet that they have a temperature lower than the mean -annual temperature of their district. In fact, the assumption, -which had passed into an axiom, that caves always -have the same temperatures as the mean annual temperature -of the district, must certainly be given up. Cold -caves are generally in one of two shapes: 1, in the shape -of a sand glass,—two cones above each other meeting -at the narrowest point—where the upper cone lets the -heavy cold air descend easily, while the lower bell shaped -cone prevents its escape; and 2, where two sink holes -open into one pit, which is in the shape of a bell.<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> <i>Les Abimes</i>, page 563.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Glacière Caves or Freezing Caves.</i>—Caves where the -temperatures sink so low that ice is able to form, are -found in many different rock formations and in various -positions, shapes and sizes. The rock formation of freezing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">« 119 »</a></span> -caverns is generally limestone, but sometimes it is -marble, lava, basalt, gneiss or granite. In all cases, however, -the rock is either porous or else it is broken and -fissured, as otherwise the water supply necessary to the -formation of ice could not find its way in.</p> - -<p>Glacière caverns may, for the sake of convenience, -be classified into several classes, according to their position -or to their form. The lines of transition between -them, however, are so indefinite in nature, that it is often -difficult to specify a cavern as belonging to any special -type. The most important factor in classifying glacière -caves is their position. Under this head there are two -main divisions: first, pit caves; second, cliff caves.</p> - -<p>Pit caves are those where a pit or pits open into the -ground, and the ice is found at the bottom. Sometimes -there is no roof, when the place may be called a gorge: -this occurs at Ellenville, where the roof has fallen. -Again, the pit itself is more or less roofed over and -the ice is found mainly or wholly under the roof: this -is the case at Haut d’Aviernoz, at the Friedrichsteinerhöhle, -at Saint-Livres, and at Saint-Georges. Sometimes -the pit takes the form of a descending tunnel, leading -into a hall or chamber, in which the ice lies under a -rock roof: this happens at Chaux-les-Passavant. In -all these pit caves the body of the cave is below the -entrance, and most of them are fairly well lighted by -daylight throughout. Generally there is only one pit, -but occasionally there are two connected underground, -as is the case at La Genollière.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">« 120 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Cliff caves are those where the entrance is at the -base or in the side of a cliff. Frequently the cave is in -the shape of a hall or chamber, which begins directly at -the entrance, and which may be large or small. This -kind always has a down slope directly from the mouth. -The Kolowratshöhle, Dóbsina and the Grand Cave de -Montarquis may be mentioned as examples. In some -cases there is a pit at the base of a cliff and there is -a slope leading down to the cave, somewhat in the form -of a tunnel: this is the case at Manchester and practically -also at Roth. Again there is a more or less long -gallery between the entrance and the glacière, which -is always below the level of the entrance. The Schafloch, -Démenyfálva and Decorah may be cited as examples. -As a rule the gallery slopes down from the -entrance, but sometimes the floor rises and then sinks -to the glacière. The top of the entrance, however, is -always higher than the highest point of the floor, as -otherwise the cold air could not get in. This is the -case at the Frauenmauerhöhle, and, apparently, also at -the Posselthöhle. In one case, at Amarnath in Kashmere, -the floor is said to rise to the roof at the back; -but as the entrance is nearly as big as the floor area, -the ice formations must also be below the level of the -top of the entrance.</p> - -<p>The dimensions of glacière caves vary greatly. Some -are large, others are small. Saint Georges, a roofed pit -cave, is some twenty-five meters by twelve meters, with -a depth of about twelve meters. Chaux-les-Passavant, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">« 121 »</a></span> -a cave at the end of a pit tunnel, has a diameter of -some twenty-seven meters. The measures of Dóbsina, -a cave at the bottom of a cliff, are given as follows: -Height of roof above ice floor, 10 to 11 meters; length -120 meters; breadth, 35 to 60 meters, and surface -about 4644 meters. The Frauenmauerhöhle is a gallery -about one hundred meters long before the ice floor is -reached, and this is some fifty meters more in length by -about seven meters in width. The glacière cave near -Frain, on the contrary, is so small that one can only -crawl in some two or three meters. In fact, glacière -caves vary in size between great halls and little tunnels -where one cannot stand up straight.</p> - -<p>The entrances of glacière caves also vary greatly in -their dimensions. For instance, the Friedrichsteinerhöhle -is on one side of a huge pit and is as large and deep as -the pit. Saint Georges, on the contrary, has, near one -end of the roof, a couple of holes, some three meters in -diameter. The entrance to the Schafloch is four meters -wide by four meters seventy centimeters high, while the -entrance to Roth is not over one meter each way.</p> - -<p>A classification of subterranean ice formations, and -one which applies to all the different forms, is into permanent -and periodic glacières. When in any underground -spot, ice remains throughout the year, the place may be -called a permanent glacière; when on the contrary the ice -melts away for part of the year, the place may be called -a periodic glacière. This classification, which several observers -have used already, is convenient and valuable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">« 122 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Movements of Air.</i>—Another classification of glacières -can be made in accordance with the movements of air -underground. Glacières may be divided into those where -there are no strong draughts in summer and those where -there are draughts: or into “apparently static caves”; -and “dynamic caves” or “windholes.” The first class -includes those caves where there is one or more openings -close together and those above the body of the -cave. In such hollows the air in summer is nearly still, -while in winter there are distinct rotary movements of -the air as soon as the temperature outside is lower than -that within. Almost all glacière caves belong to this -class of caves without strong draughts in summer. Sometimes, -however, ice is found in hollows where there are -two or more openings, at different altitudes and at different -ends of the hollow, and where there are draughts. -Occasionally, also, there are fissures in the sides or rear -of apparently static caves, which allow something like -draughts at times, as is the case at the Grand Cave de -Montarquis.</p> - -<p>Professor Thury of Geneva coined the terms “static -cave” and “dynamic cave” which have come largely into -use since, and which practically correspond to the German -terms <i>eishöhle</i> and <i>windröhre</i>. I do not think the term -“static cave” accurate, and prefer the term “apparently -static cave” or “cave without distinct draughts.” For although -there are many caves where the air seems stagnant -at times, and there are no distinct perceptible draughts, -still that the air is really stagnant all summer appears to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">« 123 »</a></span> -me doubtful, and it seems as if the movements of -air were distinctly apparent only in certain caves and -not in others. Air which is apparently stagnant is -found in both pit and cliff caves mainly in the summer -months, but even in these I have noticed several -times in summer slight movements of air, especially -near the entrance. I could not exactly feel the air -moving, but by lighting a cigar the smoke could be -seen borne outwards exceedingly slowly. At the entrance -of the Kolowratshöhle I think there was a faint -outward current when I was there. The day was hot -and windless, and as the cold air met the hot outside -air it formed a faint cloud or mist at the mouth of the -cavern. At Saint-Georges, although the air seemed tranquil, -I found that the smoke of my cigar ascended rapidly -just below the hole in the roof, showing an ascending -air current. In the double cave of Chapuis, I found -one cavern filled by a little lake over which there was a -draught.<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> See Part IV.: Butler, page 308.</p></div> - -<p>From the few winter observations we have, there can -be no doubt that in winter the movements of the atmosphere -are lively, the break in the air column occurring -as soon as the outside temperature is lower than that -within, when the outer air immediately begins to sink -into the cave.<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> See Part III.: Chaux-les-Passavant, <a href="#Page_203">page 203</a>; Saint-Georges, -<a href="#Page_220">page 220</a>.</p></div> - -<p>If I have doubts as to the existence of absolutely static -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">« 124 »</a></span> -caves, it is different about dynamic caves. When a subterranean -hollow goes through rocks, with one opening -higher than the other, there will surely be distinct draughts. -These dynamic caves exist in many parts of the world -under such names as cold current caves or blowing caves -or windholes. Sometimes they are fissures in broken -limestone. Often they are the cracks between piles of -boulders. A cool air generally pours from the lower -opening in summer while the cold air pours into it in -winter, the draught being then reversed. At the upper -opening the operation takes place in the opposite way, -the hot air being sucked in in summer, and given out -in winter. Sometimes, however, changes take place, according -to the differences in the outside temperature, in the -direction of the air current in the course of a single day.</p> - -<p>The causes of the movements of air in these windholes -are exceedingly simple. The movements of air -depend on the fact that in summer the air in the tube -becomes colder from contact with the rocks and, therefore, -heavier than the air outside, and by gravity the -heavy inside air displaces the lighter outside air and -comes rushing out at the lower opening. This leaves a -vacuum, which is filled by the warmer air dropping into -the tube from above. In winter on the contrary, the air -within the tube is warmed by contact with the rocks and -becomes lighter than the air outside. It, therefore, rises -and streams out from the upper opening, and the vacuum -is filled by the heavy cold air pushing in at the lower -opening.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125f" id="Page_125f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 430px;"> -<img src="images/i125.png" width="430" height="341" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11. Vertical Section of a Windhole.</span></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">« 125 »</a></span></p> - -<p>G. F. Parrot’s<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> explanation is so satisfactory that I -give it with one or two changes. He considers the air -movements an ordinary statical phenomenon of the air, -in caves which have two openings at different altitudes. -Let E G D represent the section of such a cave with -the openings A and B. Let us think that there are over -C and B two vertical air columns and from B to C a -horizontal air column B C; then the two air columns over -B and C are at all times of the year equal in weight. Not -so the air columns A C and A E G D B, because their -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">« 126 »</a></span> -temperatures are different. Assume the temperature in -the cave G is +12° the whole year round. If in summer -the air column A C is at a temperature of +25°, -then the heavy air in the cave G pours out through A and -is replaced by air flowing in through B. If in winter the -air column A C is at a temperature of -1°, then the -air pours with equal inverse velocity at A into the cave, -and out at B. The velocity of the current in both cases -depends on the difference of temperature within and -without.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> <i>Grundriss der Physik der Erde und Geologie</i>, 1815, pages 92-99.</p></div> - -<p>The foregoing explanation makes it evident that the -movements of air in these windholes do not depend on -the presence of ice. In many of those I have examined -myself there was no ice visible, and from the temperature -of the air current, there could not have been any -ice within the mountain. Still, there are numerous cases -where ice is found in windholes among boulders, and -a few cases where windholes exist in connection with -apparently static glacière caves. Undoubtedly the great -majority of windholes do not contain ice in summer, or, -indeed, at any time of the year, and, as far as I can see, -windholes, according to their temperatures, belong rather -to the class of normal caves than to that of glacières.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Forms of Ice.</i>—Almost all the forms assumed by underground -ice are different from those assumed by overground -ice. This is not surprising, as the conditions, -under which the ice is formed, are so different. Almost -all the lines of underground ice are rounded. The sharp -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">« 127 »</a></span> -angles and fractures visible on glacier or iceberg are -absent. Instead of seracs and crevasses, broken ice falls, -or piled up ice floes, we have hanging stalactites and rising -stalagmites, smooth ice floors and curved ice slopes. -This difference is of course due to the fact that most -subterranean ice is formed from the drip from the roof -or the sides of caves, and because the factor of motion—which -plays so large a part in the shaping by -fracture of overground ice—is practically wanting.</p> - -<p>The most striking forms of subterranean ice are the -ice stalactites and stalagmites. They descend from the -roof as icicles or rise from it as rough cones or pyramids. -The icicles are of all sorts of shapes and sizes: -sometimes they are tiny; sometimes they grow downward -till they reach the floor and form regular columns, -in some cases no less than eleven meters in height.</p> - -<p>The ice stalagmites likewise are of all sorts of shapes -and sizes, some of them growing to a height of seven -or eight meters. Occasionally they have hollow bases, -but this is rare. How these hollow cones are formed is -a still uncertain matter; but it is in some way by the -action of the drip. At the Kolowratshöhle I saw the drip -from the roof cutting out in July the basin, whose tall remaining -sides suggested that early in the spring it was -probably a hollow cone. The cone at the Schafloch of -which I saw one half remaining, could only be accounted -for by some action from the drip.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> The warmth of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">« 128 »</a></span> -rock floor may help perhaps also, in melting away some -of the base of the hollow columns.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> See Part IV.: Thury, <a href="#Page_287">page 287</a>; Browne, <a href="#Page_290">page 290</a>.</p></div> - -<p>The frozen waterfalls which issue from fissures in -the rock walls of caves are another form of ice seen -only below ground. For lack of a better name, I call -them fissure columns. A peculiarity of these is that, -while the rock fissure is more or less rectangular or at -least sharp angled, the ice column issues in a rounded -stream. Sometimes these fissure columns stream over -the rock; sometimes they spring out far enough from -the rock to be quite away from it. They vary from -about one to five meters in height, and at the base -they almost always spread out in a shape resembling -that of a fan.</p> - -<p>The ice on the bottom of caverns of course takes its -shape from the form and angles of the floor of the caves. -If the bottom is level or nearly so, the ice lies on it as -a sheet or floor. If the bottom of the cave is sloping, the -ice follows the angles of the slope, forming an ice slope -or ice wall, and sometimes becoming nearly or quite -vertical. These ice slopes distantly resemble the portions -of glaciers called an ice fall, with the great difference, -however, that there are no crevasses, not even -tiny ones.</p> - -<p>Occasionally, slabs of ice are found reposing in a -fractured sheet over a solid ice floor. This means -that a lake has formed on this spot in the spring, frozen -over, and then run off, leaving its frozen surface in -broken pieces on top of the under ice.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">« 129 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Another kind of frozen water is the hoar frost which -forms on the rock roofs and walls. This is not at all -rare. It is an open question whether this is not the -same thing as that which has been described as subterranean -snow.<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> I found myself in Dóbsina a small sheet of -what to look and touch was snow. I wrote of this as -snow in my first paper about glacières<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>, but I am of -the opinion now that it was the hoar frost detached -from the roof and not genuine snow.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> See Part III.: Ziegenloch, <a href="#Page_247">page 247</a>; Creux de Souci, <a href="#Page_207">page 207</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <i>Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean Ice</i>, November, 1896, -and March, 1897.</p></div> - -<p>At Dóbsina, also, I noticed that the ice of the ice -wall of the Korridor assumed a stratified or laminated -form. Mr. John F. Lewis of Philadelphia suggested to -me that this was probably due to a precipitation of the -hoar frost from the roof, and I think his explanation is -correct. The hoar frost forming at a certain degree of -cold, would doubtless be precipitated at a rise of temperature, -and would then act much as do the different -layers of snow in the upper portion of glaciers.<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> It -would consolidate gradually, layer over layer, and form -strata, producing the banded or laminated structure -visible in the vertical ice of the Dóbsina Korridor.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Whymper: <i>Scrambles amongst the Alps</i>, 1871, page 426.</p></div> - -<p>The ice in caverns is sometimes found with a -structure which is, I believe, of rare occurrence above -ground. This is when it takes the shape known as -prismatic ice, which means that if a lump is broken -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">« 130 »</a></span> -from a column or icicle, the fracture will show regular -prisms. This phenomenon is not as yet satisfactorily -accounted for; the only thing certain about it is, that it -does not occur in ice of recent formation. From my -own observations, I should say that ice became prismatic -at the end of summer; at least I have always found it -in August or September rather than in June or July.<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> See Part IV.: Browne, <a href="#Page_289">page 289</a>; Lohmann, <a href="#Page_303">page 303</a>.</p></div> - -<p>Besides building up ice heaps, the drip, also, has the -function of destroying its own creations. If there are -no crevasses, there are holes and runnels. These are -generally found at or leading to the lowest point of the -ice floor. Occasionally the holes are deep, sometimes -many meters in depth. They are certainly cut out by -the melting water, to which they offer an exit; in fact -they are a part of the drainage system present in all glacière -caves, where there must be some outlet for surplus -water at or near the lowest point: and as the -caves are always in porous or broken rock, the drainage -takes place through the cracks and fissures.</p> - -<p>The drip produces also the exact opposite of pyramids -in the shape of ice basins. These are cut in the -floor by an extra strong drip from the roof at those -spots. Basins exactly like these are not seen on glaciers. -Not infrequently they are full of water of considerable -depth.</p> - -<p>Lakes and pools are found in glacière caves. Sometimes -they are on the ice floor, and in this case they -are due either to rain-water collecting faster than it can -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">« 131 »</a></span> -flow off, or else because the cave is in a state of thaw. -Sometimes these pools are among the rocks in one part -of a cave, while the ice is in another part.</p> - -<p>I have said above that motion in subterranean ice is -practically wanting. This is proved by the lack of crevasses -on the ice slopes or ice walls, and also by the -fact that basins and cones appear year after year in the -same spots, where they remain whether they are increasing -or diminishing. But this statement cannot be held -to cover the entrance snow and ice slopes of some of -the open pit caves such as the Gottscheer cave, or Saint-Livres -or Haut d’Aviernoz. Here the snow, which falls -on the entrance slope, must gradually gravitate to the -bottom. The question is whether it only descends in the -shape of water after melting or as snow before solidifying; -or whether it ever slides down at all after becoming somewhat -solidified. Probably, however, the ice of these slopes, -judging from the fact that crevasses are entirely lacking, -remains stationary.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Color Effects.</i>—The color effect of every glacière -cavern has a certain individuality, according to the color -of the rocks, the quantity of ice, and the amount of -daylight admitted through the entrance. In my opinion, -the white note given by the ice, makes a fine glacière -cave the most beautiful of all subterranean hollows. -In this respect it seems to me that they are similar to -high Alps, which are certainly most impressive with coverings -of snow and glacier.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">« 132 »</a></span></p> - -<p>There are, however, two distinct notes in the color -effects of glacière caves and these may be described as -the partly subterranean, or as the wholly subterranean. -In the former case the local tints stand out more clearly. -For instance, at the Kolowratshöhle the ice is beautifully -transparent and of a pale ochre-greenish hue: the limestone -rocks are streaked with iron, and thus have a reddish -hue, while, owing to the entrance admitting plenty -of daylight, the effect is only semi-subterranean. Again, -at Chaux-les-Passavant plenty of daylight is admitted: -the rocks are a yellowish brown, and the ice is white -and blue. At the Schafloch or the Frauenmauer, on -the contrary, the effect is wholly subterranean: daylight -is so completely absent that black is the predominating -note, the ice itself looking gray. Dóbsina is an exception, -as, thanks to the electric light, white is the conspicuous -tone, even though rocks and shadows dull many -places and corners into a sombre gray.</p> - -<p>More than once, on returning to daylight from the intense -blackness of a cave, I have seen the rocks near the -entrance appear a dark blue color, exactly simulating -moonlight. This effect is common to both glacière caves -and ordinary caverns. It is a striking but rare phenomenon, -and depends apparently on the shape of the -cave. This moonlight effect only seems to occur when -a cave makes an elbow directly after the mouth and -then goes straight for some distance. When the daylight -is actually in sight, the moonlight impression vanishes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">« 133 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Carbonic Acid Gas.</i>—Carbonic acid gas, judging from -the most recent explorations, is more of a rarity in rock -caves with normal temperatures than is generally supposed. -There appears to be only one case on record where this -gas was observed in a cold cave. This was in the -Creux-de-Souci,<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> which is rather a cold than a freezing -cavern, but which on one occasion was found to contain -snow, and whose temperature is always extremely low. -From the present state of knowledge, therefore, it may -be assumed that if carbonic acid gas does form in glacière -caves, it does so only seldom.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> See Part III.: <a href="#Page_207">page 207</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Fauna.</i>—No attention whatever has been paid, practically -as yet, as to whether any distinctive animal life -exists in glacières. So far, I have seen none myself. -The Rev. G. F. Browne, in four instances, found a large -red-brown fly nearly an inch long, which is supposed to -be <i>Stenophylax Hieroglyphicus</i> of Stephens; and at Chapuis, -he obtained an ichneumon of the genus <i>Paniscus</i>. -At Font d’Urle, Monsieur Villard captured a blind specimen -of a coleoptera, <i>Cytodromus dapsoïdes</i>. A variety -of rotifer, <i>Notholca longispina</i>, is now living in the Creux-de-Souci. -In Skerisora, remains of bats have been -found, not very different from those now living in the -neighborhood.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> It is, in any case, certainly remarkable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">« 134 »</a></span> -that the same kind of fly should have been discovered -in several glacières in different localities; and it may -some day be shown that there is a special insect fauna. -Certainly the subject is worth investigating.<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> See Part I.: Ausable Pond, <a href="#Page_81">page 81</a>, and Part III.: Creux-de-Souci, -<a href="#Page_207">page 207</a>; Font d’Urle, <a href="#Page_213">page 213</a>; Chapuis, <a href="#Page_216">page 216</a>; La -Genollière, <a href="#Page_219">page 219</a>; Skerisora, <a href="#Page_245">page 245</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> In June, 1899, I mentioned these facts to Monsieur Armand Viré, -director of the Biologic Laboratory in the catacombs of the Jardin des -Plantes in Paris. He was much interested, and promised to make a -careful investigation of the matter.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Flora.</i>—The flora of glacières has been as little observed -as the fauna. There are scarcely any references to -such a thing as glacière plant life in literature. Whether -there is a special flora in any glacière cave is still an -open question. In the cases of several boulder taluses, -there is no doubt that, even if there is not a special -flora, at least that the plants near the ice beds are -greatly retarded every year in their development. Probably -the flora among the boulders blooms a month or six -weeks later than the flora in the immediate vicinity. In -the cases of the Cave of Paradana and of the Kuntschner -Eishöhle it is reported that the plant life becomes more -and more arctic in character towards the bottom of the -pit.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> See Part I.: Ausable Pond, <a href="#Page_80">page 80</a>; Giant of the Valley, page 83, note 7; Ice Gulch, <a href="#Page_85">page 85</a>; Spruce Creek, <a href="#Page_91">page 91</a>. See Part -III: Spruce Creek, <a href="#Page_188">page 188</a>; Paradana, <a href="#Page_237">page 237</a>; Kuntschner Eishöhle, -<a href="#Page_241">page 241</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Paleontology.</i>—No paleontological remains have as yet -been reported from glacière caves. No bones of animals -have been found, except those of bats in Skerisora<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">« 135 »</a></span> -and a few of the common genus <i>bos</i>.<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> No relics of the -handiwork of man have been discovered; nor, indeed, -with the exception of the skeletons found in the cave -of Yeermallik in Kondooz,<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> anything which reveals the -presence of man in glacières or that they were ever used -for habitation. The reason that there are so few remains -in glacière caves is undoubtedly because their temperatures -are too low for their occupation by animal or man; but, -from the evidence afforded by their non-occupation, may -be drawn the valuable inference that the glacière caves -of to-day were glacière caves long ago.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> See Part III.: Skerisora, <a href="#Page_245">page 245</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> See Part I.: Saint-Livres, <a href="#Page_68">page 68</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> See Part III.: Yeermallik, <a href="#Page_261">page 261</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Legends and Religion.</i>—There are scarcely any legends -connected with glacières. I know only of one about one -of the caves of the Mont Parmelan.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> Nor does there -seem to be any reference to glacière caves in works of -fiction. Dante makes his last hell full of an ice lake, but -an attentive perusal fails to reveal a single line which in -any way describes or suggests a glacière. In at least two -cases,<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> however, the ice in caves is connected with religion, -as in Kashmere, the Hindoos, and in Arizona, the -Zuni Indians, either worship or pray at glacière caves, -overawed, from some mystical feeling, by the permanence -of the ice formations which they connect with their deities.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> See Part III.: Glacière de l’Enfer, <a href="#Page_216">page 216</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> See Part III.: Amarnath, <a href="#Page_262">page 262</a>; Cave, White Mountains, -Arizona, <a href="#Page_176">page 176</a>.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">« 136 »</a></span></p></div> - - - - -<h2><a name="II" id="II">II.</a></h2> - - -<p>The cause of the formation of subterranean ice is undoubtedly -one of the most intricate problems in connection -with caverns. Various theories have been advanced -why ice is found in certain caves and not in others. Some -writers have held that it is a remnant of a glacial period; -others that it is owing to the presence of salts in the rocks; -some have said that it is due to the rocks retarding waves -of heat and cold; and still others think that it is formed by -pressure on the percolating waters. Many of these theories -were formulated in explanation of the belief of peasants -living near the caves, who almost always say that -the ice is formed in summer and melts in winter. Most -scientific observers on the other hand claim that the -ice is due to the cold of winter, and a few think that -it is formed or helped by draughts and by evaporation -and expansion of the air. The variety of opinions put -forth, show at any rate the intricacy of the problem.</p> - -<p>All my own observations have tended more and more -to make me believe that the cold of winter is the cause -of the ice. Before elaborating my own views, however, -I wish to take up seriatim the theories which have been -formulated, principally in explanation of the belief that -the ice was a summer product, and to give my reasons -for my disbelief in them.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Glacial Period.</i>—The first theory, perhaps, to touch -on, is the one that the ice is a remnant of a glacial -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">« 137 »</a></span> -period. This seems to occur to many persons as a solution -of the question when they first hear of glacières, -and it has been several times propounded to me, and -naturally enough, always by scientific men.<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> Still I do -not think it has ever been held by anyone who had -made a study of glacières.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> See Part IV.: Hitchcock, <a href="#Page_284">page 284</a>; Bonney, <a href="#Page_291">page 291</a>; Dawkins, -<a href="#Page_292">page 292</a>.</p></div> - -<p>The theory is, indeed, untenable in regard to freezing -caves, as it does not accord with the observed facts of the -yearly disappearance of the ice in many caves and taluses. -At Szilize every year the ice has disappeared pretty completely -by November, and the cave is free; but in -April or May the floor is again covered with ice, and -columns and icicles have formed on the roof and sides. -At La Genollière the cave is used by the people of the -neighboring châlets, through the spring and early summer, -to help in the operation of butter making; by the -middle or the end of August it has entirely disappeared, -but is found formed afresh the following spring. At the -Rumney Talus, at the Cave of Decorah, at the Gorge -of Ellenville, and at the Williamstown Snow Hole, I -found no snow or ice.<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> Yet it is abundant in all these -localities in the spring. Too many examples of the complete -melting away of the ice every year can be cited, -to permit any doubt: glacière caves are not connected -with a glacial period.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> See Part I.: Rumney, <a href="#Page_85">page 85</a>; Decorah, <a href="#Page_88">page 88</a>; Ellenville, -<a href="#Page_91">page 91</a>; Williamstown, <a href="#Page_98">page 98</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">« 138 »</a></span></p></div> - -<p>Though it may be stated positively that the ice in -caves is not a remnant of a glacial period, yet this cannot -be done so authoritatively about subsoil ice sheets -and freezing wells. At Brandon, Owego and Decorah -the gravel was found frozen at the time the wells were -dug, and it is of course impossible to determine for how -long a time this was the case previous to the digging. -The proofs, however, are so strong that the ice re-forms -every winter at such freezing wells, that they may be -considered as in every respect following the same general -laws as glacière caves. That the ice in these wells -is not the remains of a glacial period, seems proved -moreover by the work of the Boston Natural History -Society, which sank two wells at Brandon near to the -Freezing well. One of these was only twenty-one meters -distant and went through the same gravel drift. Yet it -did not strike ice.<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> A somewhat similar state of things -appears to be the case with the Centennial Lode and -other lodes on Mount McClellan,<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> where the causes also -seem to be local, as there is no ice in mines on neighboring -mountains.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> See Part IV.: Hager, <a href="#Page_282">page 282</a>; Hitchcock, <a href="#Page_284">page 284</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> See Part III.: Rifts of Ice, etc., <a href="#Page_174">page 174</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>The Summer’s Heat Theory.</i>—The natives and peasants -in the neighborhood of glacière caves generally believe -that the ice of caves is formed in summer and melts in -winter. I have met with this belief everywhere in Europe; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">« 139 »</a></span> -in the Eifel, Jura, Swiss Alps, Tyrolese Alps, and -Carpathians: and also occasionally in the United States. -Peasants and guides tell you with absolute confidence: -“The hotter the summer the more ice there is.” The -strange thing is that any number of writers<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>—sometimes -scientific men—have accepted the ideas and statements -of the peasants about the formation of ice in summer, -and have tried to account for it.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Among them may be mentioned: Boisot, 1686; Valvasor, 1689; -Behrens, 1703; Billerez, 1712; Bel, 1739; Rosenmüller and Tillesius, -1799; Sartori, 1809; Pictet, 1822; Scrope, 1826; Murchison, 1845.</p></div> - -<p>The belief of the peasants is founded on the fact that -they scarcely ever go to any cave except when some -tourist takes them with him, and, therefore, they rarely -see one in winter, and their faith is not based on observation. -It is, however, founded on an appearance of -truth: and that is on the fact that the temperatures of -glacière caves, like that of other caves or that of cellars, -are colder in summer than the outside air, and warmer in -winter than the outside air. Possessing neither reasoning -powers nor thermometers, the peasants simply go a -step further and say that glacière caves are cold in summer -and hot in winter.</p> - -<p>Professor Thury tells a story to the point. He visited -the Grand Cave de Montarquis in mid-winter. All -the peasants told him there would be no use going, as -there would be no ice in the cave. He tried to find -even one peasant who had been to the cave in winter, -but could not. He then visited it himself and found it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">« 140 »</a></span> -full of hard ice. On his return he told the peasants of -his discovery. They were staggered at first, finally one -exclaimed: “It makes no difference; in genuine glacières -there is no ice in winter.”</p> - -<p>It will be difficult, probably, to eradicate this belief and -the consequent theories among the uneducated people in -the vicinity of glacière caves, for their imperfect observations -will keep it alive. In refutation, it may be said -that the winter’s cold theory is the direct opposite of the -summer’s heat theory, and that all the observations and -all the facts which prove the one, disprove the other.</p> - -<p>Within two or three years, however, the formation of -small quantities of ice has been observed during the -summer months in one or two caves. This has taken -place in mountain caves situated at a high altitude at -times when the air outside has dropped below freezing -point during the night. There is, therefore, nothing inconsistent -in this fact with the winter’s cold theory: -indeed it is only a widening of it in the meaning of the -word winter.<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> See Part III.: Beilsteinhöhle, <a href="#Page_235">page 235</a>. Part IV.: Professor -Cranmer, <a href="#Page_310">page 310</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Chemical Causes.</i>—Non-scientific persons, on first hearing -of glacière caves, almost always suggest that to form -the ice there must be salts in the rocks. Probably they -connect unconsciously in their minds “ice caves” and -“ice cream.”</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">« 141 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Chemical causes, however, have never appealed to -scientific men.<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> There are only two places I know of -where salt is reported. One is the Ice Spring in Oregon, -which is said to be slightly saline in taste; the -other is the Cave of Illetzkaya-Zatschita, where the gypsum -hillock, in which the ice is found, overlies a bed -of rock salt. Repeated experiments in letting lumps of -glacière ice melt in my mouth have convinced me personally -that in all cases the water is exceedingly pure -and sweet, a fact mentioned in the very first notice extant -about glacières, the letter of Benigne Poissenot in -1586, who speaks of the deliciousness of the water in -Chaux-les-Passavant. To sum this matter up briefly, it -can be safely asserted that all causes, which would fall -under the head of “Chemical causes,” must be entirely -eliminated as possible cold producers.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> See Part IV.: Billerez, <a href="#Page_270">page 270</a>; Hacquet, <a href="#Page_271">page 271</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Waves of Heat and Cold.</i>—While Sir Roderick Murchison -was studying the geology of Russia,<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> he visited -Illetzkaya-Zatschita and was puzzled to account for the -ice formations. He thought, at first, that they were due -to the presence of salt, but recognizing that this was not -correct he submitted the case to Sir John Herschel, who, -rejecting the evaporation or condensation of vapor as the -cause, argued that the ice was due to waves of heat and -cold, and that at certain depths in the interior, the cold -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">« 142 »</a></span> -wave arrived in mid-summer and the heat in mid-winter. -Murchison declined to assent to this doctrine, asking -why one cave should present this exceptional occurrence, -when the numerous other rents and openings in the same -hillock were free from ice. The impossibility of the heat -and cold wave theory was so completely shown by Murchison’s -objection, that it has never again been brought -forward.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> <i>The Geology of Russia and the Ural Mountains</i>, vol. I., pages -184-198.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Capillary or Compressed Air Theory.</i>—The possibility -of compressed air causing subterranean ice to form -seems to have been first authoritatively formulated by Mr. -N. M. Lowe, of Boston.<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> His theory in brief is this:—Bubbles -of air drawn into water flowing down through -fissures in rocks are liable to a continually increasing -pressure. When the air has reached the bottom and -is liberated in the cave, it will be from a pressure -equal to the height of the column of water, and it will -have lost by connection in the mass through which the -conduit passes, the heat due to its compression; and on -being liberated, it will immediately absorb from the air -and the water in the cave, the heat which it has lost in -its downward passage.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> <i>Science Observer.</i> Boston, 1879, vol. II., page 57. See Part IV.: -Silliman, <a href="#Page_279">page 279</a>; Olmstead, <a href="#Page_282">page 282</a>.</p></div> - -<p>Several scientific observers have rallied to this idea.<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> -One of the Hungarian residents at Dóbsina, a doctor, -whose opportunities for observations are unrivalled, told -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">« 143 »</a></span> -me—if I understood him correctly—that he believed in -the capillary theory.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> See B. Schwalbe, <i>Ueber Eishöhlen und Eislöcher</i>, page 56.</p></div> - -<p>There are many facts, however, which militate against -the compressed air theory as applied to caves. Almost -all caves receive some drip through fissures, and yet -there are many thousands of caves which never contain -ice, and whose temperature scarcely varies the year round. -Especially against the theory is the fact that glacière caves -are never known in hot countries. If the theory were -correct we should, for instance, sometimes find ice in such -caves as those of Yucatan described by Mr. Mercer.<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> <i>The Hill Caves of Yucatan.</i></p></div> - -<p>There are also some mechanical difficulties in the -way. Mr. John Ritchie<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> touches them when he says: -“If the passage through which the water flows down is -at all tubular the column will be subjected to the usual -hydrostatic pressure.” The word <i>tubular</i> is the hard -one to answer. Limestone rock fissures are certainly -not tubular. They have all sorts of shapes and angles -and corners, every one of which would interfere with -anything like a regular pressure.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>Boston Transcript</i>, January 2d, 1897.</p></div> - -<p>This latter objection would not apply to borings in -mines. I have been assured that in some borings in -Western mines ice has been formed by pressure, and -there may be truth in this, although I doubt it, as I have -yet to hear of ice in any mines in warm latitudes. Mr. -John Ritchie<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> has suggested, also, that if compressed air -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">« 144 »</a></span> -does not perhaps act strongly enough to form ice, yet it -may help in keeping the temperature low and aid in the -formation of draughts in caves and boulder heaps. At -present, however, I can see no reason to think that the -ice in caves is due to compressed air.<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> <i>The Happy Thought.</i> Boston, January 23d, 1897.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> See Part I.: <a href="#Page_89">page 89</a>.</p></div> - - - - -<h2><a name="III" id="III">III.</a></h2> - - -<p>I have already said that I believe that the cold of -winter is the cause of the ice in caves. To make -this clearer, I may say that I look on glacières as the -last outcrop, the outside edge, so to speak, of the area -of low temperatures, which has its culminating point in -the Northern Hemisphere in the Arctic Ocean, Greenland -and Siberia, and in the Southern Hemisphere in the Antarctic; -and which is manifested to us in the snows of -mountain peaks, and immediately round us in frozen ponds -and rivers and snowy blizzards; and which, as it disappears -each summer, leaves its last traces in our latitudes -in sequestered gorges and convenient caverns. In every -case, it seems to me, glacières are simply refrigerators, -which preserve the ice and snow accumulated in them -during the winter. They all follow the same general laws -as to the origin of their contents, modified only in slight -degree according to the varying natural local conditions, -such as the water supply, or the protection from -sun and wind, or the thickness of the overhead rock, or -the altitude or latitude. I cannot see that there is anything -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">« 145 »</a></span> -remarkable about the fact that the cold of winter -is able to penetrate and make itself felt sometimes for -a slight depth in the earth’s crust; a depth, so far as -yet known, never exceeding one hundred and fifty meters. -It seems to me that glacières only emphasize a law -of nature, which has doubtless been formulated many -times in connection with springs and phreatic waters, -and that is, that where we find cold waters underground, -we may be sure that they have penetrated from the -outside.</p> - -<p>If we look first at the mode of formation of overground -perennial ice, that is, of the ice of glaciers and of -rock gorges; and then at the evidences of the mode -of formation of underground perennial ice, in boulder -heaps, wells and caves; we will soon see that the transitions -between them are gentle in character and that -there is nothing unnatural about the formation of the -ice in glacières.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Glaciers.</i>—Everyone now knows the main characteristics -of glaciers. They are formed in parts of the -earth where the land or the mountains reach to the -region of perpetual snow. The snows fall from the -sky, and accumulate into a snow cap, which by its own -weight and by melting and regelation, gradually changes -to ice. This, by the laws of gravitation, descends to -lower levels, and in mountain valleys extends sometimes -far below the snow line into the region of cultivated -fields. These valley prolongations of the perpetual snow -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">« 146 »</a></span> -caps are the glaciers. The important point to notice -here, is that the formation of glaciers is originally entirely -due to the precipitation of moisture by cold in the -upper portions; while the destruction of glaciers is due -to the action of heat melting the ice in the lower portions, -where they disappear in the shape of streams of -running water. It is, therefore, not surprising that the -greatest glaciers are found in the Arctic and Antarctic -regions and in the highest mountain ranges; and that -in the tropics glaciers are either wanting or exceedingly -small.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Gorges and Troughs.</i>—Gorges and gullies, where ice -remains over, are a transitional form between glaciers and -glacières. In many mountain ravines or canyons, the -enduring snow consists principally of the avalanches -which have fallen from the heights above during the -winter and solidified in the bottom of the ravines. -Freezing gorges proper, however, are not dependent -on avalanches for their supply, but they receive the -accretions to their ice directly from the winter snows. -These fall into the gorge itself and by melting and regelation -gradually solidify into a mass of ice which, when -well sheltered against sun and wind, remains over sometimes -till the following winter. By their mode of formation, -therefore, it is evident that the ice in these gorges -has some of the characteristics of glaciers; that it is due -to the same prime causes as the ice of glaciers or the ice -on ponds and rivers, namely the cold of winter; and in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">« 147 »</a></span> -fact, it is not far wrong to consider these gorges as -miniature glaciers.</p> - -<p>Freezing gorges, however, show, also, certain degrees -of kinship to freezing caverns and taluses, principally in -the protection afforded to the ice against external destructive -influences. The ice is almost always found in -positions where it receives little, if any, of the direct -rays of the sun and, also, where it is scarcely, if at all, -exposed to any winds. The sides of the fissures and -surrounding trees generally afford the necessary protection. -Some of the forms which the ice assumes in -gorges, such as long pendent icicles, are also more characteristic -of underground than of overground ice.</p> - -<p>The freezing troughs or basins found in Siberia are -evidently closely related to gorges, and the fact that the -ice is found in less sheltered places may be explained -by the high northerly latitudes of these troughs, in general -between fifty-seven and sixty degrees.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>The Winter’s Cold Theory.</i>—The places where ice is -found underground differ in one important respect from -gullies and troughs, and that is, in the fact that above -the ice there is rock or soil, which, in true caves, takes -the form of a roof. This causes some important distinctions -between overground and underground perennial -ice. It means that the ice is formed directly in the caves, -and that it is genuine subterranean ice, and not, except -perhaps near the entrance, solidified snow. The roof, -while not admitting the winter snows, is, however, a protection -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">« 148 »</a></span> -against warm summer rains, and, of course, entirely -cuts off radiation from the sky. If, therefore, it keeps -out some cold, it also acts as a protector against heat.</p> - -<p>That the cold of winter is the source of the cold which -produces the ice which forms underground, and that it -is through its influence, with the assistance of certain -secondary causes, that some caves are converted into -what are practically natural ice houses, seems to me the -true explanation of the phenomenon of subterranean ice, -not only since it is the simple and obvious explanation, -but also because all the facts, so far as I have myself -observed, are in accord with this theory.<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Among those who have written or said that the cold of winter -plays a more or less important part in the formation of subterranean -ice may be mentioned: Poissenot, 1586; Gollut, 1592; DeBoz, 1726; -Nagel, 1747; Cossigny, 1750; Jars, 1774; Hacquet, 1778; Girod-Chantrans, -1783; Hablizl, 1788; Prévost, 1789; Townson, 1797; -Humboldt, 1814; Dearborn, 1822; Deluc, 1822; Dewey, 1822; Lee, -1824; Reich, 1834; Hayden, 1843; Guyot, 1856; Rogers, 1856; -Petruzzi, 1857; Smyth, 1858; Hager, 1861; Thury, 1861; Browne, -1865; Raymond, 1869; Krenner, 1874; Ritchie, 1879; Benedict, -1881; Schwalbe, 1881; Fugger, 1883; Trouillet, 1885; Girardot, -1886; Russell, 1890; Martel, 1892; Krauss, 1894; Lohmann, 1895; -Balch, 1896; Cvijic, 1896; Butler, 1898; Kovarik, 1898; Cranmer, -1899.</p></div> - -<p>To form subterranean ice, just as to form any other ice, -two things are necessary: the first is cold, the second is -water. Cold is supplied by the cold air of winter, and -water must in some manner find its way into the cave -while the cold air is there.</p> - -<p>The process is as follows: The cold air of winter -sinks into and permeates the cave, and in course of time -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">« 149 »</a></span> -freezes up all the water which, in the shape of melting -snow or cold winter rain or spring water, finds its way -in; and once ice is formed it remains long after ice in -the surrounding open country has melted away, because -heat penetrates with difficulty into the cave. The only -effect of the heat of summer is to melt the ice.</p> - -<p>The proofs, to my mind, of the truth of this view are: -1—Glacières are always found in parts of the world -where, during part of the year at least, the temperatures -of the surrounding country fall below freezing point. 2—All -observations by reliable observers show that the -temperatures of glacière caves vary, but in a much narrower -thermometric scale, with those of the outside air: -that the temperatures are lowest, and as a rule below -freezing point, during the winter months; and that the -temperatures are highest, and as a rule above freezing -point, during the summer months. 3—Ice is never found -far from the mouth of caves, but always near enough -for the cold air to get in. 4—Evaporation, according to -my observations, is, as in all other forms of ice in nature, -connected mainly with the melting, not the freezing of -the ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Geographical Distribution and Altitudes.</i>—Glacière -caves proper are found in various parts of Europe, -Asia, and America, mostly in the smaller mountain -ranges or in the outliers of the snowy mountain -chains; generally in limestone and occasionally in basaltic -formations. There are a good many in the Jura; a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">« 150 »</a></span> -few in the Swiss and the Italian Alps; a number in the -Eastern Alps of Tyrol and Carinthia. There are some -in Hungary, several in Russia, one in Iceland, one on the -Peak of Teneriffe, a number in Siberia, one in Kondooz -in Central Asia, one in the Himálaya, one in Japan, and -one in Korea. I have heard so far of over fifty glacières -in North America, several of which are in Pennsylvania. -From all over the world there are some three hundred -places reported where subterranean ice is said to occur. -This includes gorges, boulder heaps and freezing mines -and wells, all of which exist in much the same localities -as glacière caves.</p> - -<p>All the glacières which I know of, are situated in a -latitude or at an altitude where ice and snow forms for -part of the year in the surrounding open country. None -are reported from India or Africa, or in fact from any -low-lying places in tropical latitudes. Most of them are -found in middle latitudes, and only where during part -of the year, at least, there is a cold season, that is, where -for some time the thermometer stands below freezing -point.</p> - -<p>Glacières are, in general, at fairly high altitudes. The -Schafloch is at 1780 meters; Skerisora in Transylvania -at 1127 meters; Dóbsina at 1100 meters; the Glacière -de Saint-Georges at 1208 meters. It is true that there -is one freezing cavern in the sub-tropical latitude of Teneriffe, -La Cueva de la Nieve; but it is at an altitude of -3300 meters, and where snow falls every year in the -open on the Peak. Unless some freezing cave is hereafter -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">« 151 »</a></span> -discovered in a region where there is no ice in the -open in winter, I do not see how the imperative necessity -of the cold air of winter for forming the supply of ice -can be controverted.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Thermometric Observations.</i>—That the cold air of winter -is the important factor in the production of cold is -proved, also, by the thermometric observations recorded -in various caves by different observers. They all tell -the same tale: that the temperatures vary with those of -the outside air, that they are lowest in winter and highest -in summer. I quote in the “List of Glacières”<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> a -few of those published; but there are many more, and -they all show the same general characteristics.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> See Part III.: Decorah, <a href="#Page_178">page 178</a>; Chaux-les-Passavant, <a href="#Page_202">pages 203-5</a>; -La Poujade, <a href="#Page_208">page 208</a>; Montarquis, <a href="#Page_218">page 218</a>; Saint-Georges, -<a href="#Page_219">page 219</a>; Schafloch, <a href="#Page_223">page 223</a>; Kolowratshöhle, <a href="#Page_227">page 227</a>; Schellenberger -Eisgrotte, <a href="#Page_228">page 228</a>; Frain, <a href="#Page_252">page 252</a>; Dóbsina, <a href="#Page_253">page 253</a>; etc.</p></div> - -<p>A comparison of all the figures recorded proves that, -as a rule—inside of glacière caves—from about the first -of November to the first of July, there are winter temperatures, -that is temperatures below freezing point; and -from about the first of July to the first of November, -there are summer temperatures, that is temperatures -above freezing point.</p> - -<p>The observations prove also that the inner temperatures -vary less than the outer, that is that they range -within narrower limits. They also show that the inner -air is but slowly affected by the outer air when the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">« 152 »</a></span> -latter is above freezing point, the inner temperature -rising then only gradually. Per contra, when the outside -temperature drops quickly much below freezing point, -the inside temperature generally drops correspondingly -at once, proving that the cold air has sunk by its weight -into the cave. The observations also prove that the old -idea that the temperature of caves is the same throughout, -can no longer be considered correct. The observations -also appear to show, that the temperature of a -cave does not necessarily represent the mean annual -temperature of a surrounding district. Observation is -still entirely lacking on the mean annual temperature -of glacières, so that one cannot speak definitely about -the matter; but it seems likely that the mean annual -temperature of a glacière cave is lower than the isotherm -of its locality; and it seems more than probable that on -the same isotherm different glacière caves may have -different mean annual temperatures, varying with the -elements of size, quantity of ice, position of body of -cave and of entrance, water supply and other factors.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Ice near the Entrance of Caves and the Surface of the -Soil.</i>—An important proof that it is the cold air of winter -which forms the ice is the fact that the latter is always -found near the entrance of caves or near the surface -of the soil. It never extends far within. To the best -of my knowledge, ice has never been found two hundred -meters from the entrance nor at any depth beyond -one hundred and fifty meters. In all caves of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">« 153 »</a></span> -great extent, the temperature far in is about the same -as that of the surrounding rock, and in all deep borings -the temperature increases with the depth and at great -depths the temperature becomes high. This nearness of -subterranean ice to the outside air is one of the best -proofs, that, paradoxical as the whole phenomenon appears -at first, yet in reality it is an extremely simple -matter.</p> - -<p>The position of the entrance of a cave in relation -to the body of the cave is an important factor in permitting -the cold air to permeate and remain in the -cave. In all the caves or gullies I have examined myself, -the main mass of ice is well below the level of -the entrance, and even if the latter is sheltered against -the wind, it is not sheltered against the cold air of -winter. This is heavy, and by its own weight sinks -well down to the bottom, freezing up in course of -time all the moisture that may drip from the roof, or -that may come into the cave in the shape of melted -snow or cold winter rain. The summer air, which is -warm and, therefore, light, can only enter the cave -with great difficulty; and, as a rule, before it dislodges -the winter air and destroys the ice, another winter’s -freeze reverses once more the conditions. These principles -seem to hold of every known glacière. It is true, -that at the Frauenmauer, the floor of the cavern rises -somewhat from the entrance; but the highest point of -the floor is still below the level of the top of the entrance, -so that the cold air can flow over the highest -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">« 154 »</a></span> -point without difficulty. The same appears to be the -case at the Posselthöhle; while at Amarnath in Kashmere, -where the floor is said to rise to the back wall, -the entrance is about as large as the area of the floor, -so that the ice must also be below the level of the top -of the entrance.</p> - -<p>The position or situation of the entrance is important. -In almost all cases it has a northerly exposure, -and is sheltered against entering winds. If these two -conditions do not exist the ice supply surely suffers. -Sometimes the entrance is more or less tortuous. In -some cases it is protected by a fringe of trees. Still, -there is no absolute rule about entrances. The Friedrichsteinerhöhle -faces about due south, and at midday -in summer, the sun shines all the way down to the -ice floor, causing mists to form. In the Kolowratshöhle, -the entrance is badly sheltered against the wind and -this undoubtedly affects the supply in summer and causes -more rapid melting there than in some other cases.<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> See Part III.: Decorah, <a href="#Page_178">page 178</a>.</p></div> - -<p>Freezing boulder taluses invariably have the ice near -the surface, and probably it is never a dozen meters -distant from the open air. These taluses are one of -the strongest links in the chain of evidence proving the -winter’s cold theory. The snow and ice on the surface -of the taluses and on the surface of the boulders in -gullies melts away, while it still lingers underneath the -boulders. It seems self-evident that the melting snow -water has run to the lowest level and there congealed, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">« 155 »</a></span> -and then remained because it was better sheltered than -the ice outside.</p> - -<p>The subsoil ice of the tundras of Siberia and Alaska -is almost identical with the ice of boulder formations, -except that it extends under larger areas. It is the product -of a climate where there is a long, rigorous winter -and it is not surprising that the ice is found at -greater depths than in more southerly latitudes.<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> The -depth to which the ice extends is, of course, determined -by the depth to which the winter’s cold can penetrate -the soil. There is no doubt that the causes of this ice -are local, that is, that it is due to the long prevailing -low temperatures.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> See Part III.: Alaska, <a href="#Page_166">page 166</a>; Klondike, <a href="#Page_167">page 167</a>; Kowak -River, <a href="#Page_166">page 166</a>; Kotzebue Sound, <a href="#Page_166">page 166</a>.</p></div> - -<p>The freezing wells of which the most conspicuous examples -are at Brandon, Owego, Decorah, and in Montana, -seem also due to local causes and the ice is never far -from the surface, that is, not over twenty meters; and -apparently also it forms above the water horizons which -supply the wells.</p> - -<p>The ice sheet on Mount Etna<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> does not seem to -be at any great depth. It apparently had a different -origin from most subterranean ice masses, in that the -snow probably fell first and was then covered by a flow -of lava. It is, therefore, almost <i>sui generis</i> in its mode -of formation, unless there are similar sheets on other -volcanoes, which is probable in a country like Iceland, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">« 156 »</a></span> -and which is said to be the case in Tierra del Fuego,<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> -But the original cause of the ice sheet on Etna was the -same as all other subterranean ice masses, namely the -cold of winter.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> See Part III., <a href="#Page_210">page 210</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> See Part III., <a href="#Page_190">page 190</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Evaporation and Movements of Air.</i>—The formation -of subterranean ice is sometimes assigned partly to evaporation -or to expansion of the air. The theory is an -old one, and both scientific and non-scientific men have -advanced it.<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Among those who have written that evaporation is a factor in the -formation of subterranean ice, may be mentioned: Pictet, 1822; Scrope, -1827; Reich, 1834; Pleischl, 1841; Murchison, 1845; Olmstead, -1856; Hitchcock, 1861; White, 1870; Kirchhoff, 1876; Krauss, -1895.</p></div> - -<p>I have already said that I believe it is the movements -of the air which cause a cave to be a glacière cave or a -normal cave. When they act in such a way as to permit -the cold air of winter to permeate a cave, we find low -temperatures and ice; when they do not, we find the -temperature about the same as that of the ground and -no ice.</p> - -<p>That the ice is not formed in apparently static caves, -by movements of air producing evaporation, seems to -me proved by what I have noticed in regard to the atmosphere. -The dryness or moistness of the air within -a glacière cave is coincident with the state of freezing -or thawing of the cave. When I have visited a large cave -in June, everything was frozen tight, there were no drips -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">« 157 »</a></span> -nor mushy ice, the air was relatively dry and the sensation -of cold not unpleasant. When I have visited a cave -in August, the ice was soft and mushy, water was dripping -from the roof, the atmosphere was moist, and the cold -penetrating. It seems to me that the facts go to show -that it is not evaporation which forms the ice, but the -melting of the ice which fills the cave with moisture. If -there are any draughts or movements of the atmosphere -when above freezing point, then their tendency is -to vaporize the ice.</p> - -<p>The process of the formation of ice in relation to the -atmosphere is as follows: the cold air permeates the -cave and freezes up all the drip: the atmosphere becomes -dry: gradually warmer air gets in and the ice -begins to melt: then the atmosphere gets charged slowly -with the vapor of the melting ice. This process is the -exact opposite of the formation of ice by evaporation; -it is the atmosphere which is made humid by the vaporizing -of the ice, and by the drip. When the air is thoroughly -saturated with the vapor, being scarcely renewed -from outside and but a few degrees above freezing point, -it undoubtedly retards evaporation, acts like a blanket -and lessens the rate of melting of the ice.<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> See Part IV.: Thury, <a href="#Page_285">page 285</a>; Fugger, <a href="#Page_296">page 296</a>; Trouillet, -<a href="#Page_298">page 298</a>.</p></div> - -<p>Everything I have personally observed in freezing -windholes shows that in them also the cold of winter and -not evaporation is the cause of the ice. They answer to -the same tests as other glacières, of geographical distribution -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">« 158 »</a></span> -and altitude, nearness of ice to the outside, thermometric -observations, and dampness of the air when -the ice melts. Equally with other glacières, the movements -of air in windholes do not depend on the presence -of ice, but the ice does depend on the movements -of air and a water supply at the proper time. A proof -that it is the cold of winter which makes the ice in -windholes, is that the ice is always found at the lower -extremity, for the reason that it is at that end that the -cold air enters and to that end that the water gravitates. -The reason that ice is more rarely found in windholes -than in apparently static caves, is due to the movements -of air. Unlike the caves where the heavy cold -air preserves the ice by remaining pent up, as soon as -the outside temperature rises the heavy cold air in windholes -tumbles out at the lower opening and is replaced -gradually by air at a higher temperature. This also -flows out and when it is above freezing point, it naturally -melts the ice and becomes humid: in fact, it vaporizes -the ice as it passes, and dissipates the moisture -into the outer air.</p> - -<p>It is, however, certain, that in caves with a temperature -some degrees above freezing point, when there is -either running water or strong drips, evaporation may -be, and sometimes undoubtedly is, a factor in lowering -the temperature somewhat.<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> As in some windholes there -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">« 159 »</a></span> -is occasionally moisture on the rock surfaces where the -air current passes, the evaporation from these surfaces -doubtless lowers the temperature of the draughts, and -it may be, also those of the rock surfaces, a little.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> See Part IV.: De Saussure, <a href="#Page_274">page 274</a>. See also <i>Les Abimes</i>, -1894, page 564.</p></div> - -<p>Further observations, however, will be necessary in -regard to evaporation underground, as the data are still -insufficient to make absolutely positive statements.<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> I -fail to see any evidence to show that evaporation ever -lowers the temperature of draughts underground below -freezing point, only that it may help to lower them to -something less than they would otherwise be. Taking -all the facts which I have myself observed, and all I -have read of in the reports of others, my own conclusion -is that we have no proof that evaporation underground -is ever strong enough to produce ice.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Several observers consider evaporation as more or less of a factor -in the production of cold underground. It is suggested also, that -in certain cases, at high altitudes, evaporation tends to prevent the -melting of the ice in windholes, but this is not proved, as yet. See -Part IV.: De Saussure, <a href="#Page_274">page 274</a>; Fugger, <a href="#Page_296">page 296</a>; Trouillet, <a href="#Page_298">page 298</a>; -Martel, <a href="#Page_300">page 300</a>; Lohmann, <a href="#Page_302">page 302</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Time of Formation of Ice.</i>—Everything I have seen -points to the fact that ice begins to form in a cave as -soon as the temperature of the cave has sunk below -freezing point, whenever, from any cause, water gets -into the cave. The cold may begin to penetrate caves -as soon as outside frosts have occurred, that is in the -fall months, about November; and as soon as the temperature -inside sinks below freezing point, ice will begin -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">« 160 »</a></span> -to form, provided also that water gets into the cave, -from rains or springs or any other source.</p> - -<p>In the mid-winter months, although there is then -plenty of cold, the water supply is generally lacking, as -the outside moisture is mostly frozen up and the result -is that the winter months are not those when the ice is -mainly formed. Some is undoubtedly formed in certain -caves whenever during the course of the winter a surface -thaw outside furnishes water to the cave,<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> but in other -cases this is not so and the ice does not appear before -the spring. In all cases it is in the spring, before the -cave has parted with its store of cold, and when both -the air and the rock walls are chilled below freezing -point<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> that the ice forms fastest. Then plenty of water -is furnished by the melting of the snows and the unlocking -of the brooks, and also by early spring rains. -All this surface water runs through the fissures into the -still freezing cave and there becomes ice. Not only the -air, but also the rock walls are chilled below freezing -point, and as the rocks part slowly with the cold stored -in them, this cold helps to freeze the water pouring in.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> See Part III.: Chaux-les-Passavant, <a href="#Page_203">page 203</a>; Saint-Georges, -<a href="#Page_220">page 220</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> See Part IV.: Townson, <a href="#Page_275">page 275</a>; Thury, <a href="#Page_285">page 285</a>; Trouillet, -<a href="#Page_297">page 297</a>; Schwalbe, <a href="#Page_298">page 298</a>; Terlanday, <a href="#Page_301">page 301</a>; Kovarik, -<a href="#Page_307">page 307</a>.</p></div> - -<p>The natural law in relation to time seems to be this: -Ice may be formed in caves as soon as the outside temperature -sinks below freezing point. In some caves it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">« 161 »</a></span> -forms intermittently all through the cold months because -there is a water supply. In other caves it only forms -in the spring, because there is no water supply in the -winter months. In all cases, however, the end of winter -is the time when most of the ice is formed.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">« 162 »</a><br /><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">« 163 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 class="pmt4"><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III">PART III.</a></h2> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<p class="caption2 pmb4">LIST OF GLACIÈRES.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">« 164 »</a><br /><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">« 165 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="center"><span class="caption2">LIST OF GLACIÈRES.</span><a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a> -<a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> This list is necessarily incomplete, and only approximately accurate -in many cases.</p></div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 116px;"> -<img src="images/line_dots.png" width="116" height="13" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3">NORTH AMERICA.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Buried or Fossil Glaciers, North Greenland.</span> -(W. E. Meehan, <i>Philadelphia Ledger</i>, 1896.)—On Robertson’s -Bay is the plateau of the Verhoef Glacier, which -is about 1500 meters long and 400 meters wide, and stands -back only a few meters from the edge of the sea. This -plateau, both top and sides, is a mass of flourishing vegetation, -chiefly grass, which reaches above a man’s knee. -From among this verdure buttercups, poppies, cinquefoils -and dandelions thrust their golden heads in wild profusion. -Similar buried glaciers are found in many places along -the fiords of North Greenland.</p> - -<p>Mr. Meehan gives a simple explanation in connection -with the Verhoef Glacier. He says that this glacier formerly -extended out into the sea, and that while it moved -forward, the clump moss, which struggles for existence -in Greenland gorges, could do little more than hold its -own. In course of time, from some unknown cause, the -glacier receded to the point where it now discharges, the -part in the water floating away in the shape of icebergs, -and the part on the shore remaining stationary. This was -the opportunity for the clump mosses. Caring nothing for -the cold they crept slowly over the quiet mass of ice -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">« 166 »</a></span> -and made their way first in thin net-like layers, later in -thick masses, till they reached the rocky shore. Year -after year the mosses grew, the young plants trampling -underfoot the older; until the latter, rotting, turned into -a rich mould. The seeds of grasses and flowers found -their way to this, blown by the wind or carried on the -feet of birds. The plateau now is a garden of green, -gold and white. How long this will last it is impossible -to say, as any time nature may unloose its hold, and -the frozen river once more pour down into the bay.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Subsoil Ice in Alaska.</span> (I. C. Russell, <i>A Journey -up the Yukon River</i>, page 149, and <i>Second Expedition -to Mount Saint Elias</i>, page 19.)—Professor Russell found -ice covered by rocks and vegetation in several places in -Alaska, especially along the southern edge of the Malaspina -Glacier and on the Yukon River. He gives the -following interesting account in 1890 of these ice sheets: -"Throughout the length of the Yukon, one is frequently -reminded of the high latitude drained by the great river, -by seeing strata of ice in the recently cut banks, beneath -the dense layer of moss and roots forming the surface on -which the forests grow. One may frequently find ice even -on a hot summer’s day, by scraping away the moss at his -feet. In some instances the frozen layer has been penetrated -to the depth of twenty-five feet, but its full depth -has never been ascertained. In the banks of some of the -streams to the north of the lower Yukon, strata of ice over -a hundred feet thick have been observed, and the indications -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">« 167 »</a></span> -are that its total depth is considerably greater than -the portion exposed. This subsoil ice is stagnant and -without the characteristics of glaciers."</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Subsoil Ice in the Klondike Region.</span> (<i>Philadelphia -Ledger</i>, December 30th, 1897.)—The Klondike mining -country is covered with snow most of the year. The -ground is frozen for ten or twelve meters in depth, down -to bed rock. In some places the ground, which is protected -by a thick moss, is not thawed out by the sun in -summer. The miner cuts off the moss with a shovel, -and then builds a fire, which thaws out the ground for -five or ten centimeters. He digs this out, rebuilds a -fire, and then continues this process.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice Cliffs on the Kowak River, Alaska.</span> (Lieutenant -J. C. Cantwell, <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>, -October, 1896.)—On the shores of the Kowak River are a -series of ice cliffs of from about 25 meters to 45 meters in -height. On top of these ice cliffs is a layer of black silt-like -soil some 2 meters in thickness, and from this springs -a luxuriant growth of mosses, grass and Arctic shrubbery. -The melted ice shows a residuum of fine dust, which while -fresh emits a pungent odor.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Subterranean Ice Sheet on Kotzebue Sound.</span> (Otto -von Kotzebue, <i>Entdeckungsreise in die Südsee</i>, etc. Weimar, -1821. Vol. IV., page 140.)—Dr. Eschholz discovered -near Kotzebue Sound, in 1816, a mass of ice more than 30 -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">« 168 »</a></span> -meters thick, and entirely covered with a layer at least 15 -centimeters thick of clay, sand, and earth, on which heavy, -long grass was growing. In the ice and in the soil overlaying -it, were many remains of extinct animals. On the -side towards the ocean the ice was entirely bare, exposed -to sun and air, and much of it was melting away in -streamlets.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Lava Caves, Washington.</span> (R. W. Raymond, -<i>Overland Monthly</i>, 3d November, 1869, page 421. Th. -Kirchhoff, <i>Reisebilder und Skizzen aus America</i>, 1876, -vol. II., page 211. <i>Philadelphia Ledger</i>, September 25th, -1899.)—These caves are distant about four hours from the -foot of Mount Adams, and about 56 kilometers from the -mouth of the White Salmon River, where it falls into the -Columbia River. The caves are in basalt, and they are -connected at both ends with the open air. Only a few of -them contain any ice, which in the largest cave is about -6 meters below the entrance, from which one descends -by a ladder. The cave opens on one side and is some -15 meters in depth, 6 meters or 8 meters in width and -3 meters or 4 meters in height. This part contains the -most ice. The other side gradually narrows from the entrance, -is longer, and reaches out through fallen rocks -and rubbish to daylight. In the lower portion, there are -a few ice stalactites and stalagmites: one a superb, transparent -hillock, which rises nearly to the roof, is called -the Iceberg. A strong draught flows into the cave in -summer through the open arm.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">« 169 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The following paragraphs from the <i>Philadelphia Ledger</i> -probably refer to the same locality:—</p> - -<p>“Ice for the cutting, and that in August and early in -September, is a novelty not often found in regions as far -south as the Columbia River basin; but the novelty is -enjoyed every year by people who visit the ice caves under -the shadow of Mount Adams, about 100 miles northeast -of Portland. It is a very extensive region. Frank McFarland, -who has just returned from a six weeks’ vacation -camping trip there, gives an interesting account of its general -make up.</p> - -<p>“At the ice caves, which are six miles from Trout -Lake, the stalactites are more beautiful and wonderful this -year than ever before, and this was Mr. McFarland’s fifteenth -trip there. He broke off and took to camp chunks -of ice weighing 100 pounds. Pleasure parties who come to -the lake use considerable of the ice for packing their trout -to take home. All you have to do is to take a torch of -pitch pine or a lantern, and go into the big caves and pack -off all the ice you want. It is a sure crop, and never fails.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice Spring in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon.</span> (G. -Gibbs, <i>American Journal of Science and Arts</i>, 1853, Second -Series, vol. XV., page 146.)—The Ice Spring is about 60 -kilometers from the South Pass to the right of the Sweetwater -River. It is situated in a low marshy swale, where -the ground is filled with springs; and about 60 centimeters -below the turf is a sheet of horizontal ice, some 10 centimeters -to 30 centimeters thick, lasting throughout the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">« 170 »</a></span> -year. The ice is clear and is disposed in hexagonal -prisms; it has a slightly saline taste, the ground above it -being impregnated with salt and the water near by tasting -of sulphur.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Lava Caves in Modoc County, California.</span> -(<i>Dispatch</i>, Frankford, Pennsylvania, 22d January, 1897, -reprinted from another paper.)—The lava beds, where the -Modoc Indians made their last stand against the United -States troops, are described as an immense field of lava -covered with a beautiful forest of conifers. Numerous -caves of varying shapes and dimensions are scattered -throughout these lava beds. Some are mere covert ways, -with an arch of stone thrown over them; others are immense -chambers some meters from the surface; another -kind sinks deeply and may be in a series of chambers -united by a corridor that opens at the surface; while -another kind seems to go directly to the centre of the -earth without stopping. Some of these caves contain ice -and from them the Modocs drew their water supply while -besieged by the troops. Judging from what is reported -of the caves the quantity of ice in them must be large. -The thermometer in winter in the region is said to go -as low as -30° C.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Lava Beds near Medicine Lake, Siskiyou -County, Northern California.</span> (M. S. Baker, <i>Sierra -Club Bulletin</i>, 1899. Vol. II., page 318.)—"One other feature -of the lava region must be mentioned—the ice caves. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">« 171 »</a></span> -There are several of these known, and very likely many -more remain undiscovered. Those located along the edge -of the lava, near the cinder cone, I have known to contain -ice and water as late as August. The largest I have -seen is on the Mayfield Road, about twenty miles east of -Bartles. It is situated in the barren lava, and in one of -the warmest localities of the region,—and there are few -cool spots in the lava anywhere. One enters the cave by -crawling down a hole none too large. The instant the -interior is reached the temperature falls in a surprising -way. Not more than ten feet below the surface of the -hot rocks is a bed of ice, covered by a foot or so of ice -water. The body of ice was perhaps twelve or fifteen -feet long, by five feet across in the widest places. This -cave is formed by a fissure that extends a distance of -twenty miles from the ice cave to Pittville, and nearly -coincides with the 4000 foot level, as shown in the map. -Along the southeastern half of this earth fissure the southwest -wall has faulted, leaving a cliff, which, in places, must -be nearly 200 feet high."</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Shafts, Montana.</span>—Mr. Robert Butler, of -San José, Cal., has given me much information about glacières -in Montana. He visited one miners’ shaft which is -situated about 80 kilometers up the Rosebud River from -Rosebud Station on the Northern Pacific R. R., and about -10 kilometers northeast of the Cheyenne Indian Agency. -It is on the north slope of the Little Wolf Mountains, near -the summit, at the head of Greenleaf Creek. The canyon -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">« 172 »</a></span> -and surrounding slopes are covered with a dense growth -of pine. The rock has the appearance of scoriæ caused -by the burning of immense beds of coal in recent geological -times. The rock is broken into comparatively -small pieces. The altitude is some 1200 meters. The -forest, the volcanic ash and the altitude, besides the loose -rock formation, makes this place a natural ice house. -Ten or twelve years ago three prospectors, looking for -silver, sunk a shaft here. At a depth of about 4 meters -it began to grow cold, and at 6 meters they found ice -and imagined they could feel an upward draught. Being -ignorant and superstitious, they became frightened and -abandoned the shaft. During the winter, the snow fills -the shaft half full of ice, which then remains over through -the summer. There is a general report and belief among -those who have visited the well, that it freezes in summer -and thaws in winter. There are thousands of mining -shafts in Montana, and if they are on the north slope -of a mountain of considerable altitude and under a -dense forest and not too deep, they generally have ice at -the bottom during the summer. It is also said to be nothing -new for a miner in following crevices to find them -filled with ice, especially if near the surface on the north -slope of a mountain.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Cave, Fergus County, Montana.</span>—Mr. -Robert Butler, of San José, Cal., visited this place, which -is about 35 kilometers southeast of Lewistown. It is on -the north side of a butte. Masses of ice and great icicles -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">« 173 »</a></span> -form in some parts of the cave in such quantities during -the latter part of winter that the cave furnishes ice for -cooling the drinking water for several dozen families. -During July and August the people come from some -distance around to get the ice. The people in the neighborhood -believe that the ice forms in summer and thaws -away in winter. They also speak of the ever upward -draught of cold air coming possibly from some great -hidden cavern in the lower recesses of the mountain.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Well at Horse Plains, Montana.</span> (Levi -Allen, <i>Scientific American</i>. New Series, 27th October, -1883.)—The well is described as 13.60 meters deep. It is -dug through solid gravel, and in sinking it there was -encountered, at a depth of 10.60 meters, a current of -air strong enough to blow out a candle. It began to -freeze in September, 1882, and in November it was -frozen solid.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Silver Mine, Bighorn County, Wyoming.</span>—This -place is in the Sunlight Basin of the Shoshone -Mountains. Mr. William Worrell Wagner, of Philadelphia, -informs me that he visited it in August, 1897. It is a -silver mine or tunnel, running straight into the mountain -for about 60 meters, at an altitude of about 3300 meters. -The peaks of the Teton range were in sight from the -mouth of the tunnel. For the first half of the way in, a -good many icicles were hanging from the rocks. The last -half of the tunnel was thickly coated with ice and looked -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">« 174 »</a></span> -like a cold storage plant. Snow disappears on the rocks -outside about June, and begins to fall again in September, -so that Mr. Wagner’s visit was at about the hottest time -of the year. Mr. Wagner presented the meat of a bull -wapiti he had shot to the miners, and they stored it in -the mine as if it had been an artificial refrigerator.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Rifts of Ice, Mount McClellan, Colorado.</span> (Edward -L. Berthoud, <i>American Journal of Science and Arts</i>. Third -Series, 1876, vol. XI., page 108.)—Near the summit of -Mount McClellan, is the Centennial Lode, which runs into -the mountain, at an altitude of about 3900 meters. Intercalated -in the mineral vein are three or four well defined -veins of solid ice parallel with the bedding of the rock -and filling all its inner side-cracks and fissures. The -same frozen substratum is found in two other lodes near -by on the same mountain. Nothing of the kind is known -on other Colorado mountains. The soil is loose and -largely made up of rocky débris, which shows that the -ice is probably due to local causes.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Tunnel on the Hagerman Pass, Colorado.</span> -(<i>Philadelphia Press</i>, October 16th, 1897.)—The Hagerman -Pass Railroad line is said to have been abandoned -after the completion of the Busk-Ivanhoe tunnel, but to -have been rebuilt. The Hagerman tunnel for a distance -of over 700 meters was filled with solid ice, and it required -blasting with dynamite, and a month’s continuous labor, -day and night, to dig the ice out.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">« 175 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Cavern in Cow Mountain, Colorado.</span> -(<i>Post Dispatch</i>, St. Louis, Mo., July 13th, 1897, and September -5th, 1897. <i>Mail Order Monthly</i>, St. Paul, Minn., -October, 1899.)—The cave was discovered by parties doing -assessment work on a group of claims. A man was -picking in a three meter hole when he struck his pick -into an opening, which was gradually enlarged and -showed a deep pit underneath. The men got a rope -and descended into an immense cavern full of ice. -Later exploration led to a small hall, some 5 meters in -diameter, full of icicles. From here a fissure led into a -second rock chamber larger than the first. A small hole -in the floor at an angle of some 45° gave access to a -third and larger hall, about 25 meters by 40 meters. Great -masses of ice were found in this, also a small lake, about -12 meters by 20 meters. “Some who have visited the -wonderful discovery are of the opinion that it is a great -cave or fissure in a glacier which for centuries has been -slowly making its way down from Pike’s Peak and whose -waters are now feeding the Arkansas River.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windhole, Arizona.</span> (<i>Christian Herald</i>, March 24th, -1897.)—Mr. Cofman, while drilling a well on his place, is -said to have opened a windhole from which the escaping -air current was strong enough to blow off the hats of the -men who were recovering the lost drill. Some days the -air escapes with such force that pebbles the size of peas -are thrown up, accompanied by a sound much like the -distant bellowing of a fog horn. Again for days there will -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">« 176 »</a></span> -be a suction current, unaccompanied by sound, in which the -current of air passes into the earth with somewhat less -force than when escaping, and any light object, as a feather -or a piece of paper, will be immediately sucked in. The -account is probably exaggerated.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Lava Cave near Flagstaff, Arizona.</span>—Professor -W. B. Scott of Princeton University told me of -this cave, which he had not visited himself. It lies 14.5 -kilometers south of Flagstaff, on the Mesa table land, at -an altitude of about 2000 meters. It was described to -Professor Scott as a double cave, with two floors, one over -the other, the lower containing the most ice. It is in lava, -and can only be entered by crawling in on hands and -knees.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Cave or Gorge, White Mountains, Arizona.</span>—Mr. -Frank Hamilton Cushing has told me of this -place. It is a cleft among lava rock, which being roofed at -the further end, might be described as a cave. In this the -ice remains until June or July, much later than anywhere -else in the neighborhood. The Zuni Indians worship before -this, calling the ice the breath of the Gods, the snow -they consider as a sort of down. The region is arid, -which makes any water precious, and this fact has developed -the element of mysticism about snow and ice -among the Indians.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Cave near Galena, Black Hills, South -Dakota.</span> (Miss L. A. Owen, <i>Cave Regions of the Ozarks -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">« 177 »</a></span> -and Black Hills</i>. Cincinnati, 1898, page 209): “At Galena, -a new mining town of golden promise, there is reported to -be an Ice Cave, where ice forms at all seasons, and during -the warm weather is a source of comfort and pleasure to -the miners.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windholes in the Ozark Mountains, Missouri.</span>—Mr. -H. F. Brinckerhoff, of Aurora, Mo., informs me that there -are a number of cold air current caves in the Ozark Mountain -region. One of them is some 19 kilometers south of -Aurora, Lawrence County, and is used for cold storage in -summer. There is a cave in a limestone bluff about 15 -meters above a river, and in the rear is this windhole, -which is an opening about 30 centimeters high and 3 -meters wide. A strong current of air comes out from it in -summer, and the hotter the air outside, the stronger is the -outward coming current. In winter the current is reversed. -The outward current is so strong in very hot -weather that a handkerchief held in it is straightened out -to an angle of about 45°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Cave and Well at Decorah, Iowa.</span> Described -in Part I. (Dr. C. A. White, <i>Report of Geological -Survey of State of Iowa</i>, 1870, vol. I., page 80. A. F. -Kovarik, <i>Scientific American Supplement</i>, No. 1195, November -26th, 1898, pages 19,158, 19,159).</p> - -<p>On June 1st, 1869, Dr. White found the ice dry and -well frozen, and he thought it was then accumulating. The -cave was cool and apparently dry, and no strong air current -was passing through.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">« 178 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Mr. Alois F. Kovarik, of the Decorah Institute, has -made a valuable series of observations about the Decorah -Cave. The temperatures he observed were the following:</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="tbl_header">IN THE VALLEY,<br />SHADE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">DIVISION.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">LOCUS<br />GLACIALIS.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">END.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July</td> - <td class="tdr">1,</td> - <td class="tdr">1897</td> - <td class="center">+33.3°</td> - <td class="center">+2.2°</td> - <td class="center"> 0.0°</td> - <td class="center"> 0.0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="tdr">27,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">+21.1°</td> - <td class="center">+5.0°</td> - <td class="center"> 0.0°</td> - <td class="center"> 0.0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Aug.</td> - <td class="tdr">14,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">+32.2°</td> - <td class="center">+5.8°</td> - <td class="center">+3.1°</td> - <td class="center"> 0.0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Sept.</td> - <td class="tdr">3,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center"> +32.2°</td> - <td class="center">+7.2°</td> - <td class="center">+3.1°</td> - <td class="center">+8.3°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="tdr">18,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">+33.9°</td> - <td class="center">+8.6°</td> - <td class="center">+6.1°</td> - <td class="center">+8.3°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Oct.</td> - <td class="tdr">16,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">+24.0°</td> - <td class="center">+10.0°</td> - <td class="center">+8.3°</td> - <td class="center">+8.3°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="tdr">30,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">+10.0°</td> - <td class="center">+7.2°</td> - <td class="center">+4.7°</td> - <td class="center">+5.0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dec.</td> - <td class="tdr">11,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-2.2°</td> - <td class="center">-2.7°</td> - <td class="center">-1.1°</td> - <td class="center">-2.0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Jan.</td> - <td class="tdr">8,</td> - <td class="tdr">1898</td> - <td class="center">-0.0°</td> - <td class="center">-2.7°</td> - <td class="center">-3.9°</td> - <td class="center"> 0.0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="tdr">22,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-5.0°</td> - <td class="center">-6.1°</td> - <td class="center">-3.9°</td> - <td class="center">-3.9°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Feb.</td> - <td class="tdr">26,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-0.0°</td> - <td class="center">-6.6°</td> - <td class="center">-6.6°</td> - <td class="center">-5.0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">March</td> - <td class="tdr">12,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">+2.8°</td> - <td class="center">-1.6°</td> - <td class="center">-2.7°</td> - <td class="center">-2.7°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="tdr">26,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">+8.8°</td> - <td class="center">-1.7°</td> - <td class="center">-1.6°</td> - <td class="center">-1.1°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">April</td> - <td class="tdr">16,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">+25.6°</td> - <td class="center">-1.4°</td> - <td class="center">+1.1°</td> - <td class="center">-1.1°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="tdr">30,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">+13.9°</td> - <td class="center">+1.1°</td> - <td class="center">-1.1°</td> - <td class="center">-1.1°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="tdr">28,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center"> +17.2°</td> - <td class="center">+1.7°</td> - <td class="center">-0.3°</td> - <td class="center"> 0.0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June</td> - <td class="tdr">9,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">+25.0°</td> - <td class="center">+1.7°</td> - <td class="center">-0.3°</td> - <td class="center"> 0.0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="tdr">18,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">+22.3°</td> - <td class="center">+1.7°</td> - <td class="center">-0.2°</td> - <td class="center"> 0.0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July</td> - <td class="tdr">16,</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">+35.0°</td> - <td class="center">+7.2°</td> - <td class="center"> 0.0°</td> - <td class="center">+2.2°</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>On the 1st of July, 1897, a cold breeze was noticed -coming from the cave to a distance of at least 30 meters. -At the entrance the breeze was strong enough to blow -out a candle. This breeze was not noticed at other -times. From December to February inclusive, on the -contrary, the breeze was reversed. From July to October, -1897, the walls of the cave were moist. From October -to February they were dry. In February frost began to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">« 179 »</a></span> -appear on the walls. On March 12th, 1898, the walls -were covered with frost. The ice appeared at a spot -nearly at the end of the cave on the 26th of March, 1898. -At a place about 6.50 meters nearer the entrance, however, -is where most ice forms. This place Mr. Kovarik -calls <i>Locus Glacialis</i>. The ice appeared here about the -29th of May, 1898. It increased rapidly up to June 12th, -when it was at its maximum, and was about two meters -in width. It generally covers the north wall from top -to base. The greatest thickness in 1898 was 29 centimeters.</p> - -<p>The temperature which Mr. Kovarik recorded on the -16th of April at <i>Locus Glacialis</i> of +1.1 seems an anomalous -one. On writing to him he sent me the following -explanation: "April 16th, after I left the thermometer at -<i>Locus Glacialis</i> the usual time, I noticed that it registered -+1.1° C. It seemed singular, for at both the Division -and the End, the thermometer registered considerably -lower. I left the thermometer at its place for about an -hour longer, and noticed then that it did not register -differently. I would suggest this explanation: This is -true about water that upon freezing it gives off its latent -heat. Now on April 16th some water dripped into the -cave on the wall near where the thermometer was, about -1.50 meters from the floor. The amount of water was very -small, but as it came in contact with the cold wall it began -to give out its latent heat which affected the close by -thermometer. The temperature of the rock was without -doubt between -1.° and -3°."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">« 180 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Cavern at Brainard, Iowa.</span> (Alois F. Kovarik, -<i>Decorah Public Opinion</i>, September 20th, 1899.)—This -little cave is situated on the north side of a hill -about 1.5 kilometers northwest of Brainard. It is about -4.50 meters deep. On June 10th, 1899, Mr. Kovarik -found the floor and walls covered with ice. The temperature -was 0° C. The owner claims to have taken -enough ice out of it on July 4th, 1897, to freeze cream.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Cave near Elkinsville, Brown County, -Indiana.</span> (Clipping from a western newspaper, 1896.)—The -entrance is said to be overlapped by trees and to -resemble a mine shaft. The winding way leads to a -hollow some 15 meters below the surface, resembling a -broad vaulted corridor, which is known to the natives as -the devil’s chamber and where the temperature is low. -From this point several galleries lead further in, and from -one of them comes a blast of icy cold air. This passage -is similar to the one at the entrance to the cave, but after -a few meters frost is visible, and further on it is thick on -all sides, like the crust that is formed on the pipes of an -ice plant. The narrow way leads to a big chamber, known -as the ice vault. In this dome, which is fully 30 meters in -width, the ice forms a large stalagmite and is of unknown -depth.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Gully on Mount Abraham, Maine.</span> (Jackson, -<i>Report of the Geology of Maine</i>, 1839, III.)—Ice was found -in June at an altitude of 1032 meters among the boulders -in one of the gullies of Mount Abraham.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180f" id="Page_180f"></a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 379px;"> -<img src="images/i180fp.png" width="379" height="450" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">FREEZING CAVERN AT BRAINARD.<br /> - -<div class="tdr">From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">« 181 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Subterranean Ice in King’s Ravine, Mount Adams, -New Hampshire.</span>—Described in Part I., <a href="#Page_1">page 1</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice Gulch on Crescent Mountain, Randolph, New -Hampshire.</span>—Described in Part I., <a href="#Page_83">page 83</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice in a Hole at Dixville Notch, New Hampshire.</span>—Mr. -John Ritchie, Jr., of Boston, has examined this place, -which he is sure is a refrigerator. It is in a hole north of -the cliff and near its top.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice on Mount Garfield, New Hampshire.</span>—Mr. John -Ritchie, Jr., informs me that ice was discovered among the -boulders on the summit of Mount Garfield during the -summer of 1897.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Talus near Rumney, New Hampshire.</span>—Described -in Part I., <a href="#Page_85">page 85</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Talus near North Woodstock, New Hampshire.</span>—Mr. -John Ritchie, Jr., has examined this locality. -He thinks the ice was gone in July, but judges it to be on -the level of an old talus and a couple of meters down.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Well at Lyman, Grafton County, New -Hampshire.</span> (<i>Geology of Vermont</i>, 1861, I., page 197.)—A -well in that town is reported as having been frozen solid -in June, 1816, at a depth of about 2.60 meters from the -surface.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">« 182 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Icy Wells at the Foot of Mount Mansfield, Vermont.</span> -(N. M. Lowe, <i>Science Observer</i>, vol. II., page 58.)—These -are described as being really “incipient caves.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Cave near Manchester, Vermont.</span>—Described -in Part I., <a href="#Page_76">page 76</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice Bed of Wallingford, Rutland County, Vermont.</span> -Described in Part I., <a href="#Page_99">page 99</a>. (S. Pearl Lathrop, <i>American -Journal of Science and Arts</i>, 1844, XLVI., page 331.)—Dr. -Lathrop says that ice has been found at the Ice Bed -as late as September.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Wells at Brandon, Vermont.</span> Described in -Part I., <a href="#Page_77">page 77</a>. (<i>Geology of Vermont</i>, 1861, vol. I., page -192.)—Mr. Hager says that the well was dug into a mass -of sand and gravel, of the kind known as modified drift. -The gravel was frozen at the time of digging. The Boston -Natural History Society, in 1859, sank two wells, one 21 -meters southeast of the original one, the other 21 meters -northwest. The first was 10 meters in depth and did not -reach ice; the second was 11 meters in depth, and came -to the layer of frozen gravel.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave near Brandon, Vermont.</span> (<i>Geology of Vermont</i>, -1861, vol. I., page 197.)—Mr. Hager heard that about 3 -kilometers north of Brandon village was a cavern, in a -hill, in which ice is found most of the summer.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Icy Gulf near Great Barrington, Massachusetts.</span>—Mentioned -in Part I., <a href="#Page_99">page 99</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">« 183 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Icy Glen near Stockbridge, Massachusetts.</span>—Described -in Part I., <a href="#Page_75">page 75</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Snow Hole, New York: near Williamstown, -Massachusetts.</span> Described in Part I., <a href="#Page_98">page 98</a>. (Dewey, -<i>American Journal of Science and Arts</i>, 1819, vol. I., page -340; and 1822, vol. V., page 398.)—Mr. Dewey found, in -June, snow 2 meters deep on ice of unknown depth. On -his second visit he found less ice and snow than on his -first visit, as the trees in the neighborhood had been -cut down.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière near Williamstown, Massachusetts.</span>—Described -in Part I., <a href="#Page_101">page 101</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Well near Ware, Massachusetts.</span>—(<i>Geology -of Vermont</i>, 1861, vol. I., page 197.)—Depth 11.5 -meters. This is in a sand and gravel formation much -like that at Brandon, except that there is less clay, and -that none of the pebbles are limestone.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Wolfshollow near Salisbury, Connecticut.</span> (C. A. -Lee, <i>American Journal of Science and Arts</i>, 1824, vol. -VIII., page 254.)—In the eastern portion of the township, -at an altitude of about 800 meters, is a chasm about 100 -meters long, 18 meters deep and 12 meters wide. It -is in mica-slate, and is sheltered by large trees. At the -bottom at one end is a spring of cold water and a cave -of considerable extent, in which ice and snow is found -the greater part of the year.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">« 184 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Natural Ice House, near Meriden, Connecticut.</span> -(Benjamin Silliman, <i>American Journal of Science and -Arts</i>, 1822, vol. IV., page 174.)—It lies between New -Haven and Hartford, about 32 kilometers from the sea, -at an altitude of about 60 meters. The ice is found in -a narrow defile of perpendicular trap rock, at the bottom -filled with broken stones. The defile is so placed that in -summer the sun only shines into it for about an hour -each day; it is also well protected by surrounding trees, -the leaves from which form beds at the bottom among -the rocks and help to protect the ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Natural Ice House of Northford, Connecticut.</span> -(Benjamin Silliman, <i>American Journal of Science and -Arts</i>, 1822, vol. IV., page 177.)—About 11 kilometers from -New Haven on the Middletown road between Branford -and Northford, is a gorge where ice remains throughout -the year. In this case the ice is mixed with a considerable -quantity of leaves and dirt; it has sometimes been -brought to New Haven.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice in an Old Iron Mine, near Port Henry, Lake -Champlain.</span> (<i>Geology of Vermont</i>, 1861, vol. I., page -199.)—Ice was found during the summer at a depth of -from 15 meters to 30 meters, and a current of cold air -was issuing from the opening. There seems to be more -than one opening to the mine.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Talus on Lower Ausable Pond, Essex -County, New York.</span>—Described in Part I., <a href="#Page_79">page 79</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">« 185 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Talus at the South Base of the Giant of -the Valley, Essex County, New York.</span>—Described in -Part I., <a href="#Page_81">page 81</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Boulder Talus, Indian Pass, New York.</span> -See Part I., <a href="#Page_83">page 83</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Boulder Talus, Avalanche Pass, New -York.</span>—See Part I., <a href="#Page_83">page 83</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Cave near Carlisle, New York.</span>—See -Part I., <a href="#Page_93">page 93</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice among the Catskill Mountains, New York.</span>—Mr. -George Brinton Phillips informs me that he has -seen subterranean ice in August among boulders in a -gorge in the Catskills near the Stony Cloves road, starting -out from Haines’ Falls. The people in the neighborhood -speak of the place as an ice cave.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Gorge in the Shawangunk Mountains, near Ellenville, -Ulster County, New York.</span> Described in -Part I., <a href="#Page_91">page 91</a>. (Heilprin, <i>Around the World</i>, 1894, page -194.)—Professor Heilprin found in July a mass of ice -measuring about thirty meters in length and 1 meter in -depth. The thermometer near the ice read about 1° C. -above freezing point, the day being hot. Icicles hung -from the ledges on the side of the gorge.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Gorge at Sam’s Point, New York.</span>—See -Part I., <a href="#Page_93">page 93</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">« 186 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice Deposits and Windholes at Watertown, New -York.</span>—Described in Part I., <a href="#Page_86">page 86</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Well near Tioga, New York.</span>—Depth, 23 -meters. No information.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Well near Prattsburg, New York.</span>—Depth, -6.5 meters. No information.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Well near Owego, New York.</span> Described -in Part I., <a href="#Page_74">page 74</a>. (D. O. Macomber, <i>American Journal of -Arts and Sciences</i>, 1839, vol. XXXVI., page 184. <i>Well’s -Annual of Scientific Discovery</i>, 1856, page 190.)—The -thermometer is said to have stood at—1.2° at the bottom -of the biggest well when it registered—20° outside. -When a candle was let down, the flame became -agitated and was thrown in one direction at the depth -of 9 meters; at the bottom the flame was still, but soon -died out. Large masses of ice were found in the biggest -well as late as July, and the men who made the -well were forced to put on thick clothing in June, and -even so could not work for more than two hours at a -time.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave in the Panama Rocks, Chautauqua, New York.</span> -The Rev. Horace C. Hovey informs me that he has been -in a small cave in this locality, and that he found ice in it.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave in Sussex County, New Jersey.</span>—A clipping from -a newspaper, with neither name nor date, says that new -ice is found daily on the land of Peter Feather, in the -mouth of an unexplored cavern. A small stream of water -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">« 187 »</a></span> -runs out of the cavern and forms a pool at the opening, -and here it is that the ice forms. Enough has been taken -in one day to freeze two cans of ice cream. A cold -draught of air issues continuously from the cavern.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Hole Containing Ice on Blue Mountain, New Jersey.</span> -Reported; no information.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Gorge Containing Ice on Bald Eagle Mountain, -Clinton County, Pennsylvania.</span>—Mr. Henry Chapman -Mercer, of Doylestown, learned of the existence of this -gorge during the summer of 1897. It is near the village -of McElhatten, in the neighborhood of Lock Haven, and is -some 3 kilometers distant from the Susquehanna River. -Ice is said to remain over during the entire summer.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Cave and Windholes near Farrandsville, -Clinton County, Pennsylvania.</span>—Described in Part I., -<a href="#Page_93">page 93</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Underground Ice Formations, Sullivan County, -Pennsylvania, on the southwestern borders of Lycoming -County.</span>—Mr. W. Coleman Hall of Philadelphia, -about twenty years ago, found ice in two or three -places, on Bear Creek, north of Muncy Creek, about -25 kilometers north of the Susquehanna River, and -southwest of Eagles Mere. The ice was under rocks, -in what may be described as limestone sinks. Since -the destruction of the forest, the ice has become less -abundant, if indeed any still forms.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">« 188 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacières in Abandoned Coal Mines near Summit, -Carbon County, Pennsylvania.</span>—Described in Part I., -<a href="#Page_95">page 95</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice Cave Railroad Station, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania.</span> -On the Bowman Creek branch of the Lehigh -Valley R. R.—Mr. F. Holschuh, agent at Luzerne, informs -me that about 2 kilometers from Ice Cave Station -is a little waterfall on the side of a mountain which was -formerly covered with dense forest. A short distance below -the fall, a large hollow place has been worn out of -the rocks by the action of the water. The overhanging -rocks give this almost the appearance of a cave. While -the forest was still thick and when the winter was cold, -ice would form under these rocks and would not disappear -until summer was well advanced. The station was -called Ice Cave on account of this place.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Hole Containing Ice at Millerstown, Pennsylvania.</span>—Reported; -no information.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Talus at Spruce Creek, Huntingdon -County, Pennsylvania.</span> Described in Part I., <a href="#Page_90">page 90</a>. -The <i>Philadelphia Ledger</i> of July 6th, 1896, states that -around the boulders where the ice lies, there are found -varieties of plants strongly arctic in character.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice Mountain, Hampshire County, Virginia.</span> (C. B. -Hayden, <i>American Journal of Science and Arts</i>, 1843, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">« 189 »</a></span> -vol. XLV., page 78.)—It lies on the North River, near -the road leading from Winchester to Romney, at an altitude -of from about 220 meters to 240 meters. One -side of the hill is entirely composed of loose stones, -among which an abundance of ice is found at all times, -although the sun shines on the upper surface of the -stones from ten in the morning until sunset. The ice -is regularly used in summer by the people near by. -Constant and strong air currents issue from the crevices -in the rocks. Similar, but smaller accumulations, -are said to occur in the same county. Mrs. George B. -Balch visited the Ice Mountain in August, 1878. She -saw no ice, but the air under the stones was very cold.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Blowing Cave, Bath County, Virginia.</span>—Mrs. Horace -Jayne informs me that there is a blowing cave near -the Cowpasture River, about half way on the old stage -road between Millboro and Warm Springs. A draught -flows out from it, strong enough to blow the grass about, -three or four meters away. The draught is cold, perhaps -abnormally so. The cave has not yet been explored.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">SOUTH AMERICA.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ice Sheets on Mount Chimborazo.</span> (A. von Humboldt, -<i>Travels to the Equinoctial Regions</i>, London, 1814, -vol. I., page 156.)—“On Chimborazo, enormous heaps -of ice are found covered with sand, and in the same -manner as at the Peak [of Teneriffe] far below the -inferior limit of the perpetual snows.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">« 190 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Tierra del Fuego.</span> (A. Winchel, <i>Walks and Talks</i>, -1898, page 122.)—“On Tierra del Fuego ice and lava -are found interstratified for a great depth, each winter’s -snow being covered by a new lava sheet.”</p> - - -<p class="caption3">TENERIFFE.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">La Cueva de la Nieve or del Hielo.</span> (Humboldt, -<i>Travels to the Equinoctial Regions</i>, 1814, vol. I., pages 154, -156. C. Piazzi Smyth, <i>Teneriffe, an Astronomer’s Experiment</i>, -1858, page 348.)—La Cueva de la Nieve lies -at an altitude of 3267 meters in the Malpays on the -Peak of Teneriffe, just below the snow line. It is in -obsidian. The entrance is 3.6 meters high and 2.7 meters -broad. The grotto is 36 meters long, 6 meters -wide, and 4 meters high. The descent into the cave is -so steep that it is necessary to be lowered by ropes. -Professor Smyth found in July an ice floor about 60 -centimeters thick which was covered with water. A -good deal of snow was lying near the mouth of the -cave. The walls were covered with ice and icicles and -a few small ice cones rose on the ice floor.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">ICELAND.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Surtshellir or Cave of Surtur.</span> (Olafsen and -Povelsen, <i>Voyage en Islande</i>, Paris, 1802. Henderson, -<i>Iceland</i>, 1819, 2d ed., page 420. Guimard, <i>Voyage en -Islande</i>, page 481.)—The Surtshellir lies in the volcanic -waste of Westisland, and is in lava which has flowed from -the Bald Jokul. The approach is through an open chasm. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">« 191 »</a></span> -The length of the cave is 1534 meters, with an average -width of from 15 meters to 17 meters, and a nearly uniform -height of from 9 meters to 11 meters. In four -places the roof is broken and allows daylight to enter. A -great deal of ice is sometimes found in the cave, in the -shape of an ice floor, transparent icy pillars, hanging icy -pendants, and columns and arches of ice along the walls. -Some of the pillars have been found 2.50 meters high.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Kutlagaya.</span> (A. Winchel, <i>Walks and Talks</i>, 1898, -page 122.)—“In 1860 the crater of the mountain Kutlagaya, -in Iceland, hurled out simultaneously into the air -lumps of lava and ice, all intermingled together.”</p> - - -<p class="caption3">SCANDINAVIA.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ice in the Mines of Nordmark.</span> (Jars, <i>Voyages -Métallurgiques</i>, 1774, page 105.)—13 kilometers north -of Philipstadt, Wermeland, Sweden, a number of holes -were dug, some to a depth of 120 meters. Ice of some -thickness formed in some of these towards the end of -winter, and lasted until about September, despite the -fires of the workmen.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Persberg Iron Mines, Sweden.</span> (J. Prestwich, <i>Collected -papers</i>, etc., on page 206, quotes Dr. Clark’s <i>Travels -in Scandinavia.</i>)—Ice is said to have been found on the -sides and bottom of the mine to a depth of about 135 -meters.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">« 192 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice Caves Reported in Norway.</span>—I was told in Norway -that some of the caves in the mountains near the -Swartisen ice field contained ice, but I do not know -whether this is true. I suspect that there are glacier ice -caves which have given rise to this report.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">ENGLAND.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Helvellyn, Cumberland.</span> (Wordsworth, <i>Fidelity</i>.)—The -following verses were pointed out to me by Mr. -Bunford Samuel. As far as I know they are the only -poetry about glacières:—</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“It was a cove, a huge recess<br /></span> -<span class="i1">That keeps, till June, December’s snow;<br /></span> -<span class="i1">A lofty precipice in front,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">A silent tarn below!<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Far in the bosom of Helvellyn,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Remote from public road or dwelling<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Pathway or cultivated land<br /></span> -<span class="i1">From trace of human foot or hand."<br /></span> -</div></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice in an Old Copper Mine, Cumberland.</span> (J. Clifford -Ward, <i>Nature</i>, vol. XI., page 310.)—Ice reported as a -rare occurrence.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ludchurch Chasm, Staffordshire.</span> (R. K. Dent and -Joseph Hill’s <i>Historic Staffordshire</i>, quote Dr. Plot, -1686.)—Mr. Bunford Samuel called my attention to this -book, in which Dr. Plot is quoted as saying that as late as -the 17th of July, snow has been found in Ludchurch -Chasm. Messrs. Dent and Hill do not mention anything -of the kind as occurring now.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">« 193 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Blowing Cave in Denbighshire, Wales.</span>—A newspaper -cutting says that there are such strong eruptions of -winds from a cave in this neighborhood as to toss back to -a great height in the air any article of apparel thrown in.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Tin Croft Mine, Cornwall.</span> (J. Prestwich, <i>Collected -papers</i>, etc., page 206, quotes Mr. Moyle.)—Ice has been -found in abundance in this mine at a depth of nearly 100 -meters.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">CENTRAL EUROPE.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant.</span> Described in -Part I., <a href="#Page_8">page 8</a>. (Poissenot, <i>Nouvelles Histoires Tragiques -de Benigne Poissenot, licencié aux lois. A Paris, -chez Guillaume Bichon, rue S. Jacques, a l’enseigne du -Bichot, 1586, avec privilege du Roy</i>, pages 436-453. Gollut, -<i>Les Mémoires historiques de la Repub. Sequanoise, et -des princes de la Franche Comté de Bourgogne, par M. -Lois Gollut, Advocat au Parlement de Dôle; A Dôle, -1592</i>. Trouillet, <i>Mémoires de la Société d’Émulation du -Doubs, 1885</i>. Girardot, <i>Mémoires de la Société d’Émulation -du Doubs, 1886</i>.)</p> - -<p>The earliest notice of a glacière which I have been -able to find is in the shape of a letter giving an account -of a visit to the Glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant -in 1584, by Benigne Poissenot, a French lawyer. The -account, which I have translated as literally as possible, -is in a special chapter, as follows:—</p> - -<p>"<span class="smcap">Sir</span>:—Since our separation, I have had this pleasure -(<i>heut</i>) to hear news of you only once, having found -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">« 194 »</a></span> -your brother in Paris; who, having assured me of your -good health (<i>disposition</i>), informed me of how since we -had seen each other you had travelled to Italy, even -as far as Greece, of which you had seen a large portion: -and that sound and safe, after so long a journey, you -had reappeared and landed at Havre de Grace where -you wished to go, that is to say at home. All the -pleasure which a friend can receive, knowing the affairs -of another self, joined to such a happy result, seized my -heart, at the recital of such agreeable news: and I did -not fail shortly after, to write you amply all which had -happened to me since I left you until my return to -France: congratulating you at having escaped from marine -abysses and perilous passages on land, on which -travellers are often constrained to risk their life. From -this time, I have always stayed in Paris or in the neighborhood, -according to the good pleasure of dame fortune, -who ruled me in her wise and fed me with her -dishes the most common and ordinary until the first day -of January of the year 1584, when I received my first -gift in the shape of a strong and violent disease, which -tormented me more than a month: from which, having -become cured with the help of God, and having with -time recovered my health and my strength at the arrival -of spring, I was seized with the desire to smell the -air of the country. And in fact having thrown away -my pen and travelled about (<i>battu l’estrade</i>) through -high and low Burgundy, I stopped at Bezenson, Imperial -City, to spend the summer. This city is still to day -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">« 195 »</a></span> -just the same as Julius Cæsar describes it, in the notable -mention he makes of it, in the first book of his commentaries -of the war in Gaul, there remaining there all -the vestiges of the most remarkable things, which he -tells of in his description. There are also very fine -fountains, from all of which water streams from the representation -of some god of antiquity, as a Neptune, a Bacchus, -a Pan, a Nereide or others: except before the state -house, where the statue of Charles the Fifth, representing -him in a most natural manner, is placed on an eagle, -which from its beak, pours out such a great quantity of -water that this is the most beautiful, among all the other -fountains. And as I do not doubt that while traversing -Italy, you both saw and examined with curiosity the most -handsome singularities, which presented themselves to -your eyes and that on your return, passing through -Avignon and Dauphiné, as your brother informed me, -you had the advantage over me of seeing the wonders of -the country, of which you had heard me speak sometimes, -regretting that the war, during the time I was in that -quarter, had prevented my going to the spot, to see the -burning fountain as in Dodone, and the fountain called -Jupiter, which torches of fire light up and which grows -less till midday and then grows till midnight, and then diminishes -and fails at midday: and another in Epirus which -we call to day Albania, the tower without venom and the -inaccessible mountain: then as I said, since you have -contemplated these things and several others not less -admirable, I wish to entertain you about a marvel which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">« 196 »</a></span> -I saw, during my sojourn in Bezenson, to know from you, -whether in all your journey, you saw a similar thing. -Know then that the day of the festival of St. John Baptist, -a young man, provided with an honest knowledge, -with whom I had made some little acquaintance, presented -me with an icicle, to cool my wine at dinner, and -which I admired greatly, on account of the time of the -year in which we then were, begging him who gave it -to me to tell me where he had discovered this rare present -for that time. He answered me that every year, the -day of the solemnity of the festival of St. John Baptist, -the inhabitants of a village, which he named, were bound -to come to offer the great church of St. John of Bezenson, -a goodly quantity of ice, which they got in a wood, -and brought to town at night on horses, for fear that by -day it should melt, and that one of his cronies had given -to him what he had given to me.</p> - -<p>“Suddenly there flamed up in me a desire to see this -place, where in the height of the summer, ice was to be -found. When he who had presented me with the icicle -saw this, he promised to accompany me, not having as yet, -any more than myself, seen this marvel. I did not hatch -very long this decision, all the more as all those, to whom -I mentioned it, encouraged me to carry it out as soon as I -could, assuring me that I should see a strange thing, and -that even the Duke of Alva on his return from Flanders, -passing through Franche Comté, had wished to see this -novelty. Therefore calling on the promise of the one -who was the cause of undertaking this journey, we went -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">« 197 »</a></span> -together to Versey, a fine town, distant five leagues from -Bezenson, turning a little off our direct route, to go to -see a literary man, at this said Versey, who having called -on me at Bezenson, had extracted from me the promise of -going to see him. There happened to me in this spot, -what the poet du Bellay says happened to him, on his -return from Italy, passing through the Grisons, to go into -France: who, after having chanted the troubles there are -in the passage, says that the Swiss made him drink so -much, that he does not remember anything he saw in that -country. Likewise, I can assure you that my host, following -the custom of those of the country (who do not think -they are treating a man properly if they do not make him -drink a lot, taking that from the Germans, their neighbors) -made us carouse so well, that when we went to bed, we -were very gay boys. For although we had both made an -agreement on the road, yet our host knew so well how to -win us over, saying that those who would not drink, gave -reason to think badly of them, and that they had committed, -or wished to commit some great crime, which they -feared to give away in drinking, that in the end we let -ourselves go, passing the time in Pantagruelic fashion. -The next morning having taken some “hair from the -beast” and a guide which our host gave to us to conduct -us to the <i>Froidiere</i>—we continued our wanderings, and -arrived at a little village called Chaud, joining a large -wood, where our guide told us, that although he had been -more than six times to the <i>Froidiere</i>, yet the road was so -tortuous and so cut up by small paths, that if we did not -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">« 198 »</a></span> -take a man from this village, to be more sure, we might -spend more than half a day in the wood, before finding -what we were seeking. Getting off our horses now, we -added to our company a native of the place, who having -led us by crooked roads, about a quarter of a league, -through the forest, made us enter into a close thicket and -by a little path led us to a pleasant meadow; where, -looking down, we saw a hole, of difficult descent, at the -bottom of which was the opening of a grotto, pretty big, -and so awful and terrifying to see, that one would have -said, it was the mouth of Hell. And in truth, I remembered -then, the hole of St. Patrick, which is said to be in -Hibernia. We were not brave enough knights, to try the -adventure, my companion and I, if our guides had not -taken the lead. After whom we descended as magnanimously -as the Trojan Duke followed the Sybil to the -Plutonic realms, the sword half drawn from the scabbard, -and well determined to make test of the Platonic doctrine, -which teaches that demons can be dissected, in case any -shade or spook should have come to meet us. About the -middle of the way, we began to feel in descending a very -agreeable freshness; for it was the second day of July and -the sun shone very warmly, which made us sweat drop by -drop. But we had good opportunity to refresh ourselves -and put ourselves to cool, having reached the grotto which -we found of the length and breadth of a large hall, all -paved with ice in the bottom, and where a crystalline water, -colder than that of the mountains of Arcadia Nonacris, -streamed from many small brooklets, which formed very -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">« 199 »</a></span> -clear fountains, with the water of which I washed myself -and drank so eagerly, that I had wished the thirst of Tantalus, -or else that I had been bitten by a Dipsas, in order -to be always thirsty, amid such a pleasant beverage. A -great lord, who in some pleasure resort, should have such -a refrigerator in summer, could boast according to my -judgment, to be better provided with drink, than the kings -of Persia were with their river Coaspis, which engulphs -itself into the Tigris, the water whereof was so sweet, that -the use of it was allowed only to the great King, for the -retinue and cronies of his household. Do not think, that -among these delights, I was at all free from fear, for never -did I raise my eyes above that from terror my whole body -shivered and the hair stood up on my head, seeing the -whole roof of the grotto, covered with big massive icicles, -the least of which, falling on me, had been sufficient to -scramble up my brains and knock me to pieces; so much -so that I was like to that criminal, whom they say is -punished in Hell, by the continual fear of a big stone, -which seems as though it must suddenly fall on his ears. -There are besides the large hall of the grotto, some rather -roomy corners, where the gentlemen of the neighborhood, -put their venison to cool in summer, and we saw the -hooks, where they hang the wild fowl. It is true, that -when we were there, we saw neither game nor wild fowl, -and I think, that if we had found any of it, we were men -to carry off some of it. We walked around for about a -quarter of an hour, in this <i>Froidiere</i> and we should have -staid there longer if the cold had not driven us out; which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">« 200 »</a></span> -struck in to our backs, even to make our teeth crack; we -reascended the slope, not forgetting, all of us as many as -we were, to provide and load ourselves with ice, which -served us at lunch in the little village mentioned above to -drink most delightfully, assuring you that it is impossible -to drink more freshly than we drank then. I thought of -those old voluptuaries, who cooled their wine with snow, -and it seemed to me, as though they might have had it -much cheaper if in their time there had been many such -<i>Froidieres</i>, to refresh it with ice, instead of with snow, -as some of the gentlemen of the neighborhood of the -<i>Froidiere</i> and some of the most notable persons of the -neighborhood of Bezenson do; who by night, have a -good supply brought on horses, which they keep in their -caves, and use at their meals and banquets. Turning -back towards the Imperial city of Bezenson, I carried for -about two great leagues, a rather large icicle in my hands, -which little by little melted and was a pleasant and agreeable -cooler, on account of the great heat of the weather. -After having thought over in my mind, the cause of this -<i>antiperistase</i>, I could find none other but this: to wit, that -as heat domineers in summer, the cold retires to places -low and subterranean, such as is this one, to which the rays -of the sun cannot approach, and that in such an aquatic -and humid place, it operates the results, which we have -shown above. Which seemed to me so much more likely, -that on asking the peasants of the neighboring village, if -in winter there was ice in this <i>Froidiere</i>, they answered me -that there was none, and that on the contrary, it was very -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">« 201 »</a></span> -warm there. Whatever may be the cause, whether this or -another, I can assure you, that I admired this singularity -as much as any I have seen, since a large church, cut into -a rock which I had seen a few years previously, in a little -town of Gascony called St. Milion, distant seven leagues -from Bordeaux; on the steeple of which is the cemetery, -where they bury the dead; a thing to be marvelled at by -him who has not seen it.</p> - -<p>“I have made trial, to enrich this missive, with all -the artifice which has come into my head, using the leisure, -which the present time brings me: as the temple of -Janus is open, the air beyond breathing nothing but war: -which forces me, against my wish, to sojourn in this place -longer than I had intended. If these troubles settle -down, and if after the rain, God sends us fine weather as -requires the calamitous state in which is now the flat -country, I shall return to my Parnassus; from which if -I go out hereafter, believe that it will be very much in -spite of myself, or that my will will have very much -changed. You will be able to let me hear from you there, -and take your revenge for the prolixity of this letter, by -sending me one still longer, which you will write to me -with more pleasure, as I shall take much in reading it. -However as it is becoming time to sound taps, I will pray -the sovereign creator for my affectionate recommendations -to your graces.</p> - -<p>“Sir, and best friend, may you keep in health and have -a long and happy life. From Sens this 20th of June 1585.</p> - -<p>“Your obedient friend, BENIGNE POISSENOT.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">« 202 »</a></span></p> - -<p>“End of the description of the marvel, called the -<i>Froidiere</i>.”</p> - -<p class="pmt2">The next notice about the Glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant -is by Gollut in 1592, as follows:—</p> - -<div class="sidenote">“Ices in<br /> -summer.”</div> - -<p>“I do not wish however to omit (since I am -in these waters) to bring to mind the commodity, -which nature has given to some dainty men, since -at the bottom of a mountain of Leugné ice is found in -summer, for the pleasure of those who wish to drink -cool. Nevertheless at this time, this is disappearing, for -no other reason (as I think) except, that they have despoiled -the top of the mountain, of a thick and high mass -of woods, which did not permit that the rays of the sun -came to warm the earth, and dry up the distillations, -which slipped down to the lowest and coldest part of the -mountain where (<i>by antiperistase</i>) the cold got thicker, -and contracted itself against the heats surrounding and -in the neighborhood during the whole summer, all the -external circumference of the mountain.”</p> - -<p>The ice at Chaux-les-Passavant is said to have been -entirely cleared out, by the Duc de Lévi, in 1727, for the -use of the Army of the Saone. In 1743, when de Cossigny -visited the cave, the ice was formed again. There -are no reports about the intervening time between 1727 -and 1743. The ice probably all re-formed the winter after -it was taken away.</p> - -<p>Captain Trouillet in 1885 writes of Chaux-les-Passavant: -"The following winter had shown itself unfavorable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">« 203 »</a></span> -to the production of ice, the periods of humidity -preceding too long ahead the periods of frost. Finally -last summer, coming after a wet spring, was exceptionally -warm. Such were the circumstances which brought about -in the glacière the ruin which could be seen at the end of -last October. * * * On the 11th of November, the first -effects of frost are felt and the temperature falls in the -glacière to -2°: outside the thermometer drops to -3°. -On the morning of the 12th, same result, and ice makes -its appearance in the grotto, as the report of the observer -shows: but the quantity produced is so small that -the internal thermometer soon goes above 0°. It is only -on the 9th of December that the frost wins definitely; on -the 11th, 12th and 13th the chill is intense and reaches --19° outside, stopping at -15° in the glacière. The water -coming from the rains between the 5th and the 9th drip -at this time through the roof and the big side crevasse: -circumstances grow favorable and the ice accumulates. -From the 17th, the entrance slope becomes almost impracticable; -the icicles grow on the roof, as big as the -body of a man. * * * From this time to the end of -December, the ice sheet does not increase, for water only -arrives by the rare drip of the roof, and only the stalactites -increase slowly. Outside, however, the cold continues -vigorously, the thermometer on the 31st of December -dropping to -15° and to -13° in the glacière. If the -production of the ice stops, it is not the cold which is -wanting, but the other element, the one which as our -former study showed, is the most rarely exact at the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">« 204 »</a></span> -meeting. The winter is only favorable on condition that -it offers alternating periods of freezing and thawing; so -the observer writes in his report: 'it is the water which -is wanting, otherwise the glacière would be magnificent.'"</p> - -<p>Trouillet speaks of the difficulty of winter observations -in the following words: “Mons. Briot, the present lessor of -the glacière, has the unpaid mission of going every week -to the bottom of the grotto to get and put in place the -interior thermometer. It is a really hard piece of work -at this time of the year: each journey takes about one -hour. Besides the chance that a visitor has of receiving -on his head one of those magnificent stalactites 1 meter or -2 meters long which fall continually from the roof, it is -perfectly disagreeable to him to arrive at the base of the -slope otherwise than on the sole of his boots, and to face -thus the frequent and painful meeting with rocks whose -angular edges dot the surface of the descent, smooth as -a mirror set at an angle of 30°.”</p> - -<p>Trouillet and Girardot obtained a series of observations -with maxima and minima thermometers at Chaux-les-Passavant -during the winter of 1885-1886. At the -end of November the temperature inside was +2°. On -the 2d of December it rose to +2.5°. On the 10th of -December, it sank to -1°, and after this date, it remained -below freezing point all winter. The observations -were not continuous, but they showed that every -time the temperature outside dropped considerably, the -temperature inside immediately did likewise. For instance, -on the 12th of January, the outside air dropped -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">« 205 »</a></span> -to -18°, and the inside air responded by falling to --15°. On the other hand, when the temperature outside -rose above freezing point, the temperature inside -remained stationary or fluctuated only gently. For instance, -from the 24th of March to the 8th of April, the -outside air went up and down perpetually, the extremes -being -2° and +16°; while in the same time the inside -air rose continuously from -2° to -0.5°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windholes and Ice Formations near Gérardmer, -Vosges.</span> (Rozet, in <i>Encyclopédie Moderne</i>, Didot Frères, -Paris, 1853, vol. XVI., page 503.)</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">L’Abime du Creux-Percé or Glacière de Pasques.</span> -(Martel, <i>Les Abimes</i>, 1894, page 394; <i>Annuaire du Club -Alpin Français</i>, vol. XIX., page 38.)—On the plateau of -Langres, Côte d’Or. It lies 15 kilometers from Dijon, -and is really a limestone rock gorge, of 55 meters in -depth, which at the top is 40 meters long and 20 meters -wide, and at the bottom is 15 meters long and 12 meters -wide. In March 1892, Mons. Martel found the north side -covered with large icicles 15 meters long. The ice seems -to remain throughout the year. The bottom of the Abime -has been reached only by means of two long rope ladders.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Creux de Chevroche or Roche Chèvre, Côte d’Or.</span> -(Clément Drioton, <i>Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie</i>, -1897, vol. I., page 209.)—"In the woods of Mavilly, -near Bligny-sur-Ouches, is a little cave, called Creux de -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">« 206 »</a></span> -Chevroche or Roche-Chèvre, where one can find ice until -the month of July."</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Freezing Well of Marolles, at La Ferté-Milon, -Aisne.</span> (Martel, <i>Les Abimes</i>, page 563, note 2.)—This -well is 8.15 meters deep; the altitude is 70 meters. -During the winter of 1892-93 the water in it froze for a -thickness of 15 centimeters. The minimum outside temperature -that year was -17°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windholes near Pontgibaud, Puy de Dome.</span> (G. Poulett-Scrope, -<i>The Geology and Extinct Volcanoes of Central -France</i>, 1858, page 60.)—These windholes are in basalt. -There are many cracks, whence cold air currents issue, -and where ice has been found, sometimes in summer. -There are cold storage huts over some of the cracks.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Le Creux-de-Souci, Puy de Dome.</span> (Martel, <i>Les -Abimes</i>, 1894, Page 387.)—This is situated 5 kilometers -southeast of Besse-en-Chandesse. It is a large lava cavern -with the entrance directly in the middle of the roof. -The bottom is partly filled by a lake. The depth from the -surface of the ground to the lake is 33 meters; from the -smallest part of the opening to the lake the depth is -21.50 meters. Down this last portion one can descend -only by means of a rope ladder. The temperature is -extremely low; in general near freezing point. In June, -July, August and November 1892, Monsieur Berthoule, -<i>maire</i> of Besse, did not find any snow. On the 10th of -August, 1893, on the contrary, he found at the bottom a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">« 207 »</a></span> -heap of snow, which he thinks was formed in the cave -itself, by the freezing during their descent of the drops -of water which are constantly dripping from the roof. -He reports landing on <i>une montagne de neige, de neige -blanche</i>. On several visits, Mons. Berthoule noticed carbonic -acid gas in dangerous quantities. There was none -at the time he observed the snow heap, but ten days later -he found it impossible to descend into the cave as the -carbonic acid gas came up in puffs to the entrance. In -the lake, Mons. Berthoule discovered a variety of Rotifer, -<i>Notholca longispina</i>, and also several algæ and diatoms. -The <i>Asterionella formosa</i> is the most remarkable from its -abundance: it exists in some of the lakes of the Alps, -but not in those of the Pyrenees.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Aven de Lou Cervi, Vaucluse.</span> (Martel, <i>Les Abimes</i>, -page 563.)—This is a cold cave. It belongs to the class -which Mons. Martel calls <i>avens à rétrécissement</i>, or <i>abimes à -double orifice</i>. In September, 1892, Mons. Martel noted a -temperature of 6.5° at 53 meters; of 6.8° at 64 meters. -Mean temperature of locality, 8.75°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Igue de Biau, Lot.</span> (Martel, <i>Les Abimes</i>, page 304.)—Cold -cave. Temperature on 13th July, 1891: 5°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Fosse Mobile, Charente.</span> (Martel, <i>Les Abimes</i>, page -380.)—Cold cave. Temperature on 11th April, 1893: 7°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Aven de Deidou, Causse Méjean.</span> (Martel, <i>Les -Abimes</i>, page 223.)—Cold cave. Temperatures on 14th -October, 1892: outside air, 4°; at bottom, 6.5°.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">« 208 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Aven des Oules, Causse Méjean.</span> (Martel, <i>Les -Abimes</i>, page 227.)—Cold cave. Temperatures on 21st -October, 1892: outside air, 2.5°; at bottom, 4°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windhole Cold Caves near Roquefort, Aveyron.</span>—They -lie 13 kilometers from Millau, at an altitude of about -600 meters, and are utilized in the manufacture of Roquefort -cheese.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Aven de Carlet, near la Roche Giron, Basses Alpes.</span> -(Martel, <i>Les Abimes</i>, page 53.)—Lumps of ice are reported -to have been taken from it.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">La Poujade, Cévennes.</span> (Martel, <i>Les Abimes</i>, pages -212-215.)—An intermittent spring in limestone rock. At -the bottom of the first gallery, on the 18th of September, -1892, the temperature of the air was 12.3°, and that of -a pool of water supplied by drip 11.5°. Mons. Martel -thought that the drip brought to the pool the mean annual -temperature of the ground through which it had come. -A little further within and 5 meters lower, the temperature -of the air was 7.3° and that of another pool of water 6.8°. -This pool was not supplied by drip and must have been -left over by the last flow of the spring. Mons. Martel -thought that the lower temperatures at this spot were -due to the cold air of winter dropping to the bottom of -the cave and on account of its density not being able -to get out.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Snow Preserved in Chasms in the Italian Mountains.</span> -(<i>The Penny Magazine</i>, London, August, 1834, page -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">« 209 »</a></span> -335.)—Mr. Bunford Samuel called my attention to an article -in which the Southern Italians are said to dig wells or -cellars on the mountain sides, and to throw snow into them -in winter. The snow is well pressed together and straw, -dried leaves, etc., is thrown on top. By having a northern -exposure for these pits, and seeing that they are in thick -forest, or in rifts where the sun does not penetrate, these -depots may be safely placed as low down the mountain as -the snow falls and lies. Naples is largely supplied [1834] -with snow in summer from such snow wells situated on -Monte Angelo, the loftiest point of the promontory separating -the Bay of Naples from the Bay of Salerno.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cold Caves of San Marino, Apennines.</span> (De Saussure, -<i>Voyages dans les Alpes</i>, 1796, III., page 211.)—These -are probably windholes.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">La Bocche dei Venti di Cesi.</span> (De Saussure, <i>Voyages -dans les Alpes</i>, 1796, III., page 211.)—These windholes -were in the cellar of the house of Don Giuseppe -Cesi, in the town of Cesi. The cellar acted as a natural -refrigerator. The air stream was so strong, that it nearly -blew out the torches. In winter the wind rushed into the -holes. De Saussure was shown the following Latin verses -by the owner:—</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Abditus hic ludit vario discrimine ventus<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Et faciles miros exhibet aura jocos.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Nam si bruma riget, quaecumque objeceris haurit.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Evomit aestivo cum calet igne dies,"<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">« 210 »</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Windholes or “Ventarole” on Monte Testaceo, -near Rome.</span> (De Saussure, <i>Voyages dans les Alpes</i>, -1796, III., page 209.)—There are a number here among -heaps of broken pottery. The temperatures seem abnormally -low.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Krypta Sorana.</span> (Kircher, <i>Mundus Subterraneus</i>, 1664, -page 118 and page 239.)—This has been spoken of as a -glacière cave, but as there is much doubt in the matter, -I quote the passages, on which the reports are based, in -the original Latin: “Cryptae sunt naturales, quarum innumerae -sunt species, juxta vires naturales iis inditas. -Sunt nonnullae medicinali virtute praeditae, quaedam -metallicis vaporibus, exhalationibus, aquis scatent, sunt -et glaciales, plenae nivibus et crystallo, uti in Monte -Sorano me vidisse memini.” And further: “Vidi ego in -Monte Sorano cryptam veluti glacie incrustatam, ingentibus -in fornice hinc inde stiriis dependentibus, e quibus -vicini montis accolae pocula aestivo tempore conficiunt, -aquae vinoque, quae iis infunduntur, refrigerandis aptissima, -extremo rigore in summas bibentium delicias commutato.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Subterranean Ice Sheet, Mount Etna, Sicily.</span> -(Lyell, <i>Principles of Geology, 11th Edition</i>, chapter -XXVI.)—This ice sheet is near the Casa Inglese. Sir -Charles Lyell ascertained the fact of its existence in 1828, -and in 1858 he found the same mass of ice, of unknown -extent and thickness, still unmelted. In the beginning of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">« 211 »</a></span> -the winter of 1828, Lyell found the crevices in the interior -of the summit of the highest cone of Etna encrusted with -thick ice, and in some cases hot vapors actually streaming -out between masses of ice and the rugged and steep -walls of the crater. Lyell accounts for this ice sheet by -the explanation that there must have been a great snow -bank in existence at the time of an eruption of the volcano. -This deep mass of snow must have been covered -at the beginning of the eruption by volcanic sand showered -on it, followed by a stream of lava. The sand is a -bad conductor of heat and together with the solidified -lava, preserved the snow from liquefaction.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière on the Moncodine.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 13.)—The Moncodine is described as a Dolomite -near the Lago di Como. The cave lies up the Val Sasina, -two hours from Cortenuova, at an altitude of 1675 meters. -The entrance faces north, and is 2.5 meters high and 1.5 -meters wide. The average diameter of the cave is 16 -meters. The floor is solid ice, which has been sometimes -cut for use in the hotels on the Lago di Como and even -been sent to Milan.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">La Ghiacciaia del Mondole.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 8.)—The Mondole is a mountain 2375 meters high, -near Mondovi, south of Turin. The cave lies on the -eastern slope, at an altitude of about 2000 meters. It is -hard to get at. The entrance is to the east, and is 2 -meters wide and 1.5 meters high. A passageway some -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">« 212 »</a></span> -25 meters long leads to a large chamber where there is -plenty of ice. In hot summers ice is brought from the -cave to Mondovi. <i>Ghiacciaia</i> means freezing cavern in -Italian.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">La Ghiacciaia del Val Séguret.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 8.)—It lies near Susa at the base of chalk -cliffs, at an altitude of about 1500 meters. The cave is -said to be about 40 meters deep, 50 meters wide and 50 -meters high. Bonetti in May, 1874, found many icicles -and ice cones.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">La Borna de la Glace.</span> (Chanoine Carrel, <i>Bibliothèque -Universelle de Genève</i>, 1841, vol. XXXIV., page -196.)—It lies in the Duchy of Aosta, commune of La -Salle, on the northern slope of the hills near Chabauday, -in a spot called Plan Agex. The altitude is 1602 meters. -The entrance opens to the east and is 60 centimeters wide -and 80 centimeters high. One can descend for 4 meters. -There are two branches in the rear of the entrance. -Chanoine Carrel found an ice pillar 1 meter high in the -western branch. He recorded these temperatures on the -15th of July, 1841: Outside +15°. Entrance +2.9°. East -branch +0.9°. West branch +0.5°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windholes in the Italian Alps.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -pages 94-97.)—A number of these seem to have -abnormally low temperatures. Some are in the mountains -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">« 213 »</a></span> -around Chiavenna, and are sometimes, by building -small huts over them, utilized as refrigerators. Some -are reported in the neighborhood of the Lago di Como -near Dongo, near Menaggio, and in the villa Pliniana -near Curino; in the neighborhood of the Lake of Lugano -at the base of Monte Caprino, near Melide, near Mendrisio -and near Sertellino; and in the Val Maggia near -Cevio.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Glacière de Font d’Urle, or Fondurle, Dauphiné.</span> -(Héricart de Thury, <i>Annales des Mines</i>, vol. -XXXIII., page 157; G. F. Browne, <i>Ice Caves</i>, etc., page -212; E. A. Martel, <i>Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie</i>, -vol. I., page 37; L. Villard, <i>Spélunca</i>, 1896, vol. II., page -39.)—It lies on the Foire de Font d’Urle, 16 kilometers -north of Dié, 48 kilometers east of Valence, and 80 kilometers -south of Grenoble. The glacière consists of two -large pits, lying east and west, and with underground -communication. From this tunnel a long low archway -leads to a broad slope of chaotic blocks of stone, which -is 60 meters long and 42 meters in greatest width. The -ice begins half way down this slope, fitfully at first and -afterwards in a tolerably continuous sheet. Thury found -many icicles hanging from the roof. Browne found four -columns of ice, of which the largest was 5.80 meters across -the base. On his visit, in the middle of August, the ice -was strongly thawing. Both explorers noted the extremely -prismatic character of the ice. Browne found a -temperature of +0.5°. Martel gives a section and plan -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">« 214 »</a></span> -of Font d’Urle. Mons. Villard says about this cavern: -“A curious thing: I found in this cave, motionless on -a piece of rock, entirely surrounded by ice for a distance -of several meters, a blind specimen of a coleoptera, -<i>Cytodromus dapsoïdes</i>.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Chourun Clot.</span> (E. A. Martel, <i>Sous Terre</i>. -<i>Annuaire du Club Alpin Français</i>, vol. XXIII., 1896, -pages 42, 43; <i>Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie</i>, -vol. I., page 31.)—In Dauphiné, half way between Agnières -and the Pic Costebelle, at an altitude of 1,740 meters. -There is first a pit 18 meters long, 4.50 meters wide and -25 meters deep. In the bottom of this is a vertical hole -15 meters deep and from 1 meter to 2 meters in diameter, -in which there was much ice on the 31st of July, 1896. -Then the pit changes to a sloping gallery which terminates -in a little hall, full of ice, at a depth of 70 meters. Martel -gives a cut and section of this glacière.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Glacière du Trou de Glas.</span> (E. A. Martel, <i>La -Géographie</i>, 1900, vol. I., page 52.)—In the range of the -Grande Chartreuse.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Chourun Martin.</span> (E. A. Martel, <i>La Géographie</i>, -1900, vol. I., page 53.)—In the range of the Dévoluy, -Hautes-Alpes; altitude 1,580 meters. An extremely -deep pit, which on July 31st, 1899, was much blocked -up with snow.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">« 215 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Chourun de la Parza.</span> (E. A. Martel, <i>La -Géographie</i>, 1900, vol. I., page 54.)—In the range of the -Dévoluy, Hautes-Alpes; altitude 1,725 meters. A fine -pit, 25 meters in diameter, and 74 meters in depth. -Filled with snow or rather névé, in which are deep holes.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Glacière de l’Haut-d’Aviernoz.</span> Described in -Part I., page 2. (C. Dunant, <i>Le Parmelan et ses Lapiaz</i>, page -26; Browne, <i>Ice Caves</i>, etc., page 157.)—Mons. Dunant calls -this glacière l’Haut d’Aviernoz; Mr. Browne calls it the -Glacière du Grand Anu. By a plumb line held from the -edge of the larger pit, Browne found that the ice floor was -about 35 meters from the surface, which would give a level -for the ice floor closely identical to the one I found. In -July, 1864, he recorded a temperature of +1.1°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Glacière de l’Enfer.</span> (G. F. Browne, <i>Good -Words</i>, November, 1866; T. G. Bonney, <i>The Alpine -Regions</i>, 1868, pages 95, 96; C. Dunant, <i>Le Parmelan -et ses Lapiaz</i>, page 25.)—On Mont Parmelan. A pit cave -with a steep slope of broken rock leading to a rock portal -in the face of a low cliff. This opens into a roughly -circular hall about 22 meters in diameter and 3 meters to -4 meters in height. A chink between the rock and the -ice permitted Mr. Browne to scramble down three or four -meters to where a tunnel entered the ice mass. Throwing -a log of wood down this tunnel, a crash was heard -and then a splash of water, and then a strange gulping -sound. "The tunnel obviously led to a subglacial reservoir -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">« 216 »</a></span> -and this was probably covered by a thin crust of ice; -the log in falling had broken this and then disturbed the -water below, which then commenced bubbling up and -down through the hole, and making a gulping noise, just -as it does sometimes when oscillating up and down in a -pipe."</p> - -<p>Mons. C. Dunant of the <i>Club Alpin Français</i> describes -a visit to the Glacière de l’Enfer. He mentions also a -legend of a witch from a neighboring village who would -get the ice from these caves and bring it down in the -shape of hail on the crops of the peasants who were inhospitable -to her.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Glacière de Chapuis.</span> Described in Part I., <a href="#Page_5">page 5</a>. -(Browne, <i>Ice Caves</i>, etc., page 182, and <i>Good Words</i>, -November, 1866.)—Mr. Browne calls it the Glacière de -Chappet-Sur-Villaz. Mr. Browne and Professor T. G. -Bonney found several flies in the Glacière de Chapuis. -Three of them were specimens of <i>Stenophylax</i>, the largest -being probably, but not certainly, <i>S. hieroglyphicus</i> of Stephens. -Two smaller caddis flies were either <i>S. testaceus</i> -of Pictet or some closely allied species. One other insect -was an ichneumon of the genus <i>Paniscus</i>, of an -unidentified species. It differed from all its congeners -in the marking of the throat, resembling in this respect -some species of <i>Ophion</i>. Mr. Browne thinks that the -case flies may have been washed into the cave somehow -or other in the larva form, and come to maturity on the -ice where they had lodged. But this explanation will not -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">« 217 »</a></span> -hold in the case of the ichneumon, which is a parasitic -genus on larvæ of terrestrial insects.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Glacière de Le Brezon.</span> (Pictet, <i>Bibliothèque -Universelle de Genève</i>, 1822, vol. XX., page 270, and Thury, -<i>Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève</i>, 1861, vol. X., pages 139 -and 152.)—It lies southeast of Bonneville near the foot of -Mount Lechaud, at an altitude of 1276 meters. The cave -is 9.7 meters long, about 8 meters wide and the greatest -height is about 4 meters. The entrance is small and is at -the base of a cliff, in some places of which cold air currents -issue. The ice lies on the floor. Some of it is -probably winter snow.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Glacière de Brisons.</span>—Described in Part I., -<a href="#Page_1">page 1</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Grand Cave de Montarquis.</span> Described in Part -I., page 70. (Thury, <i>Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève</i>, -vol. X., pages 135-153.)—Professor Thury describes two -visits to this cave. On the 16th of August, 1859, he found -no ice stalactites or stalagmites. On the 19th of January, -1861, he did not find a single drop of water in the cave, -but many stalactites and stalagmites of beautiful clear ice, -one of which resembled porcelain more than any other -substance. In August, Thury found an air current streaming -into the cave at the rear, but this did not, however, -disturb the air of the interior, for in one part it was in perfect -equilibrium: along the line of the draughts the ice was -more melted than elsewhere in the cave. In January, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">« 218 »</a></span> -current was reversed and poured into the fissure, with the -temperature varying between -1.5° and -2.5°. He observed -the following temperatures at the Grand Cave:—</p> - -<table style="width:20em" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="tbl_header" colspan="2">TIME.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">OUTSIDE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">INSIDE.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">16th</td> - <td class="tdl">August,</td> - <td class="tdl">1859</td> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="center">+8.6°</td> - <td class="center">+2.5°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">19th</td> - <td class="tdl">January,</td> - <td class="tdl">1861</td> - <td class="tdl">1.25</td> - <td class="center">P. M.</td> - <td class="center">+2.6°</td> - <td class="center">-4.°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">2.12</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">+2.1°</td> - <td class="center">-4.°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">3.50</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-1.1°</td> - <td class="center">-4.°</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Petite Cave de Montarquis.</span> Mentioned in -Part I., <a href="#Page_71">page 71</a>. (Thury, <i>Bibliothèque Universelle de -Genève</i>, 1861, vol. X., page 150. Also quotes Morin.)—At -the end of a crooked fissure 10 meters deep, a passage 6 -meters long, leads into a cave 8 meters high and 5 meters -in diameter. In August, 1828, Morin found an ice stalagmite -of 5 meters in height in the middle of the cave.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave Containing Ice on the Southern Shore of -Lake Geneva.</span>—Reported; no information.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Glacière and Neigière d’Arc-Sous-Cicon.</span> -(Browne, <i>Ice Caves</i>, etc., page 118.)—These lie close -together in the Jura about twenty kilometers from Pontarlier. -The little glacière is formed by a number of fissures -in the rock, disconnected slits in the surface opening -into larger chambers where the ice lies. The neigière -is a deep pit, with a collection of snow at the bottom, -much sheltered by overhanging rocks and trees. A huge -fallen rock covers a large part of the sloping bottom of -the pit, which forms a small cave in the shape of a round -soldier’s tent, with walls of rock and floor of ice.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">« 219 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Glacière de la Genollière.</span> Described in -Part I., <a href="#Page_48">page 48</a>. (Browne, <i>Ice Caves</i>, etc., page 1.)—Mr. -Browne observed in 1864 a temperature of +1.1°, -and two days later of +0.8°. He also found a number -of flies running rapidly over the ice and stones. He -was told in England, from the specimen he brought -away, that it was the <i>Stenophylax hieroglyphicus</i> of Stephens -or something very like that fly.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Glacière de Saint-Georges.</span> Described in -Part I., <a href="#Page_62">page 62</a>. (Thury, <i>Bibliothèque Universelle de -Genève</i>, 1861, vol. X.)—Professor Thury obtained the following -temperatures at the Glacière de Saint-Georges:—</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="tbl_header" colspan="3">OUTSIDE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header" colspan="3">INSIDE.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td style="width: 3em;">9th</td> - <td style="width: 3em;">January,</td> - <td style="width: 3em;">1858</td> - <td class="center">7.36</td> - <td class="center">P. M.,</td> - <td class="center">-4.5°</td> - <td class="center">7.16</td> - <td class="center">P. M.,</td> - <td class="center">-0.6°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="center">7.20</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-1.2°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="center">7.27</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-2.5°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="center">7.50</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-2.9°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Minimum of night</td> - <td class="center" colspan="2"></td> - <td class="center">-5.8°</td> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="center">-4.9°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">10th</td> - <td class="tdl">January,</td> - <td class="tdl">1858</td> - <td class="center">10.53</td> - <td class="center">A. M.,</td> - <td class="center">-3.4°</td> - <td class="center">10.12</td> - <td class="center">A. M.,</td> - <td class="center">-4.6°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">11.14</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-3.1°</td> - <td class="center">10.30</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-4.5°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">11.45</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-2.2°</td> - <td class="center">11.20</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-4.4°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">12.32</td> - <td class="center">P. M.,</td> - <td class="center">-2.4°</td> - <td class="center">12.14</td> - <td class="center">P. M.,</td> - <td class="center">-4.4°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">1.12</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-0.9°</td> - <td class="center">1.30</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-4.2°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">3.03</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-2.9°</td> - <td class="center">2.30</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-4.1°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">3.56</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-3.5°</td> - <td class="center">3.14</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-4.0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">4.26</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-3.7°</td> - <td class="center">4.00</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="center">-3.8°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Minimum of night</td> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="center">-7.6°</td> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="center">-6.8°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">11th</td> - <td class="tdl">January,</td> - <td class="tdl">1858</td> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="center">9.34</td> - <td class="center">A. M.,</td> - <td class="center">-5.6°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">2d April, 1858</td> - <td class="center">6.20</td> - <td class="center">P. M.,</td> - <td class="center">+0.7°</td> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="center">-0.2°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Minimum of night</td> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="center">+ 1.1°</td> - <td colspan="3"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">3d</td> - <td class="tdl">April,</td> - <td class="tdl">1858</td> - <td class="center">10.00</td> - <td class="center">A. M.,</td> - <td class="center">+4.0°</td> - <td class="center">9.00</td> - <td class="center">A. M.,</td> - <td class="center">-1.0°</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">« 220 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Professor Thury’s winter excursions caused him to -accept as proved that part of the mountaineers’ belief, -which holds that there is no ice formed in caves in winter. -One of the main grounds for his opinion was the series of -observations he made in the Glacière de Saint-Georges. -He found no ice forming there in winter and the natives -said it did not because the cavern was not cold enough. -So he placed large dishes filled with water in the cave and -found that they froze solid during the night, which he had -been assured was impossible. Thury also found violent -movements of the air at Saint-Georges in January, 1858. -A candle burned steadily for some time, but at 7.16 P. M. -it began to flicker and soon inclined downwards through -an angle of about 45°; and in the entrance, the flame -assumed an almost horizontal position. At 8 P. M., the -current of air nearly disappeared. Thury thought that this -violent and temporary disturbance of equilibrium was due -to the fact that as the heavier air outside tended to pass -into the cave, the less cold air within tended to pass out; -and the narrow entrance confining the struggle to a small -area, the weaker current was able for a while to hold its -own.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Glacière du Pré de Saint-Livres.</span> Described -in Part I., <a href="#Page_65">page 65</a>. (Browne, <i>Ice Caves</i>, page 40.)—Mr. -Browne found, in 1864, a temperature of 0°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Petite Glacière du Pré de Saint-Livres.</span> -(Browne, <i>Ice Caves</i>, page 46.)—This is near the last cave -at a slightly higher altitude. There is first a small pit, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">« 221 »</a></span> -then a little cave, in which there is an ice slope. This -passes under a low arch in the rock wall, and leads down -into another small cave. Mr. Browne descended this ice -stream, which was itself practically a fissure column and -spread into the fan shape at the base. The lower cave -was 22 meters long and 11 meters wide, and contained an -ice floor and several fissure columns.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Glacière de Naye, above Montreux, Switzerland.</span> -(E. A. Martel, <i>Les Abimes</i>, page 397; <i>Spélunca</i>, -1895, vol. I., pages 107, 108; <i>Mémoires de la Société de -Spéléologie</i>, vol. III., pages 246-254.)—This is called a <i>glacier -souterrain</i>. It was discovered in 1893 by Professor -Dutoit. There are fifty-four caves known among the -Rochers de Naye, and only this one contains ice. It is a -long narrow cave with two entrances and widest towards -the base, which opens over a precipice. The altitude is -high, the upper entrance being at an altitude of 1820 -meters, and the lower of 1750 meters. The place is both -a passage cave and a windhole. The snow falls into the -upper entrance, and slides down, becoming ice in the -lower portion. There are other connecting passages and -hollows where the cold air cannot get in, and there ice -does not form. Mons. Martel thinks that the ice formed -during the winter is preserved by the draughts—due to -the difference in level of the two openings—causing an -evaporation and chill sufficient for the purpose.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Creux Bourquin.</span> (E. A. Martel, <i>Les Abimes</i>, -page 397.)—At Mauberget, near Grandson. This is a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">« 222 »</a></span> -rock gorge 25 meters deep. At the bottom, on the 9th -of July, 1893, was a mass of ice 38 meters long and 8 -meters wide.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Glacière de Monthézy.</span> (Browne, <i>Ice Caves</i>, page -97.)—This lies to the west of Neufchâtel, between the Val -de Travers and the Val de Brévine, on the path between the -villages of Couvet and Le Brévine, at an altitude of 1100 -meters. The cave is nearly oval in shape, with a length of -34 meters and a width of 29 meters. The roof is from -1 meter to 3 meters high. There are three pits, about -20 meters deep, on different sides of the cave. The -descent is made through the largest pit. On the 6th of -July, 1864, Mr. Browne found the floor of the cave covered -with ice, and icicles and columns in some places; -he also saw a clump of cowslips (<i>primula elatior</i>) overhanging -the snow at the bottom of the pit through which -he descended.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Pertius Freiss.</span> (T. G. Bonney, <i>Nature</i>, vol. XI., page -327.)—It lies on the way to the Pic d’Arzinol, near Evolène, -in the Val d’Hérens. A slip or subsidence of part of -a cliff has opened two joints in the rock, in both of which -fissures Professor Bonney found ice on July 23d.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Schafloch.</span> Described in Part I., <a href="#Page_21">page 21</a>. -(Körber, <i>Jahrbuch des Schweizer Alpen Club</i>, 1885, vol. XX., -pages 316, 343.)—Herr Körber gives some of the dimensions -as follows: Entrance 14 meters wide and 4.70 -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">« 223 »</a></span> -meters high. Length of cave 206.8 meters: average width -20 meters and greatest width 23.5 meters. Height from -5 meters to 7 meters. Length of ice slope 29 meters and -breadth 12.5 meters; for 16 meters the slope has an inclination -of 32°. Körber made the following observations in -the Schafloch:—</p> - -<table style="width: 30em;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tbl_header">DATE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">OUTSIDE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">14 METERS<br />FROM<br />ENTRANCE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">100 METERS<br />FROM<br />ENTRANCE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">160 METERS<br />FROM<br />ENTRANCE.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">21 September, 1884,</td> - <td class="center">10.5°</td> - <td class="center">5.6°</td> - <td class="center"> 0.2°</td> - <td class="center"> 0.2°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">18 January, 1885,</td> - <td class="center">2.7°</td> - <td class="center">-1.0°</td> - <td class="center">-1.3°</td> - <td class="center">—</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The Rev. G. F. Browne, in 1864, found a temperature -of +0.5°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Eisloch of Unterfluh.</span> (Baltzer, <i>Jahrbuch des -Schweizer Alpen Club</i>, 1892-93, pages 358-362.)—Twenty -minutes from Unterfluh near Meiringen. A long narrow -rock crack, some 30 meters deep and running some distance -underground.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windholes and Milkhouses of Seelisberg.</span>—Described -in Part I., <a href="#Page_45">page 45</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windholes on the Spitzfluh.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 92.)—These are situated between Oltingen and -Zeylingen, Canton Bâle: they generally contain ice till -the end of July.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windholes on the Blummatt.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 93.)—On the northwestern slope of the Stanzerberg. -Ice sometimes lies over in these windholes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">« 224 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windholes near Bozen.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -97.)—On the Mendel ranges in Eppan, southwest of -Bozen, among porphyry rocks. There are strong wind-streams. -Ice is said to remain till late in the summer.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Grotto on Monte Tofana, Dolomites.</span> (T. G. Bonney, -<i>Nature</i>, vol. XI., page 328.)—This is probably a rudimentary -glacière.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Holes with Ice near Lienz.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 97.)—One hour and a half distant near Aineth, is -a small cave containing ice, and further up the valley -towards Huben, are several windholes.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Eishöhle am Birnhorn.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -131.)—Near Leogang in the Pinzgau. Altitude 2150 -meters. There are two entrances, from which a slope 10 -meters long, set at an angle of 25°, leads to an ice floor -12 meters long and 3 meters high. Then comes a small -ice slope, and a little horizontal floor at the back. Explored -by Fugger.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacières on the Eiskogel.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -19.)—The Eiskogel is in the Tennengebirge, a mountain -mass lying east of Pass Lueg. At an altitude of about -1900 meters, are two small caves, about 30 meters to 40 -meters apart. They are some 25 meters in length and get -smaller towards the bottom.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Holes with Ice in the Tennengebirge, between the -Schallwand and the Tauernkogel.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">« 225 »</a></span> -page 20.)—In this gorge are some small holes at an altitude -of about 2000 meters, which are said to contain ice in -summer.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Seeofen.</span> (A. Posselt-Csorich, <i>Zeitschrift des Deutschen -und Oesterreichischen Alpen Verein</i>, 1880, page 270.) -On the Hean Krail in the Tennengebirge, at an altitude of -about 1900 meters. The entrance faces southwest, and is -6 meters high and 4.5 meters wide. The cave is 25 meters -long, and 8 meters wide. The floor of the cave is 13 -meters below the entrance.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Posselthöhle.</span> (A. Posselt-Csorich, <i>Zeitschrift des -Deutschen und Osterreichischen Alpen Verein</i>, 1880, page -273.)—Named after its discoverer. It lies on the Hochkogel -in the Tennengebirge, at an altitude of about 1900 -meters. The entrance faces southwest, and is about 8 -meters high and 8 meters wide. From the entrance the -cave first rises, then sinks again below the level of the -entrance, where the ice begins. The cave is about 20 -meters wide. About 180 meters were explored, to a point -where a perpendicular ice wall, 6 meters high, barred -the way. About 125 meters from the entrance, there was -an ice cone about 7 meters high.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Gamsloch or Diebshöhle.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 14.)—It lies on the Breithorn of the Steinernes Meer, -near the Riemannhauss, at an altitude of about 2180 -meters. The entrance faces south. There is first a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">« 226 »</a></span> -small, then a larger chamber. The latter is some 40 -meters long, by 5 meters or 6 meters wide. The ice is -in the large chamber.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Eishöhle am Seilerer.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -15.)—On the eastern side of the Seilerer arête on the -Ewigen Schneeberg, west of Bischofshofen, at an altitude -of about 2400 meters, is a small glacière cave.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave in the Hagengebirge, West of Pass Lueg.</span> -(Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 15.)—It lies about 2 kilometers -east of Kalbersberg, at an altitude of about 2000 meters. -A snow slope, with an ice floor at the bottom, leads into -a long cave, about which little is known.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Nixloch.</span> Described in Part I., <a href="#Page_57">page 57</a>. (Fugger, -<i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 98.)—Professor Fugger gathered -some valuable data in connection with the Nixloch. In -August, 1879, he found the air current entering downwards; -on September 14th, 1879, there was no current -either way. On Christmas day, 1878, on the contrary, the -draughts were reversed, pouring out of the hole with a -temperature of +7.4°: the outside air then being -7.4°. -At this time the known lower opening was in existence.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Kolowratshöhle.</span> Described in Part I., <a href="#Page_18">page 18</a>. -(Fugger, <i>Beobachtungen</i>, etc., page 7.)—This cavern has -been more carefully studied than any other glacière cave. -Some of its dimensions are given by Professor Fugger as -follows: From the entrance to the ice floor, 26.6 meters; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">« 227 »</a></span> -surface covered by ice as measured on a plane, 2940 -square meters; approximate cubical measure of entire cave, -92,000 cubic meters. The height of the entrance is 7 -meters, with a width at the base of 2.7 meters, and at the -top of 6.6 meters.</p> - -<p>On the entrance slope occurred the only fatal accident -I know of in glacières. In 1866, the Bavarian minister -Freiherr von Lerchenfeld tried to descend; a wooden -handrail which had been erected over the snow broke -under his weight; von Lerchenfeld fell to the bottom of -the cave and died a few days after from the injuries he -received.</p> - -<p>Of the Kolowratshöhle, we have numerous thermometric -observations by Professor Fugger, of which I select a few.</p> - -<table style="width: 30em;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tbl_header" colspan="3">DATE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">OUTSIDE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">ENTRANCE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">INSIDE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header" colspan="2">REAR.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">21</td> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - <td class="center">+6.5°</td> - <td class="center">+0.7°</td> - <td class="center">+0.03°</td> - <td class="center vtop" rowspan="13"> 0°&</td> - <td class="center">+0.08°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - <td class="tdl">June</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - <td class="center">+5.1°</td> - <td class="center">+1.6°</td> - <td class="center">+0.23°</td> - <td class="center">+0.4°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - <td class="tdl">June</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - <td class="center">+10.°</td> - <td class="center">+1.6°</td> - <td class="center">+0.4°</td> - <td class="center">—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdl">July</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - <td class="center">—</td> - <td class="center">—</td> - <td class="center">+0.4°</td> - <td class="center">—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - <td class="tdl">July</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - <td class="center">+11.3°</td> - <td class="center">+1.5°</td> - <td class="center">+0.4°</td> - <td class="center">+0.2°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">29</td> - <td class="tdl">July</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - <td class="center">+15.2°</td> - <td class="center">+2.4°</td> - <td class="center">+0.3°</td> - <td class="center">+0.2°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - <td class="tdl">Aug.</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - <td class="center">+19.8°</td> - <td class="center">+4.0°</td> - <td class="center">+0.4°</td> - <td class="center">+0.25°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - <td class="tdl">Sept.</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - <td class="center">+7.2°</td> - <td class="center">+3.0°</td> - <td class="center">+0.45°</td> - <td class="center">+0.6°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - <td class="tdl">Sept.</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - <td class="center">—</td> - <td class="center">—</td> - <td class="center">+0.30°</td> - <td class="center">—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - <td class="tdl">Oct.</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - <td class="center">+14.8°</td> - <td class="center">+2.05°</td> - <td class="center">+0.2°</td> - <td class="center">+0.2°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - <td class="tdl">Oct.</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - <td class="center">+5.6°</td> - <td class="center">+2.5°</td> - <td class="center">+0.25°</td> - <td class="center">+0.4°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">26</td> - <td class="tdl">Nov.</td> - <td class="tdr">1876</td> - <td class="center">+4.4°</td> - <td class="center">+0.4°</td> - <td class="center">-1.0°</td> - <td class="center">—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdl">Jan.</td> - <td class="tdr">1877</td> - <td class="center">+2.1°</td> - <td class="center">+1.2°</td> - <td class="center">-1.65°</td> - <td class="center">-0.6°</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Schellenberger Eisgrotte.</span> (Fugger, <i>Beobachtungen -in den Eishöhlen des Untersberges</i>, page 80.)—On -the southeast slope of the Untersberg near Salzburg, at an -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">« 228 »</a></span> -altitude of 1580 meters. The path leads past the Kienbergalp -over the Mitterkaser and the Sandkaser. In front -of the entrance is a sort of rock dam, 30 meters long and -5 meters or 6 meters higher than the entrance. Masses -of snow fill the space between the two. The entrance is -about 20 meters wide and from 2 meters to 3 meters high. -A snow slope of 25 meters in length, set at an angle of 25°, -leads to the ice floor. The cave is 54 meters long, from -13 meters to 22 meters broad and from 4 meters to 10 -meters high. The cave has been repeatedly examined by -Fugger, who has always found most snow and ice in the -beginning of the hot weather, after which it gradually -dwindles away.</p> - -<p>Of the Schellenberger Eisgrotte, we have the following -thermometric observations by Professor Fugger:—</p> - -<table style="width: 20em;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tbl_header" colspan="3">DATE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">OUTSIDE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">ENTRANCE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">INSIDE.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">29</td> - <td class="tdl">June,</td> - <td class="tdl">1877</td> - <td class="center">+18°</td> - <td class="center">—</td> - <td class="center">+0.38°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="tdl">1881</td> - <td class="center">+21°</td> - <td class="center">+2.3°</td> - <td class="center">+0.24°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">28</td> - <td class="tdl">Aug.,</td> - <td class="tdl">1878</td> - <td class="center">+14.6°</td> - <td class="center">—</td> - <td class="center">+0.2°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="tdl">1879</td> - <td class="center">+17.8°</td> - <td class="center">—</td> - <td class="center">+0.3°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdl">Oct.,</td> - <td class="tdl">1876</td> - <td class="center">+16.7°</td> - <td class="center">+1.4°</td> - <td class="center">+0.3°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="tdl">1880</td> - <td class="center">+3.6°</td> - <td class="center">+3.5°</td> - <td class="center">+0.3°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="tdl">1887</td> - <td class="center">+5.4°</td> - <td class="center">—</td> - <td class="center">+0.4°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="center">”</td> - <td class="tdl">1887</td> - <td class="center">+8.2°</td> - <td class="center">—</td> - <td class="center">+0.4°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdl">Nov.,</td> - <td class="tdl">1877</td> - <td class="center">+7.4°</td> - <td class="center">—</td> - <td class="center">+0.2°</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Grosser Eiskeller or Kaiser Karls Höhle.</span> -(Fugger, <i>Beobachtungen</i>, etc., page 58.)—On the Untersberg, -between the Salzburger Hochthron and the Schweigmüller -Alp. Altitude 1687 meters. A stony slope of 26 -meters in length leads to an ice floor which is 26 meters -long and 6 meters to 8 meters wide.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">« 229 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Kleiner Eiskeller.</span> (Fugger, <i>Beobachtungen</i>, -etc., page 73.)—Near the last. A small cave 8 meters -long, 6 meters wide, 8 meters high.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Windlöcher on the Untersberg.</span> (Fugger, <i>Beobachtungen</i>, -etc., page 73.)—On the Klingersteig, at an altitude -of 1300 meters. Four small caves of about 12 meters -each in length and 8 meters in depth, and communicating -at the bottom. There are strong draughts among -them. In one of the caves is a small pit of great depth.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Eiswinkel on the Untersberg.</span> (Fugger, <i>Beobachtungen</i>, -etc., page 77.)—Between the Klingeralp and -the Vierkaser, at an altitude of 1600 meters. A small -cave or rather rock shelter.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windholes on the Untersberg.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -pages 103, 104.)—Windholes have been found by Fugger -on the lower slopes of the Untersberg:</p> - -<p>Near the Hochbruch at Fürstenbrunn.</p> - -<p>In the débris of the Neubruch.</p> - -<p>In the débris of the Veitlbruch.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Hotel Cellar at Weissenbach on the Attersee.</span> -(Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 20.)—There is a small cave -here, at an altitude of 452 meters, which is utilized as -a cellar, and which is said to contain ice in summer.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave near Steinbach.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -20.)—A small cave containing ice on the northwest slopes -of the Höllengebirge. Altitude about 700 meters.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">« 230 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Kliebensteinhöhle or Klimmsteinhöhle.</span> (Fugger, -<i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 20.)—On the north slope of the Höllengebirge, -near the Aurachkar Alp, between Steinbach -and the Langbath Lakes. Altitude about 1300 meters. -Length about 40 meters, width 20 meters, height 15 meters.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Wasserloch.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 21.)—On -the south slope of the Höllengebirge, near the Spitzalpe. -Altitude about 1350 meters. At the bottom of a -gorge is a snow heap and a small cave. The snow -becomes ice in the cave.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave on the Zinkenkogl near Aussee.</span> (Fugger, -<i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 21.)—Altitude about 1800 meters. A -snow slope leads to an ice floor 18 meters long and 4 -meters wide.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave on the Kasberg.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -22.)—South of Grünau near Gmunden. Altitude about -1500 meters. Small cave 12 meters long, 4 meters wide.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Wasseraufschlag on the Rothen Kogel.</span> (Fugger, -<i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 22.)—A tunnel near Aussee. The -ice in it was formerly used.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Gschlösslkirche.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -22.)—On the Dachstein range, facing the Lake of Gosau. -A small cave, mostly filled with snow.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave with Ice on the Mitterstein.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 23.)—On the Dachstein, one hour and a quarter -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">« 231 »</a></span> -from the Austria hut. Altitude about 1800 meters. -Cave 5 meters to 6 meters wide, 30 meters long. In the -rear a passage leads apparently to a windhole where -there is a strong draught.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windholes in the Obersulzbach Valley in the -Pinzgau.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 105.)—Fugger found -ice among these on the 1st of August, 1886.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice in an Abandoned Nickel Mine on the Zinkwand, -in the Schladming Valley.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 105.)</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windholes on the Rothen Kogel near Aussee.</span> -(Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 106.)—These were found to -contain ice on the 2d of September, 1848.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave on the Langthalkogel.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 23.)—On the Dachstein plateau between Hallstatt -and Gosau. A small cave which contains ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Eislunghöhle.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 24.)—A -small cave between the Hochkasten and Ostrowiz in the -Priel range.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Geldloch or Seelücken on the Oetscher.</span> -(Schmidl, <i>Die Höhlen des Ötscher and Die Oesterreichischen -Höhlen</i>; Cranmer and Sieger, <i>Globus</i>, 1899, pages -313-318, and 333-335.)—The second known notice of a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">« 232 »</a></span> -glacière cave is the account of a visit to the Oetscher Caves -in 1591. After lying in manuscript for two and a half -centuries, it was published by Dr. A. Schmidl in 1857, in -<i>Die Höhlen des Ötscher</i>, pages 21-36. According to the -account, which is naive, but evidently truthful, Kaiser -Rudolf II. ordered Reichard Strein, owner of the Herrschaff -Friedeck, to investigate the Ötscher and especially its -caves. He did so, with the title of <i>Kaiserlicher Commissarius</i>, -and accompanied by the <i>Bannerherr</i> Christoph -Schallenberger, Hans Gasser, and eleven porters. On -September the 16th, 1591, they visited the Seelücken, -where they found a lake in the front of the cave, and -where the party had great difficulties in climbing round -on to the ice.</p> - -<p>The Seelücken on the Oetscher is situated at an altitude -of 1470 meters. It opens nearly due south. The -ice floor is about 20 meters below the entrance and is -about 38 meters long and 24 meters wide; at the -rear, it rises for some 15 meters as an ice wall at an -angle of about 60°, and then forms a second ice floor -about 45 meters long by 19 meters wide. The front part -of the ice is sometimes, about July, covered with water. -The cave continues further back, in two branches, and -Professors Cranmer and Sieger consider that it is a large -windhole, in which draughts are infrequent, on account -of its length and because the openings are near the -same level. There are also several up and down curves -and in these cold air remains and acts something like -a cork in stopping draughts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">« 233 »</a></span></p> - -<p>On the 13th of September there were no draughts, and -the temperatures between 11 A. M. and 12 M. were:—</p> - -<table style="width: 15em;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Outside air</td> - <td class="tdr">+7.1°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Inside near entrance</td> - <td class="tdr">+1.5°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">A little further in</td> - <td class="tdr">+1.1°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">At the lowest point near ice</td> - <td class="tdr">+0.8°</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>On the 31st of October, 1897, there was a draught, -which followed the curves of the cavern, and which flowed -out at the southern end. The temperatures were:—</p> - -<table style="width: 15em;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Outside air</td> - <td class="tdr">+3.7°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Inside near entrance</td> - <td class="tdr">+1.3°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">At the lowest point near ice</td> - <td class="tdr">+0.8°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">On the second, higher ice floor</td> - <td class="tdr">+1.0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">In the main passage behind ice</td> - <td class="tdr">+1.4°</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave on the Kühfotzen near Warscheneck.</span> (Fugger, -<i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 25.)—A small cave containing ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Eiskeller on the Rax.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 25; -Cranmer, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, etc., page 61.)—Altitude about 1660 -meters. A doline with a small cave at the bottom, in -which melting snow was found on the 19th of September, -1896.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Tablerloch.</span> (Cranmer, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, etc., pages -19-60.)—On the Dürren-Wand in the mountains south of -Vienna, 2 hours distant from Miesenbach R. R. station. -Altitude about 1000 meters. Entrance 7 meters wide, 3.5 -meters high. Slope 30° from entrance. Lowest point 22 -meters below entrance. Extreme length of cave 50 -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">« 234 »</a></span> -meters, width 23 meters, height 15 meters. Professor -Cranmer found fresh ice beginning to form on the 12th -of November, 1893; on the 1st of December, 1894; and -on the 20th of October, 1895. He found it melting away -on the 3d of June, 1894; on the 1st of June, 1895; and -on the 31st of May, 1896. The rates at which the ice -formed or melted, however, were not always the same in -different parts of the cave. The greatest amount of ice -observed seems to have been in March and April. In the -summer months no perceptible movements of air seem to -have been noticed. This was also sometimes the case in -the winter months, during which, however, movements of -air were at other times plainly perceptible.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Gipsloch.</span> (Cranmer, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, etc., page 60.)—A -small cave on the Hohen-Wand near Wiener-Neustadt. -It is rather a cold cave than a glacière.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Windloch.</span> (Cranmer, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, etc., page 61.)—On -the Hohen-Wand near Wiener Neustadt. Small cave. -Snow found in it on June the 2d, 1895.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Eisloch in the Brandstein on the Hochschwab.</span> -(Cranmer, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, etc., page 64.)—Altitude about 1600 -meters. A moderately large cave. On the 21st of August, -1895, there was an ice floor 10 meters long and 5 -meters broad. Temperature in rear of cave, -0.2°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Caves on the Beilstein.</span> (Krauss, <i>Höhlenkunde</i>, -1894, pages 207-219; Cranmer, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, etc., page -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">« 235 »</a></span> -63.)—These lie about 4 hours on foot from Gams in Steiermark, -at an altitude of 1260 meters, in a place where the -mountain is much broken up by fissures and snow basins. -The large cave has two openings, from which steep snow -slopes descend. The cave is 60 meters long, 15 meters to -18 meters broad, and about 7 meters high. Clefts in the -rock in two places lead to two lower, small ice chambers. -In the neighborhood of the large cave are two small ones. -Prof. Cranmer found fresh ice in the Beilsteinhöhle on the -20th of August, 1895. Two days before, fresh snow had -fallen on the neighboring mountain peaks.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Eishöhle on the Brandstein.</span> (Cranmer, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -etc., page 62.)—A small cleft cave near the Langriedleralm -near Gams in Steiermark. On the 20th of August, -1895, it contained some ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Frauenmauerhöhle.</span>—Described in Part I., -<a href="#Page_37">page 37</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Bärenloch near Eisenerz.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 28.)—In the neighborhood of the Frauenmauerhöhle. -Altitude 1600 meters. A steep snow slope leads to an ice -floor 13 meters long.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Katerloch.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 29.)—On -the Göserwand near Dürnthal, Glemeinde Gschaid in -Steiermark. A large cave, some 190 meters long and 80 -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">« 236 »</a></span> -meters wide. A thin ice crust has been found on parts of -the walls in the rear.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Caves in the Stein Alps.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -29.)—The plateau of Velica Planina lies, at an altitude of -1600 meters, 9 kilometers north of Stein in the Duchy -of Krain. There are three caves containing ice on the -plateau. The first is a big one and is called V. Kofcih. -The second is called Mala Veternica. The third and biggest -is called Velika Veternica; its length is about 100 -meters and its breadth 30 meters.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Caves on the Nanos Mountain.</span> (Fugger, -<i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 34.)—In the southwestern Krain, 5 kilometers -from Präwald. There are four caves containing ice -reported on the Nanos mountain. Two of them are big. -The altitude of one of these is 1300 meters, of the other -1350 meters.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Brlowa Jama.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 36.)—Seven -kilometers from Adelsberg. Small glacière cave.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Kosova Jama.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 38.)—Near -Divacca. Forty meters long, 20 meters broad.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière near Adelsberg.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -36.)—Small cave. One hour from Adelsberg.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Kacna Jama.</span> (J. Marinitsch, <i>La Kacna Jama</i>, <i>Mémoires -de la Société de Spéléologie</i>, vol. I., page 83.)—A -great pit near the railroad station of Divacca. Herr Marinitsch -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">« 237 »</a></span> -observed the following temperatures on January -2d, 1896:—</p> - -<table style="width: 20em;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">At Divacca</td> - <td class="tdr">-2° C.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">In the Kacna Jama at 40 meters</td> - <td class="tdr">-1.1° C.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” ” ” ” ” 100 meters</td> - <td class="tdr">+1.2° C.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” ” ” ” ” 210 meters</td> - <td class="tdr">+2.1° C.</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Sanct Canzian, Karst.</span> (E. A. Martel, <i>Les Abimes</i>, -page 564, note.)—During the winter of 1889-1890, Herr -Marinitsch found stalactites of ice as far as the seventeenth -cascade of the Recca; 1000 meters from the third -entrance of the river. The temperature of the Recca -was then at 0°; during the summer, the temperature of -the water rises to 27° (?).</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Grosses Eisloch of Paradana.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 36.)—On the high plateau of the forest of -Tarnowa, east of Görz. A large pit cave, 30 meters to -40 meters deep. Professor Fugger says of it: “The -flora in the basin-like depression has the character of high -mountain vegetation, with every step it resembles more -this flora as it exists in the neighborhood of glaciers, until -finally in the deepest point of the basin all vegetation -stops.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Kleines Eisloch of Paradana.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 37.)—A small pit glacière, 500 meters distant -from the Grosses Eisloch of Paradana.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Suchy Brezen.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 37.)—A -small pit glacière, situated about midway between the -Grosses and Kleines Eisloch of Paradana.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">« 238 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Prevalo Cave.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 37.)—In -the Buchenhochwald, south of Karnica. Small glacière.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave of Dol.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 38.)—On a -mountain near Haidenschaft. Small glacière.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière near Matena in Bezirke Radmansdorf.</span> -(Petruzzi in Haidinger’s <i>Berichte</i>, etc., vol. VII., page -68.)—On a wooded height. The ice commences to melt -in the early summer.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière on the Schutzengelberge near the Golac.</span> -(Petruzzi in Haidinger’s <i>Berichte</i>, etc., vol. VII., page -64.)—A small glacière.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave near Lazhna-gora or Latzenberg.</span> -(Valvasor, <i>Die Ehre des Herzogthumes Crain</i>, vol. I., pages -242, 243; Hacquet, <i>Oryctographia Carniolica</i>, 1778, III., -page 159.)—In the neighborhood of Vishnagora in the -Krain. The entrance is under a church. It is a large -cave, 40 meters long and 20 meters high, where the ice -all melts by the end of the summer. Valvasor gives the -following account of this cave in 1689, which seems the -first printed notice of a glacière in German:—</p> - -<p>“Near to Lazchenberg up by the church of St. Nicholas, -where a <i>Thabor</i> stands, one finds a big hole, which -sinks into the stony rocks. Through this one descends -deep with torches: there opens then underneath as big a -cavity as the biggest church could be, and the same is extremely -high, in the form of a cupola. One sees there -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">« 239 »</a></span> -different teeth, formed and hardened from the water turned -to stone. Further down one arrives to a deep gully: into -which, however, I have not been. On the other side one -must again ascend, and then one comes again to a cupola: -in which cupola ice stands up like an organ from the earth.</p> - -<p>“There also one sees icicles of pure ice of different -sizes and heights, of which many are one or two <i>klafters</i> -high and as thick as a man; but many only two or three -spans high or higher, and as thick as an arm, and some also -thinner. This ice is formed from the drops of falling -water; and indeed in summer; for in winter there is no -ice therein. Over such ice one must then ascend, as -there are then said to be separate holes and grottoes. -But no one has been any further.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière on the Dini Verh.</span> (Petruzzi in Haidinger’s -<i>Berichte</i>, etc., vol. VII., page 67.)—Near Tomischle in the -Krain. Small glacière.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Eiskeller near Rosseck.</span> (Petruzzi in Haidinger’s -<i>Berichte</i>, etc., vol. VII., page 64.)—On the Pograca Mountain -in the Krain, northeast of the Hornwald, near the -Meierhof Rosseck. Small glacière cave.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Gorge near Rosseck.</span> (Valvasor, <i>Die Ehre des Herzogthumes -Crain</i>, vol. I., page 243 and page 517 ; Petruzzi -in Haidinger’s <i>Berichte</i>, etc., vol. VII., page 64.)—Behind -the ruined castle of Rosseck, on the Pograca Mountain -in the Krain, is a gorge, at whose bottom are four little -holes containing ice most of the year.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">« 240 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Valvasor wrote of this cave in 1689: “Near Rosseck -immediately back of the castle there opens a mighty cavern -entirely in stony rock, and yawns in the shape of a cauldron -down into the earth. Above as wide as a good rifle -shot, but below quite narrow. And there underneath -there are many holes where the ice remains through the -whole summer. From such ice have Duke Frederick Graf -and Duke von Gallenberg daily made use in summer to -cool their wine. Six years ago I descended there in the -month of August, and found ice enough in all the holes.”</p> - -<p>In the same volume Freiherr Valvasor elaborates his -remarks about this cave and that at Latzenberg, repeating -in the main the observations in the paragraph just given. -He says: “There hang also long icicles which are quite -pleasant to look at. * * * This ice breaks all too easily -and quickly. * * * Contrarywise, however, this ice lasts -much longer in the sun and the heat than other ice. * * * -Some might think it would eventually turn into stone: this, -however, does not happen: for it remains only in summer -and disappears in winter: as I can say for certain, as I have -been in myself in the winter as well as in the summer time. -* * * For as in the summer the floor is quite covered -with ice: it makes walking so dangerous and bad that one -cannot take a step without climbing irons; but in the winter -time one goes safely and well. * * *”</p> - -<p>Freiherr Valvasor was evidently an accurate observer, -and, if for his word “winter” we substitute “autumn,” his -account will be much more nearly correct than might have -been expected two centuries ago.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">« 241 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Kuntschner Eishöhle.</span> (Petruzzi in Haidinger’s -<i>Berichte</i>, etc., vol. VII., pages 65, 66.)—This is known also -as the Töplitzer, Unterwarmberger or Ainödter Grotto. It -lies 2 kilometers from Kuntschen, and 12 kilometers from -Töplitz near Neustädtel, in the Krain. Altitude about 630 -meters. Petruzzi says: “Of all so far noticed ice grottoes -it is the most wonderful and splendid.” In August and -September, 1849, the temperatures near the ice were about -two degrees above freezing. On the 16th of August, there -were many long ice stalagmites and stalactites; on the -29th of September they had diminished materially. Petruzzi -says also: “One leaves the abundant vegetation of the -Alpine summer flora, and through bushes and dwarf underbrush, -through bare and half moss covered rocks and -débris, through rotten and twisted tree stems, one comes -to the hall of eternal winter, where the microscopic mosses -of the north surround the thousand year old stalactites, -hanging from the dripping vault, with an always passing, -always freshly forming, tender sulphur colored down.” -Dr. Schwalbe has also examined this cave.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Friedrichsteiner or Gottscheer Eishöhle.</span>—Described -in Part I., <a href="#Page_51">page 51</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Handler Eisloch.</span>—7 kilometers south of Gottschee -and about twenty minutes from the village of Handlern, -near Rieg. Altitude 596 meters. Small cave. Professor -Hans Satter of Gottschee told me he doubted -whether ice ever formed there now.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">« 242 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Suchenreuther Eisloch.</span>—Described in Part I., -<a href="#Page_55">page 55</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ledenica na Veliki Gori.</span> (Petruzzi in Haidinger’s -<i>Berichte</i>, etc., vol. VII., page 67.)—In the Krain, 11 kilometers -from Reifnitz, on the Balastena Mountain. Altitude -1253 meters. Much ice was found there on the -10th of July, 1834.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Mrzla Jama.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 34.)—On the -Innerkrainer Schneeberg, 13 kilometers from Laas.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Caves on the Kapella.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 39.)—On a pass in the neighborhood of Piacenza. -Altitude 800 meters.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave in West Bosnia.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>. -page 39.)—West of Kljuc, county Petrovac, district Smoljama, -near village Trvanj. Called Trvanj, also Ledenica. -Altitude about 1000 meters, length 170 meters, breadth -from 4 meters to 30 meters.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Rtanj, Servia.</span> (A. Boué, <i>La Turquie d’Europe</i>, 1840, -vol. I., page 132; Dr. A. Cvijic, <i>Spélunca</i>, vol. II., 1896, -pages 72-74.)—This glacière is on the south side of Siljak, -near the village Muzinac. A passage 60 meters long leads -to a hall about 10 meters in height. Dr. Boué found snow -here in August, the thermometer standing below freezing -point. The people in the neighborhood told Dr. Boué -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">« 243 »</a></span> -that the snow is formed in June and disappears in September -and that it is sometimes carried to Nisch. He -also heard of similar cavities on the Bannat Mountain. -Dr. Cvijic observed in the hall a temperature of +0.4° C.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ledena Pec, Servia.</span> (Dr. A. Cvijic, <i>Spélunca</i>, vol. II., -1896, pages 68, 69.)—On the Ledini Verh or Glacial Peak, -at an altitude of 800 meters; distant one hour and a half -from the village of Souvold. Length of passage 108 meters; -at entrance about 6 meters, at end about 15 meters -in height. On the 10th of May, 1893, there was plenty -of ice and snow. Temperature of outside air +19° C.; -inside air at rear +0.5° C. Probably permanent glacière.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Dobra Ledenica, Servia.</span> (Dr. A. Cvijic, <i>Spélunca</i>, -vol. II., 1896, page 70.)—West of Ledeno Brdo. Probably -periodic glacière. On July 25th, 1890, the temperature of -the outside air was +26° C.; of the inside air +3.5°C. -<i>Ledenica</i> is the name for a glacière in Servia.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ledenica in the Mala Brezovica, Servia.</span> (Dr. A. -Cvijic, <i>Spélunca</i>, vol. II., 1896, page 70.)—Length 43 meters. -A large, permanent glacière. On July 28th, 1890, -the outside air was +23°: inside air +2°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ledenica Treme in the Souva Planina, Servia.</span> -(Cvijic, Dr. A., <i>Spélunca</i>, vol. II., 1896, page 71.)—Altitude -1600 meters to 1700 meters. A rather large, probably -permanent glacière. Plenty of ice in it on April 21st, -1894.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">« 244 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Zla Ledenica, Servia.</span> (Dr. A. Cvijic, <i>Spélunca</i>, vol. -II., 1896, page 72.)—On the Kucaj. A permanent glacière, -7 meters or 8 meters deep. On July 25th, 1890, outside -air +25°; inside air at snow +6°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière on the Devica, Servia.</span> (Dr. A. Cvijic, -<i>Spélunca</i>, vol. II., 1896, page 74.)—Under the peak Lazurevica. -Altitude 1000 meters. A narrow passage leads -to a hall 17 meters long by 12 meters wide and 20 meters -high. On June 30th, 1893, there was plenty of snow in -the passage and ice in the hall.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Vlaska Pecura, Servia.</span> (Dr. A. Cvijic, -<i>Spélunca</i>, vol. II., 1896, page 74.)—On the Devica, under -the Golemi Vech. A small periodic glacière.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière in the Zdrebica, Servia.</span> (Dr. A. Cvijic, -<i>Spélunca</i>, vol. II., 1896, page 74.)—On the southeast side -of the Souva Planina, near the village Veliki Krtchimir. -A small periodic glacière. On April 20th, 1874, plenty -of snow and ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Stoykova, Servia.</span> (Dr. A. Cvijic, <i>Spélunca</i>, -vol. II., 1896, pages 75, 76.)—On the Kucaj. A large pit -cave with a total depth of 23 meters. Probably a permanent -glacière. On July 21st, 1890, plenty of ice and -snow. Outside air +21°; inside air in hall +0.5°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière on the Topiznica Mountain, Servia.</span> -(Dr. A. Cvijic, <i>Spélunca</i>, vol. II., 1896, page 76.)—Altitude -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">« 245 »</a></span> -1100 meters. A large pit cave with an extreme depth -of 27 meters. In August, 1893, there was plenty of snow -and ice, and the inside temperature was +1°.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave near Borszék.</span> (Bielz, <i>Siebenbürgen</i>, -1885, page 334.)—About an hour distant from the baths, -in broken limestone. It seems to be a rock fissure, at -the end of which ice is found till towards the middle of -July.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave near Sonkolyos in the Korös Valley.</span> -(Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 51.)—Small cave.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière near Zapodia.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -50.)—Near Petrosc in the Bihar Mountains. Altitude -1140 meters; length 20 meters, width 7 meters.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Pescerca la Jesere.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 50.)—Between -Vervul la Belegiana and the Batrina in the Bihar -Mountains. Small freezing cave.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave near Verespatak, in Transylvania.</span> -(Bielz, <i>Siebenbürgen</i>, page 52.)—Small cave.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Gietariu near Funacza.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -50.)—In the Bihar Mountains. Small glacière cave.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave of Skerizora.</span> (Karl F. Peters, <i>Sitzungsbericht -der K. K. Akademie der Wissenchaften</i>, Wien, vol. XLIII., -1861, page 437; Bielz, <i>Siebenbürgen</i>, 1885, page 37.)—This -is one of the greatest glacière caves known. It -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">« 246 »</a></span> -lies in the Bihar Mountains, three hours from the village -of Ober-Girda, which can be reached from Gyula Fehérvar, -via Topánfalva. It is a pit cave, in limestone, at an altitude -of 1127 meters. The pit is about 57 meters broad, -and 45 meters deep, with exceedingly steep walls. The -entrance is in the northeast wall and is about 10 meters -high. This leads into a nearly circular hall 47 meters in -diameter and about 20 meters high. The floor is ice. In -the southeast corner is a hole over 75 meters deep. In -the northwest wall is an opening 14 meters wide, which -forms the beginning of a sort of gallery 54 meters long -and which at its further end is 24 meters wide and 8 meters -high. This is also covered with a flooring of ice, which in -some places can only be descended by step cutting. This -passage is also richly adorned with ice stalactites and stalagmites. -At its end is another also nearly circular hall, -21 meters in diameter and about 22 meters high. This -is called the ‘<i>Beszerika</i>’ or church. In one place there -is a magnificent collection of ice stalagmites called the -“Altar.” Peters found in dirt on the sides of the cave -remains of bats not very different from those now living -in the vicinity. He thinks the bats may have come there -before the cave became a glacière; or else that they -may even now sometimes get into the first hall and there -perish from cold. This makes it uncertain, therefore, -whether the remains can be considered as of the past -or the present.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Eishöhle bei Roth.</span>—Described in Part I., <a href="#Page_35">page 35</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">« 247 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Mines on the Eisenberg.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -59.)—These lie near Blankenburg in the Thüringer Wald -and have been known to contain ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Ziegenloch or Grosses Kalte Loch, and the -Kleines Kalte Loch.</span> (Behrens, <i>Hercynia Curiosa</i>, -pages 68, 70.)—These lie near Questenberg in the -Southern Harz Mountains, at an altitude of about 300 -meters. The Grosses Loch is described as a sort of small -pit some 8 meters deep, in one side of which opens a small -fissure some 10 meters long. Ice has been found in this -in April; Schwalbe found none there in July. The Kleines -Loch was another small cold cave near the Ziegenloch, but -it has been filled up. Behrens says that the dampness at -the cave at Questenberg is precipitated as snow.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Holes with Ice near Sanct Blasien.</span> (Fugger, -<i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 109.)—In the Black Forest, among -boulders at an altitude of 820 meters.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Holes with Ice near Hochenschwand.</span> (Fugger, -<i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 109.)—In the Black Forest, among -boulders at an altitude of 820 meters.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Eisstollen and Eiskeller at the Dornburg.</span> Described -in Part I., <a href="#Page_59">page 59</a>. (Poggendorff’s <i>Annalen der Physik -und Chemie, Ergänzungsband</i>, 1842, pages 517-519.)—Ice -appears to have been discovered at the Dornburg -in June, 1839. It was found from a depth of 60 centimeters -down to 8 meters. The width of the ice-bearing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">« 248 »</a></span> -talus was from 12 meters to 15 meters; and it is said -that it becomes wider in winter and narrower in summer.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Beschertgluck Mine, Freiberg District.</span> (Prestwich, -<i>Collected papers</i>, etc., page 206.)—Mr. Prestwich quotes -Daubuisson as having seen the shaft of the mine lined -with ice to a depth of 80 toises (144 meters?).</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice in the Zinc Mines on the Sauberg.</span> (Reich, -<i>Beobachtungen über die Temperatur des Gesteines</i>, 1834, -pages 175 and 205.)—These are near Ehrenfriedersdorf -in Saxony and formerly contained ice in winter. They -are reported now to be destroyed.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Garische Stollen.</span> (Lohman, <i>Das Höhleneis</i>, -etc., page 3.)—Near Ehrenfriedersdorf in the Freiwald. -Lohman found much ice in this in January, less in March, -and scarcely any in May.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Ritterhöhle.</span> (Lohman, <i>Das Höhleneis</i>, page 5.)—Near -Ehrenfriedersdorf in the Freiwald. Small ice deposit. -The rock is granite.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Stulpnerhöhle.</span> (Lohman, <i>Das Höhleneis</i>, page -6.)—Near the Ritterhöhle. Small ice deposit in granite -rock.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Eisloch and Eishöhle near Geyer in Saxony.</span> (Lohman, -<i>Das Höhleneis</i>, page 7.)—These are in a place -called die Binge. Both are small.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">« 249 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Alte Thiele.</span> (Lohman, <i>Das Höhleneis</i>, page -8.)—Near Buchholz in Saxony. Small ice deposit.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Mine Pits in the Saxon Erzgebirge.</span> (Reich, <i>Beobachtungen -über die Temperatur des Gesteines</i>, 1834.)—Extremely -low temperatures have been found in several of -these pits:—</p> - -<p>In the Churprinz Friedrich August Erbstollen near -Freiberg.</p> - -<p>In the Heinrichs-Sohle in the Stockwerk near Altenberg.</p> - -<p>In the Henneberg Stollen, on the Ingelbach, near -Johanngeorgenstadt.</p> - -<p>In the Weiss-Adler-Stollen, on the left declivity of the -valley of the Schwarzwasser, above the Antonshütte.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Holes Holding Ice on the Saalberg.</span> (<i>Annalen der -Physik und Chemie</i>, 1850, LXXXI., page 579.)—These lie -between Saalberg and the Burgk. Ice is found here on -the surface from June to the middle of August. From -the observations of Professor Hartenstein, Fugger deduces -that this place must be the lower end of one or -more windholes.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Millstone Quarry of Niedermendig.</span> (M. A. Pictet, -<i>Mémoires de la Société d’Histoire Naturelle de Genève</i>, 1821, -vol. I., page 151.)—On the Niederrhein. There are many -connecting pits and galleries here, in which ice has been -found in the hottest days of summer as well as in March. -The abandoned shafts are utilized as beer cellars.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">« 250 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Eisgrube on the Umpfen.</span> (Voigt, <i>Mineralogische -Reisen durch das Herzogthum Weimar</i>, 1785, vol. II., page -123.)—In the Rhöngebirge, twenty minutes from Kaltennordheim, -are some irregular masses of columnar basalt, at -an altitude of about 500 meters, among which abundant -ice has been found up to late in the summer.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave near Muggendorf, Franconia.</span>—The landlord of -the Kurhaus Hotel at Muggendorf, told me that there was -a small cave in the vicinity where there was ice in the -winter and spring, but that it all melted away before -August.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave on the Dürrberg.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -59.)—Near Zwickau in Bohemia. Small cave which sometimes -contains ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Schneebinge.</span> (Lohman, <i>Das Höhleneis</i>, page -11.)—Near Platten in Bohemia. A small ice deposit in -an old mine.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice among Basaltic Rocks on the Pleschiwitz.</span> -(Pleischl, in Poggendorff’s <i>Annalen der Physik und Chemie</i>, -vol. LIV., 1841, pages 292-299.)—Above Kameik near -Leitmeritz in Bohemia. Professor Pleischl, in May, 1834, -found ice under the rocks a little distance from the surface. -The surface of the rocks was then warm. On the -21st of January, 1838, Professor Pleischl found snow on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">« 251 »</a></span> -the outside of the rocks, but no ice underneath. He was -assured by the people of the district that the hotter the -summer, the more ice is found.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière on the Zinkenstein.</span> (Pleischl, in Poggendorff’s -<i>Annalen der Physik und Chemie</i>, vol. LIV., 1841, -page 299).—The Zinkenstein is one of the highest points -of the Vierzehnberge, in the Leitmeritz Kreis. There is a -deep cleft in basalt, where ice has been found in summer.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Eislöcher on the Steinberg.</span> (Pleischl, in Poggendorffs -<i>Annalen der Physik und Chemie</i>, vol. LIV., 1841, -page 299.)—In the Herrschaft Konoged. Small basalt -talus where ice is found in the hottest weather.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Windholes in Bohemia.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -109.)—In the neighborhood of Leitmeritz. These are -in basaltic rock. Ice sometimes forms at the lower extremity. -The most notable are—</p> - -<p>On the Steinberg near Mertendorf on the Triebschbach;</p> - -<p>On the Kelchberg near Triebsch;</p> - -<p>On the Kreuzberg near Leitmeritz;</p> - -<p>On the Rodersberg near Schlackenwerth;</p> - -<p>In the Grossen Loch near Tschersink.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice in a Pit near Neusohl.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -109.)</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">The Frainer Eisleithen.</span> Described in Part I., page -33. (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 163.) Professor Fugger -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">« 252 »</a></span> -quotes the following observations by Forester Wachtl at -Frain:—</p> - -<table style="width: 20em;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tbl_header">1861.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">1862.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">January</td> - <td class="tdl">-7° to -2°</td> - <td class="tdl">-5°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">February</td> - <td class="tdl">-2° to 0°</td> - <td class="tdl">-5° to -2°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">March</td> - <td class="tdl"> 0° to +1°</td> - <td class="tdl">-1° to 0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">April</td> - <td class="tdl">+1° to +2°</td> - <td class="tdl"> 0°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="tdl">+2°</td> - <td class="tdl">+2° to +5°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June</td> - <td class="tdl">+2° to +3°</td> - <td class="tdl">+3° to +6°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July</td> - <td class="tdl">+3°</td> - <td class="tdl">+3° to +5°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">August</td> - <td class="tdl">+3° to +7°</td> - <td class="tdl">+5°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">September</td> - <td class="tdl">+7° to +6°</td> - <td class="tdl">+3° to +6°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">October</td> - <td class="tdl">+6°</td> - <td class="tdl">+5°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">November</td> - <td class="tdl2">—</td> - <td class="tdl">+5°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">December</td> - <td class="tdl">-1° to -3°</td> - <td class="tdl"> 0° to -2°</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Démenyfálva Jegbarlang.</span> Described in Part I., -<a href="#Page_24">page 24</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Dóbsina Jegbarlang.</span> Described in Part I., <a href="#Page_13">page 13</a>. -(Pelech; <i>The Valley of Stracena and the Dobschau Ice -Cavern</i>; Schwalbe, <i>Über Eishöhlen und Eislöcher</i>, page -31.)—Pelech gives the following measurements: The -Grosser Saal is 120 meters long, 35 meters to 60 meters -wide, and 10 meters to 11 meters high, with a surface area -of 4644 square meters. The ice mass is estimated as -125,000 cubic meters in volume. The length of the Korridor -is 200 meters; the left wing being 80 meters, and -the right wing 120 meters long. The cave was first entered -on July 15th, 1870, by Herr Eugene Ruffiny, of -Dóbsina, and some friends. He had happened to fire a -gun in front of it, and hearing a continuous muffled -rolling echo within, determined to explore it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">« 253 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Dr. Schwalbe quotes the following series of observations -in Dóbsina during the year 1881:</p> - -<table style="width: 30em;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tbl_header">ENTRANCE.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">GROSSER SAAL.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">DEEPEST POINT<br />OF KORRIDOR.</td> - <td class="tbl_header">FROM KORRIDOR<br />TO KLEINEN SAAL.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">January</td> - <td class="center">-2.2°</td> - <td class="center">-4.2°</td> - <td class="center">-2.2°</td> - <td class="center">-0.6°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">February</td> - <td class="center">-1.2°</td> - <td class="center">-3.4°</td> - <td class="center">-1.9°</td> - <td class="center">-0.3°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">March</td> - <td class="center">-1.4°</td> - <td class="center">-2.1°</td> - <td class="center">-0.9°</td> - <td class="center">-0.2°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">April</td> - <td class="center">-0.25°</td> - <td class="center">-1.25°</td> - <td class="center">-0.7°</td> - <td class="center">+0.3°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="center">+0.7°</td> - <td class="center">+0.9°</td> - <td class="center">-0.5°</td> - <td class="center">+0.5°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June</td> - <td class="center">+1.0°</td> - <td class="center">+1.5°</td> - <td class="center">-0.5°</td> - <td class="center">+0.5°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July</td> - <td class="center">+1.8°</td> - <td class="center">+2.1°</td> - <td class="center">+0.2°</td> - <td class="center">+1.1°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">August</td> - <td class="center">+3.4°</td> - <td class="center">+3.8°</td> - <td class="center">+0.24°</td> - <td class="center">+0.80</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">September</td> - <td class="center">+2.00</td> - <td class="center">+2.3°</td> - <td class="center">-0.3°</td> - <td class="center">-0.15°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">October</td> - <td class="center">-0.2°</td> - <td class="center">+0.2°</td> - <td class="center">-0.5°</td> - <td class="center">-0.2°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">November</td> - <td class="center">-1.3°</td> - <td class="center">-1.9°</td> - <td class="center">-0.6°</td> - <td class="center">-0.3°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">December</td> - <td class="center">-2.2°</td> - <td class="center">-3.2°</td> - <td class="center">-0.65°</td> - <td class="center">-1.75°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Year</td> - <td class="center"><span class="bdt">+0.04°</span></td> - <td class="center"><span class="bdt">-0.44°</span></td> - <td class="center"><span class="bdt">-0.69°</span></td> - <td class="center"><span class="bdt">-0.02°</span></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The Philadelphia <i>Evening Bulletin</i>, March, 1st, 1899, -printed the following note about Dóbsina: “In this cave, -some sixteen years ago, a couple named Kolcsey elected -to pass the week immediately following their marriage. -They took with them a plentiful supply of rugs, blankets -and warm clothing, but notwithstanding all precautions, -their experience was not of a sufficiently pleasant nature -to tempt imitators.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Lednica of Szilize.</span> (M. Bel, <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, -London, 1739, vol. XLI., page 41 <i>et seq.</i>; Townson, -<i>Travels in Hungary</i>, 1797; Terlanday, <i>Petermann’s Mittheilungen</i>, -1893, page 283.)—It lies 1.5 kilometers from the -village of Szilize, near Rosenau, in Gomör County, in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">« 254 »</a></span> -Carpathians, at an altitude of 460 meters. A pit about 35 -meters deep, 75 meters long, and 48 meters wide opens in -the ground, and at the southern end, in the perpendicular -wall, is the cave. The entrance is 22 meters wide, 15 -meters high, and faces north. A slope 4 meters long sinks -with an angle of 35° to the floor of the cave, which is nearly -circular in form, with a diameter of about 10 meters. On -the east side of the cave there seems to be a hole in the -ice some 10 meters deep.</p> - -<p>In 1739, there was published in London a curious letter -in Latin from Matthias Bel, a Hungarian <i>savant</i>, about the -cavern of Szilize. He says: "The nature of the cave has -this of remarkable, that, when outside the winter freezes -strongest, inside the air is balmy: but it is cold, even icy, -when the sun shines warmest. As soon as the snow -melts and spring begins, the inner roof of the cave, -where the midday sun strikes the outside, begins to -sweat clear water, which drops down here and there; -through the power of the inner cold it turns to transparent -ice and forms icicles, which in thickness equal -large barrels and take wonderful shapes. What as water -drops from the icicles to the sandy floor, freezes up, -even quicker, than one would think.</p> - -<p>“The icy nature of the cave lasts through the whole -summer, and what is most remarkable, it increases with the -increasing heat of the sun. In the beginning of the spring -the soft winter’s warmth begins to give way soon thereafter, -and when spring is more advanced, the cold sets in, -and in such a manner, that the warmer does the (outside) -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">« 255 »</a></span> -air grow, the more does the cave cool off. And when the -summer has begun and the dog days glow, everything -within goes into icy winter. Then do the drops of water -pouring from the roof of the cave change into ice, and with -such rapidity that where to-day delicate icicles are visible, -to-morrow masses and lumps, which fall to the ground, -appear. Here and there, where the water drips down the -walls of the cave, one sees wonderful incrustations, like an -artificial carpeting. The rest of the water remains hanging -on the ice, according to the warmth of the day. For when -for a longer time it is warmer, the ice of the stalactites, of -the walls and of the floor increases; but when the ruling -heat, as sometimes happens, is diminished through north -winds or rainstorm, the waters freeze more slowly, the ice -drips more fully and begins to form little brooklets. When -however the temperature gets warmer, the icy nature of -the cave begins once more. Some have observed, that the -nature of the grotto receives the changes of temperature -ahead, like a barometer. For, when a warmer temperature -sets in outside, the waters change into ice, several -hours before the heat sets in, while the opposite takes -place, when by day the temperature is colder; for then -even by the warmest sky the ice begins to melt noticeably.</p> - -<p>“When the dog days have passed and the summer -has already changed into fall, the cave with its own nature -follows the conditions of the external air. In the early -months and while the nights are growing colder, the ice -diminishes visibly; then when the air cools off more and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">« 256 »</a></span> -more and when the brooks and side are rigid with frost, it -begins to melt as though there was a fire built underneath, -until, when winter reigns, it is entirely dry in the cave, -without a sign of ice being left behind. Then gentle -warmth spreads into the entire cave, and this icy grave -becomes a safety resort for insects and other small animals, -which bear the winter with difficulty. But besides -swarms of flies and gnats, troops of bats and scores of -owls, hares and foxes take up their abode here, until with -the beginning of spring, the cave once more assumes its -icy appearance.”</p> - -<p>These assertions of Bel are the most inaccurate ones -made about glacières. Yet, strange to say, they have colored -the literature of the subject down to our own times; -and have been repeated many times, sometimes with, -sometimes without, the hares and foxes; the latest repetition -seeming to occur in 1883.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave near the Village of Borzova, Torna County, -Carpathians.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 52.)—Reported -to contain ice, but nothing certainly known.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">CRIMEA.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ledianaia Yama.</span> (Montpeyreux, <i>Voyage autour du -Caucase</i> V., page 440; Hablizl, <i>Description physique de la -Tauride</i>, 1783, pages 43-45.)—On the Karabi-Yaïla, 32 -kilometers southwest of Karasubazar. Altitude about -1800 meters. A fairly large pit glacière cave. The name -means an abyss of ice.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">« 257 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave on the Yaïla of Oulouzène at Kazauté.</span> -(Montpeyreux, <i>Voyage autour du Caucase</i>, II., page -380.)—A small pit cave.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">CAUCASUS.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave in the Khotevi Valley.</span> (Montpeyreux, -<i>Voyage autour du Caucase</i>, II., page 379.)—In the province -of Radscha, near the Monastery Nikortsminda. A -large pit cave which must be of the same order as that of -Chaux-les-Passavant and from which the inhabitants of -Koutaïs get ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacières near Koutaïs.</span> (E. A. Martel, <i>Les Abimes</i>, -page 397.)—“Dr. A. Sakharov, it appears, has recently -discovered in the government of Koutaïs caves containing -ice.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave of Sabazwinda.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -126.)—Near the town of Zorchinwall, on the river Liachwa, -province of Gori, in Georgia, near the Ossete Mountains. -Ice has been found in the cave in summer. In December -there was none.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">URAL.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave near Sukepwa.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 63.)—On the Volga, province of Zlatoust. Small -cave on the river bank.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave on the Tirmen Tau.</span> (Lepechin, -<i>Tagebuch der Reise</i>, etc., vol. II., page 28.)—Near the -village of Chaszina, 160 kilometers from Orenburg. -Small cave.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">« 258 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave of Kurmanajeva.</span> (Lepechin, <i>Tagebuch -der Reise</i>, etc., vol. II., page 5.)—Near Kurmanajeva, a -village 49 kilometers from Tabinsk, in the Government -of Orenburg. A large cave. Lepechin found ice in one -part of the cave and deep water in another. There were -draughts in some places.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave on the Baislan Tasch.</span> (Lepechin, <i>Tagebuch der -Reise</i>, etc., II., page 40.)—The Baislan Tasch is a mountain -on the right bank of the Bielaja River, which flows -into the Kama. There is a large cave in the mountain -in which ice has been found.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave on the Muinak Tasch.</span> (Lepechin, <i>Tagebuch der -Reise</i>, etc., II., page 38.)—The Muinak Tasch is a mountain -on the Bielaja River. There is a large cave in it, in -which a little ice has been found.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave of Kungur.</span> (Lepechin, <i>Tagebuch der Reise</i>, etc., -II., page 137; Rosenmüller and Tilesius, I., page 79.)—The -Cavern of Kungur is near the town of Kungur in the -Government of Perm. There are in it many passages -and grottoes connecting with one another, some of which -contain ice. It is a fine, large cave, whose greatest -length is 400 meters.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Mines of Kirobinskoy.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 65.)—These -mines are 53 kilometers southeast of Miask in the -Ural; they have been abandoned. One of them contains -ice all the year round.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">« 259 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Caves of Illetzkaya-Zatschita.</span> (Murchison, Vernieul -and Keyserling, <i>The Geology of Russia in Europe and the -Ural Mountains</i>, 1845, vol. I., page 186.)—72 kilometers -southeast from Orenburg. The caves are in the Kraoulnaïgora, -a gypsum hillock 36 meters high, rising in the midst -of an undulating steppe, which lies on a vast bed of rock -salt. Only one of the caves contains ice. There are -strong draughts in places.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">SIBERIA.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave near the Fortress Kitschigina.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 66.)—A small cave, 17 kilometers east of -Kajilskoi, 192 kilometers from Petropaulowsk, 605 kilometers -from Tobolsk. The cave is in an open plain, and -sometimes contains ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Wrechneja Petschera.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 66.)—Near -the village Birjusinska, in the neighborhood of Krasnojarsk, -on the right bank of the Yenisei. Large glacière -cave.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave of Balagansk.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 66.)—A narrow cleft, 80 meters long; 192 kilometers -downstream from Irkutsk on the left bank of the Angora -River; at a distance of 2 kilometers from the river.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave on the Onon River.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 66.)—A small cave; 48 kilometers from the -Borsja Mountain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">« 260 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Mines of Siranowsk.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page -126.)—In the Altai Mountains, on the Buchtorma River, -an affluent of the Irtysch. Magnificent ice formations -have been found in these mines.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Mines of Seventui.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, page 126.)—Near -Nertschinsk, on the Amoor River. Two of the -levels contain perennial ice and hence are called <i>Ledenoi</i>. -These are at a depth of about 60 meters in porous lava. -The rest of the mine is in more solid rock.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave near Lurgikan.</span> (Fugger, <i>Eishöhlen</i>, -page 67.)—Near the confluence of the Lurgikan and -Schilka Rivers, in the province Nertschinsk. From 2 -meters to 7 meters wide. Length 280 meters.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Basins or Troughs Retaining Ice.</span> (Dittmar, <i>Ueber -die Eismülden im Östlichen Siberien</i>; Middendorff, <i>Zusatz</i>; -<i>Bulletin de la classe physico-mathématique de l’Académie Impériale -des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg</i>, 1853, vol. XI., pages -305-316.)—These troughs are nearly akin to gorges and -gullies, but their water supply seems to come from a -cause which is not usually present in gorges. Their -principal observer, M. de Dittmar, thought that a cold -and snowy winter would add materially to the supply of -ice, but he also thought that a necessity to the existence -of the ice in these troughs was an abundant water supply -from a spring, whose temperature should be so high as -not to freeze in winter. The cold is supplied by the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">« 261 »</a></span> -winter temperatures. Some of the most important are -reported—</p> - -<p>In the Turachtach Valley.</p> - -<p>Near Kapitanskji Sasiek.</p> - -<p>In the valley of the River Belvi.</p> - -<p>In the valley of the River Antscha.</p> - -<p>In the Kintschen Valley.</p> - -<p>In the neighborhood of Kolymsk.</p> - -<p>In the Werchojanski Mountains.</p> - -<p>In the Stanowáj Mountains.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">KONDOOZ.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Cave of Yeermallik.</span> (Burslem, <i>A peep into Toorkisthan</i>, -1846, chaps. X., XI.)—In the valley of the Doaub, -northwest of Kabul. The entrance is half way up a hill, -and is about 15 meters wide and 15 meters high. This is -a large cave, with many ramifications and galleries. In -the centre of a hall far within, Captain Burslem found a -mass of clear ice, smooth and polished as a mirror, and -in the form of a beehive, with its dome-shaped top just -touching the long icicles which depended from the -jagged surface of the rock. A small aperture led into -the interior of this cone, whose walls were about 60 -centimeters thick and which was divided into several -compartments. Some distance from the entrance of this -cave there is a perpendicular drop of 5 meters. A short -distance beyond this, in one of the halls, were hundreds of -skeletons of men, women and children, in a perfectly undisturbed -state, also the prints of a naked human foot and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">« 262 »</a></span> -the distinct marks of the pointed heel of an Afghan boot. -The moollah, who was acting as guide, said the skeletons -were the remains of seven hundred men of the Huzareh -tribe who took refuge in the cave with their wives and -children during the invasion of Genghis Khan, and who -defended themselves so stoutly, that after trying in vain to -smoke them out, the invader built them in with huge natural -blocks of stone, and left them to die of hunger. Some -of the Afghans said that the cave was inhabited by -Sheitan, a possibility denied by the moollah who guided -Captain Burslem, on the philosophical plea that the cave -was too cold for such an inhabitant.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">HIMÁLAYA.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave of Amarnath.</span> (Miss Mary Coxe of -Philadelphia showed me a copy of a letter of Dr. Wilhelmine -Eger describing a visit to this cave.)—It lies three -days’ journey from Pailgam in Kashmere, on the borders -of Little Tibet. The altitude is evidently high as one -crosses snow fields to get to it. A small path zigzagging -up a grassy slope leads to the cave and is a stiff climb -from the valley. The cave opens on the side of a mountain -and has a large, almost square mouth at least as big -as the floor area within. The floor of the cave is the continuation -of the grass slope and slants upwards and backwards -to the back wall, the only case of the kind so far -reported. This cave is most curiously connected with religion. -Dr. Eger says that there are two small blocks of -ice in it which never melt. From time immemorial these -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">« 263 »</a></span> -blocks of ice have been sacred to the Hindoos who worship -them—as re-incarnations—under the names of Shiva -and Ganesh. Dr. Eger saw offerings of rice and flowers -on them. Thousands of pilgrims come every year at the -end of July or beginning of August from all parts of -India. Thousands of miles have been traversed and hundreds -of lives laid down through this journey. Every -year people die either before reaching the cave or after. -The trip from Pailgam in Kashmere takes three days up -and two days down, if one returns by a shorter route -where the way is unsafe because of avalanches. So many -have perished there that the pass is called “The Way of -Death.” This must be taken by one class of pilgrims, -<i>Sardhas</i> or Holy Men, to complete the sacred circuit, -but the Hindoos say any one dying on the pass will go -straight to heaven.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Icicles Formed by Radiation.</span> (General Sir Richard -Strachey, <i>Geographical Journal</i>, 1900, vol. XV., page -168.)—On the Balch pass of the Balch range in Tibet, -General Strachey, in 1848, saw icicles of which he says: -"On the rocks exposed to the south were very curious -incrustations of ice, icicles indeed, but standing out horizontally -like fingers towards the wind. I was not able to -understand how they were caused, nor can I tell why they -were confined to particular spots. The thermometer stood -at 41°[F.], and though the dew point at the time would -probably have been below 32°[F.], and the cold produced -by evaporation sufficient therefore to freeze water, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">« 264 »</a></span> -yet it is evident that no condensation could ever take -place simultaneously with the evaporation. * * * It -has since occurred to me that these icicles were formed -by radiation. I found, subsequently, in a somewhat similar -position, that a thermometer suspended vertically, and -simply exposed to the sky in front of it, was depressed as -much as 20° F. below the true temperature of the surrounding -air. This result was, of course, due to the -radiation through the extremely dry and rarefied atmosphere -at the great elevation at which the thermometer -was exposed. As radiation takes place freely from a -surface of ice, the growth of such icicles as those described -might be due to the condensation of vapour brought up -by the southerly day winds that so constantly blow over -these passes, and its accumulation in the form of ice on -the exposed extremity of the icicle, the temperature of -which might thus have been greatly reduced."</p> - - -<p class="caption3">INDIA.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Ice Formed by Radiation.</span> (T. A. Wise, <i>Nature</i>, -vol. V., page 189; R. H. Scott, <i>Elementary Meteorology</i>, -Third Ed., pages 61, 62.)—Mr. Bunford Samuel called -my attention to the mode of manufacturing ice by radiation -in India. It is as follows:—</p> - -<p>“A very practical use of nocturnal radiation has been -made from time immemorial in India in the preparation -of ice, and on such a scale that about 10 tons of ice can -be procured in a single night from twenty beds of the -dimensions about to be given, when the temperature of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">« 265 »</a></span> -the air is 15° or 20° [F.] above the freezing point. -* * * The locality referred to is the immediate -neighborhood of Calcutta. A rectangular piece of ground -is marked out, lying east and west, and measuring 120 -by 20 feet. This is excavated to the depth of two feet -and filled with rice straw rather loosely laid, to within six -inches of the surface of the ground. The ice is formed -in shallow dishes of porous earthenware, and the amount -of water placed in each is regulated by the amount of ice -expected.</p> - -<p>“In the cold weather, when the temperature of the air -at the ice fields is under 50°, ice is formed in the dishes. -The freezing is most active with N. N. W. airs, as these -are driest; it ceases entirely with southerly or easterly -airs, even though their temperature may be lower than -that of the N. N. W. wind.</p> - -<p>“No ice is formed if the wind is sufficiently strong to -be called a breeze, for the air is not left long enough at -rest, above the bed, for its temperature to fall sufficiently, -by the action of radiation.</p> - -<p>“The rice straw, being kept loose and perfectly dry, -cuts off the access of heat from the surface of the ground -below it, and, when the sun goes down, the straw being a -powerful radiator, the temperature of the air in contact -with the dishes is reduced some 20° below that prevailing -some two or three feet above them. The rapid evaporation -of the water into the dry air above creates also an -active demand for heat to be rendered latent in the formation -of steam, and the result of all these agencies is the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">« 266 »</a></span> -formation of ice, under favorable circumstances, on the -extensive scale above mentioned.”</p> - - -<p class="caption3">KOREA.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Cave on the Han Gang.</span>—Messrs. J. Edward -Farnum and George L. Farnum, of Philadelphia, inform me -that they saw a small cave containing ice on the banks of -one of the Korean rivers. It is about 75 kilometers from -Seoul, nearly northeast, near the ferry where the old road -leading from Seoul towards northern Korea crosses the -Han Gang, the river which passes by Seoul. The entrance -is small; perhaps 2 meters wide. The cave is not -thoroughly explored. Ice lies near the entrance, and as -far back as the Messrs. Farnum could see.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">JAPAN.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><span class="smcap">Glacière Lava Cave near Shoji.</span> (<i>Evening Telegraph, -Philadelphia, January 2d, 1896.</i>)—The cave is about 12 -kilometers from Shoji, and is in lava. First there is a pit -in the forest, some 5 meters wide by 15 meters deep. The -cave opens into this. It seems to be some 400 meters -long and from 2 meters to 12 meters high. There is an -ice floor in places, also many ice stalagmites. At the -furthest point reached there is a strong air current, which -extinguishes torches and so far has prevented further exploration. -Ice from the cave has been cut by the country -people for sale at Kofu, which is not far distant.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">« 267 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 class="pmt4"><a name="PART_IV" id="PART_IV">PART IV.</a></h2> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<p class="caption2 pmb4">SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIÈRES.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">« 268 »</a><br /><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">« 269 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="caption2">SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIÈRES.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 116px;"> -<img src="images/line_dots.png" width="116" height="13" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Benigne Poissenot, in 1586, hinted that the cold of -winter produced the ice at Chaux-les-Passavant.<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> See Part III.: <a href="#Page_193">page 193</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2">Reichard Strein and Christoph Schallenberger visited -the caves on the Ötscher in 1591.<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> See Part III.: <a href="#Page_231">page 231</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2">Gollut, in 1592, suggested the cold of winter as the -cause of the ice at Chaux-les-Passavant.<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> See Part III.: <a href="#Page_202">page 202</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2">In the <i>Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences</i>, 1686, -Tome II., pages 2, 3, there is an account, with no author’s -name, of Chaux-les-Passavant. The memoir states that -in winter the cave is filled with thick vapors and that after -some trees were cut down near the entrance, the ice was -less abundant than formerly: that people come for ice -with carts and mules, but that the ice does not become -exhausted, for one day of great heat forms more ice than -could be carried away in eight days in carts and wagons: -and that when a fog forms in the cave, there is assuredly -rain the following day, and that the peasants in the neighborhood -consult this curious “almanac” to know the -weather which is coming.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">« 270 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Freiherr Valvasor, in 1689, wrote about some of the -glacières of the Krain.<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> See Part III.: pages 238, 239.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2">Behrens, in 1703, thought it was colder in summer -than in winter in the caves near Questenberg in the Harz.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">M. de Billerez, in 1712, writes that at Chaux-les-Passavant -it is really colder in summer than in winter; and that -the ice is harder than river ice, and this he thinks is due -to the presence of a nitrous or ammoniacal salt, which -he says he found in the rocks.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">M. de Boz made four trips to Chaux-les-Passavant on -the 15th of May and 8th of November, 1725; and the 8th -of March and 20th of August, 1726. His memoir says -that his observations tend to disprove those of M. de -Billerez, and that “the cause for the great cold, which is -less great in summer, although always remaining, is quite -natural.” He cites as causes for the ice the exposure to -the north-north-east; the rock portal sheltering the entrance, -and all the forest covering the surrounding lands; -and adds that some veracious persons told him that since -some of the big trees above the grotto had been cut -down there was less ice than before. He found no traces -of salt, nor any springs, and that the water supply came -from the rains and melted snows filtering through the -ground.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">« 271 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2">In 1739, Matthias Bel published his curious account -of Szilize.<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> See Part III.: <a href="#Page_254">page 254</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2">J. N. Nagel, a Vienna mathematician, visited the -Ötscher in 1747. He concluded that the ice was made -in winter and preserved in summer as in an ice house.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">M. de Cossigny wrote, in 1750, about Chaux-les-Passavant. -He made a plan of the cave and took many observations -in April, August and October, and concluded -that the interior condition of the cave does not change -noticeably from winter to summer, no matter what the -external conditions of temperature may be; that what -people say of greater cold in summer, vanishes before -actual experience and that, as a state of freezing reigns -more or less continuously in the cave, it is not surprising -if the ice accumulates. Apparently he was the first to -notice and insist on the necessity of drainage to the cave -through cracks in the rocks. He also made a series of -observations disproving those of M. de Billerez, as to the -presence of any kinds of salts in the rocks or ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Hacquet, in 1778, thought that the ice in the cave at -Lazhna-gora formed in winter, but he also thought that -there must undoubtedly be some salt in the water. He -says he found ice in the cave in the spring, and that his -companion, a priest, had never found any in winter. He -therefore concluded that by that time it had all melted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">« 272 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Romain Joly, in 1779, claims to have visited Chaux-les-Passavant -on the 19th of September (year not given). His -account seems largely borrowed from the one in the -<i>Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences</i>, in 1686. He -says: “This ice is formed by the drops of water which -fall from the roof, and which freeze because of the chill -of the cave. In the winter there is no ice, but running -water.” He says nothing, however, about the ice forming -in summer.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">The <i>Citoyen</i> Girod-Chantrans visited Chaux-les-Passavant -in August, 1783, and reached the conclusion, from all -he saw and heard, that the cave did not freeze in summer -nor thaw in winter, and that it was really a natural ice -house. He was aided by the notes of a neighboring -physician, Dr. Oudot, who had made observations in the -cave, and among others, had placed stakes of wood, on -the 8th of January, 1779, in the heads of the columns he -had found in the cave; and on the 22d of February, 1780, -had found these stakes completely covered with ice, forming -columns 30 centimeters in diameter.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Hablizl, in 1788, wrote that the ice in the cave near -Karassoubazar formed in the spring by the snows which -melt, run into the cave, and refreeze. He also thought -that there was less ice there in the fall than in the spring, -that it diminishes in July and August, and that the idea, -current in the neighborhood, of the formation of ice in -summer, is a mistake.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">« 273 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor Pierre Prévost, in 1789, gave an accurate -explanation of the formation of the ice in Chaux-les-Passavant. -He says: "Weighing carefully the local circumstances, -one discovers in truth a few causes of permanent -cold. But these causes seem rather suited to keep up a -great freshness or to diminish the heat of summer, than to -produce a cold such as that which reigns in the cavern. -First of all, big trees throw shade over the entrance; it is, -I was told, forbidden under severe penalties to cut down -any of them, for fear of depriving the grotto of a necessary -shelter. In the second place, this entrance is situated -almost due north, leaning a little to the east, which is the -coolest exposure one can choose, and the one most suited -to help the effect of the icy winds which blow from that -quarter. Finally the slope is steep and the grotto deep -and covered with a thick vault. These three conditions -united constitute, as it seems to me, a very good <i>ice house</i>; -by which I mean a reservoir fit to preserve during the -summer, the ice which may bank up in winter.</p> - -<p>“But how does this ice bank up? One knows that -the outside waters above form on the roof, during the winter, -long drops and stalactites of ice. These icicles, which -hang down and increase constantly by the drip from the -same source which formed them, fall at last, carried away -by their own weight, and form so many centres, around -which freeze the waters with which the floor of the grotto -is always inundated. At the same time, the blowing of -the north wind accumulates snow at the base of the slope, -which is uncovered in part and exposed above to all the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">« 274 »</a></span> -vicissitudes of the weather. Thus during the winter is -formed an irregular heap of ice and snow, which the first -heats of spring begin to make run, but which the heats of -summer cannot finish dissolving. The winter following -has therefore even more facility to augment the mass of -these ice pyramids, which have resisted until the fall. And -if men did not work at diminishing it, it might happen that -it would fill the entire cavern at last to a great height.</p> - -<p>“I am therefore strongly inclined to think that the -process of nature is here precisely similar to that of art; -that without any especial cause of cold, the natural glacière -of Besançon conserves in the moderate temperature -of deep caverns, the heaps of snow and ice which the -winds and the outside waters accumulate there during -the winter; and that the melting of these snows and of -these accumulated ices forms little by little the ice floor, -scattered over with blocks and pyramids, which one observes -there during the summer.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Horace Bénédict de Saussure, the great Swiss scientist -and mountaineer, in 1796, published a number of observations -about cold current caves in various parts of the -Alps. He found that in summer the air blows outward -at the lower end, and that in winter it draws inward. His -explanation is that in summer the colder air in the tube is -heavier than the outside air and displaces it by gravity; -while in winter the rupture takes place in the other direction, -since the column within the tube is warmer than the -outside air and therefore is pushed upwards by the heavy -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">« 275 »</a></span> -air flowing in. He concludes that evaporation due to the -air passing internally over moist rocks suffices to explain -the phenomenon of low temperatures and that such caves -have a rather lower temperature in the Alps than in Italy -owing to the greater natural cold of the Swiss lake region. -An experiment of his is worth mentioning. He passed a -current of air through a glass tube, 2.5 centimeters in -diameter, filled with moistened stones, and found that the -air current which entered with a temperature of 22.5° -came out with a temperature of 18.75°, that is with a loss -of 3.75° of heat.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Robert Townson, LL.D., in 1797, published an account, -perhaps the first in English, of a glacière cave. -He says of Szilize: "Ice I truly found here in abundance, -and it was mid-summer, but in a state of thaw; the bed of -ice, which covered the floor of the cavern was thinly covered -with water and everything announced a thaw. I had -no need to use my thermometer: however I placed it in -the ice and it fell to 0° of Réaumur: I then wiped it and -placed it in a niche in the rock, at the furthest part of the -cavern, a yard above the ice and here it remained near an -hour: when I returned I found it at 0°. * * * Everything -therefore, ice, water and atmosphere in the neighborhood -had the same temperature, and that was the temperature -of melting ice: 0° Réaumur.</p> - -<p>“When then is the ice which is found here, and in -such quantities that this cavern serves the few opulent -nobility in the neighborhood as an ice house, formed?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">« 276 »</a></span> -Surely in winter, though not by the first frost, not so soon -as ice is formed in the open air. No doubt, from the -little communication this cavern has with the atmosphere, -it will be but little and slowly affected by the change. -Should therefore, Mr. Bel, or any of his friends, have -come here to verify the common report at the commencement -of a severe frost, when the whole country was covered -with ice and snow, they might still have found -nothing here but water, or the ice of the preceding winter -in a state of thaw, and the cavern relatively warm; and -likewise, should they have visited it in a warm spring, -which had succeeded to a severe winter, they might have -found nothing here but frost and ice; and even the fresh -melted snow, percolating through the roof of this cavern, -might again have been congealed to ice. I observed frequently -in Germany in the severe winter of 1794-5, on a -sudden thaw, that the walls of churches and other public -buildings, on the outside were white and covered with a -hoar frost, and the windows on the same side covered -with a rime.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Dr. Franz Sartori, in 1809, was a strong believer in the -summer ice theory, and wrote of the flies and the gnats, -the bats and the owls, and the foxes and the hares coming -to Szilize to winter.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Alexander von Humboldt, in 1814, says about the Cueva -del Hielo on the Peak of Teneriffe that so much snow -and ice are stored up in winter that the summer heat -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">« 277 »</a></span> -cannot melt it all, and also adds that permanent snow in -caves must depend more on the amount of winter snow, -and the freedom from hot winds, than on the absolute -altitude of the cave.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Dewey, in 1819, thought that the ice in the Snow Glen -at Williamstown was a winter formation.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor M. A. Pictet visited Saint-Georges, Le Brezon -and Montarquis and in 1822 endeavored to prove that -they are cold current caves and that the ice in them is due -entirely to draughts causing evaporation. He believed in -the theory of the ice forming in summer more than in winter -and that it could not be the residue of a winter deposit. -He therefore argued that it must be due to descending -currents of air which he thought would be most energetic -in summer; that they would become at least as low as the -mean annual temperature of the place and be still further -cooled by evaporation. The strange thing about his theories -is that he does not seem to have personally observed -any draughts either at Saint-Georges or Le Brezon, but -the fact that the ice was evidently not an accumulation of -winter snow led him to try to reconcile what he had himself -seen with de Saussure’s theories about windholes.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Jean André Deluc in 1822 published a paper discussing -the theories of MM. de Cossigny, Prévost and Pictet. -Deluc had never visited a glacière himself, but he explains -clearly the impossibility of Professor Pictet’s cold current -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">« 278 »</a></span> -theory, on the simple ground that Professor Pictet himself -did not find any cold currents. He takes up Professor -Prévost’s theories warmly; using also the manuscript -notes of Mons. Colladon who had visited the Grand Cave -de Montarquis. Deluc says: “that the winter’s cold penetrates -into these caves, freezes the water which collects -there and that the ice thus formed has not the time to -melt during the following summer.” He says further: -“It seems that in the three glacières with which we have -been occupied there is a flat or rather hollow bottom, -where the waters can form a more or less deep pond, and -whence they therefore cannot flow away; it is there they -flow in winter; and as these are shut in places where the -air cannot circulate, the heats of summer can only penetrate -very feebly. The ice once formed in such cavities, only -melts slowly; for one knows that ice in melting, absorbs -60° of heat; and where find this heat in an air always very -cold and nearly still? During a great cold, the ice forms -with great promptness, while it melts with much slowness, -even when the temperature of the air is several degrees -above zero; what must then not be this slowness when -the temperature of the interior air only rises in summer -one degree above freezing point. It would need several -summers to melt this ice if it did not reform each winter.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">C. A. Lee, in 1825, wrote that the ice in the Wolfshollow -near Salisbury was a winter formation.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">G. Poulett Scrope, in 1826, accepted as the truth the -statement that the cave of Roth was filled with ice in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">« 279 »</a></span> -summer, but that it was warm during the winter. In 1827, -he explained the presence of ice at Pontgibaud as follows: -“The water is apparently frozen by means of the powerful -evaporation produced by a current of very dry air issuing -from some long fissures or arched galleries which -communicate with the cave, and owing its dryness to the -absorbent qualities of the lava through which it passes.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">F. Reich, in 1834, thought that there were two possible -causes which might produce subterranean ice: 1, the difference -in specific gravity between warm and cold air; 2, -evaporation. He thought the cold air a sufficient cause in -most caves, but he considered that evaporation also played -a part not infrequently.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor Silliman, in 1839, gave the first hint, in the -negative, about compressed air as a cause for subterranean -ice. He said about Owego that if one could suppose that -compressed gases or a compressed atmosphere were escaping -from the water or near it, this would indicate a -source of cold, but that as there is no indication of this -in the water, the explanation is unavailable.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor A. Pleischl wrote in 1841 that he was told -that ice formed on the Pleschiwetz and on the Steinberge -in summer. Continuing, he says: "The author is therefore, -as well as for other reasons, of the opinion, that -the ice is not remaining winter ice, but a summer -formation, and one formed by the cold of evaporation. -* * * The basalt is, as a thick stone, a good conductor -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">« 280 »</a></span> -for the heat, and takes up therefore easily the sun’s -warmth, but parts with it easily to other neighboring -bodies. In the hollows, between the basalt blocks, is -found, as I already mentioned, rotting moss, which forms -a spongy mass, which is wet through with water. The -basalt heated by the sun’s rays now causes a part of -the water in the spongy mass to vaporize; for this -evaporation the water needs heat, which it withdraws -from the neighboring bodies and in part from water, -and makes the water so cold, that it freezes into ice, as, -under the bell of an air pump—Nature therefore makes -here a physical experiment on the largest scale."</p> - -<p>Much stress appears to have been laid on the paper -of Professor Pleischl by Professor Krauss and one or two -others. The weak point in it is that Pleischl did not see -the ice form in summer, but was only, as usual, told that -it did so. There is nothing in the facts given to show -that the places mentioned are different from any other -taluses, where ice does not form as the result of heat.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Mr. C. B. Hayden, in 1843, wrote about the Ice Mountain -in Virginia, and held that the porous nature of the -rocks makes them poor conductors of heat, and that the -mountain is a huge sandstone refrigerator.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Dr. S. Pearl Lathrop, in 1844, wrote of the Ice Bed -at Wallingford, Vermont, as a great natural refrigerator.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Sir Roderick Impey Murchison wrote in 1845 about -the salt mine and freezing cave of Illetzkaya-Zatschita. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">« 281 »</a></span> -He visited them during a hot August, and was assured -that the cold within is greatest when the external air -is hottest and driest; that the fall of rain and a moist -atmosphere produce some diminution in the cold of the -cave and that on the setting in of winter the ice disappears -entirely. He accepted these statements evidently -only in a half hearted way, submitting them to Sir John -Herschel, who tried to explain them, in case they were -true, of which Herschel was likewise doubtful. Murchison -at first thought that the ice was due to the underlying -bed of salt, but soon recognized that this explanation -could not be correct. He also rejected Herschel’s -“heat and cold wave” theory. Shortly after this he came -across Pictet’s memoir, and on the strength of it concluded -that the ice in Illetzkaya-Zatschita could not be the residue -of a winter deposit, but must be due to descending currents -of air; to the previously wet and damp roof affording -a passage to water; and to the excessive dryness of -the external air of these southern steppes contributing -powerfully to the refrigerating effects of evaporation.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor Arnold Guyot, in 1856, said that the well at -Owego admitted large quantities of snow which melts, but -not readily, because it is not accessible to the sun. It -therefore goes through the same process as glaciers, of -partly melting and refreezing; and we have the formation -of a glacier without movement.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor W. B. Rogers, in 1856, held that the well at -Owego became the recipient of the coldest air of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">« 282 »</a></span> -neighborhood, and the temperature remained abnormal -because the bad conducting power of the materials of -the well retained the cold.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor D. Olmstead, in 1856, held about Owego -that cold air exists in the interior of the earth which may -have found a ventilating shaft in the well.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor Petruzzi, in 1857, considered the following -requirements necessary for a glacière: A high altitude -above the sea; a decided drop into the interior of the -mountain; absence of all draught; protection against all -warm and moist winds, therefore the opening to north -and east. He also says about the glacière on the Pograca: -that it is in shadow; that the thick forest round the mouth -keeps the temperature down; that it begins to freeze -below when it does above; that the cold remains there -into the spring; and that the water from rain or other -sources, which flows into the cave, must freeze there, and -the ice form in greater quantities than the heat of summer -can melt away.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Mr. Albert D. Hager wrote in 1859: "The question -now arises, why it was that such a congealed mass of -earth was found in Brandon at the time the frozen well -was dug. My opinion is, that the bad conducting property -of the solids surrounding it, the absence of ascending -currents of heated air, and of subterranean streams of -water in this particular locality favored such a result; and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">« 283 »</a></span> -that the bad conducting property of clay, as well as that -of the porous gravel associated with it, taken in connection -with the highly inclined porous strata, and the disposition -of heated air to rise, and the cold air to remain -below, contribute to produce in the earth, at this place, a -<i>mammoth refrigerator</i>, embracing essentially the same -principle as that involved in the justly celebrated refrigerator -known as 'Winship’s Patent.'</p> - -<p>“Clay is not only nearly impervious to air and water, -but it is one of the worst conductors of heat in nature. -(<span class="smcap">Note.</span>—To test the question whether clay was a poor -conductor of heat or not, I took two basins of equal size, -and in one put a coating of clay one-half inch thick, into -which I put water of a temperature of 52° Fahrenheit. -Into the other dish, which was clean, I put water of the -same temperature, and subjected the two basins to equal -amounts of heat; and in five minutes the water in the -clean dish indicated a temperature of 70° while that of the -one coated with clay was raised only to 56°.) If we can -rely upon the statements of those who dug out the frozen -earth, it rested upon a stratum of clay that lay upon the -bed of pebbles in which the water was found, for it was -described as being a very sticky kind of hard pan.</p> - -<p>“This being the case, if the water contained in the -pebbly mass had a temperature above the freezing point, -the heat would be but imperfectly transmitted to the frost, -through the clay, provided there was no other way for its -escape. But we have seen that the stratum of clay that -overlays the bed of pebbles in the side of the gravel pit -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">« 284 »</a></span> -was not horizontal, but inclined towards the well at an -angle of 25°. Now if this drip was continued to the well, -and existed there (which is highly probable), it will be -seen that the ascending current of heated air, in the -pebbly bed, would be checked upon meeting the overlying -barrier of clay and be deflected out of its upward -course. The tendency of heated air is to rise, hence it -would continue its course along the under side of the -clay, through the interstices in the bed of pebbles, till it -found a place of escape at the surface, which in this case -may have been at the gravel pit before named.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor Edward Hitchcock wrote in 1861: "The -presence of a mass of frozen gravel deep beneath the surface -in Brandon, was first made known by digging a well -in it in the autumn of 1858. * * * The gravel, also, -rises into occasional knolls and ridges. In short, it is just -such a region of sand and gravel as may be seen in many -places along the western side of the Green Mountains; -and indeed, all over New England. It is what we call -modified drift, and lies above genuine drift, having been -the result of aqueous agency subsequent to the drift -period. * * * The well was stoned up late in the -autumn of 1858, and during the winter, ice formed upon -the water in one night, two inches thick. It continued to -freeze till April; after which no ice was formed on the -surface, but we can testify that as late as June 25th, the -stones of the well for four or five feet above the surface -of the water were mostly coated with ice; nay, it had not -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">« 285 »</a></span> -wholly disappeared July 14th. The temperature of the -water was only one degree of Fahrenheit above freezing -point. The ice did however disappear in the autumn but -was formed again (how early we did not learn) in the -winter, and so thick too that it was necessary to send -some one into the well to break it. We visited the well -August 18th, 1860, and found the temperature 42°. Yet -only the week previous ice was seen upon the stones, and -we were even told by one of the family, that a piece of ice -had been drawn up the day before in the bucket. * * * -These frozen deposits may have been produced during the -glacial period that accompanied the formation of drift, and -continued far down into the subsequent epochs of modified -drift. * * * But in all the excavations both gravel -and clay occur: and how almost impervious to heat must -such a coating 20 feet thick, be! It would not, however, -completely protect the subjacent mass from solar heat. -But there is another agency still more powerful for this -end, namely, evaporation, which we think has operated -here, as we shall more fully describe further on; and we -think that these two agencies, namely, non-conduction and -evaporation, may have preserved this frozen deposit for -a very long period, from exterior influences."</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor Thury in 1861 says about Saint-Georges: -"Such is the <i>résumé</i>, concise but exact, of the results of -our winter excursion. They furnish proof to the fact generally -borne witness to by the mountaineers, that ice does -not form in winter in the interior of caverns. But if this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">« 286 »</a></span> -is so, it is for a very simple reason: two things are necessary -for the formation of ice: cold and water. In winter, -the cold is not wanting: but if there is no spring opening -in the cave, the water is absent, and then no ice forms.</p> - -<p>“It is in the spring, at the time of the first melting of -the snows, that the ice must form. Then water at 0° -pours over the surface, and penetrates by the fissures -of the rock and by the large openings into the chilled -cavern, which is also receiving the freezing air of the -nights. The grotto then makes its annual provision of -ice, which after this could only diminish little by little -during the whole duration of the warm season.”</p> - -<p>Professor Thury writes about the Grand Cave de Montarquis: -“Here it must be when water and cold meet, -that is autumn and especially spring, the time of the first -melting of the snows.”</p> - -<p>“During the winter * * * the colder, heavier air -comes to freeze the water of the grotto, and chill the ice -and the wall of rock.”</p> - -<p>“During the summer, the radiation of the vaults and -the proper heat of the ground only melt a small quantity -of ice because this absorbs much heat to pass into a liquid -state.”</p> - -<p>“The heat of the air is entirely used to melt the ice; it -does not therefore manifest itself as sensible heat.”</p> - -<p>“The contact of the ice ready to melt, plays in a certain -way, towards the air a little warmer than itself, the rôle of -an extremely absorbing body, or one which has an excessive -caloric conductibility.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">« 287 »</a></span></p> - -<p>“Here the formation of the ice could not possibly be -attributed to the cold caused by evaporation. The psychrometer -indicated ninety-two per cent, of relative humidity: -the atmosphere of the grotto was therefore almost -saturated with evaporation of water, and the maximum of -cold caused by evaporation was not over half a degree -centigrade.”</p> - -<p>About prismatic ice and a hollow pyramid, he says: -“The prismatic (<i>aréolaire</i>) structure is produced later on -in the ice, by a new and particular arrangement of the -molecules of the already solidified water. Therefore the -recent stalactites are never crystallized.”</p> - -<p>“In the beginning of the hot season, the atmospheric -temperature of the grotto rises slowly. Inferior to zero -by some tenths of a degree, it produces first on the surface, -in the stalactites, the prismatic structure. The temperature -continues to rise, the central portions of the stalactites, -still composed of ordinary ice, liquefy, and if the melting -water finds some issue, either by accidental openings left -between some prisms, or by the extremity of the stalactite -or by some point of its surface which had escaped the -action of the regular crystallization; by this opening the -water escapes, and the tubular stalactite has been formed.”</p> - -<p>“The column was composed of a very special ice, perfectly -dry, perfectly homogeneous, translucid and whose -appearance could only be compared to that of the most -beautiful porcelain. I am inclined to believe that we had -under our eyes a special molecular state of congealed -water. This state would be produced under the influence -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">« 288 »</a></span> -of a constant temperature of a certain degree (<span class="smcap">Note</span>—perhaps -not far from 4°—the actual temperature of the grotto) -long prolonged. These causes can be realized more completely -in glacières than anywheres else.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">The Reverend George Forrest Browne, published in -1865, <i>Ice Caves in France and Switzerland</i>, one of the most -delightful books of travel ever written, on account of the -scientific accuracy and the humor of the author. He visited -La Genollière, Saint-Georges, Saint-Livres, Chaux-les-Passavant, -Monthézy, Arc-sous-Çicon, the Schafloch, Haut-d’Aviernoz, -which he calls Grand Anu, Chapuis, and Font-d’Urle. -He says: "The view which Deluc adopted was -one which I have myself independently formed. * * * -The heavy cold air of winter sinks down into the glacières, -and the lighter warm air of summer cannot on ordinary -principles of gravitation dislodge it, so that heat is very -slowly spread in the caves; and even when some amount -of heat does reach the ice, the latter melts but slowly, for -ice absorbs 60° C. of heat in melting; and thus, when ice is -once formed, it becomes a material guarantee for the permanence -of cold in the cave. For this explanation to hold -good it is necessary that the level at which the ice is formed -should be below the level of the entrance to the cave; -otherwise the mere weight of the cold air would cause it -to leave its prison as soon as the spring warmth arrived. -In every single case that has come under my observation, -this condition has been emphatically fulfilled. It is necessary, -also, that the cave should be protected from direct -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">« 289 »</a></span> -radiation, as the gravitation of cold air has nothing to do -with resistance to that powerful means of introducing heat. -This condition, also, is fulfilled by nature in all the glacières -I have visited, excepting that of S. Georges; and -there art has replaced the protection formerly afforded by -the thick trees which grew over the hole of entrance. The -effect of the second hole in the roof of this glacière is to -destroy all the ice which is within range of the sun. A -third and very necessary condition is, that the wind should -not be allowed access to the cave; for if it were, it would -infallibly bring in heated air, in spite of the specific weight -of the cold air stored within. It will be understood from -my description of such glacières as that of the Grand Anu, -of Monthézy, and the lower glacière of the Pré de S. Livres, -how completely sheltered from all winds the entrances to -those caves are. There can be no doubt, too, that the -large surfaces which are available for evaporation have -much to do with maintaining a somewhat lower temperature -than the mean temperature of the place where the -cave occurs."</p> - -<p>Browne noticed prismatic ice several times. He says -of it: "M. Thury suggests also, as a possibility, what I -have found to be the case by frequent observations, that -the prismatic ice has greater power of resisting heat than -ordinary ice. * * * A Frenchman who was present in -the room in which the Chemical Section of the British -Association met at Bath, and heard a paper which I read -there on this prismatic structure, suggested that it was -probably something akin to the rhomboidal form assumed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">« 290 »</a></span> -by dried mud; and I have since been struck by the great -resemblance to it, as far as the surface goes, which the pits -of mud left by the coprolite workers near Cambridge offer, -of course on a very large scale. This led me to suppose -that the intense dryness which would naturally be the result -of the action of some weeks or months of great cold -upon subterranean ice might be one of the causes of its -assuming this form, and the observations at Jena would -rather confirm than contradict this view: competent authorities, -however, seem inclined to believe that warmth, -and not cold, is the producing cause."</p> - -<p>Mr. Browne found a hollow cone at La Genollière, for -which he accounted as follows: "In the loftier part of -the cave * * * ninety six drops of water in a minute -splashed on to a small stone immediately under the main -fissure. This stone was in the centre of a considerable -area of the floor which was clear of ice. * * * I found -that the edge of the ice round this clear area was much -thicker than the rest of the ice on the floor, and was -evidently the remains of the swelling pedestal of the -column. * * * When the melted snows of spring -send down to the cave, through the fissures of the rock, -an abundance of water at a very low temperature and the -cave itself is stored with the winter’s cold, these thicker -rings of ice catch first the descending water, and so a -circular wall, naturally conical, is formed around the area -of stones; the remaining water either running off through -the interstices, or forming a floor of ice of less thickness, -which yields to the next summer’s drops. In the course -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">« 291 »</a></span> -of time, this conical wall rises, narrowing always, till a -dome-like roof is at length formed and thenceforth the -column is solid." From what I have observed myself, this -explanation seems to fairly meet the facts.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor T. G. Bonney, in 1868, was inclined to believe -that there was some connection between glacières and a -glacial period.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Mr. W. R. Raymond, in 1869, concluded from his own -observations about the lava cave in Washington: that the -cold air of winter freezes up the percolating waters from -the surface, layer upon layer, solid from the bottom, -and the accumulated ice thaws slowly in summer, being -retarded by the covering which keeps out the direct -rays of the sun, and by the fact that the melting ice at -one end of the cave, through which the summer draught -enters, itself refrigerates the air and maintains a freezing -temperature at the other end.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Dr. C. A. White, in 1870, says of the cavern at Decorah: -“The formation of the ice is probably due to the -rapid evaporation of the moisture of the earth and rocks, -caused by the heat of the summer sun upon the outer wall -of the fissure and valley side. This outer wall is from ten -to twenty feet in thickness where the ice was seen to be -most abundant. The water for its production seems to -be supplied by slow exudation from the inner wall of the -cave.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">« 292 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Dr. Krenner, in 1874, wrote of Dóbsina as “a natural -ice cellar of giant dimensions, whose ice masses formed in -winter, the summer does not succeed in melting.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor W. Boyd Dawkins wrote in 1874: “The -apparent anomaly that one only out of a group of caves -exposed to the same temperature should be a glacière, -may be explained by the fact that these conditions [those -formulated by the Rev. G. F. Browne] are found in combination -but rarely, and if one were absent there would be -no accumulation of perpetual ice. It is very probable that -the store of cold laid up in these caves, as in an ice house, -has been ultimately derived from the great refrigeration of -climate in Europe in the Glacial Period.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Mr. Theodore Kirchhoff examined the lava caves in the -State of Washington and in 1876 wrote that he considered -that the ice in the smaller ones were simply remains of the -winter’s cold. He thought that the ice in the large cave -where there is a draught could not be accounted for in the -same way, so he concluded that the ice must be due to the -draught.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Mr. N. M. Lowe, in 1879, proposed the Compressed -Air or Capillary theory<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> about the Cave at Decorah.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> See Part II., <a href="#Page_142">page 142</a>.</p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2">Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., in 1879, gave an exceedingly clear -exposition of the theory in the same journal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">« 293 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Mr. Aden S. Benedict, in 1881, published his observations -about Decorah. He found that there was no water -falling in the cave to compress the air, that there was no -water falling near enough to be heard, nor any aperture -giving vent to cold air in the cave. He thought that the -cold of winter cools the sides of the cave several degrees -below freezing point and that these rocks are so far -underground that it would take a long season of hot -weather to raise this temperature to the melting point of -ice. In the spring the water percolates through the soil -and drips on to the yet freezing rocks; on which it freezes -and remains until the heat of summer penetrates to a sufficient -depth to melt it away. The rocks once raised above 0° -remain so until the following winter and consequently if -there are heavy autumn rains there is water on the rocks -but no ice. Mr. Benedict concluded that there was nothing -more mysterious about Decorah than the fact that if -you drop water on a cold stone it will freeze.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor Friederich Umlauft in 1883 wrote about -glacières "that as moreover they were generally protected -against warm winds and strong draughts and as their entrances -look towards the north or east, there is consequently -more ice formed under these conditions in winter -than can melt away in summer. Other ice grottoes however -show the remarkable characteristic, that it is warm in -them in winter, in the summer on the contrary it becomes -so cold that all the dripping water freezes. They are -found near snow clefts and gorges; when in the hot summer -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">« 294 »</a></span> -months the snow melts, then the cold which has become -free presses down the temperature in the cave so -much that the water freezes into ice. Such grottoes are -in Austria at * * * Frauenmauer, * * * Brandstein, -* * * Teplitz, * * * Scilize, * * * Dobschauer."</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Herr Körber in 1885 wrote about the Schafloch, that the -stored-up winter’s cold stands out as permanent adversary -of the higher temperature of the earth. The thermometer -proved this by its action at the end of the cave in a rock -cleft, which is warmer than the rest of the cave. In September -Herr Körber found the masses of ice less and the -stalagmites smaller than in January, especially a column -which in January had become a stately mountain of transparent -ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor Eberhard Fugger of Salzburg, has studied -the caves of the Untersberg carefully, having paid over -eighty visits to them. He classifies freezing caverns into -the following types, according to their position and their -shape:</p> - -<p>According to position: 1, open caves, that is those -whose entrance is free on a rock wall; 2, pit caves, where -the entrance is at the bottom of a pit; 3, pit caves, where -the pit is covered and the opening is in the roof.</p> - -<p>According to shape: 1, <i>sackhöhlen</i> or chamber caverns, -into which one enters immediately at the entrance; 2, -<i>ganghöhlen</i>, or passage caves terminating in a chamber; 3, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">« 295 »</a></span> -<i>röhrenhöhlen</i>, or passage caves where the passages continue -further than the chamber.</p> - -<p>He is a strong advocate of the winter’s cold theory. -He says: “The ice of caves is formed by the cold of -winter, and remains despite the heat of summer, as through -local circumstances the quantity of heat brought to the ice -is not great enough to melt it by the time when ice and -snow in the open at the same altitude have already disappeared.”</p> - -<p>“In order that ice may form in a cave in winter, two -factors are necessary. There must be water present in -some form or other, and in some way the outside cold air -must be able to sink into the cave.”</p> - -<p>“When the bottom of a cave is below the entrance, the -outside cold winter air sinks into the cave from its weight, -when the temperature of the cave air is higher than that of -the outside air; and it will remain there during the warmer -weather, as the warm outside air on account of its lighter -weight cannot drive out the cold heavy cave air.”</p> - -<p>“The most important factor for the formation of ice is -the drip water. The more drip flows into a cave during -the cold season, the more ice is formed; the more drip, on -the contrary, flows into the cave during the warm season, -the more ice is destroyed.”</p> - -<p>“The warmth, which the roof of the cave gives out, is -also a cause which helps to melt the ice, and a cause in -fact which works the harder, the higher the temperature of -the roof and the dirtier the ice floor.”</p> - -<p>“If direct rays of the sun penetrate a cave, they scarcely -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">« 296 »</a></span> -warm up the air which they traverse, but they raise the -temperature of the floor or of the walls, which they touch. -They are therefore a very important factor, which may -bring about the melting of the ice.”</p> - -<p>“The snow slope at the mouth of a cave offers some -protection against the rays of the sun, especially if it is no -longer white, but covered with all sorts of dirt.”</p> - -<p>“The larger the mass of ice, the longer is its duration.” -“A certain thickness to the roof is of importance in -preserving the ice. If it is less than 8 meters, then it is -well if it is covered with outside vegetation.”</p> - -<p>I entirely agree with these <i>dicta</i> of Professor Fugger.</p> - -<p>In 1893, Fugger writes: "The peculiar readings of -temperature, which I made in August 1877, in the Kolowratshöhle, -namely on the 13th at 12 M., 0.5°, on the -15th at 4 P. M., 0.35°, on the 23d at 10 A. M., 0.12°, on the -26th at 10 A. M., 0.17°, and on the 30th at 2.15 P. M., --0.10°, I think I can attribute to the workings of the winds. -In the observations themselves there could scarce be an -error. All five observations were made at the same place, -with the same thermometer, after at least half an hour’s -exposure. In the time from the 13th to the 30th of -August, the temperature minimum in the town of Salzburg, -was 12°; before the 30th were several cloudless -nights. During the whole of August scarcely any but -southeast and northwest winds were blowing. The Kolowratshöhle -opens in a rock wall to the east; the above -named winds therefore affected during the entire month -the entrance to the cave and may have produced a lively -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">« 297 »</a></span> -evaporation in the cave, through a sort of sucking up of -the cave air, and thus have created the rather decided -cooling off of 0.6° within seventeen days."</p> - -<p>This statement, coming from Professor Fugger, deserves -particular attention, because it would go to show: -first, that the air in the Kolowratshöhle, a <i>sackhöhle</i> with -only one entrance, is only apparently stagnant in summer -and not really so; and second, that evaporation may act -to a limited extent in a cavern where there is almost no -running water.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Captain Trouillet, in 1885, published a paper about -Chaux-les-Passavant. He found that when it was colder -inside than outside, the internal air was nearly cut off -from the outside; when it was coldest outside there was -a lively disturbance. He called these two classes <i>périodes -fermées</i> and <i>périodes ouvertes</i>. He says: “The duration -of a <i>closed period</i> is measured then on the curves [of a -maximum and minimum thermometer] of the interior -temperatures, between a minimum and the following -maximum; that of an <i>open period</i> is between a minimum -and the preceding maximum. One can thus count from -the 25th November to the 31st December 25 <i>open periods</i> of -a total duration of 200 hours or 8 times 24 hours: which -gives for each a duration of 7-1/2 hours. The shortest -lasted 2 hours and the longest 16 hours. During the -same interval, the <i>closed periods</i> numbered 26, making a -total duration of about 28 days; the longest, which lasted -from the 3d to the 8th December, was 126 hours long.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">« 298 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Trouillet also says: “From the 23d to the 30th December, -the grotto was completely isolated from the external -air, and yet during three consecutive nights, the -interior had three marked chills. Such is the phenomenon -whose cause can only lay, in our opinion, in the introduction -of the dry air driven to the cave by the winds between -north and east. This air on entering comes in contact -with the ice and the humid roof of the cave; it saturates -itself in producing a formation of vapors, and therefrom -a consumption of heat which may be considerable.”</p> - -<p>There are some discrepancies in this last paragraph -which must be noted, for the reason that Trouillet’s observations -are so valuable. He does not mention having -seen the vapors himself, in fact the production of these -vapors seems only an inference. Nor is it easy to understand -how the grotto could be “completely isolated from -the external air” if the phenomenon lay “in the introduction -of the dry air driven to the cave by the winds north -and east.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Dr. B. Schwalbe, in 1886, wrote that “all my observations -point to the fact that the rock is the cooling factor in -summer, and that the cold goes out from it.” He says -also that "when I saw for the first time the little cave of -Roth, which was filled with fairly numerous ice formations, -it was precisely the smallness of the volume of air and the -strange appearance of the ice which made the simple cold -air theory seen insufficient, nor could I later, by widening -the theory and observing the localities from the basis of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">« 299 »</a></span> -DeLuc’s theory, accept it. It always seemed by all my -observations that in the rock there must be a lasting -source of cold. There must be a cause present, which -prevents the rapid warming of the cave wall through the -temperature of the ground, which also keeps the stone -cool in summer and induces the main ice formation in the -spring." He also hints that Mr. Lowe’s compressed air -theory may be the correct one. Dr. Schwalbe’s work, -<i>Über Eishöhlen und Eislöcher</i>, is one of the four or five -most important contributions to glacière literature, and -his opinion is entitled to great respect on account of his -many observations.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor Israel C. Russell wrote in 1890, about the ice -beds on the Yukon: “It is thought by some observers, -to be an inheritance from a former period of extreme cold; -but under existing climatic conditions, when ice forms -beneath a layer of moss, it is preserved during the short -summer, and may increase as it does on the tundras, to -an astonishing thickness.”</p> - -<p>In 1897, Professor Russell says: "It is not probable -that all the subsoil ice of northern regions has been -formed in one way. Along the flood plains and on the -deltas of rivers where layers of clear ice are interbedded -with sheets of frozen gravel and vegetable matter, as is -frequently the case, it seems evident that the growth of -the deposit is due, in some instances, to the flooding of -previously frozen layers, and the freezing and subsequent -burial of the sediment thus added to their surfaces. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">« 300 »</a></span> -When spring freshets spread out sheets of débris over -the flood plain of a river, as frequently happens when -streams in high latitudes flow northward, the previously -frozen soil and the ice of ponds and swamps may be -buried and indefinitely preserved." “There is still -another process by which frozen subsoil may be formed in -high latitudes: this is, the effects of the cold during the -long winters are not counteracted by the heat during the -short summers. Under the conditions now prevailing in -northern Alaska, where the mean annual temperature is -below 32° Fahrenheit, the frozen layer tends to increase -the thickness from year to year just as the depth of frozen -soil in more temperate latitudes may increase from month -to month during the winter season. During the short -northern summers, especially where the ground is moss -covered, melting only extends a few inches below the surface.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Mons. E. A. Martel, in 1892, wrote of the Creux-Percé: -“I incline only, as in all the pits which narrow at -the bottom (<i>avens à rétrécissement</i>) to attribute the chilling -to the fall of the cold air of winter and to its non-renewal -in summer.” And at page 564 of <i>Les Abimes</i> he says: -"One knows that <i>evaporation</i> is an active cause of cooling; -therefore it is always cooler in caves near the drips -of water. * * * I have positively noted this influence -of evaporation near the drips of Tabourel (8° instead of -9.5°), of Dargilan, of the Cerna Jama, and in abysses with -double mouths where there were strong draughts (Rabanel, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">« 301 »</a></span> -Biau, Fosse-Mobile, etc.)." In December, 1897, -Mons. Martel writes: “In short, the action of the winter’s -cold is the real cause accepted by * * * and recently -confirmed by Fugger, Trouillet and Martel.” And also: -“It is probable that this influence [evaporation] is only -real at rather high altitudes; this is at least what seems -the result of the studies of the caves of Naye (1700 to -1900 meters) begun by Professor Dutoit.”</p> - -<p>In 1899, Mons. Martel gave an account of the Glacière -de Naye. In this paper, he abandons definitely fossil ice, -salts and the capillary theory as possible causes of underground -ice. He considers that there are four causes: -1, shape of the cavity; 2, free access of snow in winter; -3, high altitude; 4, evaporation due to wind currents. -The last two causes he thinks are not necessarily always -present. For instance he considers that, at the Creux-Percé, -and at Chaux-les-Passavant, the ice is due especially -to the sack or hour-glass shape of these hollows where -the summer air cannot get in on account of its lightness. -At the Glacière de Naye, which is a big windhole, situated -at an altitude of 1750 to 1820 meters, Mons. Martel thinks -that the ice is formed by the snow and cold of winter, but -that its preservation is assured by the evaporation caused -by the action of the windhole.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Dr. Terlanday, in 1893, asserted that ice does not form -in Szilize in winter, and that the ice first forms in the winter -in the upper part of rock fissures and that in the -spring, at the time of an increase of temperature, this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">« 302 »</a></span> -fissure ice is brought to the melting point by the successive -entering of heat into the earth and that it then arrives -at the cave, where it aids the formation of icicles. This -theory about fissure ice is probably in so far correct, that -the ice in the upper parts of fissures, near the surface of -the ground, melts before the ice in the lower parts of fissures. -The drip would then naturally run into the cave -and, as long as the temperature of the cave was low, help -to form cave ice.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Dr. Hans Lohmann, in 1895, published some valuable -notes about several glacières. While considering the cold -of winter as the main cause of the ice, he thought evaporation -a secondary cause of cold. He says: "That the -cold from evaporation bears its share in cooling a cave, -will not be denied. * * * The air saturated with -aqueous vapor makes one think of constant evaporation. -The aqueous vapor spreads itself by diffusion throughout -the entire cave, and if the outside air is driest, goes to -that. Through this, more ice and water can always be -vaporized, and to the warming elements there is furnished -a cooling one. If dry winds get into the cave, then must -evaporation be very lively and the chilling especially -strong. Through this cause alone can be explained the -remarkably low temperature of +6.3° in the new part of -the Garischen Stollen, in contrast to the temperature of -+7.9° in the old part. The strong draught in the last -drew out through its suction the damp air of the new -adit, so that there had to be a strong evaporation."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">« 303 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Dr. Lohmann gives some exhaustive notes about prismatic -ice. He found it a product of the fall months. He -thinks all the observations show that “the beginning of all -prismatic formation in the ice may be looked for in the -changes of temperature in the cave at the time of the -formation of the ice. These cause the everywhere recognized -splitting, vertically to the outer surface. The further -development hangs, as shown by Hagenbach and Emden, -on the attempt of the neighboring cells, to join into larger -unities. The increase of the larger crystals is finally prevented -by the melting out of the openings between the -separate crystals. Through this may be explained the -difference in the prismatic ice in different parts of the -same cave.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Regierungsrath Franz Kraus, in 1895, wrote a short -essay on glacières in <i>Höhlenkunde</i>. He seems to have -seen but few glacières himself, and considers the scientific -side of the question by no means solved as yet. He says: -“The last word will not be spoken by the geographers and -the Alpine climbers * * * but by the physicists, in -whose field both questions really belong. Only then, when -the physical circumstances of the formation of the ice in -glacières have been so thoroughly understood, that under -the same circumstances it may be possible to build artificial -glacières, only then could one say: the glacière -question is definitely settled. The best proof is always -experiment.”</p> - -<p>He lays down several dicta which he says are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">« 304 »</a></span> -universally recognized, among which is this: “2. The ice -formations in the débris heaps of basaltic mountains are -summer ice formations. The evaporation of the infiltration -water is recognized on all sides as the cause of this -ice.” I differ in opinion from Herr Kraus about this -matter, and think that, on the contrary, every proof shows -that the ice of basaltic taluses is not a summer formation -and is not due to evaporation.</p> - -<p>Herr Kraus also says: “The <i>Eishöhlen</i> resemble so -little the <i>Windröhren</i>, that for these a proper name is quite -correct. Just as one cannot draw a sharp line between -<i>Einstürzschlünden</i> and <i>Einstürzdolinen</i>, so one cannot -draw a sharp line between <i>eishöhlen</i> and <i>windröhren</i>. A -stagnation of cave air does not exist, and no cave student -would pretend to say it existed. The circulation -of air may in certain caves take place almost entirely -through the mouth and it then depends largely on the -shape of the latter; in other caves are crevices and -erosion holes, which allow a circulation of air. Again in -other caves air may come through the floor into the -cave, as is proved by certain places always remaining -free from ice.”</p> - -<p>He also says: "The formation of dripstone is also -diminished about thick roofs, when the cracks are too -broad to permit a slow dripping process. In caves with -sufficient air movements, that is ventilation, the dripstone -formation takes place faster than in those in which the air -is only slowly renewed. Also in such caves, in which the -air is strongly filled with moisture, the dripstone formation -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">« 305 »</a></span> -process is materially hindered. Therefore in water -caves and in <i>eishöhlen</i> one finds only rarely dripstone -formations, and these mainly of poor appearance. But in -all cases the carbonic acid of the infiltration water plays -an important part."</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">In 1896, a Western newspaper published the following -explanation about the presence of ice in the cave -at Elkinsville, Indiana; and it shows how the idea—long -since exploded—of the ice being due to chemical -causes, serenely bobs up on the discovery of a new cave: -“Some have advanced the theory that the air is forced -through under passages of the earth with such pressure -as to make the strange formation; some have attributed -the cause to an underlying bed of alkali, whose chemical -change to a gaseous form has produced the phenomenon. -Others have thought that the interior heat of the earth, -acting upon the iron pyrites, or fool’s gold, which largely -abounds in this country, is the true source of this unparalleled -discovery. Still others think that the sudden expansion -of the carbonic acid gas given off by the heated -limestone, which is also common in this country, could -have easily produced the ice. But thus far the theories -are nothing more than speculation, and further than the -fact that the ice cave exists, and is, indeed, a remarkable -phenomenon, none has been able to further determine.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">In 1896, Dr. A. Cvijic wrote that the cold air of winter -is the source of cold in the glacières of Servia. The -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">« 306 »</a></span> -mountains have so little water that the shepherds constantly -take the ice out in summer for their own use.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">In 1897, numerous newspapers, among others, the -<i>Philadelphia Press</i> of August 1st, romanced as follows -about the cave at Decorah: “In the summer its temperature -is far below freezing. * * * From some unknown -source in the impenetrable rear of the cave comes a -blast of cold air as chill as from the Arctic region. In -the winter the temperature of the cave is like summer. -* * * We followed the winding passage in and out -for more than 1000 feet. * * * I took out the thermometer -and laid it upon the floor of the cavern for three -minutes. When I took it up again I found that the -mercury had fallen to 5 degrees below zero.”</p> - -<p>“What is it that causes this phenomenon? Scientific -men are said to have visited the cave within the last day or -two who have declared that it had in some manner a subterranean -connection with the polar regions, and that the -cold air from the North coming in contact with the warm -moist atmosphere from outside converted the vapor into -water on the walls of the cavern where it straightway congealed. -* * * It seems to me possible after thinking -the matter over carefully, that in some mysterious manner -the same influences that work the changes in climate in -the Arctic and Antarctic regions are operating in this -cave. It is a well-known fact that in the regions referred -to the seasons are the reverse of what they are -here.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">« 307 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Mr. W. S. Auchincloss writes in 1897: “We also -notice the working of the same principle during summer -days. The hottest part does not occur at the noon hour—when -the sun is on the meridian—but several hours later -in the afternoon. In this case the accessions of heat arrive -more rapidly than radiation is able to carry off. Radiation, -however, keeps on apace, and, at last attaining the -mastery, temperature falls. Ice caves furnish another example -of the gradual procession in the seasons.”</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Mr. Alois F. Kovarik writes about Decorah in 1898 -that "the length of duration of the ice in the cave during -the spring and summer depends upon the quantity of -cold stored up in the walls and this again upon the coldness -and the length of coldness of the previous winter. -If the winter be severe and long, the walls will store up a -great supply of cold for the gradual dissipation in the -spring and summer and consequently the phenomenon of -the ice in the ice chambers will last longer. Last winter, -with an exception of the fore part of December, was quite -mild. As a result, the ice began to disappear with the -latter part of June, and totally disappeared by the end of -July. * * * The time of the lowest temperature in -the cave depends upon how soon the cold spells of the -winter begin; for the sooner the walls begin to freeze to -a greater depth, the sooner have they stored up the -greatest amount of cold. * * * February 28th, 1898, -when the walls contained the greatest amount of cold, -there was no ice in the cave, for the reason that no water -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">« 308 »</a></span> -made appearance. Could water have appeared, no doubt -a great amount of ice would have formed; but as the conditions -are, the water has to come from the ground outside, -and this being frozen at the time, water could not in -any natural way appear. If in early spring, sufficiently -warm days should come to melt the snow and open the -ground, the water not taken up by the ground would flow -and seep through crevices into the cave and ice consequently -would appear early. Somewhat such conditions -prevailed this year, for warm days appeared quite early in -the spring. If <i>per contra</i> the ground does not open until -in April, as was the case in 1895 and 1896, the appearance -of the ice is consequently delayed. * * * Naturally -this opening [the entrance] was small, but to give easier -entrance, it was enlarged to its present size. * * * -If the entrance had been left a small opening, as it -naturally was, it is my belief that the temperature of the -interior of the cave would be lower in summer than it is, -and the ice would not disappear as soon as it does."</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Mr. Robert Butler, of San José, Cal., investigated the -question of cold air draughts coming from the glacière -cave and from the freezing shaft he examined in Montana. -He wrote to me, in 1898, that he found that one notices -or imagines to notice a draught of air, especially on hot -days. Rapidly walking into the cave from the hot air without -to the rapidly cooling air within produces the same -nervous sensations as though one were to remain stationary -and the air were to pass by from the warm to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">« 309 »</a></span> -colder portions. A distance of twelve meters finds a -difference in temperature of fifteen degrees Centigrade. -Twelve meters can be walked quickly, so quickly that the -nerves cannot become accustomed gradually to the change -of temperature. The rapidly cooling air does actually produce -the sensation of cool air passing by one’s face. It -produces somewhat the same sensation as the evaporation -of ether on the surface of the body. Mr. Butler -satisfied himself that as far as he had observed all the -seemingly peculiar conditions and places where the ice -has been found do not indicate any other causes when -carefully investigated than those of the seasons of the -year, and that the ice was formed by no other cause -than the natural cold of winter.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2">Professor Cranmer, in 1899, added some important contributions -to our knowledge of freezing caverns. All his -work goes to prove the winter’s cold theory, but he has -brought out some new details. He found warm and cold -periods in the Tablerloch during the winter months. The -coldest air sank to the bottom and the air in the cave -stratified itself according to its specific gravity and its -temperature. During a cold period, the outside air sank -into the cave only to the air stratum, whose temperature, -from the preceding warm period, was as much higher as -that of the outer air, as this had become warmer in sinking -to that stratum. The air which enters falls down the -slope and displaces an equal volume of air which streams -out under the roof.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">« 310 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Water will sometimes drip through a crack in winter -until that crack freezes up, when the water may then find -some other crack to drip through; at this second place -a stalagmite may then grow, while at the first place the -stalagmite may stop growing and even begin to diminish -from evaporation.</p> - -<p>Ice begins to form, whenever water gets into a cave, -if the cave temperature is below 0°; ice begins to melt -as soon as the temperature is over 0°.</p> - -<p>Professor Cranmer found that occasionally small quantities -of ice form in caves in the summer months: this -was in mountain caves, where there was snow on the -mountains and the temperature of the nights at least, -had sunk below freezing point: in fact when the conditions -were those of the winter months.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">« 311 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 class="pmt4"><a name="PART_V" id="PART_V">PART V.</a></h2> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<p class="caption2 pmb4">LIST OF AUTHORS.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">« 312 »</a><br /> -<a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">« 313 »</a></span></p> - - -<div class="center"><span class="caption2">LIST OF AUTHORS.</span><a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> This list of authors includes all the authorities which I have personally -consulted. Several papers, such as Dr. Schwalbe’s “<i>Uebersichtliche -Zusammenstellung Literarischer Notizen ueber Eishöhlen</i>” -and the works of Dr. Listoff, I have been unable to find in any library.</p></div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 116px;"> -<img src="images/line_dots.png" width="116" height="13" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Allen, Levi.</span> <i>Scientific American, New Series</i>, October -27th, 1883, page 259.</p> - -<p><i>American Journal of Science and Arts</i>, 1839, vol. XXXVI., -page 184.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Auchincloss, W. S.</span>, C. E. <i>Waters within the Earth and -the Laws of Rainflow</i>, Philadelphia, 1897.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Badin, Adolphe.</span> <i>Grottes et Cavernes</i>, Paris, Hachette, 1867.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Baedeker, Karl.</span> <i>Handbook of Austria.</i> <i>Handbook of the -Eastern Alps.</i> <i>Handbook of South Eastern France.</i> -<i>Handbook of Switzerland.</i> <i>Handbook of the United -States.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Baker, M. S.</span> <i>The Lava Region of Northern California: -Sierra Club Bulletin</i>, San Francisco, Cal., 1899, -vol. II., page 318.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Balch, Edwin Swift.</span> <i>Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean -Ice</i>: Allen, Lane & Scott, Philadelphia, -November, 1896, and <i>The Journal of the Franklin -Institute</i>, Philadelphia, March, 1897, vol. CXLIII., -pages 161-178. <i>Ice Cave Hunting in Central Europe: -Appalachia</i>, Boston, 1897, vol. VIII., pages 203-209. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">« 314 »</a></span> -<i>Subterranean Ice Deposits in America: Journal of -the Franklin Institute</i>, Philadelphia, April, 1899, vol. -CXLVII., pages 286-297.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Baltzer, Dr. A.</span> <i>Eine Neue Eishöhle im Berner Oberland: -Jahrbuch des Schweizer Alpen Club</i>, Bern, 1892-1893, -pages 358-362.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Behrens, Dr. Georg Henning.</span> <i>Hercynia Curiosa</i>, -Nordhausen, 1703.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bel, Matthias.</span> <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, London, -1739, vol. XLI., page 41 <i>et seq.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Benedict, Aiden S.</span> <i>Decorah Republican</i>, June 19th, 1881.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Berthoud, Edward L.</span> <i>American Journal of Science and -Arts</i>, Third Series, 1876, vol. XI., page 108.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bielz, E. Albert.</span> <i>Siebenbürgen, Handbuch</i>, Carl Graeser, -Wien, 1885.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Billerez, Mons. de.</span> <i>Histoire de l’Académie Royale des -Sciences</i>, 1712, page 22 <i>et seq.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bonney, T. G.</span> <i>The Alpine Regions, 1868.</i> <i>Nature</i>, vol. -XI., pages 310, 327, 328.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Boué, Dr. Ami.</span> <i>La Turquie d’Europe</i>, Paris, 1840, vol. -I., page 132. <i>Sitzungsbericht der K. K. Akademie -der Wissenschaften in Wien</i>, 1864, I. Theil, page -321 <i>et seq.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Boz, Mons. de, Ingénieur du Roy.</span> <i>Histoire de l’Académie -Royale des Sciences</i>, 1726, pages 16, 17.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Browne, The Reverend G. 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XV., page 168.</p> - -<p><i>Telegraph, The Evening</i>, Philadelphia, January 2d, 1896, -and January 20th, 1897.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Terlanday, Professor Emil.</span> <i>Meine Erfahrungen in -der Eishöhle von Szilize: Petermann’s Mittheilungen</i>, -1893, page 283. <i>Sommereisbildung in der Eishöhle -von Szilize: Petermann’s Mittheilungen</i>, 1896, page -217.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Thomä, Dr. C.</span> <i>Das Unterirdische Eisfeld bei der Dornburg</i>, -Wiesbaden, 1841.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Thury, Héricart de.</span> <i>Journal des Mines</i>, vol. XXXIII., -page 157. <i>The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal</i>, -vol. II., page 80.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Thury, Professor.</span> <i>Études sur les Glacières Naturelles: -Bibliothèque Universelle, Archives des Sciences physiques -de Genève</i>, 1861, vol. X., pages 97-153.</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">« 326 »</a></span> -<p><i>Times, The</i>, Philadelphia, November 18th, 1896.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Townson, Robert</span>, LL. D. <i>Travels in Hungary</i>, 1797, -pages 317-321.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Trouillet, Capitaine.</span> <i>La Glacière de Chaux-les-Passavant: -Mémoires de la Société d’Émulation du Doubs</i>, -Besançon, 1885.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Umlauft, Professor Dr. Friedrich.</span> <i>Die Oesterreichisch-Ungarische -Monarchie</i>, Wien, Pest, Leipzig, 1883.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Valvasor, Johann Weichard, Freiherrn.</span> <i>Die Ehre -des Herzogthumes Crain</i>, Laybach, 1689.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Villard, L.</span> <i>Grottes du Vercors: Spélunca</i>, 1896, vol. -II., page 39.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Voigt, Joh. Carl Wilhelm.</span> <i>Mineralogische Reisen durch -das Herzogthum Weimar</i>, Weimar, 1785, vol. II., page -123.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ward, J. Clifford.</span> <i>Nature</i>, vol. XI., page 310.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">White, Dr. C. A.</span> <i>Geological Reports of the State of -Iowa</i>, Des Moines, 1870, vol. I., page 80.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Whymper, Edward.</span> <i>Scrambles Amongst the Alps</i>, London, -John Murray, 1871.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Winchel, Alexander.</span> <i>Walks and Talks in the Geological -Field</i>, The Chautauqua Century Press, 1898.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wise, T. A.</span> <i>Ice Making in the Tropics: Nature</i>, Macmillan, -London and New York, 1872, vol. V., pages -189-190.</p></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">« 327 »</a></span></p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">« 328 »</a><br /><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">« 329 »</a></span></p> - - -<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption3"> -<a href="#alpha_a">A</a> | <a href="#alpha_b">B</a> | <a href="#alpha_c">C</a> | <a href="#alpha_d">D</a> | <a href="#alpha_e">E</a> | <a href="#alpha_f">F</a> | <a href="#alpha_g">G</a> | <a href="#alpha_h">H</a><br /> -<a href="#alpha_i">I</a> | <a href="#alpha_j">J</a> | <a href="#alpha_k">K</a> | <a href="#alpha_l">L</a> | <a href="#alpha_m">M</a> | <a href="#alpha_n">N</a> | <a href="#alpha_o">O</a> | <a href="#alpha_p">P</a><br /> -<a href="#alpha_r">R</a> | <a href="#alpha_s">S</a> | <a href="#alpha_t">T</a> | <a href="#alpha_u">U</a> | <a href="#alpha_v">V</a> | <a href="#alpha_w">W</a> | <a href="#alpha_y">Y</a> | <a href="#alpha_z">Z</a> -</p> - -<table summary="Index"> -<tr> - <td class="tdr smaller" colspan="2">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_a"></a>Adirondack guides, Opinions of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Alaska, Subsoil ice in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_166">166</a>,<a href="#Page_167">167</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Allmen, Emil von, guide,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Altitude of glacières,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Amarnath, Cave of</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Apparently static caves,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Arizona, Glacières in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Auchincloss, Mr. W. S.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Auersperg, Prince,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ausable Pond, Freezing talus at,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_b"></a>Balch, Mrs. Geo. B.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Balch Pass, The,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Bargy, Mont,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Basins, Ice,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Behrens,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Beilstein, Caves on the,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Bel, Matthias,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Benedict, Mr. A. S.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Benner, Mr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Berthoule, Mons.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Besançon,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Billerez, Mons. de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Bonney, Professor T. G.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Boston Natural History Society,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Boué, Dr. A.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Boulder heaps,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Boz, Mons. de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Brandon, Freezing well of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Brinckerhoff, Mr. F. H.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Briot, Mons.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Brisons, Glacière de, - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">« 330 »</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Browne, The Rev. G. F.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bulletin, The Evening</i>,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Buried glaciers,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Burslem, Captain,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Butler, Mr. R.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_c"></a>California, Glacières in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Canfield, Mr. N. M.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Capillary or Compressed Air Theory,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Carbonic acid gas,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Carrel, Chanoine,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Caucasus, Glacières in the,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Cesi, Don Giuseppe,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Chapuis, Glacière de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Chatham, Mr. I. C.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Chaux-les-Passavant, Glacière de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Chemical causes theory,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Cliff caves,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Clothes for glacière exploration,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Cold caves,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Colladon, Mons,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Color effects,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Colorado, Glacières in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Cossigny, Mons. de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Cotterlaz, S. J., guide,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Coxe, Miss Mary,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Cranmer, Professor H.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Creux-de-Souci, Le,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Crevasses,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Crimea, Glacières in the,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Cushing, Mr. F. H.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Cvijic, Dr. A.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_d"></a>Dante,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Daubuisson,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dawkins, Professor W. Boyd,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Decorah, Freezing cave of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Decorah, Freezing well of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Deluc, Mons. J. A.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">« 331 »</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Démenyfálva Jegbarlang,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dewey, Mr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dimensions of glacières,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dittmar, Mons. de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dóbsina Jegbarlang,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dóbsina, Village of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dornburg, Freezing talus at the,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dornburg, Freezing cellar at the,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Draughts,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dripstone formations in glacières,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Duc de Lévy,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dunant, Mons. C.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dutoit, Professor,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_e"></a>Eastern Alps, Glacières in the,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_224">224-236</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Eastern United States, Glacières in the,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_180">180-189</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Eger, Dr. W.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ehrlicher, Mr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Eisenerz,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Elkinsville, Glacière at,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ellenville, Freezing gorge at,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Émery, Aymon, guide,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Enfer, Glacière de l',</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">England, Glacières in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Entrances of glacières,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Eschholz, Dr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Evaporation,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_f"></a>Farrandsville, Cave at,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Farnum, Mr. G. L.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_266">266</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Farnum, Mr. J. E.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_266">266</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Fauna of glacières,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Fee Glacier, Ice Cave in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Flora of glacières,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Fondurle, Glacière de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Forms of Ice,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Frainer Eisleithen, The,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">France, Glacières in,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">« 332 »</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_193">193-208</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213-218</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Frauenmauerhöhle, The,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Freezing mines and tunnels,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Freezing wells,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Friedrichsteinerhöhle,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Fugger, Professor E.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_g"></a>Genollière, Glacière de la,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Geographical distribution of glacières,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Germany, Glacières in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_246">246-250</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Giant of the Valley, Talus of the,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Girardot, Mons. A.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Girod-Chantrans, Le citoyen,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Glacial period theory, The,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Glacière, Advantage of term,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Glacière caves,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Glaciers,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Gollut, Lois,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Gorges and troughs,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Great Barrington, Icy gulf near,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Gruber, J., guide,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Gsoll-Alp,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Guyot, Professor A.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_h"></a>Hablizl,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Hacquet,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Hager, Mr. A. D.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Hall, Mr. W. Coleman,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Hart, Mr. B.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Hartenstein, Professor,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Haut-d’Aviernoz, Glacière de l',</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Hayden, Professor C. B.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Heilprin, Professor A.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Herschel, Sir John,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Hitchcock, Professor E.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_284">284</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Hoar frost,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Holes in ice,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Hollow ice stalagmites,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Holschuh, Mr. F.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">« 333 »</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Hovey, The Rev. H. C.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Howell, Mr. E. I. H.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Humboldt, Alexander von,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_i"></a>Ice floors,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ice formed by radiation,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_263">263-266</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Iceland, Glacières in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ice near entrance of caves,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ice sheets, Subterranean,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ice slabs on floor,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ice slopes,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ice Spring, Oregon, The,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ice stalactites and stalagmites,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Italy, Glacières in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_208">208-213</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_j"></a>Japan, Glacière in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_266">266</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Jayne, Mrs. Horace,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Joly, Capucin Romain,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_k"></a>Karst, Glacières in the,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_236">236-242</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">King’s Ravine, Subterranean ice in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Kirchhoff, Mr. T.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Klenka, S., guide,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Kolowratshöhle, The,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Körber, Herr B.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Korea, Glacière in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_266">266</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Kovarik, Mr. A. F.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Krain, Glacières in the,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_236">236-242</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Krauss, Regierungsrath F.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Krenner, Dr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_l"></a>Lakes, Subterranean,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lamb, Mr. C., guide,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lathrop, Mr. S. P.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lava caves, Washington,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Learned, Mr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lee, Mr. C. A., - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">« 334 »</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Legends about glacières,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lepechin,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lerchenfeld, Freiherr von,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lewis, Miss J. F.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lewis, Mr. J. F.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Liptós Szt Miklós,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lohmann, Dr. H.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lowe, Mr. C. E., Jr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lowe, Mr. C. E., Sr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lowe, Mr. N. M.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Luce, Mr. C. O.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lyell, Sir Charles,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_m"></a>Manchester, Marble freezing cave at,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Marinitsch, Herr J.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Martel, Mons. E. A.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">McCabe, Mr. E.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Meehan, Mr. W. E.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Mercer, Mr. H. C.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Metric system,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Mist in caves,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Misura, F., forester,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Montana, Glacières in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_171">171-173</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Montarquis, Grand Cave de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Montarquis, Petite Cave de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Moonlight effects,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Morin, Mons.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Motion in subterranean ice,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Movements of air,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Murchison, Sir R. I.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_n"></a>Nagel, J. N.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Naye, Glacière de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Nicholson, Mr. C. J.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Niles, Mr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Nixloch, The,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">« 335 »</a></span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_o"></a>Oetscher, The Seelücken on the,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Olmstaed, Professor D.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Otis, Mr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Oudot, Dr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Owego, Freezing well of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_p"></a>Paleontological remains,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Parmelan, Mont,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Parrot, G. F.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Peasants, Opinions of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Pelech, Dr. J. E.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Periods in glacières, Open and closed,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Peters, K. F.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Petruzzi, Professor,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Phillips, Mr. G. B.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Pictet, Professor M. A.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Pit caves,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Pleischl, Professor A.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Poissenot, Benigne,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Poprád,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Pralong du Reposoir,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Press, The Philadelphia</i>,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_306">306</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Preston, Mr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Prestwich, Mr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Prévost, Professor P.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Prismatic ice,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Public Ledger, The</i>,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_r"></a>Randolph, The Ice Gulch,,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Raymond, Mr. W. R.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Reich, F.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Religious feeling about ice,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ritchie, Mr. John, Jr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Rogers, Professor W. B.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Roth, Eishöhle bei,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Rudolf II., Kaiser,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ruffiny, Herr E.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Rumney, Freezing talus at,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Russell, Professor I. C.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">« 336 »</a></span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_s"></a>Saint-Georges, Glacière de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Saint-Georges, Village of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Saint-Livres, Glacière de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Saint-Livres, Pré de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Sakharov, Dr. A.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Samuel, Mr. B.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Sartori, Dr. F.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Satter, Professor H.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Saussure, H. B. de,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Scandinavia, Glacières in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Schafloch, The,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Schallenberger, C.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Schellenberger Eisgrotte, The,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Schwalbe, Dr. B.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Scott, Professor W. B.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Scrope, Mr. G. P.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Seelisberg, The Milchhaüser of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Selby-Hill, Mr. W. D.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Servia, Glacières in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_242">242-245</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Skerizora, Cave of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Skinner’s Cave,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Siberia, Glacières in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_259">259-261</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Sieger, Professor,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Silliman, Professor,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Sirar, J., guide,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Snow, Subterranean,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">South America, Subsoil ice in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Spruce Creek, Freezing talus at,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Stockbridge, Icy glen near,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Strachey, Gen. Sir R.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Strein, R.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Suchenreuther Eisloch, The,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Summer’s heat theory, The,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Summit, Glacières near,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Switzerland, Glacières in,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_219">219-223</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Szilize, Cave of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_t"></a>Tablerloch, The,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Taluses,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Temperatures, Subterranean,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Teneriffe, Glacière on the Peak of,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">« 337 »</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Terlanday, Dr.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Terminology,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Thermometric observations,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Thury, Professor,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Time of formation of ice,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Townson, R.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Trouillet, Captain,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Turrian, A. A., gendarme,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_u"></a>Umlauft, Professor F.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ural, Glacières in the,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_257">257-259</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_v"></a>Valvasor, Freiherr,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Villard, Mons. L.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Viré, Mons. A.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_w"></a>Wachtl, Forester,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Wagner, Mr. W. W.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Wallingford, The ice beds of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Watertown, Cave at,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Watertown, Windholes at,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Waves of heat and cold, Theory of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">White, Dr. C. A.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Williams, Mr. W. F.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Williamstown, Caves near,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Williamstown, The snow hole near,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Winter’s cold theory, The,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Windholes,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Windholes, The theory of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Wordsworth, Verses by,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_y"></a>Yeermallik, Cave of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><a id="alpha_z"></a>Ziegler, Herr J. M.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="trans_notes"> -<p class="caption2">Transcriber Note</p> - - -<p>Images were moved so as to not split paragraphs. Accents were standardized. -Obvious punctuation errors and typos repaired. Cover image compiled from -image made available at The Internet Archive and placed in the Public Domain.</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Glacières, by Edwin Swift Balch - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GLACIÈRES *** - -***** This file should be named 52216-h.htm or 52216-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/2/1/52216/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Edwin Swift Balch - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Glacieres - or Freezing Caverns - -Author: Edwin Swift Balch - -Release Date: June 2, 2016 [EBook #52216] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GLACIERES *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Note - - -Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - - - - GLACIERES - - OR - - FREEZING CAVERNS - -[Illustration: ICE SLOPE AND BASIN, KOLOWRATSHOeHLE.] - - - - - GLACIERES - - OR - - FREEZING CAVERNS - - - BY - - EDWIN SWIFT BALCH - - A. B. (Harvard); F. R. G. S. - Member of the Franklin Institute - Of the Appalachian Mountain Club - Of the American Philosophical Society - Author of "Mountain Exploration," &c. - - - Philadelphia - ALLEN, LANE & SCOTT - 1900 - - - Copyright, 1900, by - EDWIN SWIFT BALCH. - - - Press of - ALLEN, LANE & SCOTT, - Philadelphia, Pa. - - - THIS BOOK IS - AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED TO - MY MOTHER, - WHOSE DEEP INTEREST IN - MY WORK HAS - HELPED ME GREATLY. - - -PRELIMINARY NOTE. - - -Many kind friends have given me information about glacieres or -assistance in my work. I am especially indebted to Mr. Robert Butler, -of San Jose, Cal.; Mr. F. H. Cushing, of Washington, D. C.; Professor -Charles E. Fay, of Tufts College, Mass.; Professor Eberhard Fugger, of -Salzburg, Austria; Mr. Alois F. Kovarik, of Decorah, Iowa; Monsieur -E. A. Martel, of Paris, France; Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., of Boston, -Mass.; Professor I. C. Russell, of Ann Arbor, Mich.; Miss H. Varena, -of Wiesbaden, Germany; and Miss Mary Coxe, Mr. G. L. Farnum, Mr. J. -E. Farnum, Mr. F. L. Garrison, Mr. W. C. Hall, Mr. E. I. H. Howell, -Mrs. Horace Jayne, Mr. W. E. Meehan, Mr. C. J. Nicholson, Mr. G. B. -Phillips, Mr. Bunford Samuel, Mr. W. W. Wagner, and Dr. W. H. Wahl, of -Philadelphia. I wish to acknowledge also the help I have derived from -the Bibliotheque Nationale and the library of the British Museum. - - E. S. B. - -Philadelphia, February the 10th, 1900. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - Part I. Experiences in Glacieres 1 - Part II. The Causes of Subterranean Ice 109 - Part III. List of Glacieres 165 - Part IV. Some Opinions about Glacieres 269 - Part V. List of Authors 313 - Index 329 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - Ice Slope and Basin, Kolowratshoehle Frontispiece - Glaciere de Chaux-les-Passavant 8 - Ice Stalagmites, Chaux-les-Passavant 10 - Vertical Section of Chaux-les-Passavant 11 - Ice Stalagmites, Chaux-les-Passavant 12 - Vertical Section of Dobsina 15 - The Lower Rositten Alp and the Untersberg 16 - The Entrance of the Kolowratshoehle 18 - Vertical Section of the Kolowratshoehle 19 - Top of Ice Slope, Kolowratshoehle 20 - At the Entrance of the Schafloch 22 - Hollow Cones and Fissure Columns, Schafloch 24 - On the Ice Slope, Schafloch 26 - In the Rear of the Schafloch 28 - Vertical Section of Demenyfalva 29 - The Frauenmauer and the Gsoll Alp 38 - In the Frauenmauerhoehle 40 - Vertical Section of the Frauenmauerhoehle 42 - Ice Stalactite, Frauenmauerhoehle 42 - Vertical Section of the Suchenreuther Eisloch 57 - La Glaciere de Saint-Georges 62 - Vertical Section of the Glaciere de Saint-Georges 64 - Vertical Section of Grand Cave de Montarquis 72 - The Bluff at Decorah 86 - Entrance of the Cave of Decorah 88 - Locus Glacialis, Cave of Decorah 90 - Gorge at Ellenville 92 - Vertical Section of Pit near Summit 97 - Vertical Section of Freezing Cave near Williamstown 103 - Vertical Section of a Windhole 125 - Freezing Cavern at Brainard 180 - - - - -PART I. - -EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. - - - - -EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. - - -SUBTERRANEAN ICE IN KING'S RAVINE. - -Subterranean ice was brought to my notice by a mere accident, late in -the month of September, 1877, while on a descent of King's Ravine, -on Mount Adams, in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. We had just -descended the rock wall of the mountain and had reached the head of -the gorge, when my companion, Mr. Charles E. Lowe, the well-known -Appalachian guide of Randolph, suddenly said to me, "Would you like a -piece of ice? I can get you some presently." I answered, "Certainly," -wondering where he would find any. When we got among the big boulders, -which form so rough a path for the traveler at the bottom of the -ravine, Mr. Lowe climbed down under one of the biggest, and presently -reappeared with a good sized lump of ice. I was much impressed at -finding ice at the end of the summer in this gorge, when for months -past no ice or snow had been visible on the surrounding mountains. I -noticed also the peculiar, flaky formation of the ice, and saw at once -that it was something new to me, and in fact it was a piece of what I -have since learned to know as "prismatic ice." - - -GLACIERE NEAR BRISONS. - -In the summer of the year 1880, I traveled through the Alps, with a -friend from Philadelphia. On the 17th of September, we drove from -Geneva to Bonneville. Thence we started on foot without a guide, and as -a result got lost in the woods, from which we only extricated ourselves -at nightfall. After retracing our steps to Bonneville, we were glad to -find a man to show us the way we should have taken, and finally reached -the little village of Brisons in France, where we slept. The next day -we took a guide and made our way across the mountains to Annecy, at -one spot going out of our direct route to see a place spoken of by the -natives as a glaciere. It was a little pit, and at the base of one -side thereof was the mouth of a small cave into which we could not see -any distance. At the bottom of the pit lay a mass of dirty snow and -ice to which we did not descend, as the sides of the pit were sheer -and smooth, and there was no ladder. This pit seemed to be more of -the nature of a gully filled with winter snow, than a true rock cave -containing ice. - - -THE GLACIERE DE L'HAUT-D'AVIERNOZ. - -Three days after this, on Tuesday, the 21st of September, 1880, we -visited the two largest glacieres on the Mont Parmelan, near Annecy, -France. At Annecy we inquired at the hotel for a man who knew the Mont -Parmelan; and, after finding one, we made our way to Les Villaz, where -we spent the night in an _auberge_. Our companion was an odd personage. -He was small, about fifty years of age, and looked meek, crushed and -hungry. He wore a long black frock coat and black trousers, thin boots -and a linen shirt, certainly not the ideal outfit for a cave explorer. -Under his care we started early in the morning and toiled up a mountain -path some eight hundred or a thousand meters,[1] through woods and -pastures, to the higher plateau of Mont Parmelan, in which was situated -the first glaciere. This was in a great pit, at the bottom of which, -on one side, was a big cave. On the side of the pit opposite to the -opening, there was a steep rock slope, forty or fifty meters long, -whose lower portion was covered with snow. Down this slope we descended -with but little difficulty, reaching at the bottom an almost level ice -floor which spread over the entire cave and was formed throughout of -thick, solid ice. A second and much smaller pit in the roof of the cave -opened directly over the ice floor; and under this pit rose a small -cone of ice, some two meters high, the only one in this glaciere. - -[1] The metric system is used throughout this book, except in a few -quotations. Thermometric observations are given in degrees Centigrade. - -The glaciere itself was approximately round in shape, and some twenty -meters in diameter. At one place the rock wall was broken and we could -look into a much smaller inner cave or chamber. Into this we could not -penetrate on account of a long, narrow crack or hole which yawned in -the ice floor for a distance of some five or six meters and continued -through the opening into the second chamber. We tried to cut our way -along the side of the hole, but had to give it up, finding the ice -too hard and our time too short. The crack or hole, whose sides were -solid ice, proved conclusively that the ice in this glaciere was many -meters in thickness, for we could look a long way down into the hole, -certainly for ten or twelve meters, until the ice sides disappeared in -darkness, without any visible bottom. The hole cannot be spoken of as -a crevasse, for, besides not looking like a crevasse, it was certainly -formed by other causes than those which form the crevasses in glaciers, -since there is, as a rule, no perceptible movement in subterranean -ice. Doubtless, the hole was due to the drainage of the cave, which -undoubtedly passed off through the hole. There may be, nevertheless, -some little motion in the ice of this glaciere, for it is evident that -it is fed principally directly by the winter snows; which, whether as -frozen or melted snow, descend gradually, by the force of gravitation, -from the slope of the pit into the glaciere. - -As for any possibility of this great mass of ice melting away and -forming again in any one year, it passes belief; there must be at least -the cubic contents of a dozen ordinary houses in the cave, and such a -mass could hardly be destroyed or formed again in any such short space -of time as a fall or spring. This is, therefore, probably a permanent -or perennial glaciere. - - -THE GLACIERE DE CHAPUIS. - -Starting out from the Glaciere de l'Haut-d'Aviernoz we walked across -the plateau of the Mont Parmelan, _en route_ for the second glaciere. -This plateau is a curious rock formation, consisting of what the -natives call _lapiaz_, which might be translated "stone-heaps." The -plateau is full of great projecting rocks; and myriads of cracks -and crevices everywhere rend the surface, and over these crevices -one sometimes has to jump. Still, I do not remember any particular -difficulty. It was certainly not nearly as bad walking as the taluses -of loose rocks one meets at the base of many mountains. - -Our guide led us for about an hour across the plateau in a southerly -direction, and then, looking over the side of the Parmelan, with a -sweep of the arm covering south, west and north, he told us that the -glaciere lay between those points, but he did not know exactly where. -This seemed a rather hopeless prospect, so, as we had no clue to the -whereabouts of our prospective hole, we descended to a couple of -chalets we saw some two hundred meters below, but which at least were -in the direction of Annecy. We followed a goat-herd's path which led -to the chalets from the plateau, one of those dangerous grass tracks, -where nothing would be easier than to make a slip, and where a bad -slip might have unpleasant results. This is, however, just the kind -of place where every one is particularly careful not to slip. We were -careful and so reached the chalets all right, and there we found a -strong, intelligent boy, who at once pointed out the place where the -glaciere was, about half way up the slope we had just come down. So we -took him with us, leaving our guide at the chalets to await our return. - -The entrance to the glaciere was in a wall of rock, set at an angle of -some thirty-five degrees; at the bottom of this there was some grass. -An easy chimney some fifteen meters high led up to the glaciere. Up -this chimney we climbed. At the top we entered a little cave about -two meters deep, by a sort of portal about two meters wide. The cave -made an elbow to the right, and passing this we found that it turned -to the left and pointed directly into the mountain. The rock went -down vertically in front of us, but the boy said we could get down, -so having first lowered a candle by a string to see the depth, which -turned out to be a perpendicular drop of some four or five meters, -with the help of the rope we all climbed down. We were already almost -entirely away from the daylight and a few steps took us into complete -darkness, except for the light we had from the candle each of us held -in his hand. - -The fissure led straight into the mountain. It was a couple of meters -wide at places, and there we moved along the bottom. In one place it -narrowed below to a wedge, and there we progressed either by climbing -along one side or by placing one foot on one side and the other -foot on the other. The fissure led downwards as well as inwards. It -would have been nothing in daylight to go through it; but in the -semi-darkness it was not easy. - -After a descent of some twenty-five meters or thereabouts, we arrived -at the glaciere, and I have certainly never seen a weirder place. There -was a great arched rock dome, perhaps six meters in height, and some -twelve in diameter; the floor was a sheet of smooth, slippery ice, at -one end curling over, gently at first, afterwards more steeply, to a -lower depth; and on the sides were seven or eight ice columns streaming -from cracks in the rocks to the floor. Each of these columns was some -three or four meters high, and, small at the top and in the middle, -spread out at the base into the shape of fans. In the dim candle light -and the cold damp atmosphere, the columns loomed up like so many -ghosts, and the landscape impression was strange and solemn. The air -here seemed perfectly still. - -There was another curiosity. The fissure we had come down, at this -point some three meters wide, was filled, just beyond the glaciere, -with pure, transparent water, which formed a little lake: this was -perhaps one meter deep, and extended across the fissure, barring -further progress. It certainly seems strange that in the same cavern, -under nearly the same conditions of temperature, there should be one -place covered with a flooring of ice and another filled with water. The -explanation, however, is perhaps not far to seek. Over the lake there -was a distinct draught of air. The draught probably melts the ice in -summer, if indeed it does not prevent any from forming in winter. There -are, so far, no winter observations reported of this cave, yet it would -seem to be one which would well repay the trouble. - - -THE GLACIERE DE CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT. - -On the 17th of August, 1894, my brother and I arrived at Besancon, -the Vesontio of the Romans, bent on seeing the Glaciere de -Chaux-les-Passavant or de la Grace-Dieu, which is not far distant -from the town. The hotel we stopped at was pretty bad; the beds were -surmounted with those old-fashioned curtains which were of use before -the invention of glass windows, but which now only serve to exclude air -and ventilation. However, I learnt something of the manners and customs -of the country, for on getting down at six o'clock the next morning -for breakfast, the first question the waiter asked was: _Quel vin -monsieur prendra-t-il?_ At seven o'clock we sallied forth in a little -open one-horse victoria, with a dull gray sky overhead. Besancon is -well down in a valley, so the first five miles of the road were a slow, -gradual rise to the surrounding levels. The scenery as we drove along -reminded us of Turner's pictures: distant vistas of hills and valleys -with factories blowing off their smoke and with tumble-down old houses -ensconced in picturesque nooks, just those long-distance effects that -Turner loved to paint and which, for some reason, the artists of the -present generation have generally neglected and usually speak of as -unpaintable or unpicturesque. There was a row of trees, the whole way, -on each side of the road, a bit of practical forestry, the wisdom of -which it would be well for Americans to recognize. After our poor horse -had pulled us up the long hills, we had an almost level road running in -a straight line as far as the eye could see. We saw at least a hundred -little hawks, who live on field mice and other rodents, and whose -preservation is another evidence of French wisdom. The last four miles -of the drive was up a ravine in the woods, near the beginning of which -we passed the Trappist convent of la Grace-Dieu. - -[Illustration: GLACIERE DE CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT. - - From a Photograph by E. Mauvillier. -] - -Opposite the entrance of the glaciere, there is a little restaurant -where the peasants come to dance and picnic, and where the few -travellers who get to these parts, can obtain a tolerable _dejeuner_. -They keep a fair _vin du pays_ there, and we had some trouble on the -way home in consequence. Our driver, a talkative specimen of the genus -and an old soldier of Bourbaki's, told us, on the way out, many things -about Besancon during the Franco-German war and of the retreat of the -French army into Switzerland; but on the way home, he showed that he -evidently was not a member of the blue ribbon army. He first seemed -desirous of not taking us back to Besancon, preferring to go in the -other direction towards Bale; and afterwards he evinced a violent -inclination to go to sleep. We thought we should have to request him -to change seats with us, and drive back ourselves, but we obviated the -difficulty by plying him with questions as soon as he began to nod on -his box. Eventually, we reached Besancon all right, only once bumping a -passing cart, and only once nearly capsizing into a ditch. If Americans -can learn some points from Europeans about forestry, I think the latter -might get some equally valuable information from us concerning the use -of water, externally and internally. - -The good lady at the restaurant acts the part of the old-fashioned -cave dragon, and we had to appease her by handing over four _sous_ as -a preliminary to exploration. She also had a sign up, saying that no -one is allowed to break off or take away any ice, which must sadly -interfere with the tourists' privilege of bringing away specimens. - -The entrance of the glaciere was surrounded by woods, which formed -a natural rampart to anything like wind. As we stood facing the -glaciere a great pit opened before us, with a slope about one hundred -and thirty-five meters long leading to the bottom. This slope is at -first gentle in its gradient, but lower down it steepens to an angle -of some thirty degrees so that we were glad to resort to the trail -which descends in regular Alpine zigzags. In one place, on the right -hand, there were the remains of a stone wall with a door, and local -tradition relates that in former times there was a sort of fortified -habitation there, which was used in war times as a place of retreat. -The lower part of the slope is covered by a protecting roof of rock -which, thin at the rim where it is edged with forest, gradually slopes -downward overhead so that at the mouth of the glaciere we looked back -and up what might be described as an immense tunnel. The lower part -of the slope was a mixture of broken rocks, mud and ice: the last, -however, seemed to be all on the surface, although it was impossible to -determine whether it went to any depth. - -[Illustration: ICE STALAGMITES, CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT. - - From a Photograph by E. Mauvillier. -] - -At the base of the tunnel we found ourselves on the threshold of an -immense, almost circular cave, with a diameter of some fifty meters, -rising overhead into a regular vault or dome about twenty-seven meters -in height. The entrance to the cave is so large that plenty of daylight -is admitted, and the whole cave easily examined. The rocks are of a -yellowish brown hue, and I could not help thinking of Nibelheim in -Richard Wagner's Rheingold. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.[2] Vertical Section of Chaux-les-Passavant.] - -[2] The figures in this book are rough sketches, without pretense at -accuracy of measurement, and are only explanatory of the text. - -The bottom of the cave was entirely covered with a flooring of ice. How -thick this flooring was there was no means of judging, as there were -no holes, but it must have been at least two or three meters thick in -places. At the back of the cavern, directly facing the entrance, one -magnificent frozen water fall streamed from a fissure. It was perhaps -five meters high, and began to take the fan shape from its origin. The -base was about four meters wide, and did not rest on the ice floor, but -on a sloping rock extending out from the side of the cave. - -Perhaps the most remarkable feature of all, were six or seven great ice -stalagmites, shaped like cones or rough pyramids, which rose on the -floor of the cave. One of these was at least five meters in diameter -and six in height, and seemed perfectly solid. In the case of two of -the others, however, the cones were broken on one side, revealing in -each the stem and branches of a young pine tree. These evidently had -been planted in the ice and round them the columns had grown. Whether -all the ice cones were thus artificial in their origin I could not -determine, but it seemed probable that they were the result of years of -undisturbed accretion and growth. In both the cones where the break on -the side gave a view into the interior, the dark blue-green color of -deep glacier crevasses was present. - -A pool of water, perhaps thirty centimeters in depth and three or four -meters in diameter, lay at one place on the ice floor. The whole cave -was damp and the ice in places decidedly slushy, in fact all the signs -showed that it was thawing. In the case of this glaciere as well as -in those of the Mont Parmelan, it seemed clear that it must be in the -winter months that the formation of ice takes place. - -[Illustration: ICE STALAGMITES, CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT. - - From a Photograph by E. Mauvillier. -] - - -DOBSINA JEGBARLANG. - -The cavern of Dobsina, in the Carpathian Mountains, is easily reached -either from Poprad to the north, or from Dobsina to the south. The -hotel at Poprad is better, however, than the inn at Dobsina, where -my brother and I spent two nights. It was decidedly primitive. The -food was not so bad, but the pigs ran round in the courtyard, and one -morning a gypsy band woke us at half-past three o'clock by playing -in front of our windows, in dreadful wailing tones, which were most -irritating at that hour. At the proper time, however, Hungarian gypsy -music,--despite the fact that none of the players ever seem to look at -the leader, and that each man appears to play the tune he likes the -best,--is strangely fascinating. - -Dobsina itself lies in a hollow, surrounded with well-wooded hills, the -general appearance much resembling some of the valleys of the White -Mountains of New Hampshire. My brother and I started from Dobsina on -the morning of the 27th of July, 1895, at half-past seven o'clock, in -a little open carriage with excellent horses and a Hungarian driver in -national costume. He was a nice fellow, but he did not understand a -word of German. The road reminded us of some of our own mountain roads, -as it was rough, full of holes and partly washed away by the rains. We -first ascended to the crest of the surrounding hills and then descended -to the Stracena Thal, a wild limestone valley covered with fine -forest. Two hours and a half driving landed us at the hotel-restaurant -near the cave, at which I should certainly stop on another visit. It -was half an hour's stroll thence, through beautiful woods, to the -cavern's entrance. Northwards in the distance the Tatra Range was -visible, a set of sharp bare rock peaks, at whose base, ensconced in -pine forests, is situated the famous Hungarian summer resort of Tatra -Fuered, which much resembles Bar Harbor. - -The entrance to the cavern is enclosed by a fence with a gate, and here -the Dobsina people have a high tariff and take toll from tourists. At -the gate, we waited for half an hour, until a sufficient number of -persons had arrived to form a party. This mode of visiting the cave -rather detracts from the pleasure, even though it does away with all -difficulty and makes the beauties of Dobsina accessible to everyone. It -was also necessary to wait long enough to cool off thoroughly before -entering, on account of the icy air of the cavern, where heavy winter -clothes are indispensable. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. Vertical Section of Dobsina.] - -The entrance to Dobsina faces nearly due north. It is small, perhaps -two meters wide and three meters high, and is perfectly sheltered -from any wind. The sudden drop in temperature at the entrance was -startling; in fact it was the most extreme change I have noticed in any -cave. Within the length of an ordinary room, say in a distance of five -meters, we passed from an extremely hot summer morning to the chill of -a mid-winter afternoon. A slight air current, perhaps, issued from the -entrance, as we observed a faint mist there. At the rock portal there -was ice on the rocks overhead, and underfoot was the beginning of the -huge mass of ice which almost fills the cavern. A descent down eighteen -wooden steps landed us at the beginning of a great ice floor, in what -is called the _Grosser Saal_. It is a magnificent cave. The floor is -a sheet or rather a mass of solid ice, the surface of which is level -enough in one place to permit of skating; in other spots it is sloping -and covered with small ice hillocks. The ice is solid throughout, -without any holes or cracks. Several fissure columns stream to the -floor from cracks in the sides. Joining the roof to the floor are -numerous big ice stalactites, which form frozen pillars and columns. -These are from eight to eleven meters in height, and some two to three -meters in average breadth and width. Nearly translucent, they are -covered with all sorts of icy ornaments hanging about them in tufts and -fringes; they are beautiful in their shapes, as well as in their white -and blue colors. One of these columns is called the _Brunnen_, because -until about ten years ago, a small stream dribbled continuously from -the roof and cut a channel across the ice floor; but now the stream has -solidified into the pillar, and the channel is filled up, although it -can still be traced in the ice. - -The cavern is lighted by electricity, which has the merit, even if it -brings in an element of artificiality, of clearly revealing one of the -chief glories of Dobsina. This is the rime or hoar frost, which in the -shape of ice or snow crystals, covers the entire limestone roof, and, -reflecting the electric light, shines like frosted silver. Some of -these frost crystals seem to be precipitated to the floor, and in one -place I found a small sheet of them, perhaps two meters in width each -way, which looked and felt like genuine snow. The general color effect -of all this upper cave is white, although there is some blue in the -ice, and gray and brown in the rocks and shadows. It would not be much -of a misnomer to call Dobsina "the great white cave." - -The ice extended to the sides of the cave except in two places. Here -there were holes in the ice, bridged by low rock arches. We passed -through one of these and descended by a wooden staircase some eighty -steps, afterwards returning up through the other arch by another -staircase. At the bottom we stood in a magnificent gallery named the -_Korridor_, formed by a solid wall of ice on one side and by a wall -of limestone rock on the other. The ice wall is the lower portion of -the ice floor; the rock wall is the continuation of the roof. For the -entire distance the ice wall rises almost perpendicularly some fifteen -meters in height, while the rock wall arches overhead. - -[Illustration: THE LOWER ROSITTEN ALP AND THE UNTERSBERG.] - -The bottom of the _Korridor_ was filled with blocks of fallen -limestone, through which any water drains off, and on which there was a -wooden walk, so that we circled round the ice with the greatest ease. -At one place on the limestone wall hung a cluster of big icicles, -which, from their shape really deserved the name they bear, of the -_Orgel_. At another place a hole, some six or seven meters deep, was -hewn, in the form of a small chamber, directly into the ice mass. This -is the _Kapelle_, where we performed our devotions by leaving our -visiting cards on the floor. Near the middle of the _Korridor_ the ice -mass bulges out and extends to the limestone wall, breaking the whole -_Korridor_ into two parts, the western portion about eighty meters, and -the eastern about one hundred and twenty meters long. This necessitated -cutting a tunnel about eight meters long in the ice to get through. The -color of the _Korridor_ is a darkish gray and is much more sombre than -that of the _Grosser Saal_. A remarkable feature of the ice wall is the -fact that distinct bands of stratification are visible in the ice in -many places. Why the _Korridor_ is not filled up with ice and why the -ice is perpendicular for such a distance are questions I am unable to -answer satisfactorily; but it is probable that the temperature of the -rock walls is sufficiently high to prevent ice from forming in winter -or to melt it in summer if it does form in winter. - -The air in Dobsina seemed still, and scarcely felt damp. In one or two -places in the _Grosser Saal_ there was a slight sloppiness, showing -incipient signs of thaw. In the _Korridor_ it was freezing hard. - - -THE KOLOWRATSHOeHLE. - -The Kolowratshoehle is situated on the north slope of the Untersberg, -near Salzburg, at an altitude of 1391 meters. My brother and I visited -it on the 2d of August, 1895. We had one of the patented guides of the -district, Jacob Gruber by name, in regular Tyrolese dress, with gray -_jacke_ and black chamois knee breeches. We left Salzburg in the early -morning in an _einspaenner_ and drove to the foot of the Untersberg in -about an hour, whence, by a rough path passing by the Rositten Alp, we -ascended to the cave in about three hours. The last hundred and sixteen -meters of the path were cut across some moderately steep rock slabs and -a perfectly unnecessary iron hand-railing affixed. - -The entrance faces northeast. Here there must have been a slight -draught of cold air moving outwards, the effect of which was -perceptible to the eye, as at the point where the cold inside air -met the quiet warm outside air, a faint mist was visible. From the -entrance, a sharp slope, set at an angle of about forty degrees, led -to the lowest point of the cave. The upper half of this slope was -still covered with the winter snow which had blown or had slid in. We -descended on the right hand edge of the snow by means of some steps -cut in the rock by the _Deutschen-Oesterreichischen Alpen Club_. -These steps were covered with a sticky, red mud, which left almost -ineradicable stains on our clothing, and as there was also ice in -places, they were decidedly slippery. - -[Illustration: THE ENTRANCE OF THE KOLOWRATSHOeHLE.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. Vertical Section of the Kolowratshoehle.] - -At the bottom of the slope we were at the lowest point of the cave, -to which all the water flowed, and where it drained off into a crack -with a loud gurgling noise. Back of us was the daylight streaming -through the entrance; opposite to us was first an ice floor, then a -great ice slope, which came down from the further end of the cave. The -ice was transparent and of a pale ochre-greenish hue, and filled the -entire width of the cave. There is a streak of iron, probably, through -the limestone, which in places tints the rocks a dull red. The color -impression is a dull green-red, and, on account of the size of the -entrance, the light effect is only semi-subterranean. - -The ice floor was covered with a layer of slabs of ice, eight or ten -centimeters thick, which, earlier in the year, had evidently had water -under them. The ice wall or ice slope consisted of two big waves, one -above the other, the lower set at an angle of about ten degrees, the -upper set at an angle of about twenty-five degrees. To get up the upper -wave required about twelve steps cut with the axe. Behind the upper -wave, five or six fissure columns streamed out to the beginning of the -ice. One ice stalactite, at least two or three meters long, overhung -the ice floor, and Gruber said about this: "Well, I wonder it has not -fallen yet: they seldom last as late in the year," a confirmation of -what was clearly evident, namely, that the whole cave was in a state of -thaw. - -In two places there was a strong, continuous drip from the roof to the -ice floor, which formed, in each case, what I can only call an ice -basin. These basins were nearly circular; one was about four meters, -the other about two, in diameter. Around about two-thirds of the rim -of the larger one, ice rose in a surrounding ring two or three meters -high, suggesting that earlier in the year this basin was a cone, and -possibly a hollow cone. The depth in the ice floor, in both cases, -was about one and a half meters, and each basin contained some thirty -centimeters in depth of water. They reminded me of the rock basins one -sees in mountain torrents, where an eddying current has worn smooth all -the edges of the rocks. From the larger of these basins, a channel as -deep as the basin ran to the lowest point of the cave. This channel was -cut out by the overflow, which ran through it in a tiny stream.[3] - -[3] The photographs of the Rositten Alp, of the entrance of the -Kolowratshoehle, and of the interior of the Kolowratshoehle, were made -for me on the 16th of July, 1896, by Herr Carl Hintner, Jr., of -Salzburg. The two latter photographs are, I believe, the first good -ones ever obtained of the inside of the cave. They were taken without -artificial light on quick plates; the best of the two received an hour -and a half, the other two hours' exposure. The photographer said at -first that it was not possible to succeed, and it was only by promising -to pay him in any case, that he could be induced to try. - -[Illustration: TOP OF ICE SLOPE, KOLOWRATSHOeHLE.] - - -THE SCHAFLOCH. - -The Schafloch, on the Rothhorn, near the Lake of Thoune, is one of the -biggest glacieres in the Alps. On the 15th of August, 1895, after early -coffee, made by the _portier_ of the Hotel Belvedere at Interlaken, -I drove to Merligen, on the north shore of the lake, with Emil Von -Allmen, an excellent guide. We left Merligen on foot at a quarter -before seven, and, making no stops on the way, reached the Schafloch at -ten minutes past ten. The path mounts gently up the Wueste Thal, which -higher up is called the Justiz Thal. The track through the latter is -almost on a level, over grassy alps. On the right hand rise the steep, -almost dolomitic, limestone cliffs of the Beatenberg. On the left is -the range of the Rothhorn, with steep grass and forest slopes below, -and limestone cliffs above. The last hour of the walk was up these -slopes, by what Baedeker calls a "giddy path." By leaving the word -"giddy" out, his description is accurate. The cavern is at the base of -the limestone cliff, and the grass slope extends up to it. - -The entrance to the Schafloch is at an altitude of 1752 meters: it -is a fine archway, and a low wall is built partly across it. In -front of this, we sat down and consumed our chicken and cheese, and -that best of a traveller's drinks, cold tea. The day was windless, -and when I lighted a cigar, to see whether there was any draught at -the entrance, the smoke rose straight up, showing that the air was -perfectly still. When we were sufficiently cooled off, we entered the -cave. The entrance faces east-south-east, but after about ten meters -the cavern takes a sharp turn to the left, forming a sort of elbow, -and runs about due south, constantly descending in an almost straight -line. For the first eighty meters or so, the floor was covered with -blocks of fallen limestone, among which we had to carefully pick our -way. Then we began to find ice, which, a few meters further on, spread -out across the entire width of the cave, with a gentle slope towards -the left. The surface of the ice was rather soft, and the whole cave -was evidently in a state of thaw. A few scratches with the axe--the -most invaluable friend in an ice cave--were necessary at one place to -improve our footing. It would have been impossible to move here without -a light, and I carried our torch, made of rope dipped in pitch, which -occasionally dropped black reminders on my clothes. We were in the -middle of a great ice sheet to which several fissure columns streamed. -On the right hand a beautiful ice stalactite flowed from the roof to -the floor; it was some five meters high, and perhaps seventy-five -centimeters in diameter, and swelled out slightly at the base. On the -left hand were three or four ice stalagmites, shaped like pyramids or -cones. - -[Illustration: AT THE ENTRANCE OF THE SCHAFLOCH.] - -One of these cones was especially remarkable. It was at least five -meters high--Von Allmen said eight--and at the bottom was about four -meters in diameter. The base of this cone was entirely hollow. There -was a break on one side by which we could enter, and we then stood -on a rock floor with a small ice dome or vault overhead. I have seen -no other hollow cone like this. The guide lighted a red Bengal fire -inside, when the whole pyramid glowed with a delicate pink light, -resembling _Alpengluehn_. Near this cone stood the half of another -ice cone. It was quite perfect, and the missing half was cut off -perpendicularly, as if with a huge cleaver. A hollow in the base of -the remnant showed that this cone must have been originally also a -hollow cone, and its destruction was probably due to the change in the -temperature of the drip from the roof, at the setting in of the summer -thaw. - -Just beyond the cones, the ice floor steepens and curls over into a -big ice slope, one of the finest I have seen. Von Allmen spoke of this -as _der gletscher_, an expression I never heard applied elsewhere to -subterranean ice. On the right side, the slope would be difficult -to descend in the darkness. On the left, the slope is gentle and a -rock juts out a little way down. Von Allmen insisted on roping--an -unnecessary safeguard--but he said: "If you slip, you will probably -break an arm or a leg, and then we shall be in a nice mess." He then -cut about twelve steps in the ice, down to the rock, while I shed light -on the performance with our torch. We were so completely away from -daylight that black was the predominating color; and even the ice was a -dark gray, and only appeared white in the high lights. Below the rock, -we found a narrow strip on the left side of the ice slope free from ice -and blocked with boulders, over which we carefully picked our way down. -At the bottom, the ice expanded into a level surface, stretching nearly -to the end of the cave. There were only a few fissure columns in this -part of the cavern, where the most remarkable feature was the cracks -in the rock walls, which were so regular in formation that they almost -looked like man's handiwork. The rocks are free from stalactites, and -in fact stalactites seem a good deal of a rarity in glacieres. - -On retracing our steps, we saw, when the first glimmers of daylight -became perceptible, the rocks assume a brilliant blue color, as if they -were flooded with moonlight. This effect lasted until near the mouth of -the cavern. - -[Illustration: HOLLOW CONE AND FISSURE COLUMNS, SCHAFLOCH.] - - -DEMENYFALVA JEGBARLANG. - -A little west of Poprad, in Northern Hungary, on the railroad between -Sillein and Kassa, is the village of Liptos Szt Miklos, to which place -I journeyed on the 12th of June, 1896. The conductor was the only man -on the train or at any of the stations who would admit that there was a -glaciere at Demenyfalva, and that it was feasible to get into it: every -one else professed entire ignorance on the subject. It is perhaps, -worth noting at this time that it is always difficult to get any -information about glacieres; in fact, the advice about cooking a hare -might well be applied to glaciere hunting: first catch your glaciere. - -The scenery between Sillein and Miklos was picturesque. The hills were -covered with forest. In one place, the railroad ran through a beautiful -mountain gorge alongside a river, where a number of rafts were floating -down. There were also some primitive ferries, where a rope was -stretched across the river, and the force of the current carried the -ferryboat across, once it was started. Many peasants were at work in -the fields; often in squads. White, blue, brown, and a dash of red were -the predominating colors in their dress. The men wore white trousers, -made of a kind of blanket stuff, and a leather, heelless moccasin of -nearly natural shape. Almost all the women had bare feet; those of -the older ones were generally shaped according to Nature's own form, -while those of the younger ones were generally distorted from wearing -fashionable shoes. We went past several villages of huts with thatched -roofs, something like the Russian villages one sees beyond Moscow, only -less primitive. - -The inn at Miklos was poor, and as at Dobsina, the pigs lived in the -yard and occasionally came for an interview under the covered doorway. -Inquiries elicited the information that Demenyfalva could be reached -by carriage, so I engaged one at the livery stable. The owner told me -that about twenty years before, he leased the glaciere and carried on a -regular business in supplying Buda-Pest with ice. He had thirty lamps -put in to give light to the workmen, who brought up the ice in baskets -on their backs. - -At half past five o'clock next morning the carriage, which was innocent -of paint, lined with a sort of basket work and without springs, but -certainly strongly built, stood at the door. A boy of about eighteen -years of age, who could speak German, went along as interpreter. The -morning was dismal, and, every quarter of an hour or so, a shower of -thick mist fell and gradually made us damp and uncomfortable. After -about twenty minutes on a pretty bad road, we came to a place where -there was a fork, and the driver turned to the left, over a track which -consisted of two deep ruts through the fields. Soon after, we heard -some shouting behind us, and a fierce-looking man, in a leather jacket -and carrying a large axe, came up and abused the driver. He was not -an agreeable person; however, presently he simmered down and began to -smile. It turned out that he was a _waechter_, that is, a guardian of -the fields, and that we were trespassing. The driver meekly promised -to return by the other route, and we went on our way in peace. After -awhile, we drove into some woods and then into a mountain gorge, with -forest-covered slopes at the base and with limestone cliffs jutting -out above. Here we came to the cottage of the _waechter_ or _foerster_ -of the surrounding woods, who also acted as guide to the cave, for the -few tourists who came to see it; and when he heard of our destination, -he at once slipped on a second ragged coat, took a woodman's axe and -started on foot, going much faster than the carriage. This was not -surprising, for the road resembled nothing but the bed of a mountain -brook, a mass of boulders with ruts between them. This highway was made -by the peasants driving their carts over the plain in the same place, -and as the soil was cut away, the boulders appeared; and over and among -these we went banging along, and we were jolted about and bumped into -each other, until every bone in my body ached. - -[Illustration: ON THE ICE SLOPE, SCHAFLOCH.] - -At a quarter past seven o'clock we came to another house in a little -glade, where the carriage stopped; and on asking the _foerster_ for -his name, he wrote down in my note book, in a clear well formed -hand:--Misura, Franz. From the glade, ten minutes' walk on a mountain -path, up an easy slope, took us to the entrance of Demenyfalva. It is -about two meters wide by three quarters of a meter high. We passed -through and entered a large chamber, well lighted from the right by -another opening, which is higher up and bigger than the entrance. -The air in this chamber was at about the same temperature as that of -the outside air, and, on our return from the nether world, it seemed -positively balmy. In the floor at the end of the chamber, a small pit -yawns open. It is perpendicular on three sides and set at a sharp -angle on the fourth. A wooden staircase of some two hundred steps, many -of which are sadly out of repair, leads nearly straight down this slope -to the glaciere. - -After descending about eighty steps of the staircase, bits of ice -appeared on the walls and floor and after some thirty steps more, a -lateral gallery opened to the right, and into this we turned. This may -be called the upper cave or story, for in Demenyfalva--besides the -entrance chamber--there are practically two stories, the upper one of -which is mainly ornamented with stalactites, the lower one with ice. -There was a little ice on the floor from which rose some small ice -columns, perhaps fifty centimeters in height. The cave or gallery had -a gentle downward slope and turned towards the left. After some little -distance, we came to another wooden staircase, of ten or twelve steps, -quite coated over with thick, solid ice. Misura had to cut away at it -for several minutes, before he could clear the steps enough to descend. -This was in fact the beginning of an ice wall, the _Eiswand_ or -_Eismauer_, which, turning to the right, flowed through a rock arch to -the lowest cave. The rock arch or portal was some three meters wide and -two meters high, and a fringe of beautiful organ-pipe like icicles hung -on it on the right hand. Just beyond the portal the ice sloped steeply -for a couple of meters; then it became level and on it rose a little -pyramid, a meter and a half in height perhaps, and a column; then the -ice sloped away again to the lower cave. - -[Illustration: IN THE REAR OF THE SCHAFLOCH.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. Vertical Section of Demenyfalva.] - -We then continued our course beyond the rock portal along the upper -cavern for about two hundred meters. It was a fine large gallery or -passage and during the first fifty meters or so, we found numerous -small ice cones, perhaps a hundred of them, from tiny little ones to -some about forty centimeters in height. Many of these were columnar in -form, nearly as large at the top as at the base: in some cases the top -was flat, and the columns then looked almost as if an upper portion -were sawn off. I have seen this shape of column nowhere else. In places -there were slabs and bits of ice on the floor. The last hundred meters -of this upper cave was free from ice and was exceptionally dry. It was -formed of a pale yellow limestone rock, almost dolomitic in color, and -many stalactites, in their thousand various shapes, hung from the roof -and on the sides. In one spot, one big limestone stalagmite towered up -directly in the middle of the gallery. We did not go to the end of the -cave, where ice has never been found. - -Retracing our course past the rock portal to the entrance pit, we -descended on the long staircase for some eighty steps more, the amount -of ice on the rocks steadily increasing. In places, frost crystals had -formed in small quantities on the roof and walls. At the bottom of the -pit, another lateral gallery, directly under the upper gallery, opened -to the right. Entering this, we passed over broken limestone debris, -which seemed to overlie a mass of ice. Limestone stalactites were -noticeable all through this lower cavern, and frost and icicles had -sometimes formed over them, in which case the ice stalactite assumed -the form of the limestone stalactite. Advancing a few meters, we went -by, on our right hand, an ice pyramid of a couple of meters in height. -Just beyond this, the cave turned to the left like the upper cave, -and we descended to a level floor of transparent ice, into which we -could see some distance. At this spot, numerous icicles, generally of -inconsiderable size, hung from the roof and on the sides of the cavern. - -At the further end of this ice floor or ice lake we reached an ice -slope, the _Eiswand_, which flowed to the ice floor from the upper -cave in several waves. It was some six meters wide and twenty-five -meters long; and it was not steep, perhaps fifteen degrees in the -steepest portions. On the slope some old, nearly obliterated steps were -visible, and at these Misura proceeded to cut, and with torch in one -hand and axe in the other, gradually worked his way up, until he once -more reached the level spot whence we had looked down the ice slope. -Here he stood waving his torch, a proceeding indeed he did constantly -throughout the trip, for he seemed exceedingly proud of the beauties of -his cavern. This waving of torches, however, is exceedingly foolish, -as their smoke quickly blackens stalactite, and in fact nothing but -candles and magnesium wire should be carried for lighting purposes -underground. The ice of the ice slope was hard, gray and opaque, quite -different from that of the ice lake. The ice floor is formed of new -ice, which is gradually refilling the place from which Misura said the -ice for Buda-Pest was taken out twenty-five years ago. To prove this -assertion, he called my attention to the side of the lake directly -opposite the ice slope. At that spot, under the limestone rubbish over -which we came, there was an outcrop of perpendicular opaque ice about a -meter high. Misura said that the workmen began to cut at the ice slope -and that they dug out a couple of meters in depth from the ice lake, -until they had cut back to where the vertical outcrop was standing. - -The explanation seemed to be in accord with the facts, and if so, it -would go to show that the ice in this cave is of slow formation and -great permanency; as seems also proved by the steps on the ice wall, -which--we were the first party in the cave in 1896--had remained over -from the preceding summer. Misura told me he had never seen so much -ice nor seen it so hard as during our visit, and he added that there -was generally water on the ice lake, and he thought there would be some -in two or three weeks more. The greatest quantity of ice in the upper -cave was at the head of the ice-slope, and it would seem as though -there must be cracks or fissures in the overhead rocks there, through -which the water is supplied to feed the ice, not only that of the upper -cave, but also the larger portion of that of the lower cave. - -The heavy winter air would naturally sink down into the entrance -pit to the lower cavern, and some of it diverge into the beginning -of the upper cavern, which at first is distinctly a down slope. A -little beyond the portal at the head of the ice slope, the upper cave -is either horizontal or in places slightly ascending. Probably this -prevents the cold air from entering further, and probably also, the -heat of the earth neutralizes the cold air of winter beyond a definite -spot. - -The air in the cave seemed absolutely still throughout; it was -also extremely dry, undoubtedly because melting had not yet begun. -The icicles evidently were formed by the slow drip freezing as it -descended, and there were no perceptible cracks nor fissures in the -rocks underneath them. The facts seem to me to prove that neither -evaporation nor regelation can be the factors at work in making the ice -and we may deduce an important rule therefrom. When a cave is dry, then -the air is dry; when a cave is wet, then the atmosphere is damp. In -other words, the state of dryness or dampness of glaciere atmosphere -depends on how much the ice is thawing and parting with its moisture. - -On our return to the base of the long staircase, and while we ascended -it, we had an exquisite moonlight effect, much resembling the one at -the Schafloch. - - -THE FRAINER EISLEITHEN. - -About two hours by rail, north of Vienna, is the village of Schoenwald, -to which I journeyed on June the 15th, 1896. At the railroad station -there was a K. K. Post Omnibus in waiting, which, when it was packed -with passengers and luggage, drove over to Frain in an hour. The -admirable road lies across a rolling plain, until it reaches the -brink of the valley of the Thaya, to which it descends in long Alpine -zigzags. On the bluff overlooking the opposite side of the river, there -is a fine _schloss_. - -I secured the seat next to the driver and questioned him about the -Eisleithen. Although he had driven on this road for five years, without -visiting the Eisleithen, yet he was positive that they were warm in -winter, but cold in summer. He said more than once: _Desto heisser -der Sommer, desto mehr das Eis_, and in fact was an emphatic exponent -of the notions generally held by peasants, which some _savants_ have -adopted and tried to expound. At Frain, I applied at the little hotel -for a guide, and was entrusted to the care of the hotel boots. He was -an intelligent, talkative youth, but he insisted also that "the hotter -the summer, the more ice there is." However, he was polite, and made -up for any shortcomings by always addressing me as _der gnaedige Herr_. - -The day was hot, so it took us three-quarters of an hour on foot, along -the valley of the Thaya, to reach the base of the bluff where the -Eisleithen are situated, at an altitude of about four hundred meters. -The hillside is covered with patches of scrubby forest; and towards -the summit, the entire mass of the hill is honey-combed with cracks -and the rocks are much broken up. After about ten minutes' ascent up -a little path, we came to small holes, from each of which a current -of cool air poured out; these holes seemed fairly horizontal, and the -temperatures were high enough to prove that there was no ice within. -A little further on, we came to a hole or tiny cave among a pile of -rocks, where there was a painted sign: _Eisgrube_. It went down from -the mouth, and I put my hand well in, but, beyond the length of my arm, -I could neither see nor measure its shape or depth. The air felt cold, -but was nowhere near freezing point; nor was it possible to determine -whether there was a draught: it may or may not be a wind cave. Not -far from this, there were two gullies, each terminating in a small -cave. The first gully was planned somewhat like certain traps for wild -animals, that is, it narrowed gradually from the entrance, then became -covered over; and then dwindled, after some four meters more, into a -small descending hole, the end of which we could not reach. But we got -in far enough, to come to large chunks or slabs of ice plastered about -on the floor and sides. In this cave, which was sheltered against sun -and wind, the air, as tested by the smoke of a cigar, was motionless, -and the cave seemed unconnected with any air current. The second gully -terminated in a somewhat larger cave, whose floor was well below the -entrance; no ice was visible, however, although the air was still and -the temperature low. This cave may or may not be a glaciere; but surely -it is not a cold current cave. - -These Frainer Eisleithen certainly offer an interesting field to anyone -studying subterranean ice, from the fact that there are, in the same -rocks, caves without apparent draughts in summer and containing ice, -and caves with distinct draughts and no ice. The problem seems more -intricate than is usually the case, but the solution is simply that the -two classes of caves happen to be found together. - - -THE EISHOeHLE BEI ROTH. - -The Eifel is one of the bleakest districts of Central Europe, and to -one entering it from the vineyards and the well-inhabited basin of the -Rhine, the contrast is impressive. The railroad rises gradually to a -land of comparatively desert appearance, with rocks and trees on the -heights and a sparse cultivation in the valleys. But, if the country is -unattractive to the agriculturist, it is interesting to the geologist, -on account of the great number of extinct volcanoes. Almost in the -centre of the Eifel is the little town of Gerollstein, famed for the -_Gerollsteiner Sprudel_, which gives forth an effervescence undreamed -of by anyone, who has not visited the birth place of some of these -German table waters. - -About an hour's walk from Gerollstein, on the side of a small hill, -is situated the little Eishoehle bei Roth, named after a neighboring -village. I went to this place, on the 25th of June, 1896, with a young -boy as guide. The cave is sheltered from the wind by a wood around it, -among which are many large trees. It is at the base of a wall of piled -up lava, or at least volcanic, rocks which form a sort of cauldron. The -entrance is a small tunnel some five meters long, which goes straight -down at an angle of about twenty-five degrees and then turns sharply to -the left. At the turn, the cave may be perhaps one meter in height. We -did not go beyond this spot, where the air was icy and the temperature -sub-normal, as the tunnel was blocked up by a large boulder, which -had evidently recently fallen from the rocks in front. There was no -ice, as far as we went, and the boy said it began three or four meters -further in. He told me that there was no ice in the cavern in winter, -but admitted that he had not entered it at that season, so that was -hearsay. He had heard also that the ice was sometimes taken out for -sick people, but otherwise it was not used. - -It seemed to me that the conditions at Roth show that the ice is formed -by the cold of winter alone: the cave is well below the entrance; it is -the lowest point of the surrounding cauldron of rocks and all the cold -air naturally gravitates to it; it is sheltered by rocks and trees -from wind or exposure to the rays of the sun; the tunnel faces nearly -due north; and the water necessary to supply the ice, easily soaks -between the lava blocks. - - -THE FRAUENMAUERHOeHLE. - -Eisenerz, in Eastern Tyrol, is a picturesquely situated little town. It -is at the bottom of a great valley, with mountains all around it. Two -of these are bare, gaunt limestone peaks, which are decidedly dolomitic -in form and color. The sharpest of these is to the north. It is called -the Pfaffenstein and is the beginning of the range culminating in the -Frauenmauer. On a mountain to the east of the town, one sees the iron -mines and works, whence the town takes its name "Ironore," and whence -quantities of iron are taken out every year. The mines are said to have -been in operation for over a thousand years, since about A. D. 800. -After the ore is taken from the mine and roughly prepared, it is run -down in small cars through a covered way to the railroad station to be -shipped; and at certain times there is a seemingly endless procession -of these cars, each bearing, besides its load of ore, a miner, with -clothes and person entirely begrimed to the yellow-brown color of the -iron. - -As I walked out of the Eisenerz railroad station, an old man in -Tyrolese costume asked me if I wanted a _traeger_ and a guide, so, while -he was carrying my valise to the hotel, we came to terms. He was one of -the patented guides of the district and wore the large badge of the -Austrian guides. If the size of the badge made the guide, one should -be safe with Tyrolese, but for difficult excursions, it will not do -to trust to a guide simply because he happens to be "patented"; that -is, not if one values the safety of one's neck. Next morning, July the -9th, 1896, the old guide arrived betimes at the hotel and roused me by -tapping on the wall below my window with his stick. We left at half -past five o'clock. My companion, who should have known better, had not -breakfasted, so by the time we reached the Gsoll Alp at a quarter-past -seven, he was almost tired out. He wore the regulation black chamois -knee breeches and a _gamsbart_ in his hat. He picked many flowers en -route, ostensibly because they were pretty; but in reality, I think, -because it gave him the opportunity to recover his wind. He told me -he was sixty-three years old, and he certainly went up hill with some -difficulty, and for the first time in my life, I fairly succeeded in -showing a clean pair of heels to a _patentirter fuehrer_ on a mountain -side. At one place he found a large snail in the road. This he wrapped -up in leaves and placed on a rock, and on our return he picked the -leaves and snail up, and rammed the whole bundle into his pocket, -informing me that it was excellent _Arznei_, although he did not -mention for what complaint. - -[Illustration: THE FRAUENMAUER AND THE GSOLL ALP.] - -The road led up a wooded valley, in a sort of series of steps, -bits of even ground interspersed by steeper ones, with the -Pfaffenstein-Frauenmauer limestone peaks poking up their jagged summits -on the left. The sky was clear at starting, except in the west, where -clouds were forming, and these gradually overspread the whole sky, and -finally turned to rain. Just before we reached the Gsoll Alp, we went -by a huge snow avalanche, which had fallen in February and torn a lane -clear through the pines, bringing down numbers of them with it. The -remains of the avalanche were banked up on the side of the road, which -was cut out, and many of the pines were still piled on and in the snow. -Stopping ten minutes at the alp to allow my guide to recuperate on some -bread and milk, we then crossed the pastures and pushed up a rather -steep slope by a small path, at one place crossing the remains of -another avalanche. We also came near having the attentions of a little -bull which was screaming viciously. My guide said it was an extremely -disagreeable beast, but he did not think it would attack him, as he -always made a point of giving it bread when at the chalet. We reached -the entrance of the cave at a quarter-past eight. - -A man and a boy from Eisenerz, who had heard I was going to the cavern -and who wished to profit by my guide, caught up with us here. They were -much disappointed when I told them I should visit only the _Eiskammer_. -They went into the cave at the same time that we did, and eventually -we left them pushing up one of the side chambers, with only one torch -in their possession. My guide said he thought they were risking their -lives, as there were many holes they might fall into, besides the -probability of their finding themselves in total darkness. He told me -that once, while in the cavern, he heard distant yells, and, going up -the gallery whence they proceeded, found a man half dead, who said -he had tried to come through the mountain by himself, had broken his -lantern and had remained in the darkness an indefinite number of hours; -a situation, the horror of which could not be realized by anyone -who has not been underground without a light and felt the absolute -blackness of a cavern. - -The Frauenmauer is a limestone peak, 1828 meters in height, one of -several forming a horseshoe round the Gsoll Alp. It presents on that -side a sheer wall of rock, in which there are two holes close together, -at an altitude of 1335 meters. These are the lower openings of the -Frauenmauerhoehle, of which the higher and biggest one is used for -an entrance. They are some thirty or forty meters from the base of -the rock wall, and a flight of wooden steps leads up to the entrance -opening, which is narrow and high. At the top of the steps, we stood -in the mouth of the cave; and, going in four or five meters, saw the -other opening to the left, below us. About five meters further, there -was one small lump of ice, as big as a pumpkin, lying on the ground, -but this may have been carried there from within. The cavern went -nearly straight for some twenty-five meters from the entrance, rising -all the time gently. Then came a steep little drop, of some four or -five meters, in the rock floor, and here a small wooden staircase was -placed. A gallery opened to the right and this was the cavern proper, -which leads through the mountain. It rose considerably and contained -no ice as far as we went, which was for some distance. The walking was -bad, as the floor was covered with _geroell_, that is broken detritus. - -[Illustration: IN THE FRAUENMAUERHOeHLE. - - From a Photograph by A. Kurka. -] - -Returning and continuing towards the freezing chamber, the floor of the -cavern began to rise once more, continuing for some forty-five meters -to its highest point, which is lower, however, than the top of the -entrance, an important fact to notice. For, although the floor of the -cave is considerably higher, at a distance of seventy meters within, -than the level of the bottom of the entrance; still, that highest spot -is below the level of the top of the entrance. This fact, and also the -size of the gallery, unquestionably explains why the cold air can get -in as far as it does. At this highest spot we found a considerable mass -of ice, a couple of cartloads in bulk perhaps, which the guide said -would melt away later in the summer. This was, perhaps, the remains -of a fallen stalactite. This mass of ice is an interesting point in -connection with the Frauenmauerhoehle, for it shows that ice in a cave -sometimes forms, even if in small quantities, above the level of the -base of the entrance. There seems no reason why it should not do so, -provided there is the necessary water supply. Such ice would, however, -suffer more, as soon as the outside air was over freezing point, than -would ice which was below the level of the entrance. It would probably -disappear early in the year, unless the cave were in a latitude or at -an altitude where snow remained in the open during most of the year. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. Vertical Section of the Frauenmauerhoehle.] - -From this highest point, the cave turns somewhat to the left, and the -floor begins to slope downward, sinking gradually to some six meters -below the level of the entrance. Ten meters or so from the highest -point, we began to find icicles and fissure columns, and about twenty -meters further, we reached an almost level ice floor, stretching across -the entire width of the cave--some seven meters--and extending about -fifty meters more to the end of the cave. In several places there was -much frozen rime on the rock walls. There were also a number of columns -and icicles, though none of any special beauty. I broke a piece off one -of them, and the ice was transparent and free from prisms, showing that -this column was probably of fairly recent origin. Letting a bit melt in -my mouth, the water tasted pure and sweet. - -[Illustration: ICE STALACTITE, FRAUENMAUERHOeHLE. - - From a Photograph by A. Kurka. -] - -In two places, there were _abgrunds_, that is, holes in the ice. One -of these was a wide, deep hole on the left side of the cave, between -the rock and the ice floor. The other was a great hole in the ice floor -itself. As the edges of both holes sloped sharply, it was impossible -to get near enough to look into either, but I threw in lumps of ice, -and from the sound should judge that the holes were about three meters -deep. The hole in the ice floor seemed to be cut by drip, and I think -they both carried off the drainage. - -The ice floor was sloppy and thawing rapidly. At the furthest point we -reached, within about fifteen meters from the end of the ice chamber, -we were stopped by an accumulation of water lying on the ice. I poked -into it with my ice axe and found it about twenty centimeters in depth. -There was a crust of ice on top in places. The lake was cold, but I am -sure the water was not freezing, as I held my hand in it at least a -minute without pain. The guide assured me that in two weeks or so the -lake would be completely frozen, provided there was some fine, warm -weather; but, if there was rain, he said that it would not freeze. By -this statement, he unintentionally explained, what he asserted was -true, namely, that the cave froze harder in August than in July. The -explanation of course is, that in fine, dry weather, water does not run -into the cavern, and then the lake gradually drains off, leaving the -ice floor free from water; and this the natives interpret to mean that -the water has frozen up. - -At the edge of the lake there was a fissure in the left hand rock -wall, in which my companion assured me that a column would shortly -form. I absolutely doubt this statement, as, if it were true, it -would be contrary to everything I have seen; still, I wish I could -have returned in August, to verify the matter. I poked my torch up -the fissure, also felt in with my hand. It was cold, and on the rocks -inside there was much hoar frost, but I could neither see nor feel any -ice mass, nor am I sure how far the fissure extended. - -The air was still, damp and over freezing point throughout the -_Eiskammer_, and all the signs showed that the cave was in a state -of thaw. Although the rocks are limestone and scarcely blackened by -smoke anywhere, yet as our torches did not give much light, the color -impression was black and gray, like the Schafloch. - -At the hotel the landlord confirmed in every particular the story of -the cave freezing hardest in August or September. He had never been -there himself, but stated that everyone said the same thing, and -that many people had "broken their heads" trying to account for it. -At eight o'clock in the evening, my guide came to let me know that -the man and boy, whom we left trying to penetrate the cave, had just -turned up after making all their relatives extremely anxious. They -were nearly lost, and had in general an extremely uncomfortable time. -It is scarcely to be wondered at that accidents occur in caves and on -mountains when people, with neither knowledge nor proper preparation, -go wandering off by themselves into the unknown.[4] - -[4] On the evening of June 29th, 1897, I met at Hieflau three Viennese -tourists who had come that day through the Frauenmauer. They found the -lake on the ice floor of the _Eiskammer_, just as I had in 1896. They -said also, moreover, that they found ice and icicles or ice columns -in the main cave; unfortunately, they did not explain clearly in what -part. - - -THE MILCHHAeUSER OF SEELISBERG. - -The summer of 1896, will long be remembered by Alpine climbers for -the pitiless rain storm, which kept coming steadily down during the -vacation months. It was in the midst of this that I arrived at Trieb, -on the Lake of Lucerne, on the 6th of August, to see whether I could -find the windholes which were reported near Seelisberg. At the landing -place I found Herr J. M. Ziegler, the owner of the Hotel Bellevue at -Seelisberg, who promptly secured a nice, blond bearded young fellow, -a relative of his and his _knecht_, as a guide. It was pouring when -we started, a proceeding which kept on during our entire excursion. -We tramped up a narrow road, paved with great stones in the old Swiss -fashion, and, as my guide truly said, awfully steep for horses. - -Half an hour from the boat landing, took us to the first milkhouse, -which belonged to Herr Ziegler. It was in a small patch of woods, and -was placed against a cliff, where rocks had fallen down and formed a -talus of broken detritus. The side walls of the house were built out -from the cliff and roofed over, and the front wall had a doorway closed -with a wooden door. At the back the detritus or _geroell_ was built into -a vertical, unplastered wall between most of the interstices of which, -cool air came forth. Several of these interstices were fairly large -holes of uncertain depth. It was a cool day and the air currents were -only a little cooler than the temperature outside. - -Another half an hour of uphill walking, partly on roads and partly -over soaking meadows, took us to Seelisberg, where we stopped at the -house of the owner of the second milkhouse, to get the key. The owner -could not go with us because he had damaged his foot, by wearing great -wooden shoes or _sabots_ armed with enormous spikes, while cutting -grass on steep slopes. He was hospitable enough: unlike his dog, who -was exceedingly anxious to attack us. The owner said--in the intervals -of the dog's howls--that ice formed during the winter in the rear wall -of his milkhouse and remained until about June. The milkhouse was in -a little patch of woods against a small cliff, at the bottom of which -were broken rocks. We had some difficulty in getting in, working for -at least ten minutes at the lock, while drops of rain-water would -occasionally drip into our coat collars. Just as I had given up hope, -my companion succeeded in getting the key to turn. There were several -pans, full of milk, placed to cool, and several barrels of potatoes; -and, as at the first milkhouse, we found that the rear wall consisted -simply of heaped up detritus built into a vertical position. Gentle air -currents flowed from several large holes and from the cracks between -the stones. - -From here we went by a path through woods and over meadows down to the -lake, coming to the shore some distance to the west of the steamboat -landing. Everything was soaking wet, and as we proceeded, I felt my -clothes getting wetter and my shoes absorbing water like sponges until, -when we came to an overflowing brook, wading through seemed rather -pleasant. There is one advantage of getting thoroughly wet feet in the -mountains: it makes crossing streams so much easier, as one does not -delay, but simply steps right in. - -The lower milkhouse was on the shore of the lake, near the house of -a fisherman, whose wife opened the door for us. There was some milk -in pans and several barrels of wine; and on a board were a number of -_ferras_ from the lake; the result of two days' catching in nets. This -was the largest of the three milkhouses; although it did not have as -many big holes in the rock wall as the others, but only the interstices -between the blocks of rock, whence we could feel cool air flowing out. -The woman said that the ice melted away by April or May, but that in -winter the wine barrels were all covered with frost. She also said that -the air coming from the clefts in summer was colder when the weather -was warm, than when it was rainy. Doubtless the temperature of the -draughts remains the same during the summer, but the air feels cooler -to the hand when the outside air is hot. - -A walk of another half hour, through more soaking wet grass, brought -us back to the steamboat landing at Trieb, where I touched my guide's -heart with the gift of a five franc piece, and had a talk with Herr -Ziegler. He said that there were a number of places in the neighborhood -whence cold air came forth during the summer from cracks in the rocks: -that there were also other milkhouses, notably one at Tell's Platte, on -the lake: and that the milkhouses were not generally used in winter, -when the doors were left open, to allow the cold air to penetrate as -much as possible through the rocks behind. During the winter the -draughts were reversed, and poured in instead of out of the openings, -and Herr Ziegler thought that at that time the interior of the rock -cracks became chilled, and that possibly ice formed in them which -helped to chill the summer currents, when the draughts poured out from -the holes. - - -THE GLACIERE DE LA GENOLLIERE. - -On Tuesday, the 11th of August, 1896, a cool and rainy day, I left -Geneva and went by train to Nyon, where I found at the station a little -victoria, in which I drove up to Saint-Cergues. The road lay across -the plain to the base of the slopes of the Jura, and then up these in -long zigzags; it was admirably built and on the hill slopes passed -the whole way through a beautiful thick forest, principally beeches -and birches. At Saint-Cergues, I went to the Pension Capt, where -the landlady soon found a guide in the shape of the gendarme of the -district, a right good fellow, Amy Aimee Turrian by name. He was in -uniform, with an army revolver in a holster at his belt. We then drove -about half an hour beyond Saint-Cergues, the road rising but little, -and the thick forest giving place to a more open wood of evergreens, -with patches of pasturage. As a forest sanitarium, Saint-Cergues seems -unsurpassed in the whole of Europe. The carriage turned up a little -country road, which soon became too rough for driving, so we proceeded -on foot for about another half hour, through pine woods and pastures, -to the glaciere. Turrian enlivened the way with an account of his life -as a gendarme, of the long solitary six hour patrols in the woods in -winter, and of how he lay in ambush for poachers. He said he would not -take long to fire on anyone resisting arrest, as that was _serieux_. - -The glaciere is in the middle of a pasture, with several pine trees -overhanging it. It is surrounded by a wall, built to prevent the cows -from falling in. There are two pits, side by side and about three -meters apart: they are some thirteen meters in depth, with a width of -five or six meters. They open into one another at the bottom; the rock -separating them, forming a natural bridge overhead. One of the pits is -vertical on all sides. The other is vertical all around, except on the -side furthest away from the natural bridge. Here the side of the pit -is in the shape, so usual in glacieres, of a steep slope. Down this -slope we descended. It was slippery and muddy, owing to the recent -heavy rains, and my ice axe proved invaluable and probably saved me -some unpleasant falls. Under the bridge, the floor was covered with a -mass of shattered limestone debris, among which there was neither ice -nor snow; both of which my guide said he had found in abundance the -preceding June. A little limestone cavern opened on one side below the -bridge. A great, flat limestone slab formed a natural lintel, and, -lighting our candles, we stooped down and passed under it into the -cave, which was about the size of a room and in which we could just -stand up. At the entrance and over most of the floor there was ice, in -one place thirty or forty centimeters in depth, as I could see where a -drip from the roof had cut a hole. There were no signs of icicles or -columns. My guide said he had never penetrated into this chamber, which -he thought, on his earlier visit, was blocked with ice and snow. I did -not see any limestone stalactites anywhere, and I am inclined to think -that the low temperatures of glacieres have a tendency to prevent their -formation. - -After our visit, we went to the Chalet de La Genolliere close by, where -there were some thirty cows and calves. The intelligent _berger_ or -manager said that most of the ice from the glaciere was used for butter -making during the hot weather; and that between the inroads thus made -upon it and from other causes, the ice disappeared every year before -autumn, but that it formed afresh every winter; pretty good evidence to -show that the ice in this cave has nothing to do with a glacial period. -He also stated that when he first entered the inner chamber in the -spring there were four ice columns there. - -The glaciere de La Genolliere is a clear exemplification of the theory -that the cold of winter is the sole cause for the ice. The whole -glaciere is rather small and is fairly well protected against wind. -Although snow cannot fall directly under the rock arch, yet I should -imagine it drifts under, or after melting, runs in and refreezes. To -the inner cave snow, as snow, could hardly reach; and the cavern is -probably filled, like most cave glacieres, from frozen drip. The inner -cave is, therefore, a true cave glaciere, while the outer pits and the -bridge are something between a gorge and a cave. La Genolliere should, -I think, be visited about the end of June, when the ice formations are -certainly larger and more interesting than in August. - - -THE FRIEDRICHSTEINER OR GOTTSCHEER EISHOeHLE. - -A little to the east of, and in about the same latitude as Trieste, -is the small town of Gottschee, now reached by a branch railroad from -Laibach. Gottschee is a German settlement almost in the centre of -the district known as the Duchy of Krain, Austria, which is mainly -inhabited in the north by Slavonians and in the south by Croatians. -Gottschee lies directly at the western base of the Friedrichsteiner -Gebirge, one of whose peaks is the Burgernock. On the eastern slopes of -this mountain is situated the Friedrichsteiner or Gottscheer Eishoehle, -at an altitude of about nine hundred meters. - -On the 24th of June, 1897, I left Gottschee at half past six o'clock in -the morning with Stefan Klenka, a nice little man. I had asked to have -him come at six o'clock, but he did not turn up and I had to send for -him. His excuse was, that tourists always ordered him for six o'clock, -but when the time came, they were still in bed. He had taken a German -officer and his wife to the cave the year before, and after keeping -him waiting three hours, they started at nine o'clock. The result was -that they did not get to the cave until two o'clock, and returned to -Gottschee just at nightfall. - -We reached the cave at half past eight o'clock. The steep and rough -path went uphill through a fine forest, which my guide said was -_Urwald_, _i. e._, primeval forest; and there were certainly some -big trees and many fallen ones, and much underbrush. He assured me -that bears were still plentiful in the neighborhood, and that Prince -Auersperg, who owns the shooting, does not allow them to be killed, -preferring to pay for any damage they may cause to the peasants' -fields or for any cattle they may dine on, rather than to have these -interesting animals exterminated from his woods. He also said that -there was a two meter snowfall in Gottschee in winter: a sufficient -quantity to account for the glacieres. At one place on the road we -stopped before a small crack in the rocks, and Klenka dropped in some -small stones, which we could hear strike two or three times a long -distance below. There is surely an unexplored cavern at this spot. - -The Friedrichsteiner Eishoehle is a large pit cave, well lighted by -daylight. It is sheltered from any winds by the great trees which grow -all around it and even over the rock roof. A long, steep slope leads -straight into the pit and from the top the ice floor is in full sight. -On both sides of the slope the rocks are almost sheer. Over the bottom -of the slope the rock roof projects at a great height. The sides of the -cave rise perpendicularly at least forty meters, and in fact, the cave -suggests an unfinished tunnel set on end. - -Some years ago, the _Deutschen und Oesterreichischen Alpen Verein_ -built a wooden staircase, in a series of zigzags, on the slope. This -staircase should have been cleared off earlier in the year, but, of -course, the matter was neglected. Down these steps we descended until -they became covered with snow, and lower down with hard ice. All this -was winter's snow which fell directly on to the slope and gradually -melted and froze again, so this was really a miniature glacier. It was -not subterranean ice at all. We cut down the snow, but had to stop when -we came to the ice, as it would have involved a couple of hours at -least of the hardest kind of step cutting; and this my guide did not -care to undertake, especially as he was nearly killed on this slope the -week before. He had reached, with some tourists from Trieste, a place -above that where we stopped, when he slipped and fell down the slope, -shooting clear across the cave, where he remained until ropes were -procured, and he was dragged out. He afterwards showed me the numerous -cuts and bruises he had received on his perilous glissade. - -We had to stop also for another reason. I had unwisely brought as wrap, -a thick overcoat reaching to the knees, and this was such an impediment -on the icy staircase, that I took it off, and soon began to feel long -shivers creeping down my spine. This question of extra clothing for -glaciere exploration is hard to arrange. One must guard against most -trying changes of temperature. For, on entering a big glaciere, the -heat of a July day without, will, at a distance of only a few meters, -give place to the cold of a January day within, and nothing could be -better devised than a big glaciere to lay the seeds of rheumatism. -It is difficult to plan a garb suitable to meet all the varying -conditions, but the dress must be cool and warm, and light enough to -permit free motion. The clothes I have found most practical are a thin -waistcoat and thick trousers, and two short sack coats, one of them -a heavy winter one. The coats should button at the throat, and it is -well to place straps round the bottom of the trousers. Thick kid gloves -should always be worn in caves, to save cutting the hands on rocks or -ice in the darkness, and hobnails may prevent some unpleasant slips. - -From the point where we stopped, some ten meters away from the ice -floor, the largest portion of the cave was visible. The finest object -was a big ice curtain or _vorhang_, as my guide called it, which, from -a height of five or six meters, flowed down from fissures to the ice -floor, and which covered the rocks on the eastern side. Under one point -of this curtain, Klenka said that there was a deep hole in the ice. -Smaller fissure columns also streamed from the rear wall to the ice -floor. The ice floor itself was flat, of an ochre greenish tinge, and -was covered with broken ice fragments. We could not see the western -portion of the cavern, as the rocks jutted out in a sort of corner. -Klenka said that there were several small pyramids there; a large one -which he spoke of as the _Altar_; and a small ice slope, plastered on -the side rocks. - -The sides of the cave were of a dark gray limestone rock, and from -the top of the slope they assumed a decidedly bluish tone, and I -am inclined to think that there was already--we were there from -eight-thirty A. M. until ten A. M.--a faint mist in the cavern. This -is the most interesting phenomenon connected with the Friedrichsteiner -Eishoehle. The cavern faces due south, and about midday, in clear -weather, the sun shines directly into it, causing a mist or cloud to -form in the cave on warm days; a mute witness that evaporation is -connected with the melting, not with the forming, of the ice. The air -at every point seemed still. - -On my return to Gottschee, I called on one of the professors of the -K. K. Gymnasium, and he told me many interesting facts about the -surrounding country. Among other things he said that no traces of a -glacial period or indeed of glaciers were found in the Krain; and as -this district is particularly rich in glacieres, this fact is a strong -proof against the glacial period theory. He assured me also that many -bears still existed in the neighborhood; that one family was known to -inhabit the woods round the Friedrichsteiner Eishoehle, and that he had -often seen bear tracks on his own shooting, some ten kilometers to the -south. - - -THE SUCHENREUTHER EISLOCH. - -On the 25th of June, 1897, I left Gottschee at six-thirty A. M. in an -_einspaenner_, and drove thirteen kilometers southward, over a good -road, albeit hilly in places, to Mrauen, which we reached in about -two hours. The weather was exceedingly hot. I took Klenka along, as -he spoke German, and he entertained me on the drive by telling me -that there were many poisonous snakes in the country, of which the -_kreuzotters_ or vipers were the worst, and that three or four persons -were bitten every year. - -Mrauen is in Croatia, and I could see a slight difference in the people -and their dress from those of Gottschee. From Mrauen, the landlord of -the _Gasthaus Post_, Josef Sirar, led us to the Grosses Eisloch. This -is sometimes spoken of as the Eisloch bei Skrill, but as it lies in -a patch of woods below the village of Suchenreuth, the Suchenreuther -Eisloch seems the correct name. At least that was what Sirar called it. -It took us about an hour on foot from Mrauen to get into the woods. -On the way we met two guards in uniform, carrying Maennlicher carbines -with fixed bayonets, and it was agreeable to feel that the strong arm -of the Austrian government extended over this semi-wild land. In the -woods, following Sirar's able guidance, we took a short cut--always a -mistake--and were lost temporarily in a maze of bushes and brambles, in -which I thought of the _kreuzotters_. After that, Sirar at first could -not find the cave and had to hunt around for it, while I sat on a stone -and waited impatiently. - -At the cave a rather steep slope of wet mud, covered with dead leaves, -led down through a rock arch. Sirar had to cut several steps in the -mud with his hatchet, or we should probably have sat down suddenly. -The archway opened into a moderately large cavern, which was about -twenty meters deep, almost round and some fifteen meters in diameter. -The slope continued right across the cave, and on some parts of it -were logs of wood and much debris. On the wall hung a few limestone -stalactites. In the roof of the cave was a great hole, and under -this was a big cone of old winter snow, which had become icy in its -consistency, and on which there was much dirt and many leaves. The -temperature in the cave was several degrees above freezing point, and -there was no ice hanging anywhere. Sirar said that when the weather got -hotter, the ice would come; but as he said also, that he had been only -once before in the cave, some ten years ago, his opinion was not worth -much. Both men said that the preceding winter was unusually warm. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6. Vertical Section of the Suchenreuther Eisloch.] - - -THE NIXLOCH. - -Near Hallthurm in Bavaria, a railroad station between Reichenhall and -Berchtesgaden, is a well known congeries of windholes, called the -Nixloch. I visited it on Friday, July the 2d, 1897, with a railroad -employee, whom I found at the peasants' _gasthaus_. - -The Nixloch is ten minutes distant in the forest, on the slopes of the -Untersberg. It is among a mass of big limestone blocks, and close by -are the remains of the walls of an old castle or fortification. The -Nixloch descends from the entrance for about two meters nearly sheer, -and there is just room to get through. As I sat within the outside edge -of the mouth of the cave, the smoke of my cigar was slowly carried -downward into it. - -Dropping down through the hole, we found ourselves in a small cavern -formed of rough limestone blocks overhead and underfoot. It is possible -to go still further down and my companion said that formerly it was -possible to go through the cave and come out at a lower opening; this -exit, however, was destroyed when the railroad was built. The draught, -as tested by the flame of a candle, was still drawing in some seven or -eight meters from the entrance. There is a second cavity immediately -next to the entrance, and at the bottom of these holes, the inward -draught was so violent as to blow the candle out. The thermometer -outside in the shade was 28 deg.C.; inside the cave, where the draught was -still perceptible, it was about 20 deg.C. Within the cave I noticed two -large, dark brown spiders. - -On returning to the _gasthaus_, I had a talk with some peasants who -were dining there, and they told me that it was warm in winter in the -Nixloch, and that ice never formed there. - - -THE DORNBURG. - -If one draws a line northeast from Coblentz and another northwest from -Frankfort-on-the-Main, they will intersect nearly at the Dornburg. The -railroad from Frankfort goes, via Limburg and Hadamar, to Frickhofen -and Wilsenroth, from either of which villages the ice formations of the -Dornburg are easily reached on foot in half an hour. - -I arrived at Wilsenroth on the 26th of July, 1897, and soon found -an old forester, who said he had lived in the neighborhood for over -fifty years, to show me the way. The Dornburg is a low hill, perhaps a -hundred meters high and a kilometer long. It is basaltic and covered -with sparse woods. The forester said that on top were the remains of -the foundations of an old castle, and that this was possibly the origin -of the name Dornburg. We circled round the eastern base of the hill -for some ten minutes, when we came to a little depression, filled with -basalt debris, among which were several small holes, out of which came -currents of cool air. - -Ten minutes further in the woods, we arrived at the _Dornburg -Restauration_ and then almost immediately at the glaciere. It is at the -bottom of a talus of broken basaltic rocks and has been much affected -by the agency of man. In it are two _eisloecher_ or _stollen_, as the -forester called them. These are little artificial pits or cellars, dug -into the talus. They are side by side, opening about southeast, and -each is about one and a half meters wide, three meters long, and two -meters high. The sides are built up with wooden posts and overhead is -a thick roof of logs strewn with dirt. The day was cool and at the -mouth of each _eisloch_, a faint outward current of air was discernible -at nine-thirty A. M. I could not find any currents coming into the -_eisloecher_. Inside it was cold and damp, and evidently thawing. There -was a good heap of ice in each _eisloch_; it was clear, and I could -detect no trace of prisms. - -By much questioning, I dug out something of the history of these -_stollen_ from the forester. Formerly the ice was found at this spot, -among the boulders at the base of the slope. But the people gradually -took many of these basaltic blocks away, to break up for road making, -and then the ice diminished. About 1870, a brewery, since burnt, was -built at the Dornburg and the brewer had these _stollen_ built, a sort -of semi-natural, semi-artificial ice house. Every winter, the present -owner of the _stollen_ throws a quantity of snow into them, and this -helps materially in forming the mass of ice. - -Just below the restaurant there is a spring, which was said to be -extremely cold, but there was nothing icy nor apparently unusual about -it. - -Under the restaurant itself is an interesting cellar. It was closed by -wooden doors. First there was a passage way which turned steadily to -the right, and which we descended by some ten steps. This was about -two meters wide and was full of beer bottles and vegetables. On the -left of the passage was a large double chamber where meat is kept. At -eleven-thirty A. M. a faint draught blew down the passage and into the -hall, the outside door being then open. The double hall was perhaps six -meters each way, and I could detect no air currents coming into it at -any place, except from the passage way. Both passage and halls were, as -far as I could see, entirely built over with masonry. There was no ice -and the temperature was some 7 deg. or 8 deg. above freezing point. - -The daughter of the proprietor of the restaurant said that ice began -to form in the cellar in February and that it lasted generally until -October; but that this year it was destroyed early because the masonry -was repaired, although it was still possible to skate in the cellar as -late as March. In the beginning of winter the cellar was warm, and as -she expressed it, _der Keller schwitzt dann_, which I suppose means -that the walls are damp. She also said that it was a _naturlicher -Keller_, and I am inclined to think that it was a natural glaciere, -converted into a cellar. - -This visit to the Dornburg gave me many new ideas about classifying -glacieres, especially in relation to the movements of air. I was -long puzzled by the German terms, _Eishoehlen_ and _Windroehren_; and -it suddenly struck me, at the Dornburg, that this terminology is -incorrect, when used as a classification of glacieres. The presence or -absence of strong, apparent draughts, cannot be considered as a test -as to whether a place is or is not a glaciere; the presence of ice, -for at least part of the year, alone makes a glaciere, and this it -does whether there are or are not draughts. It seems to me more than -ever clear, however, that it all depends on the movements of air, as -to whether ice forms in a cave. If the movements of air take the cold -air of winter into a cave, then and then only--provided there is also -a water supply--do we have ice. I am now inclined to think that caves, -as far as their temperatures are concerned, should be classified into -caves containing ice, cold caves, ordinary normal caves, and hot caves, -without reference to the movements of air. - - -THE GLACIERE DE SAINT-GEORGES. - -From Rolle, on the north shore of the Lake of Geneva; an excellent -carriage road leads in two hours and a half to Saint-Georges in the -Jura. At first the way goes steeply uphill and passes through many -vineyards, and afterwards it crosses level fields to Gimel, then rises -through woods to Saint-Georges. On arriving there on the afternoon of -August 3d, 1897, I found the street filled with evergreens, and long -benches and tables; the debris of a _fete de tir_, which had lasted for -two days, with dancing and banquets and, I suspect, much _vin du pays_. - -When I got down stairs at six o'clock next morning, all the people -of the inn were sound asleep recovering from the effects of the -_fete_, and instead of their calling me, I had to call them. Finally I -succeeded in getting breakfast and then started in company with a first -rate fellow, named Aymon Emery. - -[Illustration: LA GLACIERE DE SAINT-GEORGES. - - From a Photograph by E. Truand. -] - -We walked up through woods, in about an hour and a half, to the -Glaciere de Saint-Georges, which lies at an altitude of 1287 meters in -the midst of the forest. There are two holes close together. One of -these descends vertically and is partly roofed over with logs on which -is rigged a pulley. Emery, who was the _entrepreneur_ of the glaciere, -which means that he attended to getting out the ice, told me that they -pulled the ice up through this vertical hole, making a noose with a -rope round each block. - -The other and shallower opening ended in a rock floor, which was -reached by a short ladder. To the right was an arch, under which the -rock terminated as a floor and descended vertically, forming the wall -of the cave. On this wall two ladders, spliced at the end into one long -ladder, were placed in a nearly vertical position. I tied the end of my -rope round my waist, and got a workman, who had come to cut ice, to pay -out the rope to me, while I went down. - -The cave is rather long and narrow, perhaps twenty-five meters by -twelve meters, and the limestone roof forms an arched descending curve -overhead. I could not see any limestone stalactites; neither were there -any ice stalactites or stalagmites in the cave, but a good part of the -wall, against which the long ladder was placed, was covered by an ice -curtain. It was thin and had evidently been damaged by the ice cutters -or I think it would have covered the entire lower portion of the wall. - -The base of the long ladder rested on an ice floor which filled the -bottom of the cave, and which would probably have been level if it had -not been cut out here and there in places, leaving many holes. A good -many broken ice fragments lay on the floor and in some of the holes -were pools of water. Some of the floor ice was exceedingly prismatic in -character, and I was able to flake it off or break it easily with my -hands into prisms. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7. Vertical Section of the Glaciere de -Saint-Georges.] - -Under the vertical shaft, which is at one end of the cave, was a mass -of winter's snow which had fallen through the opening. Under this snow -was a deep hole, which I believe was the drain hole of the glaciere -before the ice floor was cut away to a level below its mouth. Into -this hole I threw lumps of ice and heard them go bumping down for three -or four seconds. - -The atmosphere was not uncomfortable, although the temperature was -about 7 deg. C. The air did not feel damp, and seemed almost still, but -standing on the ice floor nearly under the vertical hole, I found that -the smoke from my cigar ascended rapidly, and it seemed as if there -were a rising air current, which sucked up the smoke. - -Saint-Georges is a fine cavern and well worth visiting. Emery said that -the ice was not cut out for eight years preceding the summer of 1897, -and that for several years it was not possible to go down at all, as -there were no ladders, until he put in the two we utilized.[5] All the -natives of Saint-Georges believed that the ice was a summer formation -and that it was warm in the cave in winter. - -[5] In the illustration of the Glaciere de Saint-Georges, the opening -to the left is the vertical pit, through which the ice is taken out: -underneath it, is the heap of winter snow. The man in the upper part -of the picture is standing on the rock shelf at the base of the upper -ladder and at the top of the lower ladder. To the right of the lower -ladder near the bottom, a bit of the ice curtain is visible. - - -THE GLACIERE DU PRE DE SAINT-LIVRES. - -From the Glaciere de Saint-Georges, Emery and I pushed on through the -woods to the Pre de Saint-Livres. In several places we came on the -tracks of deer, and my guide told me he had killed eleven roe during -the last hunting season. He said also that an attempt is being made to -introduce the red deer into the Jura, and that the experiment seemed to -be meeting with success. We kept to the crest of the ridge along wood -paths, and, as the day was fortunately cool and cloudy, we were able to -walk fast and reached the Pre de Saint-Livres in two hours. At a spot -called La Foiraudaz we met the workmen coming down with a cartload of -ice, which they were taking to Biere. Some of this ice was extremely -prismatic. - -The Pre de Saint-Livres is a big mountain pasture or meadow, surrounded -with hills covered with pine trees. In the middle of it is the Chalet -de Saint-Livres, round which numerous cows and calves were congregated -and where a small shepherd gave us some milk. The chalet is not one -of the old picturesque Swiss chalets with great stones on the roof to -keep it from being blown away by the wind, but a strongly built single -storied stone structure, which looks extremely modern among the green -hills. - -The glaciere lies close to the chalet, on the southern side of the -meadows, just on the edge of the woods, and is surrounded with trees. -It is at an altitude of 1362 meters and faces nearly due north. To -prevent the cattle from falling in, it is enclosed with a stone wall, -except in front, where there is a fence formed of an abattis of pine -trees. The cave belongs to the pit variety, and the pit is a big one. -As you stand at the top, you can look down to the end of the glaciere. -The rocks are vertical all round the pit, and in front there is a small -rock shelf, one-third of the way down, which divides the rock wall -into two long drops. Against each of these was a rickety ladder, so we -fixed the end of my rope to the pine trees of the fence, and hung on -to it while we climbed down. The base of the lower and longer ladder -rested on a mass of snow. This was the beginning of a long snow slope -which gradually turned to ice and filled the cave. The cave itself, -measuring along the snow slope, is some forty meters long and some ten -to fifteen meters wide, and is entirely lighted by daylight. - -The snow and ice slope fell in a series of small waves, and the upper -portion was rather dirty. On the right hand the workmen had fixed a -rope as a handrail, and all the way down had cut a staircase in the -ice, so that the descent was not difficult. Some of the ice was sloppy. -The ice mass did not abut entirely against the end of the cave, but -left an open space between the ice and the rock, some three or four -meters wide and some four or five meters deep. Here the workmen had -been getting their ice, and had cut into the ice mass for several -meters, forming a little tunnel. - -There were no ice cones nor stalactites, neither did I see any -limestone stalactites. Much of the ice was prismatic; in fact, together -with that at Saint-Georges, it was the most strongly prismatic I have -seen. I can perhaps best describe it, by saying that it was brittle -in texture, as I could break up small lumps in my hands. There was -more prismatic ice at Saint-Livres, however, than at Saint-Georges. -The air in the cave was still and decidedly damp; and the temperature -was several degrees above freezing point. The day, however, was almost -windless, and I would not assert that movements of air, due to the -wind, might not sometimes take place in the pit. - -The Glaciere du Pre de Saint-Livres is one of those caves which may -be looked on as a transitional form between gorges containing ice and -caves containing ice. The winter snow falls into the mouth of the pit, -and is the chief foundation of the ice mass. It would be interesting -to make a series of observations in this cave to see whether there was -anything like glacier motion. Emery, of his own accord, expressed the -opinion that much of the ice here was due to the winter snows; in fact, -he thought that it was all due to it, and that it gradually descended -into the cave and turned, little by little, into ice. He told me that -some years ago a cow was found by the workmen, frozen into the ice, -at a depth of four meters; the flesh was perfectly preserved, and was -eaten. I asked him if he had ever seen insects in either cave, and he -said he had not. - -From the glaciere we walked back to the village of Saint-Georges. On -asking my guide how much I owed him, he said he received four francs -for a _journee_, so I gave him six francs, and we parted the best of -friends. - - -GLACIER ICE CAVE IN THE FEE GLACIER. - -During a rather protracted stay at Saas-Fee in Switzerland, I visited -the glacier ice cave of the Fee Glacier on the 15th and 16th of -August, 1897, both cool and rainy days. It is about half an hour's -walk from the hotel to the ice cave, which is in the snout of the Fee -glacier, below the Eggfluh. A considerable stream issued from the cave. -On nearing the opening, a strong cold air current poured out above -the stream. At the front edge of the ice, the height of the ice roof -in the centre was perhaps twelve meters and the width fifteen meters. -Around the edge, the roof formed an almost perfect curve. The ice walls -contracted in a regular manner within, and the cave became narrower and -lower, and suggested an enormous funnel cut in half, into which you -looked from the larger end. The cave also grew gradually darker, and -the darkness prevented seeing further than to a depth of some fifteen -meters. In the ice walls, just inside the entrance, were several -crevasses, of the ordinary blue-green color. They followed nearly the -same curve as the roof, but did not go through to the outside. There -were no icicles. The ice was faintly stratified in places, and at the -outer edge was brittle. It did not break into the long narrow prisms -of the ice at Saint-Georges and the Pre de Saint-Livres, but rather -into small lumps with facets, of all sorts of shapes. It was evidently -unsafe to penetrate under the ice roof, for while I stood in front of -the cave, a large lump broke off from the roof and fell with a clatter -among a lot of other ice fragments already on the moraine floor. In two -places there was a steady rain of drops from the roof, showing that the -ice was melting. - -This is perhaps the glacier cave in Switzerland which is easiest to -visit, and my inspection intensified my belief in what I consider -the correct explanation of some of the phenomena in glacieres. The -suggestion was that as soon as the temperature gets above freezing -point in a glacier ice cave, the only process is that of destruction of -the ice, which seems to be also the case with glacieres. - - -LA GRAND CAVE DE MONTARQUIS. - -My brother and I left Cluses, in Savoie, a railroad station on the line -between Geneva and Chamonix, at two o'clock on the afternoon of the -22d of August, 1897, and drove up in two hours and a half to Pralong -du Reposoir, a distance of eleven kilometers. The road is a _route -nationale_, fine and broad, with parapets in many places. After passing -Scionzier, it mounts gradually, passing through a tremendous wild -gorge, cut by the waters and heavily clad with firs. We reached Pralong -at four-thirty, and stopped at a primitive inn, still in process of -construction, and tenanted only by blue-bloused peasants, who, as it -was Sunday night, sat up late, drinking and making a heathenish noise -they mistook for singing. I talked to some of these men, and they all -insisted that there was no ice at the Grand Cave in winter, but that -it came in summer. _Plus il fait chaud, plus ca gele_, they said. One -man explained the formation of the ice in an original way, and with -an intelligence far above that of the average peasant. He considered -that it was due to air currents, and thought that in winter the snow -stopped up the holes in the rocks, through which the currents came; but -that when the snow melted, the draughts could work, and that then they -formed the ice. - -The weather was abominable next morning, the clouds lying along and -dripping into the valley; but the inn was so awful that we decided to -try to reach the cave. We had a nice little blue-bloused peasant for -a guide, Sylvain Jean Cotterlaz by name. We went first for about an -hour on foot towards Le Grand Bornant on a fair road, to an alp called -La Salle. This was surrounded by a herd of cows, some of whom seemed -interested in our party. It now began to rain fiercely, and except for -my brother's perseverance, I should certainly have given in. A fair -path led up steep grass slopes into the clouds covering the Mont Bargy. -Each of us had his umbrella raised, and the ascent was slippery and -uninspiring. An hour took us to two deserted huts, the Alpe Montarquis, -and half an hour beyond, we came to the caves; by which time we were -thoroughly soaked. - -The caves are on Mont Bargy, at the base of a limestone precipice, -which, I think, faces nearly north. There are three caves close -together. The lowest, or Petite Cave de Montarquis, Cotterlaz said is -also called La Cave des Faux-Monayeurs; as according to a, probably -untrue, tradition, it was once used by counterfeiters. Above this is a -small rock pocket, accessible down an easy slope. We went in and found -that there was no ice and indeed scarcely any water in it. - -The Grand--not Grande--Cave is a little higher up, and as we came -to it, several sheep, which had taken refuge in the mouth from the -storm, hastily skipped away, evidently distrusting our intentions. The -altitude of the cave is said to be 2078 meters. The entrance must face -about north east; it is elliptical in shape, about fifteen meters wide, -and six meters high, and is badly sheltered against the wind. The cave -is of moderate size, about sixty meters in length and forty-five meters -in width, and the average height of the roof is not over four or five -meters. A gentle slope leads downwards. Many blocks of rock in the -front part had bits of moss growing on them, and some of the mud there -was of a dull purple color, as if some dark madder was mixed with it. -There was a red streak in the right hand wall, probably caused by iron. -I observed no limestone stalactites nor stalagmites in the cave, the -main body of which was well lighted throughout by daylight. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8. Vertical Section of Grand Cave de Montarquis.] - -The ice was in the shape of a nearly level floor, about twelve meters -long and eight meters wide: the shape was irregular, and the ice so -smooth that it was hard to stand up. The rocks in the rear overhung the -ice floor at one spot; and here, there streamed from a fissure to the -ice floor an ice column, some three meters high, whose base was fully -two meters distant from the rock wall. Near this column was a tiny ice -cone, which evidently had been bigger. Cotterlaz seemed impressed with -the fact that there was only one column in the cave, as he said that -in June, there would have been many columns and a larger and deeper -ice floor. The ice was sloppy in places, with several small hollows -cut by the drip and containing water. In one place there was a tiny -runnel filled with water, but there was no current. There was a good -deal of drip all through the cave, and in fact in one or two places we -might have kept on holding up our umbrellas with advantage. I hacked at -several pieces of ice, but none of it was prismatic. - -At the rear of the cave, the ice ran, in a tongue, up the entrance of -an ascending fissure in the rocks. My brother cut here six or seven -steps in the ice; and he found them difficult to make, as the ice was -hard and thin, and not in a melting state. Above the ice tongue we -clambered up the rocks of the fissure some four or five meters further, -finding there some lumps of ice which were not melting. At this spot we -were almost in darkness. A lighted match burned steadily, so that there -was evidently not much draught, but the smoke gradually descended, -showing a slight downward current. This was the coldest, as well as the -furthest point of the cave we could reach, and we there heard a tiny -waterfall trickling within the fissure, although we could not see it. - -By this time we were all chilled to the bone, so, abandoning the -idea of entering the Petite Cave, we retreated down the sopping wet, -slippery grass slopes to Pralong, and then immediately walked all -the way to Cluses to avoid taking cold. The Grand Cave was the most -fatiguing trip I ever made after glacieres, but the circumstances were -rather unusual. - - -THE FREEZING WELL OF OWEGO. - -On Thursday, June 23d, 1898, I went to Owego, in Tioga County, New -York. Inquiries at the Lehigh Valley railroad station and at the chief -hotel failed to elicit any information about a freezing well; and in -fact, I soon found that the existence of such a thing was a blank to -the rising generation. So I called on an old resident of Owego, who -told me that he knew of the well in question and that it was filled up -with stones many years ago; but that he remembered that, when he was a -boy, it used to freeze, and that it was spoken of as the deep well or -freezing well. I then walked up to the site of the well, which is about -one and a half kilometers to the northwest from the centre of Owego and -about one kilometer from the Susquehanna River. It is directly in the -middle of the highway, and nothing is now visible but a heap of stones. - -Near by was the house of a Mr. Preston, who told me he was born in -1816, and had lived all his life at this spot. He said that the well -was about twenty-eight meters deep, and that it went first through -a layer of sand and then through a layer of gravel. He had more than -once been down the well and had seen the sides covered with ice. A -bucket sent down for water would sometimes come up with ice on the -sides. Whether the water at the bottom ever froze, no one knew, for -the ice caked and filled up the bore at about two-thirds of the way -down and became so thick, that as Mr. Preston put it, "it was just like -hammering on an anvil to try to break it." He also stated that another -well was dug about one hundred meters further down the road, and that -originally this sometimes had a little ice on the sides. Of late years -however, it was covered over with a wooden top and since then no ice -was known to form. I could obtain no information about any other wells -in the neighborhood ever showing similar peculiarities. - - -THE ICY GLEN, NEAR STOCKBRIDGE. - -The Icy Glen is situated on Bear Mountain, about one kilometer from -Stockbridge, Massachusetts. It is in the midst of fine woods and there -are many big trees in it. The bottom of the glen is full of rocks -and boulders, among which there is a rough path. I was told that ice -remained over there much longer than anywhere else in the neighborhood, -sometimes as late as May. On the 3d of July, 1898, I not only found no -traces of ice or snow, but the temperatures under the boulders showed -nothing abnormal. To make up for this, however, there were legions of -mosquitoes. - - -FREEZING MARBLE CAVE, NEAR MANCHESTER. - -Near Manchester, Vermont, there is a little cave,[6] which is -noteworthy, in that it is in a marble formation. It is known as -Skinner's Cave, because it was owned for many years by Mr. Mark -Skinner. It lies in Skinner's Hollow, some five or six kilometers from -the centre of Manchester, at the base of the eastern slope of Mount -Equinox, of the Taghconic Range of the Green Mountains. - -[6] My attention was called to this cave, by Messrs. John Ritchie, Jr., -of Boston, and Byerly Hart of Philadelphia, who visited it some years -ago. Mr. Ritchie's opinion is that it is simply a refrigerator. - -The cave is on the property of Mr. N. M. Canfield, who, on learning the -object of my visit, on the 5th of July, 1898, with true native American -courtesy, walked up to it with me. The last two kilometers were over a -rough logging road, which towards the end was steep and covered with -many broken logs. I could not have found the cave alone, as it was -so surrounded with bushes, that the entrance was invisible until we -actually reached it. It is in a gorge of Mount Equinox, in the midst -of a beautiful forest, which effectually cuts off any wind. The cave -faces nearly north and can scarcely ever, if indeed at any time, be -reached by the rays of the sun. The moment we got into the entrance, we -found the chilly, damp, summer atmosphere of true glaciere caves. The -rocks were brown and mossy on the outside, but Mr. Canfield called my -attention to the fact that they were marble, and on his knocking off -a small piece, a section of pure white marble was exposed. In no other -instance have I heard of a marble cave in connection with ice. There -were scarcely any cracks or crevices in the rock. - -The cave goes down with a steep slope from the entrance, much in the -shape of a tunnel, for some ten meters. The slope was covered with -slippery mud and decayed leaves, and at the bottom expanded into a -little chamber, in which lay a mass of wet, compact snow, some two by -three meters. It was evident that the snow was simply drifted in during -the winter, and was in too large a mass and too well protected to melt -easily, and there could be no question but that this place was purely -a refrigerator. The air was tranquil throughout and there were no -draughts. On the same day, a good breeze was blowing in the Manchester -Valley. - - -THE FREEZING WELL OF BRANDON. - -The Freezing Well of Brandon is situated on the western or southwestern -outskirts of the village of Brandon, Vermont, not far from the railroad -station. I visited it on the 7th of July, 1898. The well was protected -by a wooden cover. On raising this, a faint stream of cool air seemed -to issue forth; but this was probably only imagination. The sides, as -far down as one could see, were built in with rather large blocks of -stone without cement. At the bottom water was visible and there were -no signs of ice. We drew up some water in a bucket, and although it -was cool there was nothing icy about it. I twice lowered a thermometer -nearly to the water and each time after ten minutes it registered only -13 deg. C. There was certainly nothing abnormal in this temperature, in -fact it was strictly normal and my thermometer showed conclusively by -its actions that it could not have been near any ice mass. The people -at the house, however, assured me that a month before there was ice in -the well. - -Afterwards I called on Mr. C. O. Luce, the owner of the well. He stated -that it was eleven and a half meters deep to the bottom, that it was -dug in 1858, and that the ground through which it goes was found frozen -at a depth of about four and a half meters. Here there is a stratum of -gravel and this is where the freezing occurs. Mr. Luce thought that -the water was under the ice, that is, that the water came up from the -bottom. He said also that the well usually froze solid in winter; but, -that as this winter was an open one, there was less ice this year than -usual. He thought that there was less ice anyway now than in former -years, partly because of the cover which was put over the well, and -which keeps out some of the cold; and partly because a neighboring -gravel hillock, called the Hogback, was a good deal cut away, and this -in some way affects the supply of cold in the gravel. He added that the -sandy soil round Brandon does not as a rule freeze to a greater depth -than two meters each winter. The house built beside the well was said -to be comfortable in winter. - -There seems no doubt that this is another refrigerator. The cold water -of the winter snows percolates into the gravel mass and refreezes, and, -owing to the bad conductive quality of the material, the gravel remains -frozen later than the soil elsewhere in the neighborhood. The fact that -the well went through a frozen gravel stratum when dug, proves that it -is not alone the air that sinks into the well itself, which makes the -ice. The fact that the well freezes on the whole less than formerly, -apparently partly owing to the digging up of some of the gravel close -by, goes to prove the same thing. The fact that the well generally -freezes solid every winter, shows that although some of the gravel -mass possibly remains frozen all the time, much of the ice is renewed -each year. This is especially important as proving that the ice found -in gravel deposits is due to the cold of winter and not to a glacial -period, although, of course, no one could say for how long a time the -ice was forming and melting; and this process might date back to the -time of the formation of the gravel mass. - -I could learn nothing of any similar place near Brandon, except that -Mr. Luce said that in an old abandoned silver mine in the neighborhood, -he had once seen ice during hot weather. - - -FREEZING TALUS ON LOWER AUSABLE POND. - -On the eastern side of Lower Ausable Pond, Essex County, New York, -at the foot of Mount Sebille or Colvin, there is a talus of great -Laurentian boulders, which fell from the mountain and lie piled up -on the edge of the lake. Among these boulders, at a distance of -about five hundred meters from the southern end of the lake, there -are spaces, several of which might be called caves, although they are -really hollows between the boulders. On the 12th of July, 1898, I -visited this spot with Mr. Edward I. H. Howell of Philadelphia. From -several of the rock cracks we found a draught of air flowing strongly -out, as tested by the smoke of a cigar. The air was distinctly icy and -there could be no question that there was a considerable quantity of -ice among the rocks to produce the temperature. - -In three places we found masses of ice. One of these hollows was small, -and the other two were much larger. One of the latter was almost round -in shape, and perhaps three meters in diameter; with a little snow near -the mouth and with plenty of ice at the bottom. The other was a long -descending crack between two boulders which joined overhead, and with -the bottom filled by a long, narrow slope of ice, perhaps seventy-five -centimeters in width and six meters in length, set at an angle of about -thirty-five degrees. The ice was hard and non-prismatic. - -The cold air affects a large area of land around the boulders. Mr. -Howell called my attention to the flowers of the bunch-berry, which he -said were at least two weeks behind those on the surrounding mountains. -The same was true of _oxalis_, a pretty white flower, of which we found -several beds in full bloom. - -Mr. Howell went to this talus, on the 4th of July previous, with Mr. -Niles, President of the Appalachian Mountain Club, on which occasion -they found plenty of snow near the entrance of the larger hollow. Mr. -Howell, indeed, has repeatedly visited this place, and always found -ice, which must, therefore, be looked on as perennial. At all times -also he has felt cold draughts flowing out; sometimes they were so -strong as to lower the temperature over the lake to a distance of -thirty meters or more: on hot days he has seen occasionally a misty -cloud form on the lake in front of the boulders. Mr. Howell considers -that the draughts so affect the surrounding air, that an artificial -climate is produced, and it is owing to this that spring flowers bloom -late in July and sometimes in August. Another fact well known to him, -is that in hot weather, the spot in front of the boulders is the best -in the whole lake to catch trout, as they always congregate in the -coldest water. The Adirondack guides use these ice retaining hollows, -which they call ice-caves, as refrigerators for their provisions and -game in hot weather: they say that the ice is formed in winter and -remains over during the summer, as it is so well sheltered. - - -FREEZING TALUS OF THE GIANT OF THE VALLEY. - -On the indications of Mr. Otis, chief guide of the Adirondack Reserve, -I explored with Mr. C. Lamb, a guide from Keene Valley, the southern -base of the Giant of the Valley Mountain, Essex County, New York, on -the 14th of July, 1898. A road runs from Keene Heights to Port Henry, -through the gap between the south base of the Giant of the Valley and -the north base of Round Mountain, and passes close to a small lake -called Chapel Pond. Some three hundred meters west of this lake, we -left the road and struck north, across the brook, into the thick, mossy -woods. After perhaps one hundred meters, we came to a talus of great -boulders of Laurentian rock, with the cliffs of the Giant, whence the -boulders had fallen, rising steeply above. We found ice under several -of them, although never in any quantity. The thermometer, after an -exposure of fifteen minutes in one of these little hollows, registered -6 deg. C., although not more than one meter from where the sunshine fell on -the moss. In the shade of a tree one meter distant from the same hollow -it registered 26 deg. C.; a difference of 20 deg. C. at a distance of only two -meters. - -Perhaps one kilometer east of Chapel Pond, there is a place, where the -bases of the mountains come much nearer together, which bears the name -of "The Narrows." Here we crossed the brook again, and, after some -fifteen or twenty meters of scrambling through rough woods, reached -once more the talus of the Giant, composed of tremendous boulders. -Among these we found ice in many places and this time in large -quantities. Within one boulder cave we found an ice slab some four -meters in length, by two meters in width, and one meter in thickness. -This was pure, hard and non-prismatic ice, and was evidently not formed -of compressed snow: in fact snow could not have drifted in under the -boulder. We broke off a large piece of ice and took it back to Saint -Hubert's Inn, and it melted rather slowly. From the mouth of this cave -an icy draught issued, and, as it struck the warmer air outside, a -slight mist was formed. Mr. Lamb said that from the road itself he had -sometimes seen mist rising from this talus. Further explorations of the -talus of the Giant would probably reveal ice in many other places than -those we examined.[7] - -[7] Mr. E. I. H. Howell examined several times, in 1899, the talus of -the Giant of the Valley. He found ice in many places; also cold air -currents blowing out. At one spot, there is a spring which flows all -through the summer, and the water is so cold, that its temperature is -little above that of melting ice. Mr. Howell found, as at Ausable Pond, -spring flowers growing in mid-summer among the rocks of the talus. - -Mr. Lamb told me of two other places in the Adirondacks, where he -found ice in similar boulder formations. One was in the talus of Mount -Wallface in Indian Pass, between Mounts Wallface and McIntyre. The -other was in the talus of Mount McIntyre in Avalanche Pass, between -Mounts McIntyre and Colden. At the latter place, he found it near the -trail going round the lake in the pass. - - -THE ICE GULCH, RANDOLPH. - -The Randolph Ice Gulch is situated in Randolph Township, New Hampshire, -about eight kilometers from Randolph Station, on the Boston and Maine -Railroad.[8] I visited it on August 11th, 1898. At the Mount Crescent -House, I found a guide in the person of Mr. Charles E. Lowe, Jr. The -excursion took us about six hours. The trail was a rough bush path, -cut by the Appalachian Mountain Club, and which had not been cleaned -out that year. It was a cloudy but hot day and this, combined with the -badness of the road, made the walk fatiguing. - -[8] I first heard of the Ice Gulch from Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., of -Boston. Some years ago in the middle of July, he found ice plentiful in -the second chamber. He thought the Gulch only a refrigerator. - -The Gulch lies between Crescent and Black Mountains. The altitude of -the upper end of the Gulch is something over eight hundred meters, -that of the lower end about six hundred meters. It is some fifteen -hundred meters long, and averages perhaps one hundred meters in width -at the top, and only a few meters at the bottom. The depth may be about -seventy-five meters and the sides are steep, in some places sheer. -The bottom is a mass of broken, fallen rocks, with a good many trees -growing among them. There are several steps, so to speak, in the Gulch, -which are called chambers, although the term seems rather meaningless. -Promenading through the bottom of the Gulch was fraught with -difficulty, because the rocks were placed in most unsuitable positions -for human progression, and my hands were certainly as useful to me as -my feet in preserving equilibrium. We found ice in one or two places, -but not in any great quantity. In one spot it was overlaid by water. My -guide said that there was less ice than the year before. A large piece -which we broke off, and which furnished us with a cooling morsel of -frozen fluid, was full of air bubbles. It was not prismatic ice, and -was certainly unusual in formation. It crunched up under the teeth and, -although it did not look like solidified snow, yet, judging from its -position among the boulders, it was doubtless formed from the melting -and refreezing of snow.[9] My guide said he had heard that fresh ice -began to form sometimes in September. The Gulch is well protected -against wind, and I detected no draughts among the rocks. Except in the -immediate vicinity of the ice, the temperature was not abnormally low. - -[9] On the 17th of February, 1899, four days after the greatest snow -storm in Philadelphia in many years, I noticed that the snow on my -roof solidified slowly into a mass of ice which contained a good -many air-bubbles. It strikingly resembled the ice of the Ice Gulch, -only that it was more solid and did not have more than half as many -air-bubbles. - -On returning to the Mount Crescent House, I had a talk with Mr. Charles -E. Lowe, Sr., who told me that Alpine plants, like those which grow on -Mount Washington and Mount Adams, are found in the Gulch; but that they -do not exist on the neighboring Black and Crescent Mountains. He said -also that ice was present in more than one place in King's Ravine, and -that it was always there. - - -FREEZING BOULDER TALUS AT RUMNEY. - -About three kilometers south of Rumney, New Hampshire, there is a hill -called Bald Mountain, which, about three hundred meters west of the -carriage road from Rumney to Plymouth, descends as a big cliff, with -an exposure facing nearly southeast. At the base of this cliff, there -is a talus[10] which I visited on the 27th of August, 1898, with the -Sheriff of Rumney, Mr. Learned. He said he had found plenty of ice -there on the 18th of August, 1897, but he doubted whether there would -be any left this year, on account of the hot weather. Effectively a -careful hunt failed to reveal any ice, although the talus was just -the kind of place where it might have been expected, as the boulders -were piled one over the other and in one or two places there were -considerable hollows. The temperatures were normal, and there were -no draughts. The talus is exposed to the sun, and only moderately -sheltered against wind by a scrub forest. But there can be no doubt, -that ice lingers there long after it has disappeared from every other -spot in the neighborhood, and it seems as if our not finding any, is -another proof that it is the heat of summer which melts it away. - -[10] Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., wrote me about this place, where he had -found ice plentiful some years ago in August, within two or three -meters from the outside: he considered it only a refrigerator. - - -ICE FORMATIONS AND WINDHOLES AT WATERTOWN. - -At Watertown, New York, on the south side of the Black River, in the -town itself, are some natural cracks or crevices in the limestone -rocks. They are only a short distance from the New York Central -Railroad station. The cracks enter the northern side of the railroad -embankment, pass under the railroad tracks, and extend some distance -back. In front of them are four cellars, used for storing beer kegs. -The lessor, Mr. Ehrlicher, obligingly had the cellars opened for me, on -the 12th of September, 1898. There was neither ice nor draughts in the -cellars, and the temperature was normal. Mr. Ehrlicher said that in the -spring there was ice in the cracks, but that it had all melted away as -the result of the hot summer. - -[Illustration: THE BLUFF AT DECORAH. - - From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik. -] - -About four kilometers west of Watertown, on the south bank of the Black -River, is the picnic ground of Glen Park, which is reached by trolley. -The manager of the restaurant walked around the park with me. In one -spot is a hollow or glen at the base of a small, much cracked limestone -cliff, which has a northern exposure. The manager said that snow and -ice usually lies in this place until June, not only among the broken -rocks, but even in the open. Sometimes ice remains among the boulders -all summer, but only near the front of the boulders, and by pushing -in, one soon gets beyond it: we found none, a fact showing once more -the effect of the unusually warm summer. On hot days, draughts issue -from between the boulders, but as the day was cool, we did not notice -any. The spot is well sheltered against the wind by a number of trees; -and the shape of the hollow reminded me of the glen in front of the -Eishoehle bei Roth. - -Not one hundred meters from this hollow, is a little limestone cave, -closed by a wooden door, which excludes any cold air in winter. -The cave is lighted by electric lights, and is a narrow, crooked, -descending fissure, a _ganghoehle_, where the marks of water action are -plainly visible. At the bottom a little stream, evidently the active -agent in forming the cave, ran through the fissured limestone. In the -stream a large toad or frog was swimming about. There was nothing icy -about the cave or the water, and the temperature was normal. Ice was -never known to form in the cave. These two places, so close together, -are an interesting confirmation that it is only where the outside cold -can get in, that we find subterranean ice. - - -THE FREEZING CAVE AND FREEZING WELLS OF DECORAH. - -Near Decorah, Iowa, is a freezing cavern, which is more frequently -referred to in cave literature than is generally the case. I visited it -on Friday, September the 30th, 1898, with an old English resident of -Decorah, Mr. W. D. Selby-Hill. The cave is situated about one kilometer -to the northward of Decorah, on the north bank of the Upper Iowa River, -at the base of a bluff. It is some thirty to forty meters above the -stream, and faces southward. It looks like a fault or fissure in the -rocks, with the sides meeting a few meters overhead. It is a true -cave, but probably in an early stage of formation, for there are no -apparent traces of water action, nor any stalagmites nor stalactites. -The absence of the latter may, however, be due to the fact that it is a -periodic glaciere. The rock is a white limestone, rich in fossils. The -cave is some two to three meters in width and is rather winding, with a -short arm or pocket branching out on the west side. The main cave runs -back some thirty meters from the entrance. In one place it is necessary -to stoop, to get past some overhanging rock slabs. By candle light, we -went to the rear of the cave, and found it warm, dry, and free from -ice. There were no draughts, possibly because the day was cool. - -[Illustration: ENTRANCE OF THE CAVE OF DECORAH. - - From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik. -] - -I looked in vain for _tubular fissures_, or indeed any fissures, -through which _water might freeze by pressure in its descent_, as the -believers in the capillary theory say it does. Nothing of the kind -existed, and I wrote in my note-book: "Writing on the very spot about -which this theory was started, I feel justified in asserting that the -theory amounts to absolutely nothing and is entirely incorrect." - -Mr. Hill told me that there were two wells in the southern portion of -Decorah Township, where ice was found in summer. I visited them both, -but found no ice, and the temperatures normal. Mr. Hill said that one -of the wells was dug about thirty years ago, and that the workman told -him that the ground which he went through was frozen; and that at one -place he struck an opening, from which came so strong a current of icy -air, that it was hard to keep at work. - -I talked to several persons afterwards. _Inter alia_, they told me that -the bluff was a great place for rattlesnakes, sometimes big ones. They -admitted also generally that they were puzzled about the formation of -ice in the cave. Some claimed that the ice formed in summer--the old -story once more. I met, however, Mr. Alois F. Kovarik of the Decorah -Institute, who had made a series of regular observations for over a -year and found that the ice begins to form about the end of March and -beginning of April, and is at its maximum towards the beginning of -June. Mr. Kovarik also told me, that he had found ice in one of the -wells in the beginning of August. - -This was an especially satisfactory trip to me, for it did away, once -for all, with any possible belief that there was any basis of fact for -the capillary theory. It also seems to me important to find that the -ice of these freezing wells melts in summer. For it shows that their -ice is due to the same causes as those which form the ice in the cave, -and is another proof against the validity of the glacial period theory. - - -FREEZING ROCK TALUS ON SPRUCE CREEK. - -On Spruce Creek, Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania, about four kilometers -north of the Pennsylvania Railroad depot, is an ice bearing talus, -known locally as the Ice Holes or Ice Caves. I visited this spot, on -October the 5th, 1898, with Mr. Benner, of Spruce Creek. We walked -up the pretty valley along the old Pittsburgh turnpike, at one place -finding some papaw trees, whose fruit had a horrible sickening taste; -then we crossed Spruce Creek by a footbridge and followed the other -bank back for some five hundred meters, until we were nearly opposite -the old Colerain Forge, which is located in a piece of land called by -the curious name of Africa. About half way from the bridge we smelt -a strange odor, which my companion thought came from a copperhead or -rattlesnake: we did not investigate. - -[Illustration: LOCUS GLACIALIS--CAVE OF DECORAH. - - From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik. -] - -The freezing talus is situated at the foot of Tussey Mountain: it is -big, and is composed of small sandstone (?) rock debris. The talus is -at least thirty meters high and one hundred and twenty meters long. -As I stood at the bottom, I was reminded strongly of the talus at the -Dornburg. At the base were a number of small pits, evidently dug by -man. From the interstices between the rocks, icy cold draughts issued -in some places, and there was no doubt that there was plenty of ice -beneath the stones. In one place we thought we could see ice, and I -poked at the white substance with my stick, but I am not positive -that it was ice. All over the talus, the temperature was strikingly -colder than a few meters away, and in the pits we could see our breaths -distinctly. Although I am not much of a botanist, yet it seemed to me -that the flora immediately near the talus was somewhat different in -character from that of the surrounding country. - -Mr. Benner told me that he saw, three or four weeks before, plenty of -ice in the pits; that they were made by farmers who formerly came to -this spot to get ice; and that parties occasionally picnic here in the -summer and make ice cream. He stated also that he saw, some years ago, -a small cave or hole containing ice near Mapleton, Pennsylvania, but -that it was destroyed by quarrying the rock away. - - -FREEZING GORGE NEAR ELLENVILLE. - -On Sunday, October the 9th, 1898, with a young man from Ellenville, -I visited the well known Ellenville Gorge, in the Shawangunk Range, -Ulster County, New York. We left the hotel at eight-forty A. M. and -reached the gorge, known locally as the Ice Cave, at ten-five A. M. -It is about four kilometers northeast from Ellenville. The path rises -steadily uphill and is of the roughest description; it is covered with -loose stones, and looks as if it might become the bed of a mountain -brook in wet weather. - -I call this place a gorge, instead of a cave, because it is uncovered -at the top, but probably originally it was covered. It is shaped like -a pit cave minus a roof, and it reminded me of the Friedrichsteiner -Eishoehle, and the Glacieres de Saint-Georges and du Pre de -Saint-Livres. It is entered by a long slope from the western end, the -gorge turning northward further back. I estimated its width, at the -bottom at some five to seven meters, at the top at some three to four -meters; its length at some thirty meters and the deepest point we -reached, at some twenty meters below the surface. These are guesses, -however. In one place, a great rock slab overhangs the gorge. At nearly -the lowest point of the rock floor, there is a hole which extends -perpendicularly downwards some five or ten meters more; this opening -is partly blocked up with fallen masses of rock which would make a -further descent perilous. The north end of the gorge is also filled up -with a mass of great broken rocks; in fact, the whole place is out of -repair, as the rocks are cracked and creviced on both sides to a great -extent. The rock is friable and seems to be all breaking up, or rather -down, and I think there is some danger from falling stones, although -I did not see any fall. There is a good deal of moss on the sides of -the gorge, and on some ledges small evergreens are growing. The gorge -is sheltered thoroughly from winds by its formation and position, and -somewhat by the scrub forest surrounding it. There are several long, -deep crevices a few meters further up the mountain side, and I think -one of them is an extension of the main gorge. - -[Illustration: GORGE AT ELLENVILLE. - - From a Photograph by Mr. Davis. -] - -We found no ice. It generally lasts till about the beginning of -September; and Professor Angelo Heilprin, and Miss Julia L. Lewis, of -Philadelphia, have found plenty of it in July and August. But the ice -had evidently now been gone for some time, for the temperature at the -bottom of the gorge was about 11 deg. C. at ten-thirty A. M. This was but -little colder than the temperature v outside, which at ten-fifteen A. -M. was 14 deg. C. - -On returning to Ellenville, I learnt that there was another somewhat -similar smaller gorge, some eight kilometers away, at a place called -Sam's Point. This, however, is said to retain only snow, while in the -Ellenville gorge much ice is sometimes formed, and icicles a couple of -meters long are said to hang on the sides of the cliffs. The proprietor -of the hotel told me he had heard of a cave which contained ice not far -from Albany, at a place called Carlisle, on the Delaware and Hudson -Railroad. - - -FREEZING CAVE AND WINDHOLES NEAR FARRANDSVILLE. - -I arrived at Farrandsville, Clinton County, Pennsylvania, early on -Tuesday morning, October the 11th, 1898, and found a boy, who worked -in a brick mill, as guide to the caves.[11] After emptying a small, -flat bottomed boat of the water of which it was half full, we rowed -across the Susquehanna River; then we walked up the road, along the -river bank, for a couple of hundred meters, and struck up the so-called -path to the caves. Although the whole of the mountain side was at the -disposal of the road maker, no better plan seems to have suggested -itself than to make the track go straight up. This saved making -zigzags, yet the result is that the path is steep, and as it is rocky -and slippery, it is hard travelling without bootnails or alpenstock. - -[11] I learned of this cave from Mr. Eugene F. McCabe, of Renovo, -Pennsylvania. Mr. McCabe took out large pieces of ice from it in the -month of August. On December 23d, 1896, he found no ice inside the -cave, but a hoar frost covered the rocks; the temperature outside -was -5.6 deg.; inside -4.5 deg.: the day was clear and there was no breeze; -several matches lighted in the cave were almost instantly blown out by -a current of air coming from crevices in the rocks. - -Mr. Ira C. Chatham, postmaster at Farrandsville, wrote to me on the -19th of October, 1898, as follows: "Your paper on Ice Caves [Journal -of the Franklin Institute, March, 1897] at pp. 177 and 178 describes -the Farrandsville Cave as near as is possible, as the ice forms in the -spring from the snow melting and dropping through the rocks into the -cave, and the rocks face directly north as stated." - -As we went up, I noticed, in one or two places, cold draughts issuing -from crevices in the rocks. We soon came to a hollow under a rock, -where there were a number of cracks and crevices: the boy spoke of it -as the lower cave. It is some sixty meters above the Susquehanna River -and cold draughts flowed from the cracks, although we saw no ice. The -cave was about twenty meters higher up. One could crawl into it for -a couple of meters, and all round it the rocks are somewhat creviced; -in fact, I think there are a good many cracks in the entire hill. -There was no ice in sight in this hole, but a strong, cold draught -poured from it. After an exposure of fifteen minutes the thermometer -registered 6 deg. C.; while outside, in the shade, it stood at 15 deg. C. This -decidedly sub-normal temperature proved unmistakably, in my opinion, -the presence of ice a little further than we could see in. Both holes -face about north and are sheltered, by their position and by the sparse -forest which covers the ridge, against all winds except those from the -north. - -I talked to the postmaster and the railroad agent at Farrandsville -on my return, and they stated that there was no ice in the hole in -winter, but that it formed about April and remained over until towards -September, showing that the cave is a normal glaciere on a small scale. - - -GLACIERES NEAR SUMMIT. - -In the search for coal, the mountains of the Appalachian Chain between -the little town of Summit, and the neighboring village of Coaldale, -Carbon County, Pennsylvania, were mined and tunneled in every -direction. Owing to the caving in of some of these mines, depressions -formed in certain places along the ridge in the upper surface of the -ground, and in two of these hollows natural refrigerators occur. These -were brought to my notice by Mr. C. J. Nicholson of Philadelphia, and I -visited them on May the 5th, 1899, in company with two coal miners of -Summit. - -Starting from Summit, we passed across some rough ground under which -there was a mine on fire; and the miners showed me the tops of two -pipes sticking out of the ground, from which issued a smoke or steam, -too hot to hold the hand in more than a few seconds. Going beyond -through brushwood, for a couple of hundred meters, we came to the -first glaciere, which was also the nearest to Summit. It faced almost -due north and looked as if it was formerly the entrance to a mine. It -was fairly big, and my companions assured me that, until within about -a year, ice was always found in it. Recently, however, part, of the -rock roof fell in, blocking up the entrance with a mass of debris and -making it unsafe to venture in. Formerly parties of tourists constantly -visited this place, after coming over the Switchback, but this is no -longer done and there has been some talk of cleaning away the broken -rocks and making the glaciere accessible. The men also said that -occasionally people living in the neighborhood had dug out the ice for -their own use. - -The other glaciere was a short distance further, in the direction of -Coaldale. It is in a pit, which may have been the mouth of a disused -shaft or only a depression resulting from a cave-in. A scrubby forest, -which surrounds the hollow, acts as a windbrake. A rather steep slope -leads down into the pit, and at the end passes under the wall of rock -of the opposite side for a short distance, forming a small cave, which -faces almost due south and whose floor is choked up with broken rock -fragments. At the bottom of the slope we found some snow, and among -the boulders a good deal of snow-ice as well as several long icicles -hanging from the rocks. All the ice and snow lay on the north side of -the rocks, or underneath them, so that it was in shady places where the -sun could not reach it. The temperature was not at all uncomfortable, -although somewhat cool and damp. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9. Vertical Section of Pit near Summit.] - -There was nothing in either glaciere, to show that the ice was formed -from any other cause than the drifting in, and melting and refreezing -of the winter's snow; and my impression is that the ice in the second -glaciere could not last through the summer. - - -THE SNOW HOLE NEAR WILLIAMSTOWN. - -The Snow Hole near Williamstown (Massachusetts) is situated near the -northern end of the Petersburgh Mountain of the Taghconic Range; it is -slightly below the watershed on the Williamstown side, at an altitude -of about seven hundred meters. The Snow Hole is in the State of New -York, near the boundary between New York and Massachusetts. It is a -long two hours' drive from Williamstown, the last four kilometers -or so, over an exceedingly steep and rough road, which is, in fact, -nothing but an old logging road, and the worst I ever drove over except -the road to Demenyfalva. - -I visited the Snow Hole with my brother on Friday, September the 29th, -1899. It is surrounded by a dense forest, mainly of recent growth, -which thoroughly shelters it from all winds. In shape and appearance -it resembles the Gorge at Ellenville, except that it is smaller: its -location on the ridge is not unlike that of the Friedrichsteiner -Eishoehle. It is a narrow crack--or cave minus a roof--about fifteen -meters long, six to seven meters deep and from two to five meters wide. -It faces nearly north, and the bottom is in perpetual shadow. From the -northern end, a gentle slope leads to the rear. The slope was a good -deal blocked up by a big tree with large branches, which had fallen -directly into the fissure. There was some moss or greenish mould on -the rocks in places, and at the rear end of the slope there were -some fissures in the rocks, into which one might perhaps have crawled -a little farther, which formed a tiny cave. There was also a similar -incipient cave at the northern end. I could not detect any draughts -issuing from these rock fissures, and the air throughout was still, -although the wind was blowing hard on the ridge. The rocks were moist -in places and the air damp, but there was neither snow nor ice and the -temperatures were normal. The driver told me that he had found plenty -of snow in the base of the gorge some years ago in July; and he said -that he had always heard that snow was found in the Snow Hole all the -year round. All the conditions of the place, the shape of the fissure, -and its sheltered northern exposition, are favorable to the retention -of ice and snow, and it is not surprising that they remain over every -spring. - - -ICY GULF NEAR GREAT BARRINGTON. - -The Icy Gulf or Icy Glen is some eight kilometers from Great -Barrington, Massachusetts. I have not been in it, but was told in -October, 1899, by the farmers living near by, that after snowy winters, -ice remains over through July. It must be similar to the Icy Glen at -Stockbridge. - - -THE ICE BED OF WALLINGFORD. - -The Ice Bed of Wallingford is situated about three kilometers to the -east of Wallingford, Vermont. A drive of half an hour, over the Mount -Holly and Hearburrow roads, takes the visitor to the entrance of a -rough wood path, which, at a distance of three or four hundred meters, -leads to the Ice Bed. This is a huge talus, at the base of the White -Rock Mountain, whose cliffs rise steeply overhead for some three or -four hundred meters. The talus, which was doubtless formed by a great -slide at some distant date, consists of granite boulders, some of which -are big ones. The ice-bearing portion may be some thirty or forty -meters high vertically. It lies in a sort of gully or rock basin, and -at the top is about thirty meters broad, tapering to a point at the -bottom. The talus faces southward, and during a good part of the day -the sun shines full upon it. A thin forest fringes the sides and grows -round the bottom, but this can afford but little protection from the -winds, especially to those from the south. - -I visited this place on the 5th of October, 1899. There was a distinct -drop in temperature as we neared the base of the talus, and a cool air -drew gently down over the rocks. I think slight draughts issued from -some of the crevices; but of this I am not sure. The temperature was -sub-normal, about 8 deg., but hardly low enough to prove the presence of -ice, although we could see our breaths distinctly. We looked carefully -under a number of the boulders, but neither ice nor snow was visible. -I was assured that ice was abundant there in the past July and August, -and I should think it had melted away only shortly before my visit. My -impression is, that this is a periodic glaciere. - - -CAVES NEAR WILLIAMSTOWN. - -On the eastern slope of the Petersburgh Mountain of the Taghconic Range -in Massachusetts, at a good deal lower altitude than the Williamstown -Snow Hole and about southeast of it are some caverns, which are but -little known. A five or six kilometer drive from Williamstown takes the -visitor to the base of the mountain, whence a rather steep ascent of -about a kilometer and a half brings him to the caves, which are in the -midst of a dense, scrub forest. - -The caves were first entered, and possibly discovered, by Mr. W. F. -Williams, of Williamstown, when a boy. Since then, he has visited them -many times and explored them a good deal. They do not appear to have -any name as yet, and it would seem only fitting to christen them after -their explorer: the Williams Caves. - -There are several unimportant holes in the immediate neighborhood of -the two main caves. The latter lie side by side. The rock formation is -the same as that of the Snow Hole, a dark gray slate with a few veins -of quartz, and they are due also evidently to the same geological -causes. It would seem as though the mountain had tended to open or -crack at these spots and fallen apart. This seems probable, because -wherever there is a projection on one side of the cracks, there is a -corresponding hollow in the opposite side. After this, water action has -come, and erosion and corrosion have worn out and carried away earthy -matter, and slowly deepened and widened the fissures. The remarkable -point in connection with the main caves, however, is that one is a -normal cave and the other a periodic glaciere. - -I went with Mr. Williams to these caves on the 6th of October, 1899, -and partially explored the glaciere. On the way up, just as we left the -carriage road, a fine, three-year-old buck, in his winter coat, came -bounding out of the forest; on seeing us he stopped, and after taking a -good look, quietly trotted off into the bushes. - -The glaciere is rather peculiar in shape and may be described as two -storied. A long slope, set at an angle of some forty degrees, and -covered with mud and dead leaves, leads down into the crack, which -is from one to three meters in width. The first half of the slope is -open to the sky; the last half is covered by the rock roof, and is a -real cave. In this the floor is horizontal, the place forming a little -chamber in which the daylight has almost vanished. At the exact summit -of the slope a big tree grew most conveniently; and we tied to this one -end of a twenty-meter Austrian Alpine Club rope, and by holding fast -to it, and kneeling or sitting down in the mud in two or three places, -the descent was easy enough. It was rather difficult to scramble up the -slope again, however. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10. Vertical Section of Freezing Cave near -Williamstown.] - -In the floor of the little chamber there are two holes, and, stepping -over these, we stood at the rear end, about eighteen meters distant -from the beginning of the slope. My companion now set some birchbark -on fire and dropped it into the innermost hole, and we laid down in -turn, flat on the rock floor, and craned our necks through the hole. -Mr. Williams thought he could see ice below us. I looked down after -him and found that I was looking into a lower chamber whose sides were -invisible. The floor was some three meters below vertically, and on -this the birchbark was burning brightly. I think I saw some ice, but -I could not be sure, as there was too much smoke to see distinctly. -My companion offered to go down through the hole and get some ice; a -proposition I promptly vetoed, as had anything gone wrong, I could not -possibly have given him any assistance, as there was no extra rope. -Mr. Williams told me that he went down several times before in July or -August, and always found ice on the slanting floor. He said he did not -know how far this lower chamber extended, nor the length of the ice -floor. One thing which makes me hesitate to think that we saw ice was, -that the temperature of the chamber where we were was not at all icy; -but probably--I had forgotten my thermometer--nearly normal. - -When we stood once more by the tree at the top of the slope, the mouth -of another cave was visible about two meters below us. Mr. Williams -said it had never looked more than a little crack before, and that the -opening was much bigger than at his last visit. It was directly under -the slope by which we descended and it vanished into darkness. Its -direction led straight towards the lower chamber, and it almost surely -leads to it. It seems thus that there are two hollows, one directly -above the other; and that the lower one is a glaciere, while the upper -one is not. The cold air of winter would naturally sink into the lower -chamber, and the spring thaws would furnish plenty of drip, so that -this place seems to answer every requirement of a cave glaciere. - -But the most interesting fact about these caves is that, while the -shallower one is a glaciere, the bigger and deeper one is not. This -is situated about ten meters north of the glaciere and the direction -of the entrance is about the same. Mr. Williams has found snow and -ice in May in the entrance pit as far as the daylight goes, but none -beyond. I am inclined to think that the explanation of this is the fact -that the cave is a _ganghoehle_ or tunnel cave. Mr. Williams described -it as a narrow passage with chambers, and at least a hundred meters -long, and fifty meters in depth below the surface. The cold air sinks -in a certain distance, but as the passage is narrow and long, and too -winding for any strong draughts, the cold air which enters is soon -neutralized by the supply of warmer air within and by contact with the -rocks. I cannot help thinking that it is by some such explanation that -we must hope to solve the problem of why certain caves are glacieres -and others in the immediate neighborhood normal caves; and the caves -near Williamstown are exceptional in presenting the problem so -patently. - - - - -PART II. - -THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. - - - - -THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. - - - - -I. - - -_Terminology._--Ice enduring the entire year is found, in temperate -latitudes, in a variety of forms and in several different kinds of -places. In some cases it is entirely above the surface of the earth; -in others it is entirely beneath the surface of the earth. These are -the extremes, and between them there are certain intermediate forms. -The perennial ice above ground of temperate regions has gradually -become known in English by the French word _glacier_, but strange to -say, there is no term in use in English which accurately describes the -perennial ice formations which are partially or completely underground. -Thus the term "ice cave" is applied to a rock cavern containing ice, -and the term "ice gorge" to a rock gorge containing ice. Both terms -are misleading, because the character of the contents is mentioned -before the nature of the geological formation. We say correctly enough -"limestone cave" or "lava cave" and, in my opinion, we should apply the -term "ice cave" in a similar manner to the hollows in the ice at the -lower end of glaciers, whence the glacier waters make their exit. These -are really "ice caves," that is caves with sides and roof made of ice. -Another trouble of the term "ice cave," as applied to rock formations -containing ice, is that it is not generic: not only is it incorrect, -but also it is not comprehensive. It does not apply to mines, tunnels, -wells, gullies, boulder taluses, or underground ice sheets. If "ice -cave" is used, except in its true sense of glacier ice cave, it seems -at least as though it should be so only for real caves which retain -ice, as opposed to taluses and wells. Curiously enough, the Germans -are just as inaccurate as ourselves, for their terms _eishoehle_ -and _eisloch_ are absolute translations of our "ice cave" and "ice -hole." Indeed, there is no doubt that some of the incorrect notions -about subterranean ice formations, are due to the inaccuracy of the -terminology. - -The only language, so far as I know, which has a correct and really -generic term for subterranean ice formations, is the French in its word -_glaciere_. The French and Swiss say _glacieres naturelles_ of ice -deposits formed naturally underground; and _glacieres artificielles_ -of ice houses. _Glaciere naturelle_ is comprehensive and accurate. It -covers all the rock formations and suggests also the mode of formation -of the ice. It likewise implies the strong resemblance between natural -ice deposits and artificial ice houses. It might be well, therefore, -if the French term _glaciere_ were adopted as a generic term for all -underground ice formations. As, however, there is little likelihood of -this happening, the question arises as to the best English equivalent -or equivalents. These seem to be "freezing cavern, freezing talus," -etc., "natural refrigerator" or "subterranean ice formation." "Natural -refrigerator" and "subterranean ice formation" are more generic than -"freezing cavern, freezing well," etc.; but the latter have the -advantage of suggesting immediately that reference is made to the -hollows of the earth which at times contain ice; and, therefore, they -are the best terms, perhaps, which can be chosen in English. - -Another point in the terminology of this subject has reference to -subterranean hollows where draughts issue or enter. Such hollows are -found in all parts of the world and are known usually in English as -"blowing caves" or "cold current caves." The Germans speak of them as -_windroehren_ or _windloecher_. In my first paper about caves,[12] I -used the word "windhole" which I translated from the German. The term -"windhole" seems to me preferable to "blowing cave" or "cold current -cave" in that it is more generic. It applies to taluses or boulder -heaps, or in fact, to any hollows where draughts issue or enter, -whether these hollows are genuine caverns or not. - -[12] _Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean Ice_, November 1896, and -March 1897. - -It is necessary also to explain here that "glaciere" and "windhole" are -not synonymous terms. It must be understood that a glaciere or natural -refrigerator is a place where ice forms and endures in a subterranean -or semi-subterranean situation; and that _the presence of ice_ is the -criterion of whether a place is or is not a glaciere. Likewise it must -be understood that a windhole or blowing cave is an underground hollow -with at least two openings, and in which distinct draughts occur; and -that the _presence of draughts_ is necessary to constitute a place -a windhole or blowing cave. A freezing cavern may or may not be a -windhole, and a windhole may or may not be a freezing cavern. - - -_Temperatures._--The phenomena of glacieres are so closely connected -with temperatures that it seems necessary at this point to mention -some general facts in connection with subterranean temperatures, even -if these still form a subject of some uncertainty, and one about -which further observation is desirable. Subterranean temperatures may -be grouped under three heads: 1, Ordinary or normal temperatures; -2, Temperatures above the normal or super-normal temperatures; 3, -Temperatures below the normal or sub-normal temperatures. - -1. In the great majority of caves, cellars and subterranean places -of all descriptions, the temperature of the air is about the same, -all the year round, as that of the ground. The frost of winter and -the heat of summer penetrate the earth for some trivial distance, a -few meters perhaps, and lower or raise the temperature of the ground -temporarily. Below this there is a stratum where the temperature is -found to vary but little the entire year and which, in a majority -of cases, approximates the mean annual temperature of the district. -Below this invariable stratum, the temperature generally rises -slowly, not at exactly the same rate everywhere, but in a regular -increase. This increase of temperature averages 1 deg. C. for every 32 -meters. As most caves and cellars are of small depth and as they take -their temperatures from that of the ground, it follows that as a rule -their temperatures are moderate and pleasant. And as the air of the -majority of caves and subterranean hollows is about the same as the -temperature of the surrounding rock, it is correct to call subterranean -air temperatures closely approximating the ordinary temperature of the -ground, ordinary or normal temperatures. - -As already stated, with an increase of depth, there is, in almost all -cases, a regular increase of temperature. For this reason, mines, which -are much the deepest hollows reached by man in the surface of the -earth, are, as a rule, warmer in the lower levels: if deep, they are -also hot. And this is so generally the case that warmer temperatures at -the bottom of mines may be considered as normal. - -2. In a few hollows close to the surface, there are temperatures much -above the normal temperature of the ground. Such places are rare and -abnormal.[13] The heat is generally due to the presence of hot springs -or to some volcanic action in the immediate neighborhood. In the case -of one cave close to the surface, the heat is due to some limekilns -which are situated immediately overhead.[14] Where these warm hollows -are genuine caves it seems proper to call them "hot caves." - -[13] Kraus. _Hoehlenkunde_, page 86. - -[14] Grotte du Jaur. _Les Abimes_, page 160. - -3. In a number of places, there are abnormally low temperatures -underground either for the whole or only for part of the year. -Although commoner than hot caves, yet the underground places with low -temperatures are also rare and abnormal. They may be divided into two -groups: 1, Those where the temperatures are lower than the normal, -without becoming low enough for ice to form; and 2, Those where the -temperature sinks so low, that ice forms. - - -It is difficult to make definite divisions among the various forms of -natural refrigerators, but it is correct, probably, to classify them -under five heads, in accordance with the different kinds of formations -of the hollows in the rocks: - -1. Gullies, gorges, and troughs where ice and snow remain. - -2. Soil or rocks overlaying ice sheets. - -3. Taluses and boulder heaps retaining ice. - -4. Wells, mines and tunnels in which ice sometimes forms. - -5. Caves with abnormally low temperatures, and often containing ice. - - -1. _Gorges and Troughs._--Gullies, gorges and basins which retain snow -and ice are fairly numerous in mountain districts. They are generally -ravines, or rock fissures, or hollows, in positions below the snow line -where snow and ice are sufficiently protected, from sun and wind, to -remain long after snow in the surrounding open country, at the same -altitude, has melted away. Some of these gorges are small, some big. As -a rule, they are deep and narrow. - -In north-eastern Siberia, a form of permanent surface ice is found, -which the Tungusses speak of as _tarinnen_, which means "ice troughs" -or "ice valleys."[15] These _tarinnen_ are broad valleys, with either -a horizontal floor or one sloping gently in the form of a trough, over -which the ice is spread in the form of a sheet. The Tungusses assert -that the ice in some of these troughs never wholly melts away, although -it lessens in quantity from the beginning of May till the end of -August, after which it once more increases. - -[15] _Bulletin de la classe physico-mathematique de l'Academie -Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg._ 1853. Vol. XI, pages -305-316. - - -_Subterranean Ice Sheets._--In several places in different parts of -the world there are underground ice sheets which extend over large -spaces; they are common under the tundras of Alaska; and there are fine -examples on Kotzebue Sound,[16] on the Kowak River,[17] and along the -Yukon River.[18] The "Ice Spring" in Oregon seems to be a formation of -the same kind. Several examples of these subterranean ice sheets are -reported also from different parts of the Russian Empire. - -[16] See Part III: page 167. - -[17] See Part III: page 167. - -[18] See Part III: page 166. - -A somewhat different kind of ice sheet was observed on Mount Etna. Sir -Charles Lyell[19] speaks of it as a "glacier preserved by a covering -of lava." He says Signor Mario Gemmellaro satisfied himself that -nothing but a flowing of lava over snow could account for the position -of the glacier. Ice sheets somewhat similar to these are reported -from Tierra del Fuego,[20] and probably also such sheets occur in -Iceland; and enormous heaps of ice covered with sand are found on Mount -Chimborazo.[21] On the northwestern coast of Greenland, glaciers, whose -flow has stopped, were observed buried under an accumulation of moss -and grass.[22] - -[19] _Principles of Geology_, 11th Edition, Chap. XXVI. - -[20] See Part III: page 190. - -[21] See Part III: page 189. - -[22] See Part III: page 165. - - -_Taluses and Boulder Heaps._--Taluses and broken debris, and in general -boulder heaps of all sorts, have interstices and openings between the -boulders, and in these it occasionally happens that ice is found. This -is most common among the taluses at the base of cliffs, but in some -cases ice is found among broken rocks on the sides of gently sloping -hills, or even on the plateaus of their summits. Sometimes the ice -and snow on the bottom of rock gorges all melts away, while further -down, in the hollows of the boulders forming the floor, ice still -remains. The rocks of which these ice bearing taluses are formed are -generally gneiss, granite, limestone, sandstone, basalt or porphyry. -Among such boulder taluses the phenomenon designated as _Windroehren_ -or _Ventarolen_, that is, windholes, is frequently found. Sometimes -the air among such boulder formations is quiet, but as a general thing -draughts pour out at the lower openings during the hot months, and blow -into them during the cold ones. - - -_Freezing Wells, Mines and Tunnels._--Subterranean ice is also found in -certain places in connection with man's handiwork. In a few wells in -the United States, the temperature in winter becomes abnormally low, -and for four or five months these wells freeze up and become useless. -A case of a freezing well was recently observed near la Ferte Milon in -Central France.[23] Ice is reported also as forming in various mines in -Europe, Asia and America; in fact, it is not an uncommon occurrence. -Occasionally, also, ice forms in tunnels. - -[23] See Part I.: pages 74, 79, 89. Part III.: page 206. - - -_Cold Caves._--Caves with abnormally low temperatures may be divided -into two classes. First, caves where the temperatures are lower than -the normal, without becoming low enough for ice to form; and second, -caves where the temperatures sink so low, that ice forms. - -Caves where the temperatures sink below the normal, but in which ice -does not form either in winter or in summer, are found in several -places in different parts of the world. They are termed in French -_cavernes froides_ and in German _kalte hoehlen_. There are but few data -from reliable observers about such cold caves. Some descriptions are -given without thermometric measurements, and the statements that the -caves are cold, mean nothing beyond the fact that they feel colder than -the outside air. It is, however, conclusively proved that cold caves -exist, and that while they are not freezing caverns, yet that they have -a temperature lower than the mean annual temperature of their district. -In fact, the assumption, which had passed into an axiom, that caves -always have the same temperatures as the mean annual temperature of -the district, must certainly be given up. Cold caves are generally in -one of two shapes: 1, in the shape of a sand glass,--two cones above -each other meeting at the narrowest point--where the upper cone lets -the heavy cold air descend easily, while the lower bell shaped cone -prevents its escape; and 2, where two sink holes open into one pit, -which is in the shape of a bell.[24] - -[24] _Les Abimes_, page 563. - - -_Glaciere Caves or Freezing Caves._--Caves where the temperatures -sink so low that ice is able to form, are found in many different -rock formations and in various positions, shapes and sizes. The rock -formation of freezing caverns is generally limestone, but sometimes it -is marble, lava, basalt, gneiss or granite. In all cases, however, the -rock is either porous or else it is broken and fissured, as otherwise -the water supply necessary to the formation of ice could not find its -way in. - -Glaciere caverns may, for the sake of convenience, be classified into -several classes, according to their position or to their form. The -lines of transition between them, however, are so indefinite in nature, -that it is often difficult to specify a cavern as belonging to any -special type. The most important factor in classifying glaciere caves -is their position. Under this head there are two main divisions: first, -pit caves; second, cliff caves. - -Pit caves are those where a pit or pits open into the ground, and the -ice is found at the bottom. Sometimes there is no roof, when the place -may be called a gorge: this occurs at Ellenville, where the roof has -fallen. Again, the pit itself is more or less roofed over and the ice -is found mainly or wholly under the roof: this is the case at Haut -d'Aviernoz, at the Friedrichsteinerhoehle, at Saint-Livres, and at -Saint-Georges. Sometimes the pit takes the form of a descending tunnel, -leading into a hall or chamber, in which the ice lies under a rock -roof: this happens at Chaux-les-Passavant. In all these pit caves the -body of the cave is below the entrance, and most of them are fairly -well lighted by daylight throughout. Generally there is only one pit, -but occasionally there are two connected underground, as is the case at -La Genolliere. - -Cliff caves are those where the entrance is at the base or in the -side of a cliff. Frequently the cave is in the shape of a hall or -chamber, which begins directly at the entrance, and which may be large -or small. This kind always has a down slope directly from the mouth. -The Kolowratshoehle, Dobsina and the Grand Cave de Montarquis may be -mentioned as examples. In some cases there is a pit at the base of -a cliff and there is a slope leading down to the cave, somewhat in -the form of a tunnel: this is the case at Manchester and practically -also at Roth. Again there is a more or less long gallery between the -entrance and the glaciere, which is always below the level of the -entrance. The Schafloch, Demenyfalva and Decorah may be cited as -examples. As a rule the gallery slopes down from the entrance, but -sometimes the floor rises and then sinks to the glaciere. The top of -the entrance, however, is always higher than the highest point of the -floor, as otherwise the cold air could not get in. This is the case at -the Frauenmauerhoehle, and, apparently, also at the Posselthoehle. In one -case, at Amarnath in Kashmere, the floor is said to rise to the roof at -the back; but as the entrance is nearly as big as the floor area, the -ice formations must also be below the level of the top of the entrance. - -The dimensions of glaciere caves vary greatly. Some are large, others -are small. Saint Georges, a roofed pit cave, is some twenty-five -meters by twelve meters, with a depth of about twelve meters. -Chaux-les-Passavant, a cave at the end of a pit tunnel, has a diameter -of some twenty-seven meters. The measures of Dobsina, a cave at the -bottom of a cliff, are given as follows: Height of roof above ice -floor, 10 to 11 meters; length 120 meters; breadth, 35 to 60 meters, -and surface about 4644 meters. The Frauenmauerhoehle is a gallery about -one hundred meters long before the ice floor is reached, and this is -some fifty meters more in length by about seven meters in width. The -glaciere cave near Frain, on the contrary, is so small that one can -only crawl in some two or three meters. In fact, glaciere caves vary in -size between great halls and little tunnels where one cannot stand up -straight. - -The entrances of glaciere caves also vary greatly in their dimensions. -For instance, the Friedrichsteinerhoehle is on one side of a huge pit -and is as large and deep as the pit. Saint Georges, on the contrary, -has, near one end of the roof, a couple of holes, some three meters in -diameter. The entrance to the Schafloch is four meters wide by four -meters seventy centimeters high, while the entrance to Roth is not over -one meter each way. - -A classification of subterranean ice formations, and one which applies -to all the different forms, is into permanent and periodic glacieres. -When in any underground spot, ice remains throughout the year, the -place may be called a permanent glaciere; when on the contrary the ice -melts away for part of the year, the place may be called a periodic -glaciere. This classification, which several observers have used -already, is convenient and valuable. - - -_Movements of Air._--Another classification of glacieres can be made -in accordance with the movements of air underground. Glacieres may be -divided into those where there are no strong draughts in summer and -those where there are draughts: or into "apparently static caves"; and -"dynamic caves" or "windholes." The first class includes those caves -where there is one or more openings close together and those above the -body of the cave. In such hollows the air in summer is nearly still, -while in winter there are distinct rotary movements of the air as -soon as the temperature outside is lower than that within. Almost all -glaciere caves belong to this class of caves without strong draughts -in summer. Sometimes, however, ice is found in hollows where there are -two or more openings, at different altitudes and at different ends of -the hollow, and where there are draughts. Occasionally, also, there are -fissures in the sides or rear of apparently static caves, which allow -something like draughts at times, as is the case at the Grand Cave de -Montarquis. - -Professor Thury of Geneva coined the terms "static cave" and "dynamic -cave" which have come largely into use since, and which practically -correspond to the German terms _eishoehle_ and _windroehre_. I do not -think the term "static cave" accurate, and prefer the term "apparently -static cave" or "cave without distinct draughts." For although there -are many caves where the air seems stagnant at times, and there are no -distinct perceptible draughts, still that the air is really stagnant -all summer appears to me doubtful, and it seems as if the movements of -air were distinctly apparent only in certain caves and not in others. -Air which is apparently stagnant is found in both pit and cliff caves -mainly in the summer months, but even in these I have noticed several -times in summer slight movements of air, especially near the entrance. -I could not exactly feel the air moving, but by lighting a cigar the -smoke could be seen borne outwards exceedingly slowly. At the entrance -of the Kolowratshoehle I think there was a faint outward current when I -was there. The day was hot and windless, and as the cold air met the -hot outside air it formed a faint cloud or mist at the mouth of the -cavern. At Saint-Georges, although the air seemed tranquil, I found -that the smoke of my cigar ascended rapidly just below the hole in the -roof, showing an ascending air current. In the double cave of Chapuis, -I found one cavern filled by a little lake over which there was a -draught.[25] - -[25] See Part IV.: Butler, page 308. - -From the few winter observations we have, there can be no doubt that in -winter the movements of the atmosphere are lively, the break in the air -column occurring as soon as the outside temperature is lower than that -within, when the outer air immediately begins to sink into the cave.[26] - -[26] See Part III.: Chaux-les-Passavant, page 203; Saint-Georges, page -220. - -If I have doubts as to the existence of absolutely static caves, it is -different about dynamic caves. When a subterranean hollow goes through -rocks, with one opening higher than the other, there will surely be -distinct draughts. These dynamic caves exist in many parts of the world -under such names as cold current caves or blowing caves or windholes. -Sometimes they are fissures in broken limestone. Often they are the -cracks between piles of boulders. A cool air generally pours from the -lower opening in summer while the cold air pours into it in winter, the -draught being then reversed. At the upper opening the operation takes -place in the opposite way, the hot air being sucked in in summer, and -given out in winter. Sometimes, however, changes take place, according -to the differences in the outside temperature, in the direction of the -air current in the course of a single day. - -The causes of the movements of air in these windholes are exceedingly -simple. The movements of air depend on the fact that in summer the air -in the tube becomes colder from contact with the rocks and, therefore, -heavier than the air outside, and by gravity the heavy inside air -displaces the lighter outside air and comes rushing out at the lower -opening. This leaves a vacuum, which is filled by the warmer air -dropping into the tube from above. In winter on the contrary, the air -within the tube is warmed by contact with the rocks and becomes lighter -than the air outside. It, therefore, rises and streams out from the -upper opening, and the vacuum is filled by the heavy cold air pushing -in at the lower opening. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11. Vertical Section of a Windhole.] - -G. F. Parrot's[27] explanation is so satisfactory that I give it with -one or two changes. He considers the air movements an ordinary statical -phenomenon of the air, in caves which have two openings at different -altitudes. Let E G D represent the section of such a cave with the -openings A and B. Let us think that there are over C and B two vertical -air columns and from B to C a horizontal air column B C; then the two -air columns over B and C are at all times of the year equal in weight. -Not so the air columns A C and A E G D B, because their temperatures -are different. Assume the temperature in the cave G is +12 deg. the whole -year round. If in summer the air column A C is at a temperature of -+25 deg., then the heavy air in the cave G pours out through A and is -replaced by air flowing in through B. If in winter the air column A -C is at a temperature of -1 deg., then the air pours with equal inverse -velocity at A into the cave, and out at B. The velocity of the current -in both cases depends on the difference of temperature within and -without. - -[27] _Grundriss der Physik der Erde und Geologie_, 1815, pages 92-99. - -The foregoing explanation makes it evident that the movements of air -in these windholes do not depend on the presence of ice. In many of -those I have examined myself there was no ice visible, and from the -temperature of the air current, there could not have been any ice -within the mountain. Still, there are numerous cases where ice is found -in windholes among boulders, and a few cases where windholes exist in -connection with apparently static glaciere caves. Undoubtedly the great -majority of windholes do not contain ice in summer, or, indeed, at any -time of the year, and, as far as I can see, windholes, according to -their temperatures, belong rather to the class of normal caves than to -that of glacieres. - - -_Forms of Ice._--Almost all the forms assumed by underground ice are -different from those assumed by overground ice. This is not surprising, -as the conditions, under which the ice is formed, are so different. -Almost all the lines of underground ice are rounded. The sharp angles -and fractures visible on glacier or iceberg are absent. Instead of -seracs and crevasses, broken ice falls, or piled up ice floes, we have -hanging stalactites and rising stalagmites, smooth ice floors and -curved ice slopes. This difference is of course due to the fact that -most subterranean ice is formed from the drip from the roof or the -sides of caves, and because the factor of motion--which plays so large -a part in the shaping by fracture of overground ice--is practically -wanting. - -The most striking forms of subterranean ice are the ice stalactites -and stalagmites. They descend from the roof as icicles or rise from it -as rough cones or pyramids. The icicles are of all sorts of shapes and -sizes: sometimes they are tiny; sometimes they grow downward till they -reach the floor and form regular columns, in some cases no less than -eleven meters in height. - -The ice stalagmites likewise are of all sorts of shapes and sizes, some -of them growing to a height of seven or eight meters. Occasionally they -have hollow bases, but this is rare. How these hollow cones are formed -is a still uncertain matter; but it is in some way by the action of -the drip. At the Kolowratshoehle I saw the drip from the roof cutting -out in July the basin, whose tall remaining sides suggested that early -in the spring it was probably a hollow cone. The cone at the Schafloch -of which I saw one half remaining, could only be accounted for by -some action from the drip.[28] The warmth of the rock floor may help -perhaps also, in melting away some of the base of the hollow columns. - -[28] See Part IV.: Thury, page 287; Browne, page 290. - -The frozen waterfalls which issue from fissures in the rock walls of -caves are another form of ice seen only below ground. For lack of a -better name, I call them fissure columns. A peculiarity of these is -that, while the rock fissure is more or less rectangular or at least -sharp angled, the ice column issues in a rounded stream. Sometimes -these fissure columns stream over the rock; sometimes they spring out -far enough from the rock to be quite away from it. They vary from about -one to five meters in height, and at the base they almost always spread -out in a shape resembling that of a fan. - -The ice on the bottom of caverns of course takes its shape from the -form and angles of the floor of the caves. If the bottom is level or -nearly so, the ice lies on it as a sheet or floor. If the bottom of the -cave is sloping, the ice follows the angles of the slope, forming an -ice slope or ice wall, and sometimes becoming nearly or quite vertical. -These ice slopes distantly resemble the portions of glaciers called -an ice fall, with the great difference, however, that there are no -crevasses, not even tiny ones. - -Occasionally, slabs of ice are found reposing in a fractured sheet over -a solid ice floor. This means that a lake has formed on this spot in -the spring, frozen over, and then run off, leaving its frozen surface -in broken pieces on top of the under ice. - -Another kind of frozen water is the hoar frost which forms on the -rock roofs and walls. This is not at all rare. It is an open question -whether this is not the same thing as that which has been described as -subterranean snow.[29] I found myself in Dobsina a small sheet of what -to look and touch was snow. I wrote of this as snow in my first paper -about glacieres[30], but I am of the opinion now that it was the hoar -frost detached from the roof and not genuine snow. - -[29] See Part III.: Ziegenloch, page 247; Creux de Souci, page 207. - -[30] _Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean Ice_, November, 1896, -and March, 1897. - -At Dobsina, also, I noticed that the ice of the ice wall of the -Korridor assumed a stratified or laminated form. Mr. John F. Lewis -of Philadelphia suggested to me that this was probably due to a -precipitation of the hoar frost from the roof, and I think his -explanation is correct. The hoar frost forming at a certain degree of -cold, would doubtless be precipitated at a rise of temperature, and -would then act much as do the different layers of snow in the upper -portion of glaciers.[31] It would consolidate gradually, layer over -layer, and form strata, producing the banded or laminated structure -visible in the vertical ice of the Dobsina Korridor. - -[31] Whymper: _Scrambles amongst the Alps_, 1871, page 426. - -The ice in caverns is sometimes found with a structure which is, I -believe, of rare occurrence above ground. This is when it takes the -shape known as prismatic ice, which means that if a lump is broken -from a column or icicle, the fracture will show regular prisms. This -phenomenon is not as yet satisfactorily accounted for; the only thing -certain about it is, that it does not occur in ice of recent formation. -From my own observations, I should say that ice became prismatic at the -end of summer; at least I have always found it in August or September -rather than in June or July.[32] - -[32] See Part IV.: Browne, page 289; Lohmann, page 303. - -Besides building up ice heaps, the drip, also, has the function of -destroying its own creations. If there are no crevasses, there are -holes and runnels. These are generally found at or leading to the -lowest point of the ice floor. Occasionally the holes are deep, -sometimes many meters in depth. They are certainly cut out by the -melting water, to which they offer an exit; in fact they are a part of -the drainage system present in all glaciere caves, where there must be -some outlet for surplus water at or near the lowest point: and as the -caves are always in porous or broken rock, the drainage takes place -through the cracks and fissures. - -The drip produces also the exact opposite of pyramids in the shape of -ice basins. These are cut in the floor by an extra strong drip from -the roof at those spots. Basins exactly like these are not seen on -glaciers. Not infrequently they are full of water of considerable depth. - -Lakes and pools are found in glaciere caves. Sometimes they are on -the ice floor, and in this case they are due either to rain-water -collecting faster than it can flow off, or else because the cave is in -a state of thaw. Sometimes these pools are among the rocks in one part -of a cave, while the ice is in another part. - -I have said above that motion in subterranean ice is practically -wanting. This is proved by the lack of crevasses on the ice slopes -or ice walls, and also by the fact that basins and cones appear year -after year in the same spots, where they remain whether they are -increasing or diminishing. But this statement cannot be held to cover -the entrance snow and ice slopes of some of the open pit caves such as -the Gottscheer cave, or Saint-Livres or Haut d'Aviernoz. Here the snow, -which falls on the entrance slope, must gradually gravitate to the -bottom. The question is whether it only descends in the shape of water -after melting or as snow before solidifying; or whether it ever slides -down at all after becoming somewhat solidified. Probably, however, the -ice of these slopes, judging from the fact that crevasses are entirely -lacking, remains stationary. - - -_Color Effects._--The color effect of every glaciere cavern has a -certain individuality, according to the color of the rocks, the -quantity of ice, and the amount of daylight admitted through the -entrance. In my opinion, the white note given by the ice, makes a fine -glaciere cave the most beautiful of all subterranean hollows. In this -respect it seems to me that they are similar to high Alps, which are -certainly most impressive with coverings of snow and glacier. - -There are, however, two distinct notes in the color effects of glaciere -caves and these may be described as the partly subterranean, or as the -wholly subterranean. In the former case the local tints stand out more -clearly. For instance, at the Kolowratshoehle the ice is beautifully -transparent and of a pale ochre-greenish hue: the limestone rocks -are streaked with iron, and thus have a reddish hue, while, owing -to the entrance admitting plenty of daylight, the effect is only -semi-subterranean. Again, at Chaux-les-Passavant plenty of daylight is -admitted: the rocks are a yellowish brown, and the ice is white and -blue. At the Schafloch or the Frauenmauer, on the contrary, the effect -is wholly subterranean: daylight is so completely absent that black -is the predominating note, the ice itself looking gray. Dobsina is an -exception, as, thanks to the electric light, white is the conspicuous -tone, even though rocks and shadows dull many places and corners into a -sombre gray. - -More than once, on returning to daylight from the intense blackness -of a cave, I have seen the rocks near the entrance appear a dark -blue color, exactly simulating moonlight. This effect is common to -both glaciere caves and ordinary caverns. It is a striking but rare -phenomenon, and depends apparently on the shape of the cave. This -moonlight effect only seems to occur when a cave makes an elbow -directly after the mouth and then goes straight for some distance. When -the daylight is actually in sight, the moonlight impression vanishes. - - -_Carbonic Acid Gas._--Carbonic acid gas, judging from the most -recent explorations, is more of a rarity in rock caves with normal -temperatures than is generally supposed. There appears to be only one -case on record where this gas was observed in a cold cave. This was -in the Creux-de-Souci,[33] which is rather a cold than a freezing -cavern, but which on one occasion was found to contain snow, and -whose temperature is always extremely low. From the present state of -knowledge, therefore, it may be assumed that if carbonic acid gas does -form in glaciere caves, it does so only seldom. - -[33] See Part III.: page 207. - - -_Fauna._--No attention whatever has been paid, practically as yet, as -to whether any distinctive animal life exists in glacieres. So far, I -have seen none myself. The Rev. G. F. Browne, in four instances, found -a large red-brown fly nearly an inch long, which is supposed to be -_Stenophylax Hieroglyphicus_ of Stephens; and at Chapuis, he obtained -an ichneumon of the genus _Paniscus_. At Font d'Urle, Monsieur Villard -captured a blind specimen of a coleoptera, _Cytodromus dapsoides_. -A variety of rotifer, _Notholca longispina_, is now living in the -Creux-de-Souci. In Skerisora, remains of bats have been found, not very -different from those now living in the neighborhood.[34] It is, in any -case, certainly remarkable that the same kind of fly should have been -discovered in several glacieres in different localities; and it may -some day be shown that there is a special insect fauna. Certainly the -subject is worth investigating.[35] - -[34] See Part I.: Ausable Pond, page 81, and Part III.: Creux-de-Souci, -page 207; Font d'Urle, page 213; Chapuis, page 216; La Genolliere, page -219; Skerisora, page 245. - -[35] In June, 1899, I mentioned these facts to Monsieur Armand Vire, -director of the Biologic Laboratory in the catacombs of the Jardin -des Plantes in Paris. He was much interested, and promised to make a -careful investigation of the matter. - - -_Flora._--The flora of glacieres has been as little observed as the -fauna. There are scarcely any references to such a thing as glaciere -plant life in literature. Whether there is a special flora in any -glaciere cave is still an open question. In the cases of several -boulder taluses, there is no doubt that, even if there is not a special -flora, at least that the plants near the ice beds are greatly retarded -every year in their development. Probably the flora among the boulders -blooms a month or six weeks later than the flora in the immediate -vicinity. In the cases of the Cave of Paradana and of the Kuntschner -Eishoehle it is reported that the plant life becomes more and more -arctic in character towards the bottom of the pit.[36] - -[36] See Part I.: Ausable Pond, page 80; Giant of the Valley, page 83, -note 7; Ice Gulch, page 85; Spruce Creek, page 91. See Part III: Spruce -Creek, page 188; Paradana, page 237; Kuntschner Eishoehle, page 241. - - -_Paleontology._--No paleontological remains have as yet been reported -from glaciere caves. No bones of animals have been found, except those -of bats in Skerisora[37] and a few of the common genus _bos_.[38] -No relics of the handiwork of man have been discovered; nor, indeed, -with the exception of the skeletons found in the cave of Yeermallik in -Kondooz,[39] anything which reveals the presence of man in glacieres or -that they were ever used for habitation. The reason that there are so -few remains in glaciere caves is undoubtedly because their temperatures -are too low for their occupation by animal or man; but, from the -evidence afforded by their non-occupation, may be drawn the valuable -inference that the glaciere caves of to-day were glaciere caves long -ago. - -[37] See Part III.: Skerisora, page 245. - -[38] See Part I.: Saint-Livres, page 68. - -[39] See Part III.: Yeermallik, page 261. - - -_Legends and Religion._--There are scarcely any legends connected -with glacieres. I know only of one about one of the caves of the Mont -Parmelan.[40] Nor does there seem to be any reference to glaciere caves -in works of fiction. Dante makes his last hell full of an ice lake, but -an attentive perusal fails to reveal a single line which in any way -describes or suggests a glaciere. In at least two cases,[41] however, -the ice in caves is connected with religion, as in Kashmere, the -Hindoos, and in Arizona, the Zuni Indians, either worship or pray at -glaciere caves, overawed, from some mystical feeling, by the permanence -of the ice formations which they connect with their deities. - -[40] See Part III.: Glaciere de l'Enfer, page 216. - -[41] See Part III.: Amarnath, page 262; Cave, White Mountains, Arizona, -page 176. - - - - -II. - - -The cause of the formation of subterranean ice is undoubtedly one -of the most intricate problems in connection with caverns. Various -theories have been advanced why ice is found in certain caves and not -in others. Some writers have held that it is a remnant of a glacial -period; others that it is owing to the presence of salts in the rocks; -some have said that it is due to the rocks retarding waves of heat -and cold; and still others think that it is formed by pressure on -the percolating waters. Many of these theories were formulated in -explanation of the belief of peasants living near the caves, who almost -always say that the ice is formed in summer and melts in winter. Most -scientific observers on the other hand claim that the ice is due to the -cold of winter, and a few think that it is formed or helped by draughts -and by evaporation and expansion of the air. The variety of opinions -put forth, show at any rate the intricacy of the problem. - -All my own observations have tended more and more to make me believe -that the cold of winter is the cause of the ice. Before elaborating my -own views, however, I wish to take up seriatim the theories which have -been formulated, principally in explanation of the belief that the ice -was a summer product, and to give my reasons for my disbelief in them. - - -_Glacial Period._--The first theory, perhaps, to touch on, is the one -that the ice is a remnant of a glacial period. This seems to occur -to many persons as a solution of the question when they first hear -of glacieres, and it has been several times propounded to me, and -naturally enough, always by scientific men.[42] Still I do not think it -has ever been held by anyone who had made a study of glacieres. - -[42] See Part IV.: Hitchcock, page 284; Bonney, page 291; Dawkins, page -292. - -The theory is, indeed, untenable in regard to freezing caves, as it -does not accord with the observed facts of the yearly disappearance of -the ice in many caves and taluses. At Szilize every year the ice has -disappeared pretty completely by November, and the cave is free; but -in April or May the floor is again covered with ice, and columns and -icicles have formed on the roof and sides. At La Genolliere the cave -is used by the people of the neighboring chalets, through the spring -and early summer, to help in the operation of butter making; by the -middle or the end of August it has entirely disappeared, but is found -formed afresh the following spring. At the Rumney Talus, at the Cave of -Decorah, at the Gorge of Ellenville, and at the Williamstown Snow Hole, -I found no snow or ice.[43] Yet it is abundant in all these localities -in the spring. Too many examples of the complete melting away of the -ice every year can be cited, to permit any doubt: glaciere caves are -not connected with a glacial period. - -[43] See Part I.: Rumney, page 85; Decorah, page 88; Ellenville, page -91; Williamstown, page 98. - -Though it may be stated positively that the ice in caves is not a -remnant of a glacial period, yet this cannot be done so authoritatively -about subsoil ice sheets and freezing wells. At Brandon, Owego and -Decorah the gravel was found frozen at the time the wells were dug, and -it is of course impossible to determine for how long a time this was -the case previous to the digging. The proofs, however, are so strong -that the ice re-forms every winter at such freezing wells, that they -may be considered as in every respect following the same general laws -as glaciere caves. That the ice in these wells is not the remains of a -glacial period, seems proved moreover by the work of the Boston Natural -History Society, which sank two wells at Brandon near to the Freezing -well. One of these was only twenty-one meters distant and went through -the same gravel drift. Yet it did not strike ice.[44] A somewhat -similar state of things appears to be the case with the Centennial Lode -and other lodes on Mount McClellan,[45] where the causes also seem to -be local, as there is no ice in mines on neighboring mountains. - -[44] See Part IV.: Hager, page 282; Hitchcock, page 284. - -[45] See Part III.: Rifts of Ice, etc., page 174. - - -_The Summer's Heat Theory._--The natives and peasants in the -neighborhood of glaciere caves generally believe that the ice of -caves is formed in summer and melts in winter. I have met with this -belief everywhere in Europe; in the Eifel, Jura, Swiss Alps, Tyrolese -Alps, and Carpathians: and also occasionally in the United States. -Peasants and guides tell you with absolute confidence: "The hotter the -summer the more ice there is." The strange thing is that any number -of writers[46]--sometimes scientific men--have accepted the ideas and -statements of the peasants about the formation of ice in summer, and -have tried to account for it. - -[46] Among them may be mentioned: Boisot, 1686; Valvasor, 1689; -Behrens, 1703; Billerez, 1712; Bel, 1739; Rosenmueller and Tillesius, -1799; Sartori, 1809; Pictet, 1822; Scrope, 1826; Murchison, 1845. - -The belief of the peasants is founded on the fact that they scarcely -ever go to any cave except when some tourist takes them with him, and, -therefore, they rarely see one in winter, and their faith is not based -on observation. It is, however, founded on an appearance of truth: -and that is on the fact that the temperatures of glaciere caves, like -that of other caves or that of cellars, are colder in summer than the -outside air, and warmer in winter than the outside air. Possessing -neither reasoning powers nor thermometers, the peasants simply go a -step further and say that glaciere caves are cold in summer and hot in -winter. - -Professor Thury tells a story to the point. He visited the Grand Cave -de Montarquis in mid-winter. All the peasants told him there would be -no use going, as there would be no ice in the cave. He tried to find -even one peasant who had been to the cave in winter, but could not. He -then visited it himself and found it full of hard ice. On his return -he told the peasants of his discovery. They were staggered at first, -finally one exclaimed: "It makes no difference; in genuine glacieres -there is no ice in winter." - -It will be difficult, probably, to eradicate this belief and the -consequent theories among the uneducated people in the vicinity of -glaciere caves, for their imperfect observations will keep it alive. In -refutation, it may be said that the winter's cold theory is the direct -opposite of the summer's heat theory, and that all the observations and -all the facts which prove the one, disprove the other. - -Within two or three years, however, the formation of small quantities -of ice has been observed during the summer months in one or two caves. -This has taken place in mountain caves situated at a high altitude at -times when the air outside has dropped below freezing point during the -night. There is, therefore, nothing inconsistent in this fact with the -winter's cold theory: indeed it is only a widening of it in the meaning -of the word winter.[47] - -[47] See Part III.: Beilsteinhoehle, page 235. Part IV.: Professor -Cranmer, page 310. - - -_Chemical Causes._--Non-scientific persons, on first hearing of -glaciere caves, almost always suggest that to form the ice there must -be salts in the rocks. Probably they connect unconsciously in their -minds "ice caves" and "ice cream." - -Chemical causes, however, have never appealed to scientific men.[48] -There are only two places I know of where salt is reported. One is the -Ice Spring in Oregon, which is said to be slightly saline in taste; the -other is the Cave of Illetzkaya-Zatschita, where the gypsum hillock, -in which the ice is found, overlies a bed of rock salt. Repeated -experiments in letting lumps of glaciere ice melt in my mouth have -convinced me personally that in all cases the water is exceedingly -pure and sweet, a fact mentioned in the very first notice extant about -glacieres, the letter of Benigne Poissenot in 1586, who speaks of the -deliciousness of the water in Chaux-les-Passavant. To sum this matter -up briefly, it can be safely asserted that all causes, which would fall -under the head of "Chemical causes," must be entirely eliminated as -possible cold producers. - -[48] See Part IV.: Billerez, page 270; Hacquet, page 271. - - -_Waves of Heat and Cold._--While Sir Roderick Murchison was studying -the geology of Russia,[49] he visited Illetzkaya-Zatschita and was -puzzled to account for the ice formations. He thought, at first, that -they were due to the presence of salt, but recognizing that this was -not correct he submitted the case to Sir John Herschel, who, rejecting -the evaporation or condensation of vapor as the cause, argued that -the ice was due to waves of heat and cold, and that at certain depths -in the interior, the cold wave arrived in mid-summer and the heat in -mid-winter. Murchison declined to assent to this doctrine, asking why -one cave should present this exceptional occurrence, when the numerous -other rents and openings in the same hillock were free from ice. The -impossibility of the heat and cold wave theory was so completely shown -by Murchison's objection, that it has never again been brought forward. - -[49] _The Geology of Russia and the Ural Mountains_, vol. I., pages -184-198. - - -_Capillary or Compressed Air Theory._--The possibility of compressed -air causing subterranean ice to form seems to have been first -authoritatively formulated by Mr. N. M. Lowe, of Boston.[50] His theory -in brief is this:--Bubbles of air drawn into water flowing down through -fissures in rocks are liable to a continually increasing pressure. When -the air has reached the bottom and is liberated in the cave, it will be -from a pressure equal to the height of the column of water, and it will -have lost by connection in the mass through which the conduit passes, -the heat due to its compression; and on being liberated, it will -immediately absorb from the air and the water in the cave, the heat -which it has lost in its downward passage. - -[50] _Science Observer._ Boston, 1879, vol. II., page 57. See Part IV.: -Silliman, page 279; Olmstead, page 282. - -Several scientific observers have rallied to this idea.[51] One of -the Hungarian residents at Dobsina, a doctor, whose opportunities -for observations are unrivalled, told me--if I understood him -correctly--that he believed in the capillary theory. - -[51] See B. Schwalbe, _Ueber Eishoehlen und Eisloecher_, page 56. - -There are many facts, however, which militate against the compressed -air theory as applied to caves. Almost all caves receive some drip -through fissures, and yet there are many thousands of caves which never -contain ice, and whose temperature scarcely varies the year round. -Especially against the theory is the fact that glaciere caves are -never known in hot countries. If the theory were correct we should, -for instance, sometimes find ice in such caves as those of Yucatan -described by Mr. Mercer.[52] - -[52] _The Hill Caves of Yucatan._ - -There are also some mechanical difficulties in the way. Mr. John -Ritchie[53] touches them when he says: "If the passage through which -the water flows down is at all tubular the column will be subjected to -the usual hydrostatic pressure." The word _tubular_ is the hard one to -answer. Limestone rock fissures are certainly not tubular. They have -all sorts of shapes and angles and corners, every one of which would -interfere with anything like a regular pressure. - -[53] _Boston Transcript_, January 2d, 1897. - -This latter objection would not apply to borings in mines. I have been -assured that in some borings in Western mines ice has been formed by -pressure, and there may be truth in this, although I doubt it, as -I have yet to hear of ice in any mines in warm latitudes. Mr. John -Ritchie[54] has suggested, also, that if compressed air does not -perhaps act strongly enough to form ice, yet it may help in keeping -the temperature low and aid in the formation of draughts in caves and -boulder heaps. At present, however, I can see no reason to think that -the ice in caves is due to compressed air.[55] - -[54] _The Happy Thought._ Boston, January 23d, 1897. - -[55] See Part I.: page 89. - - - - -III. - - -I have already said that I believe that the cold of winter is the -cause of the ice in caves. To make this clearer, I may say that I look -on glacieres as the last outcrop, the outside edge, so to speak, of -the area of low temperatures, which has its culminating point in the -Northern Hemisphere in the Arctic Ocean, Greenland and Siberia, and in -the Southern Hemisphere in the Antarctic; and which is manifested to -us in the snows of mountain peaks, and immediately round us in frozen -ponds and rivers and snowy blizzards; and which, as it disappears each -summer, leaves its last traces in our latitudes in sequestered gorges -and convenient caverns. In every case, it seems to me, glacieres are -simply refrigerators, which preserve the ice and snow accumulated in -them during the winter. They all follow the same general laws as to -the origin of their contents, modified only in slight degree according -to the varying natural local conditions, such as the water supply, or -the protection from sun and wind, or the thickness of the overhead -rock, or the altitude or latitude. I cannot see that there is anything -remarkable about the fact that the cold of winter is able to penetrate -and make itself felt sometimes for a slight depth in the earth's -crust; a depth, so far as yet known, never exceeding one hundred and -fifty meters. It seems to me that glacieres only emphasize a law of -nature, which has doubtless been formulated many times in connection -with springs and phreatic waters, and that is, that where we find cold -waters underground, we may be sure that they have penetrated from the -outside. - -If we look first at the mode of formation of overground perennial ice, -that is, of the ice of glaciers and of rock gorges; and then at the -evidences of the mode of formation of underground perennial ice, in -boulder heaps, wells and caves; we will soon see that the transitions -between them are gentle in character and that there is nothing -unnatural about the formation of the ice in glacieres. - - -_Glaciers._--Everyone now knows the main characteristics of glaciers. -They are formed in parts of the earth where the land or the mountains -reach to the region of perpetual snow. The snows fall from the sky, and -accumulate into a snow cap, which by its own weight and by melting and -regelation, gradually changes to ice. This, by the laws of gravitation, -descends to lower levels, and in mountain valleys extends sometimes -far below the snow line into the region of cultivated fields. These -valley prolongations of the perpetual snow caps are the glaciers. The -important point to notice here, is that the formation of glaciers is -originally entirely due to the precipitation of moisture by cold in the -upper portions; while the destruction of glaciers is due to the action -of heat melting the ice in the lower portions, where they disappear in -the shape of streams of running water. It is, therefore, not surprising -that the greatest glaciers are found in the Arctic and Antarctic -regions and in the highest mountain ranges; and that in the tropics -glaciers are either wanting or exceedingly small. - - -_Gorges and Troughs._--Gorges and gullies, where ice remains over, -are a transitional form between glaciers and glacieres. In many -mountain ravines or canyons, the enduring snow consists principally -of the avalanches which have fallen from the heights above during the -winter and solidified in the bottom of the ravines. Freezing gorges -proper, however, are not dependent on avalanches for their supply, -but they receive the accretions to their ice directly from the winter -snows. These fall into the gorge itself and by melting and regelation -gradually solidify into a mass of ice which, when well sheltered -against sun and wind, remains over sometimes till the following winter. -By their mode of formation, therefore, it is evident that the ice in -these gorges has some of the characteristics of glaciers; that it is -due to the same prime causes as the ice of glaciers or the ice on ponds -and rivers, namely the cold of winter; and in fact, it is not far -wrong to consider these gorges as miniature glaciers. - -Freezing gorges, however, show, also, certain degrees of kinship to -freezing caverns and taluses, principally in the protection afforded -to the ice against external destructive influences. The ice is almost -always found in positions where it receives little, if any, of the -direct rays of the sun and, also, where it is scarcely, if at all, -exposed to any winds. The sides of the fissures and surrounding trees -generally afford the necessary protection. Some of the forms which the -ice assumes in gorges, such as long pendent icicles, are also more -characteristic of underground than of overground ice. - -The freezing troughs or basins found in Siberia are evidently closely -related to gorges, and the fact that the ice is found in less sheltered -places may be explained by the high northerly latitudes of these -troughs, in general between fifty-seven and sixty degrees. - - -_The Winter's Cold Theory._--The places where ice is found underground -differ in one important respect from gullies and troughs, and that -is, in the fact that above the ice there is rock or soil, which, in -true caves, takes the form of a roof. This causes some important -distinctions between overground and underground perennial ice. It means -that the ice is formed directly in the caves, and that it is genuine -subterranean ice, and not, except perhaps near the entrance, solidified -snow. The roof, while not admitting the winter snows, is, however, a -protection against warm summer rains, and, of course, entirely cuts -off radiation from the sky. If, therefore, it keeps out some cold, it -also acts as a protector against heat. - -That the cold of winter is the source of the cold which produces the -ice which forms underground, and that it is through its influence, -with the assistance of certain secondary causes, that some caves are -converted into what are practically natural ice houses, seems to me -the true explanation of the phenomenon of subterranean ice, not only -since it is the simple and obvious explanation, but also because all -the facts, so far as I have myself observed, are in accord with this -theory.[56] - -[56] Among those who have written or said that the cold of winter plays -a more or less important part in the formation of subterranean ice -may be mentioned: Poissenot, 1586; Gollut, 1592; DeBoz, 1726; Nagel, -1747; Cossigny, 1750; Jars, 1774; Hacquet, 1778; Girod-Chantrans, 1783; -Hablizl, 1788; Prevost, 1789; Townson, 1797; Humboldt, 1814; Dearborn, -1822; Deluc, 1822; Dewey, 1822; Lee, 1824; Reich, 1834; Hayden, 1843; -Guyot, 1856; Rogers, 1856; Petruzzi, 1857; Smyth, 1858; Hager, 1861; -Thury, 1861; Browne, 1865; Raymond, 1869; Krenner, 1874; Ritchie, -1879; Benedict, 1881; Schwalbe, 1881; Fugger, 1883; Trouillet, 1885; -Girardot, 1886; Russell, 1890; Martel, 1892; Krauss, 1894; Lohmann, -1895; Balch, 1896; Cvijic, 1896; Butler, 1898; Kovarik, 1898; Cranmer, -1899. - -To form subterranean ice, just as to form any other ice, two things are -necessary: the first is cold, the second is water. Cold is supplied by -the cold air of winter, and water must in some manner find its way into -the cave while the cold air is there. - -The process is as follows: The cold air of winter sinks into and -permeates the cave, and in course of time freezes up all the water -which, in the shape of melting snow or cold winter rain or spring -water, finds its way in; and once ice is formed it remains long after -ice in the surrounding open country has melted away, because heat -penetrates with difficulty into the cave. The only effect of the heat -of summer is to melt the ice. - -The proofs, to my mind, of the truth of this view are: 1--Glacieres -are always found in parts of the world where, during part of the -year at least, the temperatures of the surrounding country fall -below freezing point. 2--All observations by reliable observers -show that the temperatures of glaciere caves vary, but in a much -narrower thermometric scale, with those of the outside air: that the -temperatures are lowest, and as a rule below freezing point, during the -winter months; and that the temperatures are highest, and as a rule -above freezing point, during the summer months. 3--Ice is never found -far from the mouth of caves, but always near enough for the cold air -to get in. 4--Evaporation, according to my observations, is, as in all -other forms of ice in nature, connected mainly with the melting, not -the freezing of the ice. - - -_Geographical Distribution and Altitudes._--Glaciere caves proper -are found in various parts of Europe, Asia, and America, mostly in -the smaller mountain ranges or in the outliers of the snowy mountain -chains; generally in limestone and occasionally in basaltic formations. -There are a good many in the Jura; a few in the Swiss and the Italian -Alps; a number in the Eastern Alps of Tyrol and Carinthia. There are -some in Hungary, several in Russia, one in Iceland, one on the Peak -of Teneriffe, a number in Siberia, one in Kondooz in Central Asia, -one in the Himalaya, one in Japan, and one in Korea. I have heard so -far of over fifty glacieres in North America, several of which are in -Pennsylvania. From all over the world there are some three hundred -places reported where subterranean ice is said to occur. This includes -gorges, boulder heaps and freezing mines and wells, all of which exist -in much the same localities as glaciere caves. - -All the glacieres which I know of, are situated in a latitude or at -an altitude where ice and snow forms for part of the year in the -surrounding open country. None are reported from India or Africa, or -in fact from any low-lying places in tropical latitudes. Most of them -are found in middle latitudes, and only where during part of the year, -at least, there is a cold season, that is, where for some time the -thermometer stands below freezing point. - -Glacieres are, in general, at fairly high altitudes. The Schafloch -is at 1780 meters; Skerisora in Transylvania at 1127 meters; Dobsina -at 1100 meters; the Glaciere de Saint-Georges at 1208 meters. It is -true that there is one freezing cavern in the sub-tropical latitude -of Teneriffe, La Cueva de la Nieve; but it is at an altitude of 3300 -meters, and where snow falls every year in the open on the Peak. -Unless some freezing cave is hereafter discovered in a region where -there is no ice in the open in winter, I do not see how the imperative -necessity of the cold air of winter for forming the supply of ice can -be controverted. - - -_Thermometric Observations._--That the cold air of winter is the -important factor in the production of cold is proved, also, by the -thermometric observations recorded in various caves by different -observers. They all tell the same tale: that the temperatures vary with -those of the outside air, that they are lowest in winter and highest -in summer. I quote in the "List of Glacieres"[57] a few of those -published; but there are many more, and they all show the same general -characteristics. - -[57] See Part III.: Decorah, page 178; Chaux-les-Passavant, pages -203-5; La Poujade, page 208; Montarquis, page 218; Saint-Georges, page -219; Schafloch, page 223; Kolowratshoehle, page 227; Schellenberger -Eisgrotte, page 228; Frain, page 252; Dobsina, page 253; etc. - -A comparison of all the figures recorded proves that, as a rule--inside -of glaciere caves--from about the first of November to the first -of July, there are winter temperatures, that is temperatures below -freezing point; and from about the first of July to the first of -November, there are summer temperatures, that is temperatures above -freezing point. - -The observations prove also that the inner temperatures vary less than -the outer, that is that they range within narrower limits. They also -show that the inner air is but slowly affected by the outer air when -the latter is above freezing point, the inner temperature rising -then only gradually. Per contra, when the outside temperature drops -quickly much below freezing point, the inside temperature generally -drops correspondingly at once, proving that the cold air has sunk by -its weight into the cave. The observations also prove that the old idea -that the temperature of caves is the same throughout, can no longer -be considered correct. The observations also appear to show, that the -temperature of a cave does not necessarily represent the mean annual -temperature of a surrounding district. Observation is still entirely -lacking on the mean annual temperature of glacieres, so that one cannot -speak definitely about the matter; but it seems likely that the mean -annual temperature of a glaciere cave is lower than the isotherm of its -locality; and it seems more than probable that on the same isotherm -different glaciere caves may have different mean annual temperatures, -varying with the elements of size, quantity of ice, position of body of -cave and of entrance, water supply and other factors. - - -_Ice near the Entrance of Caves and the Surface of the Soil._--An -important proof that it is the cold air of winter which forms the ice -is the fact that the latter is always found near the entrance of caves -or near the surface of the soil. It never extends far within. To the -best of my knowledge, ice has never been found two hundred meters from -the entrance nor at any depth beyond one hundred and fifty meters. In -all caves of great extent, the temperature far in is about the same as -that of the surrounding rock, and in all deep borings the temperature -increases with the depth and at great depths the temperature becomes -high. This nearness of subterranean ice to the outside air is one of -the best proofs, that, paradoxical as the whole phenomenon appears at -first, yet in reality it is an extremely simple matter. - -The position of the entrance of a cave in relation to the body of the -cave is an important factor in permitting the cold air to permeate -and remain in the cave. In all the caves or gullies I have examined -myself, the main mass of ice is well below the level of the entrance, -and even if the latter is sheltered against the wind, it is not -sheltered against the cold air of winter. This is heavy, and by its own -weight sinks well down to the bottom, freezing up in course of time -all the moisture that may drip from the roof, or that may come into -the cave in the shape of melted snow or cold winter rain. The summer -air, which is warm and, therefore, light, can only enter the cave with -great difficulty; and, as a rule, before it dislodges the winter air -and destroys the ice, another winter's freeze reverses once more the -conditions. These principles seem to hold of every known glaciere. -It is true, that at the Frauenmauer, the floor of the cavern rises -somewhat from the entrance; but the highest point of the floor is still -below the level of the top of the entrance, so that the cold air can -flow over the highest point without difficulty. The same appears to be -the case at the Posselthoehle; while at Amarnath in Kashmere, where the -floor is said to rise to the back wall, the entrance is about as large -as the area of the floor, so that the ice must also be below the level -of the top of the entrance. - -The position or situation of the entrance is important. In almost all -cases it has a northerly exposure, and is sheltered against entering -winds. If these two conditions do not exist the ice supply surely -suffers. Sometimes the entrance is more or less tortuous. In some cases -it is protected by a fringe of trees. Still, there is no absolute rule -about entrances. The Friedrichsteinerhoehle faces about due south, and -at midday in summer, the sun shines all the way down to the ice floor, -causing mists to form. In the Kolowratshoehle, the entrance is badly -sheltered against the wind and this undoubtedly affects the supply in -summer and causes more rapid melting there than in some other cases.[58] - -[58] See Part III.: Decorah, page 178. - -Freezing boulder taluses invariably have the ice near the surface, -and probably it is never a dozen meters distant from the open air. -These taluses are one of the strongest links in the chain of evidence -proving the winter's cold theory. The snow and ice on the surface of -the taluses and on the surface of the boulders in gullies melts away, -while it still lingers underneath the boulders. It seems self-evident -that the melting snow water has run to the lowest level and there -congealed, and then remained because it was better sheltered than the -ice outside. - -The subsoil ice of the tundras of Siberia and Alaska is almost -identical with the ice of boulder formations, except that it extends -under larger areas. It is the product of a climate where there is a -long, rigorous winter and it is not surprising that the ice is found at -greater depths than in more southerly latitudes.[59] The depth to which -the ice extends is, of course, determined by the depth to which the -winter's cold can penetrate the soil. There is no doubt that the causes -of this ice are local, that is, that it is due to the long prevailing -low temperatures. - -[59] See Part III.: Alaska, page 166; Klondike, page 167; Kowak River, -page 166; Kotzebue Sound, page 166. - -The freezing wells of which the most conspicuous examples are at -Brandon, Owego, Decorah, and in Montana, seem also due to local causes -and the ice is never far from the surface, that is, not over twenty -meters; and apparently also it forms above the water horizons which -supply the wells. - -The ice sheet on Mount Etna[60] does not seem to be at any great depth. -It apparently had a different origin from most subterranean ice masses, -in that the snow probably fell first and was then covered by a flow of -lava. It is, therefore, almost _sui generis_ in its mode of formation, -unless there are similar sheets on other volcanoes, which is probable -in a country like Iceland, and which is said to be the case in Tierra -del Fuego,[61] But the original cause of the ice sheet on Etna was the -same as all other subterranean ice masses, namely the cold of winter. - -[60] See Part III., page 210. - -[61] See Part III., page 190. - - -_Evaporation and Movements of Air._--The formation of subterranean ice -is sometimes assigned partly to evaporation or to expansion of the air. -The theory is an old one, and both scientific and non-scientific men -have advanced it.[62] - -[62] Among those who have written that evaporation is a factor in the -formation of subterranean ice, may be mentioned: Pictet, 1822; Scrope, -1827; Reich, 1834; Pleischl, 1841; Murchison, 1845; Olmstead, 1856; -Hitchcock, 1861; White, 1870; Kirchhoff, 1876; Krauss, 1895. - -I have already said that I believe it is the movements of the air -which cause a cave to be a glaciere cave or a normal cave. When they -act in such a way as to permit the cold air of winter to permeate a -cave, we find low temperatures and ice; when they do not, we find the -temperature about the same as that of the ground and no ice. - -That the ice is not formed in apparently static caves, by movements -of air producing evaporation, seems to me proved by what I have -noticed in regard to the atmosphere. The dryness or moistness of the -air within a glaciere cave is coincident with the state of freezing -or thawing of the cave. When I have visited a large cave in June, -everything was frozen tight, there were no drips nor mushy ice, the -air was relatively dry and the sensation of cold not unpleasant. When -I have visited a cave in August, the ice was soft and mushy, water -was dripping from the roof, the atmosphere was moist, and the cold -penetrating. It seems to me that the facts go to show that it is not -evaporation which forms the ice, but the melting of the ice which -fills the cave with moisture. If there are any draughts or movements -of the atmosphere when above freezing point, then their tendency is to -vaporize the ice. - -The process of the formation of ice in relation to the atmosphere is as -follows: the cold air permeates the cave and freezes up all the drip: -the atmosphere becomes dry: gradually warmer air gets in and the ice -begins to melt: then the atmosphere gets charged slowly with the vapor -of the melting ice. This process is the exact opposite of the formation -of ice by evaporation; it is the atmosphere which is made humid by the -vaporizing of the ice, and by the drip. When the air is thoroughly -saturated with the vapor, being scarcely renewed from outside and but a -few degrees above freezing point, it undoubtedly retards evaporation, -acts like a blanket and lessens the rate of melting of the ice.[63] - -[63] See Part IV.: Thury, page 285; Fugger, page 296; Trouillet, page -298. - -Everything I have personally observed in freezing windholes shows -that in them also the cold of winter and not evaporation is the -cause of the ice. They answer to the same tests as other glacieres, -of geographical distribution and altitude, nearness of ice to the -outside, thermometric observations, and dampness of the air when the -ice melts. Equally with other glacieres, the movements of air in -windholes do not depend on the presence of ice, but the ice does depend -on the movements of air and a water supply at the proper time. A proof -that it is the cold of winter which makes the ice in windholes, is that -the ice is always found at the lower extremity, for the reason that it -is at that end that the cold air enters and to that end that the water -gravitates. The reason that ice is more rarely found in windholes than -in apparently static caves, is due to the movements of air. Unlike the -caves where the heavy cold air preserves the ice by remaining pent -up, as soon as the outside temperature rises the heavy cold air in -windholes tumbles out at the lower opening and is replaced gradually by -air at a higher temperature. This also flows out and when it is above -freezing point, it naturally melts the ice and becomes humid: in fact, -it vaporizes the ice as it passes, and dissipates the moisture into the -outer air. - -It is, however, certain, that in caves with a temperature some degrees -above freezing point, when there is either running water or strong -drips, evaporation may be, and sometimes undoubtedly is, a factor in -lowering the temperature somewhat.[64] As in some windholes there -is occasionally moisture on the rock surfaces where the air current -passes, the evaporation from these surfaces doubtless lowers the -temperature of the draughts, and it may be, also those of the rock -surfaces, a little. - -[64] See Part IV.: De Saussure, page 274. See also _Les Abimes_, 1894, -page 564. - -Further observations, however, will be necessary in regard to -evaporation underground, as the data are still insufficient to make -absolutely positive statements.[65] I fail to see any evidence to show -that evaporation ever lowers the temperature of draughts underground -below freezing point, only that it may help to lower them to something -less than they would otherwise be. Taking all the facts which I have -myself observed, and all I have read of in the reports of others, my -own conclusion is that we have no proof that evaporation underground is -ever strong enough to produce ice. - -[65] Several observers consider evaporation as more or less of a factor -in the production of cold underground. It is suggested also, that in -certain cases, at high altitudes, evaporation tends to prevent the -melting of the ice in windholes, but this is not proved, as yet. See -Part IV.: De Saussure, page 274; Fugger, page 296; Trouillet, page 298; -Martel, page 300; Lohmann, page 302. - - -_Time of Formation of Ice._--Everything I have seen points to the fact -that ice begins to form in a cave as soon as the temperature of the -cave has sunk below freezing point, whenever, from any cause, water -gets into the cave. The cold may begin to penetrate caves as soon -as outside frosts have occurred, that is in the fall months, about -November; and as soon as the temperature inside sinks below freezing -point, ice will begin to form, provided also that water gets into the -cave, from rains or springs or any other source. - -In the mid-winter months, although there is then plenty of cold, the -water supply is generally lacking, as the outside moisture is mostly -frozen up and the result is that the winter months are not those -when the ice is mainly formed. Some is undoubtedly formed in certain -caves whenever during the course of the winter a surface thaw outside -furnishes water to the cave,[66] but in other cases this is not so and -the ice does not appear before the spring. In all cases it is in the -spring, before the cave has parted with its store of cold, and when -both the air and the rock walls are chilled below freezing point[67] -that the ice forms fastest. Then plenty of water is furnished by the -melting of the snows and the unlocking of the brooks, and also by early -spring rains. All this surface water runs through the fissures into -the still freezing cave and there becomes ice. Not only the air, but -also the rock walls are chilled below freezing point, and as the rocks -part slowly with the cold stored in them, this cold helps to freeze the -water pouring in. - -[66] See Part III.: Chaux-les-Passavant, page 203; Saint-Georges, page -220. - -[67] See Part IV.: Townson, page 275; Thury, page 285; Trouillet, page -297; Schwalbe, page 298; Terlanday, page 301; Kovarik, page 307. - -The natural law in relation to time seems to be this: Ice may be formed -in caves as soon as the outside temperature sinks below freezing point. -In some caves it forms intermittently all through the cold months -because there is a water supply. In other caves it only forms in the -spring, because there is no water supply in the winter months. In all -cases, however, the end of winter is the time when most of the ice is -formed. - - - - -PART III. - -LIST OF GLACIERES. - - - - -LIST OF GLACIERES.[68] - -[68] This list is necessarily incomplete, and only approximately -accurate in many cases. - - -NORTH AMERICA. - -Buried or Fossil Glaciers, North Greenland. (W. E. Meehan, -_Philadelphia Ledger_, 1896.)--On Robertson's Bay is the plateau of -the Verhoef Glacier, which is about 1500 meters long and 400 meters -wide, and stands back only a few meters from the edge of the sea. This -plateau, both top and sides, is a mass of flourishing vegetation, -chiefly grass, which reaches above a man's knee. From among this -verdure buttercups, poppies, cinquefoils and dandelions thrust their -golden heads in wild profusion. Similar buried glaciers are found in -many places along the fiords of North Greenland. - -Mr. Meehan gives a simple explanation in connection with the Verhoef -Glacier. He says that this glacier formerly extended out into the sea, -and that while it moved forward, the clump moss, which struggles for -existence in Greenland gorges, could do little more than hold its own. -In course of time, from some unknown cause, the glacier receded to the -point where it now discharges, the part in the water floating away in -the shape of icebergs, and the part on the shore remaining stationary. -This was the opportunity for the clump mosses. Caring nothing for the -cold they crept slowly over the quiet mass of ice and made their way -first in thin net-like layers, later in thick masses, till they reached -the rocky shore. Year after year the mosses grew, the young plants -trampling underfoot the older; until the latter, rotting, turned into -a rich mould. The seeds of grasses and flowers found their way to -this, blown by the wind or carried on the feet of birds. The plateau -now is a garden of green, gold and white. How long this will last it -is impossible to say, as any time nature may unloose its hold, and the -frozen river once more pour down into the bay. - - -Subsoil Ice in Alaska. (I. C. Russell, _A Journey up the Yukon -River_, page 149, and _Second Expedition to Mount Saint Elias_, page -19.)--Professor Russell found ice covered by rocks and vegetation -in several places in Alaska, especially along the southern edge of -the Malaspina Glacier and on the Yukon River. He gives the following -interesting account in 1890 of these ice sheets: "Throughout the length -of the Yukon, one is frequently reminded of the high latitude drained -by the great river, by seeing strata of ice in the recently cut banks, -beneath the dense layer of moss and roots forming the surface on which -the forests grow. One may frequently find ice even on a hot summer's -day, by scraping away the moss at his feet. In some instances the -frozen layer has been penetrated to the depth of twenty-five feet, but -its full depth has never been ascertained. In the banks of some of the -streams to the north of the lower Yukon, strata of ice over a hundred -feet thick have been observed, and the indications are that its total -depth is considerably greater than the portion exposed. This subsoil -ice is stagnant and without the characteristics of glaciers." - - -Subsoil Ice in the Klondike Region. (_Philadelphia Ledger_, December -30th, 1897.)--The Klondike mining country is covered with snow most of -the year. The ground is frozen for ten or twelve meters in depth, down -to bed rock. In some places the ground, which is protected by a thick -moss, is not thawed out by the sun in summer. The miner cuts off the -moss with a shovel, and then builds a fire, which thaws out the ground -for five or ten centimeters. He digs this out, rebuilds a fire, and -then continues this process. - - -Ice Cliffs on the Kowak River, Alaska. (Lieutenant J. C. Cantwell, -_National Geographic Magazine_, October, 1896.)--On the shores of the -Kowak River are a series of ice cliffs of from about 25 meters to -45 meters in height. On top of these ice cliffs is a layer of black -silt-like soil some 2 meters in thickness, and from this springs a -luxuriant growth of mosses, grass and Arctic shrubbery. The melted ice -shows a residuum of fine dust, which while fresh emits a pungent odor. - - -Subterranean Ice Sheet on Kotzebue Sound. (Otto von Kotzebue, -_Entdeckungsreise in die Suedsee_, etc. Weimar, 1821. Vol. IV., page -140.)--Dr. Eschholz discovered near Kotzebue Sound, in 1816, a mass of -ice more than 30 meters thick, and entirely covered with a layer at -least 15 centimeters thick of clay, sand, and earth, on which heavy, -long grass was growing. In the ice and in the soil overlaying it, were -many remains of extinct animals. On the side towards the ocean the ice -was entirely bare, exposed to sun and air, and much of it was melting -away in streamlets. - - -Freezing Lava Caves, Washington. (R. W. Raymond, _Overland Monthly_, 3d -November, 1869, page 421. Th. Kirchhoff, _Reisebilder und Skizzen aus -America_, 1876, vol. II., page 211. _Philadelphia Ledger_, September -25th, 1899.)--These caves are distant about four hours from the foot of -Mount Adams, and about 56 kilometers from the mouth of the White Salmon -River, where it falls into the Columbia River. The caves are in basalt, -and they are connected at both ends with the open air. Only a few of -them contain any ice, which in the largest cave is about 6 meters below -the entrance, from which one descends by a ladder. The cave opens on -one side and is some 15 meters in depth, 6 meters or 8 meters in width -and 3 meters or 4 meters in height. This part contains the most ice. -The other side gradually narrows from the entrance, is longer, and -reaches out through fallen rocks and rubbish to daylight. In the lower -portion, there are a few ice stalactites and stalagmites: one a superb, -transparent hillock, which rises nearly to the roof, is called the -Iceberg. A strong draught flows into the cave in summer through the -open arm. - -The following paragraphs from the _Philadelphia Ledger_ probably refer -to the same locality:-- - -"Ice for the cutting, and that in August and early in September, is a -novelty not often found in regions as far south as the Columbia River -basin; but the novelty is enjoyed every year by people who visit the -ice caves under the shadow of Mount Adams, about 100 miles northeast -of Portland. It is a very extensive region. Frank McFarland, who has -just returned from a six weeks' vacation camping trip there, gives an -interesting account of its general make up. - -"At the ice caves, which are six miles from Trout Lake, the stalactites -are more beautiful and wonderful this year than ever before, and this -was Mr. McFarland's fifteenth trip there. He broke off and took to camp -chunks of ice weighing 100 pounds. Pleasure parties who come to the -lake use considerable of the ice for packing their trout to take home. -All you have to do is to take a torch of pitch pine or a lantern, and -go into the big caves and pack off all the ice you want. It is a sure -crop, and never fails." - - -Ice Spring in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon. (G. Gibbs, _American Journal -of Science and Arts_, 1853, Second Series, vol. XV., page 146.)--The -Ice Spring is about 60 kilometers from the South Pass to the right of -the Sweetwater River. It is situated in a low marshy swale, where the -ground is filled with springs; and about 60 centimeters below the turf -is a sheet of horizontal ice, some 10 centimeters to 30 centimeters -thick, lasting throughout the year. The ice is clear and is disposed -in hexagonal prisms; it has a slightly saline taste, the ground above -it being impregnated with salt and the water near by tasting of sulphur. - - -Freezing Lava Caves in Modoc County, California. (_Dispatch_, -Frankford, Pennsylvania, 22d January, 1897, reprinted from another -paper.)--The lava beds, where the Modoc Indians made their last stand -against the United States troops, are described as an immense field of -lava covered with a beautiful forest of conifers. Numerous caves of -varying shapes and dimensions are scattered throughout these lava beds. -Some are mere covert ways, with an arch of stone thrown over them; -others are immense chambers some meters from the surface; another kind -sinks deeply and may be in a series of chambers united by a corridor -that opens at the surface; while another kind seems to go directly to -the centre of the earth without stopping. Some of these caves contain -ice and from them the Modocs drew their water supply while besieged by -the troops. Judging from what is reported of the caves the quantity of -ice in them must be large. The thermometer in winter in the region is -said to go as low as -30 deg. C. - - -Freezing Lava Beds near Medicine Lake, Siskiyou County, Northern -California. (M. S. Baker, _Sierra Club Bulletin_, 1899. Vol. II., page -318.)--"One other feature of the lava region must be mentioned--the ice -caves. There are several of these known, and very likely many more -remain undiscovered. Those located along the edge of the lava, near the -cinder cone, I have known to contain ice and water as late as August. -The largest I have seen is on the Mayfield Road, about twenty miles -east of Bartles. It is situated in the barren lava, and in one of the -warmest localities of the region,--and there are few cool spots in the -lava anywhere. One enters the cave by crawling down a hole none too -large. The instant the interior is reached the temperature falls in a -surprising way. Not more than ten feet below the surface of the hot -rocks is a bed of ice, covered by a foot or so of ice water. The body -of ice was perhaps twelve or fifteen feet long, by five feet across -in the widest places. This cave is formed by a fissure that extends a -distance of twenty miles from the ice cave to Pittville, and nearly -coincides with the 4000 foot level, as shown in the map. Along the -southeastern half of this earth fissure the southwest wall has faulted, -leaving a cliff, which, in places, must be nearly 200 feet high." - - -Freezing Shafts, Montana.--Mr. Robert Butler, of San Jose, Cal., has -given me much information about glacieres in Montana. He visited one -miners' shaft which is situated about 80 kilometers up the Rosebud -River from Rosebud Station on the Northern Pacific R. R., and about 10 -kilometers northeast of the Cheyenne Indian Agency. It is on the north -slope of the Little Wolf Mountains, near the summit, at the head of -Greenleaf Creek. The canyon and surrounding slopes are covered with -a dense growth of pine. The rock has the appearance of scoriae caused -by the burning of immense beds of coal in recent geological times. The -rock is broken into comparatively small pieces. The altitude is some -1200 meters. The forest, the volcanic ash and the altitude, besides -the loose rock formation, makes this place a natural ice house. Ten or -twelve years ago three prospectors, looking for silver, sunk a shaft -here. At a depth of about 4 meters it began to grow cold, and at 6 -meters they found ice and imagined they could feel an upward draught. -Being ignorant and superstitious, they became frightened and abandoned -the shaft. During the winter, the snow fills the shaft half full of -ice, which then remains over through the summer. There is a general -report and belief among those who have visited the well, that it -freezes in summer and thaws in winter. There are thousands of mining -shafts in Montana, and if they are on the north slope of a mountain -of considerable altitude and under a dense forest and not too deep, -they generally have ice at the bottom during the summer. It is also -said to be nothing new for a miner in following crevices to find them -filled with ice, especially if near the surface on the north slope of a -mountain. - - -Freezing Cave, Fergus County, Montana.--Mr. Robert Butler, of San Jose, -Cal., visited this place, which is about 35 kilometers southeast of -Lewistown. It is on the north side of a butte. Masses of ice and great -icicles form in some parts of the cave in such quantities during the -latter part of winter that the cave furnishes ice for cooling the -drinking water for several dozen families. During July and August the -people come from some distance around to get the ice. The people in the -neighborhood believe that the ice forms in summer and thaws away in -winter. They also speak of the ever upward draught of cold air coming -possibly from some great hidden cavern in the lower recesses of the -mountain. - - -Freezing Well at Horse Plains, Montana. (Levi Allen, _Scientific -American_. New Series, 27th October, 1883.)--The well is described as -13.60 meters deep. It is dug through solid gravel, and in sinking it -there was encountered, at a depth of 10.60 meters, a current of air -strong enough to blow out a candle. It began to freeze in September, -1882, and in November it was frozen solid. - - -Freezing Silver Mine, Bighorn County, Wyoming.--This place is in the -Sunlight Basin of the Shoshone Mountains. Mr. William Worrell Wagner, -of Philadelphia, informs me that he visited it in August, 1897. It is -a silver mine or tunnel, running straight into the mountain for about -60 meters, at an altitude of about 3300 meters. The peaks of the Teton -range were in sight from the mouth of the tunnel. For the first half of -the way in, a good many icicles were hanging from the rocks. The last -half of the tunnel was thickly coated with ice and looked like a cold -storage plant. Snow disappears on the rocks outside about June, and -begins to fall again in September, so that Mr. Wagner's visit was at -about the hottest time of the year. Mr. Wagner presented the meat of a -bull wapiti he had shot to the miners, and they stored it in the mine -as if it had been an artificial refrigerator. - - -Rifts of Ice, Mount McClellan, Colorado. (Edward L. Berthoud, _American -Journal of Science and Arts_. Third Series, 1876, vol. XI., page -108.)--Near the summit of Mount McClellan, is the Centennial Lode, -which runs into the mountain, at an altitude of about 3900 meters. -Intercalated in the mineral vein are three or four well defined veins -of solid ice parallel with the bedding of the rock and filling all its -inner side-cracks and fissures. The same frozen substratum is found in -two other lodes near by on the same mountain. Nothing of the kind is -known on other Colorado mountains. The soil is loose and largely made -up of rocky debris, which shows that the ice is probably due to local -causes. - - -Freezing Tunnel on the Hagerman Pass, Colorado. (_Philadelphia Press_, -October 16th, 1897.)--The Hagerman Pass Railroad line is said to -have been abandoned after the completion of the Busk-Ivanhoe tunnel, -but to have been rebuilt. The Hagerman tunnel for a distance of over -700 meters was filled with solid ice, and it required blasting with -dynamite, and a month's continuous labor, day and night, to dig the ice -out. - - -Freezing Cavern in Cow Mountain, Colorado. (_Post Dispatch_, St. Louis, -Mo., July 13th, 1897, and September 5th, 1897. _Mail Order Monthly_, -St. Paul, Minn., October, 1899.)--The cave was discovered by parties -doing assessment work on a group of claims. A man was picking in a -three meter hole when he struck his pick into an opening, which was -gradually enlarged and showed a deep pit underneath. The men got a rope -and descended into an immense cavern full of ice. Later exploration -led to a small hall, some 5 meters in diameter, full of icicles. From -here a fissure led into a second rock chamber larger than the first. A -small hole in the floor at an angle of some 45 deg. gave access to a third -and larger hall, about 25 meters by 40 meters. Great masses of ice were -found in this, also a small lake, about 12 meters by 20 meters. "Some -who have visited the wonderful discovery are of the opinion that it -is a great cave or fissure in a glacier which for centuries has been -slowly making its way down from Pike's Peak and whose waters are now -feeding the Arkansas River." - - -Windhole, Arizona. (_Christian Herald_, March 24th, 1897.)--Mr. Cofman, -while drilling a well on his place, is said to have opened a windhole -from which the escaping air current was strong enough to blow off the -hats of the men who were recovering the lost drill. Some days the air -escapes with such force that pebbles the size of peas are thrown up, -accompanied by a sound much like the distant bellowing of a fog horn. -Again for days there will be a suction current, unaccompanied by -sound, in which the current of air passes into the earth with somewhat -less force than when escaping, and any light object, as a feather or a -piece of paper, will be immediately sucked in. The account is probably -exaggerated. - - -Freezing Lava Cave near Flagstaff, Arizona.--Professor W. B. Scott of -Princeton University told me of this cave, which he had not visited -himself. It lies 14.5 kilometers south of Flagstaff, on the Mesa -table land, at an altitude of about 2000 meters. It was described to -Professor Scott as a double cave, with two floors, one over the other, -the lower containing the most ice. It is in lava, and can only be -entered by crawling in on hands and knees. - - -Freezing Cave or Gorge, White Mountains, Arizona.--Mr. Frank Hamilton -Cushing has told me of this place. It is a cleft among lava rock, which -being roofed at the further end, might be described as a cave. In this -the ice remains until June or July, much later than anywhere else in -the neighborhood. The Zuni Indians worship before this, calling the -ice the breath of the Gods, the snow they consider as a sort of down. -The region is arid, which makes any water precious, and this fact has -developed the element of mysticism about snow and ice among the Indians. - - -Freezing Cave near Galena, Black Hills, South Dakota. (Miss L. A. -Owen, _Cave Regions of the Ozarks and Black Hills_. Cincinnati, 1898, -page 209): "At Galena, a new mining town of golden promise, there is -reported to be an Ice Cave, where ice forms at all seasons, and during -the warm weather is a source of comfort and pleasure to the miners." - - -Windholes in the Ozark Mountains, Missouri.--Mr. H. F. Brinckerhoff, -of Aurora, Mo., informs me that there are a number of cold air current -caves in the Ozark Mountain region. One of them is some 19 kilometers -south of Aurora, Lawrence County, and is used for cold storage in -summer. There is a cave in a limestone bluff about 15 meters above a -river, and in the rear is this windhole, which is an opening about 30 -centimeters high and 3 meters wide. A strong current of air comes out -from it in summer, and the hotter the air outside, the stronger is the -outward coming current. In winter the current is reversed. The outward -current is so strong in very hot weather that a handkerchief held in it -is straightened out to an angle of about 45 deg.. - - -Freezing Cave and Well at Decorah, Iowa. Described in Part I. (Dr. C. -A. White, _Report of Geological Survey of State of Iowa_, 1870, vol. -I., page 80. A. F. Kovarik, _Scientific American Supplement_, No. 1195, -November 26th, 1898, pages 19,158, 19,159). - -On June 1st, 1869, Dr. White found the ice dry and well frozen, and he -thought it was then accumulating. The cave was cool and apparently dry, -and no strong air current was passing through. - -Mr. Alois F. Kovarik, of the Decorah Institute, has made a valuable -series of observations about the Decorah Cave. The temperatures he -observed were the following: - - IN THE VALLEY, LOCUS - SHADE. DIVISION. GLACIALIS. END. - - July 1, 1897 +33.3 deg. +2.2 deg. 0.0 deg. 0.0 deg. - " 27, " +21.1 deg. +5.0 deg. 0.0 deg. 0.0 deg. - Aug. 14, " +32.2 deg. +5.8 deg. +3.1 deg. 0.0 deg. - Sept. 3, " +32.2 deg. +7.2 deg. +3.1 deg. +8.3 deg. - " 18, " +33.9 deg. +8.6 deg. +6.1 deg. +8.3 deg. - Oct. 16, " +24.0 deg. +10.0 deg. +8.3 deg. +8.3 deg. - " 30, " +10.0 deg. +7.2 deg. +4.7 deg. +5.0 deg. - Dec. 11, " -2.2 deg. -2.7 deg. -1.1 deg. -2.0 deg. - Jan. 8, 1898 -0.0 deg. -2.7 deg. -3.9 deg. 0.0 deg. - " 22, " -5.0 deg. -6.1 deg. -3.9 deg. -3.9 deg. - Feb. 26, " -0.0 deg. -6.6 deg. -6.6 deg. -5.0 deg. - March 12, " +2.8 deg. -1.6 deg. -2.7 deg. -2.7 deg. - " 26, " +8.8 deg. -1.7 deg. -1.6 deg. -1.1 deg. - April 16, " +25.6 deg. -1.4 deg. +1.1 deg. -1.1 deg. - " 30, " +13.9 deg. +1.1 deg. -1.1 deg. -1.1 deg. - May 28, " +17.2 deg. +1.7 deg. -0.3 deg. 0.0 deg. - June 9, " +25.0 deg. +1.7 deg. -0.3 deg. 0.0 deg. - " 18, " +22.3 deg. +1.7 deg. -0.2 deg. 0.0 deg. - July 16, " +35.0 deg. +7.2 deg. 0.0 deg. +2.2 deg. - -On the 1st of July, 1897, a cold breeze was noticed coming from the -cave to a distance of at least 30 meters. At the entrance the breeze -was strong enough to blow out a candle. This breeze was not noticed at -other times. From December to February inclusive, on the contrary, the -breeze was reversed. From July to October, 1897, the walls of the cave -were moist. From October to February they were dry. In February frost -began to appear on the walls. On March 12th, 1898, the walls were -covered with frost. The ice appeared at a spot nearly at the end of the -cave on the 26th of March, 1898. At a place about 6.50 meters nearer -the entrance, however, is where most ice forms. This place Mr. Kovarik -calls _Locus Glacialis_. The ice appeared here about the 29th of May, -1898. It increased rapidly up to June 12th, when it was at its maximum, -and was about two meters in width. It generally covers the north wall -from top to base. The greatest thickness in 1898 was 29 centimeters. - -The temperature which Mr. Kovarik recorded on the 16th of April at -_Locus Glacialis_ of +1.1 seems an anomalous one. On writing to him -he sent me the following explanation: "April 16th, after I left the -thermometer at _Locus Glacialis_ the usual time, I noticed that it -registered +1.1 deg. C. It seemed singular, for at both the Division and -the End, the thermometer registered considerably lower. I left the -thermometer at its place for about an hour longer, and noticed then -that it did not register differently. I would suggest this explanation: -This is true about water that upon freezing it gives off its latent -heat. Now on April 16th some water dripped into the cave on the wall -near where the thermometer was, about 1.50 meters from the floor. The -amount of water was very small, but as it came in contact with the cold -wall it began to give out its latent heat which affected the close by -thermometer. The temperature of the rock was without doubt between -1. deg. -and -3 deg.." - - -Freezing Cavern at Brainard, Iowa. (Alois F. Kovarik, _Decorah Public -Opinion_, September 20th, 1899.)--This little cave is situated on the -north side of a hill about 1.5 kilometers northwest of Brainard. It is -about 4.50 meters deep. On June 10th, 1899, Mr. Kovarik found the floor -and walls covered with ice. The temperature was 0 deg. C. The owner claims -to have taken enough ice out of it on July 4th, 1897, to freeze cream. - - -Freezing Cave near Elkinsville, Brown County, Indiana. (Clipping from -a western newspaper, 1896.)--The entrance is said to be overlapped by -trees and to resemble a mine shaft. The winding way leads to a hollow -some 15 meters below the surface, resembling a broad vaulted corridor, -which is known to the natives as the devil's chamber and where the -temperature is low. From this point several galleries lead further in, -and from one of them comes a blast of icy cold air. This passage is -similar to the one at the entrance to the cave, but after a few meters -frost is visible, and further on it is thick on all sides, like the -crust that is formed on the pipes of an ice plant. The narrow way leads -to a big chamber, known as the ice vault. In this dome, which is fully -30 meters in width, the ice forms a large stalagmite and is of unknown -depth. - - -Freezing Gully on Mount Abraham, Maine. (Jackson, _Report of the -Geology of Maine_, 1839, III.)--Ice was found in June at an altitude of -1032 meters among the boulders in one of the gullies of Mount Abraham. - -[Illustration: FREEZING CAVERN AT BRAINARD. - - From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik. -] - - -Subterranean Ice in King's Ravine, Mount Adams, New -Hampshire.--Described in Part I., page 1. - - -Ice Gulch on Crescent Mountain, Randolph, New Hampshire.--Described in -Part I., page 83. - - -Ice in a Hole at Dixville Notch, New Hampshire.--Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., -of Boston, has examined this place, which he is sure is a refrigerator. -It is in a hole north of the cliff and near its top. - - -Ice on Mount Garfield, New Hampshire.--Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., informs -me that ice was discovered among the boulders on the summit of Mount -Garfield during the summer of 1897. - - -Freezing Talus near Rumney, New Hampshire.--Described in Part I., page -85. - - -Freezing Talus near North Woodstock, New Hampshire.--Mr. John Ritchie, -Jr., has examined this locality. He thinks the ice was gone in July, -but judges it to be on the level of an old talus and a couple of meters -down. - - -Freezing Well at Lyman, Grafton County, New Hampshire. (_Geology of -Vermont_, 1861, I., page 197.)--A well in that town is reported as -having been frozen solid in June, 1816, at a depth of about 2.60 meters -from the surface. - - -Icy Wells at the Foot of Mount Mansfield, Vermont. (N. M. Lowe, -_Science Observer_, vol. II., page 58.)--These are described as being -really "incipient caves." - - -Freezing Cave near Manchester, Vermont.--Described in Part I., page 76. - - -Ice Bed of Wallingford, Rutland County, Vermont. Described in Part I., -page 99. (S. Pearl Lathrop, _American Journal of Science and Arts_, -1844, XLVI., page 331.)--Dr. Lathrop says that ice has been found at -the Ice Bed as late as September. - - -Freezing Wells at Brandon, Vermont. Described in Part I., page 77. -(_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page 192.)--Mr. Hager says that -the well was dug into a mass of sand and gravel, of the kind known -as modified drift. The gravel was frozen at the time of digging. The -Boston Natural History Society, in 1859, sank two wells, one 21 meters -southeast of the original one, the other 21 meters northwest. The first -was 10 meters in depth and did not reach ice; the second was 11 meters -in depth, and came to the layer of frozen gravel. - - -Cave near Brandon, Vermont. (_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page -197.)--Mr. Hager heard that about 3 kilometers north of Brandon village -was a cavern, in a hill, in which ice is found most of the summer. - - -Icy Gulf near Great Barrington, Massachusetts.--Mentioned in Part I., -page 99. - - -Icy Glen near Stockbridge, Massachusetts.--Described in Part I., page -75. - - -The Snow Hole, New York: near Williamstown, Massachusetts. Described in -Part I., page 98. (Dewey, _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1819, -vol. I., page 340; and 1822, vol. V., page 398.)--Mr. Dewey found, in -June, snow 2 meters deep on ice of unknown depth. On his second visit -he found less ice and snow than on his first visit, as the trees in the -neighborhood had been cut down. - - -Glaciere near Williamstown, Massachusetts.--Described in Part I., page -101. - - -Freezing Well near Ware, Massachusetts.--(_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, -vol. I., page 197.)--Depth 11.5 meters. This is in a sand and gravel -formation much like that at Brandon, except that there is less clay, -and that none of the pebbles are limestone. - - -Wolfshollow near Salisbury, Connecticut. (C. A. Lee, _American Journal -of Science and Arts_, 1824, vol. VIII., page 254.)--In the eastern -portion of the township, at an altitude of about 800 meters, is a chasm -about 100 meters long, 18 meters deep and 12 meters wide. It is in -mica-slate, and is sheltered by large trees. At the bottom at one end -is a spring of cold water and a cave of considerable extent, in which -ice and snow is found the greater part of the year. - - -Natural Ice House, near Meriden, Connecticut. (Benjamin Silliman, -_American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1822, vol. IV., page 174.)--It -lies between New Haven and Hartford, about 32 kilometers from the sea, -at an altitude of about 60 meters. The ice is found in a narrow defile -of perpendicular trap rock, at the bottom filled with broken stones. -The defile is so placed that in summer the sun only shines into it for -about an hour each day; it is also well protected by surrounding trees, -the leaves from which form beds at the bottom among the rocks and help -to protect the ice. - - -Natural Ice House of Northford, Connecticut. (Benjamin Silliman, -_American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1822, vol. IV., page -177.)--About 11 kilometers from New Haven on the Middletown road -between Branford and Northford, is a gorge where ice remains throughout -the year. In this case the ice is mixed with a considerable quantity of -leaves and dirt; it has sometimes been brought to New Haven. - - -Ice in an Old Iron Mine, near Port Henry, Lake Champlain. (_Geology of -Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page 199.)--Ice was found during the summer at -a depth of from 15 meters to 30 meters, and a current of cold air was -issuing from the opening. There seems to be more than one opening to -the mine. - - -Freezing Talus on Lower Ausable Pond, Essex County, New -York.--Described in Part I., page 79. - - -Freezing Talus at the South Base of the Giant of the Valley, Essex -County, New York.--Described in Part I., page 81. - - -Freezing Boulder Talus, Indian Pass, New York. See Part I., page 83. - - -Freezing Boulder Talus, Avalanche Pass, New York.--See Part I., page 83. - - -Freezing Cave near Carlisle, New York.--See Part I., page 93. - - -Ice among the Catskill Mountains, New York.--Mr. George Brinton -Phillips informs me that he has seen subterranean ice in August among -boulders in a gorge in the Catskills near the Stony Cloves road, -starting out from Haines' Falls. The people in the neighborhood speak -of the place as an ice cave. - - -Gorge in the Shawangunk Mountains, near Ellenville, Ulster County, New -York. Described in Part I., page 91. (Heilprin, _Around the World_, -1894, page 194.)--Professor Heilprin found in July a mass of ice -measuring about thirty meters in length and 1 meter in depth. The -thermometer near the ice read about 1 deg. C. above freezing point, the day -being hot. Icicles hung from the ledges on the side of the gorge. - - -Freezing Gorge at Sam's Point, New York.--See Part I., page 93. - - -Ice Deposits and Windholes at Watertown, New York.--Described in Part -I., page 86. - - -Freezing Well near Tioga, New York.--Depth, 23 meters. No information. - - -Freezing Well near Prattsburg, New York.--Depth, 6.5 meters. No -information. - - -Freezing Well near Owego, New York. Described in Part I., page 74. -(D. O. Macomber, _American Journal of Arts and Sciences_, 1839, vol. -XXXVI., page 184. _Well's Annual of Scientific Discovery_, 1856, page -190.)--The thermometer is said to have stood at--1.2 deg. at the bottom of -the biggest well when it registered--20 deg. outside. When a candle was -let down, the flame became agitated and was thrown in one direction -at the depth of 9 meters; at the bottom the flame was still, but soon -died out. Large masses of ice were found in the biggest well as late -as July, and the men who made the well were forced to put on thick -clothing in June, and even so could not work for more than two hours at -a time. - - -Cave in the Panama Rocks, Chautauqua, New York. The Rev. Horace C. -Hovey informs me that he has been in a small cave in this locality, and -that he found ice in it. - - -Cave in Sussex County, New Jersey.--A clipping from a newspaper, with -neither name nor date, says that new ice is found daily on the land of -Peter Feather, in the mouth of an unexplored cavern. A small stream of -water runs out of the cavern and forms a pool at the opening, and here -it is that the ice forms. Enough has been taken in one day to freeze -two cans of ice cream. A cold draught of air issues continuously from -the cavern. - - -Hole Containing Ice on Blue Mountain, New Jersey. Reported; no -information. - - -Gorge Containing Ice on Bald Eagle Mountain, Clinton County, -Pennsylvania.--Mr. Henry Chapman Mercer, of Doylestown, learned of -the existence of this gorge during the summer of 1897. It is near the -village of McElhatten, in the neighborhood of Lock Haven, and is some -3 kilometers distant from the Susquehanna River. Ice is said to remain -over during the entire summer. - - -Freezing Cave and Windholes near Farrandsville, Clinton County, -Pennsylvania.--Described in Part I., page 93. - - -Underground Ice Formations, Sullivan County, Pennsylvania, on the -southwestern borders of Lycoming County.--Mr. W. Coleman Hall of -Philadelphia, about twenty years ago, found ice in two or three -places, on Bear Creek, north of Muncy Creek, about 25 kilometers north -of the Susquehanna River, and southwest of Eagles Mere. The ice was -under rocks, in what may be described as limestone sinks. Since the -destruction of the forest, the ice has become less abundant, if indeed -any still forms. - - -Glacieres in Abandoned Coal Mines near Summit, Carbon County, -Pennsylvania.--Described in Part I., page 95. - - -Ice Cave Railroad Station, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. On the Bowman -Creek branch of the Lehigh Valley R. R.--Mr. F. Holschuh, agent at -Luzerne, informs me that about 2 kilometers from Ice Cave Station is a -little waterfall on the side of a mountain which was formerly covered -with dense forest. A short distance below the fall, a large hollow -place has been worn out of the rocks by the action of the water. The -overhanging rocks give this almost the appearance of a cave. While -the forest was still thick and when the winter was cold, ice would -form under these rocks and would not disappear until summer was well -advanced. The station was called Ice Cave on account of this place. - - -Hole Containing Ice at Millerstown, Pennsylvania.--Reported; no -information. - - -Freezing Talus at Spruce Creek, Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania. -Described in Part I., page 90. The _Philadelphia Ledger_ of July 6th, -1896, states that around the boulders where the ice lies, there are -found varieties of plants strongly arctic in character. - - -Ice Mountain, Hampshire County, Virginia. (C. B. Hayden, _American -Journal of Science and Arts_, 1843, vol. XLV., page 78.)--It lies on -the North River, near the road leading from Winchester to Romney, at -an altitude of from about 220 meters to 240 meters. One side of the -hill is entirely composed of loose stones, among which an abundance -of ice is found at all times, although the sun shines on the upper -surface of the stones from ten in the morning until sunset. The ice is -regularly used in summer by the people near by. Constant and strong air -currents issue from the crevices in the rocks. Similar, but smaller -accumulations, are said to occur in the same county. Mrs. George B. -Balch visited the Ice Mountain in August, 1878. She saw no ice, but the -air under the stones was very cold. - - -Blowing Cave, Bath County, Virginia.--Mrs. Horace Jayne informs me that -there is a blowing cave near the Cowpasture River, about half way on -the old stage road between Millboro and Warm Springs. A draught flows -out from it, strong enough to blow the grass about, three or four -meters away. The draught is cold, perhaps abnormally so. The cave has -not yet been explored. - - -SOUTH AMERICA. - -Ice Sheets on Mount Chimborazo. (A. von Humboldt, _Travels to -the Equinoctial Regions_, London, 1814, vol. I., page 156.)--"On -Chimborazo, enormous heaps of ice are found covered with sand, and in -the same manner as at the Peak [of Teneriffe] far below the inferior -limit of the perpetual snows." - - -Tierra del Fuego. (A. Winchel, _Walks and Talks_, 1898, page 122.)--"On -Tierra del Fuego ice and lava are found interstratified for a great -depth, each winter's snow being covered by a new lava sheet." - - -TENERIFFE. - -La Cueva de la Nieve or del Hielo. (Humboldt, _Travels to the -Equinoctial Regions_, 1814, vol. I., pages 154, 156. C. Piazzi Smyth, -_Teneriffe, an Astronomer's Experiment_, 1858, page 348.)--La Cueva de -la Nieve lies at an altitude of 3267 meters in the Malpays on the Peak -of Teneriffe, just below the snow line. It is in obsidian. The entrance -is 3.6 meters high and 2.7 meters broad. The grotto is 36 meters long, -6 meters wide, and 4 meters high. The descent into the cave is so steep -that it is necessary to be lowered by ropes. Professor Smyth found in -July an ice floor about 60 centimeters thick which was covered with -water. A good deal of snow was lying near the mouth of the cave. The -walls were covered with ice and icicles and a few small ice cones rose -on the ice floor. - - -ICELAND. - -The Surtshellir or Cave of Surtur. (Olafsen and Povelsen, _Voyage en -Islande_, Paris, 1802. Henderson, _Iceland_, 1819, 2d ed., page 420. -Guimard, _Voyage en Islande_, page 481.)--The Surtshellir lies in the -volcanic waste of Westisland, and is in lava which has flowed from the -Bald Jokul. The approach is through an open chasm. The length of the -cave is 1534 meters, with an average width of from 15 meters to 17 -meters, and a nearly uniform height of from 9 meters to 11 meters. In -four places the roof is broken and allows daylight to enter. A great -deal of ice is sometimes found in the cave, in the shape of an ice -floor, transparent icy pillars, hanging icy pendants, and columns and -arches of ice along the walls. Some of the pillars have been found 2.50 -meters high. - - -Kutlagaya. (A. Winchel, _Walks and Talks_, 1898, page 122.)--"In -1860 the crater of the mountain Kutlagaya, in Iceland, hurled out -simultaneously into the air lumps of lava and ice, all intermingled -together." - - -SCANDINAVIA. - -Ice in the Mines of Nordmark. (Jars, _Voyages Metallurgiques_, 1774, -page 105.)--13 kilometers north of Philipstadt, Wermeland, Sweden, a -number of holes were dug, some to a depth of 120 meters. Ice of some -thickness formed in some of these towards the end of winter, and lasted -until about September, despite the fires of the workmen. - - -Persberg Iron Mines, Sweden. (J. Prestwich, _Collected papers_, etc., -on page 206, quotes Dr. Clark's _Travels in Scandinavia._)--Ice is said -to have been found on the sides and bottom of the mine to a depth of -about 135 meters. - - -Ice Caves Reported in Norway.--I was told in Norway that some of the -caves in the mountains near the Swartisen ice field contained ice, but -I do not know whether this is true. I suspect that there are glacier -ice caves which have given rise to this report. - - -ENGLAND. - -Helvellyn, Cumberland. (Wordsworth, _Fidelity_.)--The following verses -were pointed out to me by Mr. Bunford Samuel. As far as I know they are -the only poetry about glacieres:-- - - "It was a cove, a huge recess - That keeps, till June, December's snow; - A lofty precipice in front, - A silent tarn below! - Far in the bosom of Helvellyn, - Remote from public road or dwelling - Pathway or cultivated land - From trace of human foot or hand." - - -Ice in an Old Copper Mine, Cumberland. (J. Clifford Ward, _Nature_, -vol. XI., page 310.)--Ice reported as a rare occurrence. - - -Ludchurch Chasm, Staffordshire. (R. K. Dent and Joseph Hill's _Historic -Staffordshire_, quote Dr. Plot, 1686.)--Mr. Bunford Samuel called my -attention to this book, in which Dr. Plot is quoted as saying that -as late as the 17th of July, snow has been found in Ludchurch Chasm. -Messrs. Dent and Hill do not mention anything of the kind as occurring -now. - - -Blowing Cave in Denbighshire, Wales.--A newspaper cutting says -that there are such strong eruptions of winds from a cave in this -neighborhood as to toss back to a great height in the air any article -of apparel thrown in. - - -Tin Croft Mine, Cornwall. (J. Prestwich, _Collected papers_, etc., page -206, quotes Mr. Moyle.)--Ice has been found in abundance in this mine -at a depth of nearly 100 meters. - - -CENTRAL EUROPE. - -Glaciere de Chaux-les-Passavant. Described in Part I., page 8. -(Poissenot, _Nouvelles Histoires Tragiques de Benigne Poissenot, -licencie aux lois. A Paris, chez Guillaume Bichon, rue S. Jacques, a -l'enseigne du Bichot, 1586, avec privilege du Roy_, pages 436-453. -Gollut, _Les Memoires historiques de la Repub. Sequanoise, et des -princes de la Franche Comte de Bourgogne, par M. Lois Gollut, Advocat -au Parlement de Dole; A Dole, 1592_. Trouillet, _Memoires de la -Societe d'Emulation du Doubs, 1885_. Girardot, _Memoires de la Societe -d'Emulation du Doubs, 1886_.) - -The earliest notice of a glaciere which I have been able to find is in -the shape of a letter giving an account of a visit to the Glaciere de -Chaux-les-Passavant in 1584, by Benigne Poissenot, a French lawyer. -The account, which I have translated as literally as possible, is in a -special chapter, as follows:-- - -"Sir:--Since our separation, I have had this pleasure (_heut_) to -hear news of you only once, having found your brother in Paris; who, -having assured me of your good health (_disposition_), informed me of -how since we had seen each other you had travelled to Italy, even as -far as Greece, of which you had seen a large portion: and that sound -and safe, after so long a journey, you had reappeared and landed at -Havre de Grace where you wished to go, that is to say at home. All the -pleasure which a friend can receive, knowing the affairs of another -self, joined to such a happy result, seized my heart, at the recital -of such agreeable news: and I did not fail shortly after, to write you -amply all which had happened to me since I left you until my return to -France: congratulating you at having escaped from marine abysses and -perilous passages on land, on which travellers are often constrained -to risk their life. From this time, I have always stayed in Paris or -in the neighborhood, according to the good pleasure of dame fortune, -who ruled me in her wise and fed me with her dishes the most common -and ordinary until the first day of January of the year 1584, when I -received my first gift in the shape of a strong and violent disease, -which tormented me more than a month: from which, having become cured -with the help of God, and having with time recovered my health and my -strength at the arrival of spring, I was seized with the desire to -smell the air of the country. And in fact having thrown away my pen -and travelled about (_battu l'estrade_) through high and low Burgundy, -I stopped at Bezenson, Imperial City, to spend the summer. This city -is still to day just the same as Julius Caesar describes it, in the -notable mention he makes of it, in the first book of his commentaries -of the war in Gaul, there remaining there all the vestiges of the -most remarkable things, which he tells of in his description. There -are also very fine fountains, from all of which water streams from -the representation of some god of antiquity, as a Neptune, a Bacchus, -a Pan, a Nereide or others: except before the state house, where the -statue of Charles the Fifth, representing him in a most natural manner, -is placed on an eagle, which from its beak, pours out such a great -quantity of water that this is the most beautiful, among all the other -fountains. And as I do not doubt that while traversing Italy, you both -saw and examined with curiosity the most handsome singularities, which -presented themselves to your eyes and that on your return, passing -through Avignon and Dauphine, as your brother informed me, you had -the advantage over me of seeing the wonders of the country, of which -you had heard me speak sometimes, regretting that the war, during the -time I was in that quarter, had prevented my going to the spot, to see -the burning fountain as in Dodone, and the fountain called Jupiter, -which torches of fire light up and which grows less till midday and -then grows till midnight, and then diminishes and fails at midday: -and another in Epirus which we call to day Albania, the tower without -venom and the inaccessible mountain: then as I said, since you have -contemplated these things and several others not less admirable, I -wish to entertain you about a marvel which I saw, during my sojourn -in Bezenson, to know from you, whether in all your journey, you saw -a similar thing. Know then that the day of the festival of St. John -Baptist, a young man, provided with an honest knowledge, with whom I -had made some little acquaintance, presented me with an icicle, to -cool my wine at dinner, and which I admired greatly, on account of the -time of the year in which we then were, begging him who gave it to me -to tell me where he had discovered this rare present for that time. He -answered me that every year, the day of the solemnity of the festival -of St. John Baptist, the inhabitants of a village, which he named, were -bound to come to offer the great church of St. John of Bezenson, a -goodly quantity of ice, which they got in a wood, and brought to town -at night on horses, for fear that by day it should melt, and that one -of his cronies had given to him what he had given to me. - -"Suddenly there flamed up in me a desire to see this place, where -in the height of the summer, ice was to be found. When he who had -presented me with the icicle saw this, he promised to accompany me, not -having as yet, any more than myself, seen this marvel. I did not hatch -very long this decision, all the more as all those, to whom I mentioned -it, encouraged me to carry it out as soon as I could, assuring me that -I should see a strange thing, and that even the Duke of Alva on his -return from Flanders, passing through Franche Comte, had wished to -see this novelty. Therefore calling on the promise of the one who was -the cause of undertaking this journey, we went together to Versey, a -fine town, distant five leagues from Bezenson, turning a little off -our direct route, to go to see a literary man, at this said Versey, -who having called on me at Bezenson, had extracted from me the promise -of going to see him. There happened to me in this spot, what the poet -du Bellay says happened to him, on his return from Italy, passing -through the Grisons, to go into France: who, after having chanted the -troubles there are in the passage, says that the Swiss made him drink -so much, that he does not remember anything he saw in that country. -Likewise, I can assure you that my host, following the custom of those -of the country (who do not think they are treating a man properly if -they do not make him drink a lot, taking that from the Germans, their -neighbors) made us carouse so well, that when we went to bed, we were -very gay boys. For although we had both made an agreement on the road, -yet our host knew so well how to win us over, saying that those who -would not drink, gave reason to think badly of them, and that they had -committed, or wished to commit some great crime, which they feared to -give away in drinking, that in the end we let ourselves go, passing -the time in Pantagruelic fashion. The next morning having taken some -"hair from the beast" and a guide which our host gave to us to conduct -us to the _Froidiere_--we continued our wanderings, and arrived at a -little village called Chaud, joining a large wood, where our guide told -us, that although he had been more than six times to the _Froidiere_, -yet the road was so tortuous and so cut up by small paths, that if we -did not take a man from this village, to be more sure, we might spend -more than half a day in the wood, before finding what we were seeking. -Getting off our horses now, we added to our company a native of the -place, who having led us by crooked roads, about a quarter of a league, -through the forest, made us enter into a close thicket and by a little -path led us to a pleasant meadow; where, looking down, we saw a hole, -of difficult descent, at the bottom of which was the opening of a -grotto, pretty big, and so awful and terrifying to see, that one would -have said, it was the mouth of Hell. And in truth, I remembered then, -the hole of St. Patrick, which is said to be in Hibernia. We were not -brave enough knights, to try the adventure, my companion and I, if our -guides had not taken the lead. After whom we descended as magnanimously -as the Trojan Duke followed the Sybil to the Plutonic realms, the sword -half drawn from the scabbard, and well determined to make test of the -Platonic doctrine, which teaches that demons can be dissected, in case -any shade or spook should have come to meet us. About the middle of -the way, we began to feel in descending a very agreeable freshness; -for it was the second day of July and the sun shone very warmly, which -made us sweat drop by drop. But we had good opportunity to refresh -ourselves and put ourselves to cool, having reached the grotto which -we found of the length and breadth of a large hall, all paved with ice -in the bottom, and where a crystalline water, colder than that of the -mountains of Arcadia Nonacris, streamed from many small brooklets, -which formed very clear fountains, with the water of which I washed -myself and drank so eagerly, that I had wished the thirst of Tantalus, -or else that I had been bitten by a Dipsas, in order to be always -thirsty, amid such a pleasant beverage. A great lord, who in some -pleasure resort, should have such a refrigerator in summer, could boast -according to my judgment, to be better provided with drink, than the -kings of Persia were with their river Coaspis, which engulphs itself -into the Tigris, the water whereof was so sweet, that the use of it -was allowed only to the great King, for the retinue and cronies of his -household. Do not think, that among these delights, I was at all free -from fear, for never did I raise my eyes above that from terror my -whole body shivered and the hair stood up on my head, seeing the whole -roof of the grotto, covered with big massive icicles, the least of -which, falling on me, had been sufficient to scramble up my brains and -knock me to pieces; so much so that I was like to that criminal, whom -they say is punished in Hell, by the continual fear of a big stone, -which seems as though it must suddenly fall on his ears. There are -besides the large hall of the grotto, some rather roomy corners, where -the gentlemen of the neighborhood, put their venison to cool in summer, -and we saw the hooks, where they hang the wild fowl. It is true, that -when we were there, we saw neither game nor wild fowl, and I think, -that if we had found any of it, we were men to carry off some of it. -We walked around for about a quarter of an hour, in this _Froidiere_ -and we should have staid there longer if the cold had not driven us -out; which struck in to our backs, even to make our teeth crack; we -reascended the slope, not forgetting, all of us as many as we were, to -provide and load ourselves with ice, which served us at lunch in the -little village mentioned above to drink most delightfully, assuring -you that it is impossible to drink more freshly than we drank then. I -thought of those old voluptuaries, who cooled their wine with snow, and -it seemed to me, as though they might have had it much cheaper if in -their time there had been many such _Froidieres_, to refresh it with -ice, instead of with snow, as some of the gentlemen of the neighborhood -of the _Froidiere_ and some of the most notable persons of the -neighborhood of Bezenson do; who by night, have a good supply brought -on horses, which they keep in their caves, and use at their meals and -banquets. Turning back towards the Imperial city of Bezenson, I carried -for about two great leagues, a rather large icicle in my hands, which -little by little melted and was a pleasant and agreeable cooler, on -account of the great heat of the weather. After having thought over in -my mind, the cause of this _antiperistase_, I could find none other but -this: to wit, that as heat domineers in summer, the cold retires to -places low and subterranean, such as is this one, to which the rays of -the sun cannot approach, and that in such an aquatic and humid place, -it operates the results, which we have shown above. Which seemed to me -so much more likely, that on asking the peasants of the neighboring -village, if in winter there was ice in this _Froidiere_, they answered -me that there was none, and that on the contrary, it was very warm -there. Whatever may be the cause, whether this or another, I can assure -you, that I admired this singularity as much as any I have seen, -since a large church, cut into a rock which I had seen a few years -previously, in a little town of Gascony called St. Milion, distant -seven leagues from Bordeaux; on the steeple of which is the cemetery, -where they bury the dead; a thing to be marvelled at by him who has not -seen it. - -"I have made trial, to enrich this missive, with all the artifice -which has come into my head, using the leisure, which the present time -brings me: as the temple of Janus is open, the air beyond breathing -nothing but war: which forces me, against my wish, to sojourn in this -place longer than I had intended. If these troubles settle down, and if -after the rain, God sends us fine weather as requires the calamitous -state in which is now the flat country, I shall return to my Parnassus; -from which if I go out hereafter, believe that it will be very much in -spite of myself, or that my will will have very much changed. You will -be able to let me hear from you there, and take your revenge for the -prolixity of this letter, by sending me one still longer, which you -will write to me with more pleasure, as I shall take much in reading -it. However as it is becoming time to sound taps, I will pray the -sovereign creator for my affectionate recommendations to your graces. - -"Sir, and best friend, may you keep in health and have a long and happy -life. From Sens this 20th of June 1585. - -"Your obedient friend, BENIGNE POISSENOT. - -"End of the description of the marvel, called the _Froidiere_." - -The next notice about the Glaciere de Chaux-les-Passavant is by Gollut -in 1592, as follows:-- - -[Sidenote: "Ices in summer."] - -"I do not wish however to omit (since I am in these waters) to bring to -mind the commodity, which nature has given to some dainty men, since -at the bottom of a mountain of Leugne ice is found in summer, for the -pleasure of those who wish to drink cool. Nevertheless at this time, -this is disappearing, for no other reason (as I think) except, that -they have despoiled the top of the mountain, of a thick and high mass -of woods, which did not permit that the rays of the sun came to warm -the earth, and dry up the distillations, which slipped down to the -lowest and coldest part of the mountain where (_by antiperistase_) the -cold got thicker, and contracted itself against the heats surrounding -and in the neighborhood during the whole summer, all the external -circumference of the mountain." - -The ice at Chaux-les-Passavant is said to have been entirely cleared -out, by the Duc de Levi, in 1727, for the use of the Army of the Saone. -In 1743, when de Cossigny visited the cave, the ice was formed again. -There are no reports about the intervening time between 1727 and 1743. -The ice probably all re-formed the winter after it was taken away. - -Captain Trouillet in 1885 writes of Chaux-les-Passavant: "The following -winter had shown itself unfavorable to the production of ice, the -periods of humidity preceding too long ahead the periods of frost. -Finally last summer, coming after a wet spring, was exceptionally -warm. Such were the circumstances which brought about in the glaciere -the ruin which could be seen at the end of last October. * * * On -the 11th of November, the first effects of frost are felt and the -temperature falls in the glaciere to -2 deg.: outside the thermometer -drops to -3 deg.. On the morning of the 12th, same result, and ice makes -its appearance in the grotto, as the report of the observer shows: but -the quantity produced is so small that the internal thermometer soon -goes above 0 deg.. It is only on the 9th of December that the frost wins -definitely; on the 11th, 12th and 13th the chill is intense and reaches --19 deg. outside, stopping at -15 deg. in the glaciere. The water coming from -the rains between the 5th and the 9th drip at this time through the -roof and the big side crevasse: circumstances grow favorable and the -ice accumulates. From the 17th, the entrance slope becomes almost -impracticable; the icicles grow on the roof, as big as the body of a -man. * * * From this time to the end of December, the ice sheet does -not increase, for water only arrives by the rare drip of the roof, -and only the stalactites increase slowly. Outside, however, the cold -continues vigorously, the thermometer on the 31st of December dropping -to -15 deg. and to -13 deg. in the glaciere. If the production of the ice -stops, it is not the cold which is wanting, but the other element, -the one which as our former study showed, is the most rarely exact at -the meeting. The winter is only favorable on condition that it offers -alternating periods of freezing and thawing; so the observer writes in -his report: 'it is the water which is wanting, otherwise the glaciere -would be magnificent.'" - -Trouillet speaks of the difficulty of winter observations in the -following words: "Mons. Briot, the present lessor of the glaciere, has -the unpaid mission of going every week to the bottom of the grotto to -get and put in place the interior thermometer. It is a really hard -piece of work at this time of the year: each journey takes about one -hour. Besides the chance that a visitor has of receiving on his head -one of those magnificent stalactites 1 meter or 2 meters long which -fall continually from the roof, it is perfectly disagreeable to him -to arrive at the base of the slope otherwise than on the sole of his -boots, and to face thus the frequent and painful meeting with rocks -whose angular edges dot the surface of the descent, smooth as a mirror -set at an angle of 30 deg.." - -Trouillet and Girardot obtained a series of observations with maxima -and minima thermometers at Chaux-les-Passavant during the winter of -1885-1886. At the end of November the temperature inside was +2 deg.. -On the 2d of December it rose to +2.5 deg.. On the 10th of December, it -sank to -1 deg., and after this date, it remained below freezing point -all winter. The observations were not continuous, but they showed -that every time the temperature outside dropped considerably, the -temperature inside immediately did likewise. For instance, on the -12th of January, the outside air dropped to -18 deg., and the inside air -responded by falling to -15 deg.. On the other hand, when the temperature -outside rose above freezing point, the temperature inside remained -stationary or fluctuated only gently. For instance, from the 24th -of March to the 8th of April, the outside air went up and down -perpetually, the extremes being -2 deg. and +16 deg.; while in the same time -the inside air rose continuously from -2 deg. to -0.5 deg.. - - -Windholes and Ice Formations near Gerardmer, Vosges. (Rozet, in -_Encyclopedie Moderne_, Didot Freres, Paris, 1853, vol. XVI., page 503.) - - -L'Abime du Creux-Perce or Glaciere de Pasques. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, -1894, page 394; _Annuaire du Club Alpin Francais_, vol. XIX., page -38.)--On the plateau of Langres, Cote d'Or. It lies 15 kilometers -from Dijon, and is really a limestone rock gorge, of 55 meters in -depth, which at the top is 40 meters long and 20 meters wide, and at -the bottom is 15 meters long and 12 meters wide. In March 1892, Mons. -Martel found the north side covered with large icicles 15 meters long. -The ice seems to remain throughout the year. The bottom of the Abime -has been reached only by means of two long rope ladders. - - -Creux de Chevroche or Roche Chevre, Cote d'Or. (Clement Drioton, -_Memoires de la Societe de Speleologie_, 1897, vol. I., page 209.)--"In -the woods of Mavilly, near Bligny-sur-Ouches, is a little cave, called -Creux de Chevroche or Roche-Chevre, where one can find ice until the -month of July." - - -Freezing Well of Marolles, at La Ferte-Milon, Aisne. (Martel, _Les -Abimes_, page 563, note 2.)--This well is 8.15 meters deep; the -altitude is 70 meters. During the winter of 1892-93 the water in -it froze for a thickness of 15 centimeters. The minimum outside -temperature that year was -17 deg.. - - -Windholes near Pontgibaud, Puy de Dome. (G. Poulett-Scrope, _The -Geology and Extinct Volcanoes of Central France_, 1858, page -60.)--These windholes are in basalt. There are many cracks, whence cold -air currents issue, and where ice has been found, sometimes in summer. -There are cold storage huts over some of the cracks. - - -Le Creux-de-Souci, Puy de Dome. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, 1894, Page -387.)--This is situated 5 kilometers southeast of Besse-en-Chandesse. -It is a large lava cavern with the entrance directly in the middle of -the roof. The bottom is partly filled by a lake. The depth from the -surface of the ground to the lake is 33 meters; from the smallest part -of the opening to the lake the depth is 21.50 meters. Down this last -portion one can descend only by means of a rope ladder. The temperature -is extremely low; in general near freezing point. In June, July, August -and November 1892, Monsieur Berthoule, _maire_ of Besse, did not find -any snow. On the 10th of August, 1893, on the contrary, he found at the -bottom a heap of snow, which he thinks was formed in the cave itself, -by the freezing during their descent of the drops of water which are -constantly dripping from the roof. He reports landing on _une montagne -de neige, de neige blanche_. On several visits, Mons. Berthoule noticed -carbonic acid gas in dangerous quantities. There was none at the time -he observed the snow heap, but ten days later he found it impossible -to descend into the cave as the carbonic acid gas came up in puffs to -the entrance. In the lake, Mons. Berthoule discovered a variety of -Rotifer, _Notholca longispina_, and also several algae and diatoms. -The _Asterionella formosa_ is the most remarkable from its abundance: -it exists in some of the lakes of the Alps, but not in those of the -Pyrenees. - - -Aven de Lou Cervi, Vaucluse. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 563.)--This is -a cold cave. It belongs to the class which Mons. Martel calls _avens -a retrecissement_, or _abimes a double orifice_. In September, 1892, -Mons. Martel noted a temperature of 6.5 deg. at 53 meters; of 6.8 deg. at 64 -meters. Mean temperature of locality, 8.75 deg.. - - -Igue de Biau, Lot. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 304.)--Cold cave. -Temperature on 13th July, 1891: 5 deg.. - - -Fosse Mobile, Charente. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 380.)--Cold cave. -Temperature on 11th April, 1893: 7 deg.. - - -Aven de Deidou, Causse Mejean. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 223.)--Cold -cave. Temperatures on 14th October, 1892: outside air, 4 deg.; at bottom, -6.5 deg.. - - -Aven des Oules, Causse Mejean. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 227.)--Cold -cave. Temperatures on 21st October, 1892: outside air, 2.5 deg.; at bottom, -4 deg.. - - -Windhole Cold Caves near Roquefort, Aveyron.--They lie 13 kilometers -from Millau, at an altitude of about 600 meters, and are utilized in -the manufacture of Roquefort cheese. - - -Aven de Carlet, near la Roche Giron, Basses Alpes. (Martel, _Les -Abimes_, page 53.)--Lumps of ice are reported to have been taken from -it. - - -La Poujade, Cevennes. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, pages 212-215.)--An -intermittent spring in limestone rock. At the bottom of the first -gallery, on the 18th of September, 1892, the temperature of the air was -12.3 deg., and that of a pool of water supplied by drip 11.5 deg.. Mons. Martel -thought that the drip brought to the pool the mean annual temperature -of the ground through which it had come. A little further within and 5 -meters lower, the temperature of the air was 7.3 deg. and that of another -pool of water 6.8 deg.. This pool was not supplied by drip and must have -been left over by the last flow of the spring. Mons. Martel thought -that the lower temperatures at this spot were due to the cold air of -winter dropping to the bottom of the cave and on account of its density -not being able to get out. - - -Snow Preserved in Chasms in the Italian Mountains. (_The Penny -Magazine_, London, August, 1834, page 335.)--Mr. Bunford Samuel called -my attention to an article in which the Southern Italians are said to -dig wells or cellars on the mountain sides, and to throw snow into them -in winter. The snow is well pressed together and straw, dried leaves, -etc., is thrown on top. By having a northern exposure for these pits, -and seeing that they are in thick forest, or in rifts where the sun -does not penetrate, these depots may be safely placed as low down the -mountain as the snow falls and lies. Naples is largely supplied [1834] -with snow in summer from such snow wells situated on Monte Angelo, the -loftiest point of the promontory separating the Bay of Naples from the -Bay of Salerno. - - -Cold Caves of San Marino, Apennines. (De Saussure, _Voyages dans les -Alpes_, 1796, III., page 211.)--These are probably windholes. - - -La Bocche dei Venti di Cesi. (De Saussure, _Voyages dans les Alpes_, -1796, III., page 211.)--These windholes were in the cellar of the -house of Don Giuseppe Cesi, in the town of Cesi. The cellar acted as a -natural refrigerator. The air stream was so strong, that it nearly blew -out the torches. In winter the wind rushed into the holes. De Saussure -was shown the following Latin verses by the owner:-- - - "Abditus hic ludit vario discrimine ventus - Et faciles miros exhibet aura jocos. - Nam si bruma riget, quaecumque objeceris haurit. - Evomit aestivo cum calet igne dies," - - -Windholes or "Ventarole" on Monte Testaceo, near Rome. (De Saussure, -_Voyages dans les Alpes_, 1796, III., page 209.)--There are a number -here among heaps of broken pottery. The temperatures seem abnormally -low. - - -Krypta Sorana. (Kircher, _Mundus Subterraneus_, 1664, page 118 and -page 239.)--This has been spoken of as a glaciere cave, but as there -is much doubt in the matter, I quote the passages, on which the -reports are based, in the original Latin: "Cryptae sunt naturales, -quarum innumerae sunt species, juxta vires naturales iis inditas. Sunt -nonnullae medicinali virtute praeditae, quaedam metallicis vaporibus, -exhalationibus, aquis scatent, sunt et glaciales, plenae nivibus et -crystallo, uti in Monte Sorano me vidisse memini." And further: "Vidi -ego in Monte Sorano cryptam veluti glacie incrustatam, ingentibus in -fornice hinc inde stiriis dependentibus, e quibus vicini montis accolae -pocula aestivo tempore conficiunt, aquae vinoque, quae iis infunduntur, -refrigerandis aptissima, extremo rigore in summas bibentium delicias -commutato." - - -Subterranean Ice Sheet, Mount Etna, Sicily. (Lyell, _Principles of -Geology, 11th Edition_, chapter XXVI.)--This ice sheet is near the -Casa Inglese. Sir Charles Lyell ascertained the fact of its existence -in 1828, and in 1858 he found the same mass of ice, of unknown extent -and thickness, still unmelted. In the beginning of the winter of -1828, Lyell found the crevices in the interior of the summit of the -highest cone of Etna encrusted with thick ice, and in some cases hot -vapors actually streaming out between masses of ice and the rugged and -steep walls of the crater. Lyell accounts for this ice sheet by the -explanation that there must have been a great snow bank in existence -at the time of an eruption of the volcano. This deep mass of snow -must have been covered at the beginning of the eruption by volcanic -sand showered on it, followed by a stream of lava. The sand is a bad -conductor of heat and together with the solidified lava, preserved the -snow from liquefaction. - - -Glaciere on the Moncodine. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 13.)--The -Moncodine is described as a Dolomite near the Lago di Como. The cave -lies up the Val Sasina, two hours from Cortenuova, at an altitude of -1675 meters. The entrance faces north, and is 2.5 meters high and 1.5 -meters wide. The average diameter of the cave is 16 meters. The floor -is solid ice, which has been sometimes cut for use in the hotels on the -Lago di Como and even been sent to Milan. - - -La Ghiacciaia del Mondole. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 8.)--The Mondole -is a mountain 2375 meters high, near Mondovi, south of Turin. The cave -lies on the eastern slope, at an altitude of about 2000 meters. It is -hard to get at. The entrance is to the east, and is 2 meters wide and -1.5 meters high. A passageway some 25 meters long leads to a large -chamber where there is plenty of ice. In hot summers ice is brought -from the cave to Mondovi. _Ghiacciaia_ means freezing cavern in Italian. - - -La Ghiacciaia del Val Seguret. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 8.)--It lies -near Susa at the base of chalk cliffs, at an altitude of about 1500 -meters. The cave is said to be about 40 meters deep, 50 meters wide and -50 meters high. Bonetti in May, 1874, found many icicles and ice cones. - - -La Borna de la Glace. (Chanoine Carrel, _Bibliotheque Universelle de -Geneve_, 1841, vol. XXXIV., page 196.)--It lies in the Duchy of Aosta, -commune of La Salle, on the northern slope of the hills near Chabauday, -in a spot called Plan Agex. The altitude is 1602 meters. The entrance -opens to the east and is 60 centimeters wide and 80 centimeters high. -One can descend for 4 meters. There are two branches in the rear of -the entrance. Chanoine Carrel found an ice pillar 1 meter high in the -western branch. He recorded these temperatures on the 15th of July, -1841: Outside +15 deg.. Entrance +2.9 deg.. East branch +0.9 deg.. West branch -+0.5 deg.. - - -Windholes in the Italian Alps. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, pages 94-97.)--A -number of these seem to have abnormally low temperatures. Some are in -the mountains around Chiavenna, and are sometimes, by building small -huts over them, utilized as refrigerators. Some are reported in the -neighborhood of the Lago di Como near Dongo, near Menaggio, and in the -villa Pliniana near Curino; in the neighborhood of the Lake of Lugano -at the base of Monte Caprino, near Melide, near Mendrisio and near -Sertellino; and in the Val Maggia near Cevio. - - -The Glaciere de Font d'Urle, or Fondurle, Dauphine. (Hericart de Thury, -_Annales des Mines_, vol. XXXIII., page 157; G. F. Browne, _Ice Caves_, -etc., page 212; E. A. Martel, _Memoires de la Societe de Speleologie_, -vol. I., page 37; L. Villard, _Spelunca_, 1896, vol. II., page 39.)--It -lies on the Foire de Font d'Urle, 16 kilometers north of Die, 48 -kilometers east of Valence, and 80 kilometers south of Grenoble. The -glaciere consists of two large pits, lying east and west, and with -underground communication. From this tunnel a long low archway leads to -a broad slope of chaotic blocks of stone, which is 60 meters long and -42 meters in greatest width. The ice begins half way down this slope, -fitfully at first and afterwards in a tolerably continuous sheet. Thury -found many icicles hanging from the roof. Browne found four columns -of ice, of which the largest was 5.80 meters across the base. On his -visit, in the middle of August, the ice was strongly thawing. Both -explorers noted the extremely prismatic character of the ice. Browne -found a temperature of +0.5 deg.. Martel gives a section and plan of Font -d'Urle. Mons. Villard says about this cavern: "A curious thing: I found -in this cave, motionless on a piece of rock, entirely surrounded by ice -for a distance of several meters, a blind specimen of a coleoptera, -_Cytodromus dapsoides_." - - -The Chourun Clot. (E. A. Martel, _Sous Terre_. _Annuaire du Club Alpin -Francais_, vol. XXIII., 1896, pages 42, 43; _Memoires de la Societe -de Speleologie_, vol. I., page 31.)--In Dauphine, half way between -Agnieres and the Pic Costebelle, at an altitude of 1,740 meters. There -is first a pit 18 meters long, 4.50 meters wide and 25 meters deep. In -the bottom of this is a vertical hole 15 meters deep and from 1 meter -to 2 meters in diameter, in which there was much ice on the 31st of -July, 1896. Then the pit changes to a sloping gallery which terminates -in a little hall, full of ice, at a depth of 70 meters. Martel gives a -cut and section of this glaciere. - - -The Glaciere du Trou de Glas. (E. A. Martel, _La Geographie_, 1900, -vol. I., page 52.)--In the range of the Grande Chartreuse. - - -The Chourun Martin. (E. A. Martel, _La Geographie_, 1900, vol. I., page -53.)--In the range of the Devoluy, Hautes-Alpes; altitude 1,580 meters. -An extremely deep pit, which on July 31st, 1899, was much blocked up -with snow. - - -The Chourun de la Parza. (E. A. Martel, _La Geographie_, 1900, vol. I., -page 54.)--In the range of the Devoluy, Hautes-Alpes; altitude 1,725 -meters. A fine pit, 25 meters in diameter, and 74 meters in depth. -Filled with snow or rather neve, in which are deep holes. - - -The Glaciere de l'Haut-d'Aviernoz. Described in Part I., page 2. (C. -Dunant, _Le Parmelan et ses Lapiaz_, page 26; Browne, _Ice Caves_, -etc., page 157.)--Mons. Dunant calls this glaciere l'Haut d'Aviernoz; -Mr. Browne calls it the Glaciere du Grand Anu. By a plumb line held -from the edge of the larger pit, Browne found that the ice floor was -about 35 meters from the surface, which would give a level for the ice -floor closely identical to the one I found. In July, 1864, he recorded -a temperature of +1.1 deg.. - - -The Glaciere de l'Enfer. (G. F. Browne, _Good Words_, November, 1866; -T. G. Bonney, _The Alpine Regions_, 1868, pages 95, 96; C. Dunant, _Le -Parmelan et ses Lapiaz_, page 25.)--On Mont Parmelan. A pit cave with -a steep slope of broken rock leading to a rock portal in the face of -a low cliff. This opens into a roughly circular hall about 22 meters -in diameter and 3 meters to 4 meters in height. A chink between the -rock and the ice permitted Mr. Browne to scramble down three or four -meters to where a tunnel entered the ice mass. Throwing a log of wood -down this tunnel, a crash was heard and then a splash of water, and -then a strange gulping sound. "The tunnel obviously led to a subglacial -reservoir and this was probably covered by a thin crust of ice; the -log in falling had broken this and then disturbed the water below, -which then commenced bubbling up and down through the hole, and making -a gulping noise, just as it does sometimes when oscillating up and down -in a pipe." - -Mons. C. Dunant of the _Club Alpin Francais_ describes a visit to -the Glaciere de l'Enfer. He mentions also a legend of a witch from a -neighboring village who would get the ice from these caves and bring -it down in the shape of hail on the crops of the peasants who were -inhospitable to her. - - -The Glaciere de Chapuis. Described in Part I., page 5. (Browne, _Ice -Caves_, etc., page 182, and _Good Words_, November, 1866.)--Mr. Browne -calls it the Glaciere de Chappet-Sur-Villaz. Mr. Browne and Professor -T. G. Bonney found several flies in the Glaciere de Chapuis. Three of -them were specimens of _Stenophylax_, the largest being probably, but -not certainly, _S. hieroglyphicus_ of Stephens. Two smaller caddis -flies were either _S. testaceus_ of Pictet or some closely allied -species. One other insect was an ichneumon of the genus _Paniscus_, -of an unidentified species. It differed from all its congeners in the -marking of the throat, resembling in this respect some species of -_Ophion_. Mr. Browne thinks that the case flies may have been washed -into the cave somehow or other in the larva form, and come to maturity -on the ice where they had lodged. But this explanation will not hold -in the case of the ichneumon, which is a parasitic genus on larvae of -terrestrial insects. - - -The Glaciere de Le Brezon. (Pictet, _Bibliotheque Universelle de -Geneve_, 1822, vol. XX., page 270, and Thury, _Bibliotheque Universelle -de Geneve_, 1861, vol. X., pages 139 and 152.)--It lies southeast of -Bonneville near the foot of Mount Lechaud, at an altitude of 1276 -meters. The cave is 9.7 meters long, about 8 meters wide and the -greatest height is about 4 meters. The entrance is small and is at the -base of a cliff, in some places of which cold air currents issue. The -ice lies on the floor. Some of it is probably winter snow. - - -The Glaciere de Brisons.--Described in Part I., page 1. - - -The Grand Cave de Montarquis. Described in Part I., page 70. -(Thury, _Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve_, vol. X., pages -135-153.)--Professor Thury describes two visits to this cave. On the -16th of August, 1859, he found no ice stalactites or stalagmites. On -the 19th of January, 1861, he did not find a single drop of water in -the cave, but many stalactites and stalagmites of beautiful clear ice, -one of which resembled porcelain more than any other substance. In -August, Thury found an air current streaming into the cave at the rear, -but this did not, however, disturb the air of the interior, for in one -part it was in perfect equilibrium: along the line of the draughts -the ice was more melted than elsewhere in the cave. In January, the -current was reversed and poured into the fissure, with the temperature -varying between -1.5 deg. and -2.5 deg.. He observed the following temperatures -at the Grand Cave:-- - - TIME. OUTSIDE. INSIDE. - 16th August, 1859 +8.6 deg. +2.5 deg. - 19th January, 1861 1.25 P. M. +2.6 deg. -4. deg. - " " " 2.12 " +2.1 deg. -4. deg. - " " " 3.50 " -1.1 deg. -4. deg. - - -The Petite Cave de Montarquis. Mentioned in Part I., page 71. (Thury, -_Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve_, 1861, vol. X., page 150. Also -quotes Morin.)--At the end of a crooked fissure 10 meters deep, a -passage 6 meters long, leads into a cave 8 meters high and 5 meters in -diameter. In August, 1828, Morin found an ice stalagmite of 5 meters in -height in the middle of the cave. - - -Cave Containing Ice on the Southern Shore of Lake Geneva.--Reported; no -information. - - -The Glaciere and Neigiere d'Arc-Sous-Cicon. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, -etc., page 118.)--These lie close together in the Jura about twenty -kilometers from Pontarlier. The little glaciere is formed by a number -of fissures in the rock, disconnected slits in the surface opening into -larger chambers where the ice lies. The neigiere is a deep pit, with a -collection of snow at the bottom, much sheltered by overhanging rocks -and trees. A huge fallen rock covers a large part of the sloping bottom -of the pit, which forms a small cave in the shape of a round soldier's -tent, with walls of rock and floor of ice. - - -The Glaciere de la Genolliere. Described in Part I., page 48. (Browne, -_Ice Caves_, etc., page 1.)--Mr. Browne observed in 1864 a temperature -of +1.1 deg., and two days later of +0.8 deg.. He also found a number of flies -running rapidly over the ice and stones. He was told in England, -from the specimen he brought away, that it was the _Stenophylax -hieroglyphicus_ of Stephens or something very like that fly. - - -The Glaciere de Saint-Georges. Described in Part I., page 62. (Thury, -_Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve_, 1861, vol. X.)--Professor Thury -obtained the following temperatures at the Glaciere de Saint-Georges:-- - - OUTSIDE. INSIDE. - - 9th January, 1858 7.36 P. M., -4.5 deg. 7.16 P. M., -0.6 deg. - " " " 7.20 " -1.2 deg. - " " " 7.27 " -2.5 deg. - " " " 7.50 " -2.9 deg. - Minimum of night -5.8 deg. -4.9 deg. - 10th January, 1858 10.53 A. M., -3.4 deg. 10.12 A. M., -4.6 deg. - " " " 11.14 " -3.1 deg. 10.30 " -4.5 deg. - " " " 11.45 " -2.2 deg. 11.20 " -4.4 deg. - " " " 12.32 P. M., -2.4 deg. 12.14 P. M., -4.4 deg. - " " " 1.12 " -0.9 deg. 1.30 " -4.2 deg. - " " " 3.03 " -2.9 deg. 2.30 " -4.1 deg. - " " " 3.56 " -3.5 deg. 3.14 " -4.0 deg. - " " " 4.26 " -3.7 deg. 4.00 " -3.8 deg. - Minimum of night -7.6 deg. -6.8 deg. - 11th January, 1858 9.34 A. M., -5.6 deg. - 2d April, 1858 6.20 P. M., +0.7 deg. -0.2 deg. - Minimum of night + 1.1 deg. - 3d April, 1858 10.00 A. M., +4.0 deg. 9.00 A. M., -1.0 deg. - -Professor Thury's winter excursions caused him to accept as proved that -part of the mountaineers' belief, which holds that there is no ice -formed in caves in winter. One of the main grounds for his opinion was -the series of observations he made in the Glaciere de Saint-Georges. -He found no ice forming there in winter and the natives said it did -not because the cavern was not cold enough. So he placed large dishes -filled with water in the cave and found that they froze solid during -the night, which he had been assured was impossible. Thury also found -violent movements of the air at Saint-Georges in January, 1858. A -candle burned steadily for some time, but at 7.16 P. M. it began to -flicker and soon inclined downwards through an angle of about 45 deg.; and -in the entrance, the flame assumed an almost horizontal position. At 8 -P. M., the current of air nearly disappeared. Thury thought that this -violent and temporary disturbance of equilibrium was due to the fact -that as the heavier air outside tended to pass into the cave, the less -cold air within tended to pass out; and the narrow entrance confining -the struggle to a small area, the weaker current was able for a while -to hold its own. - - -The Glaciere du Pre de Saint-Livres. Described in Part I., page -65. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, page 40.)--Mr. Browne found, in 1864, a -temperature of 0 deg.. - - -The Petite Glaciere du Pre de Saint-Livres. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, page -46.)--This is near the last cave at a slightly higher altitude. There -is first a small pit, then a little cave, in which there is an ice -slope. This passes under a low arch in the rock wall, and leads down -into another small cave. Mr. Browne descended this ice stream, which -was itself practically a fissure column and spread into the fan shape -at the base. The lower cave was 22 meters long and 11 meters wide, and -contained an ice floor and several fissure columns. - - -The Glaciere de Naye, above Montreux, Switzerland. (E. A. Martel, _Les -Abimes_, page 397; _Spelunca_, 1895, vol. I., pages 107, 108; _Memoires -de la Societe de Speleologie_, vol. III., pages 246-254.)--This is -called a _glacier souterrain_. It was discovered in 1893 by Professor -Dutoit. There are fifty-four caves known among the Rochers de Naye, and -only this one contains ice. It is a long narrow cave with two entrances -and widest towards the base, which opens over a precipice. The altitude -is high, the upper entrance being at an altitude of 1820 meters, and -the lower of 1750 meters. The place is both a passage cave and a -windhole. The snow falls into the upper entrance, and slides down, -becoming ice in the lower portion. There are other connecting passages -and hollows where the cold air cannot get in, and there ice does not -form. Mons. Martel thinks that the ice formed during the winter is -preserved by the draughts--due to the difference in level of the two -openings--causing an evaporation and chill sufficient for the purpose. - - -The Creux Bourquin. (E. A. Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 397.)--At -Mauberget, near Grandson. This is a rock gorge 25 meters deep. At the -bottom, on the 9th of July, 1893, was a mass of ice 38 meters long and -8 meters wide. - - -The Glaciere de Monthezy. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, page 97.)--This lies -to the west of Neufchatel, between the Val de Travers and the Val de -Brevine, on the path between the villages of Couvet and Le Brevine, -at an altitude of 1100 meters. The cave is nearly oval in shape, with -a length of 34 meters and a width of 29 meters. The roof is from 1 -meter to 3 meters high. There are three pits, about 20 meters deep, on -different sides of the cave. The descent is made through the largest -pit. On the 6th of July, 1864, Mr. Browne found the floor of the cave -covered with ice, and icicles and columns in some places; he also saw -a clump of cowslips (_primula elatior_) overhanging the snow at the -bottom of the pit through which he descended. - - -Pertius Freiss. (T. G. Bonney, _Nature_, vol. XI., page 327.)--It lies -on the way to the Pic d'Arzinol, near Evolene, in the Val d'Herens. -A slip or subsidence of part of a cliff has opened two joints in the -rock, in both of which fissures Professor Bonney found ice on July 23d. - - -The Schafloch. Described in Part I., page 21. (Koerber, _Jahrbuch des -Schweizer Alpen Club_, 1885, vol. XX., pages 316, 343.)--Herr Koerber -gives some of the dimensions as follows: Entrance 14 meters wide -and 4.70 meters high. Length of cave 206.8 meters: average width -20 meters and greatest width 23.5 meters. Height from 5 meters to 7 -meters. Length of ice slope 29 meters and breadth 12.5 meters; for 16 -meters the slope has an inclination of 32 deg.. Koerber made the following -observations in the Schafloch:-- - - 14 METERS 100 METERS 160 METERS - DATE. OUTSIDE. FROM FROM FROM - ENTRANCE. ENTRANCE. ENTRANCE. - - 21 September, 1884, 10.5 deg. 5.6 deg. 0.2 deg. 0.2 deg. - 18 January, 1885, 2.7 deg. -1.0 deg. -1.3 deg. -- - -The Rev. G. F. Browne, in 1864, found a temperature of +0.5 deg.. - - -The Eisloch of Unterfluh. (Baltzer, _Jahrbuch des Schweizer Alpen -Club_, 1892-93, pages 358-362.)--Twenty minutes from Unterfluh near -Meiringen. A long narrow rock crack, some 30 meters deep and running -some distance underground. - - -Windholes and Milkhouses of Seelisberg.--Described in Part I., page 45. - - -Windholes on the Spitzfluh. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 92.)--These are -situated between Oltingen and Zeylingen, Canton Bale: they generally -contain ice till the end of July. - - -Windholes on the Blummatt. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 93.)--On the -northwestern slope of the Stanzerberg. Ice sometimes lies over in these -windholes. - - -Windholes near Bozen. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 97.)--On the Mendel -ranges in Eppan, southwest of Bozen, among porphyry rocks. There are -strong wind-streams. Ice is said to remain till late in the summer. - - -Grotto on Monte Tofana, Dolomites. (T. G. Bonney, _Nature_, vol. XI., -page 328.)--This is probably a rudimentary glaciere. - - -Holes with Ice near Lienz. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 97.)--One hour -and a half distant near Aineth, is a small cave containing ice, and -further up the valley towards Huben, are several windholes. - - -Eishoehle am Birnhorn. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 131.)--Near Leogang in -the Pinzgau. Altitude 2150 meters. There are two entrances, from which -a slope 10 meters long, set at an angle of 25 deg., leads to an ice floor -12 meters long and 3 meters high. Then comes a small ice slope, and a -little horizontal floor at the back. Explored by Fugger. - - -Glacieres on the Eiskogel. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 19.)--The -Eiskogel is in the Tennengebirge, a mountain mass lying east of Pass -Lueg. At an altitude of about 1900 meters, are two small caves, about -30 meters to 40 meters apart. They are some 25 meters in length and get -smaller towards the bottom. - - -Holes with Ice in the Tennengebirge, between the Schallwand and the -Tauernkogel. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 20.)--In this gorge are some -small holes at an altitude of about 2000 meters, which are said to -contain ice in summer. - - -The Seeofen. (A. Posselt-Csorich, _Zeitschrift des Deutschen und -Oesterreichischen Alpen Verein_, 1880, page 270.) On the Hean Krail in -the Tennengebirge, at an altitude of about 1900 meters. The entrance -faces southwest, and is 6 meters high and 4.5 meters wide. The cave is -25 meters long, and 8 meters wide. The floor of the cave is 13 meters -below the entrance. - - -The Posselthoehle. (A. Posselt-Csorich, _Zeitschrift des Deutschen -und Osterreichischen Alpen Verein_, 1880, page 273.)--Named after -its discoverer. It lies on the Hochkogel in the Tennengebirge, at an -altitude of about 1900 meters. The entrance faces southwest, and is -about 8 meters high and 8 meters wide. From the entrance the cave first -rises, then sinks again below the level of the entrance, where the -ice begins. The cave is about 20 meters wide. About 180 meters were -explored, to a point where a perpendicular ice wall, 6 meters high, -barred the way. About 125 meters from the entrance, there was an ice -cone about 7 meters high. - - -The Gamsloch or Diebshoehle. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 14.)--It lies -on the Breithorn of the Steinernes Meer, near the Riemannhauss, at an -altitude of about 2180 meters. The entrance faces south. There is first -a small, then a larger chamber. The latter is some 40 meters long, by -5 meters or 6 meters wide. The ice is in the large chamber. - - -Eishoehle am Seilerer. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 15.)--On the -eastern side of the Seilerer arete on the Ewigen Schneeberg, west of -Bischofshofen, at an altitude of about 2400 meters, is a small glaciere -cave. - - -Cave in the Hagengebirge, West of Pass Lueg. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -15.)--It lies about 2 kilometers east of Kalbersberg, at an altitude of -about 2000 meters. A snow slope, with an ice floor at the bottom, leads -into a long cave, about which little is known. - - -The Nixloch. Described in Part I., page 57. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, -page 98.)--Professor Fugger gathered some valuable data in connection -with the Nixloch. In August, 1879, he found the air current entering -downwards; on September 14th, 1879, there was no current either way. -On Christmas day, 1878, on the contrary, the draughts were reversed, -pouring out of the hole with a temperature of +7.4 deg.: the outside air -then being -7.4 deg.. At this time the known lower opening was in existence. - - -The Kolowratshoehle. Described in Part I., page 18. (Fugger, -_Beobachtungen_, etc., page 7.)--This cavern has been more carefully -studied than any other glaciere cave. Some of its dimensions are given -by Professor Fugger as follows: From the entrance to the ice floor, -26.6 meters; surface covered by ice as measured on a plane, 2940 -square meters; approximate cubical measure of entire cave, 92,000 cubic -meters. The height of the entrance is 7 meters, with a width at the -base of 2.7 meters, and at the top of 6.6 meters. - -On the entrance slope occurred the only fatal accident I know of in -glacieres. In 1866, the Bavarian minister Freiherr von Lerchenfeld -tried to descend; a wooden handrail which had been erected over the -snow broke under his weight; von Lerchenfeld fell to the bottom of the -cave and died a few days after from the injuries he received. - -Of the Kolowratshoehle, we have numerous thermometric observations by -Professor Fugger, of which I select a few. - - DATE. OUTSIDE. ENTRANCE. INSIDE. REAR. - 21 May 1876 +6.5 deg. +0.7 deg. +0.03 deg. 0 deg.& +0.08 deg. - 18 June 1876 +5.1 deg. +1.6 deg. +0.23 deg. +0.4 deg. - 24 June 1876 +10. deg. +1.6 deg. +0.4 deg. -- - 5 July 1876 -- -- +0.4 deg. -- - 22 July 1876 +11.3 deg. +1.5 deg. +0.4 deg. +0.2 deg. - 29 July 1876 +15.2 deg. +2.4 deg. +0.3 deg. +0.2 deg. - 22 Aug. 1876 +19.8 deg. +4.0 deg. +0.4 deg. +0.25 deg. - 20 Sept. 1876 +7.2 deg. +3.0 deg. +0.45 deg. +0.6 deg. - 22 Sept. 1876 -- -- +0.30 deg. -- - 16 Oct. 1876 +14.8 deg. +2.05 deg. +0.2 deg. +0.2 deg. - 22 Oct. 1876 +5.6 deg. +2.5 deg. +0.25 deg. +0.4 deg. - 26 Nov. 1876 +4.4 deg. +0.4 deg. -1.0 deg. -- - 6 Jan. 1877 +2.1 deg. +1.2 deg. -1.65 deg. -0.6 deg. - - -The Schellenberger Eisgrotte. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen in den Eishoehlen -des Untersberges_, page 80.)--On the southeast slope of the Untersberg -near Salzburg, at an altitude of 1580 meters. The path leads past the -Kienbergalp over the Mitterkaser and the Sandkaser. In front of the -entrance is a sort of rock dam, 30 meters long and 5 meters or 6 meters -higher than the entrance. Masses of snow fill the space between the -two. The entrance is about 20 meters wide and from 2 meters to 3 meters -high. A snow slope of 25 meters in length, set at an angle of 25 deg., -leads to the ice floor. The cave is 54 meters long, from 13 meters to -22 meters broad and from 4 meters to 10 meters high. The cave has been -repeatedly examined by Fugger, who has always found most snow and ice -in the beginning of the hot weather, after which it gradually dwindles -away. - -Of the Schellenberger Eisgrotte, we have the following thermometric -observations by Professor Fugger:-- - - DATE. OUTSIDE. ENTRANCE. INSIDE. - 29 June, 1877 +18 deg. -- +0.38 deg. - 24 " 1881 +21 deg. +2.3 deg. +0.24 deg. - 28 Aug., 1878 +14.6 deg. -- +0.2 deg. - 12 " 1879 +17.8 deg. -- +0.3 deg. - 4 Oct., 1876 +16.7 deg. +1.4 deg. +0.3 deg. - 9 " 1880 +3.6 deg. +3.5 deg. +0.3 deg. - 2 " 1887 +5.4 deg. -- +0.4 deg. - 9 " 1887 +8.2 deg. -- +0.4 deg. - 11 Nov., 1877 +7.4 deg. -- +0.2 deg. - - -The Grosser Eiskeller or Kaiser Karls Hoehle. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, -etc., page 58.)--On the Untersberg, between the Salzburger Hochthron -and the Schweigmueller Alp. Altitude 1687 meters. A stony slope of 26 -meters in length leads to an ice floor which is 26 meters long and 6 -meters to 8 meters wide. - - -The Kleiner Eiskeller. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page 73.)--Near -the last. A small cave 8 meters long, 6 meters wide, 8 meters high. - - -The Windloecher on the Untersberg. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page -73.)--On the Klingersteig, at an altitude of 1300 meters. Four small -caves of about 12 meters each in length and 8 meters in depth, and -communicating at the bottom. There are strong draughts among them. In -one of the caves is a small pit of great depth. - - -The Eiswinkel on the Untersberg. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page -77.)--Between the Klingeralp and the Vierkaser, at an altitude of 1600 -meters. A small cave or rather rock shelter. - - -Windholes on the Untersberg. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, pages 103, -104.)--Windholes have been found by Fugger on the lower slopes of the -Untersberg: - -Near the Hochbruch at Fuerstenbrunn. - -In the debris of the Neubruch. - -In the debris of the Veitlbruch. - - -Hotel Cellar at Weissenbach on the Attersee. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -20.)--There is a small cave here, at an altitude of 452 meters, which -is utilized as a cellar, and which is said to contain ice in summer. - - -Cave near Steinbach. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 20.)--A small cave -containing ice on the northwest slopes of the Hoellengebirge. Altitude -about 700 meters. - - -The Kliebensteinhoehle or Klimmsteinhoehle. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -20.)--On the north slope of the Hoellengebirge, near the Aurachkar Alp, -between Steinbach and the Langbath Lakes. Altitude about 1300 meters. -Length about 40 meters, width 20 meters, height 15 meters. - - -The Wasserloch. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 21.)--On the south slope of -the Hoellengebirge, near the Spitzalpe. Altitude about 1350 meters. At -the bottom of a gorge is a snow heap and a small cave. The snow becomes -ice in the cave. - - -Cave on the Zinkenkogl near Aussee. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -21.)--Altitude about 1800 meters. A snow slope leads to an ice floor 18 -meters long and 4 meters wide. - - -Cave on the Kasberg. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 22.)--South of Gruenau -near Gmunden. Altitude about 1500 meters. Small cave 12 meters long, 4 -meters wide. - - -The Wasseraufschlag on the Rothen Kogel. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -22.)--A tunnel near Aussee. The ice in it was formerly used. - - -The Gschloesslkirche. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 22.)--On the Dachstein -range, facing the Lake of Gosau. A small cave, mostly filled with snow. - - -Cave with Ice on the Mitterstein. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 23.)--On -the Dachstein, one hour and a quarter from the Austria hut. Altitude -about 1800 meters. Cave 5 meters to 6 meters wide, 30 meters long. In -the rear a passage leads apparently to a windhole where there is a -strong draught. - - -Windholes in the Obersulzbach Valley in the Pinzgau. (Fugger, -_Eishoehlen_, page 105.)--Fugger found ice among these on the 1st of -August, 1886. - - -Ice in an Abandoned Nickel Mine on the Zinkwand, in the Schladming -Valley. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 105.) - - -Windholes on the Rothen Kogel near Aussee. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -106.)--These were found to contain ice on the 2d of September, 1848. - - -Cave on the Langthalkogel. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 23.)--On the -Dachstein plateau between Hallstatt and Gosau. A small cave which -contains ice. - - -Eislunghoehle. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 24.)--A small cave between the -Hochkasten and Ostrowiz in the Priel range. - - -The Geldloch or Seeluecken on the Oetscher. (Schmidl, _Die Hoehlen -des Oetscher and Die Oesterreichischen Hoehlen_; Cranmer and Sieger, -_Globus_, 1899, pages 313-318, and 333-335.)--The second known notice -of a glaciere cave is the account of a visit to the Oetscher Caves -in 1591. After lying in manuscript for two and a half centuries, it -was published by Dr. A. Schmidl in 1857, in _Die Hoehlen des Oetscher_, -pages 21-36. According to the account, which is naive, but evidently -truthful, Kaiser Rudolf II. ordered Reichard Strein, owner of the -Herrschaff Friedeck, to investigate the Oetscher and especially its -caves. He did so, with the title of _Kaiserlicher Commissarius_, and -accompanied by the _Bannerherr_ Christoph Schallenberger, Hans Gasser, -and eleven porters. On September the 16th, 1591, they visited the -Seeluecken, where they found a lake in the front of the cave, and where -the party had great difficulties in climbing round on to the ice. - -The Seeluecken on the Oetscher is situated at an altitude of 1470 -meters. It opens nearly due south. The ice floor is about 20 meters -below the entrance and is about 38 meters long and 24 meters wide; at -the rear, it rises for some 15 meters as an ice wall at an angle of -about 60 deg., and then forms a second ice floor about 45 meters long by -19 meters wide. The front part of the ice is sometimes, about July, -covered with water. The cave continues further back, in two branches, -and Professors Cranmer and Sieger consider that it is a large windhole, -in which draughts are infrequent, on account of its length and because -the openings are near the same level. There are also several up and -down curves and in these cold air remains and acts something like a -cork in stopping draughts. - -On the 13th of September there were no draughts, and the temperatures -between 11 A. M. and 12 M. were:-- - - Outside air +7.1 deg. - Inside near entrance +1.5 deg. - A little further in +1.1 deg. - At the lowest point near ice +0.8 deg. - -On the 31st of October, 1897, there was a draught, which followed the -curves of the cavern, and which flowed out at the southern end. The -temperatures were:-- - - Outside air +3.7 deg. - Inside near entrance +1.3 deg. - At the lowest point near ice +0.8 deg. - On the second, higher ice floor +1.0 deg. - In the main passage behind ice +1.4 deg. - - -Cave on the Kuehfotzen near Warscheneck. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -25.)--A small cave containing ice. - - -Eiskeller on the Rax. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 25; Cranmer, -_Eishoehlen_, etc., page 61.)--Altitude about 1660 meters. A doline with -a small cave at the bottom, in which melting snow was found on the 19th -of September, 1896. - - -The Tablerloch. (Cranmer, _Eishoehlen_, etc., pages 19-60.)--On the -Duerren-Wand in the mountains south of Vienna, 2 hours distant from -Miesenbach R. R. station. Altitude about 1000 meters. Entrance 7 meters -wide, 3.5 meters high. Slope 30 deg. from entrance. Lowest point 22 meters -below entrance. Extreme length of cave 50 meters, width 23 meters, -height 15 meters. Professor Cranmer found fresh ice beginning to form -on the 12th of November, 1893; on the 1st of December, 1894; and on -the 20th of October, 1895. He found it melting away on the 3d of June, -1894; on the 1st of June, 1895; and on the 31st of May, 1896. The rates -at which the ice formed or melted, however, were not always the same in -different parts of the cave. The greatest amount of ice observed seems -to have been in March and April. In the summer months no perceptible -movements of air seem to have been noticed. This was also sometimes the -case in the winter months, during which, however, movements of air were -at other times plainly perceptible. - - -The Gipsloch. (Cranmer, _Eishoehlen_, etc., page 60.)--A small cave on -the Hohen-Wand near Wiener-Neustadt. It is rather a cold cave than a -glaciere. - - -The Windloch. (Cranmer, _Eishoehlen_, etc., page 61.)--On the Hohen-Wand -near Wiener Neustadt. Small cave. Snow found in it on June the 2d, 1895. - - -Eisloch in the Brandstein on the Hochschwab. (Cranmer, _Eishoehlen_, -etc., page 64.)--Altitude about 1600 meters. A moderately large cave. -On the 21st of August, 1895, there was an ice floor 10 meters long and -5 meters broad. Temperature in rear of cave, -0.2 deg.. - - -Caves on the Beilstein. (Krauss, _Hoehlenkunde_, 1894, pages 207-219; -Cranmer, _Eishoehlen_, etc., page 63.)--These lie about 4 hours on foot -from Gams in Steiermark, at an altitude of 1260 meters, in a place -where the mountain is much broken up by fissures and snow basins. The -large cave has two openings, from which steep snow slopes descend. -The cave is 60 meters long, 15 meters to 18 meters broad, and about 7 -meters high. Clefts in the rock in two places lead to two lower, small -ice chambers. In the neighborhood of the large cave are two small ones. -Prof. Cranmer found fresh ice in the Beilsteinhoehle on the 20th of -August, 1895. Two days before, fresh snow had fallen on the neighboring -mountain peaks. - - -Eishoehle on the Brandstein. (Cranmer, _Eishoehlen_, etc., page 62.)--A -small cleft cave near the Langriedleralm near Gams in Steiermark. On -the 20th of August, 1895, it contained some ice. - - -The Frauenmauerhoehle.--Described in Part I., page 37. - - -The Baerenloch near Eisenerz. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 28.)--In the -neighborhood of the Frauenmauerhoehle. Altitude 1600 meters. A steep -snow slope leads to an ice floor 13 meters long. - - -The Katerloch. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 29.)--On the Goeserwand near -Duernthal, Glemeinde Gschaid in Steiermark. A large cave, some 190 -meters long and 80 meters wide. A thin ice crust has been found on -parts of the walls in the rear. - - -Caves in the Stein Alps. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 29.)--The plateau -of Velica Planina lies, at an altitude of 1600 meters, 9 kilometers -north of Stein in the Duchy of Krain. There are three caves containing -ice on the plateau. The first is a big one and is called V. Kofcih. The -second is called Mala Veternica. The third and biggest is called Velika -Veternica; its length is about 100 meters and its breadth 30 meters. - - -Glaciere Caves on the Nanos Mountain. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -34.)--In the southwestern Krain, 5 kilometers from Praewald. There are -four caves containing ice reported on the Nanos mountain. Two of them -are big. The altitude of one of these is 1300 meters, of the other 1350 -meters. - - -Brlowa Jama. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 36.)--Seven kilometers from -Adelsberg. Small glaciere cave. - - -Kosova Jama. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 38.)--Near Divacca. Forty -meters long, 20 meters broad. - - -Glaciere near Adelsberg. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 36.)--Small cave. -One hour from Adelsberg. - - -Kacna Jama. (J. Marinitsch, _La Kacna Jama_, _Memoires de la Societe de -Speleologie_, vol. I., page 83.)--A great pit near the railroad station -of Divacca. Herr Marinitsch observed the following temperatures on -January 2d, 1896:-- - - At Divacca -2 deg. C. - In the Kacna Jama at 40 meters -1.1 deg. C. - " " " " " 100 meters +1.2 deg. C. - " " " " " 210 meters +2.1 deg. C. - - -Sanct Canzian, Karst. (E. A. Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 564, -note.)--During the winter of 1889-1890, Herr Marinitsch found -stalactites of ice as far as the seventeenth cascade of the Recca; 1000 -meters from the third entrance of the river. The temperature of the -Recca was then at 0 deg.; during the summer, the temperature of the water -rises to 27 deg. (?). - - -The Grosses Eisloch of Paradana. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 36.)--On -the high plateau of the forest of Tarnowa, east of Goerz. A large pit -cave, 30 meters to 40 meters deep. Professor Fugger says of it: "The -flora in the basin-like depression has the character of high mountain -vegetation, with every step it resembles more this flora as it exists -in the neighborhood of glaciers, until finally in the deepest point of -the basin all vegetation stops." - - -The Kleines Eisloch of Paradana. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 37.)--A -small pit glaciere, 500 meters distant from the Grosses Eisloch of -Paradana. - - -Suchy Brezen. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 37.)--A small pit glaciere, -situated about midway between the Grosses and Kleines Eisloch of -Paradana. - - -Prevalo Cave. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 37.)--In the Buchenhochwald, -south of Karnica. Small glaciere. - - -Cave of Dol. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 38.)--On a mountain near -Haidenschaft. Small glaciere. - - -Glaciere near Matena in Bezirke Radmansdorf. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's -_Berichte_, etc., vol. VII., page 68.)--On a wooded height. The ice -commences to melt in the early summer. - - -Glaciere on the Schutzengelberge near the Golac. (Petruzzi in -Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., vol. VII., page 64.)--A small glaciere. - - -Glaciere Cave near Lazhna-gora or Latzenberg. (Valvasor, _Die Ehre des -Herzogthumes Crain_, vol. I., pages 242, 243; Hacquet, _Oryctographia -Carniolica_, 1778, III., page 159.)--In the neighborhood of Vishnagora -in the Krain. The entrance is under a church. It is a large cave, 40 -meters long and 20 meters high, where the ice all melts by the end of -the summer. Valvasor gives the following account of this cave in 1689, -which seems the first printed notice of a glaciere in German:-- - -"Near to Lazchenberg up by the church of St. Nicholas, where a _Thabor_ -stands, one finds a big hole, which sinks into the stony rocks. Through -this one descends deep with torches: there opens then underneath as -big a cavity as the biggest church could be, and the same is extremely -high, in the form of a cupola. One sees there different teeth, formed -and hardened from the water turned to stone. Further down one arrives -to a deep gully: into which, however, I have not been. On the other -side one must again ascend, and then one comes again to a cupola: in -which cupola ice stands up like an organ from the earth. - -"There also one sees icicles of pure ice of different sizes and -heights, of which many are one or two _klafters_ high and as thick as -a man; but many only two or three spans high or higher, and as thick -as an arm, and some also thinner. This ice is formed from the drops -of falling water; and indeed in summer; for in winter there is no ice -therein. Over such ice one must then ascend, as there are then said to -be separate holes and grottoes. But no one has been any further." - - -Glaciere on the Dini Verh. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., -vol. VII., page 67.)--Near Tomischle in the Krain. Small glaciere. - - -Eiskeller near Rosseck. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., vol. -VII., page 64.)--On the Pograca Mountain in the Krain, northeast of the -Hornwald, near the Meierhof Rosseck. Small glaciere cave. - - -Gorge near Rosseck. (Valvasor, _Die Ehre des Herzogthumes Crain_, vol. -I., page 243 and page 517 ; Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., -vol. VII., page 64.)--Behind the ruined castle of Rosseck, on the -Pograca Mountain in the Krain, is a gorge, at whose bottom are four -little holes containing ice most of the year. - -Valvasor wrote of this cave in 1689: "Near Rosseck immediately back -of the castle there opens a mighty cavern entirely in stony rock, and -yawns in the shape of a cauldron down into the earth. Above as wide as -a good rifle shot, but below quite narrow. And there underneath there -are many holes where the ice remains through the whole summer. From -such ice have Duke Frederick Graf and Duke von Gallenberg daily made -use in summer to cool their wine. Six years ago I descended there in -the month of August, and found ice enough in all the holes." - -In the same volume Freiherr Valvasor elaborates his remarks about this -cave and that at Latzenberg, repeating in the main the observations -in the paragraph just given. He says: "There hang also long icicles -which are quite pleasant to look at. * * * This ice breaks all too -easily and quickly. * * * Contrarywise, however, this ice lasts much -longer in the sun and the heat than other ice. * * * Some might think -it would eventually turn into stone: this, however, does not happen: -for it remains only in summer and disappears in winter: as I can say -for certain, as I have been in myself in the winter as well as in the -summer time. * * * For as in the summer the floor is quite covered with -ice: it makes walking so dangerous and bad that one cannot take a step -without climbing irons; but in the winter time one goes safely and -well. * * *" - -Freiherr Valvasor was evidently an accurate observer, and, if for his -word "winter" we substitute "autumn," his account will be much more -nearly correct than might have been expected two centuries ago. - - -The Kuntschner Eishoehle. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., -vol. VII., pages 65, 66.)--This is known also as the Toeplitzer, -Unterwarmberger or Ainoedter Grotto. It lies 2 kilometers from -Kuntschen, and 12 kilometers from Toeplitz near Neustaedtel, in the -Krain. Altitude about 630 meters. Petruzzi says: "Of all so far -noticed ice grottoes it is the most wonderful and splendid." In August -and September, 1849, the temperatures near the ice were about two -degrees above freezing. On the 16th of August, there were many long -ice stalagmites and stalactites; on the 29th of September they had -diminished materially. Petruzzi says also: "One leaves the abundant -vegetation of the Alpine summer flora, and through bushes and dwarf -underbrush, through bare and half moss covered rocks and debris, -through rotten and twisted tree stems, one comes to the hall of eternal -winter, where the microscopic mosses of the north surround the thousand -year old stalactites, hanging from the dripping vault, with an always -passing, always freshly forming, tender sulphur colored down." Dr. -Schwalbe has also examined this cave. - - -The Friedrichsteiner or Gottscheer Eishoehle.--Described in Part I., -page 51. - - -The Handler Eisloch.--7 kilometers south of Gottschee and about twenty -minutes from the village of Handlern, near Rieg. Altitude 596 meters. -Small cave. Professor Hans Satter of Gottschee told me he doubted -whether ice ever formed there now. - - -The Suchenreuther Eisloch.--Described in Part I., page 55. - - -Ledenica na Veliki Gori. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., -vol. VII., page 67.)--In the Krain, 11 kilometers from Reifnitz, on the -Balastena Mountain. Altitude 1253 meters. Much ice was found there on -the 10th of July, 1834. - - -Mrzla Jama. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 34.)--On the Innerkrainer -Schneeberg, 13 kilometers from Laas. - - -Glaciere Caves on the Kapella. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 39.)--On a -pass in the neighborhood of Piacenza. Altitude 800 meters. - - -Glaciere Cave in West Bosnia. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_. page 39.)--West of -Kljuc, county Petrovac, district Smoljama, near village Trvanj. Called -Trvanj, also Ledenica. Altitude about 1000 meters, length 170 meters, -breadth from 4 meters to 30 meters. - - -Rtanj, Servia. (A. Boue, _La Turquie d'Europe_, 1840, vol. I., page -132; Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., 1896, pages 72-74.)--This -glaciere is on the south side of Siljak, near the village Muzinac. A -passage 60 meters long leads to a hall about 10 meters in height. Dr. -Boue found snow here in August, the thermometer standing below freezing -point. The people in the neighborhood told Dr. Boue that the snow is -formed in June and disappears in September and that it is sometimes -carried to Nisch. He also heard of similar cavities on the Bannat -Mountain. Dr. Cvijic observed in the hall a temperature of +0.4 deg. C. - - -Ledena Pec, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., 1896, pages -68, 69.)--On the Ledini Verh or Glacial Peak, at an altitude of 800 -meters; distant one hour and a half from the village of Souvold. Length -of passage 108 meters; at entrance about 6 meters, at end about 15 -meters in height. On the 10th of May, 1893, there was plenty of ice and -snow. Temperature of outside air +19 deg. C.; inside air at rear +0.5 deg. C. -Probably permanent glaciere. - - -Dobra Ledenica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., 1896, -page 70.)--West of Ledeno Brdo. Probably periodic glaciere. On July -25th, 1890, the temperature of the outside air was +26 deg. C.; of the -inside air +3.5 deg.C. _Ledenica_ is the name for a glaciere in Servia. - - -Ledenica in the Mala Brezovica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, -vol. II., 1896, page 70.)--Length 43 meters. A large, permanent -glaciere. On July 28th, 1890, the outside air was +23 deg.: inside air +2 deg.. - - -Ledenica Treme in the Souva Planina, Servia. (Cvijic, Dr. A., -_Spelunca_, vol. II., 1896, page 71.)--Altitude 1600 meters to 1700 -meters. A rather large, probably permanent glaciere. Plenty of ice in -it on April 21st, 1894. - - -Zla Ledenica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., 1896, page -72.)--On the Kucaj. A permanent glaciere, 7 meters or 8 meters deep. On -July 25th, 1890, outside air +25 deg.; inside air at snow +6 deg.. - - -Glaciere on the Devica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., -1896, page 74.)--Under the peak Lazurevica. Altitude 1000 meters. A -narrow passage leads to a hall 17 meters long by 12 meters wide and -20 meters high. On June 30th, 1893, there was plenty of snow in the -passage and ice in the hall. - - -Glaciere Vlaska Pecura, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., -1896, page 74.)--On the Devica, under the Golemi Vech. A small periodic -glaciere. - - -Glaciere in the Zdrebica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., -1896, page 74.)--On the southeast side of the Souva Planina, near the -village Veliki Krtchimir. A small periodic glaciere. On April 20th, -1874, plenty of snow and ice. - - -Glaciere Stoykova, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., 1896, -pages 75, 76.)--On the Kucaj. A large pit cave with a total depth of 23 -meters. Probably a permanent glaciere. On July 21st, 1890, plenty of -ice and snow. Outside air +21 deg.; inside air in hall +0.5 deg.. - - -Glaciere on the Topiznica Mountain, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, -vol. II., 1896, page 76.)--Altitude 1100 meters. A large pit cave with -an extreme depth of 27 meters. In August, 1893, there was plenty of -snow and ice, and the inside temperature was +1 deg.. - - -Glaciere Cave near Borszek. (Bielz, _Siebenbuergen_, 1885, page -334.)--About an hour distant from the baths, in broken limestone. It -seems to be a rock fissure, at the end of which ice is found till -towards the middle of July. - - -Glaciere Cave near Sonkolyos in the Koroes Valley. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, -page 51.)--Small cave. - - -Glaciere near Zapodia. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 50.)--Near Petrosc in -the Bihar Mountains. Altitude 1140 meters; length 20 meters, width 7 -meters. - - -Pescerca la Jesere. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 50.)--Between Vervul la -Belegiana and the Batrina in the Bihar Mountains. Small freezing cave. - - -Glaciere Cave near Verespatak, in Transylvania. (Bielz, _Siebenbuergen_, -page 52.)--Small cave. - - -Gietariu near Funacza. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 50.)--In the Bihar -Mountains. Small glaciere cave. - - -Cave of Skerizora. (Karl F. Peters, _Sitzungsbericht der K. K. -Akademie der Wissenchaften_, Wien, vol. XLIII., 1861, page 437; Bielz, -_Siebenbuergen_, 1885, page 37.)--This is one of the greatest glaciere -caves known. It lies in the Bihar Mountains, three hours from the -village of Ober-Girda, which can be reached from Gyula Fehervar, via -Topanfalva. It is a pit cave, in limestone, at an altitude of 1127 -meters. The pit is about 57 meters broad, and 45 meters deep, with -exceedingly steep walls. The entrance is in the northeast wall and -is about 10 meters high. This leads into a nearly circular hall 47 -meters in diameter and about 20 meters high. The floor is ice. In the -southeast corner is a hole over 75 meters deep. In the northwest wall -is an opening 14 meters wide, which forms the beginning of a sort of -gallery 54 meters long and which at its further end is 24 meters wide -and 8 meters high. This is also covered with a flooring of ice, which -in some places can only be descended by step cutting. This passage -is also richly adorned with ice stalactites and stalagmites. At its -end is another also nearly circular hall, 21 meters in diameter and -about 22 meters high. This is called the '_Beszerika_' or church. In -one place there is a magnificent collection of ice stalagmites called -the "Altar." Peters found in dirt on the sides of the cave remains -of bats not very different from those now living in the vicinity. He -thinks the bats may have come there before the cave became a glaciere; -or else that they may even now sometimes get into the first hall and -there perish from cold. This makes it uncertain, therefore, whether the -remains can be considered as of the past or the present. - - -Eishoehle bei Roth.--Described in Part I., page 35. - - -Mines on the Eisenberg. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 59.)--These lie near -Blankenburg in the Thueringer Wald and have been known to contain ice. - - -The Ziegenloch or Grosses Kalte Loch, and the Kleines Kalte Loch. -(Behrens, _Hercynia Curiosa_, pages 68, 70.)--These lie near -Questenberg in the Southern Harz Mountains, at an altitude of about 300 -meters. The Grosses Loch is described as a sort of small pit some 8 -meters deep, in one side of which opens a small fissure some 10 meters -long. Ice has been found in this in April; Schwalbe found none there in -July. The Kleines Loch was another small cold cave near the Ziegenloch, -but it has been filled up. Behrens says that the dampness at the cave -at Questenberg is precipitated as snow. - - -Holes with Ice near Sanct Blasien. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 109.)--In -the Black Forest, among boulders at an altitude of 820 meters. - - -Holes with Ice near Hochenschwand. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 109.)--In -the Black Forest, among boulders at an altitude of 820 meters. - - -Eisstollen and Eiskeller at the Dornburg. Described in Part I., page -59. (Poggendorff's _Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Ergaenzungsband_, -1842, pages 517-519.)--Ice appears to have been discovered at the -Dornburg in June, 1839. It was found from a depth of 60 centimeters -down to 8 meters. The width of the ice-bearing talus was from 12 -meters to 15 meters; and it is said that it becomes wider in winter and -narrower in summer. - - -Beschertgluck Mine, Freiberg District. (Prestwich, _Collected papers_, -etc., page 206.)--Mr. Prestwich quotes Daubuisson as having seen the -shaft of the mine lined with ice to a depth of 80 toises (144 meters?). - - -Ice in the Zinc Mines on the Sauberg. (Reich, _Beobachtungen ueber die -Temperatur des Gesteines_, 1834, pages 175 and 205.)--These are near -Ehrenfriedersdorf in Saxony and formerly contained ice in winter. They -are reported now to be destroyed. - - -The Garische Stollen. (Lohman, _Das Hoehleneis_, etc., page 3.)--Near -Ehrenfriedersdorf in the Freiwald. Lohman found much ice in this in -January, less in March, and scarcely any in May. - - -The Ritterhoehle. (Lohman, _Das Hoehleneis_, page 5.)--Near -Ehrenfriedersdorf in the Freiwald. Small ice deposit. The rock is -granite. - - -The Stulpnerhoehle. (Lohman, _Das Hoehleneis_, page 6.)--Near the -Ritterhoehle. Small ice deposit in granite rock. - - -Eisloch and Eishoehle near Geyer in Saxony. (Lohman, _Das Hoehleneis_, -page 7.)--These are in a place called die Binge. Both are small. - - -The Alte Thiele. (Lohman, _Das Hoehleneis_, page 8.)--Near Buchholz in -Saxony. Small ice deposit. - - -Mine Pits in the Saxon Erzgebirge. (Reich, _Beobachtungen ueber die -Temperatur des Gesteines_, 1834.)--Extremely low temperatures have been -found in several of these pits:-- - -In the Churprinz Friedrich August Erbstollen near Freiberg. - -In the Heinrichs-Sohle in the Stockwerk near Altenberg. - -In the Henneberg Stollen, on the Ingelbach, near Johanngeorgenstadt. - -In the Weiss-Adler-Stollen, on the left declivity of the valley of the -Schwarzwasser, above the Antonshuette. - - -Holes Holding Ice on the Saalberg. (_Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, -1850, LXXXI., page 579.)--These lie between Saalberg and the Burgk. Ice -is found here on the surface from June to the middle of August. From -the observations of Professor Hartenstein, Fugger deduces that this -place must be the lower end of one or more windholes. - - -Millstone Quarry of Niedermendig. (M. A. Pictet, _Memoires de la -Societe d'Histoire Naturelle de Geneve_, 1821, vol. I., page 151.)--On -the Niederrhein. There are many connecting pits and galleries here, in -which ice has been found in the hottest days of summer as well as in -March. The abandoned shafts are utilized as beer cellars. - - -Eisgrube on the Umpfen. (Voigt, _Mineralogische Reisen durch das -Herzogthum Weimar_, 1785, vol. II., page 123.)--In the Rhoengebirge, -twenty minutes from Kaltennordheim, are some irregular masses of -columnar basalt, at an altitude of about 500 meters, among which -abundant ice has been found up to late in the summer. - - -Cave near Muggendorf, Franconia.--The landlord of the Kurhaus Hotel at -Muggendorf, told me that there was a small cave in the vicinity where -there was ice in the winter and spring, but that it all melted away -before August. - - -Cave on the Duerrberg. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 59.)--Near Zwickau in -Bohemia. Small cave which sometimes contains ice. - - -The Schneebinge. (Lohman, _Das Hoehleneis_, page 11.)--Near Platten in -Bohemia. A small ice deposit in an old mine. - - -Ice among Basaltic Rocks on the Pleschiwitz. (Pleischl, in -Poggendorff's _Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, vol. LIV., 1841, -pages 292-299.)--Above Kameik near Leitmeritz in Bohemia. Professor -Pleischl, in May, 1834, found ice under the rocks a little distance -from the surface. The surface of the rocks was then warm. On the 21st -of January, 1838, Professor Pleischl found snow on the outside of -the rocks, but no ice underneath. He was assured by the people of the -district that the hotter the summer, the more ice is found. - - -Glaciere on the Zinkenstein. (Pleischl, in Poggendorff's _Annalen der -Physik und Chemie_, vol. LIV., 1841, page 299).--The Zinkenstein is one -of the highest points of the Vierzehnberge, in the Leitmeritz Kreis. -There is a deep cleft in basalt, where ice has been found in summer. - - -Eisloecher on the Steinberg. (Pleischl, in Poggendorffs _Annalen der -Physik und Chemie_, vol. LIV., 1841, page 299.)--In the Herrschaft -Konoged. Small basalt talus where ice is found in the hottest weather. - - -Windholes in Bohemia. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 109.)--In the -neighborhood of Leitmeritz. These are in basaltic rock. Ice sometimes -forms at the lower extremity. The most notable are-- - -On the Steinberg near Mertendorf on the Triebschbach; - -On the Kelchberg near Triebsch; - -On the Kreuzberg near Leitmeritz; - -On the Rodersberg near Schlackenwerth; - -In the Grossen Loch near Tschersink. - - -Ice in a Pit near Neusohl. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 109.) - - -The Frainer Eisleithen. Described in Part I., page 33. (Fugger, -_Eishoehlen_, page 163.) Professor Fugger quotes the following -observations by Forester Wachtl at Frain:-- - - 1861. 1862. - January -7 deg. to -2 deg. -5 deg. - February -2 deg. to 0 deg. -5 deg. to -2 deg. - March 0 deg. to +1 deg. -1 deg. to 0 deg. - April +1 deg. to +2 deg. 0 deg. - May +2 deg. +2 deg. to +5 deg. - June +2 deg. to +3 deg. +3 deg. to +6 deg. - July +3 deg. +3 deg. to +5 deg. - August +3 deg. to +7 deg. +5 deg. - September +7 deg. to +6 deg. +3 deg. to +6 deg. - October +6 deg. +5 deg. - November -- +5 deg. - December -1 deg. to -3 deg. 0 deg. to -2 deg. - - -Demenyfalva Jegbarlang. Described in Part I., page 24. - - -Dobsina Jegbarlang. Described in Part I., page 13. (Pelech; _The Valley -of Stracena and the Dobschau Ice Cavern_; Schwalbe, _Ueber Eishoehlen und -Eisloecher_, page 31.)--Pelech gives the following measurements: The -Grosser Saal is 120 meters long, 35 meters to 60 meters wide, and 10 -meters to 11 meters high, with a surface area of 4644 square meters. -The ice mass is estimated as 125,000 cubic meters in volume. The length -of the Korridor is 200 meters; the left wing being 80 meters, and the -right wing 120 meters long. The cave was first entered on July 15th, -1870, by Herr Eugene Ruffiny, of Dobsina, and some friends. He had -happened to fire a gun in front of it, and hearing a continuous muffled -rolling echo within, determined to explore it. - -Dr. Schwalbe quotes the following series of observations in Dobsina -during the year 1881: - - DEEPEST POINT FROM KORRIDOR - ENTRANCE. GROSSER SAAL. OF KORRIDOR. TO KLEINEN SAAL. - - January -2.2 deg. -4.2 deg. -2.2 deg. -0.6 deg. - February -1.2 deg. -3.4 deg. -1.9 deg. -0.3 deg. - March -1.4 deg. -2.1 deg. -0.9 deg. -0.2 deg. - April -0.25 deg. -1.25 deg. -0.7 deg. +0.3 deg. - May +0.7 deg. +0.9 deg. -0.5 deg. +0.5 deg. - June +1.0 deg. +1.5 deg. -0.5 deg. +0.5 deg. - July +1.8 deg. +2.1 deg. +0.2 deg. +1.1 deg. - August +3.4 deg. +3.8 deg. +0.24 deg. +0.80 - September +2.00 +2.3 deg. -0.3 deg. -0.15 deg. - October -0.2 deg. +0.2 deg. -0.5 deg. -0.2 deg. - November -1.3 deg. -1.9 deg. -0.6 deg. -0.3 deg. - December -2.2 deg. -3.2 deg. -0.65 deg. -1.75 deg. - ------ ------ ------ ------ - Year +0.04 deg. -0.44 deg. -0.69 deg. -0.02 deg. - -The Philadelphia _Evening Bulletin_, March, 1st, 1899, printed the -following note about Dobsina: "In this cave, some sixteen years ago, -a couple named Kolcsey elected to pass the week immediately following -their marriage. They took with them a plentiful supply of rugs, -blankets and warm clothing, but notwithstanding all precautions, -their experience was not of a sufficiently pleasant nature to tempt -imitators." - - -Lednica of Szilize. (M. Bel, _Philosophical Transactions_, London, -1739, vol. XLI., page 41 _et seq._; Townson, _Travels in Hungary_, -1797; Terlanday, _Petermann's Mittheilungen_, 1893, page 283.)--It lies -1.5 kilometers from the village of Szilize, near Rosenau, in Gomoer -County, in the Carpathians, at an altitude of 460 meters. A pit about -35 meters deep, 75 meters long, and 48 meters wide opens in the ground, -and at the southern end, in the perpendicular wall, is the cave. The -entrance is 22 meters wide, 15 meters high, and faces north. A slope 4 -meters long sinks with an angle of 35 deg. to the floor of the cave, which -is nearly circular in form, with a diameter of about 10 meters. On -the east side of the cave there seems to be a hole in the ice some 10 -meters deep. - -In 1739, there was published in London a curious letter in Latin from -Matthias Bel, a Hungarian _savant_, about the cavern of Szilize. He -says: "The nature of the cave has this of remarkable, that, when -outside the winter freezes strongest, inside the air is balmy: but it -is cold, even icy, when the sun shines warmest. As soon as the snow -melts and spring begins, the inner roof of the cave, where the midday -sun strikes the outside, begins to sweat clear water, which drops -down here and there; through the power of the inner cold it turns to -transparent ice and forms icicles, which in thickness equal large -barrels and take wonderful shapes. What as water drops from the icicles -to the sandy floor, freezes up, even quicker, than one would think. - -"The icy nature of the cave lasts through the whole summer, and what -is most remarkable, it increases with the increasing heat of the sun. -In the beginning of the spring the soft winter's warmth begins to give -way soon thereafter, and when spring is more advanced, the cold sets -in, and in such a manner, that the warmer does the (outside) air -grow, the more does the cave cool off. And when the summer has begun -and the dog days glow, everything within goes into icy winter. Then do -the drops of water pouring from the roof of the cave change into ice, -and with such rapidity that where to-day delicate icicles are visible, -to-morrow masses and lumps, which fall to the ground, appear. Here -and there, where the water drips down the walls of the cave, one sees -wonderful incrustations, like an artificial carpeting. The rest of the -water remains hanging on the ice, according to the warmth of the day. -For when for a longer time it is warmer, the ice of the stalactites, -of the walls and of the floor increases; but when the ruling heat, as -sometimes happens, is diminished through north winds or rainstorm, -the waters freeze more slowly, the ice drips more fully and begins to -form little brooklets. When however the temperature gets warmer, the -icy nature of the cave begins once more. Some have observed, that the -nature of the grotto receives the changes of temperature ahead, like a -barometer. For, when a warmer temperature sets in outside, the waters -change into ice, several hours before the heat sets in, while the -opposite takes place, when by day the temperature is colder; for then -even by the warmest sky the ice begins to melt noticeably. - -"When the dog days have passed and the summer has already changed -into fall, the cave with its own nature follows the conditions of the -external air. In the early months and while the nights are growing -colder, the ice diminishes visibly; then when the air cools off more -and more and when the brooks and side are rigid with frost, it begins -to melt as though there was a fire built underneath, until, when winter -reigns, it is entirely dry in the cave, without a sign of ice being -left behind. Then gentle warmth spreads into the entire cave, and this -icy grave becomes a safety resort for insects and other small animals, -which bear the winter with difficulty. But besides swarms of flies and -gnats, troops of bats and scores of owls, hares and foxes take up their -abode here, until with the beginning of spring, the cave once more -assumes its icy appearance." - -These assertions of Bel are the most inaccurate ones made about -glacieres. Yet, strange to say, they have colored the literature of -the subject down to our own times; and have been repeated many times, -sometimes with, sometimes without, the hares and foxes; the latest -repetition seeming to occur in 1883. - - -Cave near the Village of Borzova, Torna County, Carpathians. (Fugger, -_Eishoehlen_, page 52.)--Reported to contain ice, but nothing certainly -known. - - -CRIMEA. - -Ledianaia Yama. (Montpeyreux, _Voyage autour du Caucase_ V., page 440; -Hablizl, _Description physique de la Tauride_, 1783, pages 43-45.)--On -the Karabi-Yaila, 32 kilometers southwest of Karasubazar. Altitude -about 1800 meters. A fairly large pit glaciere cave. The name means an -abyss of ice. - - -Glaciere Cave on the Yaila of Oulouzene at Kazaute. (Montpeyreux, -_Voyage autour du Caucase_, II., page 380.)--A small pit cave. - - -CAUCASUS. - -Glaciere Cave in the Khotevi Valley. (Montpeyreux, _Voyage autour -du Caucase_, II., page 379.)--In the province of Radscha, near the -Monastery Nikortsminda. A large pit cave which must be of the same -order as that of Chaux-les-Passavant and from which the inhabitants of -Koutais get ice. - - -Glacieres near Koutais. (E. A. Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 397.)--"Dr. -A. Sakharov, it appears, has recently discovered in the government of -Koutais caves containing ice." - - -Cave of Sabazwinda. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 126.)--Near the town of -Zorchinwall, on the river Liachwa, province of Gori, in Georgia, near -the Ossete Mountains. Ice has been found in the cave in summer. In -December there was none. - - -URAL. - -Glaciere Cave near Sukepwa. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 63.)--On the -Volga, province of Zlatoust. Small cave on the river bank. - - -Glaciere Cave on the Tirmen Tau. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., -vol. II., page 28.)--Near the village of Chaszina, 160 kilometers from -Orenburg. Small cave. - - -Glaciere Cave of Kurmanajeva. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., -vol. II., page 5.)--Near Kurmanajeva, a village 49 kilometers from -Tabinsk, in the Government of Orenburg. A large cave. Lepechin found -ice in one part of the cave and deep water in another. There were -draughts in some places. - - -Cave on the Baislan Tasch. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II., -page 40.)--The Baislan Tasch is a mountain on the right bank of the -Bielaja River, which flows into the Kama. There is a large cave in the -mountain in which ice has been found. - - -Cave on the Muinak Tasch. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II., -page 38.)--The Muinak Tasch is a mountain on the Bielaja River. There -is a large cave in it, in which a little ice has been found. - - -Cave of Kungur. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II., page 137; -Rosenmueller and Tilesius, I., page 79.)--The Cavern of Kungur is near -the town of Kungur in the Government of Perm. There are in it many -passages and grottoes connecting with one another, some of which -contain ice. It is a fine, large cave, whose greatest length is 400 -meters. - - -Mines of Kirobinskoy. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 65.)--These mines are -53 kilometers southeast of Miask in the Ural; they have been abandoned. -One of them contains ice all the year round. - - -Caves of Illetzkaya-Zatschita. (Murchison, Vernieul and Keyserling, -_The Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains_, 1845, vol. -I., page 186.)--72 kilometers southeast from Orenburg. The caves are in -the Kraoulnaigora, a gypsum hillock 36 meters high, rising in the midst -of an undulating steppe, which lies on a vast bed of rock salt. Only -one of the caves contains ice. There are strong draughts in places. - - -SIBERIA. - -Cave near the Fortress Kitschigina. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 66.)--A -small cave, 17 kilometers east of Kajilskoi, 192 kilometers from -Petropaulowsk, 605 kilometers from Tobolsk. The cave is in an open -plain, and sometimes contains ice. - - -Wrechneja Petschera. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 66.)--Near the village -Birjusinska, in the neighborhood of Krasnojarsk, on the right bank of -the Yenisei. Large glaciere cave. - - -Glaciere Cave of Balagansk. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 66.)--A narrow -cleft, 80 meters long; 192 kilometers downstream from Irkutsk on the -left bank of the Angora River; at a distance of 2 kilometers from the -river. - - -Glaciere Cave on the Onon River. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 66.)--A -small cave; 48 kilometers from the Borsja Mountain. - - -Mines of Siranowsk. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 126.)--In the Altai -Mountains, on the Buchtorma River, an affluent of the Irtysch. -Magnificent ice formations have been found in these mines. - - -Mines of Seventui. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 126.)--Near Nertschinsk, -on the Amoor River. Two of the levels contain perennial ice and hence -are called _Ledenoi_. These are at a depth of about 60 meters in porous -lava. The rest of the mine is in more solid rock. - - -Glaciere Cave near Lurgikan. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 67.)--Near -the confluence of the Lurgikan and Schilka Rivers, in the province -Nertschinsk. From 2 meters to 7 meters wide. Length 280 meters. - - -Basins or Troughs Retaining Ice. (Dittmar, _Ueber die Eismuelden im -Oestlichen Siberien_; Middendorff, _Zusatz_; _Bulletin de la classe -physico-mathematique de l'Academie Imperiale des Sciences de St. -Petersbourg_, 1853, vol. XI., pages 305-316.)--These troughs are nearly -akin to gorges and gullies, but their water supply seems to come -from a cause which is not usually present in gorges. Their principal -observer, M. de Dittmar, thought that a cold and snowy winter would add -materially to the supply of ice, but he also thought that a necessity -to the existence of the ice in these troughs was an abundant water -supply from a spring, whose temperature should be so high as not to -freeze in winter. The cold is supplied by the winter temperatures. -Some of the most important are reported-- - -In the Turachtach Valley. - -Near Kapitanskji Sasiek. - -In the valley of the River Belvi. - -In the valley of the River Antscha. - -In the Kintschen Valley. - -In the neighborhood of Kolymsk. - -In the Werchojanski Mountains. - -In the Stanowaj Mountains. - - -KONDOOZ. - -Cave of Yeermallik. (Burslem, _A peep into Toorkisthan_, 1846, chaps. -X., XI.)--In the valley of the Doaub, northwest of Kabul. The entrance -is half way up a hill, and is about 15 meters wide and 15 meters high. -This is a large cave, with many ramifications and galleries. In the -centre of a hall far within, Captain Burslem found a mass of clear ice, -smooth and polished as a mirror, and in the form of a beehive, with its -dome-shaped top just touching the long icicles which depended from the -jagged surface of the rock. A small aperture led into the interior of -this cone, whose walls were about 60 centimeters thick and which was -divided into several compartments. Some distance from the entrance of -this cave there is a perpendicular drop of 5 meters. A short distance -beyond this, in one of the halls, were hundreds of skeletons of men, -women and children, in a perfectly undisturbed state, also the prints -of a naked human foot and the distinct marks of the pointed heel of an -Afghan boot. The moollah, who was acting as guide, said the skeletons -were the remains of seven hundred men of the Huzareh tribe who took -refuge in the cave with their wives and children during the invasion of -Genghis Khan, and who defended themselves so stoutly, that after trying -in vain to smoke them out, the invader built them in with huge natural -blocks of stone, and left them to die of hunger. Some of the Afghans -said that the cave was inhabited by Sheitan, a possibility denied by -the moollah who guided Captain Burslem, on the philosophical plea that -the cave was too cold for such an inhabitant. - - -HIMALAYA. - -Glaciere Cave of Amarnath. (Miss Mary Coxe of Philadelphia showed me -a copy of a letter of Dr. Wilhelmine Eger describing a visit to this -cave.)--It lies three days' journey from Pailgam in Kashmere, on the -borders of Little Tibet. The altitude is evidently high as one crosses -snow fields to get to it. A small path zigzagging up a grassy slope -leads to the cave and is a stiff climb from the valley. The cave opens -on the side of a mountain and has a large, almost square mouth at -least as big as the floor area within. The floor of the cave is the -continuation of the grass slope and slants upwards and backwards to the -back wall, the only case of the kind so far reported. This cave is most -curiously connected with religion. Dr. Eger says that there are two -small blocks of ice in it which never melt. From time immemorial these -blocks of ice have been sacred to the Hindoos who worship them--as -re-incarnations--under the names of Shiva and Ganesh. Dr. Eger saw -offerings of rice and flowers on them. Thousands of pilgrims come every -year at the end of July or beginning of August from all parts of India. -Thousands of miles have been traversed and hundreds of lives laid down -through this journey. Every year people die either before reaching -the cave or after. The trip from Pailgam in Kashmere takes three days -up and two days down, if one returns by a shorter route where the way -is unsafe because of avalanches. So many have perished there that the -pass is called "The Way of Death." This must be taken by one class of -pilgrims, _Sardhas_ or Holy Men, to complete the sacred circuit, but -the Hindoos say any one dying on the pass will go straight to heaven. - - -Icicles Formed by Radiation. (General Sir Richard Strachey, -_Geographical Journal_, 1900, vol. XV., page 168.)--On the Balch pass -of the Balch range in Tibet, General Strachey, in 1848, saw icicles of -which he says: "On the rocks exposed to the south were very curious -incrustations of ice, icicles indeed, but standing out horizontally -like fingers towards the wind. I was not able to understand how they -were caused, nor can I tell why they were confined to particular spots. -The thermometer stood at 41 deg.[F.], and though the dew point at the -time would probably have been below 32 deg.[F.], and the cold produced by -evaporation sufficient therefore to freeze water, yet it is evident -that no condensation could ever take place simultaneously with the -evaporation. * * * It has since occurred to me that these icicles were -formed by radiation. I found, subsequently, in a somewhat similar -position, that a thermometer suspended vertically, and simply exposed -to the sky in front of it, was depressed as much as 20 deg. F. below the -true temperature of the surrounding air. This result was, of course, -due to the radiation through the extremely dry and rarefied atmosphere -at the great elevation at which the thermometer was exposed. As -radiation takes place freely from a surface of ice, the growth of such -icicles as those described might be due to the condensation of vapour -brought up by the southerly day winds that so constantly blow over -these passes, and its accumulation in the form of ice on the exposed -extremity of the icicle, the temperature of which might thus have been -greatly reduced." - - -INDIA. - -Ice Formed by Radiation. (T. A. Wise, _Nature_, vol. V., page 189; R. -H. Scott, _Elementary Meteorology_, Third Ed., pages 61, 62.)--Mr. -Bunford Samuel called my attention to the mode of manufacturing ice by -radiation in India. It is as follows:-- - -"A very practical use of nocturnal radiation has been made from time -immemorial in India in the preparation of ice, and on such a scale that -about 10 tons of ice can be procured in a single night from twenty -beds of the dimensions about to be given, when the temperature of the -air is 15 deg. or 20 deg. [F.] above the freezing point. * * * The locality -referred to is the immediate neighborhood of Calcutta. A rectangular -piece of ground is marked out, lying east and west, and measuring 120 -by 20 feet. This is excavated to the depth of two feet and filled with -rice straw rather loosely laid, to within six inches of the surface of -the ground. The ice is formed in shallow dishes of porous earthenware, -and the amount of water placed in each is regulated by the amount of -ice expected. - -"In the cold weather, when the temperature of the air at the ice fields -is under 50 deg., ice is formed in the dishes. The freezing is most active -with N. N. W. airs, as these are driest; it ceases entirely with -southerly or easterly airs, even though their temperature may be lower -than that of the N. N. W. wind. - -"No ice is formed if the wind is sufficiently strong to be called a -breeze, for the air is not left long enough at rest, above the bed, for -its temperature to fall sufficiently, by the action of radiation. - -"The rice straw, being kept loose and perfectly dry, cuts off the -access of heat from the surface of the ground below it, and, when the -sun goes down, the straw being a powerful radiator, the temperature -of the air in contact with the dishes is reduced some 20 deg. below that -prevailing some two or three feet above them. The rapid evaporation of -the water into the dry air above creates also an active demand for heat -to be rendered latent in the formation of steam, and the result of all -these agencies is the formation of ice, under favorable circumstances, -on the extensive scale above mentioned." - - -KOREA. - -Glaciere Cave on the Han Gang.--Messrs. J. Edward Farnum and George -L. Farnum, of Philadelphia, inform me that they saw a small cave -containing ice on the banks of one of the Korean rivers. It is about -75 kilometers from Seoul, nearly northeast, near the ferry where the -old road leading from Seoul towards northern Korea crosses the Han -Gang, the river which passes by Seoul. The entrance is small; perhaps -2 meters wide. The cave is not thoroughly explored. Ice lies near the -entrance, and as far back as the Messrs. Farnum could see. - - -JAPAN. - -Glaciere Lava Cave near Shoji. (_Evening Telegraph, Philadelphia, -January 2d, 1896._)--The cave is about 12 kilometers from Shoji, and is -in lava. First there is a pit in the forest, some 5 meters wide by 15 -meters deep. The cave opens into this. It seems to be some 400 meters -long and from 2 meters to 12 meters high. There is an ice floor in -places, also many ice stalagmites. At the furthest point reached there -is a strong air current, which extinguishes torches and so far has -prevented further exploration. Ice from the cave has been cut by the -country people for sale at Kofu, which is not far distant. - - - - -PART IV. - -SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. - - - - -SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. - - -Benigne Poissenot, in 1586, hinted that the cold of winter produced the -ice at Chaux-les-Passavant.[69] - -[69] See Part III.: page 193. - - -Reichard Strein and Christoph Schallenberger visited the caves on the -Oetscher in 1591.[70] - -[70] See Part III.: page 231. - - -Gollut, in 1592, suggested the cold of winter as the cause of the ice -at Chaux-les-Passavant.[71] - -[71] See Part III.: page 202. - - -In the _Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences_, 1686, Tome -II., pages 2, 3, there is an account, with no author's name, of -Chaux-les-Passavant. The memoir states that in winter the cave is -filled with thick vapors and that after some trees were cut down near -the entrance, the ice was less abundant than formerly: that people -come for ice with carts and mules, but that the ice does not become -exhausted, for one day of great heat forms more ice than could be -carried away in eight days in carts and wagons: and that when a fog -forms in the cave, there is assuredly rain the following day, and that -the peasants in the neighborhood consult this curious "almanac" to know -the weather which is coming. - - -Freiherr Valvasor, in 1689, wrote about some of the glacieres of the -Krain.[72] - -[72] See Part III.: pages 238, 239. - - -Behrens, in 1703, thought it was colder in summer than in winter in the -caves near Questenberg in the Harz. - - -M. de Billerez, in 1712, writes that at Chaux-les-Passavant it is -really colder in summer than in winter; and that the ice is harder than -river ice, and this he thinks is due to the presence of a nitrous or -ammoniacal salt, which he says he found in the rocks. - - -M. de Boz made four trips to Chaux-les-Passavant on the 15th of May -and 8th of November, 1725; and the 8th of March and 20th of August, -1726. His memoir says that his observations tend to disprove those -of M. de Billerez, and that "the cause for the great cold, which is -less great in summer, although always remaining, is quite natural." -He cites as causes for the ice the exposure to the north-north-east; -the rock portal sheltering the entrance, and all the forest covering -the surrounding lands; and adds that some veracious persons told him -that since some of the big trees above the grotto had been cut down -there was less ice than before. He found no traces of salt, nor any -springs, and that the water supply came from the rains and melted snows -filtering through the ground. - - -In 1739, Matthias Bel published his curious account of Szilize.[73] - -[73] See Part III.: page 254. - - -J. N. Nagel, a Vienna mathematician, visited the Oetscher in 1747. He -concluded that the ice was made in winter and preserved in summer as in -an ice house. - - -M. de Cossigny wrote, in 1750, about Chaux-les-Passavant. He made -a plan of the cave and took many observations in April, August and -October, and concluded that the interior condition of the cave does not -change noticeably from winter to summer, no matter what the external -conditions of temperature may be; that what people say of greater cold -in summer, vanishes before actual experience and that, as a state -of freezing reigns more or less continuously in the cave, it is not -surprising if the ice accumulates. Apparently he was the first to -notice and insist on the necessity of drainage to the cave through -cracks in the rocks. He also made a series of observations disproving -those of M. de Billerez, as to the presence of any kinds of salts in -the rocks or ice. - - -Hacquet, in 1778, thought that the ice in the cave at Lazhna-gora -formed in winter, but he also thought that there must undoubtedly be -some salt in the water. He says he found ice in the cave in the spring, -and that his companion, a priest, had never found any in winter. He -therefore concluded that by that time it had all melted. - - -Romain Joly, in 1779, claims to have visited Chaux-les-Passavant on the -19th of September (year not given). His account seems largely borrowed -from the one in the _Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences_, in -1686. He says: "This ice is formed by the drops of water which fall -from the roof, and which freeze because of the chill of the cave. -In the winter there is no ice, but running water." He says nothing, -however, about the ice forming in summer. - - -The _Citoyen_ Girod-Chantrans visited Chaux-les-Passavant in August, -1783, and reached the conclusion, from all he saw and heard, that the -cave did not freeze in summer nor thaw in winter, and that it was -really a natural ice house. He was aided by the notes of a neighboring -physician, Dr. Oudot, who had made observations in the cave, and among -others, had placed stakes of wood, on the 8th of January, 1779, in -the heads of the columns he had found in the cave; and on the 22d of -February, 1780, had found these stakes completely covered with ice, -forming columns 30 centimeters in diameter. - - -Hablizl, in 1788, wrote that the ice in the cave near Karassoubazar -formed in the spring by the snows which melt, run into the cave, and -refreeze. He also thought that there was less ice there in the fall -than in the spring, that it diminishes in July and August, and that the -idea, current in the neighborhood, of the formation of ice in summer, -is a mistake. - - -Professor Pierre Prevost, in 1789, gave an accurate explanation of -the formation of the ice in Chaux-les-Passavant. He says: "Weighing -carefully the local circumstances, one discovers in truth a few causes -of permanent cold. But these causes seem rather suited to keep up a -great freshness or to diminish the heat of summer, than to produce a -cold such as that which reigns in the cavern. First of all, big trees -throw shade over the entrance; it is, I was told, forbidden under -severe penalties to cut down any of them, for fear of depriving the -grotto of a necessary shelter. In the second place, this entrance is -situated almost due north, leaning a little to the east, which is the -coolest exposure one can choose, and the one most suited to help the -effect of the icy winds which blow from that quarter. Finally the slope -is steep and the grotto deep and covered with a thick vault. These -three conditions united constitute, as it seems to me, a very good _ice -house_; by which I mean a reservoir fit to preserve during the summer, -the ice which may bank up in winter. - -"But how does this ice bank up? One knows that the outside waters -above form on the roof, during the winter, long drops and stalactites -of ice. These icicles, which hang down and increase constantly by the -drip from the same source which formed them, fall at last, carried away -by their own weight, and form so many centres, around which freeze -the waters with which the floor of the grotto is always inundated. At -the same time, the blowing of the north wind accumulates snow at the -base of the slope, which is uncovered in part and exposed above to all -the vicissitudes of the weather. Thus during the winter is formed an -irregular heap of ice and snow, which the first heats of spring begin -to make run, but which the heats of summer cannot finish dissolving. -The winter following has therefore even more facility to augment the -mass of these ice pyramids, which have resisted until the fall. And if -men did not work at diminishing it, it might happen that it would fill -the entire cavern at last to a great height. - -"I am therefore strongly inclined to think that the process of nature -is here precisely similar to that of art; that without any especial -cause of cold, the natural glaciere of Besancon conserves in the -moderate temperature of deep caverns, the heaps of snow and ice which -the winds and the outside waters accumulate there during the winter; -and that the melting of these snows and of these accumulated ices -forms little by little the ice floor, scattered over with blocks and -pyramids, which one observes there during the summer." - - -Horace Benedict de Saussure, the great Swiss scientist and mountaineer, -in 1796, published a number of observations about cold current caves -in various parts of the Alps. He found that in summer the air blows -outward at the lower end, and that in winter it draws inward. His -explanation is that in summer the colder air in the tube is heavier -than the outside air and displaces it by gravity; while in winter the -rupture takes place in the other direction, since the column within the -tube is warmer than the outside air and therefore is pushed upwards by -the heavy air flowing in. He concludes that evaporation due to the air -passing internally over moist rocks suffices to explain the phenomenon -of low temperatures and that such caves have a rather lower temperature -in the Alps than in Italy owing to the greater natural cold of the -Swiss lake region. An experiment of his is worth mentioning. He passed -a current of air through a glass tube, 2.5 centimeters in diameter, -filled with moistened stones, and found that the air current which -entered with a temperature of 22.5 deg. came out with a temperature of -18.75 deg., that is with a loss of 3.75 deg. of heat. - - -Robert Townson, LL.D., in 1797, published an account, perhaps the first -in English, of a glaciere cave. He says of Szilize: "Ice I truly found -here in abundance, and it was mid-summer, but in a state of thaw; the -bed of ice, which covered the floor of the cavern was thinly covered -with water and everything announced a thaw. I had no need to use my -thermometer: however I placed it in the ice and it fell to 0 deg. of -Reaumur: I then wiped it and placed it in a niche in the rock, at the -furthest part of the cavern, a yard above the ice and here it remained -near an hour: when I returned I found it at 0 deg.. * * * Everything -therefore, ice, water and atmosphere in the neighborhood had the same -temperature, and that was the temperature of melting ice: 0 deg. Reaumur. - -"When then is the ice which is found here, and in such quantities -that this cavern serves the few opulent nobility in the neighborhood -as an ice house, formed? Surely in winter, though not by the first -frost, not so soon as ice is formed in the open air. No doubt, from -the little communication this cavern has with the atmosphere, it will -be but little and slowly affected by the change. Should therefore, -Mr. Bel, or any of his friends, have come here to verify the common -report at the commencement of a severe frost, when the whole country -was covered with ice and snow, they might still have found nothing here -but water, or the ice of the preceding winter in a state of thaw, and -the cavern relatively warm; and likewise, should they have visited it -in a warm spring, which had succeeded to a severe winter, they might -have found nothing here but frost and ice; and even the fresh melted -snow, percolating through the roof of this cavern, might again have -been congealed to ice. I observed frequently in Germany in the severe -winter of 1794-5, on a sudden thaw, that the walls of churches and -other public buildings, on the outside were white and covered with a -hoar frost, and the windows on the same side covered with a rime." - - -Dr. Franz Sartori, in 1809, was a strong believer in the summer ice -theory, and wrote of the flies and the gnats, the bats and the owls, -and the foxes and the hares coming to Szilize to winter. - - -Alexander von Humboldt, in 1814, says about the Cueva del Hielo on the -Peak of Teneriffe that so much snow and ice are stored up in winter -that the summer heat cannot melt it all, and also adds that permanent -snow in caves must depend more on the amount of winter snow, and the -freedom from hot winds, than on the absolute altitude of the cave. - - -Dewey, in 1819, thought that the ice in the Snow Glen at Williamstown -was a winter formation. - - -Professor M. A. Pictet visited Saint-Georges, Le Brezon and Montarquis -and in 1822 endeavored to prove that they are cold current caves and -that the ice in them is due entirely to draughts causing evaporation. -He believed in the theory of the ice forming in summer more than in -winter and that it could not be the residue of a winter deposit. He -therefore argued that it must be due to descending currents of air -which he thought would be most energetic in summer; that they would -become at least as low as the mean annual temperature of the place -and be still further cooled by evaporation. The strange thing about -his theories is that he does not seem to have personally observed any -draughts either at Saint-Georges or Le Brezon, but the fact that the -ice was evidently not an accumulation of winter snow led him to try to -reconcile what he had himself seen with de Saussure's theories about -windholes. - - -Jean Andre Deluc in 1822 published a paper discussing the theories of -MM. de Cossigny, Prevost and Pictet. Deluc had never visited a glaciere -himself, but he explains clearly the impossibility of Professor -Pictet's cold current theory, on the simple ground that Professor -Pictet himself did not find any cold currents. He takes up Professor -Prevost's theories warmly; using also the manuscript notes of Mons. -Colladon who had visited the Grand Cave de Montarquis. Deluc says: -"that the winter's cold penetrates into these caves, freezes the water -which collects there and that the ice thus formed has not the time to -melt during the following summer." He says further: "It seems that in -the three glacieres with which we have been occupied there is a flat -or rather hollow bottom, where the waters can form a more or less deep -pond, and whence they therefore cannot flow away; it is there they -flow in winter; and as these are shut in places where the air cannot -circulate, the heats of summer can only penetrate very feebly. The ice -once formed in such cavities, only melts slowly; for one knows that ice -in melting, absorbs 60 deg. of heat; and where find this heat in an air -always very cold and nearly still? During a great cold, the ice forms -with great promptness, while it melts with much slowness, even when -the temperature of the air is several degrees above zero; what must -then not be this slowness when the temperature of the interior air only -rises in summer one degree above freezing point. It would need several -summers to melt this ice if it did not reform each winter." - - -C. A. Lee, in 1825, wrote that the ice in the Wolfshollow near -Salisbury was a winter formation. - - -G. Poulett Scrope, in 1826, accepted as the truth the statement that -the cave of Roth was filled with ice in summer, but that it was -warm during the winter. In 1827, he explained the presence of ice at -Pontgibaud as follows: "The water is apparently frozen by means of the -powerful evaporation produced by a current of very dry air issuing from -some long fissures or arched galleries which communicate with the cave, -and owing its dryness to the absorbent qualities of the lava through -which it passes." - - -F. Reich, in 1834, thought that there were two possible causes which -might produce subterranean ice: 1, the difference in specific gravity -between warm and cold air; 2, evaporation. He thought the cold air a -sufficient cause in most caves, but he considered that evaporation also -played a part not infrequently. - - -Professor Silliman, in 1839, gave the first hint, in the negative, -about compressed air as a cause for subterranean ice. He said about -Owego that if one could suppose that compressed gases or a compressed -atmosphere were escaping from the water or near it, this would indicate -a source of cold, but that as there is no indication of this in the -water, the explanation is unavailable. - - -Professor A. Pleischl wrote in 1841 that he was told that ice formed on -the Pleschiwetz and on the Steinberge in summer. Continuing, he says: -"The author is therefore, as well as for other reasons, of the opinion, -that the ice is not remaining winter ice, but a summer formation, and -one formed by the cold of evaporation. * * * The basalt is, as a thick -stone, a good conductor for the heat, and takes up therefore easily -the sun's warmth, but parts with it easily to other neighboring bodies. -In the hollows, between the basalt blocks, is found, as I already -mentioned, rotting moss, which forms a spongy mass, which is wet -through with water. The basalt heated by the sun's rays now causes a -part of the water in the spongy mass to vaporize; for this evaporation -the water needs heat, which it withdraws from the neighboring bodies -and in part from water, and makes the water so cold, that it freezes -into ice, as, under the bell of an air pump--Nature therefore makes -here a physical experiment on the largest scale." - -Much stress appears to have been laid on the paper of Professor -Pleischl by Professor Krauss and one or two others. The weak point in -it is that Pleischl did not see the ice form in summer, but was only, -as usual, told that it did so. There is nothing in the facts given to -show that the places mentioned are different from any other taluses, -where ice does not form as the result of heat. - - -Mr. C. B. Hayden, in 1843, wrote about the Ice Mountain in Virginia, -and held that the porous nature of the rocks makes them poor conductors -of heat, and that the mountain is a huge sandstone refrigerator. - - -Dr. S. Pearl Lathrop, in 1844, wrote of the Ice Bed at Wallingford, -Vermont, as a great natural refrigerator. - - -Sir Roderick Impey Murchison wrote in 1845 about the salt mine and -freezing cave of Illetzkaya-Zatschita. He visited them during a hot -August, and was assured that the cold within is greatest when the -external air is hottest and driest; that the fall of rain and a moist -atmosphere produce some diminution in the cold of the cave and that on -the setting in of winter the ice disappears entirely. He accepted these -statements evidently only in a half hearted way, submitting them to -Sir John Herschel, who tried to explain them, in case they were true, -of which Herschel was likewise doubtful. Murchison at first thought -that the ice was due to the underlying bed of salt, but soon recognized -that this explanation could not be correct. He also rejected Herschel's -"heat and cold wave" theory. Shortly after this he came across -Pictet's memoir, and on the strength of it concluded that the ice in -Illetzkaya-Zatschita could not be the residue of a winter deposit, but -must be due to descending currents of air; to the previously wet and -damp roof affording a passage to water; and to the excessive dryness of -the external air of these southern steppes contributing powerfully to -the refrigerating effects of evaporation. - - -Professor Arnold Guyot, in 1856, said that the well at Owego admitted -large quantities of snow which melts, but not readily, because it -is not accessible to the sun. It therefore goes through the same -process as glaciers, of partly melting and refreezing; and we have the -formation of a glacier without movement. - - -Professor W. B. Rogers, in 1856, held that the well at Owego became the -recipient of the coldest air of the neighborhood, and the temperature -remained abnormal because the bad conducting power of the materials of -the well retained the cold. - - -Professor D. Olmstead, in 1856, held about Owego that cold air exists -in the interior of the earth which may have found a ventilating shaft -in the well. - - -Professor Petruzzi, in 1857, considered the following requirements -necessary for a glaciere: A high altitude above the sea; a decided drop -into the interior of the mountain; absence of all draught; protection -against all warm and moist winds, therefore the opening to north and -east. He also says about the glaciere on the Pograca: that it is in -shadow; that the thick forest round the mouth keeps the temperature -down; that it begins to freeze below when it does above; that the cold -remains there into the spring; and that the water from rain or other -sources, which flows into the cave, must freeze there, and the ice form -in greater quantities than the heat of summer can melt away. - - -Mr. Albert D. Hager wrote in 1859: "The question now arises, why it -was that such a congealed mass of earth was found in Brandon at the -time the frozen well was dug. My opinion is, that the bad conducting -property of the solids surrounding it, the absence of ascending -currents of heated air, and of subterranean streams of water in this -particular locality favored such a result; and that the bad conducting -property of clay, as well as that of the porous gravel associated -with it, taken in connection with the highly inclined porous strata, -and the disposition of heated air to rise, and the cold air to remain -below, contribute to produce in the earth, at this place, a _mammoth -refrigerator_, embracing essentially the same principle as that -involved in the justly celebrated refrigerator known as 'Winship's -Patent.' - -"Clay is not only nearly impervious to air and water, but it is one of -the worst conductors of heat in nature. (Note.--To test the question -whether clay was a poor conductor of heat or not, I took two basins -of equal size, and in one put a coating of clay one-half inch thick, -into which I put water of a temperature of 52 deg. Fahrenheit. Into the -other dish, which was clean, I put water of the same temperature, and -subjected the two basins to equal amounts of heat; and in five minutes -the water in the clean dish indicated a temperature of 70 deg. while that -of the one coated with clay was raised only to 56 deg..) If we can rely -upon the statements of those who dug out the frozen earth, it rested -upon a stratum of clay that lay upon the bed of pebbles in which the -water was found, for it was described as being a very sticky kind of -hard pan. - -"This being the case, if the water contained in the pebbly mass had a -temperature above the freezing point, the heat would be but imperfectly -transmitted to the frost, through the clay, provided there was no other -way for its escape. But we have seen that the stratum of clay that -overlays the bed of pebbles in the side of the gravel pit was not -horizontal, but inclined towards the well at an angle of 25 deg.. Now if -this drip was continued to the well, and existed there (which is highly -probable), it will be seen that the ascending current of heated air, in -the pebbly bed, would be checked upon meeting the overlying barrier of -clay and be deflected out of its upward course. The tendency of heated -air is to rise, hence it would continue its course along the under -side of the clay, through the interstices in the bed of pebbles, till -it found a place of escape at the surface, which in this case may have -been at the gravel pit before named." - - -Professor Edward Hitchcock wrote in 1861: "The presence of a mass of -frozen gravel deep beneath the surface in Brandon, was first made known -by digging a well in it in the autumn of 1858. * * * The gravel, also, -rises into occasional knolls and ridges. In short, it is just such -a region of sand and gravel as may be seen in many places along the -western side of the Green Mountains; and indeed, all over New England. -It is what we call modified drift, and lies above genuine drift, having -been the result of aqueous agency subsequent to the drift period. * * -* The well was stoned up late in the autumn of 1858, and during the -winter, ice formed upon the water in one night, two inches thick. It -continued to freeze till April; after which no ice was formed on the -surface, but we can testify that as late as June 25th, the stones of -the well for four or five feet above the surface of the water were -mostly coated with ice; nay, it had not wholly disappeared July 14th. -The temperature of the water was only one degree of Fahrenheit above -freezing point. The ice did however disappear in the autumn but was -formed again (how early we did not learn) in the winter, and so thick -too that it was necessary to send some one into the well to break it. -We visited the well August 18th, 1860, and found the temperature 42 deg.. -Yet only the week previous ice was seen upon the stones, and we were -even told by one of the family, that a piece of ice had been drawn up -the day before in the bucket. * * * These frozen deposits may have been -produced during the glacial period that accompanied the formation of -drift, and continued far down into the subsequent epochs of modified -drift. * * * But in all the excavations both gravel and clay occur: -and how almost impervious to heat must such a coating 20 feet thick, -be! It would not, however, completely protect the subjacent mass from -solar heat. But there is another agency still more powerful for this -end, namely, evaporation, which we think has operated here, as we shall -more fully describe further on; and we think that these two agencies, -namely, non-conduction and evaporation, may have preserved this frozen -deposit for a very long period, from exterior influences." - - -Professor Thury in 1861 says about Saint-Georges: "Such is the -_resume_, concise but exact, of the results of our winter excursion. -They furnish proof to the fact generally borne witness to by the -mountaineers, that ice does not form in winter in the interior of -caverns. But if this is so, it is for a very simple reason: two things -are necessary for the formation of ice: cold and water. In winter, the -cold is not wanting: but if there is no spring opening in the cave, the -water is absent, and then no ice forms. - -"It is in the spring, at the time of the first melting of the snows, -that the ice must form. Then water at 0 deg. pours over the surface, and -penetrates by the fissures of the rock and by the large openings into -the chilled cavern, which is also receiving the freezing air of the -nights. The grotto then makes its annual provision of ice, which after -this could only diminish little by little during the whole duration of -the warm season." - -Professor Thury writes about the Grand Cave de Montarquis: "Here it -must be when water and cold meet, that is autumn and especially spring, -the time of the first melting of the snows." - -"During the winter * * * the colder, heavier air comes to freeze the -water of the grotto, and chill the ice and the wall of rock." - -"During the summer, the radiation of the vaults and the proper heat of -the ground only melt a small quantity of ice because this absorbs much -heat to pass into a liquid state." - -"The heat of the air is entirely used to melt the ice; it does not -therefore manifest itself as sensible heat." - -"The contact of the ice ready to melt, plays in a certain way, towards -the air a little warmer than itself, the role of an extremely absorbing -body, or one which has an excessive caloric conductibility." - -"Here the formation of the ice could not possibly be attributed to the -cold caused by evaporation. The psychrometer indicated ninety-two per -cent, of relative humidity: the atmosphere of the grotto was therefore -almost saturated with evaporation of water, and the maximum of cold -caused by evaporation was not over half a degree centigrade." - -About prismatic ice and a hollow pyramid, he says: "The prismatic -(_areolaire_) structure is produced later on in the ice, by a new and -particular arrangement of the molecules of the already solidified -water. Therefore the recent stalactites are never crystallized." - -"In the beginning of the hot season, the atmospheric temperature of -the grotto rises slowly. Inferior to zero by some tenths of a degree, -it produces first on the surface, in the stalactites, the prismatic -structure. The temperature continues to rise, the central portions -of the stalactites, still composed of ordinary ice, liquefy, and if -the melting water finds some issue, either by accidental openings -left between some prisms, or by the extremity of the stalactite or by -some point of its surface which had escaped the action of the regular -crystallization; by this opening the water escapes, and the tubular -stalactite has been formed." - -"The column was composed of a very special ice, perfectly dry, -perfectly homogeneous, translucid and whose appearance could only -be compared to that of the most beautiful porcelain. I am inclined -to believe that we had under our eyes a special molecular state of -congealed water. This state would be produced under the influence of -a constant temperature of a certain degree (Note--perhaps not far from -4 deg.--the actual temperature of the grotto) long prolonged. These causes -can be realized more completely in glacieres than anywheres else." - - -The Reverend George Forrest Browne, published in 1865, _Ice Caves in -France and Switzerland_, one of the most delightful books of travel -ever written, on account of the scientific accuracy and the humor of -the author. He visited La Genolliere, Saint-Georges, Saint-Livres, -Chaux-les-Passavant, Monthezy, Arc-sous-Cicon, the Schafloch, -Haut-d'Aviernoz, which he calls Grand Anu, Chapuis, and Font-d'Urle. -He says: "The view which Deluc adopted was one which I have myself -independently formed. * * * The heavy cold air of winter sinks down -into the glacieres, and the lighter warm air of summer cannot on -ordinary principles of gravitation dislodge it, so that heat is very -slowly spread in the caves; and even when some amount of heat does -reach the ice, the latter melts but slowly, for ice absorbs 60 deg. C. -of heat in melting; and thus, when ice is once formed, it becomes a -material guarantee for the permanence of cold in the cave. For this -explanation to hold good it is necessary that the level at which the -ice is formed should be below the level of the entrance to the cave; -otherwise the mere weight of the cold air would cause it to leave its -prison as soon as the spring warmth arrived. In every single case that -has come under my observation, this condition has been emphatically -fulfilled. It is necessary, also, that the cave should be protected -from direct radiation, as the gravitation of cold air has nothing to -do with resistance to that powerful means of introducing heat. This -condition, also, is fulfilled by nature in all the glacieres I have -visited, excepting that of S. Georges; and there art has replaced the -protection formerly afforded by the thick trees which grew over the -hole of entrance. The effect of the second hole in the roof of this -glaciere is to destroy all the ice which is within range of the sun. -A third and very necessary condition is, that the wind should not be -allowed access to the cave; for if it were, it would infallibly bring -in heated air, in spite of the specific weight of the cold air stored -within. It will be understood from my description of such glacieres as -that of the Grand Anu, of Monthezy, and the lower glaciere of the Pre -de S. Livres, how completely sheltered from all winds the entrances to -those caves are. There can be no doubt, too, that the large surfaces -which are available for evaporation have much to do with maintaining a -somewhat lower temperature than the mean temperature of the place where -the cave occurs." - -Browne noticed prismatic ice several times. He says of it: "M. Thury -suggests also, as a possibility, what I have found to be the case by -frequent observations, that the prismatic ice has greater power of -resisting heat than ordinary ice. * * * A Frenchman who was present -in the room in which the Chemical Section of the British Association -met at Bath, and heard a paper which I read there on this prismatic -structure, suggested that it was probably something akin to the -rhomboidal form assumed by dried mud; and I have since been struck by -the great resemblance to it, as far as the surface goes, which the pits -of mud left by the coprolite workers near Cambridge offer, of course -on a very large scale. This led me to suppose that the intense dryness -which would naturally be the result of the action of some weeks or -months of great cold upon subterranean ice might be one of the causes -of its assuming this form, and the observations at Jena would rather -confirm than contradict this view: competent authorities, however, seem -inclined to believe that warmth, and not cold, is the producing cause." - -Mr. Browne found a hollow cone at La Genolliere, for which he accounted -as follows: "In the loftier part of the cave * * * ninety six drops -of water in a minute splashed on to a small stone immediately under -the main fissure. This stone was in the centre of a considerable area -of the floor which was clear of ice. * * * I found that the edge -of the ice round this clear area was much thicker than the rest of -the ice on the floor, and was evidently the remains of the swelling -pedestal of the column. * * * When the melted snows of spring send -down to the cave, through the fissures of the rock, an abundance of -water at a very low temperature and the cave itself is stored with the -winter's cold, these thicker rings of ice catch first the descending -water, and so a circular wall, naturally conical, is formed around the -area of stones; the remaining water either running off through the -interstices, or forming a floor of ice of less thickness, which yields -to the next summer's drops. In the course of time, this conical wall -rises, narrowing always, till a dome-like roof is at length formed and -thenceforth the column is solid." From what I have observed myself, -this explanation seems to fairly meet the facts. - - -Professor T. G. Bonney, in 1868, was inclined to believe that there was -some connection between glacieres and a glacial period. - - -Mr. W. R. Raymond, in 1869, concluded from his own observations about -the lava cave in Washington: that the cold air of winter freezes up the -percolating waters from the surface, layer upon layer, solid from the -bottom, and the accumulated ice thaws slowly in summer, being retarded -by the covering which keeps out the direct rays of the sun, and by the -fact that the melting ice at one end of the cave, through which the -summer draught enters, itself refrigerates the air and maintains a -freezing temperature at the other end. - - -Dr. C. A. White, in 1870, says of the cavern at Decorah: "The formation -of the ice is probably due to the rapid evaporation of the moisture -of the earth and rocks, caused by the heat of the summer sun upon the -outer wall of the fissure and valley side. This outer wall is from ten -to twenty feet in thickness where the ice was seen to be most abundant. -The water for its production seems to be supplied by slow exudation -from the inner wall of the cave." - - -Dr. Krenner, in 1874, wrote of Dobsina as "a natural ice cellar of -giant dimensions, whose ice masses formed in winter, the summer does -not succeed in melting." - - -Professor W. Boyd Dawkins wrote in 1874: "The apparent anomaly that one -only out of a group of caves exposed to the same temperature should -be a glaciere, may be explained by the fact that these conditions -[those formulated by the Rev. G. F. Browne] are found in combination -but rarely, and if one were absent there would be no accumulation of -perpetual ice. It is very probable that the store of cold laid up in -these caves, as in an ice house, has been ultimately derived from the -great refrigeration of climate in Europe in the Glacial Period." - - -Mr. Theodore Kirchhoff examined the lava caves in the State of -Washington and in 1876 wrote that he considered that the ice in the -smaller ones were simply remains of the winter's cold. He thought -that the ice in the large cave where there is a draught could not be -accounted for in the same way, so he concluded that the ice must be due -to the draught. - - -Mr. N. M. Lowe, in 1879, proposed the Compressed Air or Capillary -theory[74] about the Cave at Decorah. - -[74] See Part II., page 142. - - -Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., in 1879, gave an exceedingly clear exposition of -the theory in the same journal. - - -Mr. Aden S. Benedict, in 1881, published his observations about -Decorah. He found that there was no water falling in the cave to -compress the air, that there was no water falling near enough to be -heard, nor any aperture giving vent to cold air in the cave. He thought -that the cold of winter cools the sides of the cave several degrees -below freezing point and that these rocks are so far underground that -it would take a long season of hot weather to raise this temperature to -the melting point of ice. In the spring the water percolates through -the soil and drips on to the yet freezing rocks; on which it freezes -and remains until the heat of summer penetrates to a sufficient depth -to melt it away. The rocks once raised above 0 deg. remain so until the -following winter and consequently if there are heavy autumn rains there -is water on the rocks but no ice. Mr. Benedict concluded that there was -nothing more mysterious about Decorah than the fact that if you drop -water on a cold stone it will freeze. - - -Professor Friederich Umlauft in 1883 wrote about glacieres "that as -moreover they were generally protected against warm winds and strong -draughts and as their entrances look towards the north or east, there -is consequently more ice formed under these conditions in winter than -can melt away in summer. Other ice grottoes however show the remarkable -characteristic, that it is warm in them in winter, in the summer on the -contrary it becomes so cold that all the dripping water freezes. They -are found near snow clefts and gorges; when in the hot summer months -the snow melts, then the cold which has become free presses down the -temperature in the cave so much that the water freezes into ice. Such -grottoes are in Austria at * * * Frauenmauer, * * * Brandstein, * * * -Teplitz, * * * Scilize, * * * Dobschauer." - - -Herr Koerber in 1885 wrote about the Schafloch, that the stored-up -winter's cold stands out as permanent adversary of the higher -temperature of the earth. The thermometer proved this by its action at -the end of the cave in a rock cleft, which is warmer than the rest of -the cave. In September Herr Koerber found the masses of ice less and -the stalagmites smaller than in January, especially a column which in -January had become a stately mountain of transparent ice. - - -Professor Eberhard Fugger of Salzburg, has studied the caves of the -Untersberg carefully, having paid over eighty visits to them. He -classifies freezing caverns into the following types, according to -their position and their shape: - -According to position: 1, open caves, that is those whose entrance is -free on a rock wall; 2, pit caves, where the entrance is at the bottom -of a pit; 3, pit caves, where the pit is covered and the opening is in -the roof. - -According to shape: 1, _sackhoehlen_ or chamber caverns, into which one -enters immediately at the entrance; 2, _ganghoehlen_, or passage caves -terminating in a chamber; 3, _roehrenhoehlen_, or passage caves where -the passages continue further than the chamber. - -He is a strong advocate of the winter's cold theory. He says: "The ice -of caves is formed by the cold of winter, and remains despite the heat -of summer, as through local circumstances the quantity of heat brought -to the ice is not great enough to melt it by the time when ice and snow -in the open at the same altitude have already disappeared." - -"In order that ice may form in a cave in winter, two factors are -necessary. There must be water present in some form or other, and in -some way the outside cold air must be able to sink into the cave." - -"When the bottom of a cave is below the entrance, the outside cold -winter air sinks into the cave from its weight, when the temperature of -the cave air is higher than that of the outside air; and it will remain -there during the warmer weather, as the warm outside air on account of -its lighter weight cannot drive out the cold heavy cave air." - -"The most important factor for the formation of ice is the drip water. -The more drip flows into a cave during the cold season, the more ice is -formed; the more drip, on the contrary, flows into the cave during the -warm season, the more ice is destroyed." - -"The warmth, which the roof of the cave gives out, is also a cause -which helps to melt the ice, and a cause in fact which works the -harder, the higher the temperature of the roof and the dirtier the ice -floor." - -"If direct rays of the sun penetrate a cave, they scarcely warm up the -air which they traverse, but they raise the temperature of the floor -or of the walls, which they touch. They are therefore a very important -factor, which may bring about the melting of the ice." - -"The snow slope at the mouth of a cave offers some protection against -the rays of the sun, especially if it is no longer white, but covered -with all sorts of dirt." - -"The larger the mass of ice, the longer is its duration." "A certain -thickness to the roof is of importance in preserving the ice. If it -is less than 8 meters, then it is well if it is covered with outside -vegetation." - -I entirely agree with these _dicta_ of Professor Fugger. - -In 1893, Fugger writes: "The peculiar readings of temperature, which -I made in August 1877, in the Kolowratshoehle, namely on the 13th at -12 M., 0.5 deg., on the 15th at 4 P. M., 0.35 deg., on the 23d at 10 A. M., -0.12 deg., on the 26th at 10 A. M., 0.17 deg., and on the 30th at 2.15 P. -M., -0.10 deg., I think I can attribute to the workings of the winds. In -the observations themselves there could scarce be an error. All five -observations were made at the same place, with the same thermometer, -after at least half an hour's exposure. In the time from the 13th to -the 30th of August, the temperature minimum in the town of Salzburg, -was 12 deg.; before the 30th were several cloudless nights. During the -whole of August scarcely any but southeast and northwest winds were -blowing. The Kolowratshoehle opens in a rock wall to the east; the above -named winds therefore affected during the entire month the entrance -to the cave and may have produced a lively evaporation in the cave, -through a sort of sucking up of the cave air, and thus have created the -rather decided cooling off of 0.6 deg. within seventeen days." - -This statement, coming from Professor Fugger, deserves particular -attention, because it would go to show: first, that the air in -the Kolowratshoehle, a _sackhoehle_ with only one entrance, is only -apparently stagnant in summer and not really so; and second, that -evaporation may act to a limited extent in a cavern where there is -almost no running water. - - -Captain Trouillet, in 1885, published a paper about -Chaux-les-Passavant. He found that when it was colder inside than -outside, the internal air was nearly cut off from the outside; when it -was coldest outside there was a lively disturbance. He called these -two classes _periodes fermees_ and _periodes ouvertes_. He says: -"The duration of a _closed period_ is measured then on the curves -[of a maximum and minimum thermometer] of the interior temperatures, -between a minimum and the following maximum; that of an _open period_ -is between a minimum and the preceding maximum. One can thus count -from the 25th November to the 31st December 25 _open periods_ of a -total duration of 200 hours or 8 times 24 hours: which gives for each -a duration of 71/2 hours. The shortest lasted 2 hours and the longest -16 hours. During the same interval, the _closed periods_ numbered 26, -making a total duration of about 28 days; the longest, which lasted -from the 3d to the 8th December, was 126 hours long." - -Trouillet also says: "From the 23d to the 30th December, the grotto -was completely isolated from the external air, and yet during three -consecutive nights, the interior had three marked chills. Such is -the phenomenon whose cause can only lay, in our opinion, in the -introduction of the dry air driven to the cave by the winds between -north and east. This air on entering comes in contact with the ice -and the humid roof of the cave; it saturates itself in producing a -formation of vapors, and therefrom a consumption of heat which may be -considerable." - -There are some discrepancies in this last paragraph which must be -noted, for the reason that Trouillet's observations are so valuable. He -does not mention having seen the vapors himself, in fact the production -of these vapors seems only an inference. Nor is it easy to understand -how the grotto could be "completely isolated from the external air" if -the phenomenon lay "in the introduction of the dry air driven to the -cave by the winds north and east." - - -Dr. B. Schwalbe, in 1886, wrote that "all my observations point to -the fact that the rock is the cooling factor in summer, and that the -cold goes out from it." He says also that "when I saw for the first -time the little cave of Roth, which was filled with fairly numerous -ice formations, it was precisely the smallness of the volume of air -and the strange appearance of the ice which made the simple cold air -theory seen insufficient, nor could I later, by widening the theory and -observing the localities from the basis of DeLuc's theory, accept it. -It always seemed by all my observations that in the rock there must be -a lasting source of cold. There must be a cause present, which prevents -the rapid warming of the cave wall through the temperature of the -ground, which also keeps the stone cool in summer and induces the main -ice formation in the spring." He also hints that Mr. Lowe's compressed -air theory may be the correct one. Dr. Schwalbe's work, _Ueber Eishoehlen -und Eisloecher_, is one of the four or five most important contributions -to glaciere literature, and his opinion is entitled to great respect on -account of his many observations. - - -Professor Israel C. Russell wrote in 1890, about the ice beds on the -Yukon: "It is thought by some observers, to be an inheritance from a -former period of extreme cold; but under existing climatic conditions, -when ice forms beneath a layer of moss, it is preserved during the -short summer, and may increase as it does on the tundras, to an -astonishing thickness." - -In 1897, Professor Russell says: "It is not probable that all the -subsoil ice of northern regions has been formed in one way. Along the -flood plains and on the deltas of rivers where layers of clear ice are -interbedded with sheets of frozen gravel and vegetable matter, as is -frequently the case, it seems evident that the growth of the deposit is -due, in some instances, to the flooding of previously frozen layers, -and the freezing and subsequent burial of the sediment thus added to -their surfaces. When spring freshets spread out sheets of debris over -the flood plain of a river, as frequently happens when streams in high -latitudes flow northward, the previously frozen soil and the ice of -ponds and swamps may be buried and indefinitely preserved." "There is -still another process by which frozen subsoil may be formed in high -latitudes: this is, the effects of the cold during the long winters -are not counteracted by the heat during the short summers. Under the -conditions now prevailing in northern Alaska, where the mean annual -temperature is below 32 deg. Fahrenheit, the frozen layer tends to increase -the thickness from year to year just as the depth of frozen soil in -more temperate latitudes may increase from month to month during the -winter season. During the short northern summers, especially where the -ground is moss covered, melting only extends a few inches below the -surface." - - -Mons. E. A. Martel, in 1892, wrote of the Creux-Perce: "I incline -only, as in all the pits which narrow at the bottom (_avens a -retrecissement_) to attribute the chilling to the fall of the cold -air of winter and to its non-renewal in summer." And at page 564 of -_Les Abimes_ he says: "One knows that _evaporation_ is an active cause -of cooling; therefore it is always cooler in caves near the drips of -water. * * * I have positively noted this influence of evaporation -near the drips of Tabourel (8 deg. instead of 9.5 deg.), of Dargilan, of the -Cerna Jama, and in abysses with double mouths where there were strong -draughts (Rabanel, Biau, Fosse-Mobile, etc.)." In December, 1897, -Mons. Martel writes: "In short, the action of the winter's cold is -the real cause accepted by * * * and recently confirmed by Fugger, -Trouillet and Martel." And also: "It is probable that this influence -[evaporation] is only real at rather high altitudes; this is at least -what seems the result of the studies of the caves of Naye (1700 to 1900 -meters) begun by Professor Dutoit." - -In 1899, Mons. Martel gave an account of the Glaciere de Naye. In this -paper, he abandons definitely fossil ice, salts and the capillary -theory as possible causes of underground ice. He considers that there -are four causes: 1, shape of the cavity; 2, free access of snow in -winter; 3, high altitude; 4, evaporation due to wind currents. The last -two causes he thinks are not necessarily always present. For instance -he considers that, at the Creux-Perce, and at Chaux-les-Passavant, the -ice is due especially to the sack or hour-glass shape of these hollows -where the summer air cannot get in on account of its lightness. At the -Glaciere de Naye, which is a big windhole, situated at an altitude of -1750 to 1820 meters, Mons. Martel thinks that the ice is formed by the -snow and cold of winter, but that its preservation is assured by the -evaporation caused by the action of the windhole. - - -Dr. Terlanday, in 1893, asserted that ice does not form in Szilize in -winter, and that the ice first forms in the winter in the upper part -of rock fissures and that in the spring, at the time of an increase of -temperature, this fissure ice is brought to the melting point by the -successive entering of heat into the earth and that it then arrives at -the cave, where it aids the formation of icicles. This theory about -fissure ice is probably in so far correct, that the ice in the upper -parts of fissures, near the surface of the ground, melts before the ice -in the lower parts of fissures. The drip would then naturally run into -the cave and, as long as the temperature of the cave was low, help to -form cave ice. - - -Dr. Hans Lohmann, in 1895, published some valuable notes about several -glacieres. While considering the cold of winter as the main cause of -the ice, he thought evaporation a secondary cause of cold. He says: -"That the cold from evaporation bears its share in cooling a cave, -will not be denied. * * * The air saturated with aqueous vapor makes -one think of constant evaporation. The aqueous vapor spreads itself -by diffusion throughout the entire cave, and if the outside air is -driest, goes to that. Through this, more ice and water can always be -vaporized, and to the warming elements there is furnished a cooling -one. If dry winds get into the cave, then must evaporation be very -lively and the chilling especially strong. Through this cause alone -can be explained the remarkably low temperature of +6.3 deg. in the new -part of the Garischen Stollen, in contrast to the temperature of +7.9 deg. -in the old part. The strong draught in the last drew out through its -suction the damp air of the new adit, so that there had to be a strong -evaporation." - -Dr. Lohmann gives some exhaustive notes about prismatic ice. He found -it a product of the fall months. He thinks all the observations show -that "the beginning of all prismatic formation in the ice may be looked -for in the changes of temperature in the cave at the time of the -formation of the ice. These cause the everywhere recognized splitting, -vertically to the outer surface. The further development hangs, as -shown by Hagenbach and Emden, on the attempt of the neighboring cells, -to join into larger unities. The increase of the larger crystals is -finally prevented by the melting out of the openings between the -separate crystals. Through this may be explained the difference in the -prismatic ice in different parts of the same cave." - - -Regierungsrath Franz Kraus, in 1895, wrote a short essay on glacieres -in _Hoehlenkunde_. He seems to have seen but few glacieres himself, and -considers the scientific side of the question by no means solved as -yet. He says: "The last word will not be spoken by the geographers and -the Alpine climbers * * * but by the physicists, in whose field both -questions really belong. Only then, when the physical circumstances -of the formation of the ice in glacieres have been so thoroughly -understood, that under the same circumstances it may be possible to -build artificial glacieres, only then could one say: the glaciere -question is definitely settled. The best proof is always experiment." - -He lays down several dicta which he says are universally recognized, -among which is this: "2. The ice formations in the debris heaps of -basaltic mountains are summer ice formations. The evaporation of the -infiltration water is recognized on all sides as the cause of this -ice." I differ in opinion from Herr Kraus about this matter, and think -that, on the contrary, every proof shows that the ice of basaltic -taluses is not a summer formation and is not due to evaporation. - -Herr Kraus also says: "The _Eishoehlen_ resemble so little the -_Windroehren_, that for these a proper name is quite correct. Just -as one cannot draw a sharp line between _Einstuerzschluenden_ and -_Einstuerzdolinen_, so one cannot draw a sharp line between _eishoehlen_ -and _windroehren_. A stagnation of cave air does not exist, and no cave -student would pretend to say it existed. The circulation of air may in -certain caves take place almost entirely through the mouth and it then -depends largely on the shape of the latter; in other caves are crevices -and erosion holes, which allow a circulation of air. Again in other -caves air may come through the floor into the cave, as is proved by -certain places always remaining free from ice." - -He also says: "The formation of dripstone is also diminished about -thick roofs, when the cracks are too broad to permit a slow dripping -process. In caves with sufficient air movements, that is ventilation, -the dripstone formation takes place faster than in those in which -the air is only slowly renewed. Also in such caves, in which the air -is strongly filled with moisture, the dripstone formation process -is materially hindered. Therefore in water caves and in _eishoehlen_ -one finds only rarely dripstone formations, and these mainly of poor -appearance. But in all cases the carbonic acid of the infiltration -water plays an important part." - - -In 1896, a Western newspaper published the following explanation about -the presence of ice in the cave at Elkinsville, Indiana; and it shows -how the idea--long since exploded--of the ice being due to chemical -causes, serenely bobs up on the discovery of a new cave: "Some have -advanced the theory that the air is forced through under passages -of the earth with such pressure as to make the strange formation; -some have attributed the cause to an underlying bed of alkali, whose -chemical change to a gaseous form has produced the phenomenon. Others -have thought that the interior heat of the earth, acting upon the -iron pyrites, or fool's gold, which largely abounds in this country, -is the true source of this unparalleled discovery. Still others think -that the sudden expansion of the carbonic acid gas given off by the -heated limestone, which is also common in this country, could have -easily produced the ice. But thus far the theories are nothing more -than speculation, and further than the fact that the ice cave exists, -and is, indeed, a remarkable phenomenon, none has been able to further -determine." - - -In 1896, Dr. A. Cvijic wrote that the cold air of winter is the source -of cold in the glacieres of Servia. The mountains have so little water -that the shepherds constantly take the ice out in summer for their own -use. - - -In 1897, numerous newspapers, among others, the _Philadelphia Press_ -of August 1st, romanced as follows about the cave at Decorah: "In the -summer its temperature is far below freezing. * * * From some unknown -source in the impenetrable rear of the cave comes a blast of cold air -as chill as from the Arctic region. In the winter the temperature of -the cave is like summer. * * * We followed the winding passage in and -out for more than 1000 feet. * * * I took out the thermometer and laid -it upon the floor of the cavern for three minutes. When I took it up -again I found that the mercury had fallen to 5 degrees below zero." - -"What is it that causes this phenomenon? Scientific men are said to -have visited the cave within the last day or two who have declared that -it had in some manner a subterranean connection with the polar regions, -and that the cold air from the North coming in contact with the warm -moist atmosphere from outside converted the vapor into water on the -walls of the cavern where it straightway congealed. * * * It seems to -me possible after thinking the matter over carefully, that in some -mysterious manner the same influences that work the changes in climate -in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are operating in this cave. It is -a well-known fact that in the regions referred to the seasons are the -reverse of what they are here." - -Mr. W. S. Auchincloss writes in 1897: "We also notice the working of -the same principle during summer days. The hottest part does not occur -at the noon hour--when the sun is on the meridian--but several hours -later in the afternoon. In this case the accessions of heat arrive more -rapidly than radiation is able to carry off. Radiation, however, keeps -on apace, and, at last attaining the mastery, temperature falls. Ice -caves furnish another example of the gradual procession in the seasons." - - -Mr. Alois F. Kovarik writes about Decorah in 1898 that "the length of -duration of the ice in the cave during the spring and summer depends -upon the quantity of cold stored up in the walls and this again upon -the coldness and the length of coldness of the previous winter. If -the winter be severe and long, the walls will store up a great supply -of cold for the gradual dissipation in the spring and summer and -consequently the phenomenon of the ice in the ice chambers will last -longer. Last winter, with an exception of the fore part of December, -was quite mild. As a result, the ice began to disappear with the latter -part of June, and totally disappeared by the end of July. * * * The -time of the lowest temperature in the cave depends upon how soon the -cold spells of the winter begin; for the sooner the walls begin to -freeze to a greater depth, the sooner have they stored up the greatest -amount of cold. * * * February 28th, 1898, when the walls contained -the greatest amount of cold, there was no ice in the cave, for the -reason that no water made appearance. Could water have appeared, no -doubt a great amount of ice would have formed; but as the conditions -are, the water has to come from the ground outside, and this being -frozen at the time, water could not in any natural way appear. If in -early spring, sufficiently warm days should come to melt the snow and -open the ground, the water not taken up by the ground would flow and -seep through crevices into the cave and ice consequently would appear -early. Somewhat such conditions prevailed this year, for warm days -appeared quite early in the spring. If _per contra_ the ground does not -open until in April, as was the case in 1895 and 1896, the appearance -of the ice is consequently delayed. * * * Naturally this opening [the -entrance] was small, but to give easier entrance, it was enlarged to -its present size. * * * If the entrance had been left a small opening, -as it naturally was, it is my belief that the temperature of the -interior of the cave would be lower in summer than it is, and the ice -would not disappear as soon as it does." - - -Mr. Robert Butler, of San Jose, Cal., investigated the question of cold -air draughts coming from the glaciere cave and from the freezing shaft -he examined in Montana. He wrote to me, in 1898, that he found that one -notices or imagines to notice a draught of air, especially on hot days. -Rapidly walking into the cave from the hot air without to the rapidly -cooling air within produces the same nervous sensations as though one -were to remain stationary and the air were to pass by from the warm to -the colder portions. A distance of twelve meters finds a difference -in temperature of fifteen degrees Centigrade. Twelve meters can be -walked quickly, so quickly that the nerves cannot become accustomed -gradually to the change of temperature. The rapidly cooling air does -actually produce the sensation of cool air passing by one's face. It -produces somewhat the same sensation as the evaporation of ether on -the surface of the body. Mr. Butler satisfied himself that as far as -he had observed all the seemingly peculiar conditions and places where -the ice has been found do not indicate any other causes when carefully -investigated than those of the seasons of the year, and that the ice -was formed by no other cause than the natural cold of winter. - - -Professor Cranmer, in 1899, added some important contributions to our -knowledge of freezing caverns. All his work goes to prove the winter's -cold theory, but he has brought out some new details. He found warm and -cold periods in the Tablerloch during the winter months. The coldest -air sank to the bottom and the air in the cave stratified itself -according to its specific gravity and its temperature. During a cold -period, the outside air sank into the cave only to the air stratum, -whose temperature, from the preceding warm period, was as much higher -as that of the outer air, as this had become warmer in sinking to that -stratum. The air which enters falls down the slope and displaces an -equal volume of air which streams out under the roof. - -Water will sometimes drip through a crack in winter until that crack -freezes up, when the water may then find some other crack to drip -through; at this second place a stalagmite may then grow, while at the -first place the stalagmite may stop growing and even begin to diminish -from evaporation. - -Ice begins to form, whenever water gets into a cave, if the cave -temperature is below 0 deg.; ice begins to melt as soon as the temperature -is over 0 deg.. - -Professor Cranmer found that occasionally small quantities of ice form -in caves in the summer months: this was in mountain caves, where there -was snow on the mountains and the temperature of the nights at least, -had sunk below freezing point: in fact when the conditions were those -of the winter months. - - - - -PART V. - -LIST OF AUTHORS. - - - - -LIST OF AUTHORS.[75] - -[75] This list of authors includes all the authorities which I -have personally consulted. Several papers, such as Dr. Schwalbe's -"_Uebersichtliche Zusammenstellung Literarischer Notizen ueber -Eishoehlen_" and the works of Dr. Listoff, I have been unable to find in -any library. - - - Allen, Levi. _Scientific American, New Series_, October 27th, 1883, - page 259. - - _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1839, vol. XXXVI., page 184. - - Auchincloss, W. S., C. E. _Waters within the Earth and the Laws of - Rainflow_, Philadelphia, 1897. - - - Badin, Adolphe. _Grottes et Cavernes_, Paris, Hachette, 1867. - - Baedeker, Karl. _Handbook of Austria._ _Handbook of the Eastern - Alps._ _Handbook of South Eastern France._ _Handbook of - Switzerland._ _Handbook of the United States._ - - Baker, M. S. _The Lava Region of Northern California: Sierra Club - Bulletin_, San Francisco, Cal., 1899, vol. II., page 318. - - Balch, Edwin Swift. _Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean - Ice_: Allen, Lane & Scott, Philadelphia, November, 1896, and - _The Journal of the Franklin Institute_, Philadelphia, March, - 1897, vol. CXLIII., pages 161-178. _Ice Cave Hunting in Central - Europe: Appalachia_, Boston, 1897, vol. VIII., pages 203-209. - _Subterranean Ice Deposits in America: Journal of the Franklin - Institute_, Philadelphia, April, 1899, vol. CXLVII., pages - 286-297. - - Baltzer, Dr. A. _Eine Neue Eishoehle im Berner Oberland: Jahrbuch des - Schweizer Alpen Club_, Bern, 1892-1893, pages 358-362. - - Behrens, Dr. Georg Henning. _Hercynia Curiosa_, Nordhausen, 1703. - - Bel, Matthias. _Philosophical Transactions_, London, 1739, vol. XLI., - page 41 _et seq._ - - Benedict, Aiden S. _Decorah Republican_, June 19th, 1881. - - Berthoud, Edward L. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, Third - Series, 1876, vol. XI., page 108. - - Bielz, E. 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A. _Ice Making in the Tropics: Nature_, Macmillan, London - and New York, 1872, vol. V., pages 189-190. - - - - -INDEX. - - - - -INDEX. - - - PAGE - - Adirondack guides, Opinions of, 81 - Alaska, Subsoil ice in, 166, 167 - Allmen, Emil von, guide, 21 - Altitude of glacieres, 150 - Amarnath, Cave of, 262 - Apparently static caves, 122 - Arizona, Glacieres in, 175, 176 - Auchincloss, Mr. W. S., 307 - Auersperg, Prince, 52 - Ausable Pond, Freezing talus at, 79 - - Balch, Mrs. Geo. B., 189 - Balch Pass, The, 263 - Bargy, Mont, 71 - Basins, Ice, 20, 130 - Behrens, 270 - Beilstein, Caves on the, 234 - Bel, Matthias, 254, 271 - Benedict, Mr. A. S., 293 - Benner, Mr., 90 - Berthoule, Mons., 206 - Besancon, 8 - Billerez, Mons. de, 270 - Bonney, Professor T. G., 216, 222, 291 - Boston Natural History Society, 138, 182 - Boue, Dr. A., 242 - Boulder heaps, 116 - Boz, Mons. de, 270 - Brandon, Freezing well of, 77, 182, 283, 284 - Brinckerhoff, Mr. F. H., 177 - Briot, Mons., 204 - Brisons, Glaciere de, 2 - Browne, The Rev. G. F., 133, 213, 215, 216, 219, 220, 221, 222, 288 - _Bulletin, The Evening_, 253 - Buried glaciers, 165 - Burslem, Captain, 261 - Butler, Mr. R., 171, 172, 308 - - California, Glacieres in, 170, 171 - Canfield, Mr. N. M., 76 - Capillary or Compressed Air Theory, 142 - Carbonic acid gas, 133 - Carrel, Chanoine, 212 - Caucasus, Glacieres in the, 257 - Cesi, Don Giuseppe, 209 - Chapuis, Glaciere de, 5, 216 - Chatham, Mr. I. C., 94 - Chaux-les-Passavant, Glaciere de, 8, 193 - Chemical causes theory, 140 - Cliff caves, 6, 18, 22, 27, 40, 70, 76, 120 - Clothes for glaciere exploration, 53 - Cold caves, 117 - Colladon, Mons, 278 - Color effects, 131 - Colorado, Glacieres in, 174, 175 - Cossigny, Mons. de, 202, 271 - Cotterlaz, S. J., guide, 71 - Coxe, Miss Mary, 262 - Cranmer, Professor H., 232, 234, 235, 309 - Creux-de-Souci, Le, 206 - Crevasses, 4 - Crimea, Glacieres in the, 256 - Cushing, Mr. F. H., 176 - Cvijic, Dr. A., 243, 305 - - Dante, 135 - Daubuisson, 248 - Dawkins, Professor W. Boyd, 292 - Decorah, Freezing cave of, 88, 177 - Decorah, Freezing well of, 89 - Deluc, Mons. J. A., 277 - Demenyfalva Jegbarlang, 24 - Dewey, Mr., 183, 277 - Dimensions of glacieres, 120 - Dittmar, Mons. de, 260 - Dobsina Jegbarlang, 13, 252 - Dobsina, Village of, 13 - Dornburg, Freezing talus at the, 59, 247 - Dornburg, Freezing cellar at the, 60 - Draughts, 8, 45, 47, 58, 80 - Dripstone formations in glacieres, 24, 30, 57, 63, 67, 304 - Duc de Levy, 202 - Dunant, Mons. C., 215, 216 - Dutoit, Professor, 221 - - Eastern Alps, Glacieres in the, 224-236 - Eastern United States, Glacieres in the, 180-189 - Eger, Dr. W., 262 - Ehrlicher, Mr., 86 - Eisenerz, 37 - Elkinsville, Glaciere at, 180, 305 - Ellenville, Freezing gorge at, 91, 185 - Emery, Aymon, guide, 62, 65 - Enfer, Glaciere de l', 215 - England, Glacieres in, 192, 193 - Entrances of glacieres, 121 - Eschholz, Dr., 167 - Evaporation, 156, 275, 287, 296, 298, 300, 302, 304 - - Farrandsville, Cave at, 93 - Farnum, Mr. G. L., 266 - Farnum, Mr. J. E., 266 - Fauna of glacieres, 133, 207, 214, 216, 219, 246 - Fee Glacier, Ice Cave in, 68 - Flora of glacieres, 80, 83, 85, 91, 134, 188, 222, 237, 240 - Fondurle, Glaciere de, 213 - Forms of Ice, 126 - Frainer Eisleithen, The, 33, 251 - France, Glacieres in, 193-208, 213-218 - Frauenmauerhoehle, The, 37 - Freezing mines and tunnels, 117 - Freezing wells, 74, 77, 89, 117, 206 - Friedrichsteinerhoehle, 51 - Fugger, Professor E., 224, 226, 227, 228, 237, 249, 251, 294 - - Genolliere, Glaciere de la, 48, 219 - Geographical distribution of glacieres, 149 - Germany, Glacieres in, 246-250 - Giant of the Valley, Talus of the, 81 - Girardot, Mons. A., 204 - Girod-Chantrans, Le citoyen, 272 - Glacial period theory, The, 136 - Glaciere, Advantage of term, 110 - Glaciere caves, 118 - Glaciers, 145 - Gollut, Lois, 202, 269 - Gorges and troughs, 146, 260 - Great Barrington, Icy gulf near, 99 - Gruber, J., guide, 18 - Gsoll-Alp, 38 - Guyot, Professor A., 281 - - Hablizl, 272 - Hacquet, 271 - Hager, Mr. A. D., 182, 282 - Hall, Mr. W. Coleman, 187 - Hart, Mr. B., 76 - Hartenstein, Professor, 249 - Haut-d'Aviernoz, Glaciere de l', 2, 215 - Hayden, Professor C. B., 280 - Heilprin, Professor A., 93, 185 - Herschel, Sir John, 141 - Hitchcock, Professor E., 284 - Hoar frost, 16, 30, 129 - Holes in ice, 4, 42, 64, 130 - Hollow ice stalagmites, 23, 127, 287, 290 - Holschuh, Mr. F., 188 - Hovey, The Rev. H. C., 186 - Howell, Mr. E. I. H., 80, 83 - Humboldt, Alexander von, 276 - - Ice floors, 4, 7, 11, 15, 19, 22, 30, 42, 54, 64, 72 - Ice formed by radiation, 263-266 - Iceland, Glacieres in, 190, 191 - Ice near entrance of caves, 152 - Ice sheets, Subterranean, 115 - Ice slabs on floor, 20 - Ice slopes, 4, 17, 19, 23, 52, 67 - Ice Spring, Oregon, The, 169 - Ice stalactites and stalagmites, 3, 7, 12, 23, 30, 42, 73, 127 - Italy, Glacieres in, 208-213 - - Japan, Glaciere in, 266 - Jayne, Mrs. Horace, 189 - Joly, Capucin Romain, 272 - - Karst, Glacieres in the, 236-242 - King's Ravine, Subterranean ice in, 1 - Kirchhoff, Mr. T., 292 - Klenka, S., guide, 51 - Kolowratshoehle, The, 18, 226 - Koerber, Herr B., 222, 294 - Korea, Glaciere in, 266 - Kovarik, Mr. A. F., 89, 178, 180, 307 - Krain, Glacieres in the, 236-242 - Krauss, Regierungsrath F., 303 - Krenner, Dr., 292 - - Lakes, Subterranean, 7, 43 - Lamb, Mr. C., guide, 81 - Lathrop, Mr. S. P., 280 - Lava caves, Washington, 168 - Learned, Mr., 86 - Lee, Mr. C. A., 278 - Legends about glacieres, 135, 216 - Lepechin, 258 - Lerchenfeld, Freiherr von, 227 - Lewis, Miss J. F., 93 - Lewis, Mr. J. F., 129 - Liptos Szt Miklos, 24 - Lohmann, Dr. H., 302 - Lowe, Mr. C. E., Jr., 83 - Lowe, Mr. C. E., Sr., 1, 85 - Lowe, Mr. N. M., 142, 292 - Luce, Mr. C. O., 78 - Lyell, Sir Charles, 116, 210 - - Manchester, Marble freezing cave at, 76 - Marinitsch, Herr J., 236 - Martel, Mons. E. A., 205, 207, 208, 214, 221, 300 - McCabe, Mr. E., 94 - Meehan, Mr. W. E., 165 - Mercer, Mr. H. C., 143, 187 - Metric system, 3 - Mist in caves, 18, 55 - Misura, F., forester, 27 - Montana, Glacieres in, 171-173 - Montarquis, Grand Cave de, 70, 217, 286 - Montarquis, Petite Cave de, 71 - Moonlight effects, 24, 33, 132 - Morin, Mons., 218 - Motion in subterranean ice, 131 - Movements of air, 122, 156 - Murchison, Sir R. I., 141 - - Nagel, J. N., 271 - Naye, Glaciere de, 221 - Nicholson, Mr. C. J., 95 - Niles, Mr., 81 - Nixloch, The, 57, 226 - - Oetscher, The Seeluecken on the, 231 - Olmstaed, Professor D., 282 - Otis, Mr., 81 - Oudot, Dr., 272 - Owego, Freezing well of, 74, 186 - - Paleontological remains, 134 - Parmelan, Mont, 3, 5 - Parrot, G. F., 125 - Peasants, Opinions of, 33, 70, 139 - Pelech, Dr. J. E., 252 - Periods in glacieres, Open and closed, 297 - Peters, K. F., 246 - Petruzzi, Professor, 241, 282 - Phillips, Mr. G. B., 185 - Pictet, Professor M. A., 277 - Pit caves, 2, 3, 10, 48, 52, 63, 66, 119 - Pleischl, Professor A., 250, 279 - Poissenot, Benigne, 193, 269 - Poprad, 13 - Pralong du Reposoir, 70 - _Press, The Philadelphia_, 306 - Preston, Mr., 74 - Prestwich, Mr., 248 - Prevost, Professor P., 273 - Prismatic ice, 64, 67, 129, 287, 289, 303 - _Public Ledger, The_, 169 - - Randolph, The Ice Gulch,, 83 - Raymond, Mr. W. R., 291 - Reich, F., 279 - Religious feeling about ice, 135, 176, 262 - Ritchie, Mr. John, Jr., 76, 83, 85, 143, 181, 292 - Rogers, Professor W. B., 281 - Roth, Eishoehle bei, 35 - Rudolf II., Kaiser, 232 - Ruffiny, Herr E., 252 - Rumney, Freezing talus at, 85 - Russell, Professor I. C., 166, 299 - - Saint-Georges, Glaciere de, 62, 219, 285 - Saint-Georges, Village of, 62 - Saint-Livres, Glaciere de, 65 - Saint-Livres, Pre de, 66 - Sakharov, Dr. A., 257 - Samuel, Mr. B., 192, 209, 264 - Sartori, Dr. F., 276 - Satter, Professor H., 241 - Saussure, H. B. de, 209, 274 - Scandinavia, Glacieres in, 191 - Schafloch, The, 21, 222 - Schallenberger, C., 232, 269 - Schellenberger Eisgrotte, The, 227 - Schwalbe, Dr. B., 241, 253, 298 - Scott, Professor W. B., 176 - Scrope, Mr. G. P., 278 - Seelisberg, The Milchhaueser of, 45 - Selby-Hill, Mr. W. D., 88 - Servia, Glacieres in, 242-245 - Skerizora, Cave of, 245 - Skinner's Cave, 76 - Siberia, Glacieres in, 259-261 - Sieger, Professor, 232 - Silliman, Professor, 279 - Sirar, J., guide, 56 - Snow, Subterranean, 16, 129, 206, 247 - South America, Subsoil ice in, 189, 190 - Spruce Creek, Freezing talus at, 90, 188 - Stockbridge, Icy glen near, 75 - Strachey, Gen. Sir R., 263 - Strein, R., 232, 269 - Suchenreuther Eisloch, The, 55 - Summer's heat theory, The, 138 - Summit, Glacieres near, 95 - Switzerland, Glacieres in, 219-223 - Szilize, Cave of, 253 - - Tablerloch, The, 233 - Taluses, 79, 81, 85, 90, 100, 116 - Temperatures, Subterranean, 112 - Teneriffe, Glaciere on the Peak of, 190 - Terlanday, Dr., 301 - Terminology, 109 - Thermometric observations, 151, 178, 219, 227, 228, - 233, 237, 252, 253 - Thury, Professor, 122, 139, 213, 217, 219, 220, 285 - Time of formation of ice, 159 - Townson, R., 275 - Trouillet, Captain, 202, 297 - Turrian, A. A., gendarme, 48 - - Umlauft, Professor F., 293 - Ural, Glacieres in the, 257-259 - - Valvasor, Freiherr, 238, 240, 270 - Villard, Mons. L., 133, 214 - Vire, Mons. A., 134 - - Wachtl, Forester, 252 - Wagner, Mr. W. W., 173 - Wallingford, The ice beds of, 99 - Watertown, Cave at, 87 - Watertown, Windholes at, 86 - Waves of heat and cold, Theory of, 141 - White, Dr. C. A., 291 - Williams, Mr. W. F., 101 - Williamstown, Caves near, 101 - Williamstown, The snow hole near, 98, 183 - Winter's cold theory, The, 147 - Windholes, 61, 111, 117 - Windholes, The theory of, 124 - Wordsworth, Verses by, 192 - - - Yeermallik, Cave of, 261 - - - Ziegler, Herr J. M., 45 - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - - -Images were moved so as to not split paragraphs. Accents were -standardized. 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