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diff --git a/old/52216.txt b/old/52216.txt deleted file mode 100644 index cfdf5bd..0000000 --- a/old/52216.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9609 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Glacieres, by Edwin Swift Balch - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Glacieres - or Freezing Caverns - -Author: Edwin Swift Balch - -Release Date: June 2, 2016 [EBook #52216] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GLACIERES *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Note - - -Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - - - - GLACIERES - - OR - - FREEZING CAVERNS - -[Illustration: ICE SLOPE AND BASIN, KOLOWRATSHOeHLE.] - - - - - GLACIERES - - OR - - FREEZING CAVERNS - - - BY - - EDWIN SWIFT BALCH - - A. B. (Harvard); F. R. G. S. - Member of the Franklin Institute - Of the Appalachian Mountain Club - Of the American Philosophical Society - Author of "Mountain Exploration," &c. - - - Philadelphia - ALLEN, LANE & SCOTT - 1900 - - - Copyright, 1900, by - EDWIN SWIFT BALCH. - - - Press of - ALLEN, LANE & SCOTT, - Philadelphia, Pa. - - - THIS BOOK IS - AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED TO - MY MOTHER, - WHOSE DEEP INTEREST IN - MY WORK HAS - HELPED ME GREATLY. - - -PRELIMINARY NOTE. - - -Many kind friends have given me information about glacieres or -assistance in my work. I am especially indebted to Mr. Robert Butler, -of San Jose, Cal.; Mr. F. H. Cushing, of Washington, D. C.; Professor -Charles E. Fay, of Tufts College, Mass.; Professor Eberhard Fugger, of -Salzburg, Austria; Mr. Alois F. Kovarik, of Decorah, Iowa; Monsieur -E. A. Martel, of Paris, France; Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., of Boston, -Mass.; Professor I. C. Russell, of Ann Arbor, Mich.; Miss H. Varena, -of Wiesbaden, Germany; and Miss Mary Coxe, Mr. G. L. Farnum, Mr. J. -E. Farnum, Mr. F. L. Garrison, Mr. W. C. Hall, Mr. E. I. H. Howell, -Mrs. Horace Jayne, Mr. W. E. Meehan, Mr. C. J. Nicholson, Mr. G. B. -Phillips, Mr. Bunford Samuel, Mr. W. W. Wagner, and Dr. W. H. Wahl, of -Philadelphia. I wish to acknowledge also the help I have derived from -the Bibliotheque Nationale and the library of the British Museum. - - E. S. B. - -Philadelphia, February the 10th, 1900. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - Part I. Experiences in Glacieres 1 - Part II. The Causes of Subterranean Ice 109 - Part III. List of Glacieres 165 - Part IV. Some Opinions about Glacieres 269 - Part V. List of Authors 313 - Index 329 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - Ice Slope and Basin, Kolowratshoehle Frontispiece - Glaciere de Chaux-les-Passavant 8 - Ice Stalagmites, Chaux-les-Passavant 10 - Vertical Section of Chaux-les-Passavant 11 - Ice Stalagmites, Chaux-les-Passavant 12 - Vertical Section of Dobsina 15 - The Lower Rositten Alp and the Untersberg 16 - The Entrance of the Kolowratshoehle 18 - Vertical Section of the Kolowratshoehle 19 - Top of Ice Slope, Kolowratshoehle 20 - At the Entrance of the Schafloch 22 - Hollow Cones and Fissure Columns, Schafloch 24 - On the Ice Slope, Schafloch 26 - In the Rear of the Schafloch 28 - Vertical Section of Demenyfalva 29 - The Frauenmauer and the Gsoll Alp 38 - In the Frauenmauerhoehle 40 - Vertical Section of the Frauenmauerhoehle 42 - Ice Stalactite, Frauenmauerhoehle 42 - Vertical Section of the Suchenreuther Eisloch 57 - La Glaciere de Saint-Georges 62 - Vertical Section of the Glaciere de Saint-Georges 64 - Vertical Section of Grand Cave de Montarquis 72 - The Bluff at Decorah 86 - Entrance of the Cave of Decorah 88 - Locus Glacialis, Cave of Decorah 90 - Gorge at Ellenville 92 - Vertical Section of Pit near Summit 97 - Vertical Section of Freezing Cave near Williamstown 103 - Vertical Section of a Windhole 125 - Freezing Cavern at Brainard 180 - - - - -PART I. - -EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. - - - - -EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. - - -SUBTERRANEAN ICE IN KING'S RAVINE. - -Subterranean ice was brought to my notice by a mere accident, late in -the month of September, 1877, while on a descent of King's Ravine, -on Mount Adams, in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. We had just -descended the rock wall of the mountain and had reached the head of -the gorge, when my companion, Mr. Charles E. Lowe, the well-known -Appalachian guide of Randolph, suddenly said to me, "Would you like a -piece of ice? I can get you some presently." I answered, "Certainly," -wondering where he would find any. When we got among the big boulders, -which form so rough a path for the traveler at the bottom of the -ravine, Mr. Lowe climbed down under one of the biggest, and presently -reappeared with a good sized lump of ice. I was much impressed at -finding ice at the end of the summer in this gorge, when for months -past no ice or snow had been visible on the surrounding mountains. I -noticed also the peculiar, flaky formation of the ice, and saw at once -that it was something new to me, and in fact it was a piece of what I -have since learned to know as "prismatic ice." - - -GLACIERE NEAR BRISONS. - -In the summer of the year 1880, I traveled through the Alps, with a -friend from Philadelphia. On the 17th of September, we drove from -Geneva to Bonneville. Thence we started on foot without a guide, and as -a result got lost in the woods, from which we only extricated ourselves -at nightfall. After retracing our steps to Bonneville, we were glad to -find a man to show us the way we should have taken, and finally reached -the little village of Brisons in France, where we slept. The next day -we took a guide and made our way across the mountains to Annecy, at -one spot going out of our direct route to see a place spoken of by the -natives as a glaciere. It was a little pit, and at the base of one -side thereof was the mouth of a small cave into which we could not see -any distance. At the bottom of the pit lay a mass of dirty snow and -ice to which we did not descend, as the sides of the pit were sheer -and smooth, and there was no ladder. This pit seemed to be more of -the nature of a gully filled with winter snow, than a true rock cave -containing ice. - - -THE GLACIERE DE L'HAUT-D'AVIERNOZ. - -Three days after this, on Tuesday, the 21st of September, 1880, we -visited the two largest glacieres on the Mont Parmelan, near Annecy, -France. At Annecy we inquired at the hotel for a man who knew the Mont -Parmelan; and, after finding one, we made our way to Les Villaz, where -we spent the night in an _auberge_. Our companion was an odd personage. -He was small, about fifty years of age, and looked meek, crushed and -hungry. He wore a long black frock coat and black trousers, thin boots -and a linen shirt, certainly not the ideal outfit for a cave explorer. -Under his care we started early in the morning and toiled up a mountain -path some eight hundred or a thousand meters,[1] through woods and -pastures, to the higher plateau of Mont Parmelan, in which was situated -the first glaciere. This was in a great pit, at the bottom of which, -on one side, was a big cave. On the side of the pit opposite to the -opening, there was a steep rock slope, forty or fifty meters long, -whose lower portion was covered with snow. Down this slope we descended -with but little difficulty, reaching at the bottom an almost level ice -floor which spread over the entire cave and was formed throughout of -thick, solid ice. A second and much smaller pit in the roof of the cave -opened directly over the ice floor; and under this pit rose a small -cone of ice, some two meters high, the only one in this glaciere. - -[1] The metric system is used throughout this book, except in a few -quotations. Thermometric observations are given in degrees Centigrade. - -The glaciere itself was approximately round in shape, and some twenty -meters in diameter. At one place the rock wall was broken and we could -look into a much smaller inner cave or chamber. Into this we could not -penetrate on account of a long, narrow crack or hole which yawned in -the ice floor for a distance of some five or six meters and continued -through the opening into the second chamber. We tried to cut our way -along the side of the hole, but had to give it up, finding the ice -too hard and our time too short. The crack or hole, whose sides were -solid ice, proved conclusively that the ice in this glaciere was many -meters in thickness, for we could look a long way down into the hole, -certainly for ten or twelve meters, until the ice sides disappeared in -darkness, without any visible bottom. The hole cannot be spoken of as -a crevasse, for, besides not looking like a crevasse, it was certainly -formed by other causes than those which form the crevasses in glaciers, -since there is, as a rule, no perceptible movement in subterranean -ice. Doubtless, the hole was due to the drainage of the cave, which -undoubtedly passed off through the hole. There may be, nevertheless, -some little motion in the ice of this glaciere, for it is evident that -it is fed principally directly by the winter snows; which, whether as -frozen or melted snow, descend gradually, by the force of gravitation, -from the slope of the pit into the glaciere. - -As for any possibility of this great mass of ice melting away and -forming again in any one year, it passes belief; there must be at least -the cubic contents of a dozen ordinary houses in the cave, and such a -mass could hardly be destroyed or formed again in any such short space -of time as a fall or spring. This is, therefore, probably a permanent -or perennial glaciere. - - -THE GLACIERE DE CHAPUIS. - -Starting out from the Glaciere de l'Haut-d'Aviernoz we walked across -the plateau of the Mont Parmelan, _en route_ for the second glaciere. -This plateau is a curious rock formation, consisting of what the -natives call _lapiaz_, which might be translated "stone-heaps." The -plateau is full of great projecting rocks; and myriads of cracks -and crevices everywhere rend the surface, and over these crevices -one sometimes has to jump. Still, I do not remember any particular -difficulty. It was certainly not nearly as bad walking as the taluses -of loose rocks one meets at the base of many mountains. - -Our guide led us for about an hour across the plateau in a southerly -direction, and then, looking over the side of the Parmelan, with a -sweep of the arm covering south, west and north, he told us that the -glaciere lay between those points, but he did not know exactly where. -This seemed a rather hopeless prospect, so, as we had no clue to the -whereabouts of our prospective hole, we descended to a couple of -chalets we saw some two hundred meters below, but which at least were -in the direction of Annecy. We followed a goat-herd's path which led -to the chalets from the plateau, one of those dangerous grass tracks, -where nothing would be easier than to make a slip, and where a bad -slip might have unpleasant results. This is, however, just the kind -of place where every one is particularly careful not to slip. We were -careful and so reached the chalets all right, and there we found a -strong, intelligent boy, who at once pointed out the place where the -glaciere was, about half way up the slope we had just come down. So we -took him with us, leaving our guide at the chalets to await our return. - -The entrance to the glaciere was in a wall of rock, set at an angle of -some thirty-five degrees; at the bottom of this there was some grass. -An easy chimney some fifteen meters high led up to the glaciere. Up -this chimney we climbed. At the top we entered a little cave about -two meters deep, by a sort of portal about two meters wide. The cave -made an elbow to the right, and passing this we found that it turned -to the left and pointed directly into the mountain. The rock went -down vertically in front of us, but the boy said we could get down, -so having first lowered a candle by a string to see the depth, which -turned out to be a perpendicular drop of some four or five meters, -with the help of the rope we all climbed down. We were already almost -entirely away from the daylight and a few steps took us into complete -darkness, except for the light we had from the candle each of us held -in his hand. - -The fissure led straight into the mountain. It was a couple of meters -wide at places, and there we moved along the bottom. In one place it -narrowed below to a wedge, and there we progressed either by climbing -along one side or by placing one foot on one side and the other -foot on the other. The fissure led downwards as well as inwards. It -would have been nothing in daylight to go through it; but in the -semi-darkness it was not easy. - -After a descent of some twenty-five meters or thereabouts, we arrived -at the glaciere, and I have certainly never seen a weirder place. There -was a great arched rock dome, perhaps six meters in height, and some -twelve in diameter; the floor was a sheet of smooth, slippery ice, at -one end curling over, gently at first, afterwards more steeply, to a -lower depth; and on the sides were seven or eight ice columns streaming -from cracks in the rocks to the floor. Each of these columns was some -three or four meters high, and, small at the top and in the middle, -spread out at the base into the shape of fans. In the dim candle light -and the cold damp atmosphere, the columns loomed up like so many -ghosts, and the landscape impression was strange and solemn. The air -here seemed perfectly still. - -There was another curiosity. The fissure we had come down, at this -point some three meters wide, was filled, just beyond the glaciere, -with pure, transparent water, which formed a little lake: this was -perhaps one meter deep, and extended across the fissure, barring -further progress. It certainly seems strange that in the same cavern, -under nearly the same conditions of temperature, there should be one -place covered with a flooring of ice and another filled with water. The -explanation, however, is perhaps not far to seek. Over the lake there -was a distinct draught of air. The draught probably melts the ice in -summer, if indeed it does not prevent any from forming in winter. There -are, so far, no winter observations reported of this cave, yet it would -seem to be one which would well repay the trouble. - - -THE GLACIERE DE CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT. - -On the 17th of August, 1894, my brother and I arrived at Besancon, -the Vesontio of the Romans, bent on seeing the Glaciere de -Chaux-les-Passavant or de la Grace-Dieu, which is not far distant -from the town. The hotel we stopped at was pretty bad; the beds were -surmounted with those old-fashioned curtains which were of use before -the invention of glass windows, but which now only serve to exclude air -and ventilation. However, I learnt something of the manners and customs -of the country, for on getting down at six o'clock the next morning -for breakfast, the first question the waiter asked was: _Quel vin -monsieur prendra-t-il?_ At seven o'clock we sallied forth in a little -open one-horse victoria, with a dull gray sky overhead. Besancon is -well down in a valley, so the first five miles of the road were a slow, -gradual rise to the surrounding levels. The scenery as we drove along -reminded us of Turner's pictures: distant vistas of hills and valleys -with factories blowing off their smoke and with tumble-down old houses -ensconced in picturesque nooks, just those long-distance effects that -Turner loved to paint and which, for some reason, the artists of the -present generation have generally neglected and usually speak of as -unpaintable or unpicturesque. There was a row of trees, the whole way, -on each side of the road, a bit of practical forestry, the wisdom of -which it would be well for Americans to recognize. After our poor horse -had pulled us up the long hills, we had an almost level road running in -a straight line as far as the eye could see. We saw at least a hundred -little hawks, who live on field mice and other rodents, and whose -preservation is another evidence of French wisdom. The last four miles -of the drive was up a ravine in the woods, near the beginning of which -we passed the Trappist convent of la Grace-Dieu. - -[Illustration: GLACIERE DE CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT. - - From a Photograph by E. Mauvillier. -] - -Opposite the entrance of the glaciere, there is a little restaurant -where the peasants come to dance and picnic, and where the few -travellers who get to these parts, can obtain a tolerable _dejeuner_. -They keep a fair _vin du pays_ there, and we had some trouble on the -way home in consequence. Our driver, a talkative specimen of the genus -and an old soldier of Bourbaki's, told us, on the way out, many things -about Besancon during the Franco-German war and of the retreat of the -French army into Switzerland; but on the way home, he showed that he -evidently was not a member of the blue ribbon army. He first seemed -desirous of not taking us back to Besancon, preferring to go in the -other direction towards Bale; and afterwards he evinced a violent -inclination to go to sleep. We thought we should have to request him -to change seats with us, and drive back ourselves, but we obviated the -difficulty by plying him with questions as soon as he began to nod on -his box. Eventually, we reached Besancon all right, only once bumping a -passing cart, and only once nearly capsizing into a ditch. If Americans -can learn some points from Europeans about forestry, I think the latter -might get some equally valuable information from us concerning the use -of water, externally and internally. - -The good lady at the restaurant acts the part of the old-fashioned -cave dragon, and we had to appease her by handing over four _sous_ as -a preliminary to exploration. She also had a sign up, saying that no -one is allowed to break off or take away any ice, which must sadly -interfere with the tourists' privilege of bringing away specimens. - -The entrance of the glaciere was surrounded by woods, which formed -a natural rampart to anything like wind. As we stood facing the -glaciere a great pit opened before us, with a slope about one hundred -and thirty-five meters long leading to the bottom. This slope is at -first gentle in its gradient, but lower down it steepens to an angle -of some thirty degrees so that we were glad to resort to the trail -which descends in regular Alpine zigzags. In one place, on the right -hand, there were the remains of a stone wall with a door, and local -tradition relates that in former times there was a sort of fortified -habitation there, which was used in war times as a place of retreat. -The lower part of the slope is covered by a protecting roof of rock -which, thin at the rim where it is edged with forest, gradually slopes -downward overhead so that at the mouth of the glaciere we looked back -and up what might be described as an immense tunnel. The lower part -of the slope was a mixture of broken rocks, mud and ice: the last, -however, seemed to be all on the surface, although it was impossible to -determine whether it went to any depth. - -[Illustration: ICE STALAGMITES, CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT. - - From a Photograph by E. Mauvillier. -] - -At the base of the tunnel we found ourselves on the threshold of an -immense, almost circular cave, with a diameter of some fifty meters, -rising overhead into a regular vault or dome about twenty-seven meters -in height. The entrance to the cave is so large that plenty of daylight -is admitted, and the whole cave easily examined. The rocks are of a -yellowish brown hue, and I could not help thinking of Nibelheim in -Richard Wagner's Rheingold. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.[2] Vertical Section of Chaux-les-Passavant.] - -[2] The figures in this book are rough sketches, without pretense at -accuracy of measurement, and are only explanatory of the text. - -The bottom of the cave was entirely covered with a flooring of ice. How -thick this flooring was there was no means of judging, as there were -no holes, but it must have been at least two or three meters thick in -places. At the back of the cavern, directly facing the entrance, one -magnificent frozen water fall streamed from a fissure. It was perhaps -five meters high, and began to take the fan shape from its origin. The -base was about four meters wide, and did not rest on the ice floor, but -on a sloping rock extending out from the side of the cave. - -Perhaps the most remarkable feature of all, were six or seven great ice -stalagmites, shaped like cones or rough pyramids, which rose on the -floor of the cave. One of these was at least five meters in diameter -and six in height, and seemed perfectly solid. In the case of two of -the others, however, the cones were broken on one side, revealing in -each the stem and branches of a young pine tree. These evidently had -been planted in the ice and round them the columns had grown. Whether -all the ice cones were thus artificial in their origin I could not -determine, but it seemed probable that they were the result of years of -undisturbed accretion and growth. In both the cones where the break on -the side gave a view into the interior, the dark blue-green color of -deep glacier crevasses was present. - -A pool of water, perhaps thirty centimeters in depth and three or four -meters in diameter, lay at one place on the ice floor. The whole cave -was damp and the ice in places decidedly slushy, in fact all the signs -showed that it was thawing. In the case of this glaciere as well as -in those of the Mont Parmelan, it seemed clear that it must be in the -winter months that the formation of ice takes place. - -[Illustration: ICE STALAGMITES, CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT. - - From a Photograph by E. Mauvillier. -] - - -DOBSINA JEGBARLANG. - -The cavern of Dobsina, in the Carpathian Mountains, is easily reached -either from Poprad to the north, or from Dobsina to the south. The -hotel at Poprad is better, however, than the inn at Dobsina, where -my brother and I spent two nights. It was decidedly primitive. The -food was not so bad, but the pigs ran round in the courtyard, and one -morning a gypsy band woke us at half-past three o'clock by playing -in front of our windows, in dreadful wailing tones, which were most -irritating at that hour. At the proper time, however, Hungarian gypsy -music,--despite the fact that none of the players ever seem to look at -the leader, and that each man appears to play the tune he likes the -best,--is strangely fascinating. - -Dobsina itself lies in a hollow, surrounded with well-wooded hills, the -general appearance much resembling some of the valleys of the White -Mountains of New Hampshire. My brother and I started from Dobsina on -the morning of the 27th of July, 1895, at half-past seven o'clock, in -a little open carriage with excellent horses and a Hungarian driver in -national costume. He was a nice fellow, but he did not understand a -word of German. The road reminded us of some of our own mountain roads, -as it was rough, full of holes and partly washed away by the rains. We -first ascended to the crest of the surrounding hills and then descended -to the Stracena Thal, a wild limestone valley covered with fine -forest. Two hours and a half driving landed us at the hotel-restaurant -near the cave, at which I should certainly stop on another visit. It -was half an hour's stroll thence, through beautiful woods, to the -cavern's entrance. Northwards in the distance the Tatra Range was -visible, a set of sharp bare rock peaks, at whose base, ensconced in -pine forests, is situated the famous Hungarian summer resort of Tatra -Fuered, which much resembles Bar Harbor. - -The entrance to the cavern is enclosed by a fence with a gate, and here -the Dobsina people have a high tariff and take toll from tourists. At -the gate, we waited for half an hour, until a sufficient number of -persons had arrived to form a party. This mode of visiting the cave -rather detracts from the pleasure, even though it does away with all -difficulty and makes the beauties of Dobsina accessible to everyone. It -was also necessary to wait long enough to cool off thoroughly before -entering, on account of the icy air of the cavern, where heavy winter -clothes are indispensable. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. Vertical Section of Dobsina.] - -The entrance to Dobsina faces nearly due north. It is small, perhaps -two meters wide and three meters high, and is perfectly sheltered -from any wind. The sudden drop in temperature at the entrance was -startling; in fact it was the most extreme change I have noticed in any -cave. Within the length of an ordinary room, say in a distance of five -meters, we passed from an extremely hot summer morning to the chill of -a mid-winter afternoon. A slight air current, perhaps, issued from the -entrance, as we observed a faint mist there. At the rock portal there -was ice on the rocks overhead, and underfoot was the beginning of the -huge mass of ice which almost fills the cavern. A descent down eighteen -wooden steps landed us at the beginning of a great ice floor, in what -is called the _Grosser Saal_. It is a magnificent cave. The floor is -a sheet or rather a mass of solid ice, the surface of which is level -enough in one place to permit of skating; in other spots it is sloping -and covered with small ice hillocks. The ice is solid throughout, -without any holes or cracks. Several fissure columns stream to the -floor from cracks in the sides. Joining the roof to the floor are -numerous big ice stalactites, which form frozen pillars and columns. -These are from eight to eleven meters in height, and some two to three -meters in average breadth and width. Nearly translucent, they are -covered with all sorts of icy ornaments hanging about them in tufts and -fringes; they are beautiful in their shapes, as well as in their white -and blue colors. One of these columns is called the _Brunnen_, because -until about ten years ago, a small stream dribbled continuously from -the roof and cut a channel across the ice floor; but now the stream has -solidified into the pillar, and the channel is filled up, although it -can still be traced in the ice. - -The cavern is lighted by electricity, which has the merit, even if it -brings in an element of artificiality, of clearly revealing one of the -chief glories of Dobsina. This is the rime or hoar frost, which in the -shape of ice or snow crystals, covers the entire limestone roof, and, -reflecting the electric light, shines like frosted silver. Some of -these frost crystals seem to be precipitated to the floor, and in one -place I found a small sheet of them, perhaps two meters in width each -way, which looked and felt like genuine snow. The general color effect -of all this upper cave is white, although there is some blue in the -ice, and gray and brown in the rocks and shadows. It would not be much -of a misnomer to call Dobsina "the great white cave." - -The ice extended to the sides of the cave except in two places. Here -there were holes in the ice, bridged by low rock arches. We passed -through one of these and descended by a wooden staircase some eighty -steps, afterwards returning up through the other arch by another -staircase. At the bottom we stood in a magnificent gallery named the -_Korridor_, formed by a solid wall of ice on one side and by a wall -of limestone rock on the other. The ice wall is the lower portion of -the ice floor; the rock wall is the continuation of the roof. For the -entire distance the ice wall rises almost perpendicularly some fifteen -meters in height, while the rock wall arches overhead. - -[Illustration: THE LOWER ROSITTEN ALP AND THE UNTERSBERG.] - -The bottom of the _Korridor_ was filled with blocks of fallen -limestone, through which any water drains off, and on which there was a -wooden walk, so that we circled round the ice with the greatest ease. -At one place on the limestone wall hung a cluster of big icicles, -which, from their shape really deserved the name they bear, of the -_Orgel_. At another place a hole, some six or seven meters deep, was -hewn, in the form of a small chamber, directly into the ice mass. This -is the _Kapelle_, where we performed our devotions by leaving our -visiting cards on the floor. Near the middle of the _Korridor_ the ice -mass bulges out and extends to the limestone wall, breaking the whole -_Korridor_ into two parts, the western portion about eighty meters, and -the eastern about one hundred and twenty meters long. This necessitated -cutting a tunnel about eight meters long in the ice to get through. The -color of the _Korridor_ is a darkish gray and is much more sombre than -that of the _Grosser Saal_. A remarkable feature of the ice wall is the -fact that distinct bands of stratification are visible in the ice in -many places. Why the _Korridor_ is not filled up with ice and why the -ice is perpendicular for such a distance are questions I am unable to -answer satisfactorily; but it is probable that the temperature of the -rock walls is sufficiently high to prevent ice from forming in winter -or to melt it in summer if it does form in winter. - -The air in Dobsina seemed still, and scarcely felt damp. In one or two -places in the _Grosser Saal_ there was a slight sloppiness, showing -incipient signs of thaw. In the _Korridor_ it was freezing hard. - - -THE KOLOWRATSHOeHLE. - -The Kolowratshoehle is situated on the north slope of the Untersberg, -near Salzburg, at an altitude of 1391 meters. My brother and I visited -it on the 2d of August, 1895. We had one of the patented guides of the -district, Jacob Gruber by name, in regular Tyrolese dress, with gray -_jacke_ and black chamois knee breeches. We left Salzburg in the early -morning in an _einspaenner_ and drove to the foot of the Untersberg in -about an hour, whence, by a rough path passing by the Rositten Alp, we -ascended to the cave in about three hours. The last hundred and sixteen -meters of the path were cut across some moderately steep rock slabs and -a perfectly unnecessary iron hand-railing affixed. - -The entrance faces northeast. Here there must have been a slight -draught of cold air moving outwards, the effect of which was -perceptible to the eye, as at the point where the cold inside air -met the quiet warm outside air, a faint mist was visible. From the -entrance, a sharp slope, set at an angle of about forty degrees, led -to the lowest point of the cave. The upper half of this slope was -still covered with the winter snow which had blown or had slid in. We -descended on the right hand edge of the snow by means of some steps -cut in the rock by the _Deutschen-Oesterreichischen Alpen Club_. -These steps were covered with a sticky, red mud, which left almost -ineradicable stains on our clothing, and as there was also ice in -places, they were decidedly slippery. - -[Illustration: THE ENTRANCE OF THE KOLOWRATSHOeHLE.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. Vertical Section of the Kolowratshoehle.] - -At the bottom of the slope we were at the lowest point of the cave, -to which all the water flowed, and where it drained off into a crack -with a loud gurgling noise. Back of us was the daylight streaming -through the entrance; opposite to us was first an ice floor, then a -great ice slope, which came down from the further end of the cave. The -ice was transparent and of a pale ochre-greenish hue, and filled the -entire width of the cave. There is a streak of iron, probably, through -the limestone, which in places tints the rocks a dull red. The color -impression is a dull green-red, and, on account of the size of the -entrance, the light effect is only semi-subterranean. - -The ice floor was covered with a layer of slabs of ice, eight or ten -centimeters thick, which, earlier in the year, had evidently had water -under them. The ice wall or ice slope consisted of two big waves, one -above the other, the lower set at an angle of about ten degrees, the -upper set at an angle of about twenty-five degrees. To get up the upper -wave required about twelve steps cut with the axe. Behind the upper -wave, five or six fissure columns streamed out to the beginning of the -ice. One ice stalactite, at least two or three meters long, overhung -the ice floor, and Gruber said about this: "Well, I wonder it has not -fallen yet: they seldom last as late in the year," a confirmation of -what was clearly evident, namely, that the whole cave was in a state of -thaw. - -In two places there was a strong, continuous drip from the roof to the -ice floor, which formed, in each case, what I can only call an ice -basin. These basins were nearly circular; one was about four meters, -the other about two, in diameter. Around about two-thirds of the rim -of the larger one, ice rose in a surrounding ring two or three meters -high, suggesting that earlier in the year this basin was a cone, and -possibly a hollow cone. The depth in the ice floor, in both cases, -was about one and a half meters, and each basin contained some thirty -centimeters in depth of water. They reminded me of the rock basins one -sees in mountain torrents, where an eddying current has worn smooth all -the edges of the rocks. From the larger of these basins, a channel as -deep as the basin ran to the lowest point of the cave. This channel was -cut out by the overflow, which ran through it in a tiny stream.[3] - -[3] The photographs of the Rositten Alp, of the entrance of the -Kolowratshoehle, and of the interior of the Kolowratshoehle, were made -for me on the 16th of July, 1896, by Herr Carl Hintner, Jr., of -Salzburg. The two latter photographs are, I believe, the first good -ones ever obtained of the inside of the cave. They were taken without -artificial light on quick plates; the best of the two received an hour -and a half, the other two hours' exposure. The photographer said at -first that it was not possible to succeed, and it was only by promising -to pay him in any case, that he could be induced to try. - -[Illustration: TOP OF ICE SLOPE, KOLOWRATSHOeHLE.] - - -THE SCHAFLOCH. - -The Schafloch, on the Rothhorn, near the Lake of Thoune, is one of the -biggest glacieres in the Alps. On the 15th of August, 1895, after early -coffee, made by the _portier_ of the Hotel Belvedere at Interlaken, -I drove to Merligen, on the north shore of the lake, with Emil Von -Allmen, an excellent guide. We left Merligen on foot at a quarter -before seven, and, making no stops on the way, reached the Schafloch at -ten minutes past ten. The path mounts gently up the Wueste Thal, which -higher up is called the Justiz Thal. The track through the latter is -almost on a level, over grassy alps. On the right hand rise the steep, -almost dolomitic, limestone cliffs of the Beatenberg. On the left is -the range of the Rothhorn, with steep grass and forest slopes below, -and limestone cliffs above. The last hour of the walk was up these -slopes, by what Baedeker calls a "giddy path." By leaving the word -"giddy" out, his description is accurate. The cavern is at the base of -the limestone cliff, and the grass slope extends up to it. - -The entrance to the Schafloch is at an altitude of 1752 meters: it -is a fine archway, and a low wall is built partly across it. In -front of this, we sat down and consumed our chicken and cheese, and -that best of a traveller's drinks, cold tea. The day was windless, -and when I lighted a cigar, to see whether there was any draught at -the entrance, the smoke rose straight up, showing that the air was -perfectly still. When we were sufficiently cooled off, we entered the -cave. The entrance faces east-south-east, but after about ten meters -the cavern takes a sharp turn to the left, forming a sort of elbow, -and runs about due south, constantly descending in an almost straight -line. For the first eighty meters or so, the floor was covered with -blocks of fallen limestone, among which we had to carefully pick our -way. Then we began to find ice, which, a few meters further on, spread -out across the entire width of the cave, with a gentle slope towards -the left. The surface of the ice was rather soft, and the whole cave -was evidently in a state of thaw. A few scratches with the axe--the -most invaluable friend in an ice cave--were necessary at one place to -improve our footing. It would have been impossible to move here without -a light, and I carried our torch, made of rope dipped in pitch, which -occasionally dropped black reminders on my clothes. We were in the -middle of a great ice sheet to which several fissure columns streamed. -On the right hand a beautiful ice stalactite flowed from the roof to -the floor; it was some five meters high, and perhaps seventy-five -centimeters in diameter, and swelled out slightly at the base. On the -left hand were three or four ice stalagmites, shaped like pyramids or -cones. - -[Illustration: AT THE ENTRANCE OF THE SCHAFLOCH.] - -One of these cones was especially remarkable. It was at least five -meters high--Von Allmen said eight--and at the bottom was about four -meters in diameter. The base of this cone was entirely hollow. There -was a break on one side by which we could enter, and we then stood -on a rock floor with a small ice dome or vault overhead. I have seen -no other hollow cone like this. The guide lighted a red Bengal fire -inside, when the whole pyramid glowed with a delicate pink light, -resembling _Alpengluehn_. Near this cone stood the half of another -ice cone. It was quite perfect, and the missing half was cut off -perpendicularly, as if with a huge cleaver. A hollow in the base of -the remnant showed that this cone must have been originally also a -hollow cone, and its destruction was probably due to the change in the -temperature of the drip from the roof, at the setting in of the summer -thaw. - -Just beyond the cones, the ice floor steepens and curls over into a -big ice slope, one of the finest I have seen. Von Allmen spoke of this -as _der gletscher_, an expression I never heard applied elsewhere to -subterranean ice. On the right side, the slope would be difficult -to descend in the darkness. On the left, the slope is gentle and a -rock juts out a little way down. Von Allmen insisted on roping--an -unnecessary safeguard--but he said: "If you slip, you will probably -break an arm or a leg, and then we shall be in a nice mess." He then -cut about twelve steps in the ice, down to the rock, while I shed light -on the performance with our torch. We were so completely away from -daylight that black was the predominating color; and even the ice was a -dark gray, and only appeared white in the high lights. Below the rock, -we found a narrow strip on the left side of the ice slope free from ice -and blocked with boulders, over which we carefully picked our way down. -At the bottom, the ice expanded into a level surface, stretching nearly -to the end of the cave. There were only a few fissure columns in this -part of the cavern, where the most remarkable feature was the cracks -in the rock walls, which were so regular in formation that they almost -looked like man's handiwork. The rocks are free from stalactites, and -in fact stalactites seem a good deal of a rarity in glacieres. - -On retracing our steps, we saw, when the first glimmers of daylight -became perceptible, the rocks assume a brilliant blue color, as if they -were flooded with moonlight. This effect lasted until near the mouth of -the cavern. - -[Illustration: HOLLOW CONE AND FISSURE COLUMNS, SCHAFLOCH.] - - -DEMENYFALVA JEGBARLANG. - -A little west of Poprad, in Northern Hungary, on the railroad between -Sillein and Kassa, is the village of Liptos Szt Miklos, to which place -I journeyed on the 12th of June, 1896. The conductor was the only man -on the train or at any of the stations who would admit that there was a -glaciere at Demenyfalva, and that it was feasible to get into it: every -one else professed entire ignorance on the subject. It is perhaps, -worth noting at this time that it is always difficult to get any -information about glacieres; in fact, the advice about cooking a hare -might well be applied to glaciere hunting: first catch your glaciere. - -The scenery between Sillein and Miklos was picturesque. The hills were -covered with forest. In one place, the railroad ran through a beautiful -mountain gorge alongside a river, where a number of rafts were floating -down. There were also some primitive ferries, where a rope was -stretched across the river, and the force of the current carried the -ferryboat across, once it was started. Many peasants were at work in -the fields; often in squads. White, blue, brown, and a dash of red were -the predominating colors in their dress. The men wore white trousers, -made of a kind of blanket stuff, and a leather, heelless moccasin of -nearly natural shape. Almost all the women had bare feet; those of -the older ones were generally shaped according to Nature's own form, -while those of the younger ones were generally distorted from wearing -fashionable shoes. We went past several villages of huts with thatched -roofs, something like the Russian villages one sees beyond Moscow, only -less primitive. - -The inn at Miklos was poor, and as at Dobsina, the pigs lived in the -yard and occasionally came for an interview under the covered doorway. -Inquiries elicited the information that Demenyfalva could be reached -by carriage, so I engaged one at the livery stable. The owner told me -that about twenty years before, he leased the glaciere and carried on a -regular business in supplying Buda-Pest with ice. He had thirty lamps -put in to give light to the workmen, who brought up the ice in baskets -on their backs. - -At half past five o'clock next morning the carriage, which was innocent -of paint, lined with a sort of basket work and without springs, but -certainly strongly built, stood at the door. A boy of about eighteen -years of age, who could speak German, went along as interpreter. The -morning was dismal, and, every quarter of an hour or so, a shower of -thick mist fell and gradually made us damp and uncomfortable. After -about twenty minutes on a pretty bad road, we came to a place where -there was a fork, and the driver turned to the left, over a track which -consisted of two deep ruts through the fields. Soon after, we heard -some shouting behind us, and a fierce-looking man, in a leather jacket -and carrying a large axe, came up and abused the driver. He was not -an agreeable person; however, presently he simmered down and began to -smile. It turned out that he was a _waechter_, that is, a guardian of -the fields, and that we were trespassing. The driver meekly promised -to return by the other route, and we went on our way in peace. After -awhile, we drove into some woods and then into a mountain gorge, with -forest-covered slopes at the base and with limestone cliffs jutting -out above. Here we came to the cottage of the _waechter_ or _foerster_ -of the surrounding woods, who also acted as guide to the cave, for the -few tourists who came to see it; and when he heard of our destination, -he at once slipped on a second ragged coat, took a woodman's axe and -started on foot, going much faster than the carriage. This was not -surprising, for the road resembled nothing but the bed of a mountain -brook, a mass of boulders with ruts between them. This highway was made -by the peasants driving their carts over the plain in the same place, -and as the soil was cut away, the boulders appeared; and over and among -these we went banging along, and we were jolted about and bumped into -each other, until every bone in my body ached. - -[Illustration: ON THE ICE SLOPE, SCHAFLOCH.] - -At a quarter past seven o'clock we came to another house in a little -glade, where the carriage stopped; and on asking the _foerster_ for -his name, he wrote down in my note book, in a clear well formed -hand:--Misura, Franz. From the glade, ten minutes' walk on a mountain -path, up an easy slope, took us to the entrance of Demenyfalva. It is -about two meters wide by three quarters of a meter high. We passed -through and entered a large chamber, well lighted from the right by -another opening, which is higher up and bigger than the entrance. -The air in this chamber was at about the same temperature as that of -the outside air, and, on our return from the nether world, it seemed -positively balmy. In the floor at the end of the chamber, a small pit -yawns open. It is perpendicular on three sides and set at a sharp -angle on the fourth. A wooden staircase of some two hundred steps, many -of which are sadly out of repair, leads nearly straight down this slope -to the glaciere. - -After descending about eighty steps of the staircase, bits of ice -appeared on the walls and floor and after some thirty steps more, a -lateral gallery opened to the right, and into this we turned. This may -be called the upper cave or story, for in Demenyfalva--besides the -entrance chamber--there are practically two stories, the upper one of -which is mainly ornamented with stalactites, the lower one with ice. -There was a little ice on the floor from which rose some small ice -columns, perhaps fifty centimeters in height. The cave or gallery had -a gentle downward slope and turned towards the left. After some little -distance, we came to another wooden staircase, of ten or twelve steps, -quite coated over with thick, solid ice. Misura had to cut away at it -for several minutes, before he could clear the steps enough to descend. -This was in fact the beginning of an ice wall, the _Eiswand_ or -_Eismauer_, which, turning to the right, flowed through a rock arch to -the lowest cave. The rock arch or portal was some three meters wide and -two meters high, and a fringe of beautiful organ-pipe like icicles hung -on it on the right hand. Just beyond the portal the ice sloped steeply -for a couple of meters; then it became level and on it rose a little -pyramid, a meter and a half in height perhaps, and a column; then the -ice sloped away again to the lower cave. - -[Illustration: IN THE REAR OF THE SCHAFLOCH.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. Vertical Section of Demenyfalva.] - -We then continued our course beyond the rock portal along the upper -cavern for about two hundred meters. It was a fine large gallery or -passage and during the first fifty meters or so, we found numerous -small ice cones, perhaps a hundred of them, from tiny little ones to -some about forty centimeters in height. Many of these were columnar in -form, nearly as large at the top as at the base: in some cases the top -was flat, and the columns then looked almost as if an upper portion -were sawn off. I have seen this shape of column nowhere else. In places -there were slabs and bits of ice on the floor. The last hundred meters -of this upper cave was free from ice and was exceptionally dry. It was -formed of a pale yellow limestone rock, almost dolomitic in color, and -many stalactites, in their thousand various shapes, hung from the roof -and on the sides. In one spot, one big limestone stalagmite towered up -directly in the middle of the gallery. We did not go to the end of the -cave, where ice has never been found. - -Retracing our course past the rock portal to the entrance pit, we -descended on the long staircase for some eighty steps more, the amount -of ice on the rocks steadily increasing. In places, frost crystals had -formed in small quantities on the roof and walls. At the bottom of the -pit, another lateral gallery, directly under the upper gallery, opened -to the right. Entering this, we passed over broken limestone debris, -which seemed to overlie a mass of ice. Limestone stalactites were -noticeable all through this lower cavern, and frost and icicles had -sometimes formed over them, in which case the ice stalactite assumed -the form of the limestone stalactite. Advancing a few meters, we went -by, on our right hand, an ice pyramid of a couple of meters in height. -Just beyond this, the cave turned to the left like the upper cave, -and we descended to a level floor of transparent ice, into which we -could see some distance. At this spot, numerous icicles, generally of -inconsiderable size, hung from the roof and on the sides of the cavern. - -At the further end of this ice floor or ice lake we reached an ice -slope, the _Eiswand_, which flowed to the ice floor from the upper -cave in several waves. It was some six meters wide and twenty-five -meters long; and it was not steep, perhaps fifteen degrees in the -steepest portions. On the slope some old, nearly obliterated steps were -visible, and at these Misura proceeded to cut, and with torch in one -hand and axe in the other, gradually worked his way up, until he once -more reached the level spot whence we had looked down the ice slope. -Here he stood waving his torch, a proceeding indeed he did constantly -throughout the trip, for he seemed exceedingly proud of the beauties of -his cavern. This waving of torches, however, is exceedingly foolish, -as their smoke quickly blackens stalactite, and in fact nothing but -candles and magnesium wire should be carried for lighting purposes -underground. The ice of the ice slope was hard, gray and opaque, quite -different from that of the ice lake. The ice floor is formed of new -ice, which is gradually refilling the place from which Misura said the -ice for Buda-Pest was taken out twenty-five years ago. To prove this -assertion, he called my attention to the side of the lake directly -opposite the ice slope. At that spot, under the limestone rubbish over -which we came, there was an outcrop of perpendicular opaque ice about a -meter high. Misura said that the workmen began to cut at the ice slope -and that they dug out a couple of meters in depth from the ice lake, -until they had cut back to where the vertical outcrop was standing. - -The explanation seemed to be in accord with the facts, and if so, it -would go to show that the ice in this cave is of slow formation and -great permanency; as seems also proved by the steps on the ice wall, -which--we were the first party in the cave in 1896--had remained over -from the preceding summer. Misura told me he had never seen so much -ice nor seen it so hard as during our visit, and he added that there -was generally water on the ice lake, and he thought there would be some -in two or three weeks more. The greatest quantity of ice in the upper -cave was at the head of the ice-slope, and it would seem as though -there must be cracks or fissures in the overhead rocks there, through -which the water is supplied to feed the ice, not only that of the upper -cave, but also the larger portion of that of the lower cave. - -The heavy winter air would naturally sink down into the entrance -pit to the lower cavern, and some of it diverge into the beginning -of the upper cavern, which at first is distinctly a down slope. A -little beyond the portal at the head of the ice slope, the upper cave -is either horizontal or in places slightly ascending. Probably this -prevents the cold air from entering further, and probably also, the -heat of the earth neutralizes the cold air of winter beyond a definite -spot. - -The air in the cave seemed absolutely still throughout; it was -also extremely dry, undoubtedly because melting had not yet begun. -The icicles evidently were formed by the slow drip freezing as it -descended, and there were no perceptible cracks nor fissures in the -rocks underneath them. The facts seem to me to prove that neither -evaporation nor regelation can be the factors at work in making the ice -and we may deduce an important rule therefrom. When a cave is dry, then -the air is dry; when a cave is wet, then the atmosphere is damp. In -other words, the state of dryness or dampness of glaciere atmosphere -depends on how much the ice is thawing and parting with its moisture. - -On our return to the base of the long staircase, and while we ascended -it, we had an exquisite moonlight effect, much resembling the one at -the Schafloch. - - -THE FRAINER EISLEITHEN. - -About two hours by rail, north of Vienna, is the village of Schoenwald, -to which I journeyed on June the 15th, 1896. At the railroad station -there was a K. K. Post Omnibus in waiting, which, when it was packed -with passengers and luggage, drove over to Frain in an hour. The -admirable road lies across a rolling plain, until it reaches the -brink of the valley of the Thaya, to which it descends in long Alpine -zigzags. On the bluff overlooking the opposite side of the river, there -is a fine _schloss_. - -I secured the seat next to the driver and questioned him about the -Eisleithen. Although he had driven on this road for five years, without -visiting the Eisleithen, yet he was positive that they were warm in -winter, but cold in summer. He said more than once: _Desto heisser -der Sommer, desto mehr das Eis_, and in fact was an emphatic exponent -of the notions generally held by peasants, which some _savants_ have -adopted and tried to expound. At Frain, I applied at the little hotel -for a guide, and was entrusted to the care of the hotel boots. He was -an intelligent, talkative youth, but he insisted also that "the hotter -the summer, the more ice there is." However, he was polite, and made -up for any shortcomings by always addressing me as _der gnaedige Herr_. - -The day was hot, so it took us three-quarters of an hour on foot, along -the valley of the Thaya, to reach the base of the bluff where the -Eisleithen are situated, at an altitude of about four hundred meters. -The hillside is covered with patches of scrubby forest; and towards -the summit, the entire mass of the hill is honey-combed with cracks -and the rocks are much broken up. After about ten minutes' ascent up -a little path, we came to small holes, from each of which a current -of cool air poured out; these holes seemed fairly horizontal, and the -temperatures were high enough to prove that there was no ice within. -A little further on, we came to a hole or tiny cave among a pile of -rocks, where there was a painted sign: _Eisgrube_. It went down from -the mouth, and I put my hand well in, but, beyond the length of my arm, -I could neither see nor measure its shape or depth. The air felt cold, -but was nowhere near freezing point; nor was it possible to determine -whether there was a draught: it may or may not be a wind cave. Not -far from this, there were two gullies, each terminating in a small -cave. The first gully was planned somewhat like certain traps for wild -animals, that is, it narrowed gradually from the entrance, then became -covered over; and then dwindled, after some four meters more, into a -small descending hole, the end of which we could not reach. But we got -in far enough, to come to large chunks or slabs of ice plastered about -on the floor and sides. In this cave, which was sheltered against sun -and wind, the air, as tested by the smoke of a cigar, was motionless, -and the cave seemed unconnected with any air current. The second gully -terminated in a somewhat larger cave, whose floor was well below the -entrance; no ice was visible, however, although the air was still and -the temperature low. This cave may or may not be a glaciere; but surely -it is not a cold current cave. - -These Frainer Eisleithen certainly offer an interesting field to anyone -studying subterranean ice, from the fact that there are, in the same -rocks, caves without apparent draughts in summer and containing ice, -and caves with distinct draughts and no ice. The problem seems more -intricate than is usually the case, but the solution is simply that the -two classes of caves happen to be found together. - - -THE EISHOeHLE BEI ROTH. - -The Eifel is one of the bleakest districts of Central Europe, and to -one entering it from the vineyards and the well-inhabited basin of the -Rhine, the contrast is impressive. The railroad rises gradually to a -land of comparatively desert appearance, with rocks and trees on the -heights and a sparse cultivation in the valleys. But, if the country is -unattractive to the agriculturist, it is interesting to the geologist, -on account of the great number of extinct volcanoes. Almost in the -centre of the Eifel is the little town of Gerollstein, famed for the -_Gerollsteiner Sprudel_, which gives forth an effervescence undreamed -of by anyone, who has not visited the birth place of some of these -German table waters. - -About an hour's walk from Gerollstein, on the side of a small hill, -is situated the little Eishoehle bei Roth, named after a neighboring -village. I went to this place, on the 25th of June, 1896, with a young -boy as guide. The cave is sheltered from the wind by a wood around it, -among which are many large trees. It is at the base of a wall of piled -up lava, or at least volcanic, rocks which form a sort of cauldron. The -entrance is a small tunnel some five meters long, which goes straight -down at an angle of about twenty-five degrees and then turns sharply to -the left. At the turn, the cave may be perhaps one meter in height. We -did not go beyond this spot, where the air was icy and the temperature -sub-normal, as the tunnel was blocked up by a large boulder, which -had evidently recently fallen from the rocks in front. There was no -ice, as far as we went, and the boy said it began three or four meters -further in. He told me that there was no ice in the cavern in winter, -but admitted that he had not entered it at that season, so that was -hearsay. He had heard also that the ice was sometimes taken out for -sick people, but otherwise it was not used. - -It seemed to me that the conditions at Roth show that the ice is formed -by the cold of winter alone: the cave is well below the entrance; it is -the lowest point of the surrounding cauldron of rocks and all the cold -air naturally gravitates to it; it is sheltered by rocks and trees -from wind or exposure to the rays of the sun; the tunnel faces nearly -due north; and the water necessary to supply the ice, easily soaks -between the lava blocks. - - -THE FRAUENMAUERHOeHLE. - -Eisenerz, in Eastern Tyrol, is a picturesquely situated little town. It -is at the bottom of a great valley, with mountains all around it. Two -of these are bare, gaunt limestone peaks, which are decidedly dolomitic -in form and color. The sharpest of these is to the north. It is called -the Pfaffenstein and is the beginning of the range culminating in the -Frauenmauer. On a mountain to the east of the town, one sees the iron -mines and works, whence the town takes its name "Ironore," and whence -quantities of iron are taken out every year. The mines are said to have -been in operation for over a thousand years, since about A. D. 800. -After the ore is taken from the mine and roughly prepared, it is run -down in small cars through a covered way to the railroad station to be -shipped; and at certain times there is a seemingly endless procession -of these cars, each bearing, besides its load of ore, a miner, with -clothes and person entirely begrimed to the yellow-brown color of the -iron. - -As I walked out of the Eisenerz railroad station, an old man in -Tyrolese costume asked me if I wanted a _traeger_ and a guide, so, while -he was carrying my valise to the hotel, we came to terms. He was one of -the patented guides of the district and wore the large badge of the -Austrian guides. If the size of the badge made the guide, one should -be safe with Tyrolese, but for difficult excursions, it will not do -to trust to a guide simply because he happens to be "patented"; that -is, not if one values the safety of one's neck. Next morning, July the -9th, 1896, the old guide arrived betimes at the hotel and roused me by -tapping on the wall below my window with his stick. We left at half -past five o'clock. My companion, who should have known better, had not -breakfasted, so by the time we reached the Gsoll Alp at a quarter-past -seven, he was almost tired out. He wore the regulation black chamois -knee breeches and a _gamsbart_ in his hat. He picked many flowers en -route, ostensibly because they were pretty; but in reality, I think, -because it gave him the opportunity to recover his wind. He told me -he was sixty-three years old, and he certainly went up hill with some -difficulty, and for the first time in my life, I fairly succeeded in -showing a clean pair of heels to a _patentirter fuehrer_ on a mountain -side. At one place he found a large snail in the road. This he wrapped -up in leaves and placed on a rock, and on our return he picked the -leaves and snail up, and rammed the whole bundle into his pocket, -informing me that it was excellent _Arznei_, although he did not -mention for what complaint. - -[Illustration: THE FRAUENMAUER AND THE GSOLL ALP.] - -The road led up a wooded valley, in a sort of series of steps, -bits of even ground interspersed by steeper ones, with the -Pfaffenstein-Frauenmauer limestone peaks poking up their jagged summits -on the left. The sky was clear at starting, except in the west, where -clouds were forming, and these gradually overspread the whole sky, and -finally turned to rain. Just before we reached the Gsoll Alp, we went -by a huge snow avalanche, which had fallen in February and torn a lane -clear through the pines, bringing down numbers of them with it. The -remains of the avalanche were banked up on the side of the road, which -was cut out, and many of the pines were still piled on and in the snow. -Stopping ten minutes at the alp to allow my guide to recuperate on some -bread and milk, we then crossed the pastures and pushed up a rather -steep slope by a small path, at one place crossing the remains of -another avalanche. We also came near having the attentions of a little -bull which was screaming viciously. My guide said it was an extremely -disagreeable beast, but he did not think it would attack him, as he -always made a point of giving it bread when at the chalet. We reached -the entrance of the cave at a quarter-past eight. - -A man and a boy from Eisenerz, who had heard I was going to the cavern -and who wished to profit by my guide, caught up with us here. They were -much disappointed when I told them I should visit only the _Eiskammer_. -They went into the cave at the same time that we did, and eventually -we left them pushing up one of the side chambers, with only one torch -in their possession. My guide said he thought they were risking their -lives, as there were many holes they might fall into, besides the -probability of their finding themselves in total darkness. He told me -that once, while in the cavern, he heard distant yells, and, going up -the gallery whence they proceeded, found a man half dead, who said -he had tried to come through the mountain by himself, had broken his -lantern and had remained in the darkness an indefinite number of hours; -a situation, the horror of which could not be realized by anyone -who has not been underground without a light and felt the absolute -blackness of a cavern. - -The Frauenmauer is a limestone peak, 1828 meters in height, one of -several forming a horseshoe round the Gsoll Alp. It presents on that -side a sheer wall of rock, in which there are two holes close together, -at an altitude of 1335 meters. These are the lower openings of the -Frauenmauerhoehle, of which the higher and biggest one is used for -an entrance. They are some thirty or forty meters from the base of -the rock wall, and a flight of wooden steps leads up to the entrance -opening, which is narrow and high. At the top of the steps, we stood -in the mouth of the cave; and, going in four or five meters, saw the -other opening to the left, below us. About five meters further, there -was one small lump of ice, as big as a pumpkin, lying on the ground, -but this may have been carried there from within. The cavern went -nearly straight for some twenty-five meters from the entrance, rising -all the time gently. Then came a steep little drop, of some four or -five meters, in the rock floor, and here a small wooden staircase was -placed. A gallery opened to the right and this was the cavern proper, -which leads through the mountain. It rose considerably and contained -no ice as far as we went, which was for some distance. The walking was -bad, as the floor was covered with _geroell_, that is broken detritus. - -[Illustration: IN THE FRAUENMAUERHOeHLE. - - From a Photograph by A. Kurka. -] - -Returning and continuing towards the freezing chamber, the floor of the -cavern began to rise once more, continuing for some forty-five meters -to its highest point, which is lower, however, than the top of the -entrance, an important fact to notice. For, although the floor of the -cave is considerably higher, at a distance of seventy meters within, -than the level of the bottom of the entrance; still, that highest spot -is below the level of the top of the entrance. This fact, and also the -size of the gallery, unquestionably explains why the cold air can get -in as far as it does. At this highest spot we found a considerable mass -of ice, a couple of cartloads in bulk perhaps, which the guide said -would melt away later in the summer. This was, perhaps, the remains -of a fallen stalactite. This mass of ice is an interesting point in -connection with the Frauenmauerhoehle, for it shows that ice in a cave -sometimes forms, even if in small quantities, above the level of the -base of the entrance. There seems no reason why it should not do so, -provided there is the necessary water supply. Such ice would, however, -suffer more, as soon as the outside air was over freezing point, than -would ice which was below the level of the entrance. It would probably -disappear early in the year, unless the cave were in a latitude or at -an altitude where snow remained in the open during most of the year. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. Vertical Section of the Frauenmauerhoehle.] - -From this highest point, the cave turns somewhat to the left, and the -floor begins to slope downward, sinking gradually to some six meters -below the level of the entrance. Ten meters or so from the highest -point, we began to find icicles and fissure columns, and about twenty -meters further, we reached an almost level ice floor, stretching across -the entire width of the cave--some seven meters--and extending about -fifty meters more to the end of the cave. In several places there was -much frozen rime on the rock walls. There were also a number of columns -and icicles, though none of any special beauty. I broke a piece off one -of them, and the ice was transparent and free from prisms, showing that -this column was probably of fairly recent origin. Letting a bit melt in -my mouth, the water tasted pure and sweet. - -[Illustration: ICE STALACTITE, FRAUENMAUERHOeHLE. - - From a Photograph by A. Kurka. -] - -In two places, there were _abgrunds_, that is, holes in the ice. One -of these was a wide, deep hole on the left side of the cave, between -the rock and the ice floor. The other was a great hole in the ice floor -itself. As the edges of both holes sloped sharply, it was impossible -to get near enough to look into either, but I threw in lumps of ice, -and from the sound should judge that the holes were about three meters -deep. The hole in the ice floor seemed to be cut by drip, and I think -they both carried off the drainage. - -The ice floor was sloppy and thawing rapidly. At the furthest point we -reached, within about fifteen meters from the end of the ice chamber, -we were stopped by an accumulation of water lying on the ice. I poked -into it with my ice axe and found it about twenty centimeters in depth. -There was a crust of ice on top in places. The lake was cold, but I am -sure the water was not freezing, as I held my hand in it at least a -minute without pain. The guide assured me that in two weeks or so the -lake would be completely frozen, provided there was some fine, warm -weather; but, if there was rain, he said that it would not freeze. By -this statement, he unintentionally explained, what he asserted was -true, namely, that the cave froze harder in August than in July. The -explanation of course is, that in fine, dry weather, water does not run -into the cavern, and then the lake gradually drains off, leaving the -ice floor free from water; and this the natives interpret to mean that -the water has frozen up. - -At the edge of the lake there was a fissure in the left hand rock -wall, in which my companion assured me that a column would shortly -form. I absolutely doubt this statement, as, if it were true, it -would be contrary to everything I have seen; still, I wish I could -have returned in August, to verify the matter. I poked my torch up -the fissure, also felt in with my hand. It was cold, and on the rocks -inside there was much hoar frost, but I could neither see nor feel any -ice mass, nor am I sure how far the fissure extended. - -The air was still, damp and over freezing point throughout the -_Eiskammer_, and all the signs showed that the cave was in a state -of thaw. Although the rocks are limestone and scarcely blackened by -smoke anywhere, yet as our torches did not give much light, the color -impression was black and gray, like the Schafloch. - -At the hotel the landlord confirmed in every particular the story of -the cave freezing hardest in August or September. He had never been -there himself, but stated that everyone said the same thing, and -that many people had "broken their heads" trying to account for it. -At eight o'clock in the evening, my guide came to let me know that -the man and boy, whom we left trying to penetrate the cave, had just -turned up after making all their relatives extremely anxious. They -were nearly lost, and had in general an extremely uncomfortable time. -It is scarcely to be wondered at that accidents occur in caves and on -mountains when people, with neither knowledge nor proper preparation, -go wandering off by themselves into the unknown.[4] - -[4] On the evening of June 29th, 1897, I met at Hieflau three Viennese -tourists who had come that day through the Frauenmauer. They found the -lake on the ice floor of the _Eiskammer_, just as I had in 1896. They -said also, moreover, that they found ice and icicles or ice columns -in the main cave; unfortunately, they did not explain clearly in what -part. - - -THE MILCHHAeUSER OF SEELISBERG. - -The summer of 1896, will long be remembered by Alpine climbers for -the pitiless rain storm, which kept coming steadily down during the -vacation months. It was in the midst of this that I arrived at Trieb, -on the Lake of Lucerne, on the 6th of August, to see whether I could -find the windholes which were reported near Seelisberg. At the landing -place I found Herr J. M. Ziegler, the owner of the Hotel Bellevue at -Seelisberg, who promptly secured a nice, blond bearded young fellow, -a relative of his and his _knecht_, as a guide. It was pouring when -we started, a proceeding which kept on during our entire excursion. -We tramped up a narrow road, paved with great stones in the old Swiss -fashion, and, as my guide truly said, awfully steep for horses. - -Half an hour from the boat landing, took us to the first milkhouse, -which belonged to Herr Ziegler. It was in a small patch of woods, and -was placed against a cliff, where rocks had fallen down and formed a -talus of broken detritus. The side walls of the house were built out -from the cliff and roofed over, and the front wall had a doorway closed -with a wooden door. At the back the detritus or _geroell_ was built into -a vertical, unplastered wall between most of the interstices of which, -cool air came forth. Several of these interstices were fairly large -holes of uncertain depth. It was a cool day and the air currents were -only a little cooler than the temperature outside. - -Another half an hour of uphill walking, partly on roads and partly -over soaking meadows, took us to Seelisberg, where we stopped at the -house of the owner of the second milkhouse, to get the key. The owner -could not go with us because he had damaged his foot, by wearing great -wooden shoes or _sabots_ armed with enormous spikes, while cutting -grass on steep slopes. He was hospitable enough: unlike his dog, who -was exceedingly anxious to attack us. The owner said--in the intervals -of the dog's howls--that ice formed during the winter in the rear wall -of his milkhouse and remained until about June. The milkhouse was in -a little patch of woods against a small cliff, at the bottom of which -were broken rocks. We had some difficulty in getting in, working for -at least ten minutes at the lock, while drops of rain-water would -occasionally drip into our coat collars. Just as I had given up hope, -my companion succeeded in getting the key to turn. There were several -pans, full of milk, placed to cool, and several barrels of potatoes; -and, as at the first milkhouse, we found that the rear wall consisted -simply of heaped up detritus built into a vertical position. Gentle air -currents flowed from several large holes and from the cracks between -the stones. - -From here we went by a path through woods and over meadows down to the -lake, coming to the shore some distance to the west of the steamboat -landing. Everything was soaking wet, and as we proceeded, I felt my -clothes getting wetter and my shoes absorbing water like sponges until, -when we came to an overflowing brook, wading through seemed rather -pleasant. There is one advantage of getting thoroughly wet feet in the -mountains: it makes crossing streams so much easier, as one does not -delay, but simply steps right in. - -The lower milkhouse was on the shore of the lake, near the house of -a fisherman, whose wife opened the door for us. There was some milk -in pans and several barrels of wine; and on a board were a number of -_ferras_ from the lake; the result of two days' catching in nets. This -was the largest of the three milkhouses; although it did not have as -many big holes in the rock wall as the others, but only the interstices -between the blocks of rock, whence we could feel cool air flowing out. -The woman said that the ice melted away by April or May, but that in -winter the wine barrels were all covered with frost. She also said that -the air coming from the clefts in summer was colder when the weather -was warm, than when it was rainy. Doubtless the temperature of the -draughts remains the same during the summer, but the air feels cooler -to the hand when the outside air is hot. - -A walk of another half hour, through more soaking wet grass, brought -us back to the steamboat landing at Trieb, where I touched my guide's -heart with the gift of a five franc piece, and had a talk with Herr -Ziegler. He said that there were a number of places in the neighborhood -whence cold air came forth during the summer from cracks in the rocks: -that there were also other milkhouses, notably one at Tell's Platte, on -the lake: and that the milkhouses were not generally used in winter, -when the doors were left open, to allow the cold air to penetrate as -much as possible through the rocks behind. During the winter the -draughts were reversed, and poured in instead of out of the openings, -and Herr Ziegler thought that at that time the interior of the rock -cracks became chilled, and that possibly ice formed in them which -helped to chill the summer currents, when the draughts poured out from -the holes. - - -THE GLACIERE DE LA GENOLLIERE. - -On Tuesday, the 11th of August, 1896, a cool and rainy day, I left -Geneva and went by train to Nyon, where I found at the station a little -victoria, in which I drove up to Saint-Cergues. The road lay across -the plain to the base of the slopes of the Jura, and then up these in -long zigzags; it was admirably built and on the hill slopes passed -the whole way through a beautiful thick forest, principally beeches -and birches. At Saint-Cergues, I went to the Pension Capt, where -the landlady soon found a guide in the shape of the gendarme of the -district, a right good fellow, Amy Aimee Turrian by name. He was in -uniform, with an army revolver in a holster at his belt. We then drove -about half an hour beyond Saint-Cergues, the road rising but little, -and the thick forest giving place to a more open wood of evergreens, -with patches of pasturage. As a forest sanitarium, Saint-Cergues seems -unsurpassed in the whole of Europe. The carriage turned up a little -country road, which soon became too rough for driving, so we proceeded -on foot for about another half hour, through pine woods and pastures, -to the glaciere. Turrian enlivened the way with an account of his life -as a gendarme, of the long solitary six hour patrols in the woods in -winter, and of how he lay in ambush for poachers. He said he would not -take long to fire on anyone resisting arrest, as that was _serieux_. - -The glaciere is in the middle of a pasture, with several pine trees -overhanging it. It is surrounded by a wall, built to prevent the cows -from falling in. There are two pits, side by side and about three -meters apart: they are some thirteen meters in depth, with a width of -five or six meters. They open into one another at the bottom; the rock -separating them, forming a natural bridge overhead. One of the pits is -vertical on all sides. The other is vertical all around, except on the -side furthest away from the natural bridge. Here the side of the pit -is in the shape, so usual in glacieres, of a steep slope. Down this -slope we descended. It was slippery and muddy, owing to the recent -heavy rains, and my ice axe proved invaluable and probably saved me -some unpleasant falls. Under the bridge, the floor was covered with a -mass of shattered limestone debris, among which there was neither ice -nor snow; both of which my guide said he had found in abundance the -preceding June. A little limestone cavern opened on one side below the -bridge. A great, flat limestone slab formed a natural lintel, and, -lighting our candles, we stooped down and passed under it into the -cave, which was about the size of a room and in which we could just -stand up. At the entrance and over most of the floor there was ice, in -one place thirty or forty centimeters in depth, as I could see where a -drip from the roof had cut a hole. There were no signs of icicles or -columns. My guide said he had never penetrated into this chamber, which -he thought, on his earlier visit, was blocked with ice and snow. I did -not see any limestone stalactites anywhere, and I am inclined to think -that the low temperatures of glacieres have a tendency to prevent their -formation. - -After our visit, we went to the Chalet de La Genolliere close by, where -there were some thirty cows and calves. The intelligent _berger_ or -manager said that most of the ice from the glaciere was used for butter -making during the hot weather; and that between the inroads thus made -upon it and from other causes, the ice disappeared every year before -autumn, but that it formed afresh every winter; pretty good evidence to -show that the ice in this cave has nothing to do with a glacial period. -He also stated that when he first entered the inner chamber in the -spring there were four ice columns there. - -The glaciere de La Genolliere is a clear exemplification of the theory -that the cold of winter is the sole cause for the ice. The whole -glaciere is rather small and is fairly well protected against wind. -Although snow cannot fall directly under the rock arch, yet I should -imagine it drifts under, or after melting, runs in and refreezes. To -the inner cave snow, as snow, could hardly reach; and the cavern is -probably filled, like most cave glacieres, from frozen drip. The inner -cave is, therefore, a true cave glaciere, while the outer pits and the -bridge are something between a gorge and a cave. La Genolliere should, -I think, be visited about the end of June, when the ice formations are -certainly larger and more interesting than in August. - - -THE FRIEDRICHSTEINER OR GOTTSCHEER EISHOeHLE. - -A little to the east of, and in about the same latitude as Trieste, -is the small town of Gottschee, now reached by a branch railroad from -Laibach. Gottschee is a German settlement almost in the centre of -the district known as the Duchy of Krain, Austria, which is mainly -inhabited in the north by Slavonians and in the south by Croatians. -Gottschee lies directly at the western base of the Friedrichsteiner -Gebirge, one of whose peaks is the Burgernock. On the eastern slopes of -this mountain is situated the Friedrichsteiner or Gottscheer Eishoehle, -at an altitude of about nine hundred meters. - -On the 24th of June, 1897, I left Gottschee at half past six o'clock in -the morning with Stefan Klenka, a nice little man. I had asked to have -him come at six o'clock, but he did not turn up and I had to send for -him. His excuse was, that tourists always ordered him for six o'clock, -but when the time came, they were still in bed. He had taken a German -officer and his wife to the cave the year before, and after keeping -him waiting three hours, they started at nine o'clock. The result was -that they did not get to the cave until two o'clock, and returned to -Gottschee just at nightfall. - -We reached the cave at half past eight o'clock. The steep and rough -path went uphill through a fine forest, which my guide said was -_Urwald_, _i. e._, primeval forest; and there were certainly some -big trees and many fallen ones, and much underbrush. He assured me -that bears were still plentiful in the neighborhood, and that Prince -Auersperg, who owns the shooting, does not allow them to be killed, -preferring to pay for any damage they may cause to the peasants' -fields or for any cattle they may dine on, rather than to have these -interesting animals exterminated from his woods. He also said that -there was a two meter snowfall in Gottschee in winter: a sufficient -quantity to account for the glacieres. At one place on the road we -stopped before a small crack in the rocks, and Klenka dropped in some -small stones, which we could hear strike two or three times a long -distance below. There is surely an unexplored cavern at this spot. - -The Friedrichsteiner Eishoehle is a large pit cave, well lighted by -daylight. It is sheltered from any winds by the great trees which grow -all around it and even over the rock roof. A long, steep slope leads -straight into the pit and from the top the ice floor is in full sight. -On both sides of the slope the rocks are almost sheer. Over the bottom -of the slope the rock roof projects at a great height. The sides of the -cave rise perpendicularly at least forty meters, and in fact, the cave -suggests an unfinished tunnel set on end. - -Some years ago, the _Deutschen und Oesterreichischen Alpen Verein_ -built a wooden staircase, in a series of zigzags, on the slope. This -staircase should have been cleared off earlier in the year, but, of -course, the matter was neglected. Down these steps we descended until -they became covered with snow, and lower down with hard ice. All this -was winter's snow which fell directly on to the slope and gradually -melted and froze again, so this was really a miniature glacier. It was -not subterranean ice at all. We cut down the snow, but had to stop when -we came to the ice, as it would have involved a couple of hours at -least of the hardest kind of step cutting; and this my guide did not -care to undertake, especially as he was nearly killed on this slope the -week before. He had reached, with some tourists from Trieste, a place -above that where we stopped, when he slipped and fell down the slope, -shooting clear across the cave, where he remained until ropes were -procured, and he was dragged out. He afterwards showed me the numerous -cuts and bruises he had received on his perilous glissade. - -We had to stop also for another reason. I had unwisely brought as wrap, -a thick overcoat reaching to the knees, and this was such an impediment -on the icy staircase, that I took it off, and soon began to feel long -shivers creeping down my spine. This question of extra clothing for -glaciere exploration is hard to arrange. One must guard against most -trying changes of temperature. For, on entering a big glaciere, the -heat of a July day without, will, at a distance of only a few meters, -give place to the cold of a January day within, and nothing could be -better devised than a big glaciere to lay the seeds of rheumatism. -It is difficult to plan a garb suitable to meet all the varying -conditions, but the dress must be cool and warm, and light enough to -permit free motion. The clothes I have found most practical are a thin -waistcoat and thick trousers, and two short sack coats, one of them -a heavy winter one. The coats should button at the throat, and it is -well to place straps round the bottom of the trousers. Thick kid gloves -should always be worn in caves, to save cutting the hands on rocks or -ice in the darkness, and hobnails may prevent some unpleasant slips. - -From the point where we stopped, some ten meters away from the ice -floor, the largest portion of the cave was visible. The finest object -was a big ice curtain or _vorhang_, as my guide called it, which, from -a height of five or six meters, flowed down from fissures to the ice -floor, and which covered the rocks on the eastern side. Under one point -of this curtain, Klenka said that there was a deep hole in the ice. -Smaller fissure columns also streamed from the rear wall to the ice -floor. The ice floor itself was flat, of an ochre greenish tinge, and -was covered with broken ice fragments. We could not see the western -portion of the cavern, as the rocks jutted out in a sort of corner. -Klenka said that there were several small pyramids there; a large one -which he spoke of as the _Altar_; and a small ice slope, plastered on -the side rocks. - -The sides of the cave were of a dark gray limestone rock, and from -the top of the slope they assumed a decidedly bluish tone, and I -am inclined to think that there was already--we were there from -eight-thirty A. M. until ten A. M.--a faint mist in the cavern. This -is the most interesting phenomenon connected with the Friedrichsteiner -Eishoehle. The cavern faces due south, and about midday, in clear -weather, the sun shines directly into it, causing a mist or cloud to -form in the cave on warm days; a mute witness that evaporation is -connected with the melting, not with the forming, of the ice. The air -at every point seemed still. - -On my return to Gottschee, I called on one of the professors of the -K. K. Gymnasium, and he told me many interesting facts about the -surrounding country. Among other things he said that no traces of a -glacial period or indeed of glaciers were found in the Krain; and as -this district is particularly rich in glacieres, this fact is a strong -proof against the glacial period theory. He assured me also that many -bears still existed in the neighborhood; that one family was known to -inhabit the woods round the Friedrichsteiner Eishoehle, and that he had -often seen bear tracks on his own shooting, some ten kilometers to the -south. - - -THE SUCHENREUTHER EISLOCH. - -On the 25th of June, 1897, I left Gottschee at six-thirty A. M. in an -_einspaenner_, and drove thirteen kilometers southward, over a good -road, albeit hilly in places, to Mrauen, which we reached in about -two hours. The weather was exceedingly hot. I took Klenka along, as -he spoke German, and he entertained me on the drive by telling me -that there were many poisonous snakes in the country, of which the -_kreuzotters_ or vipers were the worst, and that three or four persons -were bitten every year. - -Mrauen is in Croatia, and I could see a slight difference in the people -and their dress from those of Gottschee. From Mrauen, the landlord of -the _Gasthaus Post_, Josef Sirar, led us to the Grosses Eisloch. This -is sometimes spoken of as the Eisloch bei Skrill, but as it lies in -a patch of woods below the village of Suchenreuth, the Suchenreuther -Eisloch seems the correct name. At least that was what Sirar called it. -It took us about an hour on foot from Mrauen to get into the woods. -On the way we met two guards in uniform, carrying Maennlicher carbines -with fixed bayonets, and it was agreeable to feel that the strong arm -of the Austrian government extended over this semi-wild land. In the -woods, following Sirar's able guidance, we took a short cut--always a -mistake--and were lost temporarily in a maze of bushes and brambles, in -which I thought of the _kreuzotters_. After that, Sirar at first could -not find the cave and had to hunt around for it, while I sat on a stone -and waited impatiently. - -At the cave a rather steep slope of wet mud, covered with dead leaves, -led down through a rock arch. Sirar had to cut several steps in the -mud with his hatchet, or we should probably have sat down suddenly. -The archway opened into a moderately large cavern, which was about -twenty meters deep, almost round and some fifteen meters in diameter. -The slope continued right across the cave, and on some parts of it -were logs of wood and much debris. On the wall hung a few limestone -stalactites. In the roof of the cave was a great hole, and under -this was a big cone of old winter snow, which had become icy in its -consistency, and on which there was much dirt and many leaves. The -temperature in the cave was several degrees above freezing point, and -there was no ice hanging anywhere. Sirar said that when the weather got -hotter, the ice would come; but as he said also, that he had been only -once before in the cave, some ten years ago, his opinion was not worth -much. Both men said that the preceding winter was unusually warm. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6. Vertical Section of the Suchenreuther Eisloch.] - - -THE NIXLOCH. - -Near Hallthurm in Bavaria, a railroad station between Reichenhall and -Berchtesgaden, is a well known congeries of windholes, called the -Nixloch. I visited it on Friday, July the 2d, 1897, with a railroad -employee, whom I found at the peasants' _gasthaus_. - -The Nixloch is ten minutes distant in the forest, on the slopes of the -Untersberg. It is among a mass of big limestone blocks, and close by -are the remains of the walls of an old castle or fortification. The -Nixloch descends from the entrance for about two meters nearly sheer, -and there is just room to get through. As I sat within the outside edge -of the mouth of the cave, the smoke of my cigar was slowly carried -downward into it. - -Dropping down through the hole, we found ourselves in a small cavern -formed of rough limestone blocks overhead and underfoot. It is possible -to go still further down and my companion said that formerly it was -possible to go through the cave and come out at a lower opening; this -exit, however, was destroyed when the railroad was built. The draught, -as tested by the flame of a candle, was still drawing in some seven or -eight meters from the entrance. There is a second cavity immediately -next to the entrance, and at the bottom of these holes, the inward -draught was so violent as to blow the candle out. The thermometer -outside in the shade was 28 deg.C.; inside the cave, where the draught was -still perceptible, it was about 20 deg.C. Within the cave I noticed two -large, dark brown spiders. - -On returning to the _gasthaus_, I had a talk with some peasants who -were dining there, and they told me that it was warm in winter in the -Nixloch, and that ice never formed there. - - -THE DORNBURG. - -If one draws a line northeast from Coblentz and another northwest from -Frankfort-on-the-Main, they will intersect nearly at the Dornburg. The -railroad from Frankfort goes, via Limburg and Hadamar, to Frickhofen -and Wilsenroth, from either of which villages the ice formations of the -Dornburg are easily reached on foot in half an hour. - -I arrived at Wilsenroth on the 26th of July, 1897, and soon found -an old forester, who said he had lived in the neighborhood for over -fifty years, to show me the way. The Dornburg is a low hill, perhaps a -hundred meters high and a kilometer long. It is basaltic and covered -with sparse woods. The forester said that on top were the remains of -the foundations of an old castle, and that this was possibly the origin -of the name Dornburg. We circled round the eastern base of the hill -for some ten minutes, when we came to a little depression, filled with -basalt debris, among which were several small holes, out of which came -currents of cool air. - -Ten minutes further in the woods, we arrived at the _Dornburg -Restauration_ and then almost immediately at the glaciere. It is at the -bottom of a talus of broken basaltic rocks and has been much affected -by the agency of man. In it are two _eisloecher_ or _stollen_, as the -forester called them. These are little artificial pits or cellars, dug -into the talus. They are side by side, opening about southeast, and -each is about one and a half meters wide, three meters long, and two -meters high. The sides are built up with wooden posts and overhead is -a thick roof of logs strewn with dirt. The day was cool and at the -mouth of each _eisloch_, a faint outward current of air was discernible -at nine-thirty A. M. I could not find any currents coming into the -_eisloecher_. Inside it was cold and damp, and evidently thawing. There -was a good heap of ice in each _eisloch_; it was clear, and I could -detect no trace of prisms. - -By much questioning, I dug out something of the history of these -_stollen_ from the forester. Formerly the ice was found at this spot, -among the boulders at the base of the slope. But the people gradually -took many of these basaltic blocks away, to break up for road making, -and then the ice diminished. About 1870, a brewery, since burnt, was -built at the Dornburg and the brewer had these _stollen_ built, a sort -of semi-natural, semi-artificial ice house. Every winter, the present -owner of the _stollen_ throws a quantity of snow into them, and this -helps materially in forming the mass of ice. - -Just below the restaurant there is a spring, which was said to be -extremely cold, but there was nothing icy nor apparently unusual about -it. - -Under the restaurant itself is an interesting cellar. It was closed by -wooden doors. First there was a passage way which turned steadily to -the right, and which we descended by some ten steps. This was about -two meters wide and was full of beer bottles and vegetables. On the -left of the passage was a large double chamber where meat is kept. At -eleven-thirty A. M. a faint draught blew down the passage and into the -hall, the outside door being then open. The double hall was perhaps six -meters each way, and I could detect no air currents coming into it at -any place, except from the passage way. Both passage and halls were, as -far as I could see, entirely built over with masonry. There was no ice -and the temperature was some 7 deg. or 8 deg. above freezing point. - -The daughter of the proprietor of the restaurant said that ice began -to form in the cellar in February and that it lasted generally until -October; but that this year it was destroyed early because the masonry -was repaired, although it was still possible to skate in the cellar as -late as March. In the beginning of winter the cellar was warm, and as -she expressed it, _der Keller schwitzt dann_, which I suppose means -that the walls are damp. She also said that it was a _naturlicher -Keller_, and I am inclined to think that it was a natural glaciere, -converted into a cellar. - -This visit to the Dornburg gave me many new ideas about classifying -glacieres, especially in relation to the movements of air. I was -long puzzled by the German terms, _Eishoehlen_ and _Windroehren_; and -it suddenly struck me, at the Dornburg, that this terminology is -incorrect, when used as a classification of glacieres. The presence or -absence of strong, apparent draughts, cannot be considered as a test -as to whether a place is or is not a glaciere; the presence of ice, -for at least part of the year, alone makes a glaciere, and this it -does whether there are or are not draughts. It seems to me more than -ever clear, however, that it all depends on the movements of air, as -to whether ice forms in a cave. If the movements of air take the cold -air of winter into a cave, then and then only--provided there is also -a water supply--do we have ice. I am now inclined to think that caves, -as far as their temperatures are concerned, should be classified into -caves containing ice, cold caves, ordinary normal caves, and hot caves, -without reference to the movements of air. - - -THE GLACIERE DE SAINT-GEORGES. - -From Rolle, on the north shore of the Lake of Geneva; an excellent -carriage road leads in two hours and a half to Saint-Georges in the -Jura. At first the way goes steeply uphill and passes through many -vineyards, and afterwards it crosses level fields to Gimel, then rises -through woods to Saint-Georges. On arriving there on the afternoon of -August 3d, 1897, I found the street filled with evergreens, and long -benches and tables; the debris of a _fete de tir_, which had lasted for -two days, with dancing and banquets and, I suspect, much _vin du pays_. - -When I got down stairs at six o'clock next morning, all the people -of the inn were sound asleep recovering from the effects of the -_fete_, and instead of their calling me, I had to call them. Finally I -succeeded in getting breakfast and then started in company with a first -rate fellow, named Aymon Emery. - -[Illustration: LA GLACIERE DE SAINT-GEORGES. - - From a Photograph by E. Truand. -] - -We walked up through woods, in about an hour and a half, to the -Glaciere de Saint-Georges, which lies at an altitude of 1287 meters in -the midst of the forest. There are two holes close together. One of -these descends vertically and is partly roofed over with logs on which -is rigged a pulley. Emery, who was the _entrepreneur_ of the glaciere, -which means that he attended to getting out the ice, told me that they -pulled the ice up through this vertical hole, making a noose with a -rope round each block. - -The other and shallower opening ended in a rock floor, which was -reached by a short ladder. To the right was an arch, under which the -rock terminated as a floor and descended vertically, forming the wall -of the cave. On this wall two ladders, spliced at the end into one long -ladder, were placed in a nearly vertical position. I tied the end of my -rope round my waist, and got a workman, who had come to cut ice, to pay -out the rope to me, while I went down. - -The cave is rather long and narrow, perhaps twenty-five meters by -twelve meters, and the limestone roof forms an arched descending curve -overhead. I could not see any limestone stalactites; neither were there -any ice stalactites or stalagmites in the cave, but a good part of the -wall, against which the long ladder was placed, was covered by an ice -curtain. It was thin and had evidently been damaged by the ice cutters -or I think it would have covered the entire lower portion of the wall. - -The base of the long ladder rested on an ice floor which filled the -bottom of the cave, and which would probably have been level if it had -not been cut out here and there in places, leaving many holes. A good -many broken ice fragments lay on the floor and in some of the holes -were pools of water. Some of the floor ice was exceedingly prismatic in -character, and I was able to flake it off or break it easily with my -hands into prisms. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7. Vertical Section of the Glaciere de -Saint-Georges.] - -Under the vertical shaft, which is at one end of the cave, was a mass -of winter's snow which had fallen through the opening. Under this snow -was a deep hole, which I believe was the drain hole of the glaciere -before the ice floor was cut away to a level below its mouth. Into -this hole I threw lumps of ice and heard them go bumping down for three -or four seconds. - -The atmosphere was not uncomfortable, although the temperature was -about 7 deg. C. The air did not feel damp, and seemed almost still, but -standing on the ice floor nearly under the vertical hole, I found that -the smoke from my cigar ascended rapidly, and it seemed as if there -were a rising air current, which sucked up the smoke. - -Saint-Georges is a fine cavern and well worth visiting. Emery said that -the ice was not cut out for eight years preceding the summer of 1897, -and that for several years it was not possible to go down at all, as -there were no ladders, until he put in the two we utilized.[5] All the -natives of Saint-Georges believed that the ice was a summer formation -and that it was warm in the cave in winter. - -[5] In the illustration of the Glaciere de Saint-Georges, the opening -to the left is the vertical pit, through which the ice is taken out: -underneath it, is the heap of winter snow. The man in the upper part -of the picture is standing on the rock shelf at the base of the upper -ladder and at the top of the lower ladder. To the right of the lower -ladder near the bottom, a bit of the ice curtain is visible. - - -THE GLACIERE DU PRE DE SAINT-LIVRES. - -From the Glaciere de Saint-Georges, Emery and I pushed on through the -woods to the Pre de Saint-Livres. In several places we came on the -tracks of deer, and my guide told me he had killed eleven roe during -the last hunting season. He said also that an attempt is being made to -introduce the red deer into the Jura, and that the experiment seemed to -be meeting with success. We kept to the crest of the ridge along wood -paths, and, as the day was fortunately cool and cloudy, we were able to -walk fast and reached the Pre de Saint-Livres in two hours. At a spot -called La Foiraudaz we met the workmen coming down with a cartload of -ice, which they were taking to Biere. Some of this ice was extremely -prismatic. - -The Pre de Saint-Livres is a big mountain pasture or meadow, surrounded -with hills covered with pine trees. In the middle of it is the Chalet -de Saint-Livres, round which numerous cows and calves were congregated -and where a small shepherd gave us some milk. The chalet is not one -of the old picturesque Swiss chalets with great stones on the roof to -keep it from being blown away by the wind, but a strongly built single -storied stone structure, which looks extremely modern among the green -hills. - -The glaciere lies close to the chalet, on the southern side of the -meadows, just on the edge of the woods, and is surrounded with trees. -It is at an altitude of 1362 meters and faces nearly due north. To -prevent the cattle from falling in, it is enclosed with a stone wall, -except in front, where there is a fence formed of an abattis of pine -trees. The cave belongs to the pit variety, and the pit is a big one. -As you stand at the top, you can look down to the end of the glaciere. -The rocks are vertical all round the pit, and in front there is a small -rock shelf, one-third of the way down, which divides the rock wall -into two long drops. Against each of these was a rickety ladder, so we -fixed the end of my rope to the pine trees of the fence, and hung on -to it while we climbed down. The base of the lower and longer ladder -rested on a mass of snow. This was the beginning of a long snow slope -which gradually turned to ice and filled the cave. The cave itself, -measuring along the snow slope, is some forty meters long and some ten -to fifteen meters wide, and is entirely lighted by daylight. - -The snow and ice slope fell in a series of small waves, and the upper -portion was rather dirty. On the right hand the workmen had fixed a -rope as a handrail, and all the way down had cut a staircase in the -ice, so that the descent was not difficult. Some of the ice was sloppy. -The ice mass did not abut entirely against the end of the cave, but -left an open space between the ice and the rock, some three or four -meters wide and some four or five meters deep. Here the workmen had -been getting their ice, and had cut into the ice mass for several -meters, forming a little tunnel. - -There were no ice cones nor stalactites, neither did I see any -limestone stalactites. Much of the ice was prismatic; in fact, together -with that at Saint-Georges, it was the most strongly prismatic I have -seen. I can perhaps best describe it, by saying that it was brittle -in texture, as I could break up small lumps in my hands. There was -more prismatic ice at Saint-Livres, however, than at Saint-Georges. -The air in the cave was still and decidedly damp; and the temperature -was several degrees above freezing point. The day, however, was almost -windless, and I would not assert that movements of air, due to the -wind, might not sometimes take place in the pit. - -The Glaciere du Pre de Saint-Livres is one of those caves which may -be looked on as a transitional form between gorges containing ice and -caves containing ice. The winter snow falls into the mouth of the pit, -and is the chief foundation of the ice mass. It would be interesting -to make a series of observations in this cave to see whether there was -anything like glacier motion. Emery, of his own accord, expressed the -opinion that much of the ice here was due to the winter snows; in fact, -he thought that it was all due to it, and that it gradually descended -into the cave and turned, little by little, into ice. He told me that -some years ago a cow was found by the workmen, frozen into the ice, -at a depth of four meters; the flesh was perfectly preserved, and was -eaten. I asked him if he had ever seen insects in either cave, and he -said he had not. - -From the glaciere we walked back to the village of Saint-Georges. On -asking my guide how much I owed him, he said he received four francs -for a _journee_, so I gave him six francs, and we parted the best of -friends. - - -GLACIER ICE CAVE IN THE FEE GLACIER. - -During a rather protracted stay at Saas-Fee in Switzerland, I visited -the glacier ice cave of the Fee Glacier on the 15th and 16th of -August, 1897, both cool and rainy days. It is about half an hour's -walk from the hotel to the ice cave, which is in the snout of the Fee -glacier, below the Eggfluh. A considerable stream issued from the cave. -On nearing the opening, a strong cold air current poured out above -the stream. At the front edge of the ice, the height of the ice roof -in the centre was perhaps twelve meters and the width fifteen meters. -Around the edge, the roof formed an almost perfect curve. The ice walls -contracted in a regular manner within, and the cave became narrower and -lower, and suggested an enormous funnel cut in half, into which you -looked from the larger end. The cave also grew gradually darker, and -the darkness prevented seeing further than to a depth of some fifteen -meters. In the ice walls, just inside the entrance, were several -crevasses, of the ordinary blue-green color. They followed nearly the -same curve as the roof, but did not go through to the outside. There -were no icicles. The ice was faintly stratified in places, and at the -outer edge was brittle. It did not break into the long narrow prisms -of the ice at Saint-Georges and the Pre de Saint-Livres, but rather -into small lumps with facets, of all sorts of shapes. It was evidently -unsafe to penetrate under the ice roof, for while I stood in front of -the cave, a large lump broke off from the roof and fell with a clatter -among a lot of other ice fragments already on the moraine floor. In two -places there was a steady rain of drops from the roof, showing that the -ice was melting. - -This is perhaps the glacier cave in Switzerland which is easiest to -visit, and my inspection intensified my belief in what I consider -the correct explanation of some of the phenomena in glacieres. The -suggestion was that as soon as the temperature gets above freezing -point in a glacier ice cave, the only process is that of destruction of -the ice, which seems to be also the case with glacieres. - - -LA GRAND CAVE DE MONTARQUIS. - -My brother and I left Cluses, in Savoie, a railroad station on the line -between Geneva and Chamonix, at two o'clock on the afternoon of the -22d of August, 1897, and drove up in two hours and a half to Pralong -du Reposoir, a distance of eleven kilometers. The road is a _route -nationale_, fine and broad, with parapets in many places. After passing -Scionzier, it mounts gradually, passing through a tremendous wild -gorge, cut by the waters and heavily clad with firs. We reached Pralong -at four-thirty, and stopped at a primitive inn, still in process of -construction, and tenanted only by blue-bloused peasants, who, as it -was Sunday night, sat up late, drinking and making a heathenish noise -they mistook for singing. I talked to some of these men, and they all -insisted that there was no ice at the Grand Cave in winter, but that -it came in summer. _Plus il fait chaud, plus ca gele_, they said. One -man explained the formation of the ice in an original way, and with -an intelligence far above that of the average peasant. He considered -that it was due to air currents, and thought that in winter the snow -stopped up the holes in the rocks, through which the currents came; but -that when the snow melted, the draughts could work, and that then they -formed the ice. - -The weather was abominable next morning, the clouds lying along and -dripping into the valley; but the inn was so awful that we decided to -try to reach the cave. We had a nice little blue-bloused peasant for -a guide, Sylvain Jean Cotterlaz by name. We went first for about an -hour on foot towards Le Grand Bornant on a fair road, to an alp called -La Salle. This was surrounded by a herd of cows, some of whom seemed -interested in our party. It now began to rain fiercely, and except for -my brother's perseverance, I should certainly have given in. A fair -path led up steep grass slopes into the clouds covering the Mont Bargy. -Each of us had his umbrella raised, and the ascent was slippery and -uninspiring. An hour took us to two deserted huts, the Alpe Montarquis, -and half an hour beyond, we came to the caves; by which time we were -thoroughly soaked. - -The caves are on Mont Bargy, at the base of a limestone precipice, -which, I think, faces nearly north. There are three caves close -together. The lowest, or Petite Cave de Montarquis, Cotterlaz said is -also called La Cave des Faux-Monayeurs; as according to a, probably -untrue, tradition, it was once used by counterfeiters. Above this is a -small rock pocket, accessible down an easy slope. We went in and found -that there was no ice and indeed scarcely any water in it. - -The Grand--not Grande--Cave is a little higher up, and as we came -to it, several sheep, which had taken refuge in the mouth from the -storm, hastily skipped away, evidently distrusting our intentions. The -altitude of the cave is said to be 2078 meters. The entrance must face -about north east; it is elliptical in shape, about fifteen meters wide, -and six meters high, and is badly sheltered against the wind. The cave -is of moderate size, about sixty meters in length and forty-five meters -in width, and the average height of the roof is not over four or five -meters. A gentle slope leads downwards. Many blocks of rock in the -front part had bits of moss growing on them, and some of the mud there -was of a dull purple color, as if some dark madder was mixed with it. -There was a red streak in the right hand wall, probably caused by iron. -I observed no limestone stalactites nor stalagmites in the cave, the -main body of which was well lighted throughout by daylight. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8. Vertical Section of Grand Cave de Montarquis.] - -The ice was in the shape of a nearly level floor, about twelve meters -long and eight meters wide: the shape was irregular, and the ice so -smooth that it was hard to stand up. The rocks in the rear overhung the -ice floor at one spot; and here, there streamed from a fissure to the -ice floor an ice column, some three meters high, whose base was fully -two meters distant from the rock wall. Near this column was a tiny ice -cone, which evidently had been bigger. Cotterlaz seemed impressed with -the fact that there was only one column in the cave, as he said that -in June, there would have been many columns and a larger and deeper -ice floor. The ice was sloppy in places, with several small hollows -cut by the drip and containing water. In one place there was a tiny -runnel filled with water, but there was no current. There was a good -deal of drip all through the cave, and in fact in one or two places we -might have kept on holding up our umbrellas with advantage. I hacked at -several pieces of ice, but none of it was prismatic. - -At the rear of the cave, the ice ran, in a tongue, up the entrance of -an ascending fissure in the rocks. My brother cut here six or seven -steps in the ice; and he found them difficult to make, as the ice was -hard and thin, and not in a melting state. Above the ice tongue we -clambered up the rocks of the fissure some four or five meters further, -finding there some lumps of ice which were not melting. At this spot we -were almost in darkness. A lighted match burned steadily, so that there -was evidently not much draught, but the smoke gradually descended, -showing a slight downward current. This was the coldest, as well as the -furthest point of the cave we could reach, and we there heard a tiny -waterfall trickling within the fissure, although we could not see it. - -By this time we were all chilled to the bone, so, abandoning the -idea of entering the Petite Cave, we retreated down the sopping wet, -slippery grass slopes to Pralong, and then immediately walked all -the way to Cluses to avoid taking cold. The Grand Cave was the most -fatiguing trip I ever made after glacieres, but the circumstances were -rather unusual. - - -THE FREEZING WELL OF OWEGO. - -On Thursday, June 23d, 1898, I went to Owego, in Tioga County, New -York. Inquiries at the Lehigh Valley railroad station and at the chief -hotel failed to elicit any information about a freezing well; and in -fact, I soon found that the existence of such a thing was a blank to -the rising generation. So I called on an old resident of Owego, who -told me that he knew of the well in question and that it was filled up -with stones many years ago; but that he remembered that, when he was a -boy, it used to freeze, and that it was spoken of as the deep well or -freezing well. I then walked up to the site of the well, which is about -one and a half kilometers to the northwest from the centre of Owego and -about one kilometer from the Susquehanna River. It is directly in the -middle of the highway, and nothing is now visible but a heap of stones. - -Near by was the house of a Mr. Preston, who told me he was born in -1816, and had lived all his life at this spot. He said that the well -was about twenty-eight meters deep, and that it went first through -a layer of sand and then through a layer of gravel. He had more than -once been down the well and had seen the sides covered with ice. A -bucket sent down for water would sometimes come up with ice on the -sides. Whether the water at the bottom ever froze, no one knew, for -the ice caked and filled up the bore at about two-thirds of the way -down and became so thick, that as Mr. Preston put it, "it was just like -hammering on an anvil to try to break it." He also stated that another -well was dug about one hundred meters further down the road, and that -originally this sometimes had a little ice on the sides. Of late years -however, it was covered over with a wooden top and since then no ice -was known to form. I could obtain no information about any other wells -in the neighborhood ever showing similar peculiarities. - - -THE ICY GLEN, NEAR STOCKBRIDGE. - -The Icy Glen is situated on Bear Mountain, about one kilometer from -Stockbridge, Massachusetts. It is in the midst of fine woods and there -are many big trees in it. The bottom of the glen is full of rocks -and boulders, among which there is a rough path. I was told that ice -remained over there much longer than anywhere else in the neighborhood, -sometimes as late as May. On the 3d of July, 1898, I not only found no -traces of ice or snow, but the temperatures under the boulders showed -nothing abnormal. To make up for this, however, there were legions of -mosquitoes. - - -FREEZING MARBLE CAVE, NEAR MANCHESTER. - -Near Manchester, Vermont, there is a little cave,[6] which is -noteworthy, in that it is in a marble formation. It is known as -Skinner's Cave, because it was owned for many years by Mr. Mark -Skinner. It lies in Skinner's Hollow, some five or six kilometers from -the centre of Manchester, at the base of the eastern slope of Mount -Equinox, of the Taghconic Range of the Green Mountains. - -[6] My attention was called to this cave, by Messrs. John Ritchie, Jr., -of Boston, and Byerly Hart of Philadelphia, who visited it some years -ago. Mr. Ritchie's opinion is that it is simply a refrigerator. - -The cave is on the property of Mr. N. M. Canfield, who, on learning the -object of my visit, on the 5th of July, 1898, with true native American -courtesy, walked up to it with me. The last two kilometers were over a -rough logging road, which towards the end was steep and covered with -many broken logs. I could not have found the cave alone, as it was -so surrounded with bushes, that the entrance was invisible until we -actually reached it. It is in a gorge of Mount Equinox, in the midst -of a beautiful forest, which effectually cuts off any wind. The cave -faces nearly north and can scarcely ever, if indeed at any time, be -reached by the rays of the sun. The moment we got into the entrance, we -found the chilly, damp, summer atmosphere of true glaciere caves. The -rocks were brown and mossy on the outside, but Mr. Canfield called my -attention to the fact that they were marble, and on his knocking off -a small piece, a section of pure white marble was exposed. In no other -instance have I heard of a marble cave in connection with ice. There -were scarcely any cracks or crevices in the rock. - -The cave goes down with a steep slope from the entrance, much in the -shape of a tunnel, for some ten meters. The slope was covered with -slippery mud and decayed leaves, and at the bottom expanded into a -little chamber, in which lay a mass of wet, compact snow, some two by -three meters. It was evident that the snow was simply drifted in during -the winter, and was in too large a mass and too well protected to melt -easily, and there could be no question but that this place was purely -a refrigerator. The air was tranquil throughout and there were no -draughts. On the same day, a good breeze was blowing in the Manchester -Valley. - - -THE FREEZING WELL OF BRANDON. - -The Freezing Well of Brandon is situated on the western or southwestern -outskirts of the village of Brandon, Vermont, not far from the railroad -station. I visited it on the 7th of July, 1898. The well was protected -by a wooden cover. On raising this, a faint stream of cool air seemed -to issue forth; but this was probably only imagination. The sides, as -far down as one could see, were built in with rather large blocks of -stone without cement. At the bottom water was visible and there were -no signs of ice. We drew up some water in a bucket, and although it -was cool there was nothing icy about it. I twice lowered a thermometer -nearly to the water and each time after ten minutes it registered only -13 deg. C. There was certainly nothing abnormal in this temperature, in -fact it was strictly normal and my thermometer showed conclusively by -its actions that it could not have been near any ice mass. The people -at the house, however, assured me that a month before there was ice in -the well. - -Afterwards I called on Mr. C. O. Luce, the owner of the well. He stated -that it was eleven and a half meters deep to the bottom, that it was -dug in 1858, and that the ground through which it goes was found frozen -at a depth of about four and a half meters. Here there is a stratum of -gravel and this is where the freezing occurs. Mr. Luce thought that -the water was under the ice, that is, that the water came up from the -bottom. He said also that the well usually froze solid in winter; but, -that as this winter was an open one, there was less ice this year than -usual. He thought that there was less ice anyway now than in former -years, partly because of the cover which was put over the well, and -which keeps out some of the cold; and partly because a neighboring -gravel hillock, called the Hogback, was a good deal cut away, and this -in some way affects the supply of cold in the gravel. He added that the -sandy soil round Brandon does not as a rule freeze to a greater depth -than two meters each winter. The house built beside the well was said -to be comfortable in winter. - -There seems no doubt that this is another refrigerator. The cold water -of the winter snows percolates into the gravel mass and refreezes, and, -owing to the bad conductive quality of the material, the gravel remains -frozen later than the soil elsewhere in the neighborhood. The fact that -the well went through a frozen gravel stratum when dug, proves that it -is not alone the air that sinks into the well itself, which makes the -ice. The fact that the well freezes on the whole less than formerly, -apparently partly owing to the digging up of some of the gravel close -by, goes to prove the same thing. The fact that the well generally -freezes solid every winter, shows that although some of the gravel -mass possibly remains frozen all the time, much of the ice is renewed -each year. This is especially important as proving that the ice found -in gravel deposits is due to the cold of winter and not to a glacial -period, although, of course, no one could say for how long a time the -ice was forming and melting; and this process might date back to the -time of the formation of the gravel mass. - -I could learn nothing of any similar place near Brandon, except that -Mr. Luce said that in an old abandoned silver mine in the neighborhood, -he had once seen ice during hot weather. - - -FREEZING TALUS ON LOWER AUSABLE POND. - -On the eastern side of Lower Ausable Pond, Essex County, New York, -at the foot of Mount Sebille or Colvin, there is a talus of great -Laurentian boulders, which fell from the mountain and lie piled up -on the edge of the lake. Among these boulders, at a distance of -about five hundred meters from the southern end of the lake, there -are spaces, several of which might be called caves, although they are -really hollows between the boulders. On the 12th of July, 1898, I -visited this spot with Mr. Edward I. H. Howell of Philadelphia. From -several of the rock cracks we found a draught of air flowing strongly -out, as tested by the smoke of a cigar. The air was distinctly icy and -there could be no question that there was a considerable quantity of -ice among the rocks to produce the temperature. - -In three places we found masses of ice. One of these hollows was small, -and the other two were much larger. One of the latter was almost round -in shape, and perhaps three meters in diameter; with a little snow near -the mouth and with plenty of ice at the bottom. The other was a long -descending crack between two boulders which joined overhead, and with -the bottom filled by a long, narrow slope of ice, perhaps seventy-five -centimeters in width and six meters in length, set at an angle of about -thirty-five degrees. The ice was hard and non-prismatic. - -The cold air affects a large area of land around the boulders. Mr. -Howell called my attention to the flowers of the bunch-berry, which he -said were at least two weeks behind those on the surrounding mountains. -The same was true of _oxalis_, a pretty white flower, of which we found -several beds in full bloom. - -Mr. Howell went to this talus, on the 4th of July previous, with Mr. -Niles, President of the Appalachian Mountain Club, on which occasion -they found plenty of snow near the entrance of the larger hollow. Mr. -Howell, indeed, has repeatedly visited this place, and always found -ice, which must, therefore, be looked on as perennial. At all times -also he has felt cold draughts flowing out; sometimes they were so -strong as to lower the temperature over the lake to a distance of -thirty meters or more: on hot days he has seen occasionally a misty -cloud form on the lake in front of the boulders. Mr. Howell considers -that the draughts so affect the surrounding air, that an artificial -climate is produced, and it is owing to this that spring flowers bloom -late in July and sometimes in August. Another fact well known to him, -is that in hot weather, the spot in front of the boulders is the best -in the whole lake to catch trout, as they always congregate in the -coldest water. The Adirondack guides use these ice retaining hollows, -which they call ice-caves, as refrigerators for their provisions and -game in hot weather: they say that the ice is formed in winter and -remains over during the summer, as it is so well sheltered. - - -FREEZING TALUS OF THE GIANT OF THE VALLEY. - -On the indications of Mr. Otis, chief guide of the Adirondack Reserve, -I explored with Mr. C. Lamb, a guide from Keene Valley, the southern -base of the Giant of the Valley Mountain, Essex County, New York, on -the 14th of July, 1898. A road runs from Keene Heights to Port Henry, -through the gap between the south base of the Giant of the Valley and -the north base of Round Mountain, and passes close to a small lake -called Chapel Pond. Some three hundred meters west of this lake, we -left the road and struck north, across the brook, into the thick, mossy -woods. After perhaps one hundred meters, we came to a talus of great -boulders of Laurentian rock, with the cliffs of the Giant, whence the -boulders had fallen, rising steeply above. We found ice under several -of them, although never in any quantity. The thermometer, after an -exposure of fifteen minutes in one of these little hollows, registered -6 deg. C., although not more than one meter from where the sunshine fell on -the moss. In the shade of a tree one meter distant from the same hollow -it registered 26 deg. C.; a difference of 20 deg. C. at a distance of only two -meters. - -Perhaps one kilometer east of Chapel Pond, there is a place, where the -bases of the mountains come much nearer together, which bears the name -of "The Narrows." Here we crossed the brook again, and, after some -fifteen or twenty meters of scrambling through rough woods, reached -once more the talus of the Giant, composed of tremendous boulders. -Among these we found ice in many places and this time in large -quantities. Within one boulder cave we found an ice slab some four -meters in length, by two meters in width, and one meter in thickness. -This was pure, hard and non-prismatic ice, and was evidently not formed -of compressed snow: in fact snow could not have drifted in under the -boulder. We broke off a large piece of ice and took it back to Saint -Hubert's Inn, and it melted rather slowly. From the mouth of this cave -an icy draught issued, and, as it struck the warmer air outside, a -slight mist was formed. Mr. Lamb said that from the road itself he had -sometimes seen mist rising from this talus. Further explorations of the -talus of the Giant would probably reveal ice in many other places than -those we examined.[7] - -[7] Mr. E. I. H. Howell examined several times, in 1899, the talus of -the Giant of the Valley. He found ice in many places; also cold air -currents blowing out. At one spot, there is a spring which flows all -through the summer, and the water is so cold, that its temperature is -little above that of melting ice. Mr. Howell found, as at Ausable Pond, -spring flowers growing in mid-summer among the rocks of the talus. - -Mr. Lamb told me of two other places in the Adirondacks, where he -found ice in similar boulder formations. One was in the talus of Mount -Wallface in Indian Pass, between Mounts Wallface and McIntyre. The -other was in the talus of Mount McIntyre in Avalanche Pass, between -Mounts McIntyre and Colden. At the latter place, he found it near the -trail going round the lake in the pass. - - -THE ICE GULCH, RANDOLPH. - -The Randolph Ice Gulch is situated in Randolph Township, New Hampshire, -about eight kilometers from Randolph Station, on the Boston and Maine -Railroad.[8] I visited it on August 11th, 1898. At the Mount Crescent -House, I found a guide in the person of Mr. Charles E. Lowe, Jr. The -excursion took us about six hours. The trail was a rough bush path, -cut by the Appalachian Mountain Club, and which had not been cleaned -out that year. It was a cloudy but hot day and this, combined with the -badness of the road, made the walk fatiguing. - -[8] I first heard of the Ice Gulch from Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., of -Boston. Some years ago in the middle of July, he found ice plentiful in -the second chamber. He thought the Gulch only a refrigerator. - -The Gulch lies between Crescent and Black Mountains. The altitude of -the upper end of the Gulch is something over eight hundred meters, -that of the lower end about six hundred meters. It is some fifteen -hundred meters long, and averages perhaps one hundred meters in width -at the top, and only a few meters at the bottom. The depth may be about -seventy-five meters and the sides are steep, in some places sheer. -The bottom is a mass of broken, fallen rocks, with a good many trees -growing among them. There are several steps, so to speak, in the Gulch, -which are called chambers, although the term seems rather meaningless. -Promenading through the bottom of the Gulch was fraught with -difficulty, because the rocks were placed in most unsuitable positions -for human progression, and my hands were certainly as useful to me as -my feet in preserving equilibrium. We found ice in one or two places, -but not in any great quantity. In one spot it was overlaid by water. My -guide said that there was less ice than the year before. A large piece -which we broke off, and which furnished us with a cooling morsel of -frozen fluid, was full of air bubbles. It was not prismatic ice, and -was certainly unusual in formation. It crunched up under the teeth and, -although it did not look like solidified snow, yet, judging from its -position among the boulders, it was doubtless formed from the melting -and refreezing of snow.[9] My guide said he had heard that fresh ice -began to form sometimes in September. The Gulch is well protected -against wind, and I detected no draughts among the rocks. Except in the -immediate vicinity of the ice, the temperature was not abnormally low. - -[9] On the 17th of February, 1899, four days after the greatest snow -storm in Philadelphia in many years, I noticed that the snow on my -roof solidified slowly into a mass of ice which contained a good -many air-bubbles. It strikingly resembled the ice of the Ice Gulch, -only that it was more solid and did not have more than half as many -air-bubbles. - -On returning to the Mount Crescent House, I had a talk with Mr. Charles -E. Lowe, Sr., who told me that Alpine plants, like those which grow on -Mount Washington and Mount Adams, are found in the Gulch; but that they -do not exist on the neighboring Black and Crescent Mountains. He said -also that ice was present in more than one place in King's Ravine, and -that it was always there. - - -FREEZING BOULDER TALUS AT RUMNEY. - -About three kilometers south of Rumney, New Hampshire, there is a hill -called Bald Mountain, which, about three hundred meters west of the -carriage road from Rumney to Plymouth, descends as a big cliff, with -an exposure facing nearly southeast. At the base of this cliff, there -is a talus[10] which I visited on the 27th of August, 1898, with the -Sheriff of Rumney, Mr. Learned. He said he had found plenty of ice -there on the 18th of August, 1897, but he doubted whether there would -be any left this year, on account of the hot weather. Effectively a -careful hunt failed to reveal any ice, although the talus was just -the kind of place where it might have been expected, as the boulders -were piled one over the other and in one or two places there were -considerable hollows. The temperatures were normal, and there were -no draughts. The talus is exposed to the sun, and only moderately -sheltered against wind by a scrub forest. But there can be no doubt, -that ice lingers there long after it has disappeared from every other -spot in the neighborhood, and it seems as if our not finding any, is -another proof that it is the heat of summer which melts it away. - -[10] Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., wrote me about this place, where he had -found ice plentiful some years ago in August, within two or three -meters from the outside: he considered it only a refrigerator. - - -ICE FORMATIONS AND WINDHOLES AT WATERTOWN. - -At Watertown, New York, on the south side of the Black River, in the -town itself, are some natural cracks or crevices in the limestone -rocks. They are only a short distance from the New York Central -Railroad station. The cracks enter the northern side of the railroad -embankment, pass under the railroad tracks, and extend some distance -back. In front of them are four cellars, used for storing beer kegs. -The lessor, Mr. Ehrlicher, obligingly had the cellars opened for me, on -the 12th of September, 1898. There was neither ice nor draughts in the -cellars, and the temperature was normal. Mr. Ehrlicher said that in the -spring there was ice in the cracks, but that it had all melted away as -the result of the hot summer. - -[Illustration: THE BLUFF AT DECORAH. - - From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik. -] - -About four kilometers west of Watertown, on the south bank of the Black -River, is the picnic ground of Glen Park, which is reached by trolley. -The manager of the restaurant walked around the park with me. In one -spot is a hollow or glen at the base of a small, much cracked limestone -cliff, which has a northern exposure. The manager said that snow and -ice usually lies in this place until June, not only among the broken -rocks, but even in the open. Sometimes ice remains among the boulders -all summer, but only near the front of the boulders, and by pushing -in, one soon gets beyond it: we found none, a fact showing once more -the effect of the unusually warm summer. On hot days, draughts issue -from between the boulders, but as the day was cool, we did not notice -any. The spot is well sheltered against the wind by a number of trees; -and the shape of the hollow reminded me of the glen in front of the -Eishoehle bei Roth. - -Not one hundred meters from this hollow, is a little limestone cave, -closed by a wooden door, which excludes any cold air in winter. -The cave is lighted by electric lights, and is a narrow, crooked, -descending fissure, a _ganghoehle_, where the marks of water action are -plainly visible. At the bottom a little stream, evidently the active -agent in forming the cave, ran through the fissured limestone. In the -stream a large toad or frog was swimming about. There was nothing icy -about the cave or the water, and the temperature was normal. Ice was -never known to form in the cave. These two places, so close together, -are an interesting confirmation that it is only where the outside cold -can get in, that we find subterranean ice. - - -THE FREEZING CAVE AND FREEZING WELLS OF DECORAH. - -Near Decorah, Iowa, is a freezing cavern, which is more frequently -referred to in cave literature than is generally the case. I visited it -on Friday, September the 30th, 1898, with an old English resident of -Decorah, Mr. W. D. Selby-Hill. The cave is situated about one kilometer -to the northward of Decorah, on the north bank of the Upper Iowa River, -at the base of a bluff. It is some thirty to forty meters above the -stream, and faces southward. It looks like a fault or fissure in the -rocks, with the sides meeting a few meters overhead. It is a true -cave, but probably in an early stage of formation, for there are no -apparent traces of water action, nor any stalagmites nor stalactites. -The absence of the latter may, however, be due to the fact that it is a -periodic glaciere. The rock is a white limestone, rich in fossils. The -cave is some two to three meters in width and is rather winding, with a -short arm or pocket branching out on the west side. The main cave runs -back some thirty meters from the entrance. In one place it is necessary -to stoop, to get past some overhanging rock slabs. By candle light, we -went to the rear of the cave, and found it warm, dry, and free from -ice. There were no draughts, possibly because the day was cool. - -[Illustration: ENTRANCE OF THE CAVE OF DECORAH. - - From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik. -] - -I looked in vain for _tubular fissures_, or indeed any fissures, -through which _water might freeze by pressure in its descent_, as the -believers in the capillary theory say it does. Nothing of the kind -existed, and I wrote in my note-book: "Writing on the very spot about -which this theory was started, I feel justified in asserting that the -theory amounts to absolutely nothing and is entirely incorrect." - -Mr. Hill told me that there were two wells in the southern portion of -Decorah Township, where ice was found in summer. I visited them both, -but found no ice, and the temperatures normal. Mr. Hill said that one -of the wells was dug about thirty years ago, and that the workman told -him that the ground which he went through was frozen; and that at one -place he struck an opening, from which came so strong a current of icy -air, that it was hard to keep at work. - -I talked to several persons afterwards. _Inter alia_, they told me that -the bluff was a great place for rattlesnakes, sometimes big ones. They -admitted also generally that they were puzzled about the formation of -ice in the cave. Some claimed that the ice formed in summer--the old -story once more. I met, however, Mr. Alois F. Kovarik of the Decorah -Institute, who had made a series of regular observations for over a -year and found that the ice begins to form about the end of March and -beginning of April, and is at its maximum towards the beginning of -June. Mr. Kovarik also told me, that he had found ice in one of the -wells in the beginning of August. - -This was an especially satisfactory trip to me, for it did away, once -for all, with any possible belief that there was any basis of fact for -the capillary theory. It also seems to me important to find that the -ice of these freezing wells melts in summer. For it shows that their -ice is due to the same causes as those which form the ice in the cave, -and is another proof against the validity of the glacial period theory. - - -FREEZING ROCK TALUS ON SPRUCE CREEK. - -On Spruce Creek, Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania, about four kilometers -north of the Pennsylvania Railroad depot, is an ice bearing talus, -known locally as the Ice Holes or Ice Caves. I visited this spot, on -October the 5th, 1898, with Mr. Benner, of Spruce Creek. We walked -up the pretty valley along the old Pittsburgh turnpike, at one place -finding some papaw trees, whose fruit had a horrible sickening taste; -then we crossed Spruce Creek by a footbridge and followed the other -bank back for some five hundred meters, until we were nearly opposite -the old Colerain Forge, which is located in a piece of land called by -the curious name of Africa. About half way from the bridge we smelt -a strange odor, which my companion thought came from a copperhead or -rattlesnake: we did not investigate. - -[Illustration: LOCUS GLACIALIS--CAVE OF DECORAH. - - From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik. -] - -The freezing talus is situated at the foot of Tussey Mountain: it is -big, and is composed of small sandstone (?) rock debris. The talus is -at least thirty meters high and one hundred and twenty meters long. -As I stood at the bottom, I was reminded strongly of the talus at the -Dornburg. At the base were a number of small pits, evidently dug by -man. From the interstices between the rocks, icy cold draughts issued -in some places, and there was no doubt that there was plenty of ice -beneath the stones. In one place we thought we could see ice, and I -poked at the white substance with my stick, but I am not positive -that it was ice. All over the talus, the temperature was strikingly -colder than a few meters away, and in the pits we could see our breaths -distinctly. Although I am not much of a botanist, yet it seemed to me -that the flora immediately near the talus was somewhat different in -character from that of the surrounding country. - -Mr. Benner told me that he saw, three or four weeks before, plenty of -ice in the pits; that they were made by farmers who formerly came to -this spot to get ice; and that parties occasionally picnic here in the -summer and make ice cream. He stated also that he saw, some years ago, -a small cave or hole containing ice near Mapleton, Pennsylvania, but -that it was destroyed by quarrying the rock away. - - -FREEZING GORGE NEAR ELLENVILLE. - -On Sunday, October the 9th, 1898, with a young man from Ellenville, -I visited the well known Ellenville Gorge, in the Shawangunk Range, -Ulster County, New York. We left the hotel at eight-forty A. M. and -reached the gorge, known locally as the Ice Cave, at ten-five A. M. -It is about four kilometers northeast from Ellenville. The path rises -steadily uphill and is of the roughest description; it is covered with -loose stones, and looks as if it might become the bed of a mountain -brook in wet weather. - -I call this place a gorge, instead of a cave, because it is uncovered -at the top, but probably originally it was covered. It is shaped like -a pit cave minus a roof, and it reminded me of the Friedrichsteiner -Eishoehle, and the Glacieres de Saint-Georges and du Pre de -Saint-Livres. It is entered by a long slope from the western end, the -gorge turning northward further back. I estimated its width, at the -bottom at some five to seven meters, at the top at some three to four -meters; its length at some thirty meters and the deepest point we -reached, at some twenty meters below the surface. These are guesses, -however. In one place, a great rock slab overhangs the gorge. At nearly -the lowest point of the rock floor, there is a hole which extends -perpendicularly downwards some five or ten meters more; this opening -is partly blocked up with fallen masses of rock which would make a -further descent perilous. The north end of the gorge is also filled up -with a mass of great broken rocks; in fact, the whole place is out of -repair, as the rocks are cracked and creviced on both sides to a great -extent. The rock is friable and seems to be all breaking up, or rather -down, and I think there is some danger from falling stones, although -I did not see any fall. There is a good deal of moss on the sides of -the gorge, and on some ledges small evergreens are growing. The gorge -is sheltered thoroughly from winds by its formation and position, and -somewhat by the scrub forest surrounding it. There are several long, -deep crevices a few meters further up the mountain side, and I think -one of them is an extension of the main gorge. - -[Illustration: GORGE AT ELLENVILLE. - - From a Photograph by Mr. Davis. -] - -We found no ice. It generally lasts till about the beginning of -September; and Professor Angelo Heilprin, and Miss Julia L. Lewis, of -Philadelphia, have found plenty of it in July and August. But the ice -had evidently now been gone for some time, for the temperature at the -bottom of the gorge was about 11 deg. C. at ten-thirty A. M. This was but -little colder than the temperature v outside, which at ten-fifteen A. -M. was 14 deg. C. - -On returning to Ellenville, I learnt that there was another somewhat -similar smaller gorge, some eight kilometers away, at a place called -Sam's Point. This, however, is said to retain only snow, while in the -Ellenville gorge much ice is sometimes formed, and icicles a couple of -meters long are said to hang on the sides of the cliffs. The proprietor -of the hotel told me he had heard of a cave which contained ice not far -from Albany, at a place called Carlisle, on the Delaware and Hudson -Railroad. - - -FREEZING CAVE AND WINDHOLES NEAR FARRANDSVILLE. - -I arrived at Farrandsville, Clinton County, Pennsylvania, early on -Tuesday morning, October the 11th, 1898, and found a boy, who worked -in a brick mill, as guide to the caves.[11] After emptying a small, -flat bottomed boat of the water of which it was half full, we rowed -across the Susquehanna River; then we walked up the road, along the -river bank, for a couple of hundred meters, and struck up the so-called -path to the caves. Although the whole of the mountain side was at the -disposal of the road maker, no better plan seems to have suggested -itself than to make the track go straight up. This saved making -zigzags, yet the result is that the path is steep, and as it is rocky -and slippery, it is hard travelling without bootnails or alpenstock. - -[11] I learned of this cave from Mr. Eugene F. McCabe, of Renovo, -Pennsylvania. Mr. McCabe took out large pieces of ice from it in the -month of August. On December 23d, 1896, he found no ice inside the -cave, but a hoar frost covered the rocks; the temperature outside -was -5.6 deg.; inside -4.5 deg.: the day was clear and there was no breeze; -several matches lighted in the cave were almost instantly blown out by -a current of air coming from crevices in the rocks. - -Mr. Ira C. Chatham, postmaster at Farrandsville, wrote to me on the -19th of October, 1898, as follows: "Your paper on Ice Caves [Journal -of the Franklin Institute, March, 1897] at pp. 177 and 178 describes -the Farrandsville Cave as near as is possible, as the ice forms in the -spring from the snow melting and dropping through the rocks into the -cave, and the rocks face directly north as stated." - -As we went up, I noticed, in one or two places, cold draughts issuing -from crevices in the rocks. We soon came to a hollow under a rock, -where there were a number of cracks and crevices: the boy spoke of it -as the lower cave. It is some sixty meters above the Susquehanna River -and cold draughts flowed from the cracks, although we saw no ice. The -cave was about twenty meters higher up. One could crawl into it for -a couple of meters, and all round it the rocks are somewhat creviced; -in fact, I think there are a good many cracks in the entire hill. -There was no ice in sight in this hole, but a strong, cold draught -poured from it. After an exposure of fifteen minutes the thermometer -registered 6 deg. C.; while outside, in the shade, it stood at 15 deg. C. This -decidedly sub-normal temperature proved unmistakably, in my opinion, -the presence of ice a little further than we could see in. Both holes -face about north and are sheltered, by their position and by the sparse -forest which covers the ridge, against all winds except those from the -north. - -I talked to the postmaster and the railroad agent at Farrandsville -on my return, and they stated that there was no ice in the hole in -winter, but that it formed about April and remained over until towards -September, showing that the cave is a normal glaciere on a small scale. - - -GLACIERES NEAR SUMMIT. - -In the search for coal, the mountains of the Appalachian Chain between -the little town of Summit, and the neighboring village of Coaldale, -Carbon County, Pennsylvania, were mined and tunneled in every -direction. Owing to the caving in of some of these mines, depressions -formed in certain places along the ridge in the upper surface of the -ground, and in two of these hollows natural refrigerators occur. These -were brought to my notice by Mr. C. J. Nicholson of Philadelphia, and I -visited them on May the 5th, 1899, in company with two coal miners of -Summit. - -Starting from Summit, we passed across some rough ground under which -there was a mine on fire; and the miners showed me the tops of two -pipes sticking out of the ground, from which issued a smoke or steam, -too hot to hold the hand in more than a few seconds. Going beyond -through brushwood, for a couple of hundred meters, we came to the -first glaciere, which was also the nearest to Summit. It faced almost -due north and looked as if it was formerly the entrance to a mine. It -was fairly big, and my companions assured me that, until within about -a year, ice was always found in it. Recently, however, part, of the -rock roof fell in, blocking up the entrance with a mass of debris and -making it unsafe to venture in. Formerly parties of tourists constantly -visited this place, after coming over the Switchback, but this is no -longer done and there has been some talk of cleaning away the broken -rocks and making the glaciere accessible. The men also said that -occasionally people living in the neighborhood had dug out the ice for -their own use. - -The other glaciere was a short distance further, in the direction of -Coaldale. It is in a pit, which may have been the mouth of a disused -shaft or only a depression resulting from a cave-in. A scrubby forest, -which surrounds the hollow, acts as a windbrake. A rather steep slope -leads down into the pit, and at the end passes under the wall of rock -of the opposite side for a short distance, forming a small cave, which -faces almost due south and whose floor is choked up with broken rock -fragments. At the bottom of the slope we found some snow, and among -the boulders a good deal of snow-ice as well as several long icicles -hanging from the rocks. All the ice and snow lay on the north side of -the rocks, or underneath them, so that it was in shady places where the -sun could not reach it. The temperature was not at all uncomfortable, -although somewhat cool and damp. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9. Vertical Section of Pit near Summit.] - -There was nothing in either glaciere, to show that the ice was formed -from any other cause than the drifting in, and melting and refreezing -of the winter's snow; and my impression is that the ice in the second -glaciere could not last through the summer. - - -THE SNOW HOLE NEAR WILLIAMSTOWN. - -The Snow Hole near Williamstown (Massachusetts) is situated near the -northern end of the Petersburgh Mountain of the Taghconic Range; it is -slightly below the watershed on the Williamstown side, at an altitude -of about seven hundred meters. The Snow Hole is in the State of New -York, near the boundary between New York and Massachusetts. It is a -long two hours' drive from Williamstown, the last four kilometers -or so, over an exceedingly steep and rough road, which is, in fact, -nothing but an old logging road, and the worst I ever drove over except -the road to Demenyfalva. - -I visited the Snow Hole with my brother on Friday, September the 29th, -1899. It is surrounded by a dense forest, mainly of recent growth, -which thoroughly shelters it from all winds. In shape and appearance -it resembles the Gorge at Ellenville, except that it is smaller: its -location on the ridge is not unlike that of the Friedrichsteiner -Eishoehle. It is a narrow crack--or cave minus a roof--about fifteen -meters long, six to seven meters deep and from two to five meters wide. -It faces nearly north, and the bottom is in perpetual shadow. From the -northern end, a gentle slope leads to the rear. The slope was a good -deal blocked up by a big tree with large branches, which had fallen -directly into the fissure. There was some moss or greenish mould on -the rocks in places, and at the rear end of the slope there were -some fissures in the rocks, into which one might perhaps have crawled -a little farther, which formed a tiny cave. There was also a similar -incipient cave at the northern end. I could not detect any draughts -issuing from these rock fissures, and the air throughout was still, -although the wind was blowing hard on the ridge. The rocks were moist -in places and the air damp, but there was neither snow nor ice and the -temperatures were normal. The driver told me that he had found plenty -of snow in the base of the gorge some years ago in July; and he said -that he had always heard that snow was found in the Snow Hole all the -year round. All the conditions of the place, the shape of the fissure, -and its sheltered northern exposition, are favorable to the retention -of ice and snow, and it is not surprising that they remain over every -spring. - - -ICY GULF NEAR GREAT BARRINGTON. - -The Icy Gulf or Icy Glen is some eight kilometers from Great -Barrington, Massachusetts. I have not been in it, but was told in -October, 1899, by the farmers living near by, that after snowy winters, -ice remains over through July. It must be similar to the Icy Glen at -Stockbridge. - - -THE ICE BED OF WALLINGFORD. - -The Ice Bed of Wallingford is situated about three kilometers to the -east of Wallingford, Vermont. A drive of half an hour, over the Mount -Holly and Hearburrow roads, takes the visitor to the entrance of a -rough wood path, which, at a distance of three or four hundred meters, -leads to the Ice Bed. This is a huge talus, at the base of the White -Rock Mountain, whose cliffs rise steeply overhead for some three or -four hundred meters. The talus, which was doubtless formed by a great -slide at some distant date, consists of granite boulders, some of which -are big ones. The ice-bearing portion may be some thirty or forty -meters high vertically. It lies in a sort of gully or rock basin, and -at the top is about thirty meters broad, tapering to a point at the -bottom. The talus faces southward, and during a good part of the day -the sun shines full upon it. A thin forest fringes the sides and grows -round the bottom, but this can afford but little protection from the -winds, especially to those from the south. - -I visited this place on the 5th of October, 1899. There was a distinct -drop in temperature as we neared the base of the talus, and a cool air -drew gently down over the rocks. I think slight draughts issued from -some of the crevices; but of this I am not sure. The temperature was -sub-normal, about 8 deg., but hardly low enough to prove the presence of -ice, although we could see our breaths distinctly. We looked carefully -under a number of the boulders, but neither ice nor snow was visible. -I was assured that ice was abundant there in the past July and August, -and I should think it had melted away only shortly before my visit. My -impression is, that this is a periodic glaciere. - - -CAVES NEAR WILLIAMSTOWN. - -On the eastern slope of the Petersburgh Mountain of the Taghconic Range -in Massachusetts, at a good deal lower altitude than the Williamstown -Snow Hole and about southeast of it are some caverns, which are but -little known. A five or six kilometer drive from Williamstown takes the -visitor to the base of the mountain, whence a rather steep ascent of -about a kilometer and a half brings him to the caves, which are in the -midst of a dense, scrub forest. - -The caves were first entered, and possibly discovered, by Mr. W. F. -Williams, of Williamstown, when a boy. Since then, he has visited them -many times and explored them a good deal. They do not appear to have -any name as yet, and it would seem only fitting to christen them after -their explorer: the Williams Caves. - -There are several unimportant holes in the immediate neighborhood of -the two main caves. The latter lie side by side. The rock formation is -the same as that of the Snow Hole, a dark gray slate with a few veins -of quartz, and they are due also evidently to the same geological -causes. It would seem as though the mountain had tended to open or -crack at these spots and fallen apart. This seems probable, because -wherever there is a projection on one side of the cracks, there is a -corresponding hollow in the opposite side. After this, water action has -come, and erosion and corrosion have worn out and carried away earthy -matter, and slowly deepened and widened the fissures. The remarkable -point in connection with the main caves, however, is that one is a -normal cave and the other a periodic glaciere. - -I went with Mr. Williams to these caves on the 6th of October, 1899, -and partially explored the glaciere. On the way up, just as we left the -carriage road, a fine, three-year-old buck, in his winter coat, came -bounding out of the forest; on seeing us he stopped, and after taking a -good look, quietly trotted off into the bushes. - -The glaciere is rather peculiar in shape and may be described as two -storied. A long slope, set at an angle of some forty degrees, and -covered with mud and dead leaves, leads down into the crack, which -is from one to three meters in width. The first half of the slope is -open to the sky; the last half is covered by the rock roof, and is a -real cave. In this the floor is horizontal, the place forming a little -chamber in which the daylight has almost vanished. At the exact summit -of the slope a big tree grew most conveniently; and we tied to this one -end of a twenty-meter Austrian Alpine Club rope, and by holding fast -to it, and kneeling or sitting down in the mud in two or three places, -the descent was easy enough. It was rather difficult to scramble up the -slope again, however. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10. Vertical Section of Freezing Cave near -Williamstown.] - -In the floor of the little chamber there are two holes, and, stepping -over these, we stood at the rear end, about eighteen meters distant -from the beginning of the slope. My companion now set some birchbark -on fire and dropped it into the innermost hole, and we laid down in -turn, flat on the rock floor, and craned our necks through the hole. -Mr. Williams thought he could see ice below us. I looked down after -him and found that I was looking into a lower chamber whose sides were -invisible. The floor was some three meters below vertically, and on -this the birchbark was burning brightly. I think I saw some ice, but -I could not be sure, as there was too much smoke to see distinctly. -My companion offered to go down through the hole and get some ice; a -proposition I promptly vetoed, as had anything gone wrong, I could not -possibly have given him any assistance, as there was no extra rope. -Mr. Williams told me that he went down several times before in July or -August, and always found ice on the slanting floor. He said he did not -know how far this lower chamber extended, nor the length of the ice -floor. One thing which makes me hesitate to think that we saw ice was, -that the temperature of the chamber where we were was not at all icy; -but probably--I had forgotten my thermometer--nearly normal. - -When we stood once more by the tree at the top of the slope, the mouth -of another cave was visible about two meters below us. Mr. Williams -said it had never looked more than a little crack before, and that the -opening was much bigger than at his last visit. It was directly under -the slope by which we descended and it vanished into darkness. Its -direction led straight towards the lower chamber, and it almost surely -leads to it. It seems thus that there are two hollows, one directly -above the other; and that the lower one is a glaciere, while the upper -one is not. The cold air of winter would naturally sink into the lower -chamber, and the spring thaws would furnish plenty of drip, so that -this place seems to answer every requirement of a cave glaciere. - -But the most interesting fact about these caves is that, while the -shallower one is a glaciere, the bigger and deeper one is not. This -is situated about ten meters north of the glaciere and the direction -of the entrance is about the same. Mr. Williams has found snow and -ice in May in the entrance pit as far as the daylight goes, but none -beyond. I am inclined to think that the explanation of this is the fact -that the cave is a _ganghoehle_ or tunnel cave. Mr. Williams described -it as a narrow passage with chambers, and at least a hundred meters -long, and fifty meters in depth below the surface. The cold air sinks -in a certain distance, but as the passage is narrow and long, and too -winding for any strong draughts, the cold air which enters is soon -neutralized by the supply of warmer air within and by contact with the -rocks. I cannot help thinking that it is by some such explanation that -we must hope to solve the problem of why certain caves are glacieres -and others in the immediate neighborhood normal caves; and the caves -near Williamstown are exceptional in presenting the problem so -patently. - - - - -PART II. - -THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. - - - - -THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. - - - - -I. - - -_Terminology._--Ice enduring the entire year is found, in temperate -latitudes, in a variety of forms and in several different kinds of -places. In some cases it is entirely above the surface of the earth; -in others it is entirely beneath the surface of the earth. These are -the extremes, and between them there are certain intermediate forms. -The perennial ice above ground of temperate regions has gradually -become known in English by the French word _glacier_, but strange to -say, there is no term in use in English which accurately describes the -perennial ice formations which are partially or completely underground. -Thus the term "ice cave" is applied to a rock cavern containing ice, -and the term "ice gorge" to a rock gorge containing ice. Both terms -are misleading, because the character of the contents is mentioned -before the nature of the geological formation. We say correctly enough -"limestone cave" or "lava cave" and, in my opinion, we should apply the -term "ice cave" in a similar manner to the hollows in the ice at the -lower end of glaciers, whence the glacier waters make their exit. These -are really "ice caves," that is caves with sides and roof made of ice. -Another trouble of the term "ice cave," as applied to rock formations -containing ice, is that it is not generic: not only is it incorrect, -but also it is not comprehensive. It does not apply to mines, tunnels, -wells, gullies, boulder taluses, or underground ice sheets. If "ice -cave" is used, except in its true sense of glacier ice cave, it seems -at least as though it should be so only for real caves which retain -ice, as opposed to taluses and wells. Curiously enough, the Germans -are just as inaccurate as ourselves, for their terms _eishoehle_ -and _eisloch_ are absolute translations of our "ice cave" and "ice -hole." Indeed, there is no doubt that some of the incorrect notions -about subterranean ice formations, are due to the inaccuracy of the -terminology. - -The only language, so far as I know, which has a correct and really -generic term for subterranean ice formations, is the French in its word -_glaciere_. The French and Swiss say _glacieres naturelles_ of ice -deposits formed naturally underground; and _glacieres artificielles_ -of ice houses. _Glaciere naturelle_ is comprehensive and accurate. It -covers all the rock formations and suggests also the mode of formation -of the ice. It likewise implies the strong resemblance between natural -ice deposits and artificial ice houses. It might be well, therefore, -if the French term _glaciere_ were adopted as a generic term for all -underground ice formations. As, however, there is little likelihood of -this happening, the question arises as to the best English equivalent -or equivalents. These seem to be "freezing cavern, freezing talus," -etc., "natural refrigerator" or "subterranean ice formation." "Natural -refrigerator" and "subterranean ice formation" are more generic than -"freezing cavern, freezing well," etc.; but the latter have the -advantage of suggesting immediately that reference is made to the -hollows of the earth which at times contain ice; and, therefore, they -are the best terms, perhaps, which can be chosen in English. - -Another point in the terminology of this subject has reference to -subterranean hollows where draughts issue or enter. Such hollows are -found in all parts of the world and are known usually in English as -"blowing caves" or "cold current caves." The Germans speak of them as -_windroehren_ or _windloecher_. In my first paper about caves,[12] I -used the word "windhole" which I translated from the German. The term -"windhole" seems to me preferable to "blowing cave" or "cold current -cave" in that it is more generic. It applies to taluses or boulder -heaps, or in fact, to any hollows where draughts issue or enter, -whether these hollows are genuine caverns or not. - -[12] _Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean Ice_, November 1896, and -March 1897. - -It is necessary also to explain here that "glaciere" and "windhole" are -not synonymous terms. It must be understood that a glaciere or natural -refrigerator is a place where ice forms and endures in a subterranean -or semi-subterranean situation; and that _the presence of ice_ is the -criterion of whether a place is or is not a glaciere. Likewise it must -be understood that a windhole or blowing cave is an underground hollow -with at least two openings, and in which distinct draughts occur; and -that the _presence of draughts_ is necessary to constitute a place -a windhole or blowing cave. A freezing cavern may or may not be a -windhole, and a windhole may or may not be a freezing cavern. - - -_Temperatures._--The phenomena of glacieres are so closely connected -with temperatures that it seems necessary at this point to mention -some general facts in connection with subterranean temperatures, even -if these still form a subject of some uncertainty, and one about -which further observation is desirable. Subterranean temperatures may -be grouped under three heads: 1, Ordinary or normal temperatures; -2, Temperatures above the normal or super-normal temperatures; 3, -Temperatures below the normal or sub-normal temperatures. - -1. In the great majority of caves, cellars and subterranean places -of all descriptions, the temperature of the air is about the same, -all the year round, as that of the ground. The frost of winter and -the heat of summer penetrate the earth for some trivial distance, a -few meters perhaps, and lower or raise the temperature of the ground -temporarily. Below this there is a stratum where the temperature is -found to vary but little the entire year and which, in a majority -of cases, approximates the mean annual temperature of the district. -Below this invariable stratum, the temperature generally rises -slowly, not at exactly the same rate everywhere, but in a regular -increase. This increase of temperature averages 1 deg. C. for every 32 -meters. As most caves and cellars are of small depth and as they take -their temperatures from that of the ground, it follows that as a rule -their temperatures are moderate and pleasant. And as the air of the -majority of caves and subterranean hollows is about the same as the -temperature of the surrounding rock, it is correct to call subterranean -air temperatures closely approximating the ordinary temperature of the -ground, ordinary or normal temperatures. - -As already stated, with an increase of depth, there is, in almost all -cases, a regular increase of temperature. For this reason, mines, which -are much the deepest hollows reached by man in the surface of the -earth, are, as a rule, warmer in the lower levels: if deep, they are -also hot. And this is so generally the case that warmer temperatures at -the bottom of mines may be considered as normal. - -2. In a few hollows close to the surface, there are temperatures much -above the normal temperature of the ground. Such places are rare and -abnormal.[13] The heat is generally due to the presence of hot springs -or to some volcanic action in the immediate neighborhood. In the case -of one cave close to the surface, the heat is due to some limekilns -which are situated immediately overhead.[14] Where these warm hollows -are genuine caves it seems proper to call them "hot caves." - -[13] Kraus. _Hoehlenkunde_, page 86. - -[14] Grotte du Jaur. _Les Abimes_, page 160. - -3. In a number of places, there are abnormally low temperatures -underground either for the whole or only for part of the year. -Although commoner than hot caves, yet the underground places with low -temperatures are also rare and abnormal. They may be divided into two -groups: 1, Those where the temperatures are lower than the normal, -without becoming low enough for ice to form; and 2, Those where the -temperature sinks so low, that ice forms. - - -It is difficult to make definite divisions among the various forms of -natural refrigerators, but it is correct, probably, to classify them -under five heads, in accordance with the different kinds of formations -of the hollows in the rocks: - -1. Gullies, gorges, and troughs where ice and snow remain. - -2. Soil or rocks overlaying ice sheets. - -3. Taluses and boulder heaps retaining ice. - -4. Wells, mines and tunnels in which ice sometimes forms. - -5. Caves with abnormally low temperatures, and often containing ice. - - -1. _Gorges and Troughs._--Gullies, gorges and basins which retain snow -and ice are fairly numerous in mountain districts. They are generally -ravines, or rock fissures, or hollows, in positions below the snow line -where snow and ice are sufficiently protected, from sun and wind, to -remain long after snow in the surrounding open country, at the same -altitude, has melted away. Some of these gorges are small, some big. As -a rule, they are deep and narrow. - -In north-eastern Siberia, a form of permanent surface ice is found, -which the Tungusses speak of as _tarinnen_, which means "ice troughs" -or "ice valleys."[15] These _tarinnen_ are broad valleys, with either -a horizontal floor or one sloping gently in the form of a trough, over -which the ice is spread in the form of a sheet. The Tungusses assert -that the ice in some of these troughs never wholly melts away, although -it lessens in quantity from the beginning of May till the end of -August, after which it once more increases. - -[15] _Bulletin de la classe physico-mathematique de l'Academie -Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg._ 1853. Vol. XI, pages -305-316. - - -_Subterranean Ice Sheets._--In several places in different parts of -the world there are underground ice sheets which extend over large -spaces; they are common under the tundras of Alaska; and there are fine -examples on Kotzebue Sound,[16] on the Kowak River,[17] and along the -Yukon River.[18] The "Ice Spring" in Oregon seems to be a formation of -the same kind. Several examples of these subterranean ice sheets are -reported also from different parts of the Russian Empire. - -[16] See Part III: page 167. - -[17] See Part III: page 167. - -[18] See Part III: page 166. - -A somewhat different kind of ice sheet was observed on Mount Etna. Sir -Charles Lyell[19] speaks of it as a "glacier preserved by a covering -of lava." He says Signor Mario Gemmellaro satisfied himself that -nothing but a flowing of lava over snow could account for the position -of the glacier. Ice sheets somewhat similar to these are reported -from Tierra del Fuego,[20] and probably also such sheets occur in -Iceland; and enormous heaps of ice covered with sand are found on Mount -Chimborazo.[21] On the northwestern coast of Greenland, glaciers, whose -flow has stopped, were observed buried under an accumulation of moss -and grass.[22] - -[19] _Principles of Geology_, 11th Edition, Chap. XXVI. - -[20] See Part III: page 190. - -[21] See Part III: page 189. - -[22] See Part III: page 165. - - -_Taluses and Boulder Heaps._--Taluses and broken debris, and in general -boulder heaps of all sorts, have interstices and openings between the -boulders, and in these it occasionally happens that ice is found. This -is most common among the taluses at the base of cliffs, but in some -cases ice is found among broken rocks on the sides of gently sloping -hills, or even on the plateaus of their summits. Sometimes the ice -and snow on the bottom of rock gorges all melts away, while further -down, in the hollows of the boulders forming the floor, ice still -remains. The rocks of which these ice bearing taluses are formed are -generally gneiss, granite, limestone, sandstone, basalt or porphyry. -Among such boulder taluses the phenomenon designated as _Windroehren_ -or _Ventarolen_, that is, windholes, is frequently found. Sometimes -the air among such boulder formations is quiet, but as a general thing -draughts pour out at the lower openings during the hot months, and blow -into them during the cold ones. - - -_Freezing Wells, Mines and Tunnels._--Subterranean ice is also found in -certain places in connection with man's handiwork. In a few wells in -the United States, the temperature in winter becomes abnormally low, -and for four or five months these wells freeze up and become useless. -A case of a freezing well was recently observed near la Ferte Milon in -Central France.[23] Ice is reported also as forming in various mines in -Europe, Asia and America; in fact, it is not an uncommon occurrence. -Occasionally, also, ice forms in tunnels. - -[23] See Part I.: pages 74, 79, 89. Part III.: page 206. - - -_Cold Caves._--Caves with abnormally low temperatures may be divided -into two classes. First, caves where the temperatures are lower than -the normal, without becoming low enough for ice to form; and second, -caves where the temperatures sink so low, that ice forms. - -Caves where the temperatures sink below the normal, but in which ice -does not form either in winter or in summer, are found in several -places in different parts of the world. They are termed in French -_cavernes froides_ and in German _kalte hoehlen_. There are but few data -from reliable observers about such cold caves. Some descriptions are -given without thermometric measurements, and the statements that the -caves are cold, mean nothing beyond the fact that they feel colder than -the outside air. It is, however, conclusively proved that cold caves -exist, and that while they are not freezing caverns, yet that they have -a temperature lower than the mean annual temperature of their district. -In fact, the assumption, which had passed into an axiom, that caves -always have the same temperatures as the mean annual temperature of -the district, must certainly be given up. Cold caves are generally in -one of two shapes: 1, in the shape of a sand glass,--two cones above -each other meeting at the narrowest point--where the upper cone lets -the heavy cold air descend easily, while the lower bell shaped cone -prevents its escape; and 2, where two sink holes open into one pit, -which is in the shape of a bell.[24] - -[24] _Les Abimes_, page 563. - - -_Glaciere Caves or Freezing Caves._--Caves where the temperatures -sink so low that ice is able to form, are found in many different -rock formations and in various positions, shapes and sizes. The rock -formation of freezing caverns is generally limestone, but sometimes it -is marble, lava, basalt, gneiss or granite. In all cases, however, the -rock is either porous or else it is broken and fissured, as otherwise -the water supply necessary to the formation of ice could not find its -way in. - -Glaciere caverns may, for the sake of convenience, be classified into -several classes, according to their position or to their form. The -lines of transition between them, however, are so indefinite in nature, -that it is often difficult to specify a cavern as belonging to any -special type. The most important factor in classifying glaciere caves -is their position. Under this head there are two main divisions: first, -pit caves; second, cliff caves. - -Pit caves are those where a pit or pits open into the ground, and the -ice is found at the bottom. Sometimes there is no roof, when the place -may be called a gorge: this occurs at Ellenville, where the roof has -fallen. Again, the pit itself is more or less roofed over and the ice -is found mainly or wholly under the roof: this is the case at Haut -d'Aviernoz, at the Friedrichsteinerhoehle, at Saint-Livres, and at -Saint-Georges. Sometimes the pit takes the form of a descending tunnel, -leading into a hall or chamber, in which the ice lies under a rock -roof: this happens at Chaux-les-Passavant. In all these pit caves the -body of the cave is below the entrance, and most of them are fairly -well lighted by daylight throughout. Generally there is only one pit, -but occasionally there are two connected underground, as is the case at -La Genolliere. - -Cliff caves are those where the entrance is at the base or in the -side of a cliff. Frequently the cave is in the shape of a hall or -chamber, which begins directly at the entrance, and which may be large -or small. This kind always has a down slope directly from the mouth. -The Kolowratshoehle, Dobsina and the Grand Cave de Montarquis may be -mentioned as examples. In some cases there is a pit at the base of -a cliff and there is a slope leading down to the cave, somewhat in -the form of a tunnel: this is the case at Manchester and practically -also at Roth. Again there is a more or less long gallery between the -entrance and the glaciere, which is always below the level of the -entrance. The Schafloch, Demenyfalva and Decorah may be cited as -examples. As a rule the gallery slopes down from the entrance, but -sometimes the floor rises and then sinks to the glaciere. The top of -the entrance, however, is always higher than the highest point of the -floor, as otherwise the cold air could not get in. This is the case at -the Frauenmauerhoehle, and, apparently, also at the Posselthoehle. In one -case, at Amarnath in Kashmere, the floor is said to rise to the roof at -the back; but as the entrance is nearly as big as the floor area, the -ice formations must also be below the level of the top of the entrance. - -The dimensions of glaciere caves vary greatly. Some are large, others -are small. Saint Georges, a roofed pit cave, is some twenty-five -meters by twelve meters, with a depth of about twelve meters. -Chaux-les-Passavant, a cave at the end of a pit tunnel, has a diameter -of some twenty-seven meters. The measures of Dobsina, a cave at the -bottom of a cliff, are given as follows: Height of roof above ice -floor, 10 to 11 meters; length 120 meters; breadth, 35 to 60 meters, -and surface about 4644 meters. The Frauenmauerhoehle is a gallery about -one hundred meters long before the ice floor is reached, and this is -some fifty meters more in length by about seven meters in width. The -glaciere cave near Frain, on the contrary, is so small that one can -only crawl in some two or three meters. In fact, glaciere caves vary in -size between great halls and little tunnels where one cannot stand up -straight. - -The entrances of glaciere caves also vary greatly in their dimensions. -For instance, the Friedrichsteinerhoehle is on one side of a huge pit -and is as large and deep as the pit. Saint Georges, on the contrary, -has, near one end of the roof, a couple of holes, some three meters in -diameter. The entrance to the Schafloch is four meters wide by four -meters seventy centimeters high, while the entrance to Roth is not over -one meter each way. - -A classification of subterranean ice formations, and one which applies -to all the different forms, is into permanent and periodic glacieres. -When in any underground spot, ice remains throughout the year, the -place may be called a permanent glaciere; when on the contrary the ice -melts away for part of the year, the place may be called a periodic -glaciere. This classification, which several observers have used -already, is convenient and valuable. - - -_Movements of Air._--Another classification of glacieres can be made -in accordance with the movements of air underground. Glacieres may be -divided into those where there are no strong draughts in summer and -those where there are draughts: or into "apparently static caves"; and -"dynamic caves" or "windholes." The first class includes those caves -where there is one or more openings close together and those above the -body of the cave. In such hollows the air in summer is nearly still, -while in winter there are distinct rotary movements of the air as -soon as the temperature outside is lower than that within. Almost all -glaciere caves belong to this class of caves without strong draughts -in summer. Sometimes, however, ice is found in hollows where there are -two or more openings, at different altitudes and at different ends of -the hollow, and where there are draughts. Occasionally, also, there are -fissures in the sides or rear of apparently static caves, which allow -something like draughts at times, as is the case at the Grand Cave de -Montarquis. - -Professor Thury of Geneva coined the terms "static cave" and "dynamic -cave" which have come largely into use since, and which practically -correspond to the German terms _eishoehle_ and _windroehre_. I do not -think the term "static cave" accurate, and prefer the term "apparently -static cave" or "cave without distinct draughts." For although there -are many caves where the air seems stagnant at times, and there are no -distinct perceptible draughts, still that the air is really stagnant -all summer appears to me doubtful, and it seems as if the movements of -air were distinctly apparent only in certain caves and not in others. -Air which is apparently stagnant is found in both pit and cliff caves -mainly in the summer months, but even in these I have noticed several -times in summer slight movements of air, especially near the entrance. -I could not exactly feel the air moving, but by lighting a cigar the -smoke could be seen borne outwards exceedingly slowly. At the entrance -of the Kolowratshoehle I think there was a faint outward current when I -was there. The day was hot and windless, and as the cold air met the -hot outside air it formed a faint cloud or mist at the mouth of the -cavern. At Saint-Georges, although the air seemed tranquil, I found -that the smoke of my cigar ascended rapidly just below the hole in the -roof, showing an ascending air current. In the double cave of Chapuis, -I found one cavern filled by a little lake over which there was a -draught.[25] - -[25] See Part IV.: Butler, page 308. - -From the few winter observations we have, there can be no doubt that in -winter the movements of the atmosphere are lively, the break in the air -column occurring as soon as the outside temperature is lower than that -within, when the outer air immediately begins to sink into the cave.[26] - -[26] See Part III.: Chaux-les-Passavant, page 203; Saint-Georges, page -220. - -If I have doubts as to the existence of absolutely static caves, it is -different about dynamic caves. When a subterranean hollow goes through -rocks, with one opening higher than the other, there will surely be -distinct draughts. These dynamic caves exist in many parts of the world -under such names as cold current caves or blowing caves or windholes. -Sometimes they are fissures in broken limestone. Often they are the -cracks between piles of boulders. A cool air generally pours from the -lower opening in summer while the cold air pours into it in winter, the -draught being then reversed. At the upper opening the operation takes -place in the opposite way, the hot air being sucked in in summer, and -given out in winter. Sometimes, however, changes take place, according -to the differences in the outside temperature, in the direction of the -air current in the course of a single day. - -The causes of the movements of air in these windholes are exceedingly -simple. The movements of air depend on the fact that in summer the air -in the tube becomes colder from contact with the rocks and, therefore, -heavier than the air outside, and by gravity the heavy inside air -displaces the lighter outside air and comes rushing out at the lower -opening. This leaves a vacuum, which is filled by the warmer air -dropping into the tube from above. In winter on the contrary, the air -within the tube is warmed by contact with the rocks and becomes lighter -than the air outside. It, therefore, rises and streams out from the -upper opening, and the vacuum is filled by the heavy cold air pushing -in at the lower opening. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11. Vertical Section of a Windhole.] - -G. F. Parrot's[27] explanation is so satisfactory that I give it with -one or two changes. He considers the air movements an ordinary statical -phenomenon of the air, in caves which have two openings at different -altitudes. Let E G D represent the section of such a cave with the -openings A and B. Let us think that there are over C and B two vertical -air columns and from B to C a horizontal air column B C; then the two -air columns over B and C are at all times of the year equal in weight. -Not so the air columns A C and A E G D B, because their temperatures -are different. Assume the temperature in the cave G is +12 deg. the whole -year round. If in summer the air column A C is at a temperature of -+25 deg., then the heavy air in the cave G pours out through A and is -replaced by air flowing in through B. If in winter the air column A -C is at a temperature of -1 deg., then the air pours with equal inverse -velocity at A into the cave, and out at B. The velocity of the current -in both cases depends on the difference of temperature within and -without. - -[27] _Grundriss der Physik der Erde und Geologie_, 1815, pages 92-99. - -The foregoing explanation makes it evident that the movements of air -in these windholes do not depend on the presence of ice. In many of -those I have examined myself there was no ice visible, and from the -temperature of the air current, there could not have been any ice -within the mountain. Still, there are numerous cases where ice is found -in windholes among boulders, and a few cases where windholes exist in -connection with apparently static glaciere caves. Undoubtedly the great -majority of windholes do not contain ice in summer, or, indeed, at any -time of the year, and, as far as I can see, windholes, according to -their temperatures, belong rather to the class of normal caves than to -that of glacieres. - - -_Forms of Ice._--Almost all the forms assumed by underground ice are -different from those assumed by overground ice. This is not surprising, -as the conditions, under which the ice is formed, are so different. -Almost all the lines of underground ice are rounded. The sharp angles -and fractures visible on glacier or iceberg are absent. Instead of -seracs and crevasses, broken ice falls, or piled up ice floes, we have -hanging stalactites and rising stalagmites, smooth ice floors and -curved ice slopes. This difference is of course due to the fact that -most subterranean ice is formed from the drip from the roof or the -sides of caves, and because the factor of motion--which plays so large -a part in the shaping by fracture of overground ice--is practically -wanting. - -The most striking forms of subterranean ice are the ice stalactites -and stalagmites. They descend from the roof as icicles or rise from it -as rough cones or pyramids. The icicles are of all sorts of shapes and -sizes: sometimes they are tiny; sometimes they grow downward till they -reach the floor and form regular columns, in some cases no less than -eleven meters in height. - -The ice stalagmites likewise are of all sorts of shapes and sizes, some -of them growing to a height of seven or eight meters. Occasionally they -have hollow bases, but this is rare. How these hollow cones are formed -is a still uncertain matter; but it is in some way by the action of -the drip. At the Kolowratshoehle I saw the drip from the roof cutting -out in July the basin, whose tall remaining sides suggested that early -in the spring it was probably a hollow cone. The cone at the Schafloch -of which I saw one half remaining, could only be accounted for by -some action from the drip.[28] The warmth of the rock floor may help -perhaps also, in melting away some of the base of the hollow columns. - -[28] See Part IV.: Thury, page 287; Browne, page 290. - -The frozen waterfalls which issue from fissures in the rock walls of -caves are another form of ice seen only below ground. For lack of a -better name, I call them fissure columns. A peculiarity of these is -that, while the rock fissure is more or less rectangular or at least -sharp angled, the ice column issues in a rounded stream. Sometimes -these fissure columns stream over the rock; sometimes they spring out -far enough from the rock to be quite away from it. They vary from about -one to five meters in height, and at the base they almost always spread -out in a shape resembling that of a fan. - -The ice on the bottom of caverns of course takes its shape from the -form and angles of the floor of the caves. If the bottom is level or -nearly so, the ice lies on it as a sheet or floor. If the bottom of the -cave is sloping, the ice follows the angles of the slope, forming an -ice slope or ice wall, and sometimes becoming nearly or quite vertical. -These ice slopes distantly resemble the portions of glaciers called -an ice fall, with the great difference, however, that there are no -crevasses, not even tiny ones. - -Occasionally, slabs of ice are found reposing in a fractured sheet over -a solid ice floor. This means that a lake has formed on this spot in -the spring, frozen over, and then run off, leaving its frozen surface -in broken pieces on top of the under ice. - -Another kind of frozen water is the hoar frost which forms on the -rock roofs and walls. This is not at all rare. It is an open question -whether this is not the same thing as that which has been described as -subterranean snow.[29] I found myself in Dobsina a small sheet of what -to look and touch was snow. I wrote of this as snow in my first paper -about glacieres[30], but I am of the opinion now that it was the hoar -frost detached from the roof and not genuine snow. - -[29] See Part III.: Ziegenloch, page 247; Creux de Souci, page 207. - -[30] _Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean Ice_, November, 1896, -and March, 1897. - -At Dobsina, also, I noticed that the ice of the ice wall of the -Korridor assumed a stratified or laminated form. Mr. John F. Lewis -of Philadelphia suggested to me that this was probably due to a -precipitation of the hoar frost from the roof, and I think his -explanation is correct. The hoar frost forming at a certain degree of -cold, would doubtless be precipitated at a rise of temperature, and -would then act much as do the different layers of snow in the upper -portion of glaciers.[31] It would consolidate gradually, layer over -layer, and form strata, producing the banded or laminated structure -visible in the vertical ice of the Dobsina Korridor. - -[31] Whymper: _Scrambles amongst the Alps_, 1871, page 426. - -The ice in caverns is sometimes found with a structure which is, I -believe, of rare occurrence above ground. This is when it takes the -shape known as prismatic ice, which means that if a lump is broken -from a column or icicle, the fracture will show regular prisms. This -phenomenon is not as yet satisfactorily accounted for; the only thing -certain about it is, that it does not occur in ice of recent formation. -From my own observations, I should say that ice became prismatic at the -end of summer; at least I have always found it in August or September -rather than in June or July.[32] - -[32] See Part IV.: Browne, page 289; Lohmann, page 303. - -Besides building up ice heaps, the drip, also, has the function of -destroying its own creations. If there are no crevasses, there are -holes and runnels. These are generally found at or leading to the -lowest point of the ice floor. Occasionally the holes are deep, -sometimes many meters in depth. They are certainly cut out by the -melting water, to which they offer an exit; in fact they are a part of -the drainage system present in all glaciere caves, where there must be -some outlet for surplus water at or near the lowest point: and as the -caves are always in porous or broken rock, the drainage takes place -through the cracks and fissures. - -The drip produces also the exact opposite of pyramids in the shape of -ice basins. These are cut in the floor by an extra strong drip from -the roof at those spots. Basins exactly like these are not seen on -glaciers. Not infrequently they are full of water of considerable depth. - -Lakes and pools are found in glaciere caves. Sometimes they are on -the ice floor, and in this case they are due either to rain-water -collecting faster than it can flow off, or else because the cave is in -a state of thaw. Sometimes these pools are among the rocks in one part -of a cave, while the ice is in another part. - -I have said above that motion in subterranean ice is practically -wanting. This is proved by the lack of crevasses on the ice slopes -or ice walls, and also by the fact that basins and cones appear year -after year in the same spots, where they remain whether they are -increasing or diminishing. But this statement cannot be held to cover -the entrance snow and ice slopes of some of the open pit caves such as -the Gottscheer cave, or Saint-Livres or Haut d'Aviernoz. Here the snow, -which falls on the entrance slope, must gradually gravitate to the -bottom. The question is whether it only descends in the shape of water -after melting or as snow before solidifying; or whether it ever slides -down at all after becoming somewhat solidified. Probably, however, the -ice of these slopes, judging from the fact that crevasses are entirely -lacking, remains stationary. - - -_Color Effects._--The color effect of every glaciere cavern has a -certain individuality, according to the color of the rocks, the -quantity of ice, and the amount of daylight admitted through the -entrance. In my opinion, the white note given by the ice, makes a fine -glaciere cave the most beautiful of all subterranean hollows. In this -respect it seems to me that they are similar to high Alps, which are -certainly most impressive with coverings of snow and glacier. - -There are, however, two distinct notes in the color effects of glaciere -caves and these may be described as the partly subterranean, or as the -wholly subterranean. In the former case the local tints stand out more -clearly. For instance, at the Kolowratshoehle the ice is beautifully -transparent and of a pale ochre-greenish hue: the limestone rocks -are streaked with iron, and thus have a reddish hue, while, owing -to the entrance admitting plenty of daylight, the effect is only -semi-subterranean. Again, at Chaux-les-Passavant plenty of daylight is -admitted: the rocks are a yellowish brown, and the ice is white and -blue. At the Schafloch or the Frauenmauer, on the contrary, the effect -is wholly subterranean: daylight is so completely absent that black -is the predominating note, the ice itself looking gray. Dobsina is an -exception, as, thanks to the electric light, white is the conspicuous -tone, even though rocks and shadows dull many places and corners into a -sombre gray. - -More than once, on returning to daylight from the intense blackness -of a cave, I have seen the rocks near the entrance appear a dark -blue color, exactly simulating moonlight. This effect is common to -both glaciere caves and ordinary caverns. It is a striking but rare -phenomenon, and depends apparently on the shape of the cave. This -moonlight effect only seems to occur when a cave makes an elbow -directly after the mouth and then goes straight for some distance. When -the daylight is actually in sight, the moonlight impression vanishes. - - -_Carbonic Acid Gas._--Carbonic acid gas, judging from the most -recent explorations, is more of a rarity in rock caves with normal -temperatures than is generally supposed. There appears to be only one -case on record where this gas was observed in a cold cave. This was -in the Creux-de-Souci,[33] which is rather a cold than a freezing -cavern, but which on one occasion was found to contain snow, and -whose temperature is always extremely low. From the present state of -knowledge, therefore, it may be assumed that if carbonic acid gas does -form in glaciere caves, it does so only seldom. - -[33] See Part III.: page 207. - - -_Fauna._--No attention whatever has been paid, practically as yet, as -to whether any distinctive animal life exists in glacieres. So far, I -have seen none myself. The Rev. G. F. Browne, in four instances, found -a large red-brown fly nearly an inch long, which is supposed to be -_Stenophylax Hieroglyphicus_ of Stephens; and at Chapuis, he obtained -an ichneumon of the genus _Paniscus_. At Font d'Urle, Monsieur Villard -captured a blind specimen of a coleoptera, _Cytodromus dapsoides_. -A variety of rotifer, _Notholca longispina_, is now living in the -Creux-de-Souci. In Skerisora, remains of bats have been found, not very -different from those now living in the neighborhood.[34] It is, in any -case, certainly remarkable that the same kind of fly should have been -discovered in several glacieres in different localities; and it may -some day be shown that there is a special insect fauna. Certainly the -subject is worth investigating.[35] - -[34] See Part I.: Ausable Pond, page 81, and Part III.: Creux-de-Souci, -page 207; Font d'Urle, page 213; Chapuis, page 216; La Genolliere, page -219; Skerisora, page 245. - -[35] In June, 1899, I mentioned these facts to Monsieur Armand Vire, -director of the Biologic Laboratory in the catacombs of the Jardin -des Plantes in Paris. He was much interested, and promised to make a -careful investigation of the matter. - - -_Flora._--The flora of glacieres has been as little observed as the -fauna. There are scarcely any references to such a thing as glaciere -plant life in literature. Whether there is a special flora in any -glaciere cave is still an open question. In the cases of several -boulder taluses, there is no doubt that, even if there is not a special -flora, at least that the plants near the ice beds are greatly retarded -every year in their development. Probably the flora among the boulders -blooms a month or six weeks later than the flora in the immediate -vicinity. In the cases of the Cave of Paradana and of the Kuntschner -Eishoehle it is reported that the plant life becomes more and more -arctic in character towards the bottom of the pit.[36] - -[36] See Part I.: Ausable Pond, page 80; Giant of the Valley, page 83, -note 7; Ice Gulch, page 85; Spruce Creek, page 91. See Part III: Spruce -Creek, page 188; Paradana, page 237; Kuntschner Eishoehle, page 241. - - -_Paleontology._--No paleontological remains have as yet been reported -from glaciere caves. No bones of animals have been found, except those -of bats in Skerisora[37] and a few of the common genus _bos_.[38] -No relics of the handiwork of man have been discovered; nor, indeed, -with the exception of the skeletons found in the cave of Yeermallik in -Kondooz,[39] anything which reveals the presence of man in glacieres or -that they were ever used for habitation. The reason that there are so -few remains in glaciere caves is undoubtedly because their temperatures -are too low for their occupation by animal or man; but, from the -evidence afforded by their non-occupation, may be drawn the valuable -inference that the glaciere caves of to-day were glaciere caves long -ago. - -[37] See Part III.: Skerisora, page 245. - -[38] See Part I.: Saint-Livres, page 68. - -[39] See Part III.: Yeermallik, page 261. - - -_Legends and Religion._--There are scarcely any legends connected -with glacieres. I know only of one about one of the caves of the Mont -Parmelan.[40] Nor does there seem to be any reference to glaciere caves -in works of fiction. Dante makes his last hell full of an ice lake, but -an attentive perusal fails to reveal a single line which in any way -describes or suggests a glaciere. In at least two cases,[41] however, -the ice in caves is connected with religion, as in Kashmere, the -Hindoos, and in Arizona, the Zuni Indians, either worship or pray at -glaciere caves, overawed, from some mystical feeling, by the permanence -of the ice formations which they connect with their deities. - -[40] See Part III.: Glaciere de l'Enfer, page 216. - -[41] See Part III.: Amarnath, page 262; Cave, White Mountains, Arizona, -page 176. - - - - -II. - - -The cause of the formation of subterranean ice is undoubtedly one -of the most intricate problems in connection with caverns. Various -theories have been advanced why ice is found in certain caves and not -in others. Some writers have held that it is a remnant of a glacial -period; others that it is owing to the presence of salts in the rocks; -some have said that it is due to the rocks retarding waves of heat -and cold; and still others think that it is formed by pressure on -the percolating waters. Many of these theories were formulated in -explanation of the belief of peasants living near the caves, who almost -always say that the ice is formed in summer and melts in winter. Most -scientific observers on the other hand claim that the ice is due to the -cold of winter, and a few think that it is formed or helped by draughts -and by evaporation and expansion of the air. The variety of opinions -put forth, show at any rate the intricacy of the problem. - -All my own observations have tended more and more to make me believe -that the cold of winter is the cause of the ice. Before elaborating my -own views, however, I wish to take up seriatim the theories which have -been formulated, principally in explanation of the belief that the ice -was a summer product, and to give my reasons for my disbelief in them. - - -_Glacial Period._--The first theory, perhaps, to touch on, is the one -that the ice is a remnant of a glacial period. This seems to occur -to many persons as a solution of the question when they first hear -of glacieres, and it has been several times propounded to me, and -naturally enough, always by scientific men.[42] Still I do not think it -has ever been held by anyone who had made a study of glacieres. - -[42] See Part IV.: Hitchcock, page 284; Bonney, page 291; Dawkins, page -292. - -The theory is, indeed, untenable in regard to freezing caves, as it -does not accord with the observed facts of the yearly disappearance of -the ice in many caves and taluses. At Szilize every year the ice has -disappeared pretty completely by November, and the cave is free; but -in April or May the floor is again covered with ice, and columns and -icicles have formed on the roof and sides. At La Genolliere the cave -is used by the people of the neighboring chalets, through the spring -and early summer, to help in the operation of butter making; by the -middle or the end of August it has entirely disappeared, but is found -formed afresh the following spring. At the Rumney Talus, at the Cave of -Decorah, at the Gorge of Ellenville, and at the Williamstown Snow Hole, -I found no snow or ice.[43] Yet it is abundant in all these localities -in the spring. Too many examples of the complete melting away of the -ice every year can be cited, to permit any doubt: glaciere caves are -not connected with a glacial period. - -[43] See Part I.: Rumney, page 85; Decorah, page 88; Ellenville, page -91; Williamstown, page 98. - -Though it may be stated positively that the ice in caves is not a -remnant of a glacial period, yet this cannot be done so authoritatively -about subsoil ice sheets and freezing wells. At Brandon, Owego and -Decorah the gravel was found frozen at the time the wells were dug, and -it is of course impossible to determine for how long a time this was -the case previous to the digging. The proofs, however, are so strong -that the ice re-forms every winter at such freezing wells, that they -may be considered as in every respect following the same general laws -as glaciere caves. That the ice in these wells is not the remains of a -glacial period, seems proved moreover by the work of the Boston Natural -History Society, which sank two wells at Brandon near to the Freezing -well. One of these was only twenty-one meters distant and went through -the same gravel drift. Yet it did not strike ice.[44] A somewhat -similar state of things appears to be the case with the Centennial Lode -and other lodes on Mount McClellan,[45] where the causes also seem to -be local, as there is no ice in mines on neighboring mountains. - -[44] See Part IV.: Hager, page 282; Hitchcock, page 284. - -[45] See Part III.: Rifts of Ice, etc., page 174. - - -_The Summer's Heat Theory._--The natives and peasants in the -neighborhood of glaciere caves generally believe that the ice of -caves is formed in summer and melts in winter. I have met with this -belief everywhere in Europe; in the Eifel, Jura, Swiss Alps, Tyrolese -Alps, and Carpathians: and also occasionally in the United States. -Peasants and guides tell you with absolute confidence: "The hotter the -summer the more ice there is." The strange thing is that any number -of writers[46]--sometimes scientific men--have accepted the ideas and -statements of the peasants about the formation of ice in summer, and -have tried to account for it. - -[46] Among them may be mentioned: Boisot, 1686; Valvasor, 1689; -Behrens, 1703; Billerez, 1712; Bel, 1739; Rosenmueller and Tillesius, -1799; Sartori, 1809; Pictet, 1822; Scrope, 1826; Murchison, 1845. - -The belief of the peasants is founded on the fact that they scarcely -ever go to any cave except when some tourist takes them with him, and, -therefore, they rarely see one in winter, and their faith is not based -on observation. It is, however, founded on an appearance of truth: -and that is on the fact that the temperatures of glaciere caves, like -that of other caves or that of cellars, are colder in summer than the -outside air, and warmer in winter than the outside air. Possessing -neither reasoning powers nor thermometers, the peasants simply go a -step further and say that glaciere caves are cold in summer and hot in -winter. - -Professor Thury tells a story to the point. He visited the Grand Cave -de Montarquis in mid-winter. All the peasants told him there would be -no use going, as there would be no ice in the cave. He tried to find -even one peasant who had been to the cave in winter, but could not. He -then visited it himself and found it full of hard ice. On his return -he told the peasants of his discovery. They were staggered at first, -finally one exclaimed: "It makes no difference; in genuine glacieres -there is no ice in winter." - -It will be difficult, probably, to eradicate this belief and the -consequent theories among the uneducated people in the vicinity of -glaciere caves, for their imperfect observations will keep it alive. In -refutation, it may be said that the winter's cold theory is the direct -opposite of the summer's heat theory, and that all the observations and -all the facts which prove the one, disprove the other. - -Within two or three years, however, the formation of small quantities -of ice has been observed during the summer months in one or two caves. -This has taken place in mountain caves situated at a high altitude at -times when the air outside has dropped below freezing point during the -night. There is, therefore, nothing inconsistent in this fact with the -winter's cold theory: indeed it is only a widening of it in the meaning -of the word winter.[47] - -[47] See Part III.: Beilsteinhoehle, page 235. Part IV.: Professor -Cranmer, page 310. - - -_Chemical Causes._--Non-scientific persons, on first hearing of -glaciere caves, almost always suggest that to form the ice there must -be salts in the rocks. Probably they connect unconsciously in their -minds "ice caves" and "ice cream." - -Chemical causes, however, have never appealed to scientific men.[48] -There are only two places I know of where salt is reported. One is the -Ice Spring in Oregon, which is said to be slightly saline in taste; the -other is the Cave of Illetzkaya-Zatschita, where the gypsum hillock, -in which the ice is found, overlies a bed of rock salt. Repeated -experiments in letting lumps of glaciere ice melt in my mouth have -convinced me personally that in all cases the water is exceedingly -pure and sweet, a fact mentioned in the very first notice extant about -glacieres, the letter of Benigne Poissenot in 1586, who speaks of the -deliciousness of the water in Chaux-les-Passavant. To sum this matter -up briefly, it can be safely asserted that all causes, which would fall -under the head of "Chemical causes," must be entirely eliminated as -possible cold producers. - -[48] See Part IV.: Billerez, page 270; Hacquet, page 271. - - -_Waves of Heat and Cold._--While Sir Roderick Murchison was studying -the geology of Russia,[49] he visited Illetzkaya-Zatschita and was -puzzled to account for the ice formations. He thought, at first, that -they were due to the presence of salt, but recognizing that this was -not correct he submitted the case to Sir John Herschel, who, rejecting -the evaporation or condensation of vapor as the cause, argued that -the ice was due to waves of heat and cold, and that at certain depths -in the interior, the cold wave arrived in mid-summer and the heat in -mid-winter. Murchison declined to assent to this doctrine, asking why -one cave should present this exceptional occurrence, when the numerous -other rents and openings in the same hillock were free from ice. The -impossibility of the heat and cold wave theory was so completely shown -by Murchison's objection, that it has never again been brought forward. - -[49] _The Geology of Russia and the Ural Mountains_, vol. I., pages -184-198. - - -_Capillary or Compressed Air Theory._--The possibility of compressed -air causing subterranean ice to form seems to have been first -authoritatively formulated by Mr. N. M. Lowe, of Boston.[50] His theory -in brief is this:--Bubbles of air drawn into water flowing down through -fissures in rocks are liable to a continually increasing pressure. When -the air has reached the bottom and is liberated in the cave, it will be -from a pressure equal to the height of the column of water, and it will -have lost by connection in the mass through which the conduit passes, -the heat due to its compression; and on being liberated, it will -immediately absorb from the air and the water in the cave, the heat -which it has lost in its downward passage. - -[50] _Science Observer._ Boston, 1879, vol. II., page 57. See Part IV.: -Silliman, page 279; Olmstead, page 282. - -Several scientific observers have rallied to this idea.[51] One of -the Hungarian residents at Dobsina, a doctor, whose opportunities -for observations are unrivalled, told me--if I understood him -correctly--that he believed in the capillary theory. - -[51] See B. Schwalbe, _Ueber Eishoehlen und Eisloecher_, page 56. - -There are many facts, however, which militate against the compressed -air theory as applied to caves. Almost all caves receive some drip -through fissures, and yet there are many thousands of caves which never -contain ice, and whose temperature scarcely varies the year round. -Especially against the theory is the fact that glaciere caves are -never known in hot countries. If the theory were correct we should, -for instance, sometimes find ice in such caves as those of Yucatan -described by Mr. Mercer.[52] - -[52] _The Hill Caves of Yucatan._ - -There are also some mechanical difficulties in the way. Mr. John -Ritchie[53] touches them when he says: "If the passage through which -the water flows down is at all tubular the column will be subjected to -the usual hydrostatic pressure." The word _tubular_ is the hard one to -answer. Limestone rock fissures are certainly not tubular. They have -all sorts of shapes and angles and corners, every one of which would -interfere with anything like a regular pressure. - -[53] _Boston Transcript_, January 2d, 1897. - -This latter objection would not apply to borings in mines. I have been -assured that in some borings in Western mines ice has been formed by -pressure, and there may be truth in this, although I doubt it, as -I have yet to hear of ice in any mines in warm latitudes. Mr. John -Ritchie[54] has suggested, also, that if compressed air does not -perhaps act strongly enough to form ice, yet it may help in keeping -the temperature low and aid in the formation of draughts in caves and -boulder heaps. At present, however, I can see no reason to think that -the ice in caves is due to compressed air.[55] - -[54] _The Happy Thought._ Boston, January 23d, 1897. - -[55] See Part I.: page 89. - - - - -III. - - -I have already said that I believe that the cold of winter is the -cause of the ice in caves. To make this clearer, I may say that I look -on glacieres as the last outcrop, the outside edge, so to speak, of -the area of low temperatures, which has its culminating point in the -Northern Hemisphere in the Arctic Ocean, Greenland and Siberia, and in -the Southern Hemisphere in the Antarctic; and which is manifested to -us in the snows of mountain peaks, and immediately round us in frozen -ponds and rivers and snowy blizzards; and which, as it disappears each -summer, leaves its last traces in our latitudes in sequestered gorges -and convenient caverns. In every case, it seems to me, glacieres are -simply refrigerators, which preserve the ice and snow accumulated in -them during the winter. They all follow the same general laws as to -the origin of their contents, modified only in slight degree according -to the varying natural local conditions, such as the water supply, or -the protection from sun and wind, or the thickness of the overhead -rock, or the altitude or latitude. I cannot see that there is anything -remarkable about the fact that the cold of winter is able to penetrate -and make itself felt sometimes for a slight depth in the earth's -crust; a depth, so far as yet known, never exceeding one hundred and -fifty meters. It seems to me that glacieres only emphasize a law of -nature, which has doubtless been formulated many times in connection -with springs and phreatic waters, and that is, that where we find cold -waters underground, we may be sure that they have penetrated from the -outside. - -If we look first at the mode of formation of overground perennial ice, -that is, of the ice of glaciers and of rock gorges; and then at the -evidences of the mode of formation of underground perennial ice, in -boulder heaps, wells and caves; we will soon see that the transitions -between them are gentle in character and that there is nothing -unnatural about the formation of the ice in glacieres. - - -_Glaciers._--Everyone now knows the main characteristics of glaciers. -They are formed in parts of the earth where the land or the mountains -reach to the region of perpetual snow. The snows fall from the sky, and -accumulate into a snow cap, which by its own weight and by melting and -regelation, gradually changes to ice. This, by the laws of gravitation, -descends to lower levels, and in mountain valleys extends sometimes -far below the snow line into the region of cultivated fields. These -valley prolongations of the perpetual snow caps are the glaciers. The -important point to notice here, is that the formation of glaciers is -originally entirely due to the precipitation of moisture by cold in the -upper portions; while the destruction of glaciers is due to the action -of heat melting the ice in the lower portions, where they disappear in -the shape of streams of running water. It is, therefore, not surprising -that the greatest glaciers are found in the Arctic and Antarctic -regions and in the highest mountain ranges; and that in the tropics -glaciers are either wanting or exceedingly small. - - -_Gorges and Troughs._--Gorges and gullies, where ice remains over, -are a transitional form between glaciers and glacieres. In many -mountain ravines or canyons, the enduring snow consists principally -of the avalanches which have fallen from the heights above during the -winter and solidified in the bottom of the ravines. Freezing gorges -proper, however, are not dependent on avalanches for their supply, -but they receive the accretions to their ice directly from the winter -snows. These fall into the gorge itself and by melting and regelation -gradually solidify into a mass of ice which, when well sheltered -against sun and wind, remains over sometimes till the following winter. -By their mode of formation, therefore, it is evident that the ice in -these gorges has some of the characteristics of glaciers; that it is -due to the same prime causes as the ice of glaciers or the ice on ponds -and rivers, namely the cold of winter; and in fact, it is not far -wrong to consider these gorges as miniature glaciers. - -Freezing gorges, however, show, also, certain degrees of kinship to -freezing caverns and taluses, principally in the protection afforded -to the ice against external destructive influences. The ice is almost -always found in positions where it receives little, if any, of the -direct rays of the sun and, also, where it is scarcely, if at all, -exposed to any winds. The sides of the fissures and surrounding trees -generally afford the necessary protection. Some of the forms which the -ice assumes in gorges, such as long pendent icicles, are also more -characteristic of underground than of overground ice. - -The freezing troughs or basins found in Siberia are evidently closely -related to gorges, and the fact that the ice is found in less sheltered -places may be explained by the high northerly latitudes of these -troughs, in general between fifty-seven and sixty degrees. - - -_The Winter's Cold Theory._--The places where ice is found underground -differ in one important respect from gullies and troughs, and that -is, in the fact that above the ice there is rock or soil, which, in -true caves, takes the form of a roof. This causes some important -distinctions between overground and underground perennial ice. It means -that the ice is formed directly in the caves, and that it is genuine -subterranean ice, and not, except perhaps near the entrance, solidified -snow. The roof, while not admitting the winter snows, is, however, a -protection against warm summer rains, and, of course, entirely cuts -off radiation from the sky. If, therefore, it keeps out some cold, it -also acts as a protector against heat. - -That the cold of winter is the source of the cold which produces the -ice which forms underground, and that it is through its influence, -with the assistance of certain secondary causes, that some caves are -converted into what are practically natural ice houses, seems to me -the true explanation of the phenomenon of subterranean ice, not only -since it is the simple and obvious explanation, but also because all -the facts, so far as I have myself observed, are in accord with this -theory.[56] - -[56] Among those who have written or said that the cold of winter plays -a more or less important part in the formation of subterranean ice -may be mentioned: Poissenot, 1586; Gollut, 1592; DeBoz, 1726; Nagel, -1747; Cossigny, 1750; Jars, 1774; Hacquet, 1778; Girod-Chantrans, 1783; -Hablizl, 1788; Prevost, 1789; Townson, 1797; Humboldt, 1814; Dearborn, -1822; Deluc, 1822; Dewey, 1822; Lee, 1824; Reich, 1834; Hayden, 1843; -Guyot, 1856; Rogers, 1856; Petruzzi, 1857; Smyth, 1858; Hager, 1861; -Thury, 1861; Browne, 1865; Raymond, 1869; Krenner, 1874; Ritchie, -1879; Benedict, 1881; Schwalbe, 1881; Fugger, 1883; Trouillet, 1885; -Girardot, 1886; Russell, 1890; Martel, 1892; Krauss, 1894; Lohmann, -1895; Balch, 1896; Cvijic, 1896; Butler, 1898; Kovarik, 1898; Cranmer, -1899. - -To form subterranean ice, just as to form any other ice, two things are -necessary: the first is cold, the second is water. Cold is supplied by -the cold air of winter, and water must in some manner find its way into -the cave while the cold air is there. - -The process is as follows: The cold air of winter sinks into and -permeates the cave, and in course of time freezes up all the water -which, in the shape of melting snow or cold winter rain or spring -water, finds its way in; and once ice is formed it remains long after -ice in the surrounding open country has melted away, because heat -penetrates with difficulty into the cave. The only effect of the heat -of summer is to melt the ice. - -The proofs, to my mind, of the truth of this view are: 1--Glacieres -are always found in parts of the world where, during part of the -year at least, the temperatures of the surrounding country fall -below freezing point. 2--All observations by reliable observers -show that the temperatures of glaciere caves vary, but in a much -narrower thermometric scale, with those of the outside air: that the -temperatures are lowest, and as a rule below freezing point, during the -winter months; and that the temperatures are highest, and as a rule -above freezing point, during the summer months. 3--Ice is never found -far from the mouth of caves, but always near enough for the cold air -to get in. 4--Evaporation, according to my observations, is, as in all -other forms of ice in nature, connected mainly with the melting, not -the freezing of the ice. - - -_Geographical Distribution and Altitudes._--Glaciere caves proper -are found in various parts of Europe, Asia, and America, mostly in -the smaller mountain ranges or in the outliers of the snowy mountain -chains; generally in limestone and occasionally in basaltic formations. -There are a good many in the Jura; a few in the Swiss and the Italian -Alps; a number in the Eastern Alps of Tyrol and Carinthia. There are -some in Hungary, several in Russia, one in Iceland, one on the Peak -of Teneriffe, a number in Siberia, one in Kondooz in Central Asia, -one in the Himalaya, one in Japan, and one in Korea. I have heard so -far of over fifty glacieres in North America, several of which are in -Pennsylvania. From all over the world there are some three hundred -places reported where subterranean ice is said to occur. This includes -gorges, boulder heaps and freezing mines and wells, all of which exist -in much the same localities as glaciere caves. - -All the glacieres which I know of, are situated in a latitude or at -an altitude where ice and snow forms for part of the year in the -surrounding open country. None are reported from India or Africa, or -in fact from any low-lying places in tropical latitudes. Most of them -are found in middle latitudes, and only where during part of the year, -at least, there is a cold season, that is, where for some time the -thermometer stands below freezing point. - -Glacieres are, in general, at fairly high altitudes. The Schafloch -is at 1780 meters; Skerisora in Transylvania at 1127 meters; Dobsina -at 1100 meters; the Glaciere de Saint-Georges at 1208 meters. It is -true that there is one freezing cavern in the sub-tropical latitude -of Teneriffe, La Cueva de la Nieve; but it is at an altitude of 3300 -meters, and where snow falls every year in the open on the Peak. -Unless some freezing cave is hereafter discovered in a region where -there is no ice in the open in winter, I do not see how the imperative -necessity of the cold air of winter for forming the supply of ice can -be controverted. - - -_Thermometric Observations._--That the cold air of winter is the -important factor in the production of cold is proved, also, by the -thermometric observations recorded in various caves by different -observers. They all tell the same tale: that the temperatures vary with -those of the outside air, that they are lowest in winter and highest -in summer. I quote in the "List of Glacieres"[57] a few of those -published; but there are many more, and they all show the same general -characteristics. - -[57] See Part III.: Decorah, page 178; Chaux-les-Passavant, pages -203-5; La Poujade, page 208; Montarquis, page 218; Saint-Georges, page -219; Schafloch, page 223; Kolowratshoehle, page 227; Schellenberger -Eisgrotte, page 228; Frain, page 252; Dobsina, page 253; etc. - -A comparison of all the figures recorded proves that, as a rule--inside -of glaciere caves--from about the first of November to the first -of July, there are winter temperatures, that is temperatures below -freezing point; and from about the first of July to the first of -November, there are summer temperatures, that is temperatures above -freezing point. - -The observations prove also that the inner temperatures vary less than -the outer, that is that they range within narrower limits. They also -show that the inner air is but slowly affected by the outer air when -the latter is above freezing point, the inner temperature rising -then only gradually. Per contra, when the outside temperature drops -quickly much below freezing point, the inside temperature generally -drops correspondingly at once, proving that the cold air has sunk by -its weight into the cave. The observations also prove that the old idea -that the temperature of caves is the same throughout, can no longer -be considered correct. The observations also appear to show, that the -temperature of a cave does not necessarily represent the mean annual -temperature of a surrounding district. Observation is still entirely -lacking on the mean annual temperature of glacieres, so that one cannot -speak definitely about the matter; but it seems likely that the mean -annual temperature of a glaciere cave is lower than the isotherm of its -locality; and it seems more than probable that on the same isotherm -different glaciere caves may have different mean annual temperatures, -varying with the elements of size, quantity of ice, position of body of -cave and of entrance, water supply and other factors. - - -_Ice near the Entrance of Caves and the Surface of the Soil._--An -important proof that it is the cold air of winter which forms the ice -is the fact that the latter is always found near the entrance of caves -or near the surface of the soil. It never extends far within. To the -best of my knowledge, ice has never been found two hundred meters from -the entrance nor at any depth beyond one hundred and fifty meters. In -all caves of great extent, the temperature far in is about the same as -that of the surrounding rock, and in all deep borings the temperature -increases with the depth and at great depths the temperature becomes -high. This nearness of subterranean ice to the outside air is one of -the best proofs, that, paradoxical as the whole phenomenon appears at -first, yet in reality it is an extremely simple matter. - -The position of the entrance of a cave in relation to the body of the -cave is an important factor in permitting the cold air to permeate -and remain in the cave. In all the caves or gullies I have examined -myself, the main mass of ice is well below the level of the entrance, -and even if the latter is sheltered against the wind, it is not -sheltered against the cold air of winter. This is heavy, and by its own -weight sinks well down to the bottom, freezing up in course of time -all the moisture that may drip from the roof, or that may come into -the cave in the shape of melted snow or cold winter rain. The summer -air, which is warm and, therefore, light, can only enter the cave with -great difficulty; and, as a rule, before it dislodges the winter air -and destroys the ice, another winter's freeze reverses once more the -conditions. These principles seem to hold of every known glaciere. -It is true, that at the Frauenmauer, the floor of the cavern rises -somewhat from the entrance; but the highest point of the floor is still -below the level of the top of the entrance, so that the cold air can -flow over the highest point without difficulty. The same appears to be -the case at the Posselthoehle; while at Amarnath in Kashmere, where the -floor is said to rise to the back wall, the entrance is about as large -as the area of the floor, so that the ice must also be below the level -of the top of the entrance. - -The position or situation of the entrance is important. In almost all -cases it has a northerly exposure, and is sheltered against entering -winds. If these two conditions do not exist the ice supply surely -suffers. Sometimes the entrance is more or less tortuous. In some cases -it is protected by a fringe of trees. Still, there is no absolute rule -about entrances. The Friedrichsteinerhoehle faces about due south, and -at midday in summer, the sun shines all the way down to the ice floor, -causing mists to form. In the Kolowratshoehle, the entrance is badly -sheltered against the wind and this undoubtedly affects the supply in -summer and causes more rapid melting there than in some other cases.[58] - -[58] See Part III.: Decorah, page 178. - -Freezing boulder taluses invariably have the ice near the surface, -and probably it is never a dozen meters distant from the open air. -These taluses are one of the strongest links in the chain of evidence -proving the winter's cold theory. The snow and ice on the surface of -the taluses and on the surface of the boulders in gullies melts away, -while it still lingers underneath the boulders. It seems self-evident -that the melting snow water has run to the lowest level and there -congealed, and then remained because it was better sheltered than the -ice outside. - -The subsoil ice of the tundras of Siberia and Alaska is almost -identical with the ice of boulder formations, except that it extends -under larger areas. It is the product of a climate where there is a -long, rigorous winter and it is not surprising that the ice is found at -greater depths than in more southerly latitudes.[59] The depth to which -the ice extends is, of course, determined by the depth to which the -winter's cold can penetrate the soil. There is no doubt that the causes -of this ice are local, that is, that it is due to the long prevailing -low temperatures. - -[59] See Part III.: Alaska, page 166; Klondike, page 167; Kowak River, -page 166; Kotzebue Sound, page 166. - -The freezing wells of which the most conspicuous examples are at -Brandon, Owego, Decorah, and in Montana, seem also due to local causes -and the ice is never far from the surface, that is, not over twenty -meters; and apparently also it forms above the water horizons which -supply the wells. - -The ice sheet on Mount Etna[60] does not seem to be at any great depth. -It apparently had a different origin from most subterranean ice masses, -in that the snow probably fell first and was then covered by a flow of -lava. It is, therefore, almost _sui generis_ in its mode of formation, -unless there are similar sheets on other volcanoes, which is probable -in a country like Iceland, and which is said to be the case in Tierra -del Fuego,[61] But the original cause of the ice sheet on Etna was the -same as all other subterranean ice masses, namely the cold of winter. - -[60] See Part III., page 210. - -[61] See Part III., page 190. - - -_Evaporation and Movements of Air._--The formation of subterranean ice -is sometimes assigned partly to evaporation or to expansion of the air. -The theory is an old one, and both scientific and non-scientific men -have advanced it.[62] - -[62] Among those who have written that evaporation is a factor in the -formation of subterranean ice, may be mentioned: Pictet, 1822; Scrope, -1827; Reich, 1834; Pleischl, 1841; Murchison, 1845; Olmstead, 1856; -Hitchcock, 1861; White, 1870; Kirchhoff, 1876; Krauss, 1895. - -I have already said that I believe it is the movements of the air -which cause a cave to be a glaciere cave or a normal cave. When they -act in such a way as to permit the cold air of winter to permeate a -cave, we find low temperatures and ice; when they do not, we find the -temperature about the same as that of the ground and no ice. - -That the ice is not formed in apparently static caves, by movements -of air producing evaporation, seems to me proved by what I have -noticed in regard to the atmosphere. The dryness or moistness of the -air within a glaciere cave is coincident with the state of freezing -or thawing of the cave. When I have visited a large cave in June, -everything was frozen tight, there were no drips nor mushy ice, the -air was relatively dry and the sensation of cold not unpleasant. When -I have visited a cave in August, the ice was soft and mushy, water -was dripping from the roof, the atmosphere was moist, and the cold -penetrating. It seems to me that the facts go to show that it is not -evaporation which forms the ice, but the melting of the ice which -fills the cave with moisture. If there are any draughts or movements -of the atmosphere when above freezing point, then their tendency is to -vaporize the ice. - -The process of the formation of ice in relation to the atmosphere is as -follows: the cold air permeates the cave and freezes up all the drip: -the atmosphere becomes dry: gradually warmer air gets in and the ice -begins to melt: then the atmosphere gets charged slowly with the vapor -of the melting ice. This process is the exact opposite of the formation -of ice by evaporation; it is the atmosphere which is made humid by the -vaporizing of the ice, and by the drip. When the air is thoroughly -saturated with the vapor, being scarcely renewed from outside and but a -few degrees above freezing point, it undoubtedly retards evaporation, -acts like a blanket and lessens the rate of melting of the ice.[63] - -[63] See Part IV.: Thury, page 285; Fugger, page 296; Trouillet, page -298. - -Everything I have personally observed in freezing windholes shows -that in them also the cold of winter and not evaporation is the -cause of the ice. They answer to the same tests as other glacieres, -of geographical distribution and altitude, nearness of ice to the -outside, thermometric observations, and dampness of the air when the -ice melts. Equally with other glacieres, the movements of air in -windholes do not depend on the presence of ice, but the ice does depend -on the movements of air and a water supply at the proper time. A proof -that it is the cold of winter which makes the ice in windholes, is that -the ice is always found at the lower extremity, for the reason that it -is at that end that the cold air enters and to that end that the water -gravitates. The reason that ice is more rarely found in windholes than -in apparently static caves, is due to the movements of air. Unlike the -caves where the heavy cold air preserves the ice by remaining pent -up, as soon as the outside temperature rises the heavy cold air in -windholes tumbles out at the lower opening and is replaced gradually by -air at a higher temperature. This also flows out and when it is above -freezing point, it naturally melts the ice and becomes humid: in fact, -it vaporizes the ice as it passes, and dissipates the moisture into the -outer air. - -It is, however, certain, that in caves with a temperature some degrees -above freezing point, when there is either running water or strong -drips, evaporation may be, and sometimes undoubtedly is, a factor in -lowering the temperature somewhat.[64] As in some windholes there -is occasionally moisture on the rock surfaces where the air current -passes, the evaporation from these surfaces doubtless lowers the -temperature of the draughts, and it may be, also those of the rock -surfaces, a little. - -[64] See Part IV.: De Saussure, page 274. See also _Les Abimes_, 1894, -page 564. - -Further observations, however, will be necessary in regard to -evaporation underground, as the data are still insufficient to make -absolutely positive statements.[65] I fail to see any evidence to show -that evaporation ever lowers the temperature of draughts underground -below freezing point, only that it may help to lower them to something -less than they would otherwise be. Taking all the facts which I have -myself observed, and all I have read of in the reports of others, my -own conclusion is that we have no proof that evaporation underground is -ever strong enough to produce ice. - -[65] Several observers consider evaporation as more or less of a factor -in the production of cold underground. It is suggested also, that in -certain cases, at high altitudes, evaporation tends to prevent the -melting of the ice in windholes, but this is not proved, as yet. See -Part IV.: De Saussure, page 274; Fugger, page 296; Trouillet, page 298; -Martel, page 300; Lohmann, page 302. - - -_Time of Formation of Ice._--Everything I have seen points to the fact -that ice begins to form in a cave as soon as the temperature of the -cave has sunk below freezing point, whenever, from any cause, water -gets into the cave. The cold may begin to penetrate caves as soon -as outside frosts have occurred, that is in the fall months, about -November; and as soon as the temperature inside sinks below freezing -point, ice will begin to form, provided also that water gets into the -cave, from rains or springs or any other source. - -In the mid-winter months, although there is then plenty of cold, the -water supply is generally lacking, as the outside moisture is mostly -frozen up and the result is that the winter months are not those -when the ice is mainly formed. Some is undoubtedly formed in certain -caves whenever during the course of the winter a surface thaw outside -furnishes water to the cave,[66] but in other cases this is not so and -the ice does not appear before the spring. In all cases it is in the -spring, before the cave has parted with its store of cold, and when -both the air and the rock walls are chilled below freezing point[67] -that the ice forms fastest. Then plenty of water is furnished by the -melting of the snows and the unlocking of the brooks, and also by early -spring rains. All this surface water runs through the fissures into -the still freezing cave and there becomes ice. Not only the air, but -also the rock walls are chilled below freezing point, and as the rocks -part slowly with the cold stored in them, this cold helps to freeze the -water pouring in. - -[66] See Part III.: Chaux-les-Passavant, page 203; Saint-Georges, page -220. - -[67] See Part IV.: Townson, page 275; Thury, page 285; Trouillet, page -297; Schwalbe, page 298; Terlanday, page 301; Kovarik, page 307. - -The natural law in relation to time seems to be this: Ice may be formed -in caves as soon as the outside temperature sinks below freezing point. -In some caves it forms intermittently all through the cold months -because there is a water supply. In other caves it only forms in the -spring, because there is no water supply in the winter months. In all -cases, however, the end of winter is the time when most of the ice is -formed. - - - - -PART III. - -LIST OF GLACIERES. - - - - -LIST OF GLACIERES.[68] - -[68] This list is necessarily incomplete, and only approximately -accurate in many cases. - - -NORTH AMERICA. - -Buried or Fossil Glaciers, North Greenland. (W. E. Meehan, -_Philadelphia Ledger_, 1896.)--On Robertson's Bay is the plateau of -the Verhoef Glacier, which is about 1500 meters long and 400 meters -wide, and stands back only a few meters from the edge of the sea. This -plateau, both top and sides, is a mass of flourishing vegetation, -chiefly grass, which reaches above a man's knee. From among this -verdure buttercups, poppies, cinquefoils and dandelions thrust their -golden heads in wild profusion. Similar buried glaciers are found in -many places along the fiords of North Greenland. - -Mr. Meehan gives a simple explanation in connection with the Verhoef -Glacier. He says that this glacier formerly extended out into the sea, -and that while it moved forward, the clump moss, which struggles for -existence in Greenland gorges, could do little more than hold its own. -In course of time, from some unknown cause, the glacier receded to the -point where it now discharges, the part in the water floating away in -the shape of icebergs, and the part on the shore remaining stationary. -This was the opportunity for the clump mosses. Caring nothing for the -cold they crept slowly over the quiet mass of ice and made their way -first in thin net-like layers, later in thick masses, till they reached -the rocky shore. Year after year the mosses grew, the young plants -trampling underfoot the older; until the latter, rotting, turned into -a rich mould. The seeds of grasses and flowers found their way to -this, blown by the wind or carried on the feet of birds. The plateau -now is a garden of green, gold and white. How long this will last it -is impossible to say, as any time nature may unloose its hold, and the -frozen river once more pour down into the bay. - - -Subsoil Ice in Alaska. (I. C. Russell, _A Journey up the Yukon -River_, page 149, and _Second Expedition to Mount Saint Elias_, page -19.)--Professor Russell found ice covered by rocks and vegetation -in several places in Alaska, especially along the southern edge of -the Malaspina Glacier and on the Yukon River. He gives the following -interesting account in 1890 of these ice sheets: "Throughout the length -of the Yukon, one is frequently reminded of the high latitude drained -by the great river, by seeing strata of ice in the recently cut banks, -beneath the dense layer of moss and roots forming the surface on which -the forests grow. One may frequently find ice even on a hot summer's -day, by scraping away the moss at his feet. In some instances the -frozen layer has been penetrated to the depth of twenty-five feet, but -its full depth has never been ascertained. In the banks of some of the -streams to the north of the lower Yukon, strata of ice over a hundred -feet thick have been observed, and the indications are that its total -depth is considerably greater than the portion exposed. This subsoil -ice is stagnant and without the characteristics of glaciers." - - -Subsoil Ice in the Klondike Region. (_Philadelphia Ledger_, December -30th, 1897.)--The Klondike mining country is covered with snow most of -the year. The ground is frozen for ten or twelve meters in depth, down -to bed rock. In some places the ground, which is protected by a thick -moss, is not thawed out by the sun in summer. The miner cuts off the -moss with a shovel, and then builds a fire, which thaws out the ground -for five or ten centimeters. He digs this out, rebuilds a fire, and -then continues this process. - - -Ice Cliffs on the Kowak River, Alaska. (Lieutenant J. C. Cantwell, -_National Geographic Magazine_, October, 1896.)--On the shores of the -Kowak River are a series of ice cliffs of from about 25 meters to -45 meters in height. On top of these ice cliffs is a layer of black -silt-like soil some 2 meters in thickness, and from this springs a -luxuriant growth of mosses, grass and Arctic shrubbery. The melted ice -shows a residuum of fine dust, which while fresh emits a pungent odor. - - -Subterranean Ice Sheet on Kotzebue Sound. (Otto von Kotzebue, -_Entdeckungsreise in die Suedsee_, etc. Weimar, 1821. Vol. IV., page -140.)--Dr. Eschholz discovered near Kotzebue Sound, in 1816, a mass of -ice more than 30 meters thick, and entirely covered with a layer at -least 15 centimeters thick of clay, sand, and earth, on which heavy, -long grass was growing. In the ice and in the soil overlaying it, were -many remains of extinct animals. On the side towards the ocean the ice -was entirely bare, exposed to sun and air, and much of it was melting -away in streamlets. - - -Freezing Lava Caves, Washington. (R. W. Raymond, _Overland Monthly_, 3d -November, 1869, page 421. Th. Kirchhoff, _Reisebilder und Skizzen aus -America_, 1876, vol. II., page 211. _Philadelphia Ledger_, September -25th, 1899.)--These caves are distant about four hours from the foot of -Mount Adams, and about 56 kilometers from the mouth of the White Salmon -River, where it falls into the Columbia River. The caves are in basalt, -and they are connected at both ends with the open air. Only a few of -them contain any ice, which in the largest cave is about 6 meters below -the entrance, from which one descends by a ladder. The cave opens on -one side and is some 15 meters in depth, 6 meters or 8 meters in width -and 3 meters or 4 meters in height. This part contains the most ice. -The other side gradually narrows from the entrance, is longer, and -reaches out through fallen rocks and rubbish to daylight. In the lower -portion, there are a few ice stalactites and stalagmites: one a superb, -transparent hillock, which rises nearly to the roof, is called the -Iceberg. A strong draught flows into the cave in summer through the -open arm. - -The following paragraphs from the _Philadelphia Ledger_ probably refer -to the same locality:-- - -"Ice for the cutting, and that in August and early in September, is a -novelty not often found in regions as far south as the Columbia River -basin; but the novelty is enjoyed every year by people who visit the -ice caves under the shadow of Mount Adams, about 100 miles northeast -of Portland. It is a very extensive region. Frank McFarland, who has -just returned from a six weeks' vacation camping trip there, gives an -interesting account of its general make up. - -"At the ice caves, which are six miles from Trout Lake, the stalactites -are more beautiful and wonderful this year than ever before, and this -was Mr. McFarland's fifteenth trip there. He broke off and took to camp -chunks of ice weighing 100 pounds. Pleasure parties who come to the -lake use considerable of the ice for packing their trout to take home. -All you have to do is to take a torch of pitch pine or a lantern, and -go into the big caves and pack off all the ice you want. It is a sure -crop, and never fails." - - -Ice Spring in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon. (G. Gibbs, _American Journal -of Science and Arts_, 1853, Second Series, vol. XV., page 146.)--The -Ice Spring is about 60 kilometers from the South Pass to the right of -the Sweetwater River. It is situated in a low marshy swale, where the -ground is filled with springs; and about 60 centimeters below the turf -is a sheet of horizontal ice, some 10 centimeters to 30 centimeters -thick, lasting throughout the year. The ice is clear and is disposed -in hexagonal prisms; it has a slightly saline taste, the ground above -it being impregnated with salt and the water near by tasting of sulphur. - - -Freezing Lava Caves in Modoc County, California. (_Dispatch_, -Frankford, Pennsylvania, 22d January, 1897, reprinted from another -paper.)--The lava beds, where the Modoc Indians made their last stand -against the United States troops, are described as an immense field of -lava covered with a beautiful forest of conifers. Numerous caves of -varying shapes and dimensions are scattered throughout these lava beds. -Some are mere covert ways, with an arch of stone thrown over them; -others are immense chambers some meters from the surface; another kind -sinks deeply and may be in a series of chambers united by a corridor -that opens at the surface; while another kind seems to go directly to -the centre of the earth without stopping. Some of these caves contain -ice and from them the Modocs drew their water supply while besieged by -the troops. Judging from what is reported of the caves the quantity of -ice in them must be large. The thermometer in winter in the region is -said to go as low as -30 deg. C. - - -Freezing Lava Beds near Medicine Lake, Siskiyou County, Northern -California. (M. S. Baker, _Sierra Club Bulletin_, 1899. Vol. II., page -318.)--"One other feature of the lava region must be mentioned--the ice -caves. There are several of these known, and very likely many more -remain undiscovered. Those located along the edge of the lava, near the -cinder cone, I have known to contain ice and water as late as August. -The largest I have seen is on the Mayfield Road, about twenty miles -east of Bartles. It is situated in the barren lava, and in one of the -warmest localities of the region,--and there are few cool spots in the -lava anywhere. One enters the cave by crawling down a hole none too -large. The instant the interior is reached the temperature falls in a -surprising way. Not more than ten feet below the surface of the hot -rocks is a bed of ice, covered by a foot or so of ice water. The body -of ice was perhaps twelve or fifteen feet long, by five feet across -in the widest places. This cave is formed by a fissure that extends a -distance of twenty miles from the ice cave to Pittville, and nearly -coincides with the 4000 foot level, as shown in the map. Along the -southeastern half of this earth fissure the southwest wall has faulted, -leaving a cliff, which, in places, must be nearly 200 feet high." - - -Freezing Shafts, Montana.--Mr. Robert Butler, of San Jose, Cal., has -given me much information about glacieres in Montana. He visited one -miners' shaft which is situated about 80 kilometers up the Rosebud -River from Rosebud Station on the Northern Pacific R. R., and about 10 -kilometers northeast of the Cheyenne Indian Agency. It is on the north -slope of the Little Wolf Mountains, near the summit, at the head of -Greenleaf Creek. The canyon and surrounding slopes are covered with -a dense growth of pine. The rock has the appearance of scoriae caused -by the burning of immense beds of coal in recent geological times. The -rock is broken into comparatively small pieces. The altitude is some -1200 meters. The forest, the volcanic ash and the altitude, besides -the loose rock formation, makes this place a natural ice house. Ten or -twelve years ago three prospectors, looking for silver, sunk a shaft -here. At a depth of about 4 meters it began to grow cold, and at 6 -meters they found ice and imagined they could feel an upward draught. -Being ignorant and superstitious, they became frightened and abandoned -the shaft. During the winter, the snow fills the shaft half full of -ice, which then remains over through the summer. There is a general -report and belief among those who have visited the well, that it -freezes in summer and thaws in winter. There are thousands of mining -shafts in Montana, and if they are on the north slope of a mountain -of considerable altitude and under a dense forest and not too deep, -they generally have ice at the bottom during the summer. It is also -said to be nothing new for a miner in following crevices to find them -filled with ice, especially if near the surface on the north slope of a -mountain. - - -Freezing Cave, Fergus County, Montana.--Mr. Robert Butler, of San Jose, -Cal., visited this place, which is about 35 kilometers southeast of -Lewistown. It is on the north side of a butte. Masses of ice and great -icicles form in some parts of the cave in such quantities during the -latter part of winter that the cave furnishes ice for cooling the -drinking water for several dozen families. During July and August the -people come from some distance around to get the ice. The people in the -neighborhood believe that the ice forms in summer and thaws away in -winter. They also speak of the ever upward draught of cold air coming -possibly from some great hidden cavern in the lower recesses of the -mountain. - - -Freezing Well at Horse Plains, Montana. (Levi Allen, _Scientific -American_. New Series, 27th October, 1883.)--The well is described as -13.60 meters deep. It is dug through solid gravel, and in sinking it -there was encountered, at a depth of 10.60 meters, a current of air -strong enough to blow out a candle. It began to freeze in September, -1882, and in November it was frozen solid. - - -Freezing Silver Mine, Bighorn County, Wyoming.--This place is in the -Sunlight Basin of the Shoshone Mountains. Mr. William Worrell Wagner, -of Philadelphia, informs me that he visited it in August, 1897. It is -a silver mine or tunnel, running straight into the mountain for about -60 meters, at an altitude of about 3300 meters. The peaks of the Teton -range were in sight from the mouth of the tunnel. For the first half of -the way in, a good many icicles were hanging from the rocks. The last -half of the tunnel was thickly coated with ice and looked like a cold -storage plant. Snow disappears on the rocks outside about June, and -begins to fall again in September, so that Mr. Wagner's visit was at -about the hottest time of the year. Mr. Wagner presented the meat of a -bull wapiti he had shot to the miners, and they stored it in the mine -as if it had been an artificial refrigerator. - - -Rifts of Ice, Mount McClellan, Colorado. (Edward L. Berthoud, _American -Journal of Science and Arts_. Third Series, 1876, vol. XI., page -108.)--Near the summit of Mount McClellan, is the Centennial Lode, -which runs into the mountain, at an altitude of about 3900 meters. -Intercalated in the mineral vein are three or four well defined veins -of solid ice parallel with the bedding of the rock and filling all its -inner side-cracks and fissures. The same frozen substratum is found in -two other lodes near by on the same mountain. Nothing of the kind is -known on other Colorado mountains. The soil is loose and largely made -up of rocky debris, which shows that the ice is probably due to local -causes. - - -Freezing Tunnel on the Hagerman Pass, Colorado. (_Philadelphia Press_, -October 16th, 1897.)--The Hagerman Pass Railroad line is said to -have been abandoned after the completion of the Busk-Ivanhoe tunnel, -but to have been rebuilt. The Hagerman tunnel for a distance of over -700 meters was filled with solid ice, and it required blasting with -dynamite, and a month's continuous labor, day and night, to dig the ice -out. - - -Freezing Cavern in Cow Mountain, Colorado. (_Post Dispatch_, St. Louis, -Mo., July 13th, 1897, and September 5th, 1897. _Mail Order Monthly_, -St. Paul, Minn., October, 1899.)--The cave was discovered by parties -doing assessment work on a group of claims. A man was picking in a -three meter hole when he struck his pick into an opening, which was -gradually enlarged and showed a deep pit underneath. The men got a rope -and descended into an immense cavern full of ice. Later exploration -led to a small hall, some 5 meters in diameter, full of icicles. From -here a fissure led into a second rock chamber larger than the first. A -small hole in the floor at an angle of some 45 deg. gave access to a third -and larger hall, about 25 meters by 40 meters. Great masses of ice were -found in this, also a small lake, about 12 meters by 20 meters. "Some -who have visited the wonderful discovery are of the opinion that it -is a great cave or fissure in a glacier which for centuries has been -slowly making its way down from Pike's Peak and whose waters are now -feeding the Arkansas River." - - -Windhole, Arizona. (_Christian Herald_, March 24th, 1897.)--Mr. Cofman, -while drilling a well on his place, is said to have opened a windhole -from which the escaping air current was strong enough to blow off the -hats of the men who were recovering the lost drill. Some days the air -escapes with such force that pebbles the size of peas are thrown up, -accompanied by a sound much like the distant bellowing of a fog horn. -Again for days there will be a suction current, unaccompanied by -sound, in which the current of air passes into the earth with somewhat -less force than when escaping, and any light object, as a feather or a -piece of paper, will be immediately sucked in. The account is probably -exaggerated. - - -Freezing Lava Cave near Flagstaff, Arizona.--Professor W. B. Scott of -Princeton University told me of this cave, which he had not visited -himself. It lies 14.5 kilometers south of Flagstaff, on the Mesa -table land, at an altitude of about 2000 meters. It was described to -Professor Scott as a double cave, with two floors, one over the other, -the lower containing the most ice. It is in lava, and can only be -entered by crawling in on hands and knees. - - -Freezing Cave or Gorge, White Mountains, Arizona.--Mr. Frank Hamilton -Cushing has told me of this place. It is a cleft among lava rock, which -being roofed at the further end, might be described as a cave. In this -the ice remains until June or July, much later than anywhere else in -the neighborhood. The Zuni Indians worship before this, calling the -ice the breath of the Gods, the snow they consider as a sort of down. -The region is arid, which makes any water precious, and this fact has -developed the element of mysticism about snow and ice among the Indians. - - -Freezing Cave near Galena, Black Hills, South Dakota. (Miss L. A. -Owen, _Cave Regions of the Ozarks and Black Hills_. Cincinnati, 1898, -page 209): "At Galena, a new mining town of golden promise, there is -reported to be an Ice Cave, where ice forms at all seasons, and during -the warm weather is a source of comfort and pleasure to the miners." - - -Windholes in the Ozark Mountains, Missouri.--Mr. H. F. Brinckerhoff, -of Aurora, Mo., informs me that there are a number of cold air current -caves in the Ozark Mountain region. One of them is some 19 kilometers -south of Aurora, Lawrence County, and is used for cold storage in -summer. There is a cave in a limestone bluff about 15 meters above a -river, and in the rear is this windhole, which is an opening about 30 -centimeters high and 3 meters wide. A strong current of air comes out -from it in summer, and the hotter the air outside, the stronger is the -outward coming current. In winter the current is reversed. The outward -current is so strong in very hot weather that a handkerchief held in it -is straightened out to an angle of about 45 deg.. - - -Freezing Cave and Well at Decorah, Iowa. Described in Part I. (Dr. C. -A. White, _Report of Geological Survey of State of Iowa_, 1870, vol. -I., page 80. A. F. Kovarik, _Scientific American Supplement_, No. 1195, -November 26th, 1898, pages 19,158, 19,159). - -On June 1st, 1869, Dr. White found the ice dry and well frozen, and he -thought it was then accumulating. The cave was cool and apparently dry, -and no strong air current was passing through. - -Mr. Alois F. Kovarik, of the Decorah Institute, has made a valuable -series of observations about the Decorah Cave. The temperatures he -observed were the following: - - IN THE VALLEY, LOCUS - SHADE. DIVISION. GLACIALIS. END. - - July 1, 1897 +33.3 deg. +2.2 deg. 0.0 deg. 0.0 deg. - " 27, " +21.1 deg. +5.0 deg. 0.0 deg. 0.0 deg. - Aug. 14, " +32.2 deg. +5.8 deg. +3.1 deg. 0.0 deg. - Sept. 3, " +32.2 deg. +7.2 deg. +3.1 deg. +8.3 deg. - " 18, " +33.9 deg. +8.6 deg. +6.1 deg. +8.3 deg. - Oct. 16, " +24.0 deg. +10.0 deg. +8.3 deg. +8.3 deg. - " 30, " +10.0 deg. +7.2 deg. +4.7 deg. +5.0 deg. - Dec. 11, " -2.2 deg. -2.7 deg. -1.1 deg. -2.0 deg. - Jan. 8, 1898 -0.0 deg. -2.7 deg. -3.9 deg. 0.0 deg. - " 22, " -5.0 deg. -6.1 deg. -3.9 deg. -3.9 deg. - Feb. 26, " -0.0 deg. -6.6 deg. -6.6 deg. -5.0 deg. - March 12, " +2.8 deg. -1.6 deg. -2.7 deg. -2.7 deg. - " 26, " +8.8 deg. -1.7 deg. -1.6 deg. -1.1 deg. - April 16, " +25.6 deg. -1.4 deg. +1.1 deg. -1.1 deg. - " 30, " +13.9 deg. +1.1 deg. -1.1 deg. -1.1 deg. - May 28, " +17.2 deg. +1.7 deg. -0.3 deg. 0.0 deg. - June 9, " +25.0 deg. +1.7 deg. -0.3 deg. 0.0 deg. - " 18, " +22.3 deg. +1.7 deg. -0.2 deg. 0.0 deg. - July 16, " +35.0 deg. +7.2 deg. 0.0 deg. +2.2 deg. - -On the 1st of July, 1897, a cold breeze was noticed coming from the -cave to a distance of at least 30 meters. At the entrance the breeze -was strong enough to blow out a candle. This breeze was not noticed at -other times. From December to February inclusive, on the contrary, the -breeze was reversed. From July to October, 1897, the walls of the cave -were moist. From October to February they were dry. In February frost -began to appear on the walls. On March 12th, 1898, the walls were -covered with frost. The ice appeared at a spot nearly at the end of the -cave on the 26th of March, 1898. At a place about 6.50 meters nearer -the entrance, however, is where most ice forms. This place Mr. Kovarik -calls _Locus Glacialis_. The ice appeared here about the 29th of May, -1898. It increased rapidly up to June 12th, when it was at its maximum, -and was about two meters in width. It generally covers the north wall -from top to base. The greatest thickness in 1898 was 29 centimeters. - -The temperature which Mr. Kovarik recorded on the 16th of April at -_Locus Glacialis_ of +1.1 seems an anomalous one. On writing to him -he sent me the following explanation: "April 16th, after I left the -thermometer at _Locus Glacialis_ the usual time, I noticed that it -registered +1.1 deg. C. It seemed singular, for at both the Division and -the End, the thermometer registered considerably lower. I left the -thermometer at its place for about an hour longer, and noticed then -that it did not register differently. I would suggest this explanation: -This is true about water that upon freezing it gives off its latent -heat. Now on April 16th some water dripped into the cave on the wall -near where the thermometer was, about 1.50 meters from the floor. The -amount of water was very small, but as it came in contact with the cold -wall it began to give out its latent heat which affected the close by -thermometer. The temperature of the rock was without doubt between -1. deg. -and -3 deg.." - - -Freezing Cavern at Brainard, Iowa. (Alois F. Kovarik, _Decorah Public -Opinion_, September 20th, 1899.)--This little cave is situated on the -north side of a hill about 1.5 kilometers northwest of Brainard. It is -about 4.50 meters deep. On June 10th, 1899, Mr. Kovarik found the floor -and walls covered with ice. The temperature was 0 deg. C. The owner claims -to have taken enough ice out of it on July 4th, 1897, to freeze cream. - - -Freezing Cave near Elkinsville, Brown County, Indiana. (Clipping from -a western newspaper, 1896.)--The entrance is said to be overlapped by -trees and to resemble a mine shaft. The winding way leads to a hollow -some 15 meters below the surface, resembling a broad vaulted corridor, -which is known to the natives as the devil's chamber and where the -temperature is low. From this point several galleries lead further in, -and from one of them comes a blast of icy cold air. This passage is -similar to the one at the entrance to the cave, but after a few meters -frost is visible, and further on it is thick on all sides, like the -crust that is formed on the pipes of an ice plant. The narrow way leads -to a big chamber, known as the ice vault. In this dome, which is fully -30 meters in width, the ice forms a large stalagmite and is of unknown -depth. - - -Freezing Gully on Mount Abraham, Maine. (Jackson, _Report of the -Geology of Maine_, 1839, III.)--Ice was found in June at an altitude of -1032 meters among the boulders in one of the gullies of Mount Abraham. - -[Illustration: FREEZING CAVERN AT BRAINARD. - - From a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik. -] - - -Subterranean Ice in King's Ravine, Mount Adams, New -Hampshire.--Described in Part I., page 1. - - -Ice Gulch on Crescent Mountain, Randolph, New Hampshire.--Described in -Part I., page 83. - - -Ice in a Hole at Dixville Notch, New Hampshire.--Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., -of Boston, has examined this place, which he is sure is a refrigerator. -It is in a hole north of the cliff and near its top. - - -Ice on Mount Garfield, New Hampshire.--Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., informs -me that ice was discovered among the boulders on the summit of Mount -Garfield during the summer of 1897. - - -Freezing Talus near Rumney, New Hampshire.--Described in Part I., page -85. - - -Freezing Talus near North Woodstock, New Hampshire.--Mr. John Ritchie, -Jr., has examined this locality. He thinks the ice was gone in July, -but judges it to be on the level of an old talus and a couple of meters -down. - - -Freezing Well at Lyman, Grafton County, New Hampshire. (_Geology of -Vermont_, 1861, I., page 197.)--A well in that town is reported as -having been frozen solid in June, 1816, at a depth of about 2.60 meters -from the surface. - - -Icy Wells at the Foot of Mount Mansfield, Vermont. (N. M. Lowe, -_Science Observer_, vol. II., page 58.)--These are described as being -really "incipient caves." - - -Freezing Cave near Manchester, Vermont.--Described in Part I., page 76. - - -Ice Bed of Wallingford, Rutland County, Vermont. Described in Part I., -page 99. (S. Pearl Lathrop, _American Journal of Science and Arts_, -1844, XLVI., page 331.)--Dr. Lathrop says that ice has been found at -the Ice Bed as late as September. - - -Freezing Wells at Brandon, Vermont. Described in Part I., page 77. -(_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page 192.)--Mr. Hager says that -the well was dug into a mass of sand and gravel, of the kind known -as modified drift. The gravel was frozen at the time of digging. The -Boston Natural History Society, in 1859, sank two wells, one 21 meters -southeast of the original one, the other 21 meters northwest. The first -was 10 meters in depth and did not reach ice; the second was 11 meters -in depth, and came to the layer of frozen gravel. - - -Cave near Brandon, Vermont. (_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page -197.)--Mr. Hager heard that about 3 kilometers north of Brandon village -was a cavern, in a hill, in which ice is found most of the summer. - - -Icy Gulf near Great Barrington, Massachusetts.--Mentioned in Part I., -page 99. - - -Icy Glen near Stockbridge, Massachusetts.--Described in Part I., page -75. - - -The Snow Hole, New York: near Williamstown, Massachusetts. Described in -Part I., page 98. (Dewey, _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1819, -vol. I., page 340; and 1822, vol. V., page 398.)--Mr. Dewey found, in -June, snow 2 meters deep on ice of unknown depth. On his second visit -he found less ice and snow than on his first visit, as the trees in the -neighborhood had been cut down. - - -Glaciere near Williamstown, Massachusetts.--Described in Part I., page -101. - - -Freezing Well near Ware, Massachusetts.--(_Geology of Vermont_, 1861, -vol. I., page 197.)--Depth 11.5 meters. This is in a sand and gravel -formation much like that at Brandon, except that there is less clay, -and that none of the pebbles are limestone. - - -Wolfshollow near Salisbury, Connecticut. (C. A. Lee, _American Journal -of Science and Arts_, 1824, vol. VIII., page 254.)--In the eastern -portion of the township, at an altitude of about 800 meters, is a chasm -about 100 meters long, 18 meters deep and 12 meters wide. It is in -mica-slate, and is sheltered by large trees. At the bottom at one end -is a spring of cold water and a cave of considerable extent, in which -ice and snow is found the greater part of the year. - - -Natural Ice House, near Meriden, Connecticut. (Benjamin Silliman, -_American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1822, vol. IV., page 174.)--It -lies between New Haven and Hartford, about 32 kilometers from the sea, -at an altitude of about 60 meters. The ice is found in a narrow defile -of perpendicular trap rock, at the bottom filled with broken stones. -The defile is so placed that in summer the sun only shines into it for -about an hour each day; it is also well protected by surrounding trees, -the leaves from which form beds at the bottom among the rocks and help -to protect the ice. - - -Natural Ice House of Northford, Connecticut. (Benjamin Silliman, -_American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1822, vol. IV., page -177.)--About 11 kilometers from New Haven on the Middletown road -between Branford and Northford, is a gorge where ice remains throughout -the year. In this case the ice is mixed with a considerable quantity of -leaves and dirt; it has sometimes been brought to New Haven. - - -Ice in an Old Iron Mine, near Port Henry, Lake Champlain. (_Geology of -Vermont_, 1861, vol. I., page 199.)--Ice was found during the summer at -a depth of from 15 meters to 30 meters, and a current of cold air was -issuing from the opening. There seems to be more than one opening to -the mine. - - -Freezing Talus on Lower Ausable Pond, Essex County, New -York.--Described in Part I., page 79. - - -Freezing Talus at the South Base of the Giant of the Valley, Essex -County, New York.--Described in Part I., page 81. - - -Freezing Boulder Talus, Indian Pass, New York. See Part I., page 83. - - -Freezing Boulder Talus, Avalanche Pass, New York.--See Part I., page 83. - - -Freezing Cave near Carlisle, New York.--See Part I., page 93. - - -Ice among the Catskill Mountains, New York.--Mr. George Brinton -Phillips informs me that he has seen subterranean ice in August among -boulders in a gorge in the Catskills near the Stony Cloves road, -starting out from Haines' Falls. The people in the neighborhood speak -of the place as an ice cave. - - -Gorge in the Shawangunk Mountains, near Ellenville, Ulster County, New -York. Described in Part I., page 91. (Heilprin, _Around the World_, -1894, page 194.)--Professor Heilprin found in July a mass of ice -measuring about thirty meters in length and 1 meter in depth. The -thermometer near the ice read about 1 deg. C. above freezing point, the day -being hot. Icicles hung from the ledges on the side of the gorge. - - -Freezing Gorge at Sam's Point, New York.--See Part I., page 93. - - -Ice Deposits and Windholes at Watertown, New York.--Described in Part -I., page 86. - - -Freezing Well near Tioga, New York.--Depth, 23 meters. No information. - - -Freezing Well near Prattsburg, New York.--Depth, 6.5 meters. No -information. - - -Freezing Well near Owego, New York. Described in Part I., page 74. -(D. O. Macomber, _American Journal of Arts and Sciences_, 1839, vol. -XXXVI., page 184. _Well's Annual of Scientific Discovery_, 1856, page -190.)--The thermometer is said to have stood at--1.2 deg. at the bottom of -the biggest well when it registered--20 deg. outside. When a candle was -let down, the flame became agitated and was thrown in one direction -at the depth of 9 meters; at the bottom the flame was still, but soon -died out. Large masses of ice were found in the biggest well as late -as July, and the men who made the well were forced to put on thick -clothing in June, and even so could not work for more than two hours at -a time. - - -Cave in the Panama Rocks, Chautauqua, New York. The Rev. Horace C. -Hovey informs me that he has been in a small cave in this locality, and -that he found ice in it. - - -Cave in Sussex County, New Jersey.--A clipping from a newspaper, with -neither name nor date, says that new ice is found daily on the land of -Peter Feather, in the mouth of an unexplored cavern. A small stream of -water runs out of the cavern and forms a pool at the opening, and here -it is that the ice forms. Enough has been taken in one day to freeze -two cans of ice cream. A cold draught of air issues continuously from -the cavern. - - -Hole Containing Ice on Blue Mountain, New Jersey. Reported; no -information. - - -Gorge Containing Ice on Bald Eagle Mountain, Clinton County, -Pennsylvania.--Mr. Henry Chapman Mercer, of Doylestown, learned of -the existence of this gorge during the summer of 1897. It is near the -village of McElhatten, in the neighborhood of Lock Haven, and is some -3 kilometers distant from the Susquehanna River. Ice is said to remain -over during the entire summer. - - -Freezing Cave and Windholes near Farrandsville, Clinton County, -Pennsylvania.--Described in Part I., page 93. - - -Underground Ice Formations, Sullivan County, Pennsylvania, on the -southwestern borders of Lycoming County.--Mr. W. Coleman Hall of -Philadelphia, about twenty years ago, found ice in two or three -places, on Bear Creek, north of Muncy Creek, about 25 kilometers north -of the Susquehanna River, and southwest of Eagles Mere. The ice was -under rocks, in what may be described as limestone sinks. Since the -destruction of the forest, the ice has become less abundant, if indeed -any still forms. - - -Glacieres in Abandoned Coal Mines near Summit, Carbon County, -Pennsylvania.--Described in Part I., page 95. - - -Ice Cave Railroad Station, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. On the Bowman -Creek branch of the Lehigh Valley R. R.--Mr. F. Holschuh, agent at -Luzerne, informs me that about 2 kilometers from Ice Cave Station is a -little waterfall on the side of a mountain which was formerly covered -with dense forest. A short distance below the fall, a large hollow -place has been worn out of the rocks by the action of the water. The -overhanging rocks give this almost the appearance of a cave. While -the forest was still thick and when the winter was cold, ice would -form under these rocks and would not disappear until summer was well -advanced. The station was called Ice Cave on account of this place. - - -Hole Containing Ice at Millerstown, Pennsylvania.--Reported; no -information. - - -Freezing Talus at Spruce Creek, Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania. -Described in Part I., page 90. The _Philadelphia Ledger_ of July 6th, -1896, states that around the boulders where the ice lies, there are -found varieties of plants strongly arctic in character. - - -Ice Mountain, Hampshire County, Virginia. (C. B. Hayden, _American -Journal of Science and Arts_, 1843, vol. XLV., page 78.)--It lies on -the North River, near the road leading from Winchester to Romney, at -an altitude of from about 220 meters to 240 meters. One side of the -hill is entirely composed of loose stones, among which an abundance -of ice is found at all times, although the sun shines on the upper -surface of the stones from ten in the morning until sunset. The ice is -regularly used in summer by the people near by. Constant and strong air -currents issue from the crevices in the rocks. Similar, but smaller -accumulations, are said to occur in the same county. Mrs. George B. -Balch visited the Ice Mountain in August, 1878. She saw no ice, but the -air under the stones was very cold. - - -Blowing Cave, Bath County, Virginia.--Mrs. Horace Jayne informs me that -there is a blowing cave near the Cowpasture River, about half way on -the old stage road between Millboro and Warm Springs. A draught flows -out from it, strong enough to blow the grass about, three or four -meters away. The draught is cold, perhaps abnormally so. The cave has -not yet been explored. - - -SOUTH AMERICA. - -Ice Sheets on Mount Chimborazo. (A. von Humboldt, _Travels to -the Equinoctial Regions_, London, 1814, vol. I., page 156.)--"On -Chimborazo, enormous heaps of ice are found covered with sand, and in -the same manner as at the Peak [of Teneriffe] far below the inferior -limit of the perpetual snows." - - -Tierra del Fuego. (A. Winchel, _Walks and Talks_, 1898, page 122.)--"On -Tierra del Fuego ice and lava are found interstratified for a great -depth, each winter's snow being covered by a new lava sheet." - - -TENERIFFE. - -La Cueva de la Nieve or del Hielo. (Humboldt, _Travels to the -Equinoctial Regions_, 1814, vol. I., pages 154, 156. C. Piazzi Smyth, -_Teneriffe, an Astronomer's Experiment_, 1858, page 348.)--La Cueva de -la Nieve lies at an altitude of 3267 meters in the Malpays on the Peak -of Teneriffe, just below the snow line. It is in obsidian. The entrance -is 3.6 meters high and 2.7 meters broad. The grotto is 36 meters long, -6 meters wide, and 4 meters high. The descent into the cave is so steep -that it is necessary to be lowered by ropes. Professor Smyth found in -July an ice floor about 60 centimeters thick which was covered with -water. A good deal of snow was lying near the mouth of the cave. The -walls were covered with ice and icicles and a few small ice cones rose -on the ice floor. - - -ICELAND. - -The Surtshellir or Cave of Surtur. (Olafsen and Povelsen, _Voyage en -Islande_, Paris, 1802. Henderson, _Iceland_, 1819, 2d ed., page 420. -Guimard, _Voyage en Islande_, page 481.)--The Surtshellir lies in the -volcanic waste of Westisland, and is in lava which has flowed from the -Bald Jokul. The approach is through an open chasm. The length of the -cave is 1534 meters, with an average width of from 15 meters to 17 -meters, and a nearly uniform height of from 9 meters to 11 meters. In -four places the roof is broken and allows daylight to enter. A great -deal of ice is sometimes found in the cave, in the shape of an ice -floor, transparent icy pillars, hanging icy pendants, and columns and -arches of ice along the walls. Some of the pillars have been found 2.50 -meters high. - - -Kutlagaya. (A. Winchel, _Walks and Talks_, 1898, page 122.)--"In -1860 the crater of the mountain Kutlagaya, in Iceland, hurled out -simultaneously into the air lumps of lava and ice, all intermingled -together." - - -SCANDINAVIA. - -Ice in the Mines of Nordmark. (Jars, _Voyages Metallurgiques_, 1774, -page 105.)--13 kilometers north of Philipstadt, Wermeland, Sweden, a -number of holes were dug, some to a depth of 120 meters. Ice of some -thickness formed in some of these towards the end of winter, and lasted -until about September, despite the fires of the workmen. - - -Persberg Iron Mines, Sweden. (J. Prestwich, _Collected papers_, etc., -on page 206, quotes Dr. Clark's _Travels in Scandinavia._)--Ice is said -to have been found on the sides and bottom of the mine to a depth of -about 135 meters. - - -Ice Caves Reported in Norway.--I was told in Norway that some of the -caves in the mountains near the Swartisen ice field contained ice, but -I do not know whether this is true. I suspect that there are glacier -ice caves which have given rise to this report. - - -ENGLAND. - -Helvellyn, Cumberland. (Wordsworth, _Fidelity_.)--The following verses -were pointed out to me by Mr. Bunford Samuel. As far as I know they are -the only poetry about glacieres:-- - - "It was a cove, a huge recess - That keeps, till June, December's snow; - A lofty precipice in front, - A silent tarn below! - Far in the bosom of Helvellyn, - Remote from public road or dwelling - Pathway or cultivated land - From trace of human foot or hand." - - -Ice in an Old Copper Mine, Cumberland. (J. Clifford Ward, _Nature_, -vol. XI., page 310.)--Ice reported as a rare occurrence. - - -Ludchurch Chasm, Staffordshire. (R. K. Dent and Joseph Hill's _Historic -Staffordshire_, quote Dr. Plot, 1686.)--Mr. Bunford Samuel called my -attention to this book, in which Dr. Plot is quoted as saying that -as late as the 17th of July, snow has been found in Ludchurch Chasm. -Messrs. Dent and Hill do not mention anything of the kind as occurring -now. - - -Blowing Cave in Denbighshire, Wales.--A newspaper cutting says -that there are such strong eruptions of winds from a cave in this -neighborhood as to toss back to a great height in the air any article -of apparel thrown in. - - -Tin Croft Mine, Cornwall. (J. Prestwich, _Collected papers_, etc., page -206, quotes Mr. Moyle.)--Ice has been found in abundance in this mine -at a depth of nearly 100 meters. - - -CENTRAL EUROPE. - -Glaciere de Chaux-les-Passavant. Described in Part I., page 8. -(Poissenot, _Nouvelles Histoires Tragiques de Benigne Poissenot, -licencie aux lois. A Paris, chez Guillaume Bichon, rue S. Jacques, a -l'enseigne du Bichot, 1586, avec privilege du Roy_, pages 436-453. -Gollut, _Les Memoires historiques de la Repub. Sequanoise, et des -princes de la Franche Comte de Bourgogne, par M. Lois Gollut, Advocat -au Parlement de Dole; A Dole, 1592_. Trouillet, _Memoires de la -Societe d'Emulation du Doubs, 1885_. Girardot, _Memoires de la Societe -d'Emulation du Doubs, 1886_.) - -The earliest notice of a glaciere which I have been able to find is in -the shape of a letter giving an account of a visit to the Glaciere de -Chaux-les-Passavant in 1584, by Benigne Poissenot, a French lawyer. -The account, which I have translated as literally as possible, is in a -special chapter, as follows:-- - -"Sir:--Since our separation, I have had this pleasure (_heut_) to -hear news of you only once, having found your brother in Paris; who, -having assured me of your good health (_disposition_), informed me of -how since we had seen each other you had travelled to Italy, even as -far as Greece, of which you had seen a large portion: and that sound -and safe, after so long a journey, you had reappeared and landed at -Havre de Grace where you wished to go, that is to say at home. All the -pleasure which a friend can receive, knowing the affairs of another -self, joined to such a happy result, seized my heart, at the recital -of such agreeable news: and I did not fail shortly after, to write you -amply all which had happened to me since I left you until my return to -France: congratulating you at having escaped from marine abysses and -perilous passages on land, on which travellers are often constrained -to risk their life. From this time, I have always stayed in Paris or -in the neighborhood, according to the good pleasure of dame fortune, -who ruled me in her wise and fed me with her dishes the most common -and ordinary until the first day of January of the year 1584, when I -received my first gift in the shape of a strong and violent disease, -which tormented me more than a month: from which, having become cured -with the help of God, and having with time recovered my health and my -strength at the arrival of spring, I was seized with the desire to -smell the air of the country. And in fact having thrown away my pen -and travelled about (_battu l'estrade_) through high and low Burgundy, -I stopped at Bezenson, Imperial City, to spend the summer. This city -is still to day just the same as Julius Caesar describes it, in the -notable mention he makes of it, in the first book of his commentaries -of the war in Gaul, there remaining there all the vestiges of the -most remarkable things, which he tells of in his description. There -are also very fine fountains, from all of which water streams from -the representation of some god of antiquity, as a Neptune, a Bacchus, -a Pan, a Nereide or others: except before the state house, where the -statue of Charles the Fifth, representing him in a most natural manner, -is placed on an eagle, which from its beak, pours out such a great -quantity of water that this is the most beautiful, among all the other -fountains. And as I do not doubt that while traversing Italy, you both -saw and examined with curiosity the most handsome singularities, which -presented themselves to your eyes and that on your return, passing -through Avignon and Dauphine, as your brother informed me, you had -the advantage over me of seeing the wonders of the country, of which -you had heard me speak sometimes, regretting that the war, during the -time I was in that quarter, had prevented my going to the spot, to see -the burning fountain as in Dodone, and the fountain called Jupiter, -which torches of fire light up and which grows less till midday and -then grows till midnight, and then diminishes and fails at midday: -and another in Epirus which we call to day Albania, the tower without -venom and the inaccessible mountain: then as I said, since you have -contemplated these things and several others not less admirable, I -wish to entertain you about a marvel which I saw, during my sojourn -in Bezenson, to know from you, whether in all your journey, you saw -a similar thing. Know then that the day of the festival of St. John -Baptist, a young man, provided with an honest knowledge, with whom I -had made some little acquaintance, presented me with an icicle, to -cool my wine at dinner, and which I admired greatly, on account of the -time of the year in which we then were, begging him who gave it to me -to tell me where he had discovered this rare present for that time. He -answered me that every year, the day of the solemnity of the festival -of St. John Baptist, the inhabitants of a village, which he named, were -bound to come to offer the great church of St. John of Bezenson, a -goodly quantity of ice, which they got in a wood, and brought to town -at night on horses, for fear that by day it should melt, and that one -of his cronies had given to him what he had given to me. - -"Suddenly there flamed up in me a desire to see this place, where -in the height of the summer, ice was to be found. When he who had -presented me with the icicle saw this, he promised to accompany me, not -having as yet, any more than myself, seen this marvel. I did not hatch -very long this decision, all the more as all those, to whom I mentioned -it, encouraged me to carry it out as soon as I could, assuring me that -I should see a strange thing, and that even the Duke of Alva on his -return from Flanders, passing through Franche Comte, had wished to -see this novelty. Therefore calling on the promise of the one who was -the cause of undertaking this journey, we went together to Versey, a -fine town, distant five leagues from Bezenson, turning a little off -our direct route, to go to see a literary man, at this said Versey, -who having called on me at Bezenson, had extracted from me the promise -of going to see him. There happened to me in this spot, what the poet -du Bellay says happened to him, on his return from Italy, passing -through the Grisons, to go into France: who, after having chanted the -troubles there are in the passage, says that the Swiss made him drink -so much, that he does not remember anything he saw in that country. -Likewise, I can assure you that my host, following the custom of those -of the country (who do not think they are treating a man properly if -they do not make him drink a lot, taking that from the Germans, their -neighbors) made us carouse so well, that when we went to bed, we were -very gay boys. For although we had both made an agreement on the road, -yet our host knew so well how to win us over, saying that those who -would not drink, gave reason to think badly of them, and that they had -committed, or wished to commit some great crime, which they feared to -give away in drinking, that in the end we let ourselves go, passing -the time in Pantagruelic fashion. The next morning having taken some -"hair from the beast" and a guide which our host gave to us to conduct -us to the _Froidiere_--we continued our wanderings, and arrived at a -little village called Chaud, joining a large wood, where our guide told -us, that although he had been more than six times to the _Froidiere_, -yet the road was so tortuous and so cut up by small paths, that if we -did not take a man from this village, to be more sure, we might spend -more than half a day in the wood, before finding what we were seeking. -Getting off our horses now, we added to our company a native of the -place, who having led us by crooked roads, about a quarter of a league, -through the forest, made us enter into a close thicket and by a little -path led us to a pleasant meadow; where, looking down, we saw a hole, -of difficult descent, at the bottom of which was the opening of a -grotto, pretty big, and so awful and terrifying to see, that one would -have said, it was the mouth of Hell. And in truth, I remembered then, -the hole of St. Patrick, which is said to be in Hibernia. We were not -brave enough knights, to try the adventure, my companion and I, if our -guides had not taken the lead. After whom we descended as magnanimously -as the Trojan Duke followed the Sybil to the Plutonic realms, the sword -half drawn from the scabbard, and well determined to make test of the -Platonic doctrine, which teaches that demons can be dissected, in case -any shade or spook should have come to meet us. About the middle of -the way, we began to feel in descending a very agreeable freshness; -for it was the second day of July and the sun shone very warmly, which -made us sweat drop by drop. But we had good opportunity to refresh -ourselves and put ourselves to cool, having reached the grotto which -we found of the length and breadth of a large hall, all paved with ice -in the bottom, and where a crystalline water, colder than that of the -mountains of Arcadia Nonacris, streamed from many small brooklets, -which formed very clear fountains, with the water of which I washed -myself and drank so eagerly, that I had wished the thirst of Tantalus, -or else that I had been bitten by a Dipsas, in order to be always -thirsty, amid such a pleasant beverage. A great lord, who in some -pleasure resort, should have such a refrigerator in summer, could boast -according to my judgment, to be better provided with drink, than the -kings of Persia were with their river Coaspis, which engulphs itself -into the Tigris, the water whereof was so sweet, that the use of it -was allowed only to the great King, for the retinue and cronies of his -household. Do not think, that among these delights, I was at all free -from fear, for never did I raise my eyes above that from terror my -whole body shivered and the hair stood up on my head, seeing the whole -roof of the grotto, covered with big massive icicles, the least of -which, falling on me, had been sufficient to scramble up my brains and -knock me to pieces; so much so that I was like to that criminal, whom -they say is punished in Hell, by the continual fear of a big stone, -which seems as though it must suddenly fall on his ears. There are -besides the large hall of the grotto, some rather roomy corners, where -the gentlemen of the neighborhood, put their venison to cool in summer, -and we saw the hooks, where they hang the wild fowl. It is true, that -when we were there, we saw neither game nor wild fowl, and I think, -that if we had found any of it, we were men to carry off some of it. -We walked around for about a quarter of an hour, in this _Froidiere_ -and we should have staid there longer if the cold had not driven us -out; which struck in to our backs, even to make our teeth crack; we -reascended the slope, not forgetting, all of us as many as we were, to -provide and load ourselves with ice, which served us at lunch in the -little village mentioned above to drink most delightfully, assuring -you that it is impossible to drink more freshly than we drank then. I -thought of those old voluptuaries, who cooled their wine with snow, and -it seemed to me, as though they might have had it much cheaper if in -their time there had been many such _Froidieres_, to refresh it with -ice, instead of with snow, as some of the gentlemen of the neighborhood -of the _Froidiere_ and some of the most notable persons of the -neighborhood of Bezenson do; who by night, have a good supply brought -on horses, which they keep in their caves, and use at their meals and -banquets. Turning back towards the Imperial city of Bezenson, I carried -for about two great leagues, a rather large icicle in my hands, which -little by little melted and was a pleasant and agreeable cooler, on -account of the great heat of the weather. After having thought over in -my mind, the cause of this _antiperistase_, I could find none other but -this: to wit, that as heat domineers in summer, the cold retires to -places low and subterranean, such as is this one, to which the rays of -the sun cannot approach, and that in such an aquatic and humid place, -it operates the results, which we have shown above. Which seemed to me -so much more likely, that on asking the peasants of the neighboring -village, if in winter there was ice in this _Froidiere_, they answered -me that there was none, and that on the contrary, it was very warm -there. Whatever may be the cause, whether this or another, I can assure -you, that I admired this singularity as much as any I have seen, -since a large church, cut into a rock which I had seen a few years -previously, in a little town of Gascony called St. Milion, distant -seven leagues from Bordeaux; on the steeple of which is the cemetery, -where they bury the dead; a thing to be marvelled at by him who has not -seen it. - -"I have made trial, to enrich this missive, with all the artifice -which has come into my head, using the leisure, which the present time -brings me: as the temple of Janus is open, the air beyond breathing -nothing but war: which forces me, against my wish, to sojourn in this -place longer than I had intended. If these troubles settle down, and if -after the rain, God sends us fine weather as requires the calamitous -state in which is now the flat country, I shall return to my Parnassus; -from which if I go out hereafter, believe that it will be very much in -spite of myself, or that my will will have very much changed. You will -be able to let me hear from you there, and take your revenge for the -prolixity of this letter, by sending me one still longer, which you -will write to me with more pleasure, as I shall take much in reading -it. However as it is becoming time to sound taps, I will pray the -sovereign creator for my affectionate recommendations to your graces. - -"Sir, and best friend, may you keep in health and have a long and happy -life. From Sens this 20th of June 1585. - -"Your obedient friend, BENIGNE POISSENOT. - -"End of the description of the marvel, called the _Froidiere_." - -The next notice about the Glaciere de Chaux-les-Passavant is by Gollut -in 1592, as follows:-- - -[Sidenote: "Ices in summer."] - -"I do not wish however to omit (since I am in these waters) to bring to -mind the commodity, which nature has given to some dainty men, since -at the bottom of a mountain of Leugne ice is found in summer, for the -pleasure of those who wish to drink cool. Nevertheless at this time, -this is disappearing, for no other reason (as I think) except, that -they have despoiled the top of the mountain, of a thick and high mass -of woods, which did not permit that the rays of the sun came to warm -the earth, and dry up the distillations, which slipped down to the -lowest and coldest part of the mountain where (_by antiperistase_) the -cold got thicker, and contracted itself against the heats surrounding -and in the neighborhood during the whole summer, all the external -circumference of the mountain." - -The ice at Chaux-les-Passavant is said to have been entirely cleared -out, by the Duc de Levi, in 1727, for the use of the Army of the Saone. -In 1743, when de Cossigny visited the cave, the ice was formed again. -There are no reports about the intervening time between 1727 and 1743. -The ice probably all re-formed the winter after it was taken away. - -Captain Trouillet in 1885 writes of Chaux-les-Passavant: "The following -winter had shown itself unfavorable to the production of ice, the -periods of humidity preceding too long ahead the periods of frost. -Finally last summer, coming after a wet spring, was exceptionally -warm. Such were the circumstances which brought about in the glaciere -the ruin which could be seen at the end of last October. * * * On -the 11th of November, the first effects of frost are felt and the -temperature falls in the glaciere to -2 deg.: outside the thermometer -drops to -3 deg.. On the morning of the 12th, same result, and ice makes -its appearance in the grotto, as the report of the observer shows: but -the quantity produced is so small that the internal thermometer soon -goes above 0 deg.. It is only on the 9th of December that the frost wins -definitely; on the 11th, 12th and 13th the chill is intense and reaches --19 deg. outside, stopping at -15 deg. in the glaciere. The water coming from -the rains between the 5th and the 9th drip at this time through the -roof and the big side crevasse: circumstances grow favorable and the -ice accumulates. From the 17th, the entrance slope becomes almost -impracticable; the icicles grow on the roof, as big as the body of a -man. * * * From this time to the end of December, the ice sheet does -not increase, for water only arrives by the rare drip of the roof, -and only the stalactites increase slowly. Outside, however, the cold -continues vigorously, the thermometer on the 31st of December dropping -to -15 deg. and to -13 deg. in the glaciere. If the production of the ice -stops, it is not the cold which is wanting, but the other element, -the one which as our former study showed, is the most rarely exact at -the meeting. The winter is only favorable on condition that it offers -alternating periods of freezing and thawing; so the observer writes in -his report: 'it is the water which is wanting, otherwise the glaciere -would be magnificent.'" - -Trouillet speaks of the difficulty of winter observations in the -following words: "Mons. Briot, the present lessor of the glaciere, has -the unpaid mission of going every week to the bottom of the grotto to -get and put in place the interior thermometer. It is a really hard -piece of work at this time of the year: each journey takes about one -hour. Besides the chance that a visitor has of receiving on his head -one of those magnificent stalactites 1 meter or 2 meters long which -fall continually from the roof, it is perfectly disagreeable to him -to arrive at the base of the slope otherwise than on the sole of his -boots, and to face thus the frequent and painful meeting with rocks -whose angular edges dot the surface of the descent, smooth as a mirror -set at an angle of 30 deg.." - -Trouillet and Girardot obtained a series of observations with maxima -and minima thermometers at Chaux-les-Passavant during the winter of -1885-1886. At the end of November the temperature inside was +2 deg.. -On the 2d of December it rose to +2.5 deg.. On the 10th of December, it -sank to -1 deg., and after this date, it remained below freezing point -all winter. The observations were not continuous, but they showed -that every time the temperature outside dropped considerably, the -temperature inside immediately did likewise. For instance, on the -12th of January, the outside air dropped to -18 deg., and the inside air -responded by falling to -15 deg.. On the other hand, when the temperature -outside rose above freezing point, the temperature inside remained -stationary or fluctuated only gently. For instance, from the 24th -of March to the 8th of April, the outside air went up and down -perpetually, the extremes being -2 deg. and +16 deg.; while in the same time -the inside air rose continuously from -2 deg. to -0.5 deg.. - - -Windholes and Ice Formations near Gerardmer, Vosges. (Rozet, in -_Encyclopedie Moderne_, Didot Freres, Paris, 1853, vol. XVI., page 503.) - - -L'Abime du Creux-Perce or Glaciere de Pasques. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, -1894, page 394; _Annuaire du Club Alpin Francais_, vol. XIX., page -38.)--On the plateau of Langres, Cote d'Or. It lies 15 kilometers -from Dijon, and is really a limestone rock gorge, of 55 meters in -depth, which at the top is 40 meters long and 20 meters wide, and at -the bottom is 15 meters long and 12 meters wide. In March 1892, Mons. -Martel found the north side covered with large icicles 15 meters long. -The ice seems to remain throughout the year. The bottom of the Abime -has been reached only by means of two long rope ladders. - - -Creux de Chevroche or Roche Chevre, Cote d'Or. (Clement Drioton, -_Memoires de la Societe de Speleologie_, 1897, vol. I., page 209.)--"In -the woods of Mavilly, near Bligny-sur-Ouches, is a little cave, called -Creux de Chevroche or Roche-Chevre, where one can find ice until the -month of July." - - -Freezing Well of Marolles, at La Ferte-Milon, Aisne. (Martel, _Les -Abimes_, page 563, note 2.)--This well is 8.15 meters deep; the -altitude is 70 meters. During the winter of 1892-93 the water in -it froze for a thickness of 15 centimeters. The minimum outside -temperature that year was -17 deg.. - - -Windholes near Pontgibaud, Puy de Dome. (G. Poulett-Scrope, _The -Geology and Extinct Volcanoes of Central France_, 1858, page -60.)--These windholes are in basalt. There are many cracks, whence cold -air currents issue, and where ice has been found, sometimes in summer. -There are cold storage huts over some of the cracks. - - -Le Creux-de-Souci, Puy de Dome. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, 1894, Page -387.)--This is situated 5 kilometers southeast of Besse-en-Chandesse. -It is a large lava cavern with the entrance directly in the middle of -the roof. The bottom is partly filled by a lake. The depth from the -surface of the ground to the lake is 33 meters; from the smallest part -of the opening to the lake the depth is 21.50 meters. Down this last -portion one can descend only by means of a rope ladder. The temperature -is extremely low; in general near freezing point. In June, July, August -and November 1892, Monsieur Berthoule, _maire_ of Besse, did not find -any snow. On the 10th of August, 1893, on the contrary, he found at the -bottom a heap of snow, which he thinks was formed in the cave itself, -by the freezing during their descent of the drops of water which are -constantly dripping from the roof. He reports landing on _une montagne -de neige, de neige blanche_. On several visits, Mons. Berthoule noticed -carbonic acid gas in dangerous quantities. There was none at the time -he observed the snow heap, but ten days later he found it impossible -to descend into the cave as the carbonic acid gas came up in puffs to -the entrance. In the lake, Mons. Berthoule discovered a variety of -Rotifer, _Notholca longispina_, and also several algae and diatoms. -The _Asterionella formosa_ is the most remarkable from its abundance: -it exists in some of the lakes of the Alps, but not in those of the -Pyrenees. - - -Aven de Lou Cervi, Vaucluse. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 563.)--This is -a cold cave. It belongs to the class which Mons. Martel calls _avens -a retrecissement_, or _abimes a double orifice_. In September, 1892, -Mons. Martel noted a temperature of 6.5 deg. at 53 meters; of 6.8 deg. at 64 -meters. Mean temperature of locality, 8.75 deg.. - - -Igue de Biau, Lot. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 304.)--Cold cave. -Temperature on 13th July, 1891: 5 deg.. - - -Fosse Mobile, Charente. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 380.)--Cold cave. -Temperature on 11th April, 1893: 7 deg.. - - -Aven de Deidou, Causse Mejean. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 223.)--Cold -cave. Temperatures on 14th October, 1892: outside air, 4 deg.; at bottom, -6.5 deg.. - - -Aven des Oules, Causse Mejean. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 227.)--Cold -cave. Temperatures on 21st October, 1892: outside air, 2.5 deg.; at bottom, -4 deg.. - - -Windhole Cold Caves near Roquefort, Aveyron.--They lie 13 kilometers -from Millau, at an altitude of about 600 meters, and are utilized in -the manufacture of Roquefort cheese. - - -Aven de Carlet, near la Roche Giron, Basses Alpes. (Martel, _Les -Abimes_, page 53.)--Lumps of ice are reported to have been taken from -it. - - -La Poujade, Cevennes. (Martel, _Les Abimes_, pages 212-215.)--An -intermittent spring in limestone rock. At the bottom of the first -gallery, on the 18th of September, 1892, the temperature of the air was -12.3 deg., and that of a pool of water supplied by drip 11.5 deg.. Mons. Martel -thought that the drip brought to the pool the mean annual temperature -of the ground through which it had come. A little further within and 5 -meters lower, the temperature of the air was 7.3 deg. and that of another -pool of water 6.8 deg.. This pool was not supplied by drip and must have -been left over by the last flow of the spring. Mons. Martel thought -that the lower temperatures at this spot were due to the cold air of -winter dropping to the bottom of the cave and on account of its density -not being able to get out. - - -Snow Preserved in Chasms in the Italian Mountains. (_The Penny -Magazine_, London, August, 1834, page 335.)--Mr. Bunford Samuel called -my attention to an article in which the Southern Italians are said to -dig wells or cellars on the mountain sides, and to throw snow into them -in winter. The snow is well pressed together and straw, dried leaves, -etc., is thrown on top. By having a northern exposure for these pits, -and seeing that they are in thick forest, or in rifts where the sun -does not penetrate, these depots may be safely placed as low down the -mountain as the snow falls and lies. Naples is largely supplied [1834] -with snow in summer from such snow wells situated on Monte Angelo, the -loftiest point of the promontory separating the Bay of Naples from the -Bay of Salerno. - - -Cold Caves of San Marino, Apennines. (De Saussure, _Voyages dans les -Alpes_, 1796, III., page 211.)--These are probably windholes. - - -La Bocche dei Venti di Cesi. (De Saussure, _Voyages dans les Alpes_, -1796, III., page 211.)--These windholes were in the cellar of the -house of Don Giuseppe Cesi, in the town of Cesi. The cellar acted as a -natural refrigerator. The air stream was so strong, that it nearly blew -out the torches. In winter the wind rushed into the holes. De Saussure -was shown the following Latin verses by the owner:-- - - "Abditus hic ludit vario discrimine ventus - Et faciles miros exhibet aura jocos. - Nam si bruma riget, quaecumque objeceris haurit. - Evomit aestivo cum calet igne dies," - - -Windholes or "Ventarole" on Monte Testaceo, near Rome. (De Saussure, -_Voyages dans les Alpes_, 1796, III., page 209.)--There are a number -here among heaps of broken pottery. The temperatures seem abnormally -low. - - -Krypta Sorana. (Kircher, _Mundus Subterraneus_, 1664, page 118 and -page 239.)--This has been spoken of as a glaciere cave, but as there -is much doubt in the matter, I quote the passages, on which the -reports are based, in the original Latin: "Cryptae sunt naturales, -quarum innumerae sunt species, juxta vires naturales iis inditas. Sunt -nonnullae medicinali virtute praeditae, quaedam metallicis vaporibus, -exhalationibus, aquis scatent, sunt et glaciales, plenae nivibus et -crystallo, uti in Monte Sorano me vidisse memini." And further: "Vidi -ego in Monte Sorano cryptam veluti glacie incrustatam, ingentibus in -fornice hinc inde stiriis dependentibus, e quibus vicini montis accolae -pocula aestivo tempore conficiunt, aquae vinoque, quae iis infunduntur, -refrigerandis aptissima, extremo rigore in summas bibentium delicias -commutato." - - -Subterranean Ice Sheet, Mount Etna, Sicily. (Lyell, _Principles of -Geology, 11th Edition_, chapter XXVI.)--This ice sheet is near the -Casa Inglese. Sir Charles Lyell ascertained the fact of its existence -in 1828, and in 1858 he found the same mass of ice, of unknown extent -and thickness, still unmelted. In the beginning of the winter of -1828, Lyell found the crevices in the interior of the summit of the -highest cone of Etna encrusted with thick ice, and in some cases hot -vapors actually streaming out between masses of ice and the rugged and -steep walls of the crater. Lyell accounts for this ice sheet by the -explanation that there must have been a great snow bank in existence -at the time of an eruption of the volcano. This deep mass of snow -must have been covered at the beginning of the eruption by volcanic -sand showered on it, followed by a stream of lava. The sand is a bad -conductor of heat and together with the solidified lava, preserved the -snow from liquefaction. - - -Glaciere on the Moncodine. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 13.)--The -Moncodine is described as a Dolomite near the Lago di Como. The cave -lies up the Val Sasina, two hours from Cortenuova, at an altitude of -1675 meters. The entrance faces north, and is 2.5 meters high and 1.5 -meters wide. The average diameter of the cave is 16 meters. The floor -is solid ice, which has been sometimes cut for use in the hotels on the -Lago di Como and even been sent to Milan. - - -La Ghiacciaia del Mondole. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 8.)--The Mondole -is a mountain 2375 meters high, near Mondovi, south of Turin. The cave -lies on the eastern slope, at an altitude of about 2000 meters. It is -hard to get at. The entrance is to the east, and is 2 meters wide and -1.5 meters high. A passageway some 25 meters long leads to a large -chamber where there is plenty of ice. In hot summers ice is brought -from the cave to Mondovi. _Ghiacciaia_ means freezing cavern in Italian. - - -La Ghiacciaia del Val Seguret. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 8.)--It lies -near Susa at the base of chalk cliffs, at an altitude of about 1500 -meters. The cave is said to be about 40 meters deep, 50 meters wide and -50 meters high. Bonetti in May, 1874, found many icicles and ice cones. - - -La Borna de la Glace. (Chanoine Carrel, _Bibliotheque Universelle de -Geneve_, 1841, vol. XXXIV., page 196.)--It lies in the Duchy of Aosta, -commune of La Salle, on the northern slope of the hills near Chabauday, -in a spot called Plan Agex. The altitude is 1602 meters. The entrance -opens to the east and is 60 centimeters wide and 80 centimeters high. -One can descend for 4 meters. There are two branches in the rear of -the entrance. Chanoine Carrel found an ice pillar 1 meter high in the -western branch. He recorded these temperatures on the 15th of July, -1841: Outside +15 deg.. Entrance +2.9 deg.. East branch +0.9 deg.. West branch -+0.5 deg.. - - -Windholes in the Italian Alps. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, pages 94-97.)--A -number of these seem to have abnormally low temperatures. Some are in -the mountains around Chiavenna, and are sometimes, by building small -huts over them, utilized as refrigerators. Some are reported in the -neighborhood of the Lago di Como near Dongo, near Menaggio, and in the -villa Pliniana near Curino; in the neighborhood of the Lake of Lugano -at the base of Monte Caprino, near Melide, near Mendrisio and near -Sertellino; and in the Val Maggia near Cevio. - - -The Glaciere de Font d'Urle, or Fondurle, Dauphine. (Hericart de Thury, -_Annales des Mines_, vol. XXXIII., page 157; G. F. Browne, _Ice Caves_, -etc., page 212; E. A. Martel, _Memoires de la Societe de Speleologie_, -vol. I., page 37; L. Villard, _Spelunca_, 1896, vol. II., page 39.)--It -lies on the Foire de Font d'Urle, 16 kilometers north of Die, 48 -kilometers east of Valence, and 80 kilometers south of Grenoble. The -glaciere consists of two large pits, lying east and west, and with -underground communication. From this tunnel a long low archway leads to -a broad slope of chaotic blocks of stone, which is 60 meters long and -42 meters in greatest width. The ice begins half way down this slope, -fitfully at first and afterwards in a tolerably continuous sheet. Thury -found many icicles hanging from the roof. Browne found four columns -of ice, of which the largest was 5.80 meters across the base. On his -visit, in the middle of August, the ice was strongly thawing. Both -explorers noted the extremely prismatic character of the ice. Browne -found a temperature of +0.5 deg.. Martel gives a section and plan of Font -d'Urle. Mons. Villard says about this cavern: "A curious thing: I found -in this cave, motionless on a piece of rock, entirely surrounded by ice -for a distance of several meters, a blind specimen of a coleoptera, -_Cytodromus dapsoides_." - - -The Chourun Clot. (E. A. Martel, _Sous Terre_. _Annuaire du Club Alpin -Francais_, vol. XXIII., 1896, pages 42, 43; _Memoires de la Societe -de Speleologie_, vol. I., page 31.)--In Dauphine, half way between -Agnieres and the Pic Costebelle, at an altitude of 1,740 meters. There -is first a pit 18 meters long, 4.50 meters wide and 25 meters deep. In -the bottom of this is a vertical hole 15 meters deep and from 1 meter -to 2 meters in diameter, in which there was much ice on the 31st of -July, 1896. Then the pit changes to a sloping gallery which terminates -in a little hall, full of ice, at a depth of 70 meters. Martel gives a -cut and section of this glaciere. - - -The Glaciere du Trou de Glas. (E. A. Martel, _La Geographie_, 1900, -vol. I., page 52.)--In the range of the Grande Chartreuse. - - -The Chourun Martin. (E. A. Martel, _La Geographie_, 1900, vol. I., page -53.)--In the range of the Devoluy, Hautes-Alpes; altitude 1,580 meters. -An extremely deep pit, which on July 31st, 1899, was much blocked up -with snow. - - -The Chourun de la Parza. (E. A. Martel, _La Geographie_, 1900, vol. I., -page 54.)--In the range of the Devoluy, Hautes-Alpes; altitude 1,725 -meters. A fine pit, 25 meters in diameter, and 74 meters in depth. -Filled with snow or rather neve, in which are deep holes. - - -The Glaciere de l'Haut-d'Aviernoz. Described in Part I., page 2. (C. -Dunant, _Le Parmelan et ses Lapiaz_, page 26; Browne, _Ice Caves_, -etc., page 157.)--Mons. Dunant calls this glaciere l'Haut d'Aviernoz; -Mr. Browne calls it the Glaciere du Grand Anu. By a plumb line held -from the edge of the larger pit, Browne found that the ice floor was -about 35 meters from the surface, which would give a level for the ice -floor closely identical to the one I found. In July, 1864, he recorded -a temperature of +1.1 deg.. - - -The Glaciere de l'Enfer. (G. F. Browne, _Good Words_, November, 1866; -T. G. Bonney, _The Alpine Regions_, 1868, pages 95, 96; C. Dunant, _Le -Parmelan et ses Lapiaz_, page 25.)--On Mont Parmelan. A pit cave with -a steep slope of broken rock leading to a rock portal in the face of -a low cliff. This opens into a roughly circular hall about 22 meters -in diameter and 3 meters to 4 meters in height. A chink between the -rock and the ice permitted Mr. Browne to scramble down three or four -meters to where a tunnel entered the ice mass. Throwing a log of wood -down this tunnel, a crash was heard and then a splash of water, and -then a strange gulping sound. "The tunnel obviously led to a subglacial -reservoir and this was probably covered by a thin crust of ice; the -log in falling had broken this and then disturbed the water below, -which then commenced bubbling up and down through the hole, and making -a gulping noise, just as it does sometimes when oscillating up and down -in a pipe." - -Mons. C. Dunant of the _Club Alpin Francais_ describes a visit to -the Glaciere de l'Enfer. He mentions also a legend of a witch from a -neighboring village who would get the ice from these caves and bring -it down in the shape of hail on the crops of the peasants who were -inhospitable to her. - - -The Glaciere de Chapuis. Described in Part I., page 5. (Browne, _Ice -Caves_, etc., page 182, and _Good Words_, November, 1866.)--Mr. Browne -calls it the Glaciere de Chappet-Sur-Villaz. Mr. Browne and Professor -T. G. Bonney found several flies in the Glaciere de Chapuis. Three of -them were specimens of _Stenophylax_, the largest being probably, but -not certainly, _S. hieroglyphicus_ of Stephens. Two smaller caddis -flies were either _S. testaceus_ of Pictet or some closely allied -species. One other insect was an ichneumon of the genus _Paniscus_, -of an unidentified species. It differed from all its congeners in the -marking of the throat, resembling in this respect some species of -_Ophion_. Mr. Browne thinks that the case flies may have been washed -into the cave somehow or other in the larva form, and come to maturity -on the ice where they had lodged. But this explanation will not hold -in the case of the ichneumon, which is a parasitic genus on larvae of -terrestrial insects. - - -The Glaciere de Le Brezon. (Pictet, _Bibliotheque Universelle de -Geneve_, 1822, vol. XX., page 270, and Thury, _Bibliotheque Universelle -de Geneve_, 1861, vol. X., pages 139 and 152.)--It lies southeast of -Bonneville near the foot of Mount Lechaud, at an altitude of 1276 -meters. The cave is 9.7 meters long, about 8 meters wide and the -greatest height is about 4 meters. The entrance is small and is at the -base of a cliff, in some places of which cold air currents issue. The -ice lies on the floor. Some of it is probably winter snow. - - -The Glaciere de Brisons.--Described in Part I., page 1. - - -The Grand Cave de Montarquis. Described in Part I., page 70. -(Thury, _Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve_, vol. X., pages -135-153.)--Professor Thury describes two visits to this cave. On the -16th of August, 1859, he found no ice stalactites or stalagmites. On -the 19th of January, 1861, he did not find a single drop of water in -the cave, but many stalactites and stalagmites of beautiful clear ice, -one of which resembled porcelain more than any other substance. In -August, Thury found an air current streaming into the cave at the rear, -but this did not, however, disturb the air of the interior, for in one -part it was in perfect equilibrium: along the line of the draughts -the ice was more melted than elsewhere in the cave. In January, the -current was reversed and poured into the fissure, with the temperature -varying between -1.5 deg. and -2.5 deg.. He observed the following temperatures -at the Grand Cave:-- - - TIME. OUTSIDE. INSIDE. - 16th August, 1859 +8.6 deg. +2.5 deg. - 19th January, 1861 1.25 P. M. +2.6 deg. -4. deg. - " " " 2.12 " +2.1 deg. -4. deg. - " " " 3.50 " -1.1 deg. -4. deg. - - -The Petite Cave de Montarquis. Mentioned in Part I., page 71. (Thury, -_Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve_, 1861, vol. X., page 150. Also -quotes Morin.)--At the end of a crooked fissure 10 meters deep, a -passage 6 meters long, leads into a cave 8 meters high and 5 meters in -diameter. In August, 1828, Morin found an ice stalagmite of 5 meters in -height in the middle of the cave. - - -Cave Containing Ice on the Southern Shore of Lake Geneva.--Reported; no -information. - - -The Glaciere and Neigiere d'Arc-Sous-Cicon. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, -etc., page 118.)--These lie close together in the Jura about twenty -kilometers from Pontarlier. The little glaciere is formed by a number -of fissures in the rock, disconnected slits in the surface opening into -larger chambers where the ice lies. The neigiere is a deep pit, with a -collection of snow at the bottom, much sheltered by overhanging rocks -and trees. A huge fallen rock covers a large part of the sloping bottom -of the pit, which forms a small cave in the shape of a round soldier's -tent, with walls of rock and floor of ice. - - -The Glaciere de la Genolliere. Described in Part I., page 48. (Browne, -_Ice Caves_, etc., page 1.)--Mr. Browne observed in 1864 a temperature -of +1.1 deg., and two days later of +0.8 deg.. He also found a number of flies -running rapidly over the ice and stones. He was told in England, -from the specimen he brought away, that it was the _Stenophylax -hieroglyphicus_ of Stephens or something very like that fly. - - -The Glaciere de Saint-Georges. Described in Part I., page 62. (Thury, -_Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve_, 1861, vol. X.)--Professor Thury -obtained the following temperatures at the Glaciere de Saint-Georges:-- - - OUTSIDE. INSIDE. - - 9th January, 1858 7.36 P. M., -4.5 deg. 7.16 P. M., -0.6 deg. - " " " 7.20 " -1.2 deg. - " " " 7.27 " -2.5 deg. - " " " 7.50 " -2.9 deg. - Minimum of night -5.8 deg. -4.9 deg. - 10th January, 1858 10.53 A. M., -3.4 deg. 10.12 A. M., -4.6 deg. - " " " 11.14 " -3.1 deg. 10.30 " -4.5 deg. - " " " 11.45 " -2.2 deg. 11.20 " -4.4 deg. - " " " 12.32 P. M., -2.4 deg. 12.14 P. M., -4.4 deg. - " " " 1.12 " -0.9 deg. 1.30 " -4.2 deg. - " " " 3.03 " -2.9 deg. 2.30 " -4.1 deg. - " " " 3.56 " -3.5 deg. 3.14 " -4.0 deg. - " " " 4.26 " -3.7 deg. 4.00 " -3.8 deg. - Minimum of night -7.6 deg. -6.8 deg. - 11th January, 1858 9.34 A. M., -5.6 deg. - 2d April, 1858 6.20 P. M., +0.7 deg. -0.2 deg. - Minimum of night + 1.1 deg. - 3d April, 1858 10.00 A. M., +4.0 deg. 9.00 A. M., -1.0 deg. - -Professor Thury's winter excursions caused him to accept as proved that -part of the mountaineers' belief, which holds that there is no ice -formed in caves in winter. One of the main grounds for his opinion was -the series of observations he made in the Glaciere de Saint-Georges. -He found no ice forming there in winter and the natives said it did -not because the cavern was not cold enough. So he placed large dishes -filled with water in the cave and found that they froze solid during -the night, which he had been assured was impossible. Thury also found -violent movements of the air at Saint-Georges in January, 1858. A -candle burned steadily for some time, but at 7.16 P. M. it began to -flicker and soon inclined downwards through an angle of about 45 deg.; and -in the entrance, the flame assumed an almost horizontal position. At 8 -P. M., the current of air nearly disappeared. Thury thought that this -violent and temporary disturbance of equilibrium was due to the fact -that as the heavier air outside tended to pass into the cave, the less -cold air within tended to pass out; and the narrow entrance confining -the struggle to a small area, the weaker current was able for a while -to hold its own. - - -The Glaciere du Pre de Saint-Livres. Described in Part I., page -65. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, page 40.)--Mr. Browne found, in 1864, a -temperature of 0 deg.. - - -The Petite Glaciere du Pre de Saint-Livres. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, page -46.)--This is near the last cave at a slightly higher altitude. There -is first a small pit, then a little cave, in which there is an ice -slope. This passes under a low arch in the rock wall, and leads down -into another small cave. Mr. Browne descended this ice stream, which -was itself practically a fissure column and spread into the fan shape -at the base. The lower cave was 22 meters long and 11 meters wide, and -contained an ice floor and several fissure columns. - - -The Glaciere de Naye, above Montreux, Switzerland. (E. A. Martel, _Les -Abimes_, page 397; _Spelunca_, 1895, vol. I., pages 107, 108; _Memoires -de la Societe de Speleologie_, vol. III., pages 246-254.)--This is -called a _glacier souterrain_. It was discovered in 1893 by Professor -Dutoit. There are fifty-four caves known among the Rochers de Naye, and -only this one contains ice. It is a long narrow cave with two entrances -and widest towards the base, which opens over a precipice. The altitude -is high, the upper entrance being at an altitude of 1820 meters, and -the lower of 1750 meters. The place is both a passage cave and a -windhole. The snow falls into the upper entrance, and slides down, -becoming ice in the lower portion. There are other connecting passages -and hollows where the cold air cannot get in, and there ice does not -form. Mons. Martel thinks that the ice formed during the winter is -preserved by the draughts--due to the difference in level of the two -openings--causing an evaporation and chill sufficient for the purpose. - - -The Creux Bourquin. (E. A. Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 397.)--At -Mauberget, near Grandson. This is a rock gorge 25 meters deep. At the -bottom, on the 9th of July, 1893, was a mass of ice 38 meters long and -8 meters wide. - - -The Glaciere de Monthezy. (Browne, _Ice Caves_, page 97.)--This lies -to the west of Neufchatel, between the Val de Travers and the Val de -Brevine, on the path between the villages of Couvet and Le Brevine, -at an altitude of 1100 meters. The cave is nearly oval in shape, with -a length of 34 meters and a width of 29 meters. The roof is from 1 -meter to 3 meters high. There are three pits, about 20 meters deep, on -different sides of the cave. The descent is made through the largest -pit. On the 6th of July, 1864, Mr. Browne found the floor of the cave -covered with ice, and icicles and columns in some places; he also saw -a clump of cowslips (_primula elatior_) overhanging the snow at the -bottom of the pit through which he descended. - - -Pertius Freiss. (T. G. Bonney, _Nature_, vol. XI., page 327.)--It lies -on the way to the Pic d'Arzinol, near Evolene, in the Val d'Herens. -A slip or subsidence of part of a cliff has opened two joints in the -rock, in both of which fissures Professor Bonney found ice on July 23d. - - -The Schafloch. Described in Part I., page 21. (Koerber, _Jahrbuch des -Schweizer Alpen Club_, 1885, vol. XX., pages 316, 343.)--Herr Koerber -gives some of the dimensions as follows: Entrance 14 meters wide -and 4.70 meters high. Length of cave 206.8 meters: average width -20 meters and greatest width 23.5 meters. Height from 5 meters to 7 -meters. Length of ice slope 29 meters and breadth 12.5 meters; for 16 -meters the slope has an inclination of 32 deg.. Koerber made the following -observations in the Schafloch:-- - - 14 METERS 100 METERS 160 METERS - DATE. OUTSIDE. FROM FROM FROM - ENTRANCE. ENTRANCE. ENTRANCE. - - 21 September, 1884, 10.5 deg. 5.6 deg. 0.2 deg. 0.2 deg. - 18 January, 1885, 2.7 deg. -1.0 deg. -1.3 deg. -- - -The Rev. G. F. Browne, in 1864, found a temperature of +0.5 deg.. - - -The Eisloch of Unterfluh. (Baltzer, _Jahrbuch des Schweizer Alpen -Club_, 1892-93, pages 358-362.)--Twenty minutes from Unterfluh near -Meiringen. A long narrow rock crack, some 30 meters deep and running -some distance underground. - - -Windholes and Milkhouses of Seelisberg.--Described in Part I., page 45. - - -Windholes on the Spitzfluh. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 92.)--These are -situated between Oltingen and Zeylingen, Canton Bale: they generally -contain ice till the end of July. - - -Windholes on the Blummatt. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 93.)--On the -northwestern slope of the Stanzerberg. Ice sometimes lies over in these -windholes. - - -Windholes near Bozen. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 97.)--On the Mendel -ranges in Eppan, southwest of Bozen, among porphyry rocks. There are -strong wind-streams. Ice is said to remain till late in the summer. - - -Grotto on Monte Tofana, Dolomites. (T. G. Bonney, _Nature_, vol. XI., -page 328.)--This is probably a rudimentary glaciere. - - -Holes with Ice near Lienz. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 97.)--One hour -and a half distant near Aineth, is a small cave containing ice, and -further up the valley towards Huben, are several windholes. - - -Eishoehle am Birnhorn. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 131.)--Near Leogang in -the Pinzgau. Altitude 2150 meters. There are two entrances, from which -a slope 10 meters long, set at an angle of 25 deg., leads to an ice floor -12 meters long and 3 meters high. Then comes a small ice slope, and a -little horizontal floor at the back. Explored by Fugger. - - -Glacieres on the Eiskogel. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 19.)--The -Eiskogel is in the Tennengebirge, a mountain mass lying east of Pass -Lueg. At an altitude of about 1900 meters, are two small caves, about -30 meters to 40 meters apart. They are some 25 meters in length and get -smaller towards the bottom. - - -Holes with Ice in the Tennengebirge, between the Schallwand and the -Tauernkogel. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 20.)--In this gorge are some -small holes at an altitude of about 2000 meters, which are said to -contain ice in summer. - - -The Seeofen. (A. Posselt-Csorich, _Zeitschrift des Deutschen und -Oesterreichischen Alpen Verein_, 1880, page 270.) On the Hean Krail in -the Tennengebirge, at an altitude of about 1900 meters. The entrance -faces southwest, and is 6 meters high and 4.5 meters wide. The cave is -25 meters long, and 8 meters wide. The floor of the cave is 13 meters -below the entrance. - - -The Posselthoehle. (A. Posselt-Csorich, _Zeitschrift des Deutschen -und Osterreichischen Alpen Verein_, 1880, page 273.)--Named after -its discoverer. It lies on the Hochkogel in the Tennengebirge, at an -altitude of about 1900 meters. The entrance faces southwest, and is -about 8 meters high and 8 meters wide. From the entrance the cave first -rises, then sinks again below the level of the entrance, where the -ice begins. The cave is about 20 meters wide. About 180 meters were -explored, to a point where a perpendicular ice wall, 6 meters high, -barred the way. About 125 meters from the entrance, there was an ice -cone about 7 meters high. - - -The Gamsloch or Diebshoehle. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 14.)--It lies -on the Breithorn of the Steinernes Meer, near the Riemannhauss, at an -altitude of about 2180 meters. The entrance faces south. There is first -a small, then a larger chamber. The latter is some 40 meters long, by -5 meters or 6 meters wide. The ice is in the large chamber. - - -Eishoehle am Seilerer. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 15.)--On the -eastern side of the Seilerer arete on the Ewigen Schneeberg, west of -Bischofshofen, at an altitude of about 2400 meters, is a small glaciere -cave. - - -Cave in the Hagengebirge, West of Pass Lueg. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -15.)--It lies about 2 kilometers east of Kalbersberg, at an altitude of -about 2000 meters. A snow slope, with an ice floor at the bottom, leads -into a long cave, about which little is known. - - -The Nixloch. Described in Part I., page 57. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, -page 98.)--Professor Fugger gathered some valuable data in connection -with the Nixloch. In August, 1879, he found the air current entering -downwards; on September 14th, 1879, there was no current either way. -On Christmas day, 1878, on the contrary, the draughts were reversed, -pouring out of the hole with a temperature of +7.4 deg.: the outside air -then being -7.4 deg.. At this time the known lower opening was in existence. - - -The Kolowratshoehle. Described in Part I., page 18. (Fugger, -_Beobachtungen_, etc., page 7.)--This cavern has been more carefully -studied than any other glaciere cave. Some of its dimensions are given -by Professor Fugger as follows: From the entrance to the ice floor, -26.6 meters; surface covered by ice as measured on a plane, 2940 -square meters; approximate cubical measure of entire cave, 92,000 cubic -meters. The height of the entrance is 7 meters, with a width at the -base of 2.7 meters, and at the top of 6.6 meters. - -On the entrance slope occurred the only fatal accident I know of in -glacieres. In 1866, the Bavarian minister Freiherr von Lerchenfeld -tried to descend; a wooden handrail which had been erected over the -snow broke under his weight; von Lerchenfeld fell to the bottom of the -cave and died a few days after from the injuries he received. - -Of the Kolowratshoehle, we have numerous thermometric observations by -Professor Fugger, of which I select a few. - - DATE. OUTSIDE. ENTRANCE. INSIDE. REAR. - 21 May 1876 +6.5 deg. +0.7 deg. +0.03 deg. 0 deg.& +0.08 deg. - 18 June 1876 +5.1 deg. +1.6 deg. +0.23 deg. +0.4 deg. - 24 June 1876 +10. deg. +1.6 deg. +0.4 deg. -- - 5 July 1876 -- -- +0.4 deg. -- - 22 July 1876 +11.3 deg. +1.5 deg. +0.4 deg. +0.2 deg. - 29 July 1876 +15.2 deg. +2.4 deg. +0.3 deg. +0.2 deg. - 22 Aug. 1876 +19.8 deg. +4.0 deg. +0.4 deg. +0.25 deg. - 20 Sept. 1876 +7.2 deg. +3.0 deg. +0.45 deg. +0.6 deg. - 22 Sept. 1876 -- -- +0.30 deg. -- - 16 Oct. 1876 +14.8 deg. +2.05 deg. +0.2 deg. +0.2 deg. - 22 Oct. 1876 +5.6 deg. +2.5 deg. +0.25 deg. +0.4 deg. - 26 Nov. 1876 +4.4 deg. +0.4 deg. -1.0 deg. -- - 6 Jan. 1877 +2.1 deg. +1.2 deg. -1.65 deg. -0.6 deg. - - -The Schellenberger Eisgrotte. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen in den Eishoehlen -des Untersberges_, page 80.)--On the southeast slope of the Untersberg -near Salzburg, at an altitude of 1580 meters. The path leads past the -Kienbergalp over the Mitterkaser and the Sandkaser. In front of the -entrance is a sort of rock dam, 30 meters long and 5 meters or 6 meters -higher than the entrance. Masses of snow fill the space between the -two. The entrance is about 20 meters wide and from 2 meters to 3 meters -high. A snow slope of 25 meters in length, set at an angle of 25 deg., -leads to the ice floor. The cave is 54 meters long, from 13 meters to -22 meters broad and from 4 meters to 10 meters high. The cave has been -repeatedly examined by Fugger, who has always found most snow and ice -in the beginning of the hot weather, after which it gradually dwindles -away. - -Of the Schellenberger Eisgrotte, we have the following thermometric -observations by Professor Fugger:-- - - DATE. OUTSIDE. ENTRANCE. INSIDE. - 29 June, 1877 +18 deg. -- +0.38 deg. - 24 " 1881 +21 deg. +2.3 deg. +0.24 deg. - 28 Aug., 1878 +14.6 deg. -- +0.2 deg. - 12 " 1879 +17.8 deg. -- +0.3 deg. - 4 Oct., 1876 +16.7 deg. +1.4 deg. +0.3 deg. - 9 " 1880 +3.6 deg. +3.5 deg. +0.3 deg. - 2 " 1887 +5.4 deg. -- +0.4 deg. - 9 " 1887 +8.2 deg. -- +0.4 deg. - 11 Nov., 1877 +7.4 deg. -- +0.2 deg. - - -The Grosser Eiskeller or Kaiser Karls Hoehle. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, -etc., page 58.)--On the Untersberg, between the Salzburger Hochthron -and the Schweigmueller Alp. Altitude 1687 meters. A stony slope of 26 -meters in length leads to an ice floor which is 26 meters long and 6 -meters to 8 meters wide. - - -The Kleiner Eiskeller. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page 73.)--Near -the last. A small cave 8 meters long, 6 meters wide, 8 meters high. - - -The Windloecher on the Untersberg. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page -73.)--On the Klingersteig, at an altitude of 1300 meters. Four small -caves of about 12 meters each in length and 8 meters in depth, and -communicating at the bottom. There are strong draughts among them. In -one of the caves is a small pit of great depth. - - -The Eiswinkel on the Untersberg. (Fugger, _Beobachtungen_, etc., page -77.)--Between the Klingeralp and the Vierkaser, at an altitude of 1600 -meters. A small cave or rather rock shelter. - - -Windholes on the Untersberg. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, pages 103, -104.)--Windholes have been found by Fugger on the lower slopes of the -Untersberg: - -Near the Hochbruch at Fuerstenbrunn. - -In the debris of the Neubruch. - -In the debris of the Veitlbruch. - - -Hotel Cellar at Weissenbach on the Attersee. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -20.)--There is a small cave here, at an altitude of 452 meters, which -is utilized as a cellar, and which is said to contain ice in summer. - - -Cave near Steinbach. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 20.)--A small cave -containing ice on the northwest slopes of the Hoellengebirge. Altitude -about 700 meters. - - -The Kliebensteinhoehle or Klimmsteinhoehle. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -20.)--On the north slope of the Hoellengebirge, near the Aurachkar Alp, -between Steinbach and the Langbath Lakes. Altitude about 1300 meters. -Length about 40 meters, width 20 meters, height 15 meters. - - -The Wasserloch. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 21.)--On the south slope of -the Hoellengebirge, near the Spitzalpe. Altitude about 1350 meters. At -the bottom of a gorge is a snow heap and a small cave. The snow becomes -ice in the cave. - - -Cave on the Zinkenkogl near Aussee. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -21.)--Altitude about 1800 meters. A snow slope leads to an ice floor 18 -meters long and 4 meters wide. - - -Cave on the Kasberg. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 22.)--South of Gruenau -near Gmunden. Altitude about 1500 meters. Small cave 12 meters long, 4 -meters wide. - - -The Wasseraufschlag on the Rothen Kogel. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -22.)--A tunnel near Aussee. The ice in it was formerly used. - - -The Gschloesslkirche. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 22.)--On the Dachstein -range, facing the Lake of Gosau. A small cave, mostly filled with snow. - - -Cave with Ice on the Mitterstein. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 23.)--On -the Dachstein, one hour and a quarter from the Austria hut. Altitude -about 1800 meters. Cave 5 meters to 6 meters wide, 30 meters long. In -the rear a passage leads apparently to a windhole where there is a -strong draught. - - -Windholes in the Obersulzbach Valley in the Pinzgau. (Fugger, -_Eishoehlen_, page 105.)--Fugger found ice among these on the 1st of -August, 1886. - - -Ice in an Abandoned Nickel Mine on the Zinkwand, in the Schladming -Valley. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 105.) - - -Windholes on the Rothen Kogel near Aussee. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -106.)--These were found to contain ice on the 2d of September, 1848. - - -Cave on the Langthalkogel. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 23.)--On the -Dachstein plateau between Hallstatt and Gosau. A small cave which -contains ice. - - -Eislunghoehle. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 24.)--A small cave between the -Hochkasten and Ostrowiz in the Priel range. - - -The Geldloch or Seeluecken on the Oetscher. (Schmidl, _Die Hoehlen -des Oetscher and Die Oesterreichischen Hoehlen_; Cranmer and Sieger, -_Globus_, 1899, pages 313-318, and 333-335.)--The second known notice -of a glaciere cave is the account of a visit to the Oetscher Caves -in 1591. After lying in manuscript for two and a half centuries, it -was published by Dr. A. Schmidl in 1857, in _Die Hoehlen des Oetscher_, -pages 21-36. According to the account, which is naive, but evidently -truthful, Kaiser Rudolf II. ordered Reichard Strein, owner of the -Herrschaff Friedeck, to investigate the Oetscher and especially its -caves. He did so, with the title of _Kaiserlicher Commissarius_, and -accompanied by the _Bannerherr_ Christoph Schallenberger, Hans Gasser, -and eleven porters. On September the 16th, 1591, they visited the -Seeluecken, where they found a lake in the front of the cave, and where -the party had great difficulties in climbing round on to the ice. - -The Seeluecken on the Oetscher is situated at an altitude of 1470 -meters. It opens nearly due south. The ice floor is about 20 meters -below the entrance and is about 38 meters long and 24 meters wide; at -the rear, it rises for some 15 meters as an ice wall at an angle of -about 60 deg., and then forms a second ice floor about 45 meters long by -19 meters wide. The front part of the ice is sometimes, about July, -covered with water. The cave continues further back, in two branches, -and Professors Cranmer and Sieger consider that it is a large windhole, -in which draughts are infrequent, on account of its length and because -the openings are near the same level. There are also several up and -down curves and in these cold air remains and acts something like a -cork in stopping draughts. - -On the 13th of September there were no draughts, and the temperatures -between 11 A. M. and 12 M. were:-- - - Outside air +7.1 deg. - Inside near entrance +1.5 deg. - A little further in +1.1 deg. - At the lowest point near ice +0.8 deg. - -On the 31st of October, 1897, there was a draught, which followed the -curves of the cavern, and which flowed out at the southern end. The -temperatures were:-- - - Outside air +3.7 deg. - Inside near entrance +1.3 deg. - At the lowest point near ice +0.8 deg. - On the second, higher ice floor +1.0 deg. - In the main passage behind ice +1.4 deg. - - -Cave on the Kuehfotzen near Warscheneck. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -25.)--A small cave containing ice. - - -Eiskeller on the Rax. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 25; Cranmer, -_Eishoehlen_, etc., page 61.)--Altitude about 1660 meters. A doline with -a small cave at the bottom, in which melting snow was found on the 19th -of September, 1896. - - -The Tablerloch. (Cranmer, _Eishoehlen_, etc., pages 19-60.)--On the -Duerren-Wand in the mountains south of Vienna, 2 hours distant from -Miesenbach R. R. station. Altitude about 1000 meters. Entrance 7 meters -wide, 3.5 meters high. Slope 30 deg. from entrance. Lowest point 22 meters -below entrance. Extreme length of cave 50 meters, width 23 meters, -height 15 meters. Professor Cranmer found fresh ice beginning to form -on the 12th of November, 1893; on the 1st of December, 1894; and on -the 20th of October, 1895. He found it melting away on the 3d of June, -1894; on the 1st of June, 1895; and on the 31st of May, 1896. The rates -at which the ice formed or melted, however, were not always the same in -different parts of the cave. The greatest amount of ice observed seems -to have been in March and April. In the summer months no perceptible -movements of air seem to have been noticed. This was also sometimes the -case in the winter months, during which, however, movements of air were -at other times plainly perceptible. - - -The Gipsloch. (Cranmer, _Eishoehlen_, etc., page 60.)--A small cave on -the Hohen-Wand near Wiener-Neustadt. It is rather a cold cave than a -glaciere. - - -The Windloch. (Cranmer, _Eishoehlen_, etc., page 61.)--On the Hohen-Wand -near Wiener Neustadt. Small cave. Snow found in it on June the 2d, 1895. - - -Eisloch in the Brandstein on the Hochschwab. (Cranmer, _Eishoehlen_, -etc., page 64.)--Altitude about 1600 meters. A moderately large cave. -On the 21st of August, 1895, there was an ice floor 10 meters long and -5 meters broad. Temperature in rear of cave, -0.2 deg.. - - -Caves on the Beilstein. (Krauss, _Hoehlenkunde_, 1894, pages 207-219; -Cranmer, _Eishoehlen_, etc., page 63.)--These lie about 4 hours on foot -from Gams in Steiermark, at an altitude of 1260 meters, in a place -where the mountain is much broken up by fissures and snow basins. The -large cave has two openings, from which steep snow slopes descend. -The cave is 60 meters long, 15 meters to 18 meters broad, and about 7 -meters high. Clefts in the rock in two places lead to two lower, small -ice chambers. In the neighborhood of the large cave are two small ones. -Prof. Cranmer found fresh ice in the Beilsteinhoehle on the 20th of -August, 1895. Two days before, fresh snow had fallen on the neighboring -mountain peaks. - - -Eishoehle on the Brandstein. (Cranmer, _Eishoehlen_, etc., page 62.)--A -small cleft cave near the Langriedleralm near Gams in Steiermark. On -the 20th of August, 1895, it contained some ice. - - -The Frauenmauerhoehle.--Described in Part I., page 37. - - -The Baerenloch near Eisenerz. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 28.)--In the -neighborhood of the Frauenmauerhoehle. Altitude 1600 meters. A steep -snow slope leads to an ice floor 13 meters long. - - -The Katerloch. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 29.)--On the Goeserwand near -Duernthal, Glemeinde Gschaid in Steiermark. A large cave, some 190 -meters long and 80 meters wide. A thin ice crust has been found on -parts of the walls in the rear. - - -Caves in the Stein Alps. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 29.)--The plateau -of Velica Planina lies, at an altitude of 1600 meters, 9 kilometers -north of Stein in the Duchy of Krain. There are three caves containing -ice on the plateau. The first is a big one and is called V. Kofcih. The -second is called Mala Veternica. The third and biggest is called Velika -Veternica; its length is about 100 meters and its breadth 30 meters. - - -Glaciere Caves on the Nanos Mountain. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page -34.)--In the southwestern Krain, 5 kilometers from Praewald. There are -four caves containing ice reported on the Nanos mountain. Two of them -are big. The altitude of one of these is 1300 meters, of the other 1350 -meters. - - -Brlowa Jama. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 36.)--Seven kilometers from -Adelsberg. Small glaciere cave. - - -Kosova Jama. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 38.)--Near Divacca. Forty -meters long, 20 meters broad. - - -Glaciere near Adelsberg. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 36.)--Small cave. -One hour from Adelsberg. - - -Kacna Jama. (J. Marinitsch, _La Kacna Jama_, _Memoires de la Societe de -Speleologie_, vol. I., page 83.)--A great pit near the railroad station -of Divacca. Herr Marinitsch observed the following temperatures on -January 2d, 1896:-- - - At Divacca -2 deg. C. - In the Kacna Jama at 40 meters -1.1 deg. C. - " " " " " 100 meters +1.2 deg. C. - " " " " " 210 meters +2.1 deg. C. - - -Sanct Canzian, Karst. (E. A. Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 564, -note.)--During the winter of 1889-1890, Herr Marinitsch found -stalactites of ice as far as the seventeenth cascade of the Recca; 1000 -meters from the third entrance of the river. The temperature of the -Recca was then at 0 deg.; during the summer, the temperature of the water -rises to 27 deg. (?). - - -The Grosses Eisloch of Paradana. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 36.)--On -the high plateau of the forest of Tarnowa, east of Goerz. A large pit -cave, 30 meters to 40 meters deep. Professor Fugger says of it: "The -flora in the basin-like depression has the character of high mountain -vegetation, with every step it resembles more this flora as it exists -in the neighborhood of glaciers, until finally in the deepest point of -the basin all vegetation stops." - - -The Kleines Eisloch of Paradana. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 37.)--A -small pit glaciere, 500 meters distant from the Grosses Eisloch of -Paradana. - - -Suchy Brezen. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 37.)--A small pit glaciere, -situated about midway between the Grosses and Kleines Eisloch of -Paradana. - - -Prevalo Cave. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 37.)--In the Buchenhochwald, -south of Karnica. Small glaciere. - - -Cave of Dol. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 38.)--On a mountain near -Haidenschaft. Small glaciere. - - -Glaciere near Matena in Bezirke Radmansdorf. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's -_Berichte_, etc., vol. VII., page 68.)--On a wooded height. The ice -commences to melt in the early summer. - - -Glaciere on the Schutzengelberge near the Golac. (Petruzzi in -Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., vol. VII., page 64.)--A small glaciere. - - -Glaciere Cave near Lazhna-gora or Latzenberg. (Valvasor, _Die Ehre des -Herzogthumes Crain_, vol. I., pages 242, 243; Hacquet, _Oryctographia -Carniolica_, 1778, III., page 159.)--In the neighborhood of Vishnagora -in the Krain. The entrance is under a church. It is a large cave, 40 -meters long and 20 meters high, where the ice all melts by the end of -the summer. Valvasor gives the following account of this cave in 1689, -which seems the first printed notice of a glaciere in German:-- - -"Near to Lazchenberg up by the church of St. Nicholas, where a _Thabor_ -stands, one finds a big hole, which sinks into the stony rocks. Through -this one descends deep with torches: there opens then underneath as -big a cavity as the biggest church could be, and the same is extremely -high, in the form of a cupola. One sees there different teeth, formed -and hardened from the water turned to stone. Further down one arrives -to a deep gully: into which, however, I have not been. On the other -side one must again ascend, and then one comes again to a cupola: in -which cupola ice stands up like an organ from the earth. - -"There also one sees icicles of pure ice of different sizes and -heights, of which many are one or two _klafters_ high and as thick as -a man; but many only two or three spans high or higher, and as thick -as an arm, and some also thinner. This ice is formed from the drops -of falling water; and indeed in summer; for in winter there is no ice -therein. Over such ice one must then ascend, as there are then said to -be separate holes and grottoes. But no one has been any further." - - -Glaciere on the Dini Verh. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., -vol. VII., page 67.)--Near Tomischle in the Krain. Small glaciere. - - -Eiskeller near Rosseck. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., vol. -VII., page 64.)--On the Pograca Mountain in the Krain, northeast of the -Hornwald, near the Meierhof Rosseck. Small glaciere cave. - - -Gorge near Rosseck. (Valvasor, _Die Ehre des Herzogthumes Crain_, vol. -I., page 243 and page 517 ; Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., -vol. VII., page 64.)--Behind the ruined castle of Rosseck, on the -Pograca Mountain in the Krain, is a gorge, at whose bottom are four -little holes containing ice most of the year. - -Valvasor wrote of this cave in 1689: "Near Rosseck immediately back -of the castle there opens a mighty cavern entirely in stony rock, and -yawns in the shape of a cauldron down into the earth. Above as wide as -a good rifle shot, but below quite narrow. And there underneath there -are many holes where the ice remains through the whole summer. From -such ice have Duke Frederick Graf and Duke von Gallenberg daily made -use in summer to cool their wine. Six years ago I descended there in -the month of August, and found ice enough in all the holes." - -In the same volume Freiherr Valvasor elaborates his remarks about this -cave and that at Latzenberg, repeating in the main the observations -in the paragraph just given. He says: "There hang also long icicles -which are quite pleasant to look at. * * * This ice breaks all too -easily and quickly. * * * Contrarywise, however, this ice lasts much -longer in the sun and the heat than other ice. * * * Some might think -it would eventually turn into stone: this, however, does not happen: -for it remains only in summer and disappears in winter: as I can say -for certain, as I have been in myself in the winter as well as in the -summer time. * * * For as in the summer the floor is quite covered with -ice: it makes walking so dangerous and bad that one cannot take a step -without climbing irons; but in the winter time one goes safely and -well. * * *" - -Freiherr Valvasor was evidently an accurate observer, and, if for his -word "winter" we substitute "autumn," his account will be much more -nearly correct than might have been expected two centuries ago. - - -The Kuntschner Eishoehle. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., -vol. VII., pages 65, 66.)--This is known also as the Toeplitzer, -Unterwarmberger or Ainoedter Grotto. It lies 2 kilometers from -Kuntschen, and 12 kilometers from Toeplitz near Neustaedtel, in the -Krain. Altitude about 630 meters. Petruzzi says: "Of all so far -noticed ice grottoes it is the most wonderful and splendid." In August -and September, 1849, the temperatures near the ice were about two -degrees above freezing. On the 16th of August, there were many long -ice stalagmites and stalactites; on the 29th of September they had -diminished materially. Petruzzi says also: "One leaves the abundant -vegetation of the Alpine summer flora, and through bushes and dwarf -underbrush, through bare and half moss covered rocks and debris, -through rotten and twisted tree stems, one comes to the hall of eternal -winter, where the microscopic mosses of the north surround the thousand -year old stalactites, hanging from the dripping vault, with an always -passing, always freshly forming, tender sulphur colored down." Dr. -Schwalbe has also examined this cave. - - -The Friedrichsteiner or Gottscheer Eishoehle.--Described in Part I., -page 51. - - -The Handler Eisloch.--7 kilometers south of Gottschee and about twenty -minutes from the village of Handlern, near Rieg. Altitude 596 meters. -Small cave. Professor Hans Satter of Gottschee told me he doubted -whether ice ever formed there now. - - -The Suchenreuther Eisloch.--Described in Part I., page 55. - - -Ledenica na Veliki Gori. (Petruzzi in Haidinger's _Berichte_, etc., -vol. VII., page 67.)--In the Krain, 11 kilometers from Reifnitz, on the -Balastena Mountain. Altitude 1253 meters. Much ice was found there on -the 10th of July, 1834. - - -Mrzla Jama. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 34.)--On the Innerkrainer -Schneeberg, 13 kilometers from Laas. - - -Glaciere Caves on the Kapella. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 39.)--On a -pass in the neighborhood of Piacenza. Altitude 800 meters. - - -Glaciere Cave in West Bosnia. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_. page 39.)--West of -Kljuc, county Petrovac, district Smoljama, near village Trvanj. Called -Trvanj, also Ledenica. Altitude about 1000 meters, length 170 meters, -breadth from 4 meters to 30 meters. - - -Rtanj, Servia. (A. Boue, _La Turquie d'Europe_, 1840, vol. I., page -132; Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., 1896, pages 72-74.)--This -glaciere is on the south side of Siljak, near the village Muzinac. A -passage 60 meters long leads to a hall about 10 meters in height. Dr. -Boue found snow here in August, the thermometer standing below freezing -point. The people in the neighborhood told Dr. Boue that the snow is -formed in June and disappears in September and that it is sometimes -carried to Nisch. He also heard of similar cavities on the Bannat -Mountain. Dr. Cvijic observed in the hall a temperature of +0.4 deg. C. - - -Ledena Pec, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., 1896, pages -68, 69.)--On the Ledini Verh or Glacial Peak, at an altitude of 800 -meters; distant one hour and a half from the village of Souvold. Length -of passage 108 meters; at entrance about 6 meters, at end about 15 -meters in height. On the 10th of May, 1893, there was plenty of ice and -snow. Temperature of outside air +19 deg. C.; inside air at rear +0.5 deg. C. -Probably permanent glaciere. - - -Dobra Ledenica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., 1896, -page 70.)--West of Ledeno Brdo. Probably periodic glaciere. On July -25th, 1890, the temperature of the outside air was +26 deg. C.; of the -inside air +3.5 deg.C. _Ledenica_ is the name for a glaciere in Servia. - - -Ledenica in the Mala Brezovica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, -vol. II., 1896, page 70.)--Length 43 meters. A large, permanent -glaciere. On July 28th, 1890, the outside air was +23 deg.: inside air +2 deg.. - - -Ledenica Treme in the Souva Planina, Servia. (Cvijic, Dr. A., -_Spelunca_, vol. II., 1896, page 71.)--Altitude 1600 meters to 1700 -meters. A rather large, probably permanent glaciere. Plenty of ice in -it on April 21st, 1894. - - -Zla Ledenica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., 1896, page -72.)--On the Kucaj. A permanent glaciere, 7 meters or 8 meters deep. On -July 25th, 1890, outside air +25 deg.; inside air at snow +6 deg.. - - -Glaciere on the Devica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., -1896, page 74.)--Under the peak Lazurevica. Altitude 1000 meters. A -narrow passage leads to a hall 17 meters long by 12 meters wide and -20 meters high. On June 30th, 1893, there was plenty of snow in the -passage and ice in the hall. - - -Glaciere Vlaska Pecura, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., -1896, page 74.)--On the Devica, under the Golemi Vech. A small periodic -glaciere. - - -Glaciere in the Zdrebica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., -1896, page 74.)--On the southeast side of the Souva Planina, near the -village Veliki Krtchimir. A small periodic glaciere. On April 20th, -1874, plenty of snow and ice. - - -Glaciere Stoykova, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, vol. II., 1896, -pages 75, 76.)--On the Kucaj. A large pit cave with a total depth of 23 -meters. Probably a permanent glaciere. On July 21st, 1890, plenty of -ice and snow. Outside air +21 deg.; inside air in hall +0.5 deg.. - - -Glaciere on the Topiznica Mountain, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, _Spelunca_, -vol. II., 1896, page 76.)--Altitude 1100 meters. A large pit cave with -an extreme depth of 27 meters. In August, 1893, there was plenty of -snow and ice, and the inside temperature was +1 deg.. - - -Glaciere Cave near Borszek. (Bielz, _Siebenbuergen_, 1885, page -334.)--About an hour distant from the baths, in broken limestone. It -seems to be a rock fissure, at the end of which ice is found till -towards the middle of July. - - -Glaciere Cave near Sonkolyos in the Koroes Valley. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, -page 51.)--Small cave. - - -Glaciere near Zapodia. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 50.)--Near Petrosc in -the Bihar Mountains. Altitude 1140 meters; length 20 meters, width 7 -meters. - - -Pescerca la Jesere. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 50.)--Between Vervul la -Belegiana and the Batrina in the Bihar Mountains. Small freezing cave. - - -Glaciere Cave near Verespatak, in Transylvania. (Bielz, _Siebenbuergen_, -page 52.)--Small cave. - - -Gietariu near Funacza. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 50.)--In the Bihar -Mountains. Small glaciere cave. - - -Cave of Skerizora. (Karl F. Peters, _Sitzungsbericht der K. K. -Akademie der Wissenchaften_, Wien, vol. XLIII., 1861, page 437; Bielz, -_Siebenbuergen_, 1885, page 37.)--This is one of the greatest glaciere -caves known. It lies in the Bihar Mountains, three hours from the -village of Ober-Girda, which can be reached from Gyula Fehervar, via -Topanfalva. It is a pit cave, in limestone, at an altitude of 1127 -meters. The pit is about 57 meters broad, and 45 meters deep, with -exceedingly steep walls. The entrance is in the northeast wall and -is about 10 meters high. This leads into a nearly circular hall 47 -meters in diameter and about 20 meters high. The floor is ice. In the -southeast corner is a hole over 75 meters deep. In the northwest wall -is an opening 14 meters wide, which forms the beginning of a sort of -gallery 54 meters long and which at its further end is 24 meters wide -and 8 meters high. This is also covered with a flooring of ice, which -in some places can only be descended by step cutting. This passage -is also richly adorned with ice stalactites and stalagmites. At its -end is another also nearly circular hall, 21 meters in diameter and -about 22 meters high. This is called the '_Beszerika_' or church. In -one place there is a magnificent collection of ice stalagmites called -the "Altar." Peters found in dirt on the sides of the cave remains -of bats not very different from those now living in the vicinity. He -thinks the bats may have come there before the cave became a glaciere; -or else that they may even now sometimes get into the first hall and -there perish from cold. This makes it uncertain, therefore, whether the -remains can be considered as of the past or the present. - - -Eishoehle bei Roth.--Described in Part I., page 35. - - -Mines on the Eisenberg. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 59.)--These lie near -Blankenburg in the Thueringer Wald and have been known to contain ice. - - -The Ziegenloch or Grosses Kalte Loch, and the Kleines Kalte Loch. -(Behrens, _Hercynia Curiosa_, pages 68, 70.)--These lie near -Questenberg in the Southern Harz Mountains, at an altitude of about 300 -meters. The Grosses Loch is described as a sort of small pit some 8 -meters deep, in one side of which opens a small fissure some 10 meters -long. Ice has been found in this in April; Schwalbe found none there in -July. The Kleines Loch was another small cold cave near the Ziegenloch, -but it has been filled up. Behrens says that the dampness at the cave -at Questenberg is precipitated as snow. - - -Holes with Ice near Sanct Blasien. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 109.)--In -the Black Forest, among boulders at an altitude of 820 meters. - - -Holes with Ice near Hochenschwand. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 109.)--In -the Black Forest, among boulders at an altitude of 820 meters. - - -Eisstollen and Eiskeller at the Dornburg. Described in Part I., page -59. (Poggendorff's _Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Ergaenzungsband_, -1842, pages 517-519.)--Ice appears to have been discovered at the -Dornburg in June, 1839. It was found from a depth of 60 centimeters -down to 8 meters. The width of the ice-bearing talus was from 12 -meters to 15 meters; and it is said that it becomes wider in winter and -narrower in summer. - - -Beschertgluck Mine, Freiberg District. (Prestwich, _Collected papers_, -etc., page 206.)--Mr. Prestwich quotes Daubuisson as having seen the -shaft of the mine lined with ice to a depth of 80 toises (144 meters?). - - -Ice in the Zinc Mines on the Sauberg. (Reich, _Beobachtungen ueber die -Temperatur des Gesteines_, 1834, pages 175 and 205.)--These are near -Ehrenfriedersdorf in Saxony and formerly contained ice in winter. They -are reported now to be destroyed. - - -The Garische Stollen. (Lohman, _Das Hoehleneis_, etc., page 3.)--Near -Ehrenfriedersdorf in the Freiwald. Lohman found much ice in this in -January, less in March, and scarcely any in May. - - -The Ritterhoehle. (Lohman, _Das Hoehleneis_, page 5.)--Near -Ehrenfriedersdorf in the Freiwald. Small ice deposit. The rock is -granite. - - -The Stulpnerhoehle. (Lohman, _Das Hoehleneis_, page 6.)--Near the -Ritterhoehle. Small ice deposit in granite rock. - - -Eisloch and Eishoehle near Geyer in Saxony. (Lohman, _Das Hoehleneis_, -page 7.)--These are in a place called die Binge. Both are small. - - -The Alte Thiele. (Lohman, _Das Hoehleneis_, page 8.)--Near Buchholz in -Saxony. Small ice deposit. - - -Mine Pits in the Saxon Erzgebirge. (Reich, _Beobachtungen ueber die -Temperatur des Gesteines_, 1834.)--Extremely low temperatures have been -found in several of these pits:-- - -In the Churprinz Friedrich August Erbstollen near Freiberg. - -In the Heinrichs-Sohle in the Stockwerk near Altenberg. - -In the Henneberg Stollen, on the Ingelbach, near Johanngeorgenstadt. - -In the Weiss-Adler-Stollen, on the left declivity of the valley of the -Schwarzwasser, above the Antonshuette. - - -Holes Holding Ice on the Saalberg. (_Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, -1850, LXXXI., page 579.)--These lie between Saalberg and the Burgk. Ice -is found here on the surface from June to the middle of August. From -the observations of Professor Hartenstein, Fugger deduces that this -place must be the lower end of one or more windholes. - - -Millstone Quarry of Niedermendig. (M. A. Pictet, _Memoires de la -Societe d'Histoire Naturelle de Geneve_, 1821, vol. I., page 151.)--On -the Niederrhein. There are many connecting pits and galleries here, in -which ice has been found in the hottest days of summer as well as in -March. The abandoned shafts are utilized as beer cellars. - - -Eisgrube on the Umpfen. (Voigt, _Mineralogische Reisen durch das -Herzogthum Weimar_, 1785, vol. II., page 123.)--In the Rhoengebirge, -twenty minutes from Kaltennordheim, are some irregular masses of -columnar basalt, at an altitude of about 500 meters, among which -abundant ice has been found up to late in the summer. - - -Cave near Muggendorf, Franconia.--The landlord of the Kurhaus Hotel at -Muggendorf, told me that there was a small cave in the vicinity where -there was ice in the winter and spring, but that it all melted away -before August. - - -Cave on the Duerrberg. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 59.)--Near Zwickau in -Bohemia. Small cave which sometimes contains ice. - - -The Schneebinge. (Lohman, _Das Hoehleneis_, page 11.)--Near Platten in -Bohemia. A small ice deposit in an old mine. - - -Ice among Basaltic Rocks on the Pleschiwitz. (Pleischl, in -Poggendorff's _Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, vol. LIV., 1841, -pages 292-299.)--Above Kameik near Leitmeritz in Bohemia. Professor -Pleischl, in May, 1834, found ice under the rocks a little distance -from the surface. The surface of the rocks was then warm. On the 21st -of January, 1838, Professor Pleischl found snow on the outside of -the rocks, but no ice underneath. He was assured by the people of the -district that the hotter the summer, the more ice is found. - - -Glaciere on the Zinkenstein. (Pleischl, in Poggendorff's _Annalen der -Physik und Chemie_, vol. LIV., 1841, page 299).--The Zinkenstein is one -of the highest points of the Vierzehnberge, in the Leitmeritz Kreis. -There is a deep cleft in basalt, where ice has been found in summer. - - -Eisloecher on the Steinberg. (Pleischl, in Poggendorffs _Annalen der -Physik und Chemie_, vol. LIV., 1841, page 299.)--In the Herrschaft -Konoged. Small basalt talus where ice is found in the hottest weather. - - -Windholes in Bohemia. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 109.)--In the -neighborhood of Leitmeritz. These are in basaltic rock. Ice sometimes -forms at the lower extremity. The most notable are-- - -On the Steinberg near Mertendorf on the Triebschbach; - -On the Kelchberg near Triebsch; - -On the Kreuzberg near Leitmeritz; - -On the Rodersberg near Schlackenwerth; - -In the Grossen Loch near Tschersink. - - -Ice in a Pit near Neusohl. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 109.) - - -The Frainer Eisleithen. Described in Part I., page 33. (Fugger, -_Eishoehlen_, page 163.) Professor Fugger quotes the following -observations by Forester Wachtl at Frain:-- - - 1861. 1862. - January -7 deg. to -2 deg. -5 deg. - February -2 deg. to 0 deg. -5 deg. to -2 deg. - March 0 deg. to +1 deg. -1 deg. to 0 deg. - April +1 deg. to +2 deg. 0 deg. - May +2 deg. +2 deg. to +5 deg. - June +2 deg. to +3 deg. +3 deg. to +6 deg. - July +3 deg. +3 deg. to +5 deg. - August +3 deg. to +7 deg. +5 deg. - September +7 deg. to +6 deg. +3 deg. to +6 deg. - October +6 deg. +5 deg. - November -- +5 deg. - December -1 deg. to -3 deg. 0 deg. to -2 deg. - - -Demenyfalva Jegbarlang. Described in Part I., page 24. - - -Dobsina Jegbarlang. Described in Part I., page 13. (Pelech; _The Valley -of Stracena and the Dobschau Ice Cavern_; Schwalbe, _Ueber Eishoehlen und -Eisloecher_, page 31.)--Pelech gives the following measurements: The -Grosser Saal is 120 meters long, 35 meters to 60 meters wide, and 10 -meters to 11 meters high, with a surface area of 4644 square meters. -The ice mass is estimated as 125,000 cubic meters in volume. The length -of the Korridor is 200 meters; the left wing being 80 meters, and the -right wing 120 meters long. The cave was first entered on July 15th, -1870, by Herr Eugene Ruffiny, of Dobsina, and some friends. He had -happened to fire a gun in front of it, and hearing a continuous muffled -rolling echo within, determined to explore it. - -Dr. Schwalbe quotes the following series of observations in Dobsina -during the year 1881: - - DEEPEST POINT FROM KORRIDOR - ENTRANCE. GROSSER SAAL. OF KORRIDOR. TO KLEINEN SAAL. - - January -2.2 deg. -4.2 deg. -2.2 deg. -0.6 deg. - February -1.2 deg. -3.4 deg. -1.9 deg. -0.3 deg. - March -1.4 deg. -2.1 deg. -0.9 deg. -0.2 deg. - April -0.25 deg. -1.25 deg. -0.7 deg. +0.3 deg. - May +0.7 deg. +0.9 deg. -0.5 deg. +0.5 deg. - June +1.0 deg. +1.5 deg. -0.5 deg. +0.5 deg. - July +1.8 deg. +2.1 deg. +0.2 deg. +1.1 deg. - August +3.4 deg. +3.8 deg. +0.24 deg. +0.80 - September +2.00 +2.3 deg. -0.3 deg. -0.15 deg. - October -0.2 deg. +0.2 deg. -0.5 deg. -0.2 deg. - November -1.3 deg. -1.9 deg. -0.6 deg. -0.3 deg. - December -2.2 deg. -3.2 deg. -0.65 deg. -1.75 deg. - ------ ------ ------ ------ - Year +0.04 deg. -0.44 deg. -0.69 deg. -0.02 deg. - -The Philadelphia _Evening Bulletin_, March, 1st, 1899, printed the -following note about Dobsina: "In this cave, some sixteen years ago, -a couple named Kolcsey elected to pass the week immediately following -their marriage. They took with them a plentiful supply of rugs, -blankets and warm clothing, but notwithstanding all precautions, -their experience was not of a sufficiently pleasant nature to tempt -imitators." - - -Lednica of Szilize. (M. Bel, _Philosophical Transactions_, London, -1739, vol. XLI., page 41 _et seq._; Townson, _Travels in Hungary_, -1797; Terlanday, _Petermann's Mittheilungen_, 1893, page 283.)--It lies -1.5 kilometers from the village of Szilize, near Rosenau, in Gomoer -County, in the Carpathians, at an altitude of 460 meters. A pit about -35 meters deep, 75 meters long, and 48 meters wide opens in the ground, -and at the southern end, in the perpendicular wall, is the cave. The -entrance is 22 meters wide, 15 meters high, and faces north. A slope 4 -meters long sinks with an angle of 35 deg. to the floor of the cave, which -is nearly circular in form, with a diameter of about 10 meters. On -the east side of the cave there seems to be a hole in the ice some 10 -meters deep. - -In 1739, there was published in London a curious letter in Latin from -Matthias Bel, a Hungarian _savant_, about the cavern of Szilize. He -says: "The nature of the cave has this of remarkable, that, when -outside the winter freezes strongest, inside the air is balmy: but it -is cold, even icy, when the sun shines warmest. As soon as the snow -melts and spring begins, the inner roof of the cave, where the midday -sun strikes the outside, begins to sweat clear water, which drops -down here and there; through the power of the inner cold it turns to -transparent ice and forms icicles, which in thickness equal large -barrels and take wonderful shapes. What as water drops from the icicles -to the sandy floor, freezes up, even quicker, than one would think. - -"The icy nature of the cave lasts through the whole summer, and what -is most remarkable, it increases with the increasing heat of the sun. -In the beginning of the spring the soft winter's warmth begins to give -way soon thereafter, and when spring is more advanced, the cold sets -in, and in such a manner, that the warmer does the (outside) air -grow, the more does the cave cool off. And when the summer has begun -and the dog days glow, everything within goes into icy winter. Then do -the drops of water pouring from the roof of the cave change into ice, -and with such rapidity that where to-day delicate icicles are visible, -to-morrow masses and lumps, which fall to the ground, appear. Here -and there, where the water drips down the walls of the cave, one sees -wonderful incrustations, like an artificial carpeting. The rest of the -water remains hanging on the ice, according to the warmth of the day. -For when for a longer time it is warmer, the ice of the stalactites, -of the walls and of the floor increases; but when the ruling heat, as -sometimes happens, is diminished through north winds or rainstorm, -the waters freeze more slowly, the ice drips more fully and begins to -form little brooklets. When however the temperature gets warmer, the -icy nature of the cave begins once more. Some have observed, that the -nature of the grotto receives the changes of temperature ahead, like a -barometer. For, when a warmer temperature sets in outside, the waters -change into ice, several hours before the heat sets in, while the -opposite takes place, when by day the temperature is colder; for then -even by the warmest sky the ice begins to melt noticeably. - -"When the dog days have passed and the summer has already changed -into fall, the cave with its own nature follows the conditions of the -external air. In the early months and while the nights are growing -colder, the ice diminishes visibly; then when the air cools off more -and more and when the brooks and side are rigid with frost, it begins -to melt as though there was a fire built underneath, until, when winter -reigns, it is entirely dry in the cave, without a sign of ice being -left behind. Then gentle warmth spreads into the entire cave, and this -icy grave becomes a safety resort for insects and other small animals, -which bear the winter with difficulty. But besides swarms of flies and -gnats, troops of bats and scores of owls, hares and foxes take up their -abode here, until with the beginning of spring, the cave once more -assumes its icy appearance." - -These assertions of Bel are the most inaccurate ones made about -glacieres. Yet, strange to say, they have colored the literature of -the subject down to our own times; and have been repeated many times, -sometimes with, sometimes without, the hares and foxes; the latest -repetition seeming to occur in 1883. - - -Cave near the Village of Borzova, Torna County, Carpathians. (Fugger, -_Eishoehlen_, page 52.)--Reported to contain ice, but nothing certainly -known. - - -CRIMEA. - -Ledianaia Yama. (Montpeyreux, _Voyage autour du Caucase_ V., page 440; -Hablizl, _Description physique de la Tauride_, 1783, pages 43-45.)--On -the Karabi-Yaila, 32 kilometers southwest of Karasubazar. Altitude -about 1800 meters. A fairly large pit glaciere cave. The name means an -abyss of ice. - - -Glaciere Cave on the Yaila of Oulouzene at Kazaute. (Montpeyreux, -_Voyage autour du Caucase_, II., page 380.)--A small pit cave. - - -CAUCASUS. - -Glaciere Cave in the Khotevi Valley. (Montpeyreux, _Voyage autour -du Caucase_, II., page 379.)--In the province of Radscha, near the -Monastery Nikortsminda. A large pit cave which must be of the same -order as that of Chaux-les-Passavant and from which the inhabitants of -Koutais get ice. - - -Glacieres near Koutais. (E. A. Martel, _Les Abimes_, page 397.)--"Dr. -A. Sakharov, it appears, has recently discovered in the government of -Koutais caves containing ice." - - -Cave of Sabazwinda. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 126.)--Near the town of -Zorchinwall, on the river Liachwa, province of Gori, in Georgia, near -the Ossete Mountains. Ice has been found in the cave in summer. In -December there was none. - - -URAL. - -Glaciere Cave near Sukepwa. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 63.)--On the -Volga, province of Zlatoust. Small cave on the river bank. - - -Glaciere Cave on the Tirmen Tau. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., -vol. II., page 28.)--Near the village of Chaszina, 160 kilometers from -Orenburg. Small cave. - - -Glaciere Cave of Kurmanajeva. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., -vol. II., page 5.)--Near Kurmanajeva, a village 49 kilometers from -Tabinsk, in the Government of Orenburg. A large cave. Lepechin found -ice in one part of the cave and deep water in another. There were -draughts in some places. - - -Cave on the Baislan Tasch. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II., -page 40.)--The Baislan Tasch is a mountain on the right bank of the -Bielaja River, which flows into the Kama. There is a large cave in the -mountain in which ice has been found. - - -Cave on the Muinak Tasch. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II., -page 38.)--The Muinak Tasch is a mountain on the Bielaja River. There -is a large cave in it, in which a little ice has been found. - - -Cave of Kungur. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II., page 137; -Rosenmueller and Tilesius, I., page 79.)--The Cavern of Kungur is near -the town of Kungur in the Government of Perm. There are in it many -passages and grottoes connecting with one another, some of which -contain ice. It is a fine, large cave, whose greatest length is 400 -meters. - - -Mines of Kirobinskoy. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 65.)--These mines are -53 kilometers southeast of Miask in the Ural; they have been abandoned. -One of them contains ice all the year round. - - -Caves of Illetzkaya-Zatschita. (Murchison, Vernieul and Keyserling, -_The Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains_, 1845, vol. -I., page 186.)--72 kilometers southeast from Orenburg. The caves are in -the Kraoulnaigora, a gypsum hillock 36 meters high, rising in the midst -of an undulating steppe, which lies on a vast bed of rock salt. Only -one of the caves contains ice. There are strong draughts in places. - - -SIBERIA. - -Cave near the Fortress Kitschigina. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 66.)--A -small cave, 17 kilometers east of Kajilskoi, 192 kilometers from -Petropaulowsk, 605 kilometers from Tobolsk. The cave is in an open -plain, and sometimes contains ice. - - -Wrechneja Petschera. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 66.)--Near the village -Birjusinska, in the neighborhood of Krasnojarsk, on the right bank of -the Yenisei. Large glaciere cave. - - -Glaciere Cave of Balagansk. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 66.)--A narrow -cleft, 80 meters long; 192 kilometers downstream from Irkutsk on the -left bank of the Angora River; at a distance of 2 kilometers from the -river. - - -Glaciere Cave on the Onon River. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 66.)--A -small cave; 48 kilometers from the Borsja Mountain. - - -Mines of Siranowsk. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 126.)--In the Altai -Mountains, on the Buchtorma River, an affluent of the Irtysch. -Magnificent ice formations have been found in these mines. - - -Mines of Seventui. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 126.)--Near Nertschinsk, -on the Amoor River. Two of the levels contain perennial ice and hence -are called _Ledenoi_. These are at a depth of about 60 meters in porous -lava. The rest of the mine is in more solid rock. - - -Glaciere Cave near Lurgikan. (Fugger, _Eishoehlen_, page 67.)--Near -the confluence of the Lurgikan and Schilka Rivers, in the province -Nertschinsk. From 2 meters to 7 meters wide. Length 280 meters. - - -Basins or Troughs Retaining Ice. (Dittmar, _Ueber die Eismuelden im -Oestlichen Siberien_; Middendorff, _Zusatz_; _Bulletin de la classe -physico-mathematique de l'Academie Imperiale des Sciences de St. -Petersbourg_, 1853, vol. XI., pages 305-316.)--These troughs are nearly -akin to gorges and gullies, but their water supply seems to come -from a cause which is not usually present in gorges. Their principal -observer, M. de Dittmar, thought that a cold and snowy winter would add -materially to the supply of ice, but he also thought that a necessity -to the existence of the ice in these troughs was an abundant water -supply from a spring, whose temperature should be so high as not to -freeze in winter. The cold is supplied by the winter temperatures. -Some of the most important are reported-- - -In the Turachtach Valley. - -Near Kapitanskji Sasiek. - -In the valley of the River Belvi. - -In the valley of the River Antscha. - -In the Kintschen Valley. - -In the neighborhood of Kolymsk. - -In the Werchojanski Mountains. - -In the Stanowaj Mountains. - - -KONDOOZ. - -Cave of Yeermallik. (Burslem, _A peep into Toorkisthan_, 1846, chaps. -X., XI.)--In the valley of the Doaub, northwest of Kabul. The entrance -is half way up a hill, and is about 15 meters wide and 15 meters high. -This is a large cave, with many ramifications and galleries. In the -centre of a hall far within, Captain Burslem found a mass of clear ice, -smooth and polished as a mirror, and in the form of a beehive, with its -dome-shaped top just touching the long icicles which depended from the -jagged surface of the rock. A small aperture led into the interior of -this cone, whose walls were about 60 centimeters thick and which was -divided into several compartments. Some distance from the entrance of -this cave there is a perpendicular drop of 5 meters. A short distance -beyond this, in one of the halls, were hundreds of skeletons of men, -women and children, in a perfectly undisturbed state, also the prints -of a naked human foot and the distinct marks of the pointed heel of an -Afghan boot. The moollah, who was acting as guide, said the skeletons -were the remains of seven hundred men of the Huzareh tribe who took -refuge in the cave with their wives and children during the invasion of -Genghis Khan, and who defended themselves so stoutly, that after trying -in vain to smoke them out, the invader built them in with huge natural -blocks of stone, and left them to die of hunger. Some of the Afghans -said that the cave was inhabited by Sheitan, a possibility denied by -the moollah who guided Captain Burslem, on the philosophical plea that -the cave was too cold for such an inhabitant. - - -HIMALAYA. - -Glaciere Cave of Amarnath. (Miss Mary Coxe of Philadelphia showed me -a copy of a letter of Dr. Wilhelmine Eger describing a visit to this -cave.)--It lies three days' journey from Pailgam in Kashmere, on the -borders of Little Tibet. The altitude is evidently high as one crosses -snow fields to get to it. A small path zigzagging up a grassy slope -leads to the cave and is a stiff climb from the valley. The cave opens -on the side of a mountain and has a large, almost square mouth at -least as big as the floor area within. The floor of the cave is the -continuation of the grass slope and slants upwards and backwards to the -back wall, the only case of the kind so far reported. This cave is most -curiously connected with religion. Dr. Eger says that there are two -small blocks of ice in it which never melt. From time immemorial these -blocks of ice have been sacred to the Hindoos who worship them--as -re-incarnations--under the names of Shiva and Ganesh. Dr. Eger saw -offerings of rice and flowers on them. Thousands of pilgrims come every -year at the end of July or beginning of August from all parts of India. -Thousands of miles have been traversed and hundreds of lives laid down -through this journey. Every year people die either before reaching -the cave or after. The trip from Pailgam in Kashmere takes three days -up and two days down, if one returns by a shorter route where the way -is unsafe because of avalanches. So many have perished there that the -pass is called "The Way of Death." This must be taken by one class of -pilgrims, _Sardhas_ or Holy Men, to complete the sacred circuit, but -the Hindoos say any one dying on the pass will go straight to heaven. - - -Icicles Formed by Radiation. (General Sir Richard Strachey, -_Geographical Journal_, 1900, vol. XV., page 168.)--On the Balch pass -of the Balch range in Tibet, General Strachey, in 1848, saw icicles of -which he says: "On the rocks exposed to the south were very curious -incrustations of ice, icicles indeed, but standing out horizontally -like fingers towards the wind. I was not able to understand how they -were caused, nor can I tell why they were confined to particular spots. -The thermometer stood at 41 deg.[F.], and though the dew point at the -time would probably have been below 32 deg.[F.], and the cold produced by -evaporation sufficient therefore to freeze water, yet it is evident -that no condensation could ever take place simultaneously with the -evaporation. * * * It has since occurred to me that these icicles were -formed by radiation. I found, subsequently, in a somewhat similar -position, that a thermometer suspended vertically, and simply exposed -to the sky in front of it, was depressed as much as 20 deg. F. below the -true temperature of the surrounding air. This result was, of course, -due to the radiation through the extremely dry and rarefied atmosphere -at the great elevation at which the thermometer was exposed. As -radiation takes place freely from a surface of ice, the growth of such -icicles as those described might be due to the condensation of vapour -brought up by the southerly day winds that so constantly blow over -these passes, and its accumulation in the form of ice on the exposed -extremity of the icicle, the temperature of which might thus have been -greatly reduced." - - -INDIA. - -Ice Formed by Radiation. (T. A. Wise, _Nature_, vol. V., page 189; R. -H. Scott, _Elementary Meteorology_, Third Ed., pages 61, 62.)--Mr. -Bunford Samuel called my attention to the mode of manufacturing ice by -radiation in India. It is as follows:-- - -"A very practical use of nocturnal radiation has been made from time -immemorial in India in the preparation of ice, and on such a scale that -about 10 tons of ice can be procured in a single night from twenty -beds of the dimensions about to be given, when the temperature of the -air is 15 deg. or 20 deg. [F.] above the freezing point. * * * The locality -referred to is the immediate neighborhood of Calcutta. A rectangular -piece of ground is marked out, lying east and west, and measuring 120 -by 20 feet. This is excavated to the depth of two feet and filled with -rice straw rather loosely laid, to within six inches of the surface of -the ground. The ice is formed in shallow dishes of porous earthenware, -and the amount of water placed in each is regulated by the amount of -ice expected. - -"In the cold weather, when the temperature of the air at the ice fields -is under 50 deg., ice is formed in the dishes. The freezing is most active -with N. N. W. airs, as these are driest; it ceases entirely with -southerly or easterly airs, even though their temperature may be lower -than that of the N. N. W. wind. - -"No ice is formed if the wind is sufficiently strong to be called a -breeze, for the air is not left long enough at rest, above the bed, for -its temperature to fall sufficiently, by the action of radiation. - -"The rice straw, being kept loose and perfectly dry, cuts off the -access of heat from the surface of the ground below it, and, when the -sun goes down, the straw being a powerful radiator, the temperature -of the air in contact with the dishes is reduced some 20 deg. below that -prevailing some two or three feet above them. The rapid evaporation of -the water into the dry air above creates also an active demand for heat -to be rendered latent in the formation of steam, and the result of all -these agencies is the formation of ice, under favorable circumstances, -on the extensive scale above mentioned." - - -KOREA. - -Glaciere Cave on the Han Gang.--Messrs. J. Edward Farnum and George -L. Farnum, of Philadelphia, inform me that they saw a small cave -containing ice on the banks of one of the Korean rivers. It is about -75 kilometers from Seoul, nearly northeast, near the ferry where the -old road leading from Seoul towards northern Korea crosses the Han -Gang, the river which passes by Seoul. The entrance is small; perhaps -2 meters wide. The cave is not thoroughly explored. Ice lies near the -entrance, and as far back as the Messrs. Farnum could see. - - -JAPAN. - -Glaciere Lava Cave near Shoji. (_Evening Telegraph, Philadelphia, -January 2d, 1896._)--The cave is about 12 kilometers from Shoji, and is -in lava. First there is a pit in the forest, some 5 meters wide by 15 -meters deep. The cave opens into this. It seems to be some 400 meters -long and from 2 meters to 12 meters high. There is an ice floor in -places, also many ice stalagmites. At the furthest point reached there -is a strong air current, which extinguishes torches and so far has -prevented further exploration. Ice from the cave has been cut by the -country people for sale at Kofu, which is not far distant. - - - - -PART IV. - -SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. - - - - -SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. - - -Benigne Poissenot, in 1586, hinted that the cold of winter produced the -ice at Chaux-les-Passavant.[69] - -[69] See Part III.: page 193. - - -Reichard Strein and Christoph Schallenberger visited the caves on the -Oetscher in 1591.[70] - -[70] See Part III.: page 231. - - -Gollut, in 1592, suggested the cold of winter as the cause of the ice -at Chaux-les-Passavant.[71] - -[71] See Part III.: page 202. - - -In the _Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences_, 1686, Tome -II., pages 2, 3, there is an account, with no author's name, of -Chaux-les-Passavant. The memoir states that in winter the cave is -filled with thick vapors and that after some trees were cut down near -the entrance, the ice was less abundant than formerly: that people -come for ice with carts and mules, but that the ice does not become -exhausted, for one day of great heat forms more ice than could be -carried away in eight days in carts and wagons: and that when a fog -forms in the cave, there is assuredly rain the following day, and that -the peasants in the neighborhood consult this curious "almanac" to know -the weather which is coming. - - -Freiherr Valvasor, in 1689, wrote about some of the glacieres of the -Krain.[72] - -[72] See Part III.: pages 238, 239. - - -Behrens, in 1703, thought it was colder in summer than in winter in the -caves near Questenberg in the Harz. - - -M. de Billerez, in 1712, writes that at Chaux-les-Passavant it is -really colder in summer than in winter; and that the ice is harder than -river ice, and this he thinks is due to the presence of a nitrous or -ammoniacal salt, which he says he found in the rocks. - - -M. de Boz made four trips to Chaux-les-Passavant on the 15th of May -and 8th of November, 1725; and the 8th of March and 20th of August, -1726. His memoir says that his observations tend to disprove those -of M. de Billerez, and that "the cause for the great cold, which is -less great in summer, although always remaining, is quite natural." -He cites as causes for the ice the exposure to the north-north-east; -the rock portal sheltering the entrance, and all the forest covering -the surrounding lands; and adds that some veracious persons told him -that since some of the big trees above the grotto had been cut down -there was less ice than before. He found no traces of salt, nor any -springs, and that the water supply came from the rains and melted snows -filtering through the ground. - - -In 1739, Matthias Bel published his curious account of Szilize.[73] - -[73] See Part III.: page 254. - - -J. N. Nagel, a Vienna mathematician, visited the Oetscher in 1747. He -concluded that the ice was made in winter and preserved in summer as in -an ice house. - - -M. de Cossigny wrote, in 1750, about Chaux-les-Passavant. He made -a plan of the cave and took many observations in April, August and -October, and concluded that the interior condition of the cave does not -change noticeably from winter to summer, no matter what the external -conditions of temperature may be; that what people say of greater cold -in summer, vanishes before actual experience and that, as a state -of freezing reigns more or less continuously in the cave, it is not -surprising if the ice accumulates. Apparently he was the first to -notice and insist on the necessity of drainage to the cave through -cracks in the rocks. He also made a series of observations disproving -those of M. de Billerez, as to the presence of any kinds of salts in -the rocks or ice. - - -Hacquet, in 1778, thought that the ice in the cave at Lazhna-gora -formed in winter, but he also thought that there must undoubtedly be -some salt in the water. He says he found ice in the cave in the spring, -and that his companion, a priest, had never found any in winter. He -therefore concluded that by that time it had all melted. - - -Romain Joly, in 1779, claims to have visited Chaux-les-Passavant on the -19th of September (year not given). His account seems largely borrowed -from the one in the _Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences_, in -1686. He says: "This ice is formed by the drops of water which fall -from the roof, and which freeze because of the chill of the cave. -In the winter there is no ice, but running water." He says nothing, -however, about the ice forming in summer. - - -The _Citoyen_ Girod-Chantrans visited Chaux-les-Passavant in August, -1783, and reached the conclusion, from all he saw and heard, that the -cave did not freeze in summer nor thaw in winter, and that it was -really a natural ice house. He was aided by the notes of a neighboring -physician, Dr. Oudot, who had made observations in the cave, and among -others, had placed stakes of wood, on the 8th of January, 1779, in -the heads of the columns he had found in the cave; and on the 22d of -February, 1780, had found these stakes completely covered with ice, -forming columns 30 centimeters in diameter. - - -Hablizl, in 1788, wrote that the ice in the cave near Karassoubazar -formed in the spring by the snows which melt, run into the cave, and -refreeze. He also thought that there was less ice there in the fall -than in the spring, that it diminishes in July and August, and that the -idea, current in the neighborhood, of the formation of ice in summer, -is a mistake. - - -Professor Pierre Prevost, in 1789, gave an accurate explanation of -the formation of the ice in Chaux-les-Passavant. He says: "Weighing -carefully the local circumstances, one discovers in truth a few causes -of permanent cold. But these causes seem rather suited to keep up a -great freshness or to diminish the heat of summer, than to produce a -cold such as that which reigns in the cavern. First of all, big trees -throw shade over the entrance; it is, I was told, forbidden under -severe penalties to cut down any of them, for fear of depriving the -grotto of a necessary shelter. In the second place, this entrance is -situated almost due north, leaning a little to the east, which is the -coolest exposure one can choose, and the one most suited to help the -effect of the icy winds which blow from that quarter. Finally the slope -is steep and the grotto deep and covered with a thick vault. These -three conditions united constitute, as it seems to me, a very good _ice -house_; by which I mean a reservoir fit to preserve during the summer, -the ice which may bank up in winter. - -"But how does this ice bank up? One knows that the outside waters -above form on the roof, during the winter, long drops and stalactites -of ice. These icicles, which hang down and increase constantly by the -drip from the same source which formed them, fall at last, carried away -by their own weight, and form so many centres, around which freeze -the waters with which the floor of the grotto is always inundated. At -the same time, the blowing of the north wind accumulates snow at the -base of the slope, which is uncovered in part and exposed above to all -the vicissitudes of the weather. Thus during the winter is formed an -irregular heap of ice and snow, which the first heats of spring begin -to make run, but which the heats of summer cannot finish dissolving. -The winter following has therefore even more facility to augment the -mass of these ice pyramids, which have resisted until the fall. And if -men did not work at diminishing it, it might happen that it would fill -the entire cavern at last to a great height. - -"I am therefore strongly inclined to think that the process of nature -is here precisely similar to that of art; that without any especial -cause of cold, the natural glaciere of Besancon conserves in the -moderate temperature of deep caverns, the heaps of snow and ice which -the winds and the outside waters accumulate there during the winter; -and that the melting of these snows and of these accumulated ices -forms little by little the ice floor, scattered over with blocks and -pyramids, which one observes there during the summer." - - -Horace Benedict de Saussure, the great Swiss scientist and mountaineer, -in 1796, published a number of observations about cold current caves -in various parts of the Alps. He found that in summer the air blows -outward at the lower end, and that in winter it draws inward. His -explanation is that in summer the colder air in the tube is heavier -than the outside air and displaces it by gravity; while in winter the -rupture takes place in the other direction, since the column within the -tube is warmer than the outside air and therefore is pushed upwards by -the heavy air flowing in. He concludes that evaporation due to the air -passing internally over moist rocks suffices to explain the phenomenon -of low temperatures and that such caves have a rather lower temperature -in the Alps than in Italy owing to the greater natural cold of the -Swiss lake region. An experiment of his is worth mentioning. He passed -a current of air through a glass tube, 2.5 centimeters in diameter, -filled with moistened stones, and found that the air current which -entered with a temperature of 22.5 deg. came out with a temperature of -18.75 deg., that is with a loss of 3.75 deg. of heat. - - -Robert Townson, LL.D., in 1797, published an account, perhaps the first -in English, of a glaciere cave. He says of Szilize: "Ice I truly found -here in abundance, and it was mid-summer, but in a state of thaw; the -bed of ice, which covered the floor of the cavern was thinly covered -with water and everything announced a thaw. I had no need to use my -thermometer: however I placed it in the ice and it fell to 0 deg. of -Reaumur: I then wiped it and placed it in a niche in the rock, at the -furthest part of the cavern, a yard above the ice and here it remained -near an hour: when I returned I found it at 0 deg.. * * * Everything -therefore, ice, water and atmosphere in the neighborhood had the same -temperature, and that was the temperature of melting ice: 0 deg. Reaumur. - -"When then is the ice which is found here, and in such quantities -that this cavern serves the few opulent nobility in the neighborhood -as an ice house, formed? Surely in winter, though not by the first -frost, not so soon as ice is formed in the open air. No doubt, from -the little communication this cavern has with the atmosphere, it will -be but little and slowly affected by the change. Should therefore, -Mr. Bel, or any of his friends, have come here to verify the common -report at the commencement of a severe frost, when the whole country -was covered with ice and snow, they might still have found nothing here -but water, or the ice of the preceding winter in a state of thaw, and -the cavern relatively warm; and likewise, should they have visited it -in a warm spring, which had succeeded to a severe winter, they might -have found nothing here but frost and ice; and even the fresh melted -snow, percolating through the roof of this cavern, might again have -been congealed to ice. I observed frequently in Germany in the severe -winter of 1794-5, on a sudden thaw, that the walls of churches and -other public buildings, on the outside were white and covered with a -hoar frost, and the windows on the same side covered with a rime." - - -Dr. Franz Sartori, in 1809, was a strong believer in the summer ice -theory, and wrote of the flies and the gnats, the bats and the owls, -and the foxes and the hares coming to Szilize to winter. - - -Alexander von Humboldt, in 1814, says about the Cueva del Hielo on the -Peak of Teneriffe that so much snow and ice are stored up in winter -that the summer heat cannot melt it all, and also adds that permanent -snow in caves must depend more on the amount of winter snow, and the -freedom from hot winds, than on the absolute altitude of the cave. - - -Dewey, in 1819, thought that the ice in the Snow Glen at Williamstown -was a winter formation. - - -Professor M. A. Pictet visited Saint-Georges, Le Brezon and Montarquis -and in 1822 endeavored to prove that they are cold current caves and -that the ice in them is due entirely to draughts causing evaporation. -He believed in the theory of the ice forming in summer more than in -winter and that it could not be the residue of a winter deposit. He -therefore argued that it must be due to descending currents of air -which he thought would be most energetic in summer; that they would -become at least as low as the mean annual temperature of the place -and be still further cooled by evaporation. The strange thing about -his theories is that he does not seem to have personally observed any -draughts either at Saint-Georges or Le Brezon, but the fact that the -ice was evidently not an accumulation of winter snow led him to try to -reconcile what he had himself seen with de Saussure's theories about -windholes. - - -Jean Andre Deluc in 1822 published a paper discussing the theories of -MM. de Cossigny, Prevost and Pictet. Deluc had never visited a glaciere -himself, but he explains clearly the impossibility of Professor -Pictet's cold current theory, on the simple ground that Professor -Pictet himself did not find any cold currents. He takes up Professor -Prevost's theories warmly; using also the manuscript notes of Mons. -Colladon who had visited the Grand Cave de Montarquis. Deluc says: -"that the winter's cold penetrates into these caves, freezes the water -which collects there and that the ice thus formed has not the time to -melt during the following summer." He says further: "It seems that in -the three glacieres with which we have been occupied there is a flat -or rather hollow bottom, where the waters can form a more or less deep -pond, and whence they therefore cannot flow away; it is there they -flow in winter; and as these are shut in places where the air cannot -circulate, the heats of summer can only penetrate very feebly. The ice -once formed in such cavities, only melts slowly; for one knows that ice -in melting, absorbs 60 deg. of heat; and where find this heat in an air -always very cold and nearly still? During a great cold, the ice forms -with great promptness, while it melts with much slowness, even when -the temperature of the air is several degrees above zero; what must -then not be this slowness when the temperature of the interior air only -rises in summer one degree above freezing point. It would need several -summers to melt this ice if it did not reform each winter." - - -C. A. Lee, in 1825, wrote that the ice in the Wolfshollow near -Salisbury was a winter formation. - - -G. Poulett Scrope, in 1826, accepted as the truth the statement that -the cave of Roth was filled with ice in summer, but that it was -warm during the winter. In 1827, he explained the presence of ice at -Pontgibaud as follows: "The water is apparently frozen by means of the -powerful evaporation produced by a current of very dry air issuing from -some long fissures or arched galleries which communicate with the cave, -and owing its dryness to the absorbent qualities of the lava through -which it passes." - - -F. Reich, in 1834, thought that there were two possible causes which -might produce subterranean ice: 1, the difference in specific gravity -between warm and cold air; 2, evaporation. He thought the cold air a -sufficient cause in most caves, but he considered that evaporation also -played a part not infrequently. - - -Professor Silliman, in 1839, gave the first hint, in the negative, -about compressed air as a cause for subterranean ice. He said about -Owego that if one could suppose that compressed gases or a compressed -atmosphere were escaping from the water or near it, this would indicate -a source of cold, but that as there is no indication of this in the -water, the explanation is unavailable. - - -Professor A. Pleischl wrote in 1841 that he was told that ice formed on -the Pleschiwetz and on the Steinberge in summer. Continuing, he says: -"The author is therefore, as well as for other reasons, of the opinion, -that the ice is not remaining winter ice, but a summer formation, and -one formed by the cold of evaporation. * * * The basalt is, as a thick -stone, a good conductor for the heat, and takes up therefore easily -the sun's warmth, but parts with it easily to other neighboring bodies. -In the hollows, between the basalt blocks, is found, as I already -mentioned, rotting moss, which forms a spongy mass, which is wet -through with water. The basalt heated by the sun's rays now causes a -part of the water in the spongy mass to vaporize; for this evaporation -the water needs heat, which it withdraws from the neighboring bodies -and in part from water, and makes the water so cold, that it freezes -into ice, as, under the bell of an air pump--Nature therefore makes -here a physical experiment on the largest scale." - -Much stress appears to have been laid on the paper of Professor -Pleischl by Professor Krauss and one or two others. The weak point in -it is that Pleischl did not see the ice form in summer, but was only, -as usual, told that it did so. There is nothing in the facts given to -show that the places mentioned are different from any other taluses, -where ice does not form as the result of heat. - - -Mr. C. B. Hayden, in 1843, wrote about the Ice Mountain in Virginia, -and held that the porous nature of the rocks makes them poor conductors -of heat, and that the mountain is a huge sandstone refrigerator. - - -Dr. S. Pearl Lathrop, in 1844, wrote of the Ice Bed at Wallingford, -Vermont, as a great natural refrigerator. - - -Sir Roderick Impey Murchison wrote in 1845 about the salt mine and -freezing cave of Illetzkaya-Zatschita. He visited them during a hot -August, and was assured that the cold within is greatest when the -external air is hottest and driest; that the fall of rain and a moist -atmosphere produce some diminution in the cold of the cave and that on -the setting in of winter the ice disappears entirely. He accepted these -statements evidently only in a half hearted way, submitting them to -Sir John Herschel, who tried to explain them, in case they were true, -of which Herschel was likewise doubtful. Murchison at first thought -that the ice was due to the underlying bed of salt, but soon recognized -that this explanation could not be correct. He also rejected Herschel's -"heat and cold wave" theory. Shortly after this he came across -Pictet's memoir, and on the strength of it concluded that the ice in -Illetzkaya-Zatschita could not be the residue of a winter deposit, but -must be due to descending currents of air; to the previously wet and -damp roof affording a passage to water; and to the excessive dryness of -the external air of these southern steppes contributing powerfully to -the refrigerating effects of evaporation. - - -Professor Arnold Guyot, in 1856, said that the well at Owego admitted -large quantities of snow which melts, but not readily, because it -is not accessible to the sun. It therefore goes through the same -process as glaciers, of partly melting and refreezing; and we have the -formation of a glacier without movement. - - -Professor W. B. Rogers, in 1856, held that the well at Owego became the -recipient of the coldest air of the neighborhood, and the temperature -remained abnormal because the bad conducting power of the materials of -the well retained the cold. - - -Professor D. Olmstead, in 1856, held about Owego that cold air exists -in the interior of the earth which may have found a ventilating shaft -in the well. - - -Professor Petruzzi, in 1857, considered the following requirements -necessary for a glaciere: A high altitude above the sea; a decided drop -into the interior of the mountain; absence of all draught; protection -against all warm and moist winds, therefore the opening to north and -east. He also says about the glaciere on the Pograca: that it is in -shadow; that the thick forest round the mouth keeps the temperature -down; that it begins to freeze below when it does above; that the cold -remains there into the spring; and that the water from rain or other -sources, which flows into the cave, must freeze there, and the ice form -in greater quantities than the heat of summer can melt away. - - -Mr. Albert D. Hager wrote in 1859: "The question now arises, why it -was that such a congealed mass of earth was found in Brandon at the -time the frozen well was dug. My opinion is, that the bad conducting -property of the solids surrounding it, the absence of ascending -currents of heated air, and of subterranean streams of water in this -particular locality favored such a result; and that the bad conducting -property of clay, as well as that of the porous gravel associated -with it, taken in connection with the highly inclined porous strata, -and the disposition of heated air to rise, and the cold air to remain -below, contribute to produce in the earth, at this place, a _mammoth -refrigerator_, embracing essentially the same principle as that -involved in the justly celebrated refrigerator known as 'Winship's -Patent.' - -"Clay is not only nearly impervious to air and water, but it is one of -the worst conductors of heat in nature. (Note.--To test the question -whether clay was a poor conductor of heat or not, I took two basins -of equal size, and in one put a coating of clay one-half inch thick, -into which I put water of a temperature of 52 deg. Fahrenheit. Into the -other dish, which was clean, I put water of the same temperature, and -subjected the two basins to equal amounts of heat; and in five minutes -the water in the clean dish indicated a temperature of 70 deg. while that -of the one coated with clay was raised only to 56 deg..) If we can rely -upon the statements of those who dug out the frozen earth, it rested -upon a stratum of clay that lay upon the bed of pebbles in which the -water was found, for it was described as being a very sticky kind of -hard pan. - -"This being the case, if the water contained in the pebbly mass had a -temperature above the freezing point, the heat would be but imperfectly -transmitted to the frost, through the clay, provided there was no other -way for its escape. But we have seen that the stratum of clay that -overlays the bed of pebbles in the side of the gravel pit was not -horizontal, but inclined towards the well at an angle of 25 deg.. Now if -this drip was continued to the well, and existed there (which is highly -probable), it will be seen that the ascending current of heated air, in -the pebbly bed, would be checked upon meeting the overlying barrier of -clay and be deflected out of its upward course. The tendency of heated -air is to rise, hence it would continue its course along the under -side of the clay, through the interstices in the bed of pebbles, till -it found a place of escape at the surface, which in this case may have -been at the gravel pit before named." - - -Professor Edward Hitchcock wrote in 1861: "The presence of a mass of -frozen gravel deep beneath the surface in Brandon, was first made known -by digging a well in it in the autumn of 1858. * * * The gravel, also, -rises into occasional knolls and ridges. In short, it is just such -a region of sand and gravel as may be seen in many places along the -western side of the Green Mountains; and indeed, all over New England. -It is what we call modified drift, and lies above genuine drift, having -been the result of aqueous agency subsequent to the drift period. * * -* The well was stoned up late in the autumn of 1858, and during the -winter, ice formed upon the water in one night, two inches thick. It -continued to freeze till April; after which no ice was formed on the -surface, but we can testify that as late as June 25th, the stones of -the well for four or five feet above the surface of the water were -mostly coated with ice; nay, it had not wholly disappeared July 14th. -The temperature of the water was only one degree of Fahrenheit above -freezing point. The ice did however disappear in the autumn but was -formed again (how early we did not learn) in the winter, and so thick -too that it was necessary to send some one into the well to break it. -We visited the well August 18th, 1860, and found the temperature 42 deg.. -Yet only the week previous ice was seen upon the stones, and we were -even told by one of the family, that a piece of ice had been drawn up -the day before in the bucket. * * * These frozen deposits may have been -produced during the glacial period that accompanied the formation of -drift, and continued far down into the subsequent epochs of modified -drift. * * * But in all the excavations both gravel and clay occur: -and how almost impervious to heat must such a coating 20 feet thick, -be! It would not, however, completely protect the subjacent mass from -solar heat. But there is another agency still more powerful for this -end, namely, evaporation, which we think has operated here, as we shall -more fully describe further on; and we think that these two agencies, -namely, non-conduction and evaporation, may have preserved this frozen -deposit for a very long period, from exterior influences." - - -Professor Thury in 1861 says about Saint-Georges: "Such is the -_resume_, concise but exact, of the results of our winter excursion. -They furnish proof to the fact generally borne witness to by the -mountaineers, that ice does not form in winter in the interior of -caverns. But if this is so, it is for a very simple reason: two things -are necessary for the formation of ice: cold and water. In winter, the -cold is not wanting: but if there is no spring opening in the cave, the -water is absent, and then no ice forms. - -"It is in the spring, at the time of the first melting of the snows, -that the ice must form. Then water at 0 deg. pours over the surface, and -penetrates by the fissures of the rock and by the large openings into -the chilled cavern, which is also receiving the freezing air of the -nights. The grotto then makes its annual provision of ice, which after -this could only diminish little by little during the whole duration of -the warm season." - -Professor Thury writes about the Grand Cave de Montarquis: "Here it -must be when water and cold meet, that is autumn and especially spring, -the time of the first melting of the snows." - -"During the winter * * * the colder, heavier air comes to freeze the -water of the grotto, and chill the ice and the wall of rock." - -"During the summer, the radiation of the vaults and the proper heat of -the ground only melt a small quantity of ice because this absorbs much -heat to pass into a liquid state." - -"The heat of the air is entirely used to melt the ice; it does not -therefore manifest itself as sensible heat." - -"The contact of the ice ready to melt, plays in a certain way, towards -the air a little warmer than itself, the role of an extremely absorbing -body, or one which has an excessive caloric conductibility." - -"Here the formation of the ice could not possibly be attributed to the -cold caused by evaporation. The psychrometer indicated ninety-two per -cent, of relative humidity: the atmosphere of the grotto was therefore -almost saturated with evaporation of water, and the maximum of cold -caused by evaporation was not over half a degree centigrade." - -About prismatic ice and a hollow pyramid, he says: "The prismatic -(_areolaire_) structure is produced later on in the ice, by a new and -particular arrangement of the molecules of the already solidified -water. Therefore the recent stalactites are never crystallized." - -"In the beginning of the hot season, the atmospheric temperature of -the grotto rises slowly. Inferior to zero by some tenths of a degree, -it produces first on the surface, in the stalactites, the prismatic -structure. The temperature continues to rise, the central portions -of the stalactites, still composed of ordinary ice, liquefy, and if -the melting water finds some issue, either by accidental openings -left between some prisms, or by the extremity of the stalactite or by -some point of its surface which had escaped the action of the regular -crystallization; by this opening the water escapes, and the tubular -stalactite has been formed." - -"The column was composed of a very special ice, perfectly dry, -perfectly homogeneous, translucid and whose appearance could only -be compared to that of the most beautiful porcelain. I am inclined -to believe that we had under our eyes a special molecular state of -congealed water. This state would be produced under the influence of -a constant temperature of a certain degree (Note--perhaps not far from -4 deg.--the actual temperature of the grotto) long prolonged. These causes -can be realized more completely in glacieres than anywheres else." - - -The Reverend George Forrest Browne, published in 1865, _Ice Caves in -France and Switzerland_, one of the most delightful books of travel -ever written, on account of the scientific accuracy and the humor of -the author. He visited La Genolliere, Saint-Georges, Saint-Livres, -Chaux-les-Passavant, Monthezy, Arc-sous-Cicon, the Schafloch, -Haut-d'Aviernoz, which he calls Grand Anu, Chapuis, and Font-d'Urle. -He says: "The view which Deluc adopted was one which I have myself -independently formed. * * * The heavy cold air of winter sinks down -into the glacieres, and the lighter warm air of summer cannot on -ordinary principles of gravitation dislodge it, so that heat is very -slowly spread in the caves; and even when some amount of heat does -reach the ice, the latter melts but slowly, for ice absorbs 60 deg. C. -of heat in melting; and thus, when ice is once formed, it becomes a -material guarantee for the permanence of cold in the cave. For this -explanation to hold good it is necessary that the level at which the -ice is formed should be below the level of the entrance to the cave; -otherwise the mere weight of the cold air would cause it to leave its -prison as soon as the spring warmth arrived. In every single case that -has come under my observation, this condition has been emphatically -fulfilled. It is necessary, also, that the cave should be protected -from direct radiation, as the gravitation of cold air has nothing to -do with resistance to that powerful means of introducing heat. This -condition, also, is fulfilled by nature in all the glacieres I have -visited, excepting that of S. Georges; and there art has replaced the -protection formerly afforded by the thick trees which grew over the -hole of entrance. The effect of the second hole in the roof of this -glaciere is to destroy all the ice which is within range of the sun. -A third and very necessary condition is, that the wind should not be -allowed access to the cave; for if it were, it would infallibly bring -in heated air, in spite of the specific weight of the cold air stored -within. It will be understood from my description of such glacieres as -that of the Grand Anu, of Monthezy, and the lower glaciere of the Pre -de S. Livres, how completely sheltered from all winds the entrances to -those caves are. There can be no doubt, too, that the large surfaces -which are available for evaporation have much to do with maintaining a -somewhat lower temperature than the mean temperature of the place where -the cave occurs." - -Browne noticed prismatic ice several times. He says of it: "M. Thury -suggests also, as a possibility, what I have found to be the case by -frequent observations, that the prismatic ice has greater power of -resisting heat than ordinary ice. * * * A Frenchman who was present -in the room in which the Chemical Section of the British Association -met at Bath, and heard a paper which I read there on this prismatic -structure, suggested that it was probably something akin to the -rhomboidal form assumed by dried mud; and I have since been struck by -the great resemblance to it, as far as the surface goes, which the pits -of mud left by the coprolite workers near Cambridge offer, of course -on a very large scale. This led me to suppose that the intense dryness -which would naturally be the result of the action of some weeks or -months of great cold upon subterranean ice might be one of the causes -of its assuming this form, and the observations at Jena would rather -confirm than contradict this view: competent authorities, however, seem -inclined to believe that warmth, and not cold, is the producing cause." - -Mr. Browne found a hollow cone at La Genolliere, for which he accounted -as follows: "In the loftier part of the cave * * * ninety six drops -of water in a minute splashed on to a small stone immediately under -the main fissure. This stone was in the centre of a considerable area -of the floor which was clear of ice. * * * I found that the edge -of the ice round this clear area was much thicker than the rest of -the ice on the floor, and was evidently the remains of the swelling -pedestal of the column. * * * When the melted snows of spring send -down to the cave, through the fissures of the rock, an abundance of -water at a very low temperature and the cave itself is stored with the -winter's cold, these thicker rings of ice catch first the descending -water, and so a circular wall, naturally conical, is formed around the -area of stones; the remaining water either running off through the -interstices, or forming a floor of ice of less thickness, which yields -to the next summer's drops. In the course of time, this conical wall -rises, narrowing always, till a dome-like roof is at length formed and -thenceforth the column is solid." From what I have observed myself, -this explanation seems to fairly meet the facts. - - -Professor T. G. Bonney, in 1868, was inclined to believe that there was -some connection between glacieres and a glacial period. - - -Mr. W. R. Raymond, in 1869, concluded from his own observations about -the lava cave in Washington: that the cold air of winter freezes up the -percolating waters from the surface, layer upon layer, solid from the -bottom, and the accumulated ice thaws slowly in summer, being retarded -by the covering which keeps out the direct rays of the sun, and by the -fact that the melting ice at one end of the cave, through which the -summer draught enters, itself refrigerates the air and maintains a -freezing temperature at the other end. - - -Dr. C. A. White, in 1870, says of the cavern at Decorah: "The formation -of the ice is probably due to the rapid evaporation of the moisture -of the earth and rocks, caused by the heat of the summer sun upon the -outer wall of the fissure and valley side. This outer wall is from ten -to twenty feet in thickness where the ice was seen to be most abundant. -The water for its production seems to be supplied by slow exudation -from the inner wall of the cave." - - -Dr. Krenner, in 1874, wrote of Dobsina as "a natural ice cellar of -giant dimensions, whose ice masses formed in winter, the summer does -not succeed in melting." - - -Professor W. Boyd Dawkins wrote in 1874: "The apparent anomaly that one -only out of a group of caves exposed to the same temperature should -be a glaciere, may be explained by the fact that these conditions -[those formulated by the Rev. G. F. Browne] are found in combination -but rarely, and if one were absent there would be no accumulation of -perpetual ice. It is very probable that the store of cold laid up in -these caves, as in an ice house, has been ultimately derived from the -great refrigeration of climate in Europe in the Glacial Period." - - -Mr. Theodore Kirchhoff examined the lava caves in the State of -Washington and in 1876 wrote that he considered that the ice in the -smaller ones were simply remains of the winter's cold. He thought -that the ice in the large cave where there is a draught could not be -accounted for in the same way, so he concluded that the ice must be due -to the draught. - - -Mr. N. M. Lowe, in 1879, proposed the Compressed Air or Capillary -theory[74] about the Cave at Decorah. - -[74] See Part II., page 142. - - -Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., in 1879, gave an exceedingly clear exposition of -the theory in the same journal. - - -Mr. Aden S. Benedict, in 1881, published his observations about -Decorah. He found that there was no water falling in the cave to -compress the air, that there was no water falling near enough to be -heard, nor any aperture giving vent to cold air in the cave. He thought -that the cold of winter cools the sides of the cave several degrees -below freezing point and that these rocks are so far underground that -it would take a long season of hot weather to raise this temperature to -the melting point of ice. In the spring the water percolates through -the soil and drips on to the yet freezing rocks; on which it freezes -and remains until the heat of summer penetrates to a sufficient depth -to melt it away. The rocks once raised above 0 deg. remain so until the -following winter and consequently if there are heavy autumn rains there -is water on the rocks but no ice. Mr. Benedict concluded that there was -nothing more mysterious about Decorah than the fact that if you drop -water on a cold stone it will freeze. - - -Professor Friederich Umlauft in 1883 wrote about glacieres "that as -moreover they were generally protected against warm winds and strong -draughts and as their entrances look towards the north or east, there -is consequently more ice formed under these conditions in winter than -can melt away in summer. Other ice grottoes however show the remarkable -characteristic, that it is warm in them in winter, in the summer on the -contrary it becomes so cold that all the dripping water freezes. They -are found near snow clefts and gorges; when in the hot summer months -the snow melts, then the cold which has become free presses down the -temperature in the cave so much that the water freezes into ice. Such -grottoes are in Austria at * * * Frauenmauer, * * * Brandstein, * * * -Teplitz, * * * Scilize, * * * Dobschauer." - - -Herr Koerber in 1885 wrote about the Schafloch, that the stored-up -winter's cold stands out as permanent adversary of the higher -temperature of the earth. The thermometer proved this by its action at -the end of the cave in a rock cleft, which is warmer than the rest of -the cave. In September Herr Koerber found the masses of ice less and -the stalagmites smaller than in January, especially a column which in -January had become a stately mountain of transparent ice. - - -Professor Eberhard Fugger of Salzburg, has studied the caves of the -Untersberg carefully, having paid over eighty visits to them. He -classifies freezing caverns into the following types, according to -their position and their shape: - -According to position: 1, open caves, that is those whose entrance is -free on a rock wall; 2, pit caves, where the entrance is at the bottom -of a pit; 3, pit caves, where the pit is covered and the opening is in -the roof. - -According to shape: 1, _sackhoehlen_ or chamber caverns, into which one -enters immediately at the entrance; 2, _ganghoehlen_, or passage caves -terminating in a chamber; 3, _roehrenhoehlen_, or passage caves where -the passages continue further than the chamber. - -He is a strong advocate of the winter's cold theory. He says: "The ice -of caves is formed by the cold of winter, and remains despite the heat -of summer, as through local circumstances the quantity of heat brought -to the ice is not great enough to melt it by the time when ice and snow -in the open at the same altitude have already disappeared." - -"In order that ice may form in a cave in winter, two factors are -necessary. There must be water present in some form or other, and in -some way the outside cold air must be able to sink into the cave." - -"When the bottom of a cave is below the entrance, the outside cold -winter air sinks into the cave from its weight, when the temperature of -the cave air is higher than that of the outside air; and it will remain -there during the warmer weather, as the warm outside air on account of -its lighter weight cannot drive out the cold heavy cave air." - -"The most important factor for the formation of ice is the drip water. -The more drip flows into a cave during the cold season, the more ice is -formed; the more drip, on the contrary, flows into the cave during the -warm season, the more ice is destroyed." - -"The warmth, which the roof of the cave gives out, is also a cause -which helps to melt the ice, and a cause in fact which works the -harder, the higher the temperature of the roof and the dirtier the ice -floor." - -"If direct rays of the sun penetrate a cave, they scarcely warm up the -air which they traverse, but they raise the temperature of the floor -or of the walls, which they touch. They are therefore a very important -factor, which may bring about the melting of the ice." - -"The snow slope at the mouth of a cave offers some protection against -the rays of the sun, especially if it is no longer white, but covered -with all sorts of dirt." - -"The larger the mass of ice, the longer is its duration." "A certain -thickness to the roof is of importance in preserving the ice. If it -is less than 8 meters, then it is well if it is covered with outside -vegetation." - -I entirely agree with these _dicta_ of Professor Fugger. - -In 1893, Fugger writes: "The peculiar readings of temperature, which -I made in August 1877, in the Kolowratshoehle, namely on the 13th at -12 M., 0.5 deg., on the 15th at 4 P. M., 0.35 deg., on the 23d at 10 A. M., -0.12 deg., on the 26th at 10 A. M., 0.17 deg., and on the 30th at 2.15 P. -M., -0.10 deg., I think I can attribute to the workings of the winds. In -the observations themselves there could scarce be an error. All five -observations were made at the same place, with the same thermometer, -after at least half an hour's exposure. In the time from the 13th to -the 30th of August, the temperature minimum in the town of Salzburg, -was 12 deg.; before the 30th were several cloudless nights. During the -whole of August scarcely any but southeast and northwest winds were -blowing. The Kolowratshoehle opens in a rock wall to the east; the above -named winds therefore affected during the entire month the entrance -to the cave and may have produced a lively evaporation in the cave, -through a sort of sucking up of the cave air, and thus have created the -rather decided cooling off of 0.6 deg. within seventeen days." - -This statement, coming from Professor Fugger, deserves particular -attention, because it would go to show: first, that the air in -the Kolowratshoehle, a _sackhoehle_ with only one entrance, is only -apparently stagnant in summer and not really so; and second, that -evaporation may act to a limited extent in a cavern where there is -almost no running water. - - -Captain Trouillet, in 1885, published a paper about -Chaux-les-Passavant. He found that when it was colder inside than -outside, the internal air was nearly cut off from the outside; when it -was coldest outside there was a lively disturbance. He called these -two classes _periodes fermees_ and _periodes ouvertes_. He says: -"The duration of a _closed period_ is measured then on the curves -[of a maximum and minimum thermometer] of the interior temperatures, -between a minimum and the following maximum; that of an _open period_ -is between a minimum and the preceding maximum. One can thus count -from the 25th November to the 31st December 25 _open periods_ of a -total duration of 200 hours or 8 times 24 hours: which gives for each -a duration of 71/2 hours. The shortest lasted 2 hours and the longest -16 hours. During the same interval, the _closed periods_ numbered 26, -making a total duration of about 28 days; the longest, which lasted -from the 3d to the 8th December, was 126 hours long." - -Trouillet also says: "From the 23d to the 30th December, the grotto -was completely isolated from the external air, and yet during three -consecutive nights, the interior had three marked chills. Such is -the phenomenon whose cause can only lay, in our opinion, in the -introduction of the dry air driven to the cave by the winds between -north and east. This air on entering comes in contact with the ice -and the humid roof of the cave; it saturates itself in producing a -formation of vapors, and therefrom a consumption of heat which may be -considerable." - -There are some discrepancies in this last paragraph which must be -noted, for the reason that Trouillet's observations are so valuable. He -does not mention having seen the vapors himself, in fact the production -of these vapors seems only an inference. Nor is it easy to understand -how the grotto could be "completely isolated from the external air" if -the phenomenon lay "in the introduction of the dry air driven to the -cave by the winds north and east." - - -Dr. B. Schwalbe, in 1886, wrote that "all my observations point to -the fact that the rock is the cooling factor in summer, and that the -cold goes out from it." He says also that "when I saw for the first -time the little cave of Roth, which was filled with fairly numerous -ice formations, it was precisely the smallness of the volume of air -and the strange appearance of the ice which made the simple cold air -theory seen insufficient, nor could I later, by widening the theory and -observing the localities from the basis of DeLuc's theory, accept it. -It always seemed by all my observations that in the rock there must be -a lasting source of cold. There must be a cause present, which prevents -the rapid warming of the cave wall through the temperature of the -ground, which also keeps the stone cool in summer and induces the main -ice formation in the spring." He also hints that Mr. Lowe's compressed -air theory may be the correct one. Dr. Schwalbe's work, _Ueber Eishoehlen -und Eisloecher_, is one of the four or five most important contributions -to glaciere literature, and his opinion is entitled to great respect on -account of his many observations. - - -Professor Israel C. Russell wrote in 1890, about the ice beds on the -Yukon: "It is thought by some observers, to be an inheritance from a -former period of extreme cold; but under existing climatic conditions, -when ice forms beneath a layer of moss, it is preserved during the -short summer, and may increase as it does on the tundras, to an -astonishing thickness." - -In 1897, Professor Russell says: "It is not probable that all the -subsoil ice of northern regions has been formed in one way. Along the -flood plains and on the deltas of rivers where layers of clear ice are -interbedded with sheets of frozen gravel and vegetable matter, as is -frequently the case, it seems evident that the growth of the deposit is -due, in some instances, to the flooding of previously frozen layers, -and the freezing and subsequent burial of the sediment thus added to -their surfaces. When spring freshets spread out sheets of debris over -the flood plain of a river, as frequently happens when streams in high -latitudes flow northward, the previously frozen soil and the ice of -ponds and swamps may be buried and indefinitely preserved." "There is -still another process by which frozen subsoil may be formed in high -latitudes: this is, the effects of the cold during the long winters -are not counteracted by the heat during the short summers. Under the -conditions now prevailing in northern Alaska, where the mean annual -temperature is below 32 deg. Fahrenheit, the frozen layer tends to increase -the thickness from year to year just as the depth of frozen soil in -more temperate latitudes may increase from month to month during the -winter season. During the short northern summers, especially where the -ground is moss covered, melting only extends a few inches below the -surface." - - -Mons. E. A. Martel, in 1892, wrote of the Creux-Perce: "I incline -only, as in all the pits which narrow at the bottom (_avens a -retrecissement_) to attribute the chilling to the fall of the cold -air of winter and to its non-renewal in summer." And at page 564 of -_Les Abimes_ he says: "One knows that _evaporation_ is an active cause -of cooling; therefore it is always cooler in caves near the drips of -water. * * * I have positively noted this influence of evaporation -near the drips of Tabourel (8 deg. instead of 9.5 deg.), of Dargilan, of the -Cerna Jama, and in abysses with double mouths where there were strong -draughts (Rabanel, Biau, Fosse-Mobile, etc.)." In December, 1897, -Mons. Martel writes: "In short, the action of the winter's cold is -the real cause accepted by * * * and recently confirmed by Fugger, -Trouillet and Martel." And also: "It is probable that this influence -[evaporation] is only real at rather high altitudes; this is at least -what seems the result of the studies of the caves of Naye (1700 to 1900 -meters) begun by Professor Dutoit." - -In 1899, Mons. Martel gave an account of the Glaciere de Naye. In this -paper, he abandons definitely fossil ice, salts and the capillary -theory as possible causes of underground ice. He considers that there -are four causes: 1, shape of the cavity; 2, free access of snow in -winter; 3, high altitude; 4, evaporation due to wind currents. The last -two causes he thinks are not necessarily always present. For instance -he considers that, at the Creux-Perce, and at Chaux-les-Passavant, the -ice is due especially to the sack or hour-glass shape of these hollows -where the summer air cannot get in on account of its lightness. At the -Glaciere de Naye, which is a big windhole, situated at an altitude of -1750 to 1820 meters, Mons. Martel thinks that the ice is formed by the -snow and cold of winter, but that its preservation is assured by the -evaporation caused by the action of the windhole. - - -Dr. Terlanday, in 1893, asserted that ice does not form in Szilize in -winter, and that the ice first forms in the winter in the upper part -of rock fissures and that in the spring, at the time of an increase of -temperature, this fissure ice is brought to the melting point by the -successive entering of heat into the earth and that it then arrives at -the cave, where it aids the formation of icicles. This theory about -fissure ice is probably in so far correct, that the ice in the upper -parts of fissures, near the surface of the ground, melts before the ice -in the lower parts of fissures. The drip would then naturally run into -the cave and, as long as the temperature of the cave was low, help to -form cave ice. - - -Dr. Hans Lohmann, in 1895, published some valuable notes about several -glacieres. While considering the cold of winter as the main cause of -the ice, he thought evaporation a secondary cause of cold. He says: -"That the cold from evaporation bears its share in cooling a cave, -will not be denied. * * * The air saturated with aqueous vapor makes -one think of constant evaporation. The aqueous vapor spreads itself -by diffusion throughout the entire cave, and if the outside air is -driest, goes to that. Through this, more ice and water can always be -vaporized, and to the warming elements there is furnished a cooling -one. If dry winds get into the cave, then must evaporation be very -lively and the chilling especially strong. Through this cause alone -can be explained the remarkably low temperature of +6.3 deg. in the new -part of the Garischen Stollen, in contrast to the temperature of +7.9 deg. -in the old part. The strong draught in the last drew out through its -suction the damp air of the new adit, so that there had to be a strong -evaporation." - -Dr. Lohmann gives some exhaustive notes about prismatic ice. He found -it a product of the fall months. He thinks all the observations show -that "the beginning of all prismatic formation in the ice may be looked -for in the changes of temperature in the cave at the time of the -formation of the ice. These cause the everywhere recognized splitting, -vertically to the outer surface. The further development hangs, as -shown by Hagenbach and Emden, on the attempt of the neighboring cells, -to join into larger unities. The increase of the larger crystals is -finally prevented by the melting out of the openings between the -separate crystals. Through this may be explained the difference in the -prismatic ice in different parts of the same cave." - - -Regierungsrath Franz Kraus, in 1895, wrote a short essay on glacieres -in _Hoehlenkunde_. He seems to have seen but few glacieres himself, and -considers the scientific side of the question by no means solved as -yet. He says: "The last word will not be spoken by the geographers and -the Alpine climbers * * * but by the physicists, in whose field both -questions really belong. Only then, when the physical circumstances -of the formation of the ice in glacieres have been so thoroughly -understood, that under the same circumstances it may be possible to -build artificial glacieres, only then could one say: the glaciere -question is definitely settled. The best proof is always experiment." - -He lays down several dicta which he says are universally recognized, -among which is this: "2. The ice formations in the debris heaps of -basaltic mountains are summer ice formations. The evaporation of the -infiltration water is recognized on all sides as the cause of this -ice." I differ in opinion from Herr Kraus about this matter, and think -that, on the contrary, every proof shows that the ice of basaltic -taluses is not a summer formation and is not due to evaporation. - -Herr Kraus also says: "The _Eishoehlen_ resemble so little the -_Windroehren_, that for these a proper name is quite correct. Just -as one cannot draw a sharp line between _Einstuerzschluenden_ and -_Einstuerzdolinen_, so one cannot draw a sharp line between _eishoehlen_ -and _windroehren_. A stagnation of cave air does not exist, and no cave -student would pretend to say it existed. The circulation of air may in -certain caves take place almost entirely through the mouth and it then -depends largely on the shape of the latter; in other caves are crevices -and erosion holes, which allow a circulation of air. Again in other -caves air may come through the floor into the cave, as is proved by -certain places always remaining free from ice." - -He also says: "The formation of dripstone is also diminished about -thick roofs, when the cracks are too broad to permit a slow dripping -process. In caves with sufficient air movements, that is ventilation, -the dripstone formation takes place faster than in those in which -the air is only slowly renewed. Also in such caves, in which the air -is strongly filled with moisture, the dripstone formation process -is materially hindered. Therefore in water caves and in _eishoehlen_ -one finds only rarely dripstone formations, and these mainly of poor -appearance. But in all cases the carbonic acid of the infiltration -water plays an important part." - - -In 1896, a Western newspaper published the following explanation about -the presence of ice in the cave at Elkinsville, Indiana; and it shows -how the idea--long since exploded--of the ice being due to chemical -causes, serenely bobs up on the discovery of a new cave: "Some have -advanced the theory that the air is forced through under passages -of the earth with such pressure as to make the strange formation; -some have attributed the cause to an underlying bed of alkali, whose -chemical change to a gaseous form has produced the phenomenon. Others -have thought that the interior heat of the earth, acting upon the -iron pyrites, or fool's gold, which largely abounds in this country, -is the true source of this unparalleled discovery. Still others think -that the sudden expansion of the carbonic acid gas given off by the -heated limestone, which is also common in this country, could have -easily produced the ice. But thus far the theories are nothing more -than speculation, and further than the fact that the ice cave exists, -and is, indeed, a remarkable phenomenon, none has been able to further -determine." - - -In 1896, Dr. A. Cvijic wrote that the cold air of winter is the source -of cold in the glacieres of Servia. The mountains have so little water -that the shepherds constantly take the ice out in summer for their own -use. - - -In 1897, numerous newspapers, among others, the _Philadelphia Press_ -of August 1st, romanced as follows about the cave at Decorah: "In the -summer its temperature is far below freezing. * * * From some unknown -source in the impenetrable rear of the cave comes a blast of cold air -as chill as from the Arctic region. In the winter the temperature of -the cave is like summer. * * * We followed the winding passage in and -out for more than 1000 feet. * * * I took out the thermometer and laid -it upon the floor of the cavern for three minutes. When I took it up -again I found that the mercury had fallen to 5 degrees below zero." - -"What is it that causes this phenomenon? Scientific men are said to -have visited the cave within the last day or two who have declared that -it had in some manner a subterranean connection with the polar regions, -and that the cold air from the North coming in contact with the warm -moist atmosphere from outside converted the vapor into water on the -walls of the cavern where it straightway congealed. * * * It seems to -me possible after thinking the matter over carefully, that in some -mysterious manner the same influences that work the changes in climate -in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are operating in this cave. It is -a well-known fact that in the regions referred to the seasons are the -reverse of what they are here." - -Mr. W. S. Auchincloss writes in 1897: "We also notice the working of -the same principle during summer days. The hottest part does not occur -at the noon hour--when the sun is on the meridian--but several hours -later in the afternoon. In this case the accessions of heat arrive more -rapidly than radiation is able to carry off. Radiation, however, keeps -on apace, and, at last attaining the mastery, temperature falls. Ice -caves furnish another example of the gradual procession in the seasons." - - -Mr. Alois F. Kovarik writes about Decorah in 1898 that "the length of -duration of the ice in the cave during the spring and summer depends -upon the quantity of cold stored up in the walls and this again upon -the coldness and the length of coldness of the previous winter. If -the winter be severe and long, the walls will store up a great supply -of cold for the gradual dissipation in the spring and summer and -consequently the phenomenon of the ice in the ice chambers will last -longer. Last winter, with an exception of the fore part of December, -was quite mild. As a result, the ice began to disappear with the latter -part of June, and totally disappeared by the end of July. * * * The -time of the lowest temperature in the cave depends upon how soon the -cold spells of the winter begin; for the sooner the walls begin to -freeze to a greater depth, the sooner have they stored up the greatest -amount of cold. * * * February 28th, 1898, when the walls contained -the greatest amount of cold, there was no ice in the cave, for the -reason that no water made appearance. Could water have appeared, no -doubt a great amount of ice would have formed; but as the conditions -are, the water has to come from the ground outside, and this being -frozen at the time, water could not in any natural way appear. If in -early spring, sufficiently warm days should come to melt the snow and -open the ground, the water not taken up by the ground would flow and -seep through crevices into the cave and ice consequently would appear -early. Somewhat such conditions prevailed this year, for warm days -appeared quite early in the spring. If _per contra_ the ground does not -open until in April, as was the case in 1895 and 1896, the appearance -of the ice is consequently delayed. * * * Naturally this opening [the -entrance] was small, but to give easier entrance, it was enlarged to -its present size. * * * If the entrance had been left a small opening, -as it naturally was, it is my belief that the temperature of the -interior of the cave would be lower in summer than it is, and the ice -would not disappear as soon as it does." - - -Mr. Robert Butler, of San Jose, Cal., investigated the question of cold -air draughts coming from the glaciere cave and from the freezing shaft -he examined in Montana. He wrote to me, in 1898, that he found that one -notices or imagines to notice a draught of air, especially on hot days. -Rapidly walking into the cave from the hot air without to the rapidly -cooling air within produces the same nervous sensations as though one -were to remain stationary and the air were to pass by from the warm to -the colder portions. A distance of twelve meters finds a difference -in temperature of fifteen degrees Centigrade. Twelve meters can be -walked quickly, so quickly that the nerves cannot become accustomed -gradually to the change of temperature. The rapidly cooling air does -actually produce the sensation of cool air passing by one's face. It -produces somewhat the same sensation as the evaporation of ether on -the surface of the body. Mr. Butler satisfied himself that as far as -he had observed all the seemingly peculiar conditions and places where -the ice has been found do not indicate any other causes when carefully -investigated than those of the seasons of the year, and that the ice -was formed by no other cause than the natural cold of winter. - - -Professor Cranmer, in 1899, added some important contributions to our -knowledge of freezing caverns. All his work goes to prove the winter's -cold theory, but he has brought out some new details. He found warm and -cold periods in the Tablerloch during the winter months. The coldest -air sank to the bottom and the air in the cave stratified itself -according to its specific gravity and its temperature. During a cold -period, the outside air sank into the cave only to the air stratum, -whose temperature, from the preceding warm period, was as much higher -as that of the outer air, as this had become warmer in sinking to that -stratum. The air which enters falls down the slope and displaces an -equal volume of air which streams out under the roof. - -Water will sometimes drip through a crack in winter until that crack -freezes up, when the water may then find some other crack to drip -through; at this second place a stalagmite may then grow, while at the -first place the stalagmite may stop growing and even begin to diminish -from evaporation. - -Ice begins to form, whenever water gets into a cave, if the cave -temperature is below 0 deg.; ice begins to melt as soon as the temperature -is over 0 deg.. - -Professor Cranmer found that occasionally small quantities of ice form -in caves in the summer months: this was in mountain caves, where there -was snow on the mountains and the temperature of the nights at least, -had sunk below freezing point: in fact when the conditions were those -of the winter months. - - - - -PART V. - -LIST OF AUTHORS. - - - - -LIST OF AUTHORS.[75] - -[75] This list of authors includes all the authorities which I -have personally consulted. Several papers, such as Dr. Schwalbe's -"_Uebersichtliche Zusammenstellung Literarischer Notizen ueber -Eishoehlen_" and the works of Dr. Listoff, I have been unable to find in -any library. - - - Allen, Levi. _Scientific American, New Series_, October 27th, 1883, - page 259. - - _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1839, vol. XXXVI., page 184. - - Auchincloss, W. S., C. E. _Waters within the Earth and the Laws of - Rainflow_, Philadelphia, 1897. - - - Badin, Adolphe. _Grottes et Cavernes_, Paris, Hachette, 1867. - - Baedeker, Karl. _Handbook of Austria._ _Handbook of the Eastern - Alps._ _Handbook of South Eastern France._ _Handbook of - Switzerland._ _Handbook of the United States._ - - Baker, M. S. _The Lava Region of Northern California: Sierra Club - Bulletin_, San Francisco, Cal., 1899, vol. II., page 318. - - Balch, Edwin Swift. _Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean - Ice_: Allen, Lane & Scott, Philadelphia, November, 1896, and - _The Journal of the Franklin Institute_, Philadelphia, March, - 1897, vol. CXLIII., pages 161-178. _Ice Cave Hunting in Central - Europe: Appalachia_, Boston, 1897, vol. VIII., pages 203-209. - _Subterranean Ice Deposits in America: Journal of the Franklin - Institute_, Philadelphia, April, 1899, vol. CXLVII., pages - 286-297. - - Baltzer, Dr. A. _Eine Neue Eishoehle im Berner Oberland: Jahrbuch des - Schweizer Alpen Club_, Bern, 1892-1893, pages 358-362. - - Behrens, Dr. Georg Henning. _Hercynia Curiosa_, Nordhausen, 1703. - - Bel, Matthias. _Philosophical Transactions_, London, 1739, vol. XLI., - page 41 _et seq._ - - Benedict, Aiden S. _Decorah Republican_, June 19th, 1881. - - Berthoud, Edward L. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, Third - Series, 1876, vol. XI., page 108. - - Bielz, E. Albert. _Siebenbuergen, Handbuch_, Carl Graeser, Wien, 1885. - - Billerez, Mons. de. _Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences_, - 1712, page 22 _et seq._ - - Bonney, T. G. _The Alpine Regions, 1868._ _Nature_, vol. XI., pages - 310, 327, 328. - - Boue, Dr. Ami. _La Turquie d'Europe_, Paris, 1840, vol. I., page 132. - _Sitzungsbericht der K. K. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien_, - 1864, I. Theil, page 321 _et seq._ - - Boz, Mons. de, Ingenieur du Roy. _Histoire de l'Academie Royale des - Sciences_, 1726, pages 16, 17. - - Browne, The Reverend G. F. _Ice Caves in France and Switzerland_, - London, Longmans, 1865. _Ice Caves of Annecy: Good Words_, - Edinburgh, November, 1866. - - _Bulletin, The Evening_, Philadelphia, March 1st, 1899. - - Burslem, Captain Rollo. _A Peep into Toorkisthan_, 1846. - - - C. B. A. _Scientific American_, May 3d, 1879. - - Cantwell, Lieutenant J. C. _Ice Cliffs on the Kowak River: National - Geographic Magazine_, October, 1896. - - Carrel, Chanoine G. _Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve_, 1841, vol. - XXXIV., page 196. - - _Christian Herald_, March 24th, 1897. - - Colladon. His manuscript notes were used by J. A. Deluc in _Annales - de Chimie et de Physique_, Paris, 1822, vol. XXI., page 113 _et - seq._ - - Cossigny, Mons. de, Ingenieur en chef de Besancon. _Memoires de - Mathematique et de physique presentes a l'Academie Royale des - Sciences_, 1750, vol. I., page 195 _et seq._ - - Cranmer, Professor Hans. _Eishoehlen und Windroehren Studien: - Abhandlungen der K. K. Geographischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, vol. - I., 1899. - - Cranmer, Professor Hans, and Sieger, Professor Dr. Rob. - _Untersuchungen in den Oetscherhoehlen: Globus_, 1899, vol. LXXV., - pages 313-318, and 333-335. - - Cvijic, Dr. A. _Les Glacieres Naturelles de Serbie: Spelunca, - Bulletin de la Societe de Speleologie_, 2^{me} Annee, Paris, - 1896, pages 64-77. - - - Dawkins, Professor W. Boyd. _Cave Hunting_, London, Macmillan, 1874. - - DeLuc, Jean Andre, Neveu. _Des Glacieres Naturelles et de la cause - qui forme la glace dans ces cavites_, Geneve 12 October, 1822: - _Annales de Chimie et de Physique_, Paris, 1822, vol. XXI., page - 113 _et seq._ - - Dent, R. K., and Hill, Joseph. _Historic Staffordshire_, Birmingham, - 1896. - - Dewey. _American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1819, vol. I., page - 340, and 1822, vol. V., page 398. - - _Dispatch_: Frankford, Pennsylvania, 22d January, 1897. - - Dittmar, C. v. _Ueber die Eismuelden im Oestlichen Sibirien: Bulletin - de la classe Physico-mathematique de l'Academie Imperiale des - Sciences de St. Petersbourg_, 1853, Tome XI., pages 305-312. - - Drioton, Clement. _Les Cavernes de la Cote d'Or: Memoires de la - Societe de Speleologie_, Paris, 1897, vol. I., page 209. - - Dufour, Lieutenant-Colonel. _Notice sur la caverne et glaciere - naturelle du Rothhorn: Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve_, 1822, - vol. XXI., page 113 _et seq._ - - Dufour, L. _Ueber das Gefrieren des Wassers und ueber die Bildung des - Hagels: Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und Chemie_, 1861, vol. - CXIV., pages 530-554. - - Dunant, C. _Le Parmelan et ses Lapiaz: Annuaire du Club Alpin - Francais_, 2^{me} vol., Paris, 1875. - - - Fugger, Professor Eberhard. _Ueber Eishoehlen: Petermann's - Mittheilungen_, vol. 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A. _Ice Making in the Tropics: Nature_, Macmillan, London - and New York, 1872, vol. V., pages 189-190. - - - - -INDEX. - - - - -INDEX. - - - PAGE - - Adirondack guides, Opinions of, 81 - Alaska, Subsoil ice in, 166, 167 - Allmen, Emil von, guide, 21 - Altitude of glacieres, 150 - Amarnath, Cave of, 262 - Apparently static caves, 122 - Arizona, Glacieres in, 175, 176 - Auchincloss, Mr. W. S., 307 - Auersperg, Prince, 52 - Ausable Pond, Freezing talus at, 79 - - Balch, Mrs. Geo. B., 189 - Balch Pass, The, 263 - Bargy, Mont, 71 - Basins, Ice, 20, 130 - Behrens, 270 - Beilstein, Caves on the, 234 - Bel, Matthias, 254, 271 - Benedict, Mr. A. S., 293 - Benner, Mr., 90 - Berthoule, Mons., 206 - Besancon, 8 - Billerez, Mons. de, 270 - Bonney, Professor T. G., 216, 222, 291 - Boston Natural History Society, 138, 182 - Boue, Dr. A., 242 - Boulder heaps, 116 - Boz, Mons. de, 270 - Brandon, Freezing well of, 77, 182, 283, 284 - Brinckerhoff, Mr. F. H., 177 - Briot, Mons., 204 - Brisons, Glaciere de, 2 - Browne, The Rev. G. F., 133, 213, 215, 216, 219, 220, 221, 222, 288 - _Bulletin, The Evening_, 253 - Buried glaciers, 165 - Burslem, Captain, 261 - Butler, Mr. R., 171, 172, 308 - - California, Glacieres in, 170, 171 - Canfield, Mr. N. M., 76 - Capillary or Compressed Air Theory, 142 - Carbonic acid gas, 133 - Carrel, Chanoine, 212 - Caucasus, Glacieres in the, 257 - Cesi, Don Giuseppe, 209 - Chapuis, Glaciere de, 5, 216 - Chatham, Mr. I. C., 94 - Chaux-les-Passavant, Glaciere de, 8, 193 - Chemical causes theory, 140 - Cliff caves, 6, 18, 22, 27, 40, 70, 76, 120 - Clothes for glaciere exploration, 53 - Cold caves, 117 - Colladon, Mons, 278 - Color effects, 131 - Colorado, Glacieres in, 174, 175 - Cossigny, Mons. de, 202, 271 - Cotterlaz, S. J., guide, 71 - Coxe, Miss Mary, 262 - Cranmer, Professor H., 232, 234, 235, 309 - Creux-de-Souci, Le, 206 - Crevasses, 4 - Crimea, Glacieres in the, 256 - Cushing, Mr. F. H., 176 - Cvijic, Dr. A., 243, 305 - - Dante, 135 - Daubuisson, 248 - Dawkins, Professor W. Boyd, 292 - Decorah, Freezing cave of, 88, 177 - Decorah, Freezing well of, 89 - Deluc, Mons. J. A., 277 - Demenyfalva Jegbarlang, 24 - Dewey, Mr., 183, 277 - Dimensions of glacieres, 120 - Dittmar, Mons. de, 260 - Dobsina Jegbarlang, 13, 252 - Dobsina, Village of, 13 - Dornburg, Freezing talus at the, 59, 247 - Dornburg, Freezing cellar at the, 60 - Draughts, 8, 45, 47, 58, 80 - Dripstone formations in glacieres, 24, 30, 57, 63, 67, 304 - Duc de Levy, 202 - Dunant, Mons. C., 215, 216 - Dutoit, Professor, 221 - - Eastern Alps, Glacieres in the, 224-236 - Eastern United States, Glacieres in the, 180-189 - Eger, Dr. W., 262 - Ehrlicher, Mr., 86 - Eisenerz, 37 - Elkinsville, Glaciere at, 180, 305 - Ellenville, Freezing gorge at, 91, 185 - Emery, Aymon, guide, 62, 65 - Enfer, Glaciere de l', 215 - England, Glacieres in, 192, 193 - Entrances of glacieres, 121 - Eschholz, Dr., 167 - Evaporation, 156, 275, 287, 296, 298, 300, 302, 304 - - Farrandsville, Cave at, 93 - Farnum, Mr. G. L., 266 - Farnum, Mr. J. E., 266 - Fauna of glacieres, 133, 207, 214, 216, 219, 246 - Fee Glacier, Ice Cave in, 68 - Flora of glacieres, 80, 83, 85, 91, 134, 188, 222, 237, 240 - Fondurle, Glaciere de, 213 - Forms of Ice, 126 - Frainer Eisleithen, The, 33, 251 - France, Glacieres in, 193-208, 213-218 - Frauenmauerhoehle, The, 37 - Freezing mines and tunnels, 117 - Freezing wells, 74, 77, 89, 117, 206 - Friedrichsteinerhoehle, 51 - Fugger, Professor E., 224, 226, 227, 228, 237, 249, 251, 294 - - Genolliere, Glaciere de la, 48, 219 - Geographical distribution of glacieres, 149 - Germany, Glacieres in, 246-250 - Giant of the Valley, Talus of the, 81 - Girardot, Mons. A., 204 - Girod-Chantrans, Le citoyen, 272 - Glacial period theory, The, 136 - Glaciere, Advantage of term, 110 - Glaciere caves, 118 - Glaciers, 145 - Gollut, Lois, 202, 269 - Gorges and troughs, 146, 260 - Great Barrington, Icy gulf near, 99 - Gruber, J., guide, 18 - Gsoll-Alp, 38 - Guyot, Professor A., 281 - - Hablizl, 272 - Hacquet, 271 - Hager, Mr. A. D., 182, 282 - Hall, Mr. W. Coleman, 187 - Hart, Mr. B., 76 - Hartenstein, Professor, 249 - Haut-d'Aviernoz, Glaciere de l', 2, 215 - Hayden, Professor C. B., 280 - Heilprin, Professor A., 93, 185 - Herschel, Sir John, 141 - Hitchcock, Professor E., 284 - Hoar frost, 16, 30, 129 - Holes in ice, 4, 42, 64, 130 - Hollow ice stalagmites, 23, 127, 287, 290 - Holschuh, Mr. F., 188 - Hovey, The Rev. H. C., 186 - Howell, Mr. E. I. H., 80, 83 - Humboldt, Alexander von, 276 - - Ice floors, 4, 7, 11, 15, 19, 22, 30, 42, 54, 64, 72 - Ice formed by radiation, 263-266 - Iceland, Glacieres in, 190, 191 - Ice near entrance of caves, 152 - Ice sheets, Subterranean, 115 - Ice slabs on floor, 20 - Ice slopes, 4, 17, 19, 23, 52, 67 - Ice Spring, Oregon, The, 169 - Ice stalactites and stalagmites, 3, 7, 12, 23, 30, 42, 73, 127 - Italy, Glacieres in, 208-213 - - Japan, Glaciere in, 266 - Jayne, Mrs. Horace, 189 - Joly, Capucin Romain, 272 - - Karst, Glacieres in the, 236-242 - King's Ravine, Subterranean ice in, 1 - Kirchhoff, Mr. T., 292 - Klenka, S., guide, 51 - Kolowratshoehle, The, 18, 226 - Koerber, Herr B., 222, 294 - Korea, Glaciere in, 266 - Kovarik, Mr. A. F., 89, 178, 180, 307 - Krain, Glacieres in the, 236-242 - Krauss, Regierungsrath F., 303 - Krenner, Dr., 292 - - Lakes, Subterranean, 7, 43 - Lamb, Mr. C., guide, 81 - Lathrop, Mr. S. P., 280 - Lava caves, Washington, 168 - Learned, Mr., 86 - Lee, Mr. C. A., 278 - Legends about glacieres, 135, 216 - Lepechin, 258 - Lerchenfeld, Freiherr von, 227 - Lewis, Miss J. F., 93 - Lewis, Mr. J. F., 129 - Liptos Szt Miklos, 24 - Lohmann, Dr. H., 302 - Lowe, Mr. C. E., Jr., 83 - Lowe, Mr. C. E., Sr., 1, 85 - Lowe, Mr. N. M., 142, 292 - Luce, Mr. C. O., 78 - Lyell, Sir Charles, 116, 210 - - Manchester, Marble freezing cave at, 76 - Marinitsch, Herr J., 236 - Martel, Mons. E. A., 205, 207, 208, 214, 221, 300 - McCabe, Mr. E., 94 - Meehan, Mr. W. E., 165 - Mercer, Mr. H. C., 143, 187 - Metric system, 3 - Mist in caves, 18, 55 - Misura, F., forester, 27 - Montana, Glacieres in, 171-173 - Montarquis, Grand Cave de, 70, 217, 286 - Montarquis, Petite Cave de, 71 - Moonlight effects, 24, 33, 132 - Morin, Mons., 218 - Motion in subterranean ice, 131 - Movements of air, 122, 156 - Murchison, Sir R. I., 141 - - Nagel, J. N., 271 - Naye, Glaciere de, 221 - Nicholson, Mr. C. J., 95 - Niles, Mr., 81 - Nixloch, The, 57, 226 - - Oetscher, The Seeluecken on the, 231 - Olmstaed, Professor D., 282 - Otis, Mr., 81 - Oudot, Dr., 272 - Owego, Freezing well of, 74, 186 - - Paleontological remains, 134 - Parmelan, Mont, 3, 5 - Parrot, G. F., 125 - Peasants, Opinions of, 33, 70, 139 - Pelech, Dr. J. E., 252 - Periods in glacieres, Open and closed, 297 - Peters, K. F., 246 - Petruzzi, Professor, 241, 282 - Phillips, Mr. G. B., 185 - Pictet, Professor M. A., 277 - Pit caves, 2, 3, 10, 48, 52, 63, 66, 119 - Pleischl, Professor A., 250, 279 - Poissenot, Benigne, 193, 269 - Poprad, 13 - Pralong du Reposoir, 70 - _Press, The Philadelphia_, 306 - Preston, Mr., 74 - Prestwich, Mr., 248 - Prevost, Professor P., 273 - Prismatic ice, 64, 67, 129, 287, 289, 303 - _Public Ledger, The_, 169 - - Randolph, The Ice Gulch,, 83 - Raymond, Mr. W. R., 291 - Reich, F., 279 - Religious feeling about ice, 135, 176, 262 - Ritchie, Mr. John, Jr., 76, 83, 85, 143, 181, 292 - Rogers, Professor W. B., 281 - Roth, Eishoehle bei, 35 - Rudolf II., Kaiser, 232 - Ruffiny, Herr E., 252 - Rumney, Freezing talus at, 85 - Russell, Professor I. C., 166, 299 - - Saint-Georges, Glaciere de, 62, 219, 285 - Saint-Georges, Village of, 62 - Saint-Livres, Glaciere de, 65 - Saint-Livres, Pre de, 66 - Sakharov, Dr. A., 257 - Samuel, Mr. B., 192, 209, 264 - Sartori, Dr. F., 276 - Satter, Professor H., 241 - Saussure, H. B. de, 209, 274 - Scandinavia, Glacieres in, 191 - Schafloch, The, 21, 222 - Schallenberger, C., 232, 269 - Schellenberger Eisgrotte, The, 227 - Schwalbe, Dr. B., 241, 253, 298 - Scott, Professor W. B., 176 - Scrope, Mr. G. P., 278 - Seelisberg, The Milchhaueser of, 45 - Selby-Hill, Mr. W. D., 88 - Servia, Glacieres in, 242-245 - Skerizora, Cave of, 245 - Skinner's Cave, 76 - Siberia, Glacieres in, 259-261 - Sieger, Professor, 232 - Silliman, Professor, 279 - Sirar, J., guide, 56 - Snow, Subterranean, 16, 129, 206, 247 - South America, Subsoil ice in, 189, 190 - Spruce Creek, Freezing talus at, 90, 188 - Stockbridge, Icy glen near, 75 - Strachey, Gen. Sir R., 263 - Strein, R., 232, 269 - Suchenreuther Eisloch, The, 55 - Summer's heat theory, The, 138 - Summit, Glacieres near, 95 - Switzerland, Glacieres in, 219-223 - Szilize, Cave of, 253 - - Tablerloch, The, 233 - Taluses, 79, 81, 85, 90, 100, 116 - Temperatures, Subterranean, 112 - Teneriffe, Glaciere on the Peak of, 190 - Terlanday, Dr., 301 - Terminology, 109 - Thermometric observations, 151, 178, 219, 227, 228, - 233, 237, 252, 253 - Thury, Professor, 122, 139, 213, 217, 219, 220, 285 - Time of formation of ice, 159 - Townson, R., 275 - Trouillet, Captain, 202, 297 - Turrian, A. A., gendarme, 48 - - Umlauft, Professor F., 293 - Ural, Glacieres in the, 257-259 - - Valvasor, Freiherr, 238, 240, 270 - Villard, Mons. L., 133, 214 - Vire, Mons. A., 134 - - Wachtl, Forester, 252 - Wagner, Mr. W. W., 173 - Wallingford, The ice beds of, 99 - Watertown, Cave at, 87 - Watertown, Windholes at, 86 - Waves of heat and cold, Theory of, 141 - White, Dr. C. A., 291 - Williams, Mr. W. F., 101 - Williamstown, Caves near, 101 - Williamstown, The snow hole near, 98, 183 - Winter's cold theory, The, 147 - Windholes, 61, 111, 117 - Windholes, The theory of, 124 - Wordsworth, Verses by, 192 - - - Yeermallik, Cave of, 261 - - - Ziegler, Herr J. M., 45 - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - - -Images were moved so as to not split paragraphs. Accents were -standardized. 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