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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c01b46 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #52248 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52248) diff --git a/old/52248-0.txt b/old/52248-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 20c6ab8..0000000 --- a/old/52248-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12724 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Across South America, by Hiram Bingham - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Across South America - An account of a journey from Buenos Aires to Lima by way - of Potosí - -Author: Hiram Bingham - -Release Date: June 6, 2016 [EBook #52248] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA *** - - - - -Produced by Rachael Schultz, Chuck Greif and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - By the Same Author - - - THE JOURNAL OF AN EXPEDITION ACROSS VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA, - 1906-07. With 133 illustrations and a map. Published by the Yale - University Press. - - - - - ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA - - [Illustration: RIO FROM THE CORCOVADO] - - - - - ACROSS - SOUTH AMERICA - - AN ACCOUNT OF A JOURNEY FROM BUENOS - AIRES TO LIMA BY WAY OF POTOSÍ - - WITH NOTES ON BRAZIL, ARGENTINA, - BOLIVIA, CHILE, AND PERU - - BY - - HIRAM BINGHAM - YALE UNIVERSITY - - WITH EIGHTY ILLUSTRATIONS - AND MAPS - - [Illustration: colophon] - - BOSTON AND NEW YORK - HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY - The Riverside Press Cambridge - 1911 - - COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY HIRAM BINGHAM - - ALL RIGHTS RESERVED - - _Published April 1911_ - - - - - THIS VOLUME IS - - AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED - - TO - - THE MOTHER OF - - SIX LITTLE BOYS - - - - -PREFACE - - -In September, 1908, I left New York as a delegate of the United States -Government and of Yale University to the First Pan-American Scientific -Congress, held at Santiago, Chile, in December and January, 1908-09. -Before attending the Congress I touched at Rio de Janeiro and the -principal coast cities of Brazil, crossed the Argentine Republic from -Buenos Aires to the Bolivian frontier, rode on mule-back through -southern Bolivia, visiting both Potosí and Sucre, went by rail from -Oruro to Antofagasta, and thence by steamer to Valparaiso. After the -Congress I retraced my steps into Bolivia by way of the west coast, -Arequipa, and Lake Titicaca. Picking up the overland trail again at -Oruro, I continued my journey across Bolivia and Peru, via La Paz, -Tiahuanaco, and Cuzco, thence by mules over the old Inca road as far as -Huancayo, the present terminus of the Oroya-Lima Railroad. At Abancay I -turned aside to explore Choqquequirau, the ruins of an Inca fortress in -the valley of the Apurimac; an excursion that could not have been -undertaken at all had it not been for the very generous assistance of -Hon. J. J. Nuñez, the Prefect of Apurimac, and his zealous aide, -Lieutenant Caceres of the Peruvian army. I reached Lima in March, 1909. - -The chief interest of the trip lay in its being an exploration of the -most historic highway in South America, the old trade route between -Lima, Potosí, and Buenos Aires. The more difficult parts of this road -were used by the Incas and their conqueror Pizarro; by Spanish viceroys, -mine owners, and merchants; by the liberating armies of Argentina; and -finally by Bolivar and Sucre, who marched and countermarched over it in -the last campaigns of the Wars of Independence. - -Realizing from previous experience in Venezuela and Colombia that the -privilege of travelling in a semi-official capacity would enable me to -enjoy unusual opportunities for observation, I made it the chief object -of my journey to collect and verify information regarding the South -American people, their history, politics, economics, and physical -environment. The present volume, however, makes no pretence at -containing all I collected or verified. Such a work would be largely a -compilation of statistics. The ordinary facts are readily accessible in -the current publications of the ably organized Pan-American Bureau in -Washington. Nevertheless, I have included some data that seemed likely -to prove serviceable to intending travellers. - -Grateful acknowledgment for kind assistance freely rendered in many -different ways is due to President Villazon of Bolivia, the late -President Montt of Chile, and President Leguia of Peru; to Secretary, -now Senator, Root and the officials of the Diplomatic and Consular -Service; to Professor Rowe and my fellow delegates to the Pan-American -Scientific Congress; and particularly to J. Luis Schaefer, Esq., W. S. -Eyre, Esq., and their courteous associates of the house of W. R. Grace & -Co. Although business houses rarely take the trouble to make the path -of the scientist or investigator more comfortable, it would be no easy -task to enumerate all the favors that were shown, not only to me, but -also to the other members of the American delegation, by Messrs. Grace & -Co. and the managers and clerks of their many branches. - -Acknowledgments are likewise due to the officials of the Buenos Aires -and Rosario Railroad, the Peruvian Corporation, and the Bolivia Railway; -and to Colonel A. de Pederneiras, Sr. Amaral Franco, Don Santiago -Hutcheon, Sr. C. A. Novoa, Sr. Arturo Pino Toranzo, Dr. Alejandro Ayalá, -Captain Louis Merino of the Chilean army, Don Moises Vargas, Sr. Lopez -Chavez, and Messrs. Charles L. Wilson, A. G. Snyder, U. S. Grant Smith, -J. B. Beazley, D. S. Iglehart, John Pierce Hope, Rankin Johnson, Rea -Hanna, and a host of others who helped to make my journey easier and -more profitable. - -I desire also to express my gratitude, for unnumbered kindnesses, both -to Huntington Smith, who accompanied me during the first part of my -journey, and to Clarence Hay, who was my faithful companion on the -latter part. - -Some parts of the story have already been told in the “American -Anthropologist,” the “American Political Science Review,” the “Popular -Science Monthly,” the “Bulletin of the American Geographical Society,” -the “Records of the Past,” and the “Yale Courant,” to whose editors -acknowledgment is due for permission to use the material in its present -form. - -HIRAM BINGHAM. - -YALE UNIVERSITY, NEW HAVEN, CONN. -_20 November, 1910_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - -I. PERNAMBUCO AND BAHIA 3 - -II. RIO, SANTOS, AND BRAZILIAN TRADE 16 - -III. BUENOS AIRES 29 - -IV. ARGENTINE INDEPENDENCE AND SPANISH-AMERICAN -SOLIDARITY 46 - -V. THE TUCUMAN EXPRESS 60 - -VI. THROUGH THE ARGENTINE HIGHLANDS 69 - -VII. ACROSS THE BOLIVIAN FRONTIER 81 - -VIII. TUPIZA TO COTAGAITA 92 - -IX. ESCARA TO LAJA TAMBO 104 - -X. POTOSÍ 117 - -XI. SUCRE, THE _DE JURE_ CAPITAL OF BOLIVIA 133 - -XII. THE ROAD TO CHALLAPATA 148 - -XIII. ORURO TO ANTOFAGASTA AND VALPARAISO 164 - -XIV. SANTIAGO AND THE FIRST PAN-AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC -CONGRESS 180 - -XV. NORTHERN CHILE 198 - -XVI. SOUTHERN PERU 211 - -XVII. LA PAZ, THE _DE FACTO_ CAPITAL OF BOLIVIA 224 - -XVIII. THE BOLIVIA RAILWAY AND TIAHUANACO 241 - -XIX. CUZCO 254 - -XX. SACSAHUAMAN 272 - -XXI. THE INCA ROAD TO ABANCAY 280 - -XXII. THE CLIMB TO CHOQQUEQUIRAU 296 - -XXIII. CHOQQUEQUIRAU 307 - -XXIV. ABANCAY TO CHINCHEROS 324 - -XXV. BOMBON TO THE BATTLEFIELD OF AYACUCHO 341 - -XXVI. AYACUCHO TO LIMA 360 - -XXVII. CERTAIN SOUTH AMERICAN TRAITS 379 - -INDEX 393 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - -RIO FROM THE CORCOVADO (page 21) _Frontispiece_ - -LOOKING DOWN INTO THE LOWER CITY, BAHIA 12 - -THE CORCOVADO FROM RIO 20 - -THE HARBOR OF SANTOS 24 - -THE DOCKS OF BUENOS AIRES 30 - -AVENIDA 25 DE MAYO, BUENOS AIRES 34 - -THE USPALLATA PASS 50 - -OUR COACH LEAVING THE HOTEL AT LA QUIACA 82 - -THE ANGOSTA DE TUPIZA 86 - -FANTASTIC PINNACLES IN THE VALLEYS NORTH OF TUPIZA 90 - -A QUICHUA FAMILY GOING TO PLOUGH 94 - -THE VALLEY THROUGH WHICH WE HAD COME 98 - -OUR FIRST GLIMPSE OF A SNOW-CLAD BOLIVIAN MOUNTAIN 112 - -VIEW OF THE CERRO FROM THE ROOF OF THE MINT 120 - -THE CERRO OF POTOSÍ FROM THE SPANISH RESERVOIRS 124 - -AN ANCIENT QUICHUA ORE CRUSHER 124 - -THE MARKET-PLACE OF POTOSÍ 128 - -GREENER AND MORE POPULOUS VALLEYS 132 - -THE PICTURESQUE OLD CHURCH OF BARTOLO 134 - -A PASTURE FOR SHEEP AND ALPACAS 138 - -A QUICHUA WOMAN WEAVING AT QUEBRADA HONDA 138 - -THE GREAT RIVER PILCOMAYO 142 - -OUR HOTEL IN SUCRE 142 - -AN ABANDONED TAMBO 150 - -OUR FIRST VIEW OF THE GREAT TABLE-LAND OF BOLIVIA 150 - -A FRIENDLY LLAMA BABY 160 - -MY MULE ON THE LAST DAY’S RIDE 160 - -THE PREFECTURA AND PLAZA OF ORURO 166 - -A QUAINT OLD BALCONY IN ORURO 170 - -A CORNER IN ORURO 170 - -BATTLEFIELD OF MAIPO NEAR SANTIAGO 186 - -MOLLENDO 212 - -THE CATHEDRAL OF AREQUIPA AND MT. CHACHANI 216 - -AN OLD DOORWAY IN AREQUIPA 216 - -CHACHANI AND MISTI 216 - -MONOLITHIC IMAGE AT TIAHUANACO 228 - -THE MARKET-PLACE OF LA PAZ 232 - -A REMARKABLE STAIRWAY AT TIAHUANACO 232 - -BALSAS NEAR GUAQUI ON LAKE TITICACA 240 - -AN OLD CHURCH NEAR THE BOLIVIA RAILWAY 240 - -GREAT PLATFORMS OF STONE WEIGHING MANY TONS 250 - -PART OF THE GREAT MONOLITHIC DOORWAY 250 - -LLAMAS OF CUZCO 258 - -CUZCO FROM SACSAHUAMAN 258 - -SACSAHUAMAN 266 - -THE PLAZA, CUZCO, WITH CATHEDRAL AND JESUIT CHURCH 266 - -A SECTION OF THE LOWER TERRACE, SACSAHUAMAN 274 - -AN INCA VASE FROM CUZCO 278 - -ARTICLES OF DRESS AND A DECORATED MULE HALTER -FROM CUZCO 278 - -THE GOBERNADOR OF CURAHUASI AND HIS FAMILY 288 - -A CHASM DOWN WHICH PLUNGED A SMALL CATARACT 298 - -THE WONDERFUL CAÑON OF THE APURIMAC 298 - -SUNRISE AT CHOQQUEQUIRAU 302 - -THE FRAIL LITTLE BRIDGE OVER THE APURIMAC 302 - -A STORY AND A HALF HIGH, BUILT OF STONES LAID IN CLAY 308 - -THE PARTY WALL RISES TO THE PEAK 308 - -THE INTERIOR OF THE BUILDINGS NEAR THE OUTER PRECIPICE 312 - -THE UPPER SIX STEPS OF THE GIANT STAIRWAY 312 - -SKULLS, ETC., FROM CHOQQUEQUIRAU 316 - -INTERIOR OF A BUILDING AT CHOQQUEQUIRAU 316 - -OUR CAVALCADE ON THE BRIDGE OF PACHACHACA 324 - -SOME OF THE SHEEP HAD VERY LONG CURLY HORNS 334 - -THE CLUB AT CHINCHEROS 338 - -THE LARGE PLAZA OF AYACUCHO 342 - -THE BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER PAMPAS 342 - -AYACUCHO 346 - -THE COURTYARD OF THE HOTEL 346 - -A PICTURESQUE CORNER IN AYACUCHO 350 - -CROSSING THE PONGORA RIVER ON THE SHAKY SUSPENSION -BRIDGE 350 - -THE BATTLEFIELD OF AYACUCHO 354 - -THE BATTLEFIELD AS IT APPEARED TO THE SPANIARDS 354 - -THE BRIDGE OVER THE HUARPA 362 - -URUMYOSI 366 - -THE HUT NEAR PAUCARA 366 - -THE TOLL-BRIDGE OF TABLACHACA 368 - -SUNDAY MORNING IN HUANCAYO 372 - - - - -MAPS - - -THE AUTHOR’S ROUTE ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA 3 - -SOUTHERN PERU 81 - -SOUTHERN BOLIVIA 281 - -CHOQQUEQUIRAU AND VICINITY 307 - -LOWER PLAZA CHOQQUEQUIRAU 310 - -UPPER PLAZA CHOQQUEQUIRAU 314 - -CUZCO AND NEIGHBORING FORTRESSES 318 - - The frontispiece and the illustration at page 20 are from - photographs by Marc Ferrez. Those at pages 50, 216, 226, 232, 258, - 298, 302, 324, 342, 346, 350, 354, and 362 are from photographs by - Mr. C. L. Hay; and those at pages 150, 160, 170 from photographs by - Mr. H. Smith. - - - - -ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA - -[Illustration: - -Sketch Map -to illustrate -=ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA= -by -HIRAM BINGHAM -] - - - - -ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA - - - - -CHAPTER I - -PERNAMBUCO AND BAHIA - - -There are two ways of going to the east coast of South America. The -traveller can sail from New York in the monthly boats of the direct line -or, if he misses that boat, as I did, and is pressed for time, he can go -to Southampton or Cherbourg and be sure of an excellent steamer every -week. The old story that one was obliged to go by way of Europe to get -to Brazil is no longer true, although this pleasing fiction is still -maintained by a few officials when they are ordered to go from Lima on -the Pacific to the Peruvian port of Iquitos on the Amazon. If they -succeed in avoiding the very unpleasant overland journey via Cerro de -Pasco, they are apt to find that the “only feasible” alternative route -is by way of Panama, New York, and Paris! - -Personally I was glad of the excuse to go the longer way, for I knew -that the exceedingly comfortable new steamers of the Royal Mail Line -were likely to carry many Brazilians and Argentinos, from whom I could -learn much that I wanted to know. They proved to be most kind and -communicative, and gave me an excellent introduction to the point of -view of the modern denizen of the east coast whose lands have received -the “golden touch” that comes from foreign capital, healthy -immigration, and rapidly expanding railway systems. I was also fortunate -in finding on board the Aragon a large number of those energetic -English, Scots, and French, whose well-directed efforts have built up -the industries of their adopted homes, until the Spanish-Americans can -hardly recognize the land of their birth, and the average North -American, who visits the east coast for the first time, rubs his eyes in -despair and wonders where he has been while all this railroad building -and bank merging has been going on. If there were few Germans and -Italians on board, it was not because they were not crossing the ocean -at the same time, but because they preferred the new steamers of their -own lines. I could have travelled a little faster by sailing under the -German or the Italian flag, but in that case I should not have seen -Pernambuco and Bahia, which the more speedy steamers now omit from their -itinerary. - -The Brazilians call the easternmost port of South America, Recife, “The -Reef,” but to the average person it will always be known as Pernambuco. -Most travellers who touch here on their way from Europe to Buenos Aires, -prefer to see what they can of this quaint old city from the deck of the -steamer, anchored a mile out in the open roadstead. The great ocean -swell, rolling in from the eastward, makes the tight little surf boats -bob up and down in a dangerous fashion. It seems hardly worth while to -venture down the slippery gangway and take one’s chances at leaping into -the strong arms of swarthy boatmen, whom the waves bring upward toward -you with startling suddenness, and who fall away again so -exasperatingly just as you have made up your mind to jump. - -Out of three hundred first-cabin passengers on the Aragon, there were -only five of us who ventured ashore,--three Americans, a Frenchman, and -a Scotchman. The other passengers, including several representatives of -the English army--but I will say no more, for they afterwards wrote me -that, on their return journey to England, the charms of Pernambuco -overcame their fear of the “white horses of the sea,” and they felt well -repaid. - -Pernambuco is unquestionably one of the most interesting places on the -East Coast. From the steamer one can see little more than a long low -line of coast, dotted here and there with white buildings and a -lighthouse or two. To the north several miles away, on a little rise of -ground, is the ancient town of Olinda, founded by the Portuguese in the -sixteenth century, a hundred years before Henry Hudson stepped ashore on -Manhattan Island. By the time that our ancestors were beginning to -consider establishing a colony in Massachusetts, the Portuguese had -already built dozens of sugar factories in this vicinity. Then the Dutch -came and conquered, built Pernambuco and, during their twenty-five years -on this coast, made it the administrative centre for their colony in -northeast Brazil. Their capital, four miles north of the present -commercial centre, is now a village of ruined palaces and ancient -convents. The Dutch had large interests on the Brazilian seaboard and -carried away quantities of sugar and other precious commodities, as is -set forth in many of their quaint old books. The drawings which old -Nieuhof put in his sumptuous folio two centuries ago are still vivid and -lifelike, even if they serve only to emphasize the great change that has -come over this part of the world in that time. - -Now, three trans-Atlantic cables touch here, and it is a port of call -for half a dozen lines of steamers. The old Dutch caravels used to find -excellent shelter behind the great natural breakwater, the reef that -made the port of Recife possible. No part of the east coast of Brazil -possesses more strategical importance, and modern improvements have -deepened the entrance so that vessels drawing less than fifteen feet may -enter and lie in quiet water, although the great ocean liners are -obliged to ride at anchor outside. Tugs bring out lighters for the -cargo, but the passengers have to trust to the mercy of the surf boats. - -It took six dusky oarsmen to pull us through the surf and around the -lighthouse that marks the northern extremity of the reef, into the calm -waters of the harbor. On the black reef a few rods south of the -lighthouse stands an antiquated castle, which modern guns would make -short work of, but which served its purpose admirably by defending the -port against the sea rovers of the seventeenth century. Opposite this -breakwater, on two or three “sea islands” whose tidal rivers cut them -off from the mainland, the older part of Pernambuco is built. - -It was with a feeling of having miraculously escaped from the dangers of -a very stormy voyage, that we clambered up the slippery stone stairs of -the landing stage and entered the little two-storied octagonal structure -which serves the custom house as a place in which to examine incoming -passengers. This took but a moment, and then we went out into the -glaring white sunlight of this ancient tropical city and began our tour -of inspection. - -Immediately in front of us was a line of warehouses three or four -stories high and attractively built of stone. They give the water-front -an air of permanency and good breeding. Between them and the sea-wall -there was a tree-planted, stone-paved area, the Rialto of Recife, where -all classes, from talkative half-tipsy pieces of foreign driftwood to -well-dressed local merchants, clad in immaculate white suits, congregate -and gossip. Beyond the sea-wall a dozen small ocean steamers lay inside -the harbor, moored to the breakwater; while numbers of smaller vessels, -sloops, schooners, and brigantines were anchored near the custom house -docks or in the sluggish Rio Beberibe, which separates Recife from the -mainland. - -As we wandered through the streets past the Stock Exchange, the naval -station, and the principal business houses, we saw various sights: a -poorly dressed Brazilian, of mixed African and Portuguese descent, -carrying a small coffin on his head; barefooted children standing in -pools of water left in the paved sidewalks by the showers of the -morning; bareheaded women, with gayly colored shawls over their -shoulders; neat German clerks dressed in glistening white duck suits; -lounging boatmen in nondescript apparel; and everywhere long, low drays -loaded with bags of sugar, each vehicle drawn by a single patient ox -whose horns are lashed to a cross-piece that connects the front end of -the thills. Those who moved at all moved as if there were abundant time -in which to do everything, and as though the hustle and bustle of lower -New York never existed at all. The scene was distinctively -Latin-American. One must be careful not to say “Spanish-American” here, -for if there is one thing more than another that the Brazilian is proud -of, it is that he is not a Spaniard and does not speak Spanish. However, -the difference between the two languages is not so great and the local -pride not so strong but that the obliging natives will understand you, -even if you have the bad taste to address them in Spanish. They will -reply, however, in Portuguese, and then it is your turn to be obliging -and understand them, if you can. - -West of Recife, on another island and on the mainland, are the other -public buildings, parks, and the finest residences. A primitive -tram-car, pulled by mules, crosses the bridge and jangles along toward -the suburbs, which are quite pretty, although some of the houses strive -after bizarre color-effects which would not be appropriate in the -Temperate Zone. There are fairly good hotels here, and there is quite a -little English colony. But it is not a place where the white man -thrives. The daily range of temperature is very small, and it is claimed -that the average difference between the wet and dry season is only three -degrees. - -From Pernambuco there radiate three or four railways, north, west, and -south. None of them are more than two hundred miles long, but all serve -to gather up the rich crops of sugar and cotton for which the -surrounding region is noted, and bring them to the cargo steamers that -offer in exchange the manufactured products of Europe and America. If -one may judge from the size of the custom house and the busy scene -there, where half a dozen steam cranes were actively engaged in -unloading goods destined to pay the annoyingly complex Brazilian tariff, -the business of the port is very considerable. It seemed quite strange -to see such mechanical activity and such a modern customs warehouse so -closely associated with the narrow, foul-smelling streets of the old -town. But it gives promise of a larger and more important city in the -years to come, when the new docks shall have been built and still more -modern methods introduced. - -Yet even now there are over one hundred and fifty thousand people in the -city, and the mercantile houses do a good business. The clerks move -slowly, and there is little appearance of enterprise; but one must -always remember, when inclined to criticise the business methods of the -tropics, that this is not a climate where one can safely hurry. Things -must be done slowly if the doer is to last any length of time. The -commercial traveller who comes here full of brusque and zealous -activity, will soon chafe himself into a fever if he is not careful. -These are easy-going folk, and political and commercial changes do not -affect them seriously. They are willing to stand governmental conditions -that would be almost intolerable to us, and their haphazard methods of -business are well suited to their environment. The European, although -proverbially less adaptable than the American, is forced by keener -competition at home to adjust himself as best he may to the local -conditions here and elsewhere in South America. His American colleague, -on the other hand, has as yet not felt the necessity of learning to meet -what seems to him ridiculous prejudice. - -Emblematic of this Brazilian trade are the primitive little catamarans -in which the fishermen of Recife venture far out into the great ocean. -The frail little craft are only moderately safe, and at best can bring -back but a small quantity of fish. They are most uncomfortable, and -their occupants are kept wet most of the time by the waves that dash -over them. Furthermore, a glimpse of them is as much of Pernambuco as -most steamship passengers get. It is only by venturing and taking the -trouble to go ashore that one can see the modern custom house dock on -the other side of Recife, and learn the lesson of the possibilities of -commerce here. - -We left Pernambuco in the afternoon and reached the green hills of the -coast near Bahia the next morning. The steamers pass near enough to the -shore to enable one to make out, with the glasses, watering-places and -pretty little villas that have been built on the ocean side of the -peninsula by the wealthier citizens of Bahia. At the end of the -promontory, just above the rocks and the breakers, is the picturesque -white tower of a lighthouse. Unfortunately, it did not avail to save a -fine German steamer that was lying wrecked on the dangerous shoals near -the entrance to the harbor when we passed in. - -As we steamed slowly around the southern end of the low promontory, the -city of Bahia gradually came into view, its large stone warehouses -lining the water-front, its lower town separated by a steep hill, -covered with gardens and graceful palms, from the upper city, -conspicuous with the towers and cupolas of numerous churches and public -buildings. - -On the left, as one enters the harbor, rises the interesting island of -Itaparica, which England once offered to take in payment of a debt due -her by Portugal. It bears a resemblance to Gibraltar in more ways than -one, but it was not destined to become a British stronghold. A favorite -resort of the citizens of Bahia, it is called “the Europe of the poor,” -because it has a genial climate and is frequented by those who cannot -afford to cross the Atlantic. - -As we leave it on our left, in front of us, and to the north, lies the -magnificent bay that has given the city its name. It lacks the romantic -mountains that make Rio so famous, yet its beautiful blue waters are -most alluring, dotted as they are here and there with the white sails of -fishing-boats and catamarans. - -We have to anchor a mile from the shore, and a steam launch carrying the -port officials soon comes alongside. The local boatmen, whose little -craft, suited only to the quiet waters of the bay, bear no resemblance -to the seaworthy surf boats of Pernambuco, line up at a distance of half -a mile, awaiting the signal which permits them to hoist sail and race -for the steamer. It is a pretty sight, enlivened by the shouts of the -boat crews. Some boats are loaded with delicious tropical fruits that -are eagerly bargained for by our steerage passengers, most of whom are -Spanish peasants on their way to harvest the crops of Argentina. Others -are anxious to take us ashore. And after the usual delay, we make a deal -with a boatman, a lazy fellow who wastes a lot of time trying to sail in -against the wind while his more energetic competitors are rowing. On the -way we pass half a dozen steamers and a few sailing vessels, and steer -carefully between scores of huge lighters and dozens of smaller craft. -In place of the steel steam cranes which we saw at Pernambuco, on the -wharves are numerous wooden cranes worked by hand. - -We land on slippery wooden stairs, and hurry across the blistering hot -pavements of the street to rest for a few moments in the shade of the -large warehouses and wholesale shops that crowd the lower town. Some of -the signs are decidedly bizarre and scream as loudly for patronage as -the limits of modern Frenchified Portuguese art will permit. There is -none of the picturesqueness of Pernambuco, and we soon betake ourselves -to one of the cog railways where, for a few cents, we are allowed to -scramble into a bare little wooden passenger coach and be yanked up the -steep incline by a cable that looks none too strong for its purpose. -Once in the upper city, the narrow streets of commerce seem to be left -behind, and we are in broader thoroughfares, with here and there a green -park full of palms and other tropical plants. There are churches on -every side, - -[Illustration: LOOKING DOWN INTO THE LOWER CITY, BAHIA] - -some of them wonderfully decorated and most attractive. Bahia is not -quite so old as Pernambuco, its foundation dating only from the middle -of the sixteenth century; but it early became the religious and -intellectual centre of Portuguese-America, and it is still noted for its -literature and culture, although long ago passed in the race by Rio. - -The glaring white sunlight throws everything into bold relief and makes -the shadows seem unusually dark and cool. On the corners of the streets -are little folding stands bearing a heavy load of toothsome -confectionery. Their barefooted coal-black owners, clad generally in -white, lean against the iron posts of the American Trolley Car System -and watch patiently for the trade that seems sure to come to him who -waits. On every side one sees black faces. - -In fact, Bahia is sometimes popularly spoken of as the “Old Mulattress,” -in affectionate reference to the fact that more than ninety per cent of -its two hundred thousand people are of African descent. For over two -centuries Bahia monopolized the slave trade of Brazil. Her traders -continued to be the chief importers of negroes down to the middle of the -nineteenth century. It is said that as many as sixty thousand slaves -were brought in within a single year. - -We took one of the American-made trolleys and soon went whizzing along -through well-paved streets and out into the suburbs. Here villas, -fearfully and wonderfully made, like the baker’s best wedding cake in -his shop window, attest to the local fondness for rococo extravagance. -In general, however, the principal buildings appear to be well built, -and are frequently four or five stories in height. - -The architecture of Bahia is decidedly Portuguese, much more so than -that of Pernambuco, which still bears traces of its Dutch origin and -even reminds one of Curaçao. Some of the villas in Bahia are strikingly -like those in Lisbon. And there are other likenesses between the -Portuguese capital and this ecclesiastical metropolis of Brazil. Both -are situated on magnificent estuaries, and present a fine spectacle to -the traveller coming by sea. Both have upper and lower towns, with hills -so steep as to require the services of elevators and cog or cable -railways to connect them. The upper town of each commands an extensive -view of the shipping, the roadstead, and the surrounding country. But -here the similarity ends; for Lisbon is built on several hills, while -Bahia occupies but a single headland, the verdure-clad promontory which -shelters the magnificent bay. - -Bahia is the centre for a considerable commerce in sugar and cotton, -cocoa and tobacco. These are brought to the port by land and water, but -chiefly by the railroads that go north to the great river San Francisco -and west into the heart of the state. There are many evidences of wealth -in the city, and there is certainly an excellent opportunity for -developing foreign trade. One looks in vain, however, for great American -commercial houses like those which mark the presence of English, French, -and German enterprise. Nevertheless the electric car line, with its -American equipment, gives a promise of things hoped for. And there is a -decided air of friendliness toward Americans on the part of the -Brazilians whom one meets on the streets and in the shops. There is none -of that “chip on the shoulder” attitude which the Argentino likes to -exhibit toward the citizens of the “United States of North America.” The -Brazilian appears to realize that Americans are his best customers, and -he is desirous of maintaining the most friendly relations with us. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -RIO, SANTOS, AND BRAZILIAN TRADE - - -Two days’ sail from Bahia brought us within sight of the wonderful -mountains that mark the entrance to the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. As one -approaches land, the first thing that catches the eye is the far-famed -Sugar Loaf Mountain which seems to guard the southern side of the -entrance. Back of it is a region even more romantic, a cluster of higher -mountains, green to their tops, yet with sides so precipitous and -pinnacles so sharp one wonders how anything can grow on them. The region -presents, in fact, such a prodigious variety of crags and precipices, -peaks and summits, that the separate forms are lost in a chaos of -beautiful hills. - -The great granite rocks that guard the entrance to the harbor leave a -passage scarcely a mile in width. At the base of the Sugar Loaf we saw a -fairy white city romantically nestling in the shadow of the gigantic -crag. It is the new National Exposition of Brazil. - -Once safely inside the granite barriers, the bay opens out and becomes -an inland sea, dotted with hundreds of islands, a landlocked basin with -fifty square miles of deep water. - -On the northern shores of the bay lies the town of Nictheroy, the -capital of the state. Its name perpetuates the old Indian title of the -bay, “hidden water.” The name of the capital of the Republic, on the -south side of the bay, carries with it a remembrance of the fact that -when first discovered, the bay was mistaken for the mouth of a great -river, the River of January. - -Since the early years of the sixteenth century, Rio has been conspicuous -in the annals of discovery and conquest. Magellan touched here on his -famous voyage round the world. The spot where he landed is now the site -of a large hospital and medical school. French Huguenots attempted to -find here a refuge in the time of the great Admiral Coligny. As one -steams slowly into the harbor, one passes close to the historic island -of Villegagnon, whose romantic story has been so graphically told by -Parkman. - -Hither came the King of Portugal, flying from the wrath of Napoleon. -Here lived the good Emperor Don Pedro II, one of the most beneficent -monarchs the world has ever seen. And into these waters are soon to come -Brazil’s new Dreadnoughts, about which all the world has been -speculating, and which have made Argentina almost forget the necessities -of economic development in her anxiety to keep up with Brazil in the way -of armament. - -An elaborate system of new docks, that has been in the course of -construction for a long time, has not been completed yet; so we anchor a -mile or more from the shore, not far from a score of ocean steamers and -half a hundred sailing vessels. Before the anchor falls we are -surrounded by a noisy fleet of steam launches, whose whistles keep up a -most infernal tooting. A score of these insistent screamers attempt to -get alongside of our companion-way at the same time. In addition, half a -hundred row-boats attack the ladder where some of the steerage -passengers are trying to disembark. - -We had heard, before entering the port, that there were several hundred -cases of smallpox here, besides other infectious diseases. Yet this did -not prevent everybody that wanted to, and could afford the slight cost -of transportation, from coming out from the shore and boarding our -vessel. Such a chattering, such a rustling of silk skirts and a -fluttering of feathers on enormous hats, such ecstatic greetings given -to returning citizens! Such ultra-Parisian fashions! - -On shore we found the marks of modern Rio--electric cars, fashionable -automobiles, well-paved streets, electric lights, and comfortable -hotels--very much in evidence. Were it not for the blinding sunlight -that fairly puts one’s eyes out in the middle of the day, one could -readily forget one’s whereabouts. To be sure, if you go to look for it, -there is the older part of the city which still needs cleaning up -according to modern ideas of sanitation. But if you are content to spend -your time in the fashionable end of the town or speeding along the fine -new thoroughfares in a fast motor car, it is easy to think no more of -Rio’s bad record as an unhealthy port. - -The city of Rio is spread over a large peninsula that juts out from the -south into the waters of the great bay. Across the peninsula, through -the centre of the busiest part of the city, the Brazilians have -recently opened a broad boulevard, the Avenida Central. Fine modern -business blocks have sprung up as if by magic, and the effect is most -resplendent. The spacious avenue is in marked contrast with the very -narrow little streets that cross it. One of them, the Rua Ouvidor, the -meeting-place of the wits of Rio, is in many ways the most interesting -street in Brazil. Here one may see everybody that is anybody in Rio. - -At one end of the Avenida Central is Monroe Palace, which once did duty -at an International Exposition, and more recently was the meeting-place -of the third Pan-American Conference, made notable by the presence of -Secretary Root. Beyond the showy palace to the east there are a number -of little bays, semi-circular indentations in the shore, which have -recently been lined with splendid broad driveways, where one may enjoy -the sea breeze and a marvellous view over the inland sea to the -mountains beyond. - -At the far end of the new parkway rises the ever-present Sugar Loaf, at -whose feet are the buildings of the National Exposition. They are -wonderfully well situated, lying as they do on a little isthmus wedged -in between two gigantic rocks, with the ocean on one side and the -beautiful bay on the other. The buildings themselves are not -particularly remarkable, being decorated in the gorgeous style of -elaborate whiteness that one is accustomed to associate with -expositions. - -The crowds I saw there were composed exclusively of Brazilians, most of -whom had apparently visited the grounds many times and accepted them as -the fashionable evening rendezvous. Each of the states of Brazil had a -building of its own in which to exhibit its products, and there was a -theatre, a “Fine Arts” building, a Hall of Manufactures, and a sad -attempt at a Midway. An entire building was devoted to the manufactures -and exports of Portugal. All other buildings were devoted to the states -or industries of Brazil, making the prejudice in favor of the mother -country all the more noticeable. - -A change is coming over the foreign commerce of Rio. Twenty years ago, -the largest importing firms were French and English. Many of these have -practically disappeared, having been driven out by Portuguese, Italian, -and German houses. The marked leaning toward goods of Portuguese origin -is very striking and naturally difficult to combat. - -Brazil has recently established in Paris an office for promoting the -country and aiding its economic expansion. This office is publishing a -considerable literature, mostly in French, and will undoubtedly be able -to bring about an increase of European commerce and that immigration -which Brazil so much needs. The completion of the new docks will greatly -help matters. - -But besides new docks Rio needs a reformed customs service. Every one is -agreed that the most vexatious thing in Rio is the attitude of the -custom house officials. Either because they are poorly paid or else -simply because they have fallen into extremely bad habits, they are -allowed to receive tips and gratuities openly. The result may easily be -imagined. - -[Illustration: THE CORCOVADO FROM RIO] - -A few days after my arrival, an American naturalist, thoroughly honest -but of a rather short temper, was treated with outrageous discourtesy, -and his personal effects strewn unceremoniously over the dirty floor of -the warehouse by angry inspectors, simply because he was unwilling to -bribe them. There was no question as to his having any dutiable goods. - -The population of Rio is variously estimated at between seven and eight -hundred thousand, but her enthusiastic citizens frequently exaggerate -this and speak in an offhand way of her having a million people. They -are naturally reluctant to admit that Rio has any fewer than Buenos -Aires. - -The suburbs of Rio are remarkably attractive. On the great bay, dotted -with its beautiful islands, are various resorts that take advantage of -the natural beauties of the place, and cater to the pleasure-loving -Brazilians. From various ports on the bay, railroads radiate in all -possible directions, going north into the heart of the mining region and -west through the coffee country to Saõ Paulo. The terminus of a little -scenic railway is the top of one of the highest and most remarkable of -the near-by peaks, the Corcovado. The view from the summit can scarcely -be surpassed in the whole world. The intensely blue waters of the bay, -the bright white sunlight reflected from the fleecy cumulous clouds so -typical of the tropics, the verdure-clad hills, and the white city -spread out like a map on the edge of the bay, combine to make a -marvellous picture. - -No account of Rio, however brief, would be complete without some -reference to the “Jornal do Comercio,” the leading newspaper of Brazil, -whose owner and editor, Dr. J. C. Rodriguez, is one of the most -influential men in the country. In addition to guiding public opinion -through his powerful and ably edited newspaper, he has had the time to -attend to numerous charities and to the collection of a most remarkable -library of books relating to Brazil. He has recently taken high rank as -a bibliographer by publishing a much sought after volume on early -Braziliana, basing his information largely on his own matchless -collection. - -Another well-edited paper is “O Paiz,” which like the “Jornal do -Comercio” has its own handsome edifice on the new Avenida Central. A -subscription to it for one year costs “thirty thousand reis”--a trifle -over nine dollars! As in the case of other South American newspapers, -its offices are far more luxurious and elaborate than those of their -contemporaries in North America. These southern dailies give -considerable space to foreign cablegrams, so much more, in fact, than do -our own papers, that it almost persuades one that we are more provincial -than our neighbors. - -Santos, the greatest coffee port in the world and the only city in -Brazil having adequate docking facilities, is a day’s sail from Rio. It -is separated from the ocean by winding sea-rivers or canals. The marshes -and flats that surround it, and the bleaching skeletons of sailing -vessels that one sees here, are sufficient reminders of the terrible -epidemics that have been the scourge of Santos in the past. Stories are -told of ships that came here for coffee, whose entire crews perished of -yellow fever before the cargo could be taken aboard, leaving the vessel -to rot at her moorings. All of this is changed now, and the port is as -healthy as could be expected. - -Yet the town is not attractive. It lacks the picturesque ox-drays of -Pernambuco and the charming surroundings of Rio. The streets are badly -paved and muddy; the clattering mule-teams that bring the bags of coffee -from the great warehouses to the docks are just like thousands of others -in our own western cities. The old-fashioned tram-cars, running on the -same tracks that the ramshackle suburban trains use, are dirty but not -interesting. Prices in the shops are enormously high. In fact, on all -sides there is too much evidence of the upsetting influence of a great -modern commerce. - -A long line of steamers lying at the docks taking on coffee is the -characteristic feature of the place, and a booklet that has recently -been issued to advertise the resources of Brazil bears on its cover a -branch of the coffee tree, loaded with red berries, behind which is the -photograph of a great ocean liner, into whose steel sides marches an -unending procession of stevedores carrying on their backs sacks of -coffee. It not only emphasizes Brazil’s greatest industry, but it is -also thoroughly typical of Santos. - -Most of the coffee is grown in the mountains to the north, and comes to -Santos from Saõ Paulo on a splendidly equipped British-built railway. -The line is one of the finest in South America. It rises rapidly through -a beautiful tropical valley by a gradient so steep as to necessitate -the use of a cable and cogs for a large part of the distance. The -powerhouses scattered at intervals along the line are models of -cleanliness and mechanical perfection. - -Notwithstanding the fact that America is by far the greatest consumer of -Santos coffee, the greater part of the local enterprises are in British -hands. The investment of British capital in Brazil is enormous. It has -been computed that it amounts to over six hundred million dollars. -Americans do not seem yet to have waked up to the possibilities of -Brazilian commerce, or to the fact that the question of American trade -with Brazil is an extremely important one. - -It is only necessary to realize that the territory of Brazil is larger -than that of the United States, that the population of Brazil is greater -than all the rest of South America put together, and that Brazil’s -exports exceed her imports by one hundred million dollars annually, to -understand the opportunity for developing our foreign trade. - -Brazil produces considerably more than half of the world’s supply of -coffee, besides enormous quantities of rubber. The possibilities for -increased production of raw material are almost incalculable. It is just -the sort of market for us. Here we can dispose of our manufactured -products and purchase what will not grow at home. - -We have made some attempts to develop the field, even though our -knowledge is too often limited to that of the delightful person who knew -Brazil was “the place where the nuts come from!” We have - -[Illustration: THE HARBOR OF SANTOS] - -little conception of the great distances that separate the important -cities of Brazil and of the difficulties of transportation. - -A story is told in Rio of an attempt to go from Rio to Saõ Paulo by -motor, over the cart-road that connects the two largest cities in the -Republic. The trip by railway takes about twelve hours. The automobile -excursion took three weeks of most fearful drudgery. Needless to say, -the cars did not come back by their own power. - -It is more difficult for a merchant in one of the great coast cities of -Central Brazil to keep in touch with the Amazon, than it is for a -Chicago merchant to keep in touch with Australia. - -Furthermore, to one who tries to master the situation, the coinage and -the monetary system seem at first sight to present an insuperable -obstacle. To have a bill for dinner rendered in thousands of _reis_ is -rather confusing, until one comes to regard the thousand _rei_ piece as -equivalent to about thirty cents. - -Another and much more serious difficulty is the poor mail service to and -from New York. To the traveller in South America, unquestionably the -most exasperating annoyance everywhere is the insecurity and -irregularity of the mails. The Latin-American mind seems to be more -differently constituted from ours in that particular than in any other. -He knows that the service is bad, slow, and unreliable. But it seems to -make little difference to him, and the only effort he makes to overcome -the frightfully unsatisfactory conditions is by resorting to the -registered mail, to which he intrusts everything that is of importance. -Add to this fact the infrequency of direct mail steamers from the United -States to the East Coast, and it may readily be seen where lies one of -the most serious obstacles in the way of extending our commerce with -Brazil. - -A marked peculiarity of the Brazilian market is its extreme -conservatism. Brazilians who have become accustomed to buying French, -English, and German products are loath to change. American products are -unfashionable. The Brazilian who can afford it travels on the -luxuriously appointed steamers of the Royal Mail, and he and his friends -regard articles of English make as much more fashionable and luxurious -than those from the United States. - -This is largely due to the lack of commercial prestige which we enjoy in -the coast cities of Brazil. The Brazilians cannot understand why they -see no American banks and no American steamship lines. Our flag never -appears in their ports except as it is carried by a man-of-war or an -antiquated wooden sailing vessel. To their minds this is proof -conclusive that the American, who claims that his country is one of the -most important commercial nations in the world, is merely bluffing. - -Such prejudices can only be overcome by strict attention to business, -and this attention our exporters have in large measure not yet thought -it worth while to give. The agents that they send to Brazil rarely speak -Portuguese, and are unable to compete with the expert linguists who come -out from Europe. Frequently they even lack that technical training in -the manufacture of the goods which they are trying to sell, which gives -their German competitors so great an advantage. - -Still more important than commercial travellers in a country like -Brazil, is the establishment of agencies where goods may be attractively -displayed. An active importer told me that, in his opinion, the most -essential thing for Americans to do was to maintain permanent depots or -expositions where their goods could be seen and handled. Relatively -little good seems to result from the use of catalogues, even when -printed in the language of the country, owing to the insecurity of the -mails and the absence of American banks or express companies which would -insure the delivery of goods ordered. - -Finally, it is disgraceful to be obliged to repeat the old story of -American methods of packing goods for shipment to South America. This -fact has been so often alluded to in many different publications that it -might seem as though further criticism were unnecessary. Unfortunately, -however, in spite of repeated protests, American shippers, forgetful of -the almost entire absence of docks and docking facilities here, continue -to pack their goods as if they were destined for Europe. - -At most of the ports, lighters have to be used. These resemble small -coal barges, into which the goods are lowered over the side of the -vessel. Often more or less of a sea is running, and notwithstanding all -the care that may be used the durability of the packing-cases is tested -to the utmost. I saw a box containing a typewriter dumped on top of a -pile of miscellaneous merchandise, from which it rolled down, bumping -and thumping into the farther corner of the barge. Fortunately, this -particular typewriter belonged to a make of American machines whose -manufacturers have learned to pack their goods in such form as to stand -just that kind of treatment. The result is that one sees that brand of -machine all over South America. - -The American consul in Rio, Mr. Anderson, has been doing a notable -service in recent years by sending north full and accurate reports of -business conditions in Brazil, and our special agent, Mr. Lincoln -Hutchinson, has written excellent reports on trade conditions in South -America. To the labors of both these gentlemen I am greatly indebted for -information on this subject. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -BUENOS AIRES - - -We left Santos late on a Tuesday afternoon, and after two pleasant days -at sea entered the harbor of Montevideo on Friday morning. It was -crowded with ships of all nations, and we were particularly delighted to -see the American flag flying from three small steamers. Could it be -possible that the flag which had been so conspicuous for its absence -from South American waters, was regaining in the twentieth century the -preëminence it had in the early years of the nineteenth? Alas, no; the -boats were only government vessels in the lighthouse service, towing -lightships from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. They had stopped here -to coal, for Montevideo is a favorite port of call for steamers bound -through the Straits of Magellan. Ever since the days when it was the -home of active smugglers, who were engaged in defying Spain’s -restrictive colonial policy, Montevideo has been a prosperous trading -centre. To-day, clean streets, new buildings, electric cars, fine shops, -elaborate window displays, well-dressed people, and excellent hotels -mark it as modern and comfortable. - -It is difficult to realize that this is the capital of Uruguay, “one of -the most tumultuous of the smaller revolutionary states of South -America.” The American is chagrined to find that the Uruguayan gold or -paper dollar is worth two cents more than our own. And the Englishman is -most annoyed to find the “sovereign” at a discount. But chagrin gives -way to frank amazement at the high prices which the Montevidean is -willing to pay for his imported luxuries. - -The republic is small but there is no waste land, and the railroads -bring in quantities of wool and food-stuffs destined for the European -market. More than three thousand steamers enter the port annually. Most -of them belong to the eighteen British lines that touch here. No wonder -the city is wealthy and has attractive shops and boulevards. To be sure, -the harbor improvements, not completed yet, have been greatly retarded -by the most flagrant kind of political graft. But what American city, -from New York to San Francisco, has a clean record in this particular? - -Splendidly equipped steamers, resembling our Fall River boats, ply -nightly between Montevideo and Buenos Aires, in order to accommodate the -increasing numbers who wish to do business in both cities. - -A generation ago the traveller to Buenos Aires was obliged to disembark -in the stream seven or eight miles from the city, proceed in small boats -over the shallow waters, and then clamber into huge ox-carts and enjoy -the last mile or two of his journey as best he could. Since then, -extraordinary harbor improvements, costing millions of dollars, have -been completed, and ocean steamers are now able - -[Illustration: THE DOCKS OF BUENOS AIRES] - -to approach the city through dredged channels. Yet such has been the -phenomenal growth of the port that the magnificent modern docks are -already overcrowded and the handling of cargo goes on very slowly, -retarded by many exasperating delays. The regular passenger and mail -steamers are given prompt attention, however, and the customs house -examination is both speedy and courteous, in marked contrast to that at -Rio. In years to come, the two other important ports of -Argentina--Rosario, higher up the Rio de la Plata, and Bahia Blanca, -farther down the Atlantic coast--are destined to grow at a rapid rate -because of the better docking facilities they will be able to afford. - -Bahia Blanca in particular is destined to have a great future, as it is -the natural outlet for the rapidly developing agricultural and pastoral -region of southern Argentina. - -Buenos Aires, however, will always maintain her political and commercial -supremacy. She is not only the capital of Argentina, but out of every -five Argentinos, she claims at least one as a denizen of her narrow -streets. Already ranking as the second Latin city in the world, her -population equals that of Madrid and Barcelona combined. - -Hardly has one left the docks on the way to the hotel before one is -impressed with the commercial power of this great city. Your taxicab -passes slowly through crowded streets where the heavy traffic retards -your progress and gives you a chance to marvel at the great number of -foreign banks, English, German, French, and Italian, that have taken -possession of this quarter of the city. With their fine substantial -buildings and their general appearance of solidity, they have a firm -grip on the situation. One looks in vain for an American bank or agency -of any well-known Wall Street house. American financial institutions are -like the American merchant steamers, conspicuous by their absence. The -Anglo-Saxons that you see briskly walking along the sidewalks are not -Americans, but clean-shaven, red-cheeked, vigorous Britishers. - -In England they talk familiarly of “B.A.” and the “River Plate”; -disdaining to use the Spanish words Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and -Buenos Aires. To hear them you might suppose they were speaking of -something they owned, and you would not be so very far from the truth. -What Mexico owes to American capital and enterprise, the countries and -cities of the Rio de la Plata owe to Great Britain. British capitalists -have not been slow to realize the possibilities of this great -agricultural region. They know its potentiality as a food-producer, and -they have covered it with a network of railways much as we have covered -the prairies of Illinois and the plains of Kansas. Of the billion and a -quarter dollars of British capital invested in Argentina, over seven -hundred millions are in railways. Thousands of active, energetic young -Englishmen, backed by this enormous British capital, have aided in the -extraordinary progress which Argentina has made during the past -generation. - -In some ways this is an English colony. The majority of the people do -not speak English, except in the commercial district, and the -Englishman is here on sufferance. But it is his railroads that tie this -country together. It is his enterprises that have opened thousands of -its square miles, and although the folly of his ancestors a century ago -caused him to lose the political control of this “purple land,” the -energy of his more recent forebears has given him a splendid heritage. -Not only has he been able to pay large dividends to the British -stockholders who had such great faith in the future of Argentina, he has -made many native Argentinos wealthy beyond the dreams of avarice. - -Land-owners, whose parents had not a single change of clothes, are -themselves considering how many motor cars to order. Their patronage -sustains the finely appointed shops which make such a brave display on -Florida and Cangallo Streets. These streets may be so narrow that -vehicles are only allowed to pass in one direction, but the shops are -first class in every particular and include the greatest variety of -goods, from the latest creations of Parisian millinery to the most -modern scientific instruments. Fine book shops, large department stores, -gorgeous restaurants, expensive to the last degree, emphasize the wealth -and extravagance of the upper classes. - -On the streets one may hear all of the European languages. In the -business district it is quite as likely to be English as Spanish, and in -the poorer quarters Italian is growing more common every day. The speech -of the common people is nominally Spanish, very bad Spanish. In reality -it is a hybrid into which Portuguese, Italian, and Indian words and -accents have entered to disfigure the beautiful Castilian. - -When Rio cut her Avenida Central through the middle of her business -district, she had in mind the Avenida 25 de Mayo of Buenos Aires, a -typical imitation Parisian Boulevard that was opened not many years ago -to facilitate traffic and beautify the city. On the Avenida, as in Rio, -the leading newspaper has its luxurious home. - -All the world has heard of “La Prensa” and its marvellously -well-appointed building where distinguished foreigners are entertained, -lectures are given, and all sorts of advertising dodges are featured. It -was “La Prensa” that had the news of President Taft’s election two -minutes after it was known in New York. Many Porteños, as the people of -Buenos Aires are called, think the columns of “La Prensa” are too yellow -and that its business methods are almost too modern. They prefer the -more dignified pages of the “Nacion.” - -The hotels on the Avenida are not up to the standard of three of those -on the narrower thoroughfares. In fact, it would be hard to find more -comfortable hostelries than the Grand or the Palace. The new Phœnix -Hotel, one of the first skyscrapers to be erected here, promises even -greater comforts and is to be the rendezvous of the British colony. - -There are many theatres and they have a brilliant season, which begins -in June. The pleasure-loving Porteños are willing to pay very high -prices for the best seats, and managers can offer good - -[Illustration: AVENIDA DE MAYO, BUENOS AIRES] - -salaries to tempt the best performers to leave Europe. Variety shows are -popular and carried to an extreme with which we are not familiar in the -United States. Some of them are poor copies of questionable Parisian -enterprises. But even these are not as bad as the moving picture shows -that have captured Buenos Aires. Public opinion is astonishingly lax in -the southern capital. Exhibitions of shocking indecency are -countenanced, that would no longer be tolerated in Europe or North -America. In this matter Buenos Aires also offers a marked contrast to -Santiago de Chile where morals are on a much higher plane, thanks to the -Catholic Church, which unfortunately seems to have lost its grip here. - -The Porteño has not only forgotten his religion, he seems also to have -lost the pleasing manners of his Castilian ancestors. I have been in -eight South American capitals and in none have I seen such bad manners -as in Buenos Aires. Nowhere else in South America is one jostled so -rudely. Nowhere else does one see such insolent behavior and such bad -taste. Santiago, Lima, Bogotá, and Caracas seem to belong to a different -civilization. To be sure, none of them are as rich and prosperous. But -in all of them good society is a much more ancient concern than in this -overgrown young metropolis. - -Here the newly rich are in full sway and their ideas and instincts seem -to predominate. On Sunday afternoon, all the world dashes madly out to -the race course, where it exercises its passion for gambling to the -fullest capacity. In the Jockey Club inclosure are gathered the youth -and beauty, the wealth and fashion of the city. And yet the ladies -carry the artificial tricks of feminine adornment to such an amazing -extent that it is almost impossible to realize that they belong to the -fashionable world and not to the demi-monde. The races that I attended -drew an audience of thirty thousand. One race had a first prize -amounting to fifteen thousand dollars. The horses seemed to be of a -rather heavier build than ours but they did not interest the spectators. -Facilities for betting were provided on an elaborate scale. There were -no bookmakers, and the odds depended entirely on the popular choice, as -is commonly done in Europe. The gate receipts and the proceeds of the -“percentage” are enormous and have enabled the Jockey Club to build one -of the most luxurious and extravagant club houses in the world. - -After the races, hundreds of motor cars and carriages promenade slowly -up and down that part of the parkway which society has decreed shall be -her rendezvous. Here one sees an astonishing display of paint and powder -illuminating the faces of the devotees of a fashion which decrees that -all ladies must have brilliant complexions. The effect is very -unpleasant. I suppose it is simply another evidence of the newness of -modern Buenos Aires. Very few wealthy families have a long-established -social position. Culture and refinement are at a discount. Otherwise it -is difficult to imagine how any society can tolerate such artificiality. -This garish Sunday parade is quite a swing of the pendulum from the old -days when Creole ladies, modestly attired in lovely black lace -mantillas, walked quietly to church and home again, as they still do in -most South American cities. - -It is hardly necessary to speak of the more usual evidences of great -wealth, palatial residences that would attract attention even in Paris -and New York, charming parks beautifully laid out on the shores of the -great Rio de la Plata, and a thousand luxurious automobiles of the -latest pattern carrying all they can hold of Parisian millinery. - -One does not need to be told that this is a city of electric cars, -telephones, and taxis. These we take for granted. But there is a -characteristic feature of the city that is unexpected and striking: the -central depots for imported thoroughbreds. Only a few doors from the -great banks and railway offices are huge stables where magnificent -blooded horses and cattle, sheep and pigs, which have brought records of -distinguished ancestry across the Atlantic, are offered for sale and -command high prices. - -These permanent cattle-shows are the natural rendezvous of the wealthy -ranchmen and breeders who are sure to be found here during a part of -each day while they are in town. So are foreigners desirous of -purchasing ranches and reporters getting news from the interior. The -cattle-fairs offer ocular evidence of the wealth of the modern Argentino -and the importance of the pastoral industry. There are over a hundred -million sheep on the Pampas. Cattle and horses also are counted by the -millions. - -The problems of Argentine agriculture and animal industries are being -continually studied by the great land-owners, who have already done -much to improve the quality of their products. - -During my stay in Buenos Aires, it was my privilege to visit an -agricultural school in one of the neighboring towns. The occasion was -the celebration of its twenty-fifth anniversary. The festivities were -typically Spanish-American. An avenue of trees was christened with -appropriate ceremonies, being given the name of the anniversary date. To -each tree a bunch of fire-crackers had been tied. At the beginning and -end of the avenue a new sign-post bearing its name had been put up and -veiled with a piece of cheese cloth. A procession consisting of the -officials of the school and of the National University of La Plata, with -which the school is affiliated, alumni and visitors, formed at the -school-buildings after the reading of an appropriate address, and -marched down the new avenue following the band. As we progressed, the -signs were unveiled and the bunches of fire-crackers touched off. At the -far end, in a grove of eucalyptus trees, a collation was served, and we -were entertained by having the fine horses and cattle belonging to the -school paraded up and down. The school has an extensive property, is -doing good work, and shows a practical grasp of the needs of the -country. - -Argentina has worked hard to develop those industries that are dependent -upon stock-raising. The results have amply justified her. The -exportation of frozen meat from Argentina amounts to nearly twenty -million dollars annually. Only recently one of the best known -packing-houses of Chicago opened a large plant here and is paying -tribute to the excellence of the native stock. Every year Argentina -sends to Europe the carcasses of millions of sheep and cattle as well as -millions of bushels of wheat and corn, more in fact than we do. Of all -the South American republics, she is our greatest natural competitor, -and she knows it. Nevertheless, she lacks adequate resources of iron, -coal, lumber, and water power, and notwithstanding a high protective -tariff, can never hope to become a competitor in manufactured products. -Argentina exports more than three times as much per capita as we do, and -must do so in order to pay for the necessary importation of manufactured -goods. It also means that she will always find it to her advantage to -buy her goods from England, France, and Germany, where she sells her -food-stuffs. Brazil can send us unlimited amounts of raw materials that -we cannot raise at home, while at present Argentina has little to offer -us. Yet we are already buying her wool and hides, and before long will -undoubtedly be eating her beef and mutton, as England has been doing for -years. - -The banks of Buenos Aires have learned to be extremely conservative. For -a long time this city was a favorite resort of absconding bank cashiers -from the United States, and stories are told of many well-dressed -Americans who have come here from time to time without letters of -introduction but with plenty of money to spend, who have been kindly -received by the inhabitants, only to prove to be undesirable -acquaintances. What we consider “old-fashioned and antiquated” English -bank methods are the rule, and it frequently takes a couple of hours to -draw money on a letter of credit even when one has taken the pains to -notify one’s bankers beforehand that the letter was to be used in South -America. Personally, I have found American Express checks extremely -useful in all parts of South America and have had no difficulty in -getting them accepted in Buenos Aires. In the interior it is more -difficult unless one comes well introduced. But the necessity for -letters of introduction is quite generally recognized all over the -continent. Strangers who have “neglected to supply themselves with -credentials,” frequently turn out to be fugitives from justice. - -Another local peculiarity noticeable also in Chile, is that many of the -citizens bitterly begrudge us our attempted monopoly of the title of -“Americans.” They catalogue us at all possible times under “N” instead -of “A.” They also speak of us as _North_ Americans or as “Yankis,” and -they call our Minister the “North American Minister,” quite ignoring the -existence of Mexico and Canada. - -Certain Americans who are desirous of securing an increase of our trade -with South America and of placating in every possible manner the South -Americans, overlooking the practical side of the question, have -acquiesced in the local prejudice and speak of themselves as North -Americans, even though they do not address their letters to the “United -States of North America.” - -The fact that the South American refuses to grant us our title of -“Americans” is really an indirect compliment. It is chiefly owing to the -industry and intelligence of the citizens of the United States, that the -word “American” has come to have a complimentary meaning,--far more -complimentary in fact than it had fifty years ago when distinguished -foreigners were wont to use that adjective as a peculiarly opprobrious -epithet. With this change in the significance of the term has come a -natural desire on the part of the South Americans to apply it to -themselves. They reason that they have as good a right, geographically, -to the term as we have, and they wilfully forget that each of their -republics has in its legal title a word which conveniently and -euphoniously characterizes its citizens. The people of the United States -of Brazil are called Brazilians, and those of the United States of -Mexico are Mexicans by the same right that those of the United States of -America are Americans. To be sure, the world generally thinks of our -country as the United States, quite forgetful that there are several -other republics of the same name. It is a pity that a euphonious -appellation cannot be manufactured from one or both of those two words. -We cannot distinguish ourselves by the title “North American,” as that -ignores the rightful claim to that title which the denizens of the -larger part of this continent, the Mexicans and Canadians, have in -common with us. It is difficult to see how we are to avoid calling -ourselves Americans even if it gives offence to our neighbors. It is not -a point of great importance and it seems to me that in time, with the -natural growth of Chile and the Argentine Republic, their citizens will -be so proud of being called Chilenos or Argentinos that they will not -begrudge us our only convenient and proper title. - -There is another point, however, in their criticism of us which is more -reasonable and on which they might be accorded more satisfaction. I -refer to that part of our foreign policy known as the Monroe Doctrine. -Many a Chileno and Argentino resents the idea of our Monroe Doctrine -applying in any sense to his country and declares that we had better -keep it at home. He regards it as only another sign of our overweening -national conceit. And on mature consideration, it does seem as though -the justification for the Monroe Doctrine, both in its original and its -present form, had passed. Europe is no longer ruled by despots who -desire to crush the liberties of their subjects. As is frequently -remarked, England has a more democratic government than the United -States. In all the leading countries of Europe, the people have -practically as much to say about the government as they have in America. -There is not the slightest danger that any European tyrant will attempt -to enslave the weak republics of this hemisphere. Furthermore, such -republics as Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Peru no more need our -Monroe Doctrine to keep them from being robbed of their territory by -European nations than does Italy or Spain. If it be true that some of -the others, like the notoriously lawless group in Central America, need -to be looked after by their neighbors, let us amend our outgrown Monroe -Doctrine, as has already been suggested by one of our writers on -international law, so as to include in the police force of the Western -Hemisphere, those who have shown themselves able to practice -self-control. With our lynchings, strikes, and riots, we shall have to -be very careful, however, not to make the conditions too severe or we -shall ourselves fail to qualify. - -The number of “North Americans” in Buenos Aires is very small. While we -have been slowly waking up to the fact that South America is something -more than “a land of revolutions and fevers,” our German cousins have -entered the field on all sides. - -The Germans in southern Brazil are a negligible factor in international -affairs. But the well-educated young German who is being sent out to -capture South America commercially, is a power to be reckoned with. He -is going to damage England more truly than Dreadnoughts or gigantic -airships. He is worth our study as well as England’s. - -Willing to acquaint himself with and adapt himself to local prejudices, -he has already made great strides in securing South American commerce -for his Fatherland. He has become a more useful member of the community -than the Englishman. He has taken pains to learn the language -thoroughly, and speak it not only grammatically but idiomatically as -well; something which the Anglo-Saxon almost never does. He has entered -into the social life of the country with a much more gracious spirit -than his competitors and rarely segregates himself from the community in -pursuing his pleasures as the English do. His natural prejudices against -the Spanish way of doing things are not so strong. - -His steamers are just as luxurious and comfortable as the new English -boats. It is said that even if the element of danger that always exists -at sea is less on the British lines, the German boats treat their -passengers with more consideration, giving them better food and better -service. No wonder the Spanish-American likes the German better than he -does the English or American. Already the English residents in Buenos -Aires, who have regarded the River Plate as their peculiar province for -many years, are galled beyond measure to see what strides the Germans -have made in capturing the market for their manufactured products and in -threatening their commercial supremacy. And neither English nor Germans -are going to hold out a helping hand or welcome an American commercial -invasion. - -Meanwhile the Argentinos realize that their country cannot get along -without foreign capital, much as they hate to see the foreigner made -rich from the products of their rolling prairies. - -Politically, Buenos Aires and Argentina are in the control of the native -born. They have a natural aptitude for playing politics, and they much -prefer it to the more serious world of business. This they are quite -willing to leave to the foreigner. - -They realize also that they greatly need more immigrants. The population -is barely five per square mile, and as a matter of fact, is practically -much less than that for so large a part of the entire population is -crowded into the city and province of Buenos Aires. Consequently they -are doing all they can to encourage able-bodied immigrants to come from -Italy and Spain. - -And the immigrants are coming. My ship brought a thousand. Other ships -brought more than three hundred thousand in 1908. Argentina is not -standing still. Nor is she waiting for “American enterprise.” During -1908 considerably more than two thousands vessels entered the ports of -the republic. Four flew the American flag. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -ARGENTINE INDEPENDENCE AND SPANISH-AMERICAN SOLIDARITY - - -On the 25th of May, 1910, the Argentine nation in general, and Buenos -Aires in particular, observed with appropriate ceremonies the one -hundredth anniversary of their independence. Great preparations were -made to insure a celebration that should suitably represent the -importance of the event. - -In 1810 Buenos Aires had been a Spanish colony for two hundred and fifty -years following her foundation in the sixteenth century. But the Spanish -crown had never valued highly the great rolling prairies drained by the -Rio de la Plata. There were no mines of gold or silver here, and Spain -did not send her colonists into far-away America to raise corn and wine -that should compete with Spanish farmers at home. Buenos Aires was -regarded as the end of the world. All persons and all legitimate -commerce bound thither from Spain were obliged to go by way of Panama -and Peru, over the Andes, across the South American continent, before -they could legally enter the port of Buenos Aires. The natural result of -this was the building up of a prosperous colony of Portuguese smugglers -in southern Brazil. Another result was that no Spaniards cared to live -so far away from home if they could possibly help it, and society in -Buenos Aires was not nearly so brilliant as in the fashionable -Spanish-American capitals of Lima, Santiago, or Bogotá. - -During the closing years of the eighteenth century the Spaniards became -convinced of their short-sighted policy and made Buenos Aires an open -port. The English were not slow to realize that this was one of the best -commercial situations in South America, and that far from being the end -of the world, as the Spaniards thought, it was a natural centre through -which the wealth of a large part of South America was bound to pass. The -great Mr. Pitt, who was most interested in developing British commerce -with South America, felt that it would probably be necessary to -introduce British manufactures in the wake of a military expedition, and -decided to seize Buenos Aires, which was so poorly defended that it -could easily be captured by a small resolute force. - -Accordingly in June, 1806, an attack was made. The Viceroy, -notwithstanding repeated warnings, had made no preparations to defend -the city, and it was captured without difficulty. There was great -rejoicing in London at the report of the victory, but it was soon turned -to dismay by the news of a disgraceful and unconditional surrender. The -sudden overthrow of the English was due largely to the ability of a -local hero named Liniers who played successfully on the wounded pride of -the Porteños. - -The significance of the episode is that it gave to the Porteños the idea -that the power of Spain could be easily overthrown, and that they -actually had the courage and strength to win and hold their own -independence. - -Hardly had the city recovered from the effects of its bombardment by the -English before events, destined to produce a profound change throughout -South America, commenced to attract attention in Spain. Napoleon -inaugurated his peninsula campaigns, and the world beheld the spectacle -of a Spanish king become the puppet of a French emperor. In July, 1809, -a new Viceroy, appointed by the Spanish cortes then engaged in fighting -against Napoleon, took possession of the reins of government in Buenos -Aires. In the early months of 1810, Napoleon’s armies were so successful -throughout the Spanish peninsula that it seemed as if the complete -subjection of Spain was about to be accomplished. - -On May 18, the unhappy Viceroy allowed this news from Spain to become -known in the city. At once a furor of popular discussion arose. Led by -Belgrano and other liberal young Creoles, the people decided to defy -Napoleon and his puppet king of Spain as they had defied the soldiers of -England. On the 25th of May, the Viceroy, frightened out of his wits, -surrendered his authority, and a great popular assembly that crowded the -plaza to its utmost capacity appointed a committee to rule in his stead. -So the 25th of May, 1810, became the actual birthday of Argentina’s -independence, although the acts of the popular government were for six -years done in the name of Ferdinand, the deposed king of Spain, and the -Act of Independence was not passed by the Argentine Congress until -1816. - -No sooner had Buenos Aires thrown off the yoke of Spain than she began -an active armed propaganda much as the first French republic did before -her. Other cities of Argentina were forcibly convinced of the advantages -of independence, and the armies of Buenos Aires pressed northward into -what is now southern Bolivia. It was their intention to drive the -Spanish armies entirely out of the continent, and what seemed more -natural than that they should follow the old trade route which they had -used for centuries, and go from Buenos Aires to Lima by way of the -highlands of Bolivia and Peru. But they reckoned without counting the -cost. In the first place the Indians of those lofty arid regions do not -take great interest in politics. It matters little to them who their -masters are. Furthermore, their country is not one that is suited to -military campaigns. Hundreds of square miles of arid desert plateaux ten -or twelve thousand feet above the sea, a region suited only to support a -small population and that by dint of a most careful system of -irrigation, separated by frightful mountain trails from any adequate -basis of supplies, were obstacles that proved too great for them to -overcome. Their little armies were easily driven back. On the other -hand, when the royalist armies attempted to descend from the plateaux -and attack the patriots, they were equally unsuccessful. The truth is -that southern Bolivia and northern Argentina are regions where it is far -easier to stay at home and defend one’s self than to make successful -attacks on one’s neighbors. An army cannot live off the country as it -goes along, and the difficulties of supplying it with provisions and -supplies are almost insurmountable. The first man to appreciate this was -José San Martin. - -It is not too much to say that San Martin is the greatest name that -South America has produced. Bolivar is better known among us, and he is -sometimes spoken of as the “Washington of South America.” But his -character does not stand investigation; and no one can claim that his -motives were as unselfish or his aims as lofty as those of the great -general to whose integrity and ability the foremost republics of Spanish -South America, Argentina, Chile, and Peru, owe their independence. - -San Martin was born of Spanish parents not far from the present boundary -between Argentina and Paraguay. His father was a trusted Spanish -official. His mother was a woman of remarkable courage and foresight. -His parents sent him to Spain at an early age to be educated. Military -instincts soon drew him into the army and he served in various -capacities, both in Africa and later against the French in the -peninsula. He was able to learn thoroughly the lessons of war and the -value of well-trained soldiers. He received the news of the popular -uprising in Argentina while still in Spain, and soon became interested -in the struggles of his fellow-countrymen to establish their -independence. In 1812 he returned to Buenos Aires where his unselfish -zeal and intelligence promptly marked him out as an unusual leader. The -troops under him - -[Illustration: THE USPALLATA PASS] - -became the best-drilled body of patriots in South America. - -After witnessing the futile attempts of the patriots to drive the -Spanish armies out of the mountains of Peru by way of the highlands of -Bolivia, he conceived the brilliant idea of cutting off their -communication with Spain by commanding the sea power of the West Coast. -He established his headquarters at Mendoza in western Argentina, a point -from which it would be easy to strike at Chile through various passes -across the Andes. Here he stayed for two years governing the province -admirably, building up an efficient army, organizing the refugees that -fled from Chile to Mendoza, making friends with the Indians, and keeping -out of the factional quarrels that threatened to destroy all proper -government in Buenos Aires. In January, 1817, his army was ready. He led -the Spaniards to think that he might cross the Andes almost anywhere, -and succeeded in scattering their forces so as to enable him to bring -the main body of his army over the most practical route, the Uspallata -Pass. - -The expedition was successful, and in 1818 San Martin had the -satisfaction of administering such a decisive defeat to the Spaniards at -Maipo as to insure Chilean independence. With the aid of a remarkable -soldier of fortune, Thomas Cochran, Earl of Dundonald, and an -interesting group of Anglo-Saxon seamen, San Martin drove the Spaniards -from the West Coast and captured the city of Lima. The aid which was -given him by Buenos Aires and Chile was not sufficient to enable him to -penetrate the great Andes of the interior and totally destroy the last -Spanish army. He sought Bolivar’s aid, but that proud Liberator would -only come as Commander-in-chief. So, rather than sacrifice the cause of -independence, San Martin, with unexampled self-effacement, gave up his -well-trained veterans to Bolivar and Sucre and quietly withdrew to his -modest home in Argentina. His unwillingness to enter into political -squabbles, his large-minded statesmanship, and his dignified bearing did -not endear him to his fellow countrymen, and he was forced to pass the -declining years of his life in Europe, an exile from his native land. - -The history of the period is full of petty personal rivalries and absurd -political squabbles. Against these as a background the magnificent -figure of San Martin, efficient soldier, wise statesman, and unselfish -patriot, stands out plainly distinct. His achievements are worthy to be -remembered with those of the greatest heroes of history. His character, -the finest that South America has ever produced, has few equals in the -annals of any country. - -For many years he was disliked by his fellow patriots because he openly -expressed the belief that they were not fit for pure democratic -government. Since his day many South Americans agree with him. - -The most serious criticism, however, which we can lay at the door of the -South American is his lack of political cohesion. The border provinces -are everlastingly rebelling against the decrees of the central -government. Furthermore, when the Spanish colonies secured their -independence, they either did not combine or else combining soon fell -apart. The reason for this lack of solidarity may be found in the -history of the Hispanic race and in the geographical conditions that -exist in the southern continent. - -In criticising South American habits of mind and political tendencies, -one must remember that the moral and intellectual characteristics that -form the soul of a people have been developed by its entire past and -represent the inheritance of its ancestors. For the motives of its -conduct, one must look to its history. - -Historically, the Hispanic race was led to develop individualistic -rather than coöperative action. The forces at work in the peninsula were -centrifugal rather than centripetal. A small handful of brave -mountaineers were almost the only inhabitants of the peninsula that were -able to defy the Moorish conquerors. The process of the Christian -re-conquest of Spain was so slow that it took nearly eight centuries for -her to grow from the lonely, rocky fastness of Covadonga to the group of -Christian kingdoms that embraced the entire peninsula. During these -eight hundred years, preceding the Conquest of America, the Spaniards -fought almost continuously against an ever-present enemy. This developed -a strong municipal spirit, for the towns on the frontier were in -constant danger of attacks from the Moors, and it was necessary to grant -them very considerable powers. As the boundaries of Christian Spain -extended southward, new cities came to be frontier posts, but the old -ones retained the powers and the semi-independence they had previously -gained. - -The result was a race of men devoted primarily to their cities; only -secondarily to the province or kingdom to which their city belonged, and -quite incidentally to Spain as a geographical and linguistic unit. Such -a racial tendency could not help developing that disregard of large -national interests in preference to petty local concerns which has been -a most unfortunate trait in the history of the South American republics. -For while it may be true that the conception of the city as the soul of -the native country has always been effective from the point of view of -the development of civilization, it has been disastrous in its effect on -national progress. It was just that loyalty to the municipality that -prevented the growth of the Greek Empire. - -Another result of the eight hundred years of Christian warfare against -the infidel Moor, was the development of moral and physical qualities -that made possible the marvellously rapid conquest of America by small -companies of _conquistadores_. Brave, bigoted, courageous, accustomed to -continuous hostilities, ardently devoted to a cause for which they were -willing to lay down their lives, fighting to the last ditch, it is not -surprising that the ancestors of the South Americans were able to -achieve such wonderful results in the early sixteenth century. - -Only a vigorous and rising nation could have accomplished the great work -of exploring, conquering, and colonizing America which was done at that -time. - -As a matter of fact, a wonderful transformation was then taking place in -Spain. The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella had united by personal -bonds what had formerly been a handful of detached kingdoms. These -countries each had their own laws, their own peculiar customs and -separate administrative systems. Some of the provinces were inhabited by -people of different stock. The process of unification was almost -contemporaneous with the conquest and colonization of America. - -For a career destined to be as great as that of any of the larger -empires of history, Spain had at the beginning of the colonizing period -an inadequate political organization. Spanish racial unity and religious -uniformity were of recent growth. The European progenitors of the -conquerors did not fight for Spain as a whole, but rather as citizens of -a municipality or as vassals of a petty king. The spirit of a -centralized, unified government whose citizens are willing to sacrifice -everything for the sake of their nation, did not run in their blood. -They belonged to a fragmentary and embryonic group of nations. Spain did -not adopt a policy of centralization long enough before the acquisition -of her American colonies to allow the results of such a change in -methods of government to affect popular habits of thought. In the -meantime, South America was being colonized by men who had no sense of -racial unity and few tendencies towards concerted political action. - -Hence it is not at all surprising that their descendants, the heroes of -the Wars of Emancipation, did not find it easy or natural to unite under -one government. It was in accordance with the history of their race that -they should form separate political establishments. It was also in -accordance with that Spanish colonial policy which forbade -communication between the different colonies and in no way encouraged a -community of interests. - -Historically then, there was little to cause the South American colonies -on achieving their independence, to unite, even had they not been -separated by tremendous natural obstacles. - -Although the basins of the Amazon, the La Plata, and the Orinoco offered -many thousands of miles of navigable highways, the masses of water were -too copious and too irregular to be controlled until the era of steam -navigation. In the great valleys east of the Andes, the excessive -fertility of the soil has produced an enormous area of continuous -woodlands, a mass of vegetation that has defied the efforts of centuries -to effect clearings and roads. This densely timbered and sparsely -inhabited region keeps Venezuela from having any dealings with Bolivia -more effectually than if an absolute desert lay between them. - -There is nothing that separates one of the United States from another -that is at all comparable to the lofty chain of the Andes and the -impenetrable jungle that lies for hundreds of miles on the eastern slope -of the Cordillera. The more one considers the matter, the more it seems -as though nature could not have placed more impassable obstacles in the -way of intercommunication if she had set out with that definite purpose -in view. In comparison with the difficulties of travelling from Lima, -the centre of the old Spanish domain, to Buenos Aires, a journey from -New York to Charleston in the days of the American revolution was a -mere pleasure jaunt, and yet it seemed difficult enough at that time! -Nowhere in the English colonies existed such impediments to -communication as the deserts of northern Chile and southern Peru, the -swamps of eastern Colombia and western Venezuela, the forests of -Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, or the gigantic chain of the Andes whose -lowest point for thousands of miles is ten thousand feet above the sea. - -The founders of the original thirteen English colonies not only -inherited racial unity but providentially built their homes on a short -strip of coast and occupied a homogeneous country, no larger than a -single Spanish colony. Their union followed as a matter of course. - -It was quite otherwise in South America. For, as though it were not -enough that the tendency of the race was towards building up individual -communities rather than federations, as though the laws forbidding the -colonists from trading with one another and from travelling from one -colony to another were not a sufficient preventive of union, all the -forces of nature, mountains, rivers, deserts, swamps, and even winds, -combined to promote the isolation of the new republics. The top of the -highest mountain in the thirteen English colonies was not half as high -as the lowest point in the ranges of lofty mountains that separated the -Spanish colonies; nor one third as high as the Uspallata Pass by which -Chile is connected with Argentina. - -It is not for us to criticise the South Americans for having failed to -unite and form a great nation. Our ancestors were favored by nature -with a region that is comparatively accessible in all parts. It is not -any more creditable to the English colonists that they united than it is -discreditable to the Latin-Americans that they did not. In both cases, -racial characteristics, aided by diverse policies of colonial -administration made a foundation for growth which by an extraordinary -coincidence, was in every possible way favored by local geographical -conditions. - -The English colonists, on securing their independence, had been -acquainted with one another for generations; had fought side by side in -the French and Indian wars; had intermarried, built up social and -business friendships; united in sending agents to the mother country and -in sending representatives to Congresses where the leading men of each -colony came to know one another’s desires and aspirations. Placed by -fate on a narrow strip of coast less in length than the seaboard of -Chile alone, enabled by nature to communicate both by sea and land, -separated from one another by neither deserts nor lofty mountains, what -more likely than that they should have followed their natural traditions -and formed a single nation? The difficulties in the way of the South -American colonists following such an example were stupendous. Scattered -over an enormous area, separated by the greatest natural boundaries that -nature has produced, it was scarcely to be expected that they too should -not follow the traditions of their race and build up local governments -instead of forming a federation. - -The historical and geographical reasons that prevented the formation of -confederations have also mitigated against the building up of strong -national governments. The citizen is still inclined to favor the affairs -of his city rather than the good of his country. He finds it easier to -be loyal to the local chieftain than to the central government. The cure -for this, however, is already in sight. The energy and enterprise of -English, French, and German capitalists are overcoming the obstacles -that nature has placed in the way of intercommunication. - -In time, aided by steam and electric systems of transportation, some of -the Southern Republics may even unite with others. But before this comes -about it may confidently be expected in the near future that the -development of new transportation facilities will make possible the -growth of strong national feeling and will prevent the states from -falling apart. It will certainly make revolutions less frequent and -bring a condition of stability that will even attract American capital -and greatly augment European immigration. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE TUCUMAN EXPRESS - - -For nearly three centuries the most important trade-route in South -America was the overland trail from Buenos Aires to Lima by way of the -silver mines of Potosí. The system of travel for both passengers and -freight was well established. In 1773 there was published a little book -called “El Lazarillo,” “The Blind Man’s Guide,” which contains full -information for travellers going from Buenos Aires to Lima with exact -itineraries and “with some useful notes for those new business men who -traffic by means of mules.” The road with its post-houses, its relays of -mules, and its provisions for the comfort of man and beast is well -described. Buenos Aires is credited with having twenty-two thousand -souls, of whom “ninety-nine are orphans and sixty-eight are in jail!” - -I should have liked nothing better than to have been able to follow “The -Blind Man’s Guide” from post-house to post-house along the entire -distance. But alas, since the days of railways, many of the road-houses -that formerly offered “good accommodations to travellers,” have -disappeared, and it is necessary to go as the world goes and take the -train--when there is one. - -On November 13, 1908, accompanied by Mr. Huntington Smith, Jr., I left -Buenos Aires for Bolivia. The first stage of the journey, seven hundred -and twenty miles, was by train to Tucuman, over the tracks of the Buenos -Aires and Rosario R. R., one of the oldest and richest railways in -Argentina. Our train was made up entirely of vestibuled sleeping and -dining cars. - -Among the first-class passengers was a newly arrived Spanish mercantile -clerk and a French commercial traveller. I noticed more French in -Argentina and Brazil than on the West Coast or in the northern -countries. Especially in the large cities, they, with the Germans and -English, have been very active in promoting local enterprises. - -In the first fifteen miles out from Buenos Aires we saw numbers of -villas shaded by groves of eucalyptus trees standing in the midst of the -owner’s broad acres. There is considerable evidence of market gardening -and general agriculture. So far as we could see from the train, the -roads are very bad and have not improved since the days of the -woe-begotten travellers who had to cross these plains in ox-carts. - -When Edmund Temple, the breezy secretary of the Potosí, La Paz & -Peruvian Mining Association, crossed Argentina on his way to Bolivia in -1825, he was struck with the immense number of “hoppers” that they -passed on the Pampas. He says the locusts covered the road and adjacent -parts for miles. In those days, pasturage was plenty, and cultivated -fields were scarce, so nobody cared very much. It is only with the -increasing importance of crops that the Argentinos have come to regard -the swarms of locusts as a great pest, and have spent many thousands of -dollars fighting them. They are now planning to build a fence of sheet -zinc, costing several million dollars, to keep back the “hoppers.” Some -modern travellers have had their trains delayed by locust swarms on the -tracks, but we saw comparatively few. - -Our first stops were at suburban towns, which are more attractive than -one would suppose in a country that is so flat. At one of them, on the -River Tigre, the English colony has made boating fashionable, with -festivals like those at Henley. We had showers in the course of the -morning, but the country over which we passed looked rather dry. - -A characteristic feature of the Pampas are the modern windmills with -their steel frames. Most of them are of American make, for despite our -backwardness in some lines, we have been peculiarly successful in -supplying Argentina with windmills. In fact, we have almost monopolized -that particular business. Fortunately, our manufacturers seem also to -excel in the production of small and inexpensive motors, such as are -particularly desired on farms and ranches where, owing to the extreme -difficulty of getting workmen, there is an excellent market for -labor-saving machinery. Notwithstanding this encouraging feature, for -every million dollars’ worth of goods which Argentina imports from the -United States, she imports six millions from Europe. - -Many of the interior towns have their own electric lighting plants. The -agents of German manufacturers have been far-sighted in following up -new concessions and in getting large contracts for the installation of -German machinery. It takes a good many windmills to equal one electric -lighting plant. - -Our train made a short stop at Rosario, the second largest city in -Argentina. Owing to its advantageous situation at the bend of the Paraná -River, it has become a most important port. - -Accessible throughout the year to vessels drawing sixteen feet, it is -the terminus of many trans-Atlantic lines which bring European -manufactured goods here in exchange for wheat and cattle. Some ore from -Bolivia is also shipped from here. On our mule trip in Southern Bolivia -we saw hundreds of animals laden with huge packing-cases from Europe -marked “via Rosario.” - -The other important new port in Argentina is Bahia Blanca, which is -situated several hundred miles south of Buenos Aires and is connected by -railways with the newly opened regions in northern Patagonia. There is -no scarcity of good agricultural land as yet undeveloped. Were the -government of Argentina as well managed for the interests of the -individual farmer as the governments of our western states, there is no -question that Argentina would secure a much higher grade of immigrant. -The opportunities are truly magnificent, but I was repeatedly told by -foreign residents who are engaged in farming, that there are many -unpleasant features. The truth of the matter is that the Argentino is -too fond of keeping political power in his own hands. He does not -understand all that is meant by a constitutional democratic form of -government. It is not his fault, for his race history, as we have seen, -has given him other inheritances and prejudices. Nevertheless he is -learning. - -Leaving Rosario we plunged into the heart of a great agricultural and -pastoral region. The heat and dust were rather trying. The humidity was -considerable, being about eighty per cent in our car. In truth, we -experienced all the various annoyances to which one is subject when -crossing our western plains, in a moderately slow train. We had been -told that this Tucuman express was “the finest train in America.” Some -of the young Englishmen on our steamer were extremely enthusiastic over -it and assured us that we could have nothing so fine in the United -States. Consequently we were somewhat disappointed to find the standard -of comfort not any greater than it was on our western trains fifteen -years ago. - -There is one thing, however, in which the “B. A. and R.” is ahead of -most American railroads. At each station are one or two very large -sign-boards conveniently placed so that the stranger has no difficulty -in ascertaining whether he has reached his destination or not. And there -are other little things along the line that make one feel the presence -of railway officials carefully trained in English railway methods. It -goes without saying that the road is largely owned in England and has -Anglo-Saxons for its principal officers. - -Argentina has about thirteen thousand miles of railway operated under -some twenty companies. One thousand seven hundred miles are owned by -the government, but by far the larger part of the railway system is -controlled by British capitalists. A little more than half of the -mileage consists of the very broad five and a half foot gauge. The -remainder is one metre or less. The three gauges necessitate -considerable transferring of freight and passengers. - -To one who is accustomed to thinking of Argentina as a rich but -undeveloped region, it seems incredible that she should have fifty -thousand freight-cars and two thousand passenger-coaches. It is still -more astonishing to learn that every year her railways carry thirty -million passengers, and thirty million tons of freight, of which about -one third are cereals. During the year 1906, the receipts from the -passenger traffic amounted to more than $18,000,000, and from freight -traffic to something over $55,000,000. Statistics are dry and -uninteresting except as they open our eyes to conditions of which we -have formed but a small conception. The extremely rapid growth of the -Argentine railways is shown by the fact that while in 1884 the capital -invested did not amount to $100,000,000, it now amounts to over -$700,000,000. - -So far as killing people is concerned, the Argentine railways do not -come up to our record, although they do fairly well. In 1905 they -killed, all told, two hundred and eighteen persons, and in 1906, two -hundred and fifty. This is a heavier percentage per passenger carried -than in the United States. - -Towards evening we left the farming country and entered a barren region -where great stretches of perfectly flat land seemed to promise splendid -results if it could be irrigated. - -The dust increased, and we were glad enough to be hauled over these dry -pampas of Santa Fé and Santiago del Estero in a night, instead of being -obliged to spend a fortnight on them following a slow-moving Spanish -caravan. - -When we looked out of the car window the next morning all was changed. -Sugar-cane fields waving attractively in the sunlight, big wheeled carts -lumbering noisily along drawn by oxen or mules, lithe horsemen riding -strong little ponies through thickets of dry scrub, had transformed the -scene from the everlasting prairies of the pampas into the highlands of -the northwest. The hills beyond the fields of cane were covered with a -scrubby growth. To the north-west and north arose green mountains that -seemed to be forested to their tops. Some of the trees were in bloom -with brilliant yellow flowers. - -The contrast between the dry, barren pampas and the green cane-fields of -Tucuman is so striking that Argentine writers have been accustomed to -speak of the latter in terms of the most extravagant praise. Even the -well-travelled Sarmiento called it the “Eden of America,” “where nature -had displayed its greatest pomp!” As a matter of fact Tucuman is -admirably situated in a very fertile and highly cultivated plain, and is -the centre of the most important sugar-growing region in Argentina. In -its immediate vicinity we counted a dozen tall chimneys of sugar -factories. - -We reached the city about ten o’clock. - -It was founded about the time that Sir Walter Raleigh was looking for -Eldorado. Here in 1816, the Argentine Congress passed their Declaration -of Independence. Here Belgrano won a great victory over the Spanish -armies that had descended from Peru to crush the Argentine patriots. - -The Tucuman station, a large modern affair, was chiefly interesting -because of the picturesque character of the luggage that was lying about -the platforms. Chairs and cots, pots and pans, spring mattresses, and -hen-coops, all bore evidence to the fact that this is still a young -country into which new settlers are coming, and that the Railroad -Company has the good sense to make it easy for people to travel with all -their possessions. Everything was checked and went in the luggage-van, -as a matter of course, instead of being handed over to “slow-freight” or -rapacious express companies, as with us. - -Most of the immigrants were Italians from Genoa and the north of Italy. -A few came from Galicia, the home of Spain’s most sturdy peasantry. -Neither immigrants nor residents wore picturesque costumes. Even the -Gauchos are dressed in civilized raiment and bear little resemblance to -the South American Indian of our dreams. It is too progressive a country -to allow its clothes to get in its way. - -The facts relating to Buenos Aires and Argentina are at every one’s -elbow so it is all the more astonishing how ignorant the average -American is regarding the great metropolis of the southern hemisphere. -We are very fond of telling stories of our English cousins who imagine -that our western states are overrun with wild Indians and desperadoes. -And we think it inexcusable in them to judge from the frequent press -reports of lynchings and “hold-ups” that we are an uncivilized, lawless -people. Yet we judge the Argentino just as hastily. Not only are we -quite ignorant of his material progress, we also frequently slander him -for having an “unstable government.” “Revolutions” or struggles for -governmental control occur, it is true, but they do not amount to much -and hardly deserve the exaggerated reports of them which are published -abroad. In a country that has been bound together by such a network of -railroads as Argentina, making it possible for the government in power -to send its troops rapidly wheresoever it will, the habit of playing -with revolutions is sure to die out. In the old days when transportation -was slow and difficult, it was possible for a popular leader to gather a -considerable band of followers and prepare to march on the capital -before the government knew of his existence. Such uprisings, however, -are necessarily the work of days or weeks, and it is becoming more and -more difficult to bring them to a successful issue. As an evidence of -the more stable condition of the government and as showing how Argentina -has recovered from the setback which it got at the time of the failure -of the Baring Brothers, it is well to note that in the ten years between -1895 and 1905, the foreign trade of Buenos Aires more than doubled, -growing to more than half a billion dollars annually. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THROUGH THE ARGENTINE HIGHLANDS - - -At Tucuman we left the broad gauge of the British-built Buenos Aires and -Rosario R. R. for the metre gauge of the North Central Railway, an -Argentine Government line, that runs to Jujuy and has recently been -continued northward to La Quiaca, on the Bolivian frontier. The distance -from Buenos Aires to La Quiaca is 1150 miles. Of this we had done 700 -miles in the first twenty-four hours. The last 450 miles required -another twenty-four hours, divided into two daylight periods, as -sleeping-cars are not run on the North Central R. R. In this stretch the -elevation rises from thirteen hundred feet to twelve thousand feet, and -the journey lies entirely in the Argentine Highlands. - -Our train was mixed passenger and freight. The locomotive was a -“Baldwin” and the cars were made in Wilmington, Del. We had, besides, an -excellent dining-car that seated sixteen people and provided a table -d’hôte meal served in the usual Spanish style. The third-class -passengers, however, patronized the enterprising women who sold flat -loaves of bread, hard-boiled eggs, and native drinks at the stations -where we stopped. - -Not long after leaving Tucuman, we passed through a tunnel, the first -one in eight hundred miles. Rather a different experience from my -journey in Venezuela, from Caracas to Valencia, where in the course of -an hour we passed through sixty-five tunnels, one every minute! - -With many windings we climbed up into the hills. Grass became scarcer -and cactus and mimosa trees more common. We passed a small flock of -goats. Dust and sand came into the train in clouds. Occasionally we -passed lofty whirlwinds, but none of them troubled us. The humidity -to-day was very much less, being under forty per cent. The streams -seemed to be very low. We saw a few locusts. - -At many of the stations were carts drawn by mules harnessed three -abreast, with a loose rope-tackle that is characteristic of this hilly -region. The houses of some of the more well-to-do were built of -corrugated iron and wood, but most were made of mud. As it was the dry -season, the cots were usually out of doors. - -The evidences of prosperity at Ruis de los Llanos consisted of new -stucco buildings of attractive construction with arcades in front and -courtyards in the interior, a modern application of old Spanish -architectural ideas. Other buildings were nearing completion, to -accommodate the bakers and grocers who supply the _quebracho_ cutters. -There are great forests of _quebracho_ on the plains of the Gran Chaco -to the east and northeast. The wood is extremely hard and very -serviceable for railway-ties. Owing to the difficulty that is -experienced in cutting it, it has earned for itself the sobriquet of -“axe-breaker.” It is the chief article of export from this region. The -bark is shipped to tanneries as far away as California. - -At Matan, another important station, there was a new hotel, the -“Cosmopolita,” a clean-looking Spanish inn, near the railway station. -Near by lay huge logs of _quebracho_ awaiting shipment. The hills were -well wooded, and we saw a number of agave plants and mimosa trees. -Firewood is shipped from here to the treeless Pampas. Here we noticed, -for the first time, riding-boots of a curious fashion, so very -corrugated that we dubbed them “concertinas.” They are much in vogue -also in southern Bolivia. - -At Rio Piedras, where a dozen of our third-class passengers alighted -with many baskets and bundles, we heard the familiar hum of a sawmill. -Near the track were more _quebracho_ logs. A burly passenger who had -joined us at Tucuman, ready dressed and prepared for a long horseback -ride, left us here. With a large broad-brimmed hat, loose white jumper, -large baggy white cotton trousers, and “concertinas,” he came very near -being picturesque. Throwing over his shoulder a pair of cotton -saddle-bags well stocked with interesting little bundles, he walked -slowly away from the train with that curious shuffling gait common to -those who spend most of their lives in the saddle. - -Not far away we saw some newly arrived American farm machinery, a part -of the largest item of Argentine imports from the United States. - -During the course of the afternoon, we wound out of the hills far enough -to be able to see far over the plains to the east. Here there was more -vegetation and some corn growing. On the left were jagged hills and -mountains. The temperature in the car about four o’clock was eighty-five -degrees. Our altitude was about twenty-five hundred feet. - -As we went north through hot, dusty valleys, climbing up into the -foot-hills of the Andes, the faces of the loiterers at the stations lost -the cosmopolitan aspect that they have in and about Buenos Aires. We saw -more of the typical Gaucho who is descended from the aboriginal Indians -of the Pampas and bold Spanish cattle-drivers. Tall in stature, with a -robust frame and a swarthy complexion, he possesses great powers of -endurance and is a difficult person to handle. His tendencies are much -like those of the fast disappearing American “cow puncher,” but he has -the disadvantage of having inherited a contempt for manual labor and an -excessive vanity which finds expression in silver spurs and brilliantly -colored ponchos. His territory is rapidly being invaded by hard-working -Italians, more desirable because more dependable. - -Near Juramento the country grows more arid and desolate. A few scrubby -mimosa trees, sheltering the white tents of railway engineers, offered -but little welcome to intending settlers. - -Just at dark we reached Guemes, where we were obliged to change cars. -The through train from Tucuman goes west to Salta, the most important -city of the vicinity. We arrived at Jujuy shortly after nine o’clock. A -score of ancient vehicles were waiting to take us a mile up into the -town to one of the three hotels. We went to the Bristol and found it -quite comfortable according to Spanish-American ideas. That means that -the toilet facilities were absent, that the room had a tile floor, and -that there were beds and chairs. - -In the morning we got up early enough to look at the town for a few -minutes before leaving on the semi-weekly train for La Quiaca. - -Jujuy was built by Spanish settlers a generation before the Pilgrims -landed at Plymouth, and still preserves the white-walled, red-tiled-roof -aspect of the old Spanish-American towns. Lying in a pleasant, -well-watered plain, a trifle over four thousand feet above the sea, it -is attractively surrounded by high hills. Beyond them, we caught -glimpses of lofty barren mountains, the summits of the Andes. The -near-by valleys were green, and there is some rainfall even in the dry -time of the year. Although Jujuy produces a large amount of sub-tropical -fruit, it really owes its importance to its strategical position on the -old trade route to Bolivia. It is the last important town on the road -because it is the last place that enjoys a salubrious situation. For -centuries it has been the natural resting-place for overland travellers. - -In fact, these northwestern highlands of Argentina, Jujuy, and Tucuman, -were first settled by emigrants from the mountains of Upper Peru now -called Bolivia, of which they form the southern extension. Their -political and commercial relations were with Potosí and Lima rather than -Buenos Aires. The great prosperity of the mining regions of the lofty -plateau created a demand for provisions that could not be met by the -possibilities of agriculture in the semi-arid irrigated valleys of -southern Bolivia. Beef and other provisions could most easily be brought -from the fertile valleys near Tucuman and Jujuy. The necessity for some -better animal than the llama, to carry not only freight but also -passengers, caused a demand for the horses and mules which, raised on -the Argentine Pampas, were brought here to be put into shape for -mountain travel, and were an important item in the early fairs. - -When the railroad came, Jujuy was for many years the northern terminus. -This only added to the importance of the town, and increased the -reputation of its annual fair. But with the building of the continuation -to La Quiaca, its importance is bound to decrease. However, it will -always be a favorite resort for Bolivians seeking a refuge from the -rigors of their Thibetan climate. We met many families in southern -Bolivia who had at one time or another passed the winter season here. - -Before leaving the Bristol we succeeded in getting eggs and coffee only -with considerable difficulty as the train was due to leave at seven -o’clock, and the average Spanish-American traveller is quite willing to -start off on a long day’s journey without even a cup of coffee if he can -be sure of something substantial about ten or eleven o’clock. - -When we arrived at the station, we found a scene of great confusion. The -line had been running only a few months, and many of the intending -passengers were not accustomed to the ways of railroads. An official, -and his family of three, had spread himself over one half of the car, -with bags, bird-cages, bundles, rolls, and potted plants. He filled so -many seats with his impedimenta that several of the passengers had to -stand up, although that did not worry him in the least. Had we known how -much luggage belonged to him, we should have dumped it on the floor and -had a more comfortable ride, but unfortunately we did not discover how -greatly he had imposed on everybody until the end of the day. - -From Jujuy the train climbs slowly through a valley toward a wonderful -vista of great mountains. At 6000 feet the verdure disappeared, the -grass became brown, and on the barren mountains a few sheep and goats -were trying to pick up a living. - -The railway had a hard time overcoming the difficulties of the first -part of the way. The grade is so steep that for some distance a cog road -was found to be necessary. In the first one hundred and fourteen miles, -the line climbs up 8000 feet to an altitude of over 12,000 feet above -sea-level. - -Notwithstanding the newness of the road and the steepness of the grade, -we carried with us an excellent little restaurant car that gave us two -very good meals before we reached La Quiaca. - -The cog railway begins at Leon at an altitude of 5300 feet and continues -to Volcan, rising 1500 feet in a distance of eight miles. At Volcan -there is supposed to be a mud volcano, but, as was pointed out some -years ago by Mr. O’Driscoll in the “Geographical Journal,” there is no -volcano at all. It is simply a mud avalanche, that comes down after -unusually heavy rains from the rapidly disintegrating hillside. -Although not a volcano, it is nevertheless a difficult problem for the -engineers. It has already completely submerged a mile or two of track -more than once. - -This is on the line of the proposed Pan-American railway from New York -to Buenos Aires. With a sufficiently vivid imagination, one can picture -a New Yorker of the year 1950 being detained here by a mud-slide which -will have put the tracks over which he proposes to travel two or three -feet under ground. It is to be hoped that he will not be obliged to stay -at the local inn where Edmund Temple stopped on his journey from Buenos -Aires to Potosí. Temple was aroused in the middle of the night by a -noise under his bed as if of a struggle between two animals. To his -astonishment (and to that of the reader of his charming volumes) he -“discovered, by the light of the moon, a cat eating the head of a viper -which she had just subdued: a common occurrence I was informed, and -without any ill consequences to the cat, however venomous the snake!” - -Some effort had been made to plant a few trees in the sandy, rocky soil -around the station of Volcan, which is not far from the mud-slide. They -seemed, however, to be having a hard time of it, although, at a ranch -near by, quite a grove of eucalyptus trees had been successfully raised -by means of irrigation. The mountains round about are very barren and -gave evidence of being rapidly wasted away by erosion, their summits -assuming many fantastic forms. - -Twenty miles beyond Volcan is Maimará, where there was further evidence -of irrigation in the valley, the trees and green fruits being in marked -contrast to the barren hillsides. - -As the road ascends, the country becomes more and more arid. Cactus is -common. Sometimes it is used as a hedge; at other times, by being -planted on the top of a mud-fence, it answers the same purpose as a -barbed wire. - -Great barren mountains on each side continue for mile after mile, making -the scenery unspeakably dreary. Judging by the northward inclination of -the cactus and the trees, the prevailing wind is from the south. - -Some of the valley is irrigated, but there is little sign of life -anywhere. Nothing grows without irrigation. In the days before the -railway it was absolutely necessary to have alfalfa and other animal -fodder grown near the post-houses that supplied travellers and -freight-carriers with shelter at night. This business has, of course, -fallen off very much in the past few months, yet just before reaching -Humahuaca we stopped at Uquia, where enough hay is still raised to make -it worth while to bale it and ship it north to the barren plateau -beyond. - -Late in the afternoon, we saw a group of llamas, but they are not at all -common in this region. - -At Tres Cruces, 1052 miles from Buenos Aires, we reached our highest -elevation, something over 12,000 feet. It was a dreary spot with -scarcely anything in sight except barren mountains, the two wire fences -that everlastingly line the railroad tracks, and the mud-walled railroad -station. The little “hotel” looked like an abandoned adobe dwelling in -Arizona, and the region bore a striking resemblance to the unirrigated -part of our new southwest. Erosion has cut the hillsides into -interesting sections of shallow gulches and semi-cylindrical slopes. The -only green things to be seen are occasional clumps of bushes like -sage-brush. - -From here to La Quiaca, sixty miles, we maintained about the same -altitude, although La Quiaca itself is 500 feet lower than Tres Cruces. -We had, in fact, surmounted the great plateau of the Andes. South of us -lay the desert of Atacama; to the north the arid valleys of southern -Bolivia and the Bolivian tableland. East of us, beyond many intervening -ranges and the steep slopes of the eastern Andes, lay the Gran Chaco of -Bolivia and the valley of the lower Pilcomayo with its wild Indian -tribes and its tropical forests. To the west lay the still higher Andes -of the great Cordillera, some of whose peaks rise at this point to an -altitude of twenty thousand feet. Notwithstanding these interesting -surroundings, the extreme bareness of this desolate region reacts on -one’s enthusiasm. - -We reached La Quiaca just before nine o’clock. The railroad offices were -still incomplete, as the line had only been opened to traffic for a -month or two. The old town of La Quiaca, a small mud-walled affair two -miles away from the railroad station, is destined soon to be deserted -for the thriving young settlement that is springing up near the terminus -of the railway. There are two “hotels.” Ours, the 25 de Mayo, had only -just been opened. In fact, its exterior walls had not yet received -their proper coat of whitewash and stucco. - -All day long we had been travelling through an extremely sparsely -populated region, so dry, high, and inhospitable as to dispel any idea -that this railroad can rely upon it for much traffic. In fact, the line -was built by the Argentine Government, not so much to open up this part -of the Republic as to tap the mining region of southern Bolivia, with -the idea of developing Argentina’s foreign commerce by securing in -Bolivia a good market for her food-stuffs and bringing back in return -ore to be shipped to Europe from the ports of the Paraná. - -An agreement was entered into between Argentina and Bolivia whereby -Bolivia was to extend her system of national railways southeast from -Oruro to Potosí and thence due south to Tupiza, fifty miles north of the -Argentine boundary. The Argentinos on their part agreed to continue -their railway north from Jujuy to Tupiza. By the time they reached La -Quiaca, however, the English Company that owns the rich -Oruro-Antofagasta line became alarmed lest such an arrangement as was -proposed would interfere with their profits. By some means or other, the -Bolivian government was persuaded to change its plans and decide to -build the national railways so as to connect with the Antofagasta line -rather than with the Argentine lines. This breach of faith on the part -of the Bolivianos was naturally resented not only in Argentina but also -by the southern Bolivianos themselves who would be much more benefited -by having good connections with Buenos Aires than with the Chilean -seaboard. - -As a result of this difficulty, the Argentinos, at the time of my visit, -had not carried their railway beyond the frontier. This makes La Quiaca -the outfitting point for mule-trains that now start here with -merchandise destined for the cities of southern Bolivia. - -A stage-line has been opened, running once a week to Tupiza, where it -connects with stages for Uyuni on the Antofagasta line and Potosí. This -stage-line was owned and operated by that same energetic Scotchman, Don -Santiago Hutcheon, who used to run stages between La Paz and Oruro -before the completion of the Bolivia Railway. By great good fortune, we -found him in La Quiaca where he had arrived that day on one of his own -stages. - -[Illustration: - -Sketch Map of SOUTHERN PERU -to illustrate the route of -HIRAM BINGHAM -from -CUZCO to HUANCAYO -] - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -ACROSS THE BOLIVIAN FRONTIER - - -Soon after our arrival at La Quiaca, at 9 P.M. on November 15, 1908, we -received a call from two rough-looking Anglo-Saxons who told us -hair-raising stories of the dangers of the Bolivian roads where highway -robbers driven out of the United States by the force of law and order -and hounded to death all over the world by Pinkerton detectives, had -found a pleasant resting-place in which to pursue their chosen -occupation without let or hindrance. We found out afterwards that one of -our informants was one of this same gang of robbers. Either he decided -that we were disposed to regard his “pals” in a sufficiently lenient -manner to make our presence in Bolivia immaterial to them, or else he -came to the conclusion that we had nothing worth stealing, for we were -allowed to proceed peaceably and without any annoyance wherever we -journeyed in Bolivia. He put the case quite emphatically to us that it -was necessary for them to make a living, that they were not allowed to -do so peaceably in the States, that they desired only to be let alone -and had no intention of troubling travellers except those that sought to -get information against them. They relied entirely for their support on -being able to overcome armed escorts accompanying loads of cash going to -the mines to liquidate the monthly payroll. This they claimed was -legitimate plunder taken in fair fight. The only individuals who had to -suffer at their hands were those who took up the case against them. -Having laid this down for our edification, he proceeded to tell us what -a reckless lot they were and how famous had been their crimes, at the -same time assuring us that they were all very decent fellows and quite -pleasant companions. Don Santiago, who in his capacity as coach-master -and stage-driver, has had to carry hundreds of thousands of dollars in -cash over the unprotected Bolivian highways, assured us that he had -never been molested by any of these highwaymen because he never troubled -them in any way either by carrying arms or spreading information of -their doings. If the Bolivian bandits are half as bad as they were -painted to us that night, Don Santiago must lead a charmed life for he -and his stages certainly offer an easy mark for any enterprising outlaw. - -The view from our hotel the next morning across the sandy plaza of La -Quiaca was anything but inspiring. The plateau is so high and dry that -nothing grows here. Even the mountains, whose tops are really higher -than our own far-famed Pike’s Peak, look stunted like low sand-hills. -Partly finished adobe houses, which were gradually meeting the demands -of the newly-born commercial life of La Quiaca add to the forlorn and -desolate appearance of everything. There was nothing to make us wish to -stay any longer in Argentina, and we eagerly welcomed Don Santiago and -his eight-mule team that - -[Illustration: OUR COACH LEAVING THE HOTEL AT LA QUIACA] - -rattled up to the door a few minutes after six o’clock. - -A quarter of a mile north of the town we crossed the frontier and -entered Bolivia. For the next four hours there was little in the -landscape to relieve the monotony of the journey. As those who are -familiar with stage travel know to their cost, bumping over rough roads -of stone or sand, in a cloud of dust with nothing to see on either side -except a brown, treeless, rolling plateau, is not exciting. Nevertheless -the process of keeping eight mules on the go, up hill and down hill, is -never absolutely devoid of interest. As it was quite impossible for the -driver to reach the foremost mules with his long whip, he employed a -strong-lunged boy to race alongside of the mules, pelt them with stones, -curse them in his worst Spanish, and frighten them into frantic activity -with the lash of a short-handled whip which he laid on with no delicate -hand. The mules became so afraid of his mad rushes that when they heard -him coming they bolted in the opposite direction, sometimes pulling the -stage-coach a rod or two off the road. - -In a rarefied atmosphere that would almost kill a foreigner who should -try to run any distance, the Indian boy only found it necessary to take -short rests on the running-board of the coach, and even then he had -breath enough left to keep up shrill whistling and loud shouting so as -to make the mules remember his presence. If he stopped this continuous -performance he heard from the driver in no uncertain language. The -result was that, notwithstanding the primitive cart-track, the stage was -able to make the sixty miles between La Quiaca and Tupiza in twelve -hours. To be sure, there are two changes of mules and the luggage is -carried on a separate wagon. But the road is as bad as it possibly can -be. So much of it is in the bed of a stream, the coaches can only run in -the dry season, May to November. In the rainy season the road disappears -under swollen rivers and resort has to be had to saddle and pack -animals. - -In this extremely arid region the business of feeding the mules is a -most difficult one. The rainfall is very slight. It is only by -irrigation that fodder will grow at all. The ground is not sterile but -it is so dry and parched that it does not look as if it would ever grow -anything. The Indians in the vicinity are Quichuas, who speak the same -language as did their former masters, the Incas. They are a patient race -with little ambition and few wants. This does not prevent them, however, -from charging all the traffic will bear when any one desires to purchase -alfalfa or barley straw for his mules. Don Santiago told me that he had -once been obliged to pay as high as forty dollars, gold, for enough -fodder to give an eight-mule team a proper luncheon. Needless to say, -transportation is expensive. The coach-fare from La Quiaca to Tupiza was -ten dollars, about sixteen cents a mile. A charge of two cents a pound -is made for luggage. None is carried free. - -Our first stop was at Mojo, to change mules and eat a “breakfast” which -consisted of the customary highly-spiced mutton and potatoes. We were -not “favored by the addition of an excellent roasted guinea pig” as was -Edmond Temple when he stopped here in 1826. Yet guinea-pigs are still -common hereabouts and we saw several on the road. - -Mojo is a village of four hundred inhabitants. There is a small branch -office of the Bolivian customs service here which is supposed to look -after travellers and their baggage. The principal custom house for -southern Bolivia is at Tupiza, a much more agreeable spot for the -residence of the officials and a natural distributing point for the -region. - -A short distance from Mojo we began an abrupt descent. In one place the -hill was too steep to permit the road to make a proper turn, so we all -had to get out and help lift the stage-coach around a “switch back.” -After this tortuous zigzag we came out on a broad plain over which we -passed without difficulty to the banks of the river Suipacha. - -The water was low and the cart-track attempted to steer a straight -course up stream. But as the shrunken current meandered over the sandy -river-bed, we were obliged to ford it every three or four minutes. This -entailed constant difficulties, for the leading mules would invariably -stop to walk as soon as they entered the water, while the others trotted -briskly in and tangled up the whole team. Perhaps the fault was mine, -for I was having my first experience in driving an eight-in-hand, and -the hard-mouthed mules took particular delight in giving me a bad time. -Notwithstanding our difficulties, we reached Suipacha on time, and -stopped to change mules. - -This valley was the scene of one of the earliest victories of the -patriots in 1810 at the beginning of the wars of independence. It will -be remembered that after the glorious 25th of May, recently celebrated -in Buenos Aires, the Argentinos attempted to free the province of Upper -Peru from Spanish control. The result of the victory of Suipacha was to -cause the Bolivians to rise and join the Argentinos against their -oppressors. The patriot army marched joyously northward across the -plateau, although the Argentinos suffered greatly from the cold and the -high altitude. When they reached the southern end of Lake Titicaca, the -Spanish army, augmented by hundreds of obedient Quichuas, attacked the -patriots and practically annihilated them. - -Suipacha itself, situated on a slight elevation above the banks of the -river, looks like all the other small villages of this arid region. -Plenty of sand and stones, a few mud-walled hovels, some thorny scrub, -here and there an irrigation ditch and a green field, and on every side -barren mountains. A favorite form of fence here is a wall of adobe -blocks, adorned with cactus or thorny mimosa branches. - -Suipacha is said to have six hundred inhabitants but it did not seem to -be any larger than Mojo. From here a road goes east to the important -city of Tarija, a pleasant, fertile town in southeastern Bolivia that -enjoys a charming climate, and has often served as a city of refuge for -defeated Argentine politicians who are glad enough to escape to such a -land of corn and wine after unsuccessful revolutions on the dreary -pampas. - -The road to Tupiza took us northwest, and continued to follow the bed of -the Suipacha or Estarca, - -[Illustration: THE “ANGOSTA DE TUPIZA”] - -and one of its tributaries. In the valley were several farms or _fincas_ -as they are called here, where small crops are raised by irrigation. -Half-way from Suipacha to Tupiza we passed through a magnificent rocky -gateway called the Angosta de Tupiza. Cliffs five hundred feet high rise -abruptly on each side of the river, leaving barely room enough for the -road even in dry weather. For a distance of seventy feet, the width is -less than thirty feet. Beyond the gate the mountains form a spacious -amphitheatre. During the rainy season, from November to March, it is -frequently impossible to pass through this gorge, even on good -saddle-mules. Fortunately for us, the rains had not yet begun, and we -had no difficulty. - -We reached Tupiza, a town of about two thousand inhabitants, just at six -o’clock. It is only ten thousand feet above sea-level, nearly two -thousand feet lower than La Quiaca, and is prettily situated in a plain -less than a mile in width, that in this region may fairly be called -fertile, so great is the contrast with the surrounding desert. Good use -has been made of the water in the little stream, and there are many -cultivated fields and trees in the vicinity. - -The plaza is quite an oasis in the wilderness. It is carefully -cultivated and the shrubbery and willow trees make it a delightful spot. -Around the plaza are a few kerosene oil street-lamps on top of wooden -poles set in stone foundations. The white tower of a new church rises -above the trees and makes a good landmark. Near by is the large -two-story warehouse belonging to the Bolivian government and used as a -post-office and custom house. - -In the early ’80’s, before the construction of the Antofagasta railway, -most of the commerce of Southern Bolivia passed through Tupiza and the -custom house had more importance than it has now. To-day it has less -than a tenth of its former business. With the completion of the railway -to La Quiaca and its contemplated projection to Tupiza, however, the -local revenue business is bound to increase. - -Even at the time of my visit (November, 1908), the street in front of -the custom house was blocked by scores of bales and boxes recently -arrived from La Quiaca and awaiting examination prior to being shipped -north to Potosí on the backs of mules. - -On the opposite side of the plaza was a branch of the National Bank of -Bolivia. Here we found that the Bolivian dollar or _peso_ is worth about -forty cents in our money. - -The common currency consists of banknotes ranging from one to twenty -_pesos_ in value. These depend entirely for their value upon the -solvency of the bank of issue. Several banks have failed, and the -Indians are very particular what bills they accept. They dislike the -bills of banks that have no agencies in the vicinity and prefer the -bills of the National Bank of Francisco Argondaño. - -The nickel subsidiary coinage is usually genuine and is in great demand, -but the smaller silver coins are frequently either counterfeit or so -badly made that they do not ring true and are not accepted by the -Indians with whom one has most to do on the road. Consequently it is the -common practice to tear bills in two when change cannot be made in any -other way. The result is that perfect bills are growing scarce and the -expense of issuing new ones is being felt by the banks. Several times -when cashing checks at branches of these banks, I was paid entirely in -half bills. They are accepted in almost all parts of Bolivia but are at -a discount in La Paz and are not received at all in some localities. - -We are told that the scarcity of subsidiary coinage, and the relative -frequency of counterfeit money, is due to the native habit of burying -all coins of real value lest they fall into the hands of unscrupulous -officials and rapacious soldiers. Since time immemorial, enormous -quantities of articles made of the precious metals have been buried by -the Indians. - -Tupiza was the scene in 1819 of one of those ineffectual skirmishes in -which the unaided Bolivian patriots endeavored to secure their -independence. In fact, this old trade-route from the Pampas to Potosí -was the scene of numerous engagements during the Wars of Independence. - -There are two hotels in Tupiza, one of them being the headquarters of -that section of the Bolivian army which is stationed here to guard the -frontier. The other is more commonly resorted to by travellers. Our inn, -the Grand Hotel Terminus, a long, low building once white-washed, with a -courtyard paved with cobblestones and a few bedrooms opening into the -court, was run by an amiable rascal who I believe claimed to be an -Austrian. However that may be, he belonged to the type that believes in -charging foreigners double the regular tariff. “For one roast fowl, -$2.00, a bottle of vichy, $1.25, one bottle of German beer, $1.00, half -pint of Appolinaris, $.40.” We were not able to get any discount. -Instead of fighting our own battles we foolishly referred the matter to -Don Santiago who lives at the hotel, has his office here, and depends -upon the hotel proprietor for a number of favors. Our request naturally -put him in an embarrassing situation, and all he could say was that the -charges seemed to him to be regular. The proprietor appeared to be drunk -most of the time, but he was not too drunk to charge up all drinks to -his American guests. - -There is a club here which was not in a very prosperous condition at the -time of my visit. This may have been due to a patriotic celebration that -had taken place a fortnight before. At that time a little poetical -drama, reminiscent of the first conflict for independence in 1810, was -played in the club-rooms. The drama, written by a local poet, was -dedicated to Señor Aramayo, the Mæcenas of Tupiza, a member of the -wealthiest family of southern Bolivia, and the owner of several rich -silver mines and a large importing warehouse. - -The shops of Tupiza were not brilliantly lighted although they contained -quite an assortment of articles of European origin. The trade which they -appeal to is that of the mule-drivers, the _arrieros_, who congregate -here while their cargoes are being inspected by the revenue officers. -The Indians of the vicinity, whose money comes chiefly from the product -of their irrigation ditches, have little to spend. - -Tupiza boasts two newspapers; one of them a biweekly, now in its third -year, and the other a literary - -[Illustration: FANTASTIC PINNACLES IN THE VALLEYS NORTH OF TUPIZA] - -weekly that had recently been started by the author of the poetical -drama just alluded to. The weekly refers to the celebration in most -flattering terms. “Undoubtedly social life in Tupiza had increased so -far that it is high time to commence to notice its faults and -deficiencies. These could easily be removed with proper enthusiasm and -good will. Tupiza is a centre of social culture, but unfortunately it is -not yet able to appreciate such worthy theatrical spectacles as have -recently taken place!” - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -TUPIZA TO COTAGAITA - - -We found that the Bolivian government had recently subsidized a weekly -stage line from Tupiza to Uyuni on the Antofagasta railway and another -from Tupiza to Potosí, our next objective point. The fare to Potosí is -twenty-two dollars, and the journey takes only four days. But we had -enough of being shaken to pieces in a stage-coach, and decided we could -see the country better and be more independent if we used saddle mules. - -Two weeks before our arrival a couple of bandits, one of whom had been -hunted out of Arizona by Pinkerton detectives, had held up a cart -containing twenty thousand dollars, on its way to pay off the laborers -in a large mine. The owners, wealthy Bolivians, immediately offered a -large reward for the capture of the bandits, dead or alive, -notwithstanding that the robbers and their friends, of whom there seemed -to be a score or more, let it be carefully understood that they would -take a definite revenge for any lives that might be lost in pursuit of -the highwaymen. This did not deter the mine owners, however, and a party -of fifty Bolivian soldiers went on the trail of the robbers, who were -found lunching in an Indian hut. They had carelessly left their mules -and rifles several yards away from the door of the hut and were unable -to escape. After a fight, in which three or four of the soldiers were -killed and as many more wounded, the thatch roof of the hut was set on -fire and the bandits forced out into the open where they finally fell, -each with half a dozen bullets in his body. Their mules were captured -and sold to Don Santiago who let me have one of them for my journey. He -turned out to be a wonderfully fine saddle mule. When his former owner -had had the benefit of his fleet legs and his splendid lungs, there was -no question of his being caught by the Bolivian soldiery. - -In that part of the Andes where one is following the usual trade-routes, -there are four modes of travelling. One may purchase one’s own animals, -employ servants to attend to them, and sell them for a song at the end -of the journey. This is the most expensive, the most satisfactory, and -the surest method of travel, provided always that one succeeds in -getting a reliable, well-recommended _arriero_. A careless _arriero_ -will soon drive you to despair and allow your mules to get into a state -of semi-starvation and sore back that will speedily destroy their -usefulness. The second method is to hire a professional carrier who, for -a stipulated sum of money, will provide you with animals, go along with -them, feed and care for them, and get you to your destination as -speedily as possible. If your sole object is speed, this method is even -surer than the first, for owing to the high price of fodder in the -post-houses, the contractor may be relied upon to push the caravan -forward as speedily as possible. The third method is by far the least -expensive, the most troublesome, and the least certain. This is to -depend on the mules that are supposed to be in readiness for travellers -at the post-houses. We frequently amused ourselves on our journey by -imagining what we could possibly have done had we attempted to rely on -this last method. Repeatedly we reached post-houses where there was not -a mule to be seen, or where the two or three that were there, were -drearily hanging their melancholy heads in the corral, so worn out and -broken down as to convince us of their inability to carry even an -ordinary load at anything faster than a slow walk. The traveller who -trusts to post-house mules rarely remembers much of the scenery or the -nature of the country. His chief impression is that of unfortunate mules -continually being beaten in order to reach the next post before dark. -The fourth method, and the one we decided to adopt, is to hire from a -reputable contractor a number of his best mules and one of his most -trusted _arrieros_ at so much per day. In this way, you are not hurried -faster than you want to go, the mules are sure to be well cared for, and -the discomforts of mountain travel are reduced to a minimum. Except on a -long journey, it is not as expensive as buying one’s own animals and is -less risky. - -Thanks to the energy of Don Santiago, the necessary mules and provisions -were ready in two days. On his suggestion, we took with us as _arriero_, -one Mac, a wandering Scotchman who had seen service in the Boer War, had -drifted thence to Argentina, and was now trying his luck in southern -Bolivia. He seemed just the sort of person to make a good orderly, - -[Illustration: A QUICHUA FAMILY GOING TO PLOW] - -and we thought we were quite fortunate in securing his services. Relying -on his past experience, we told him to purchase such provisions as were -necessary for the next five days. He proceeded to purchase four dozen -hard-boiled eggs and three roast fowls. These he packed carelessly in my -leather saddle-bags, together with a bottle of Eno’s fruit salts of -which he was very fond. The expected happened. The eggs were reduced to -an unrecognizable mass, the bottle of fruit salts was broken and the -contents well rubbed into the chicken, so that our fare for the next two -or three days was not much above the ordinary. - -We left Tupiza on a bright, clear morning and rode northward through a -semi-arid region where we were continually reminded of Utah and southern -Colorado. For two leagues we saw no house and met no one. The floor of -the valley was broad and flat, covered with sand and pebbles, and -occasionally intersected by small irrigating ditches. Almost the only -green things were cactus and mimosa trees. Barren hills that appear to -be crumbling rapidly away rose abruptly on each side. In some places, -the eroded hillside took the form of chimneys, ruined factories, or even -forts. In others erosion had produced fantastic pinnacles, and often the -buttressed hills looked very much like cathedrals. - -About nine o’clock we met a Quichua family, the wife carrying the baby -and spinning, the man carrying his wooden plough on his shoulder and -driving his oxen to an irrigated field where he proposed to do his -spring ploughing. His wife had on as many gaudy-colored petticoats as -she could afford. Such is the fashion of the country. - -Near one of the irrigating ditches under the shadow of the buttressed -walls of the cañon, we came upon a hundred mules. Some of them were -carrying huge packing-cases, large enough to hold the entire body of the -patient mule, provided of course that it were properly cut up and the -extremities shortened. In general the pack-mules were fine, large -animals, well able to carry their three-hundred-pound loads. With such a -caravan as this go a dozen _arrieros_ who rise each day three hours -before dawn and commence the everlasting task of saddling and loading. -When this is done, the men eat a hearty breakfast, prepared in the -meantime by one of their number, and then start out for an eight-hour -march. About five o’clock in the afternoon, or earlier, if they have by -that time reached a suitable camping-place, the caravan stops and -unloading begins, which is finished barely in time to give the men a few -hours of slumber before the whole process has to be repeated. - -Fortunately, most of these cases of merchandise were packed in Germany -where they know how to meet the exigencies of South American mountain -travel, and although the great wooden boxes were banged against -projecting rocks by the roadside and often allowed to fall with a crash -when the saddle-ropes were untied at the end of the day, the contents -were practically sure to reach their destination in good condition. - -At noon we came to a group of freshly white-washed adobe farm buildings, -the property of an absentee landlord. Here we were able to purchase -green fodder for the mules, and luncheon, in the shape of very hot soup -and tea, for ourselves. In one of the buildings was a district school -with six or eight pupils, the scholars evincing their studiousness by -learning their lessons out loud. The resultant noise would considerably -jar on the ear of a highly strung New England “schoolmarm,” but the -good-natured Bolivian teacher did not know that he had any nerves, and -only wanted to be sure that all his pupils were busy. - -After lunch our road continued up the same arid valley past flocks of -goats that strove to get a living from the low-hanging branches of the -mimosa trees. Some of the more adventurous had even gone up into the -trees to secure a meal. - -In the middle of the afternoon, we climbed out of one valley and looked -down into another. From the pass we had a fine view of the valley -through which we had come. The prevailing color was brown with here and -there a touch of dusty green. All around there was a confusion of barren -hills and arid mountains without a single evidence of human habitation. -The only sign of life was the long line of the mule caravan which we had -passed earlier in the day. The country is so unfitted for the habitation -of man that the general effect of this and of most of the scenery in -southern Bolivia is oppressive and dispiriting. - -Shortly before sunset, however, we came to a beautiful spring called -the “Eye of the Water,” which bubbled up by the roadside and flowed off -into carefully guarded irrigating ditches. As was to be expected, there -was a small Indian village in the vicinity. The villagers were Quichuas, -wearing small felt hats, scanty shirts, and short loose pantaloons made -of what seemed to be homespun cloth. It was rather attractive in -appearance, and as it had the romantic flavor of being made here by the -Indians, we were inclined to purchase some until we discovered that it -was only “imitation” and was made in great quantities in Manchester, -England. These Quichuas are a humble folk, excessively polite to each -other, doffing their hats whenever they meet. Both men and women wore -their hair in long braids down their backs. - -The little village sprawled up the side of the cañon just out of reach -of the floods which occasionally pour through this valley in the rainy -season. In one of the huts a kind of spring carnival was being -celebrated with a reasonable amount of drinking. Solemn singing and a -monotonous tom-tomming of a primitive drum were the only signs of gaiety -except a few bright flowers which they had gathered somewhere and put in -their hair. As no rain was to be expected and the village had the usual -component of filth and insects, we set up our folding cots in the dry -bed of the stream. The elevation was about ten thousand feet. The stars -were very brilliant. The night was cool, the minimum temperature being -47°F., a drop of forty degrees from the afternoon’s maximum. - -[Illustration: THE VALLEY THROUGH WHICH WE HAD COME] - -The next morning, after a breakfast of cold chicken and Eno’s fruit -salts, all that our Boer War veteran could provide for our comfort, we -pushed up the valley, and before long reached Totora, a typical Bolivian -_poste_ or _tambo_. It consisted of a small inclosure surrounded by half -a dozen low mud-huts without windows. In one of these was kept alfalfa -fodder to be sold to passing travellers. In another lived the keeper of -the _poste_ and his family. Here also was a fire from which one had the -right to demand hot water, the only thing furnished for the comfort of -humans. In another, two or three well-baked mounds of earth, flattened -on top, were intended for beds. A roof, an earth floor, and a wooden -door were the only other conveniences at the disposition of travellers. - -These _postes_, more or less dirty and uncomfortable, may usually be -found on the well-travelled roads in southern Bolivia at a distance -varying from fifteen to twenty-five miles from each other. They are not -picturesque, but after some little experience in travelling in that -desolate region, one learns to welcome the little collection of -mud-huts, with possibly a green spot or two of alfalfa, as a perfect -haven of rest. To be sure, the only thing to eat is the food you bring -with you, but you may be always certain of having hot water, and your -_arriero_ (unless he happens to be a veteran of the Boer War) will bring -you a cup of excellent tea within twenty minutes after your arrival. - -The road from Totora continued to be the rocky floor of a valley in -which from time to time little streams of water or irrigation ditches -appeared, only to lose themselves in fields of alfalfa or quinoa. During -the dry season carts attempt to use this road, and we overtook a dozen -of them on their way north. Each cart was drawn by six mules driven -three abreast by a driver who rode postillion on the nigh mule nearest -the cart. Before noon we climbed out of this valley and descended into a -rocky, sandy plain through which flowed the river Cotagaita on its way -eastward to join the great Pilcomayo. At this time of the year, the -latter part of November, the river is a broad, shallow stream, easily -fordable. On sandy bars left dry by the receding waters were camped -caravans of pack-mules and carts. Beyond them lay the little town of -Cotagaita, where the Argentine patriots were badly defeated in 1816. -This place is, in a sense, the crossroads of southern Bolivia and is one -of the main stations of Don Santiago’s stage-lines. Uyuni, on the -Antofagasta railway, is one hundred and fifteen miles west of here, -three or four days by stage. The mines of Potosí are nearly the same -distance north. Camargo, the capital of the province of Cinti, is a few -days due east, while Tupiza is fifty-four miles due south. There are -several routes from Tupiza to Uyuni but the most important and the only -one practicable for coaches is by way of Cotagaita. The road is new and -said to be very uncomfortable. There is not much to interest the -traveller, except a few mines. Not far away is Chorolque, a famous -silver mine, at an altitude of over seventeen thousand feet. - -The town of Cotagaita is an old Spanish settlement with the customary -plaza, a few trees, a fountain in the centre and a church on one side; -one story white-washed houses built of baked mud, the usual narrow -streets crossing each other at right angles, their stone paving sloping -toward the centre where a ditch does duty as a sewer; a few Indians and -a few shops to minister to their wants. There are said to be twelve -hundred inhabitants but I doubt it. The elevation is slightly lower than -Tupiza. - -We left Cotagaita after lunch, hoping to make the _tambo_ at Escara -before dark, but we were destined to disappointment. Mac, our Scotch -_arriero_, had decided that the pack-mules, which Don Santiago selected -for us at Tupiza, were not good enough to stand the march to Potosí, so -he requested the coach agent here to give us two better animals. The -latter allowed our veteran to go into the corral and take any mules he -pleased. Rich in knowledge of the Boer War, but poor in experience with -Bolivian mules, he picked out two strong-looking beasts that had been -driven in the stage-coach but had never carried a pack in their lives. -After being blindfolded they were saddled, with some difficulty, and we -were about to start when it was discovered that one of them lacked a -shoe on its nigh hind-foot. The blacksmith, a half-drunk, strongly built -Indian, was summoned. He brought a new shoe, a few nails, and a hammer -out into the street. The blindfolded mule was held by Mac while an -Indian tied the foot that was to be shod securely to the mule’s tail. -Then the blacksmith went to work. No attempt was made to fit the shoe, -and when the second nail was driven, the mule kicked and struggled so -violently as to throw itself and all three men in a heap in the middle -of the road. Finally, after much tribulation, the shoe was securely -fastened, and amid the cheers of the populace, we started briskly off -for Potosí. - -The new pack-mules, lacking all road sense and missing the bridle, -promptly ran away. One of them was secured without much difficulty, but -the other one went up the hillside through a grove of young mimosa trees -which attempted to detain the load with their thorny branches. They only -succeeded in partly dislodging it, however, and the mule continued his -headlong career until his load turned completely under him, tripped him -up, and ended by rolling him down-hill. Fortunately the dunnage bags -were new and no great harm was done. Mac insisted that he could drive -this mule as well as any other--which may have been true--so the poor -coach-mule was reloaded. Then four of us tried for over an hour to make -the two wretched animals carry their packs properly and stick to the -road as pack-animals should. But they declined to enter our service, and -we were obliged to send them back to Cotagaita, minus their loads. -Meanwhile the two mules which Mac had so thoughtfully discarded at lunch -time were reengaged. The exhibition was useful, for it showed us that -Mac knew even less about saddling pack-animals than we did and was -perfectly useless in an emergency. Fortunately, an excellent fellow, a -brother of Don Santiago, became our _deus ex machina_, helped us out of -our difficulty, and promised to join us the next morning with a new -_arriero_. By hard riding we arrived at the little _tambo_ of Escara an -hour after dark and had some difficulty in securing admittance. No one -has any business to travel at night in this country, unless bent on -mischief. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -ESCARA TO LAJA TAMBO - - -We got up early enough the next morning to witness a phase of Bolivian -life which we had heard of but had not as yet seen. An officer and two -soldiers of the Bolivian army, travelling southward, had spent the night -at Escara and desired to proceed promptly. The _postes_ are subsidized -by the Government on the understanding that all travelling government -officials shall be furnished with mules and a man. Each _poste_ has -three or four guides called _postillons_, connected with it. This -morning things did not move fast enough to suit the officer. The mules -were not ready when he wanted to start and the meek Quichua _postillon_ -was offering an explanation. In the midst of it, the officer lost his -temper, and taking his strong riding-whip, commenced to lash the poor -half-clad Indian across the face and shoulders. The latter stood it for -a few minutes stolidly and then commenced to back off, followed by the -officer who continued to lay on the blows as fast as possible. At length -the _postillon_ turned to run and the officer pursued him, beating him -and cursing him until out of breath. It was a sickening sight, but the -strangest part of all was the absolute meekness with which the Indian -took his beating. There was not the slightest sign of resentment or -even annoyance. The strokes of the whip made the blood start and trickle -down his face and sides, but he gave no evidence of feeling it. - -Later in the day at Quirve, another _poste_, we witnessed a similar -exhibition, only in this case the Indian did not even run away. The son -of the proprietor, a great hulking brute, six feet tall and powerfully -built, found fault with one of the _postillons_ for some trifling -mistake and beat him across the face and chest with a rawhide thong -until the blood flowed freely. Like the other Indian, his face remained -perfectly stolid, and he showed no signs of anger or irritation. - -We had been furious with the officer in the morning and this exhibition -was even more trying. Yet the Bolivianos thought nothing of it. As Mr. -Bryce has so ably put it: “One must have lived among a weaker race in -order to realize the kind of irritation which its defects produce in -those who deal with it, and how temper and self-control are strained in -resisting temptations to harsh or arbitrary action. It needs something -more than the virtue of a philosopher--it needs the tenderness of a -saint to preserve the same courtesy and respect towards the members of a -backward race as are naturally extended to equals.” There is no doubt -about the Quichuas being a backward race. - -From the earliest historical times these poor Indians have virtually -been slaves. Bred up to look upon subjection as their natural lot, they -bear it as the dispensation of Providence. The Incas treated them well, -so far as we can judge, and took pains to see that the irrigation -works, the foot-paths over the mountains, the suspension bridges over -the raging torrents and _tambos_ for the convenience of travellers, -should all be kept in good condition. The gold-hunting Spanish -_conquistadores_, on the other hand, had no interest in the servile -Quichuas further than to secure their services as forced laborers in the -mines. The modern Bolivianos have done little to improve their -condition. - -After seeing these two Indians meekly take such severe beatings, I found -it easier to understand why Pizarro had been able to conquer the Empire -of Peru with a handful of determined Spanish soldiers, and why the -unfortunate Tupac Amaru could make so little headway in 1781 when he -attempted to rouse the Indians to revolt against Spanish tyranny. -Although he had sixty thousand men under him, the Spanish general easily -defeated him with barely twenty thousand, of whom only a few hundred -were Spaniards, the majority being friendly Indians. - -How much the extremely severe conditions of life that prevail on this -arid plateau have had to do in breaking the spirit of the race is a -question. It is a generally accepted fact that a race who are dependent -for their living on irrigating ditches, can easily be conquered. All -that the invading army has to do is to destroy the dams, ruin the crops, -and force the inhabitants to face starvation. - -The Quichua shows few of the traits which we ordinarily connect with -mountaineers. His country is too forlorn to give him an easy living or -much time for thought. He is half starved nearly all the time. His only -comfort comes from chewing coca leaves. Coca is the plant from which we -extract cocaine. It is said that the Quichua can go for days without -food, provided he has a good supply of coca. It would be extremely -interesting to determine the effect on his intelligence of this cocaine -habit, which seems to be centuries old. If a man can stand up and take -severe punishment for trivial offences without getting angry, showing -vexation, or apparently without bearing any grudge against his -oppressor, there must be something constitutionally wrong with him. I -believe that the coca habit is answerable for a large part of this very -unsatisfactory state of affairs. Coca has deadened his sensibilities to -a degree that passes comprehension. It has made him stupid, willing to -submit to almost any injury, lacking in all ambition, caring for almost -none of the things which we consider the natural desires of the human -heart. - -In travelling through Bolivia and Peru, I found it repeatedly to be the -case that the Quichua does not care to sell for money either food or -lodging. Presents of coca leaves and tobacco are acceptable. A liberal -offer of money rarely moves him, although it would be possible for him -to purchase with it many articles of necessity or comfort in near-by -towns. As a rule he prefers neither to rent his animal, nor sell you -cheese or eggs, or anything else. The first Quichua words one learns, -and the answer which one most commonly receives to all questions as to -the existence of the necessaries of life, is “_mana canca_,” “there is -none.” - -This condition of affairs is not new. When Temple travelled through -Bolivia in 1825, he was struck by the prevailing “_no hay nada_” (there -is nothing at all). Poverty, want, misery, and negligence are the story -that is told by the melancholy phrase. The truth is, the Quichua not -only has no ambition, he has long ago ceased to care whether you or he -or anybody else has more than just barely enough to keep body and soul -together. - -Needless to say, the Quichuas have no concern with the politics of -Bolivia, although they constitute a large majority of the inhabitants. - -From Escara our road continued to follow a semi-arid valley. We passed a -caravan of mule-carts bound for Potosí and Sucre. In one of the carts -was an upright piano; in another, pieces of mining machinery, while -still others contained large cast-iron pipes destined for Sucre’s new -waterworks. Nearly all of the carts carried bales of Argentine hay as -this region is so arid that it is extremely difficult to secure any -fodder for the animals, and the barley or alfalfa, when procurable, is -often too expensive. - -The weather continued to be fine. After a hot, dusty ride of twenty -miles, we stopped at the _poste_ of Quirve. - -Just before reaching Quirve, we crossed the Tumusla River, the site of -the last battle of the Bolivian wars of independence. After Sucre’s -great victory at Ayacucho, in 1824, the only Spanish troops which -remained unconquered in all South America were the garrison of Callao -and a small band under General Ollaneta in southern Bolivia. His men -were badly disaffected by the news of the battle of Ayacucho, and an -officer who commanded a small garrison at this strategic point, came out -openly for the patriotic cause. Ollaneta tried in vain to suppress the -revolt. The result was a battle here on the first of April, 1825, in -which the Spanish general was defeated and slain. The garrison of Callao -held out for a few months longer, but this was the end of active -warfare. - -We found the _tambo_ of Quirve to be of the most primitive sort, not -even affording shelter for man or beast. The weekly Potosí stage-coach -came in from the north about six o’clock carrying one passenger. He soon -spread his bed under the wagon and made himself comfortable for the -night. The luggage from Potosí was shipped on pack-animals and was in -charge of an Argentine Gaucho named Fermin Chaile. This man we took in -exchange for Mac, whom we were glad enough to get rid of. Fermin, the -Gaucho, tall and gaunt, round-shouldered and bow-legged, his dark -Mongolian-like features crowned by a mop of coarse, black hair, proved -to be a god-send. His loose-fitting suit of brown corduroys, far better -raiment than most _arrieros_ can afford, bore witness to the fact that -he was sober, industrious, and trustworthy. No one ever had a better -muleteer. Like Rafael Rivas, the faithful Venezuelan peon who had guided -my cart across the Llanos in 1907, he took excellent care of the mules, -yet drove them almost to the limit of their endurance, was devoted to -us, and proved to be reliable and attentive. He was a plainsman, as -different in spirit and achievement from the wretched mountaineers -through whose country we were passing, as though he had belonged to a -different continent. - -As we continued northward from Quirve, the valley grew narrower and our -road continued to be in the dry river course. All the water that was -visible was collected in little ditches and conducted along the -hillsides fifteen or twenty feet above the bed of the stream. On some of -the hillsides of this valley are terraces or _andines_ where maize, -quinoa, potatoes, and even grapes are made to grow, with much -painstaking labor. These terraces, common enough farther north, were the -first we had seen. The staple food of the Indians is _chuno_, a small -potato that has been put through a freezing process until its natural -flavor is completely lost. One of the principal dishes at this time of -the year is the fruit of the cactus. Everybody seems to be very fond of -the broad-leaved edible species, a thornless variety of which we are -developing in Arizona and New Mexico. - -Farther up the valley I was struck by the ingenuity which had been -exercised in carrying the irrigation ditches along the side of -precipitous cliffs. Numerous little tunnels, connected by small -viaducts, enabled a tiny stream of water to travel three or four miles -until it reached a level space sufficiently above highwater mark to -warrant the planting of a small field. The only animals to be seen -beside mules and horses, goats, pigs, dogs, and a very few birds, were -the little wild guinea-pigs of a color closely resembling the -everlasting brown hills. I was surprised not to see any llamas. - -Soon after leaving Quirve, we came to the little village of Toropalca, -in every way as brown and dusty as the guinea-pigs. In fact, it melted -into the landscape as perfectly as they did. - -About noon we reached another hillside village, Saropalca, its houses -placed so closely one above another on the steep slope as to give the -appearance of a giant stairway. We climbed up through the irregular -lanes of the little village, until we found a wretched little _tambo_ -where we bought a few bundles of alfalfa and a bowl of soup. - -Whenever we could secure sufficient alfalfa for the mules and a bowl of -hot _chupe_ for ourselves in addition to the customary pot of hot water -for our tea, we considered ourselves most fortunate and were willing to -admit that the _poste_ was well provided with “all the necessaries of -life.” _Chupe_ is a kind of stew or thick soup consisting of frozen -potatoes and tough mutton or llama meat. In its natural state, its taste -is disagreeable enough, but when it is served to the liking of the -natives it is seasoned so highly with red pepper as to be far too fiery -for foreign palates. - -In the course of the afternoon, the valley narrowed to a gorge in which -we passed more heavily-laden mule-carts making their way along with the -utmost difficulty. Beyond the gorge we found sulphur springs and some -banks of sulphur. One of the hot springs gushed up close by the -roadside. “El Lazarillo,” the eighteenth century Baedeker, says there -was once a “modest thermal establishment” here, intended to attract -bathers from Potosí. - -At the end of the day we reached Caisa, after having made nearly forty -miles since morning. Caisa is an old Spanish town and looks like all the -rest. One-story houses, narrow streets, badly paved, a city block left -open for a plaza, on one side of it a church and the house of the -priest, on the other three sides, a few shops where we bought -newly-baked hot bread, beer, cheese, and candles. The _tambo_ was called -“La Libertad” and bore the legend “_Muy barato_” (very cheap). We -surmised this meant that the proprietor would charge all the traffic -would bear; and such proved to be the case. In fact, we had a very -disagreeable dispute with the landlady the next morning. Fermin -indignantly declared she had tripled the usual prices. - -At Caisa the road from Argentina to Sucre branches off to the right, -going due north to Puna and thence to Yotala, where it joins the road -from Potosí to Sucre. - -Leaving Caisa on November 22, we went north-west and soon had our first -glimpse of a snow-clad Bolivian mountain. The snow was not very deep, -however, as it had fallen during the night, and before noon it was all -gone. Our road crossed several ridges and then descended into a partly -cultivated valley near an old silver mine and a smelter called Cuchu -Ingenio. The road here was unusually good. Even in 1773 “The Blind Man’s -Guide” says it was a “camino de Trote, y Galope.” - -As we ascended a gorge, I was attracted by a little waterfall of crystal -clearness that came tumbling down from the heights above, and was -tempted to - -[Illustration: OUR FIRST GLIMPSE OF A SNOW-CLAD BOLIVIAN MOUNTAIN] - -take a hearty drink of the delicious cool liquid. A Boliviano from -Tupiza, who was travelling with us for company, warned me against such a -rash act as drinking cold water at this altitude. I had noticed that no -one in this region ever touches cold water, and I thought the universal -prejudice against it was founded on a natural preference for alcohol. So -I laughingly enjoyed my cup of cold water and assured him that there -could be no harm in it. An hour later we reached Laja Tambo, a wretched -little _poste_, standing alone on the edge of a tableland twenty miles -from Potosí. The altitude was about thirteen thousand feet. The sun had -been very warm, and soon after alighting on the rough stone pavement of -the inn yard, I arranged the thermometers so as to test the difference -in temperature between sun and shade. The temperature in the sun at noon -was 85° F. In the shade it was 48° F. Scarcely had I taken the readings -when I began to feel chilly. Hot tea followed by hot soup and still -hotter brandy and water failed to warm me, notwithstanding the fact that -I had unpacked my bag and put on two heavy sweaters. A wretched sense of -dizziness and of longing to get warm made me lie down on the warm stones -of the courtyard. I grew rapidly worse, and was soon experiencing the -common symptoms of _soroche_, _puna_, or mountain sickness. The -combination of vomiting, diarrhœa, and chills was bad enough, but the -prospect of being ill in this desolate _poste_, twenty miles from the -nearest doctor, with nothing better than the usual accessories of a -Bolivian _tambo_, was infinitely worse. Somehow or other, I managed to -persuade Fermin to saddle and load the animals and put me on my mule, -where I was determined to stay until we should reach Potosí. - -The last thing to do before leaving the _tambo_ was to pay the bill, and -this I proceeded to do in the Bolivian paper currency which I had -purchased in Tupiza. Alas, one of the bills was on a bank situated two -hundred and fifty miles away in La Paz, a bank, in fact, in which the -_postillon_ did not have much confidence. The idea of having a servile -Quichua _postillon_ decline to receive good money was extremely -irritating, and I tried my best, notwithstanding my _soroche_, to force -him to take it. He persisted and I was obliged to find another bill in -my wallet. I suppose my hand trembled a little with chill or excitement -and in taking out the bill I partly tore it. - -This would not have mattered had the tear been in the middle, but it was -nearer one end than the other and the Indian refused to accept it. I had -no other small bills and was at a loss to know what to do. In the -meantime, Fermin and the pack-mules had left the inclosure of the -_tambo_ and started for Potosí while Mr. Smith was just outside of the -gate waiting for me. So I rolled up the sound bill which the Indian had -declined to receive, gave it to him, and while he was investigating it, -made a dash for the road. He was too quick for me, however, and gripped -my bridle. Exasperated beyond measure, I rode him against the wall of -the _tambo_ and made him let go long enough to allow me to escape. It -seemed on the whole a lawless performance, although the bank-note was -perfectly good. I fully expected that he would follow us with stones or -something worse, but as he was only a Quichua he accepted the inevitable -and we saw no more of him. - -In the face of a bitterly cold wind we crossed the twenty-mile plateau -that lies between Laja Tambo and the famous city of Potosí. On the plain -were herds of llamas feeding, but these did not interest us as much as -the conical hill ahead. It was the Cerro of Potosí, the hill that for -two hundred and fifty years, was the marvel of the world. No tale of the -Arabian Nights, no dream of Midas, ever equalled the riches that flowed -from this romantic cone. Two billion ounces of silver is the record of -its output and the tale is not yet told. - -Rounding the eastern shoulder of the mountain, we passed several large -smelters, some of them abandoned. Near by are the ruins of an edifice -said to have been built by the Spaniards to confine the poor Indians -whom they brought here by the thousands to work in the mines. The road -descends a little valley and runs for a mile, past the ruins of hundreds -of buildings. In the eighteenth century, Potosí boasted a population of -over one hundred and fifty thousand. Now there are scarcely fifteen -thousand. The part of the city that is still standing is near the -ancient plaza, the mint, and the market-place. - -Our caravan clattered noisily down the steep, stony streets until we -reached the doors of the Hotel Colon where an attentive Austrian -landlord made us welcome, notwithstanding the fact that one of the party -was evidently quite ill. I could not help wondering whether an American -hotel-keeper would have been so willing to receive a sick man as this -benighted citizen of Potosí. The paved courtyard was small, but the -rooms on the second floor were commodious and so much better than the -unspeakably forlorn adobe walls of Laja Tambo, that I felt quite willing -to retire from active exploration for a day or two. Fortunately, I fell -into the hands of a well-trained Bolivian physician, who knew exactly -what to do, and with his aid, and the kind nursing of Fermin and Mr. -Smith, I was soon on my feet again. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -POTOSÍ - - -We had not been in Potosí many hours before we realized that it was a -most fascinating place with an atmosphere all its own. By the time we -had been here a week we were ready to agree with those who call it the -most interesting city in South America. - -The prestige of its former wealth, the evidence on every side of former -Spanish magnificence, the picturesquely clad Indians and the troops of -graceful, inquisitive llamas in the streets, aroused to the utmost our -curiosity and interest. - -Our first duty was to call on the Prefect who had been expecting our -arrival and was most kind during our entire stay. A Bolivian prefect has -almost unlimited power in his department and is directly responsible to -the President. His orders are carried out by the sub-prefect who is also -chief of police and has a small body of soldiers under his immediate -control. - -We found the Government House, or _Prefectura_, to be a fine old -building dating back to colonial days. Probably the most interesting -person that has ever occupied it was General William Miller, that -picturesque British veteran who fought valiantly through all the -Peruvian Wars of Independence, receiving so many wounds that he was -said to have been “honeycombed with bullets.” At the end of the wars he -was appointed Prefect of Potosí, and it was during his incumbency that -the great liberator Simon Bolivar made his visit. There is a vivid -description of it in Miller’s “Memoirs.” When Bolivar arrived in sight -of the far-famed mountain, the flags of Peru, Buenos Aires, Chile, and -Colombia were unfurled on its summit. As he entered the town, twenty-one -petards were exploded on the peak, an aërial salute “that had a very -singular and imposing effect.” “Upon alighting at the Government House, -under a grand triumphal arch, decorated with flags, the reception of His -Excellency was according to the Hispanic-American taste. Two children, -dressed as angels, were let down from the arch as he approached, and -each pronounced a short oration! Upon entering the grand saloon, six -handsome women, representing the fair sex of Potosí, hailed the arrival -of His Excellency, crowned him with a wreath of laurel, and strewed -flowers, which had been brought from a great distance for the occasion.” -This was followed by seven weeks of bull-fights, grand dinners, balls, -fireworks, illuminations, and other signs of public rejoicing, which -would seem to have surfeited even a person so fond of pomp and adulation -as the great liberator. - -Opposite the Government House, on the east side of the plaza, is a -curious many-arched arcade which incloses a new plaza, the work of an -ambitious prefect. The tall column surmounted by a statue, that stands -as the only ornament in the new plaza, once stood in the centre of the -old, but was moved to its new position by the Prefect who decided that -his work would be incomplete unless properly graced by a monument. - -On a corner of the new plaza is Potosí’s only bookshop. Judging by the -stock in trade, the principal customers are school children and lawyers. -The book trade was dull when we were there, but considerable interest -was shown in other departments of the store where toys and picture post -cards were on sale. - -Near by is the “University” where second-rate secondary instruction is -given to poor little boys who sit on damp adobe seats in badly-lighted, -foul-smelling rooms. It was once a convent, but the church connected -with it has long since been transformed into a theatre. The only -attractive thing about the “University” is the charming old convent -garden where rare old flowers still try to bloom. - -Opposite the “University” is the club. Here there are billiard tables -(it is really remarkable how many billiard tables one finds scattered -all over South America, even in the most inaccessible places) and a bar. -The custom of serving a little felt mat with each drink is resorted to, -and when a member chooses to stand treat, he goes about and gathers up -all the mats in sight and takes them to the bar where he cashes them -with his own money, or some that he has recently won. The bar was well -patronized. And no one is to blame but the climate, which is the worst -in South America. - -Although Potosí is in the Tropics, the highest recorded temperature -here in the shade on the hottest day ever known, was 59° F. The city is -nearly thirteen thousand five hundred feet above the sea, almost as high -as Pike’s Peak. Every afternoon cold winds sweep down through the -streets striking a chill into one’s very marrow. A temperature of 22° F. -is not unknown, yet none of the houses have stoves or any appliances -(except soup) for warming their shivering inhabitants. As the prevailing -temperature indoors is below 50° F., almost every one wears coats and -hats in the house as much as outdoors, or even more so, for a brisk walk -of a block or two at this altitude makes one quite warm, and in the -middle of the day the sun is hot. - -Wherever we wandered in this fascinating city, our eyes continually -turned southward to the Cerro, the beautifully colored cone that raises -itself fifteen hundred feet above the city. It is impossible to describe -adequately the beauty of its colors and the marvellous way in which they -change as the sun sinks behind the western Andes. I hope that some day a -great painter will come here and put on canvas the marvellous hues of -this world-renowned hill. Pink, purple, lavender, brown, gray, and -yellow streaks make it look as though the gods, having finished painting -the universe, had used this as a dumping-ground for their surplus -pigments. In reality, the hand of man has had much to do with its -present variegated aspect, for he has been busily engaged during the -past three hundred years in turning the hill inside out. Much of the -most beautifully colored material has been painfully brought out from - -[Illustration: VIEW OF THE CERRO FROM THE ROOF OF THE MINT] - -the very heart of the hill through long tunnels, in man’s effort to get -at the rich veins of silver and tin which lie within. - -The discovery of silver at Potosí was made by a llama driver about the -middle of the sixteenth century. It was soon found that the mountain was -traversed by veins of extremely rich ore. After the gold of the Incas -had been gathered up and disposed of, Potosí became the most important -part of all the Spanish possessions in America. At the beginning of the -seventeenth century, when New York and Boston were still undreamed of, -Potosí was already a large and extremely wealthy city. It attracted the -presence of hundreds of Spanish adventurers including many grandees. In -short it had taken on all the signs of luxury that are common to big -mining camps. Grandees in sumptuous apparel rode gayly caparisoned -horses up and down the stony streets, bowing graciously to charming -ladies dressed in the most costly attire that newly-gotten wealth could -procure. On feast days, and particularly on great national holidays, -like the King’s birthday, elaborate and expensive entertainments were -given. - -If it were not for the great expanse of ruins and the very large number -of churches, it would be difficult to realize to-day that for over a -century this was the largest city in the Western Hemisphere. The routes -which led to the Bolivian plateau became the greatest thoroughfares in -America. Money flowed more freely than water. In fact, the Spaniards -found great difficulty during the dry season in supplying the city with -sufficient water to use in washing the ore and in meeting the ordinary -needs of a large population. Consequently, they went up into the hills -above the city and built, at great expense, a score of dams to hold back -the water that fell during the rainy season and preserve it for the dry. - -Immediately following the Wars of Independence and the consequent -opening of the country to foreign capital, a wild mining fever set in -among London capitalists. Greedy and ignorant directors took advantage -of the cupidity of the British public to enrich themselves, while -incidentally working the mines of Potosí with disproportionately -expensive establishments. So eager was the public to take stock in -Potosí that shares which at the outset were quoted at 75 or 80, rose -incredibly in the short space of six weeks. Some of them went up above -5000. As was to be expected, this speculative fever was followed by a -panic which ruined not only the stockholders but those unfortunates like -Edmund Temple, who had gone to Potosí in the employ of one of the -wildcat companies, and those South Americans that had honored their -drafts on London. - -Then followed a long period of stagnation. But as railroads came nearer -and cart-roads began to multiply, transportation became cheaper and new -enterprises sprang up. - -Any one is at liberty to secure a license from the proper authorities to -dig a mine in the side of the mountain, provided he does not interfere -with the property of someone else. The records show that since the Cerro -was first discovered licenses have been issued for over five thousand -mines. It is easy to imagine what a vast underground labyrinth exists -beneath those many-colored slopes. Most of the openings, however, have -been closed by avalanches of refuse from mines higher up the hill. - -One day I was invited to visit several new mines that had recently been -opened by a Chilean Company. In one mine, at an altitude of about -fifteen thousand feet, I undertook to crawl into the depths for five -hundred yards in order to see a new vein of silver ore that had recently -been encountered. The exertion of getting in and out again at that -altitude was terrific, yet the miners did not appear to feel it. They -wear thick knitted caps which save their heads from the bumps and shield -them from falling rocks. Their knees are protected by strong leather -caps. Their feet they bind in huge moccasins. Those that carry out the -ore frequently wear leather aprons tied on their backs. The workmen are -a sordid, rough-looking lot who earn and deserve very good wages. -Sometime ago when tin was higher than it is now, a large number of new -mines were opened and unheard-of prices were paid for labor. Now that -the price of tin has fallen, it is extremely difficult to get the -Indians to accept a lower scale of wages. Consequently, most of the new -mines have had to be closed. - -In the old days, the tin was discarded as the eager Spanish miners -thought only of the silver. But now the richer veins of silver have -become exhausted, and although some are being worked, most of the -activity is confined to the tin ore. At the top of the cone there is an -immense quantity of it; the only difficulty is how to get it down to -the smelters in the valley between the hill and the city. - -In this valley runs a small stream of water that comes from the hill -reservoirs. Attracted by its presence, most of the smelters have located -themselves on one side or the other of the little gorge. There are -innumerable small _ingenios_ worked by the Indians in a very primitive -fashion. Some of them are scarcely more than a family affair. Besides -these there are twenty-eight large smelters, and all of them devoted -more to tin than to silver. Not one of these is owned by a Bolivian. A -few belong to English capitalists, more to Chileans, and the largest of -all to a Frenchman who has constructed an aërial railway to bring the -ore from high up on the mountainside to his furnaces. The never ending -line of iron buckets adds a curiously modern note to the ruins over -which they pass. Ore is also brought down on the backs of donkeys and -llamas. The workmen are mostly Quichuas. Some of them are evidently not -city bred, for they dress with the same pigtails and small clothes that -they wore when Spanish _conquistadores_ forced them to take the precious -metal out of the hill without any thought of reward other than the fact -that they were likely to die sooner and reach heaven earlier than if -they stayed quietly at home. The product of this smelter is shipped both -as pure tin in ingots and also as highly concentrated and refined ore. - -The most picturesque feature of the valley was a small chimney smoking -lustily away all by itself, high up on the opposite hillside, like a -young volcano with a smoke stack. In order to get a good draft for - -[Illustration: THE CERRO OF POTOSÍ FROM THE SPANISH RESERVOIRS] - -[Illustration: AN ANCIENT QUICHUA ORE CRUSHER] - -the blast furnaces, the smoke is conducted across the stream on a stone -viaduct, enters the hill by a tunnel, and ascends a vertical shaft for -one hundred and fifty feet to the chimney which then carries it thirty -feet further up into the air. The tunnel does just as good work in the -way of producing a draft as though it were a modern brick chimney, two -hundred feet high, but the effect is uncanny, to say the least. - -We found among the boarders at the Hotel Colon a group of young Peruvian -and Chilean mining engineers who were very congenial. They made the best -of their voluntary exile, and although none of them enjoyed the fearful -climatic conditions, they managed to make their surroundings quite -tolerable with hard work, cheerful conversation, birthday dinners, and -social calls. - -The courtyard of the hotel was a fine example of the prevailing mixture -of old and new. The roof was covered with beautiful large red tiles -whose weight had crushed down the rafters in places so as to produce a -wavy effect. Meanwhile the shaky old balcony that ran around the court -connecting the rooms on the second floor, was sheltered from the rain by -strips of corrugated iron! The fine old stone-paved _patio_ was marred -by a vile wainscoting painted in imitation of cheap oil-cloth. In one -corner stood a little old-fashioned stove where _arrieros_, who need to -make an early start, cook their tea without disturbing the hotel -servants. An archway running under the best bedrooms of the second -floor, led out to the street. Another archway led in to the filth of the -backyard where, amid indescribable scenes and smells, six-course -dinners were prepared for our consumption. It was a miracle that we did -not get every disease in the calendar. - -Opposite the hotel was a fine old building with a wonderfully carved -stone gateway and attractive iron balconies jutting out with stone -supports from each second-story window. It is now the residence and -warehouse of one of the largest importers in Bolivia. Once it was the -abode of a Spanish marquis. The exquisitely finished exterior bears -witness to the good taste of its builder and the riches and extravagance -that once ran riot in Potosí. - -So also do the beautiful towers, all that are left standing of the -Jesuit church. The church itself has disappeared, but the solidly -constructed, exquisitely carved stone towers remain as silent witnesses -to the power of that Christian order that did most to advance the cause -of civilization in South America. - -Unquestionably the most picturesque part of Potosí is the market-place -and the streets in its immediate vicinity. Hither come the miners and -their families to spend their hard-earned wages. Here can be purchased -all the native articles of luxury: coca, _chupe_, frozen potatoes, -parched corn, and _chicha_ (native hard cider made from anything that -happens to be handy). The streets are lined with small merchants who -stack their wares on the sidewalk against the walls of the buildings. -There are no carriages and few horseback riders, so that one does not -mind being crowded off the sidewalks by the picturesque booths of the -Quichua merchants. - -In the streets flocks of llamas driven by gayly-dressed Indians add a -rare flavor not easily forgotten. The llamas move noiselessly only -making little grunts of private conversation among themselves; quite -haughty, yet so timid withal, they are easily guided in droves of fifty -by a couple of diminutive Indians. - -To see these ridiculous animals stalking slowly along, looking -inquisitively at everyone, continually reminded me of Oliver Herford’s -verses about that person in Boston who - - “Looked about him with that air - Of supercilious despair - That very stuck-up people wear - At some society affair - When no one in their set is there.” - -In the immediate vicinity of the market-place every available inch on -each side of the street is used by the small tradesmen. They are allowed -to erect canopies to protect their goods from the sun and rain, and the -general effect is not unlike a street in Cairo. On one corner are piled -up bolts of foreign cloth, their owners squatting on the sidewalk in -front of them. On another corner, leaning against the white-washed walls -of a building, is a native drug store. The different herbs and medicines -exposed for sale in the little cloth bags are cleverly stacked up so as -to show their contents without allowing the medicines to mix. The most -conspicuous article offered for sale is coca, which is more to the -Quichua than tobacco is to the rest of mankind. - -The market-place itself is roughly paved with irregular stone blocks -and is surrounded by arcades where are the more perishable European -goods. The vendors of Indian merchandise squat on the stones wherever -they can find a place and spread out before them their wares, whether -they consist of eggs or pottery, potatoes or sandals. - -It is the custom to arrange the corn and potatoes in little piles, each -pile being worth a _real_, about four cents in our money, the standard -of value in the market-place. Under umbrella-like shelters are gathered -the purveyors of food and drink, their steaming cauldrons of _chupe_ -surrounded by squatting Indians who can thus get warmed and fed at the -same time. - -The Quichua garments are of every possible hue, although red -predominates. The women dress in innumerable petticoats of many-colored -materials and wear warm, heavy, colored shawls, brought together over -the shoulders and secured with two large pins, occasionally of handsome -workmanship, but more often in the shape of spoons. Generally they are -content with uninteresting felt hats, but now and then one will have a -specimen of a different design, the principal material of which is black -velveteen, ornamented with red worsted and colored beads. On their feet -the women usually wear the simplest kind of rawhide sandals, although -when they can afford it, they affect an extraordinary footgear, a sandal -with a French heel an inch and a half high, and shod with a leather -device resembling a horse shoe. - -Near the market-place is an interesting old church, its twin towers -still in good repair. Services are rarely held here, and it was with -some difficulty that - -[Illustration: THE MARKET-PLACE OF POTOSÍ] - -we succeeded in finding the sexton, who finally brought a large key and -allowed us to see the historical pictures that hang on the walls of two -of the chapels. They are of considerable interest and appeared to date -from the sixteenth century. We commented on the fact that a large -painting had recently been removed and were regaled with a story of how -a foreign millionaire had bribed some prelate or other to sell him the -treasured relic! - -In the eighteenth century Potosí boasted of sixty churches but of these -considerably more than half are now in ruins. The ruined portion of the -city lies principally to the east and south. A few strongly built -churches or church towers are still standing amid the remains of -buildings that have tumbled down in heaps. - -Several of the old convents and monasteries, however, are still in a -flourishing condition. To us the chief interest consisted of their -collections of fine old paintings and their beautiful flowers. Nothing -was more refreshing in this mountainous desert than to walk in their -lovely green gardens. - -The principal object of interest in the city, however, is the Casa -Nacional de Moneda, the great mint, which was begun in colonial days to -receive the plunder that the Spaniards took out of the hill by means of -the forced labor of their Indian slaves. It covers two city blocks, and -is really a collection of buildings covered by a massive roof and -surrounded by a high wall with only one entrance. The front is striking. -At regular intervals along the roof are little stone ornaments like -funeral urns. The few windows are carefully guarded with iron bars. On -either side of the elaborately decorated façade of the two-storied -portal are wooden balconies over which projects the heavily timbered -roof covered with large red tiles. - -As one enters the great building from the street and passes between -heavy doors into a large courtyard, the first thing that attracts one’s -attention is an enormous face, four feet in diameter, which looks down -at the intruder from over an archway that leads to a second courtyard. -The gigantic face has a malicious grin yet bears a distinct resemblance -to Bacchus. Who put it here and what it signifies does not seem to be -known. Suffice it to say that many of the Quichuas before starting on a -journey, come to this courtyard and make obeisance to the face, throwing -down in front of it a quid of coca leaves just as they used to do to the -rising sun in the time of the Incas. - -The courtyard is surrounded by an arcade with massive arches over which -runs the carved wooden balustrade of the second-story balcony. In the -second patio, which is also paved with cut stones, a tiny narrow-gauge -railway is used to carry silver ingots from the treasure-room to the -stamping-machines. In one of the buildings is a physics laboratory. In -another a little gymnasium. In still a third, a collection of minerals. -All of which are evidences that here are the beginnings of a school of -mines that is being built up under the able direction of an intelligent -young Bolivian engineer who received his training at Notre Dame -University in the United States. In one old building are still standing -the great wooden machines that were formerly used in the process of -hammering out the silver. In a large room on the second floor of another -building are kept the vellum-bound records of the mint and all the dies -which have been used for the past two hundred years. According to the -records, the value of the silver taken from here in the colonial days -amounted to about one billion dollars. Most of the stamping was done by -hand. The Bolivian government has cleared out two or three of the -buildings and installed modern machinery, imported from the United -States. - -One of the most remarkable features of the mint is the size and -condition of the huge timbers that support the roof. They are as sound -to-day as they were two hundred years ago when, with infinite labor, -they were brought across the mountains from the distant forests of the -Chaco. - -The roof is surmounted by a number of small sentry-boxes which are -connected by little paths and stairways that lead to all parts of the -structure. In the old days, it was necessary not only to protect the -“money-house” against possible attacks from without, but to make sure -that the Indians, who were assigned to work in the mint, did not escape -from the attics where they slept at night. - -I crawled through several of these attics where not even an underfed -Indian could stand upright. The roof was scarcely four feet above the -floor. In the corners were rude fireplaces where they may have cooked -their _chupe_, with dried llama dung as their only fuel. The rooms were -dark, even in midday. The tiny peek-holes that served as windows -admitted scarcely any light. Altogether it was as wretched a dormitory -as could possibly be imagined. - -The view from the roof was most interesting. The romantic cone of the -mountain-of-silver rises to the south beyond the graceful towers of the -cathedral. East of it are the hills where the Spaniards built their -famous reservoirs. Further east are higher hills which have been the -scene of several bloody encounters in the unprofitable civil wars that -have devastated Bolivia. Here on the battle-field of Kari Kari, several -hundred unfortunate Indians, fighting for revolutionary leaders with -whose selfish aims they had little sympathy, fell victims to the -unfortunate habit of appealing to arms instead of ballots. - -North of us, in the foreground, is the picturesque market-place, while -northwest, in the distance, the old trail for Oruro and Lima winds away -through the barren hills. To the west the far extending vista discloses -a wilderness of variegated hills and mountain ranges. While all around, -the quaint old arched roofs, rolling like giant swells of the Pacific, -are surrounded by the narrow streets, the red-tiled houses, and the -ruinous towers of the ancient city. - -[Illustration: GREENER AND MORE POPULOUS VALLEYS] - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -SUCRE THE _DE JURE_ CAPITAL OF BOLIVIA - - -Potosí was an irresistible attraction to thousands, but the dreadful -climate, the high altitude, the cold winds, and the chilling rains drove -away those who could afford it to the more hospitable valleys a few -days’ journey eastward where, with an abundant water-supply at an -elevation of eight thousand feet, charming villas sprang up surrounded -by attractive plantations, the present suburbs of Sucre. - -A fairly good coach road has recently been completed, and a weekly stage -carries mail and passengers between the two cities. We preferred, -however, to continue on our saddle mules and followed the older route. -The new road is a hundred miles long. The old trail is only -seventy-five. With good animals it need take but two days. We were in no -hurry, however, and decided to do it in three. - -The valleys through which our road descended, at first arid and -desolate, gradually became greener and more populous. The views were -often very fine and extensive and we saw a few snow-covered mountains. -In the middle of winter, that is June and July, the snow frequently -covers everything. Now, on the 29th of November, the prevailing color -was a tawny brown. - -On the road we met long strings of llamas, donkeys, and mules laden -with every conceivable shape of basket, bag, and bundle bringing from -the fertile valleys to the eastward, potatoes, maize, wine, green -vegetables and fruits, the produce that feeds Potosí. - -Further evidence of the extent of this traffic and the number of -_arrieros_ that continually pass over this road is the frequency of -little _chicherias_, wretched little huts built of stone and mud, baked -in the sun, and thatched with grass or bushes, where “_chicha_” can be -bought for a penny a gourd. - -On the bare ground in front of one of them a woman had pegged down the -framework of a hand loom and was beginning to weave a poncho. Near her -the family dinner of _chupe_ was simmering away in a huge earthen-ware -pot, supported on three stones, over a tiny fire of thorns and llama -dung. Other picturesque jars filled with _chicha_ awaited her customers. - -We lunched at what Baedeker would call “a primitive thermal -establishment,” a favorite weekend resort for German clerks in the -importing houses of Potosí. A swimming-pool that affords opportunity to -luxuriate in the warm sulphur water attracts many visitors, as it is -practically the only place in southern Bolivia where one can get a hot -tub bath. - -The proprietor of the Baths, a type of Englishman that in the Pacific -Ocean is called a “beach comber,” was an amusing old vagabond who made a -great fuss ordering his half-starved Indians to prepare us a suitable -meal. Our expectations were aroused to a high pitch by his enthusiasm, -but the quality of the food was not any better than that of - -[Illustration: THE PICTURESQUE OLD CHURCH OF BARTOLO] - -the ordinary native inn. There was one very marked difference, however. -We were not met by any declaration of “_no hay nada_.” - -Our second stopping-place was Bartolo, a small town of a thousand -inhabitants, chiefly Quichua Indians, and a picturesque old church -surrounded by a wall made of stone arches. We arrived on a Sunday -evening and found the _tambo_ already so full of travellers that there -was no room for us or our beasts. The Prefect of Potosí had given us a -circular letter requesting the masters of all the post-houses on our -route to accord us “every facility for our journey.” We soon found the -letter to be of little avail, for when there was any difficulty such as -lack of accommodation or of fodder we were invariably informed that the -master of the _poste_ was away attending to some business in another -village. As our letter, however, included also the governors of towns, -we now asked to be directed to the house of the Gobernador of Bartolo -and found that worthy gentleman bidding good-bye to some Sunday visitors -with whom he had been partaking freely of brandy and _chicha_. He was at -first inclined to be insolent, and although he had a comparatively large -house, declared that he had no room for us and that we must return to -the inn. As the situation approached that point where it was becoming -necessary to use force in order to secure shelter for the night, an -obliging guest, who had possession of the largest room in the inn, -learning from Fermin, the Gaucho, that we were _delegados_, offered us -the use of his quarters while he sought accommodation among his -acquaintances in the town. - -In the meantime, the family of the tipsy governor had sobered him up -enough to make him realize that he had shown discourtesy to the bearer -of a government passport and he came to the inn with profuse offers of -entertainment which we unfortunately could not accept. - -We left Bartolo early the next morning. The dust had been laid by -thunder-showers in the night and the crisp mountain air was most -refreshing. Occasionally we passed the ruins of a rude stone cairn -erected in colonial days to measure the leagues between Sucre and -Potosí. Fermin had never been beyond Potosí, so we were obliged to fall -back upon the service of guides or _postillons_ from here on. They -cannot be taken farther than from one _poste_ to another, generally six -leagues or twenty miles. They receive a regular tariff of four cents per -league, and a small gratuity besides. - -For this munificent sum of a little over a cent a mile, they are -supposed to assist in catching and saddling the animals, to hold the -packs while they are being loaded, and then to run beside the trotting -pack-animals, ready to help if the loads become loosened, constantly at -hand, a willing slave to the _arriero_ and a guide to the traveller. -Generally lightly clad with the regulation Quichua small clothes, that -look as though made of meal-sacks, they march or lope along cheerily, -now and then blowing lustily on an ox-horn, which they carry slung over -the shoulder as a badge of their position. - -The _postillons_ will not budge unless their tariff is paid in advance, -for they have learned through centuries of experience that while the -traveller with a stout whip, mounted on a good animal, with the -authority of the government at his back, can force them to go the -required distance after the fee has been paid, they have no means -whatever of forcing him to pay after he has arrived at his destination -and has no further need of their services. The first _postilion_ we had, -recognizing the fact that our _arriero_ was a stranger in this part of -the country and that we were foreigners, ran far ahead of the little -caravan, and would have disappeared among the thorny shrubs of the arid -hillside had we not galloped after him and threateningly ordered him to -return to his post at the heels of the mules. The next one proved to be -a good fellow and did his work well, notwithstanding the dust which was -his portion during most of the day. - -This morning we passed a field in which alpacas that looked like -overgrown woolly dogs were feeding. As the sparse foliage increased, we -met numerous flocks of sheep watched over by diminutive children in -shawls and ponchos who ran away and hid behind rocks when they saw us -coming. - -About the middle of the morning we came to the edge of a plateau and -enjoyed a wonderful view of fertile valleys, whose waters flow rapidly -down to the Pilcomayo. It seemed difficult to realize that a Bolivian -landscape could have any other color than brown. Our descent was now -rapid, and the temperature grew warmer except when we encountered a -small hail-storm. - -After passing the scene of a battle in the unsuccessful revolution of -General Camacho, a militant politician with whom Bolivia had -considerable difficulty in the ’90’s, we stopped for lunch at a -tumbled-down hostelry called Quebrada Honda, in honor of a deep little -valley whose steep sides rise abruptly from a roaring mountain torrent. -Squatting on the ground in front of the tambo was a Quichua woman -weaving a bright-colored poncho. - -In the afternoon we passed some primitive dwellings which consisted of -huge flat boulders under which excavations had been made leaving them -partially supported by piles of stones at the corners. The method did -not seem to have proved successful, for in most cases, the roof, too -heavy for the supports, was lying on the ground. - -About five o’clock we arrived at the _poste_ of Pampa Tambo. We found a -_postilion_ in charge; the “master of the _poste_ was absent” as usual. -The _postilion_ decided to charge us three times the regular rate for -forage and Fermin protested vigorously, but in vain. Although it was a -matter of only a dollar or so, I decided to see whether my letter from -the Prefect of Potosí would make any difference with his attitude toward -us. The sight of the official seal, and an emphatic threat that he would -get himself into trouble if he persisted in his outrageous demands, -gradually brought him to lower the price until it came within two or -three cents of the regular tariff. - -Hardly had we settled the dispute when a violent thunder-storm came up. -This was the last day of November and the rainy season was beginning. -From now on we had showers nearly every afternoon. - -[Illustration: A PASTURE FOR SHEEP AND ALPACAS] - -[Illustration: A QUICHUA WOMAN WEAVING AT QUEBRADA HONDA] - -In the evening a party of foreigners arrived, consisting of a wealthy -Franco-Boliviano and his two sons who were on their way home from Paris. -They amused us by their elaborate preparations to supply themselves with -drinks and edibles. Little alcohol stoves were kept busy making hot -toddy, and drinks without number soon produced a very drowsy party. - -We got an early start the next morning and, in an hour after leaving -Pampa Tambo, came in sight of the great river Pilcomayo which is -associated with the tragic death of the French explorer, Creveaux. The -Pilcomayo rises west of Potosí, receives the turbid waters that have -passed through Potosí’s smelters, flows east and then southeast towards -Paraguay, finally joining the Paraguay River just above Asuncion. Were -it not for the gigantic morass, the Estero Patino, which interrupts its -course for about fifty miles, it would serve as a convenient means of -communication between the mining region of Bolivia and the Rio de la -Plata. Most of its course is through the Gran Chaco, a debateable land -that has been only partly explored. - -East of the Andes, where the affluents of the Pilcomayo are almost -interlaced with those of the Mamoré, in the watershed between the basins -of the Amazon and the Paraná, lies a region of rich tropical forests -with possibilities of development that appeal very strongly to -far-sighted Bolivianos. The conditions are tropical, the soil is -fertile, and there is an abundance of rain. There are, however, in this -region, many tribes of wild Indians of whom little is known and who have -shown no desire to encourage the advent of strangers. Transportation is -exceedingly difficult. - -We found that a suspension bridge had been built across the Pilcomayo at -its narrowest and deepest point, but owing to the tardiness of the wet -season, we were able to ford the stream lower down and save a détour of -several miles. After crossing the river we rode up a dry gulch in which -an attempt at cultivation by means of irrigating ditches was producing -both pomegranates and peaches. - -An hour’s ride beyond the river brought us to Calera, a little hamlet of -Indian huts with a very primitive _tambo_. We had counted on resting -here during the middle of the day, but there was absolutely nothing to -be had either for man or beast. We could have unloaded and unpacked our -own supplies, but there is no point in eating when your mules cannot -eat, and so we pushed on, twelve miles further, to the town of Yotala. -Our path crossed a low range of barren hills and then descended a -thousand feet or more by a steep, winding path to the river Cachimayo -which we forded without difficulty. In this little valley we found many -attractive plantations, the _fincas_ or country houses of the wealthy -residents of Sucre. Extensive irrigation has transformed the bed of the -valley into what seems like a veritable paradise, so great is its -contrast with the barren region around about. - -Yotala is an old Spanish town, much more dead than alive. There was an -inn, misnamed a “restaurant,” where there was nothing to be had in the -way of food for any of us. Fermin finally succeeded in finding a poor -widow who had a little fodder for sale and was willing to let the mules -eat it in her back yard. As for ourselves, we had to fall back as usual -on canned goods, just as though this were an isolated _poste_, twenty -miles from anywhere, instead of being a town of several thousand -inhabitants. We spread out our little lunch on the stones of the plaza -under two trees. - -As it was noon, and the sky cloudless, the sun shone with considerable -ferocity. Presently a slovenly official with an expression on his face -that said plainly he was not quite sure whether we were distinguished -travellers who ought to be looked after or only vagabonds who should be -driven off, came and inquired if we were French merchants. On receiving -a negative reply he seemed rather relieved and withdrew to the shade of -his own house. Of course if we had whispered the magic words “_delegados -de los Estados Unidos_,” all would have been different. - -After the mules had had a rest we covered the remaining six miles to -Sucre, passing on the way a number of large _fincas_. One of them seemed -to bear a distant resemblance to a pleasure park. Statues of men and -animals, summer houses, pagodas, and a small intramural railway whose -imitation locomotive was a small automobile in disguise, lent the place -a festive air which was increased by one or two minarets and other -fantastic towers. We learned afterwards that this was La Glorieta, the -seat of the Prince and Princess of Glorieta. The story, as told us by a -pleasant old lady in Sucre, is as follows:-- - -It seems that the head of the richest family in Bolivia, who is also the -leading banker of Sucre, wearying of republican simplicity, decided to -make a large donation to the Pope. Soon afterwards his great generosity -was rewarded with the title of “Prince of Glorieta.” Unfortunately, our -presence in this part of the world was not properly made known to this -Bolivian royal house and I am unable to give an adequate description of -the beauties of Glorieta. They have, however, been published by the -owners in a pamphlet, and from all that I could hear, Glorieta has a -distant resemblance to Coney Island. - -After passing Glorieta, we crossed a small cañon, climbed the sides of a -deep gorge, and suddenly found ourselves at the city gates. - -Sucre has a population of twenty thousand souls, including fifty -negroes, and two or three hundred foreigners, a large number of whom are -Spaniards engaged in mercantile business. There are two or three hotels -here, and we were in some doubt as to which might offer the best -welcome. After a vain effort to locate the Prefect and get his advice, -we decided to go to the Hotel Colon where we found large comfortable -rooms on the second floor, facing the plaza. The proprietor was most -polite and attentive. The only fault that we had to find with him was -his continual spitting. The fact that there were no cuspidors and that -he was ruining his own carpet did not deter him in the least. Perhaps he -had rented the furnishings. - -It is superfluous to speak of the filth of the kitchen - -[Illustration: THE GREAT RIVER PILCOMAYO] - -[Illustration: OUR HOTEL IN SUCRE] - -through which we had to pass to reach the back yard. It differed from -others only in the large number of guinea-pigs that swarmed everywhere. -They helped to make the bill-of-fare more interesting. - -Sucre owes its importance to its comparatively pleasant climate. The -average temperature is 56° F. Bolivianos, accustomed as they are to one -of the worst climates in the world, say that Sucre has “the finest -climate in existence,” which means, being translated, that it is fairly -tolerable. Nevertheless, we found it very agreeable to be down at this -lower elevation, and we could scarcely sympathize with Castelnau, who, -coming up from the eastern plains in 1845, thought Sucre very -“_triste_.” He and his associates had been for many months in the warm -regions of Brazil and found it difficult “to resist the cold and the -effects of the altitude.” Most of them suffered severely from _soroche_ -although few people now-a-days think of being troubled at an altitude of -anything less than twelve thousand feet and Sucre is only a little over -nine thousand. - -If the miners had felt as Castelnau did, the old Indian city of -Chuquisaca would never have become the social and literary capital of -upper Peru. Its name was changed to La Plata in recognition of the -stream of silver that flowed to it from Potosí. Here resided an -important bishop who looked after the souls of countless thousands of -Indians scattered up and down the Bolivian plateau and in the tangled -jungles east of the Andes. The citizens of Chuquisaca, or La Plata, -acquired before long a reputation for wealth and intelligence which -spread far and wide. They called their city the “Athens of Peru” and -they established here a university where students still come to study -law and medicine. - -After the great battle of Ayacucho in December, 1824, when General Sucre -won the memorable victory that defeated the last Spanish army in South -America, Upper Peru was erected into an independent Republic, taking its -name from the great General Bolivar and giving to its capital city the -name of its first president. - -President Sucre was living at the capital when Edmond Temple came here -in 1826. That entertaining writer describes him as tall and thin with -mild, prepossessing manners and diffident address. Temple had lived in -Bolivia for nearly a year and was moved to say that General Sucre was -the best choice that could have been made to fill “the arduous, -troublesome, and thankless office of Supreme Chief of the new republic -of Bolivia.” Temple attended a session of Congress where he was -unfavorably impressed by the custom of remaining seated during the whole -debate and by the constant practice of spitting, “which is a breach of -decorum which no Englishman can patiently witness!” The innkeeper must -have been a descendant of a Congressman. - -As long as Congress sat here the representatives came mostly from this -region and were naturally influenced by the aristocratic society of the -capital. The wealthy politicians of Sucre succeeded in diverting a large -part of the national revenues to beautifying their city, building -extravagant public works, and neglecting the just claims of La Paz. La -Paz, far more populous, and enjoying a much more important situation -commercially, was overlooked. Little of the public revenue found its way -thither. The result was a revolution in which La Paz emphatically -proclaimed its desire to share in the distribution of the public moneys -and public offices. The then President gathered the Government forces -together in Sucre and proceeded to march on the rebellious metropolis. -He was defeated not far from La Paz with great losses, and the war-like -Aymarás of La Paz followed up the victory with orgies of a disgusting -and barbaric if not cannibalistic character. The result was that while -Sucre retained the Supreme Court and the title of Capital, La Paz became -the actual seat of government, and few foreign diplomats have ever -undertaken the five days of hard travel which separates Sucre from -Challapata, the nearest railway station. - -Nevertheless the wealthiest people in Bolivia live in Sucre. They are -very aristocratic and extremely exclusive, and they feel very superior -to the citizens of La Paz although that place is really much more -important than Sucre. The great land-owners have established here the -headquarters of the most important banks in the country. - -At the largest of all, the Banco Nacional de Bolivia, I drew some money -on my letter of credit. Among the coins which I trustfully accepted were -seven or eight that proved to be bad. The Indians always ring a coin -before accepting it. The result was I found myself the victim of a -clever bank cashier. The coins were probably not counterfeit. The -Bolivian government has not been above issuing “silver” coins, -particularly “half _pesos_,” that contain so much “alloy” as to be -valueless. - -These debased half dollars have long been a subject of annoyance not -only to travellers but to the neighboring Peruvians. Sir Clements -Markham says that at the time of his visit to Peru in 1859, when he was -on that famous mission that secured Chincona plants from eastern Peru -for transportation to India, war was imminent between Peru and Bolivia -and one _casus belli_ was that the Bolivian government persisted in -coining and deluging Peru with debased half dollars. These ill-omened -chickens have certainly come back to roost, for one never sees them now -in Peru and they are all too frequent here. Perhaps that is one reason -why the local banks are so unusually well built. - -There is also a pretentious “legislative palace,” and at the time of my -visit a large theatre was in the course of construction. It was hoped to -have this completed in time for the celebration of the one hundredth -anniversary of the beginning of the War of Independence. - -The market-place is neither so interesting nor so picturesque as that of -Potosí. A few of the men wore curious helmet-like hats with small visors -turned up in front and back. It would be interesting to know whether -this were the original hat of the vicinity or whether it had been copied -from the head-gear of the armored Spaniard _conquistadores_ of the -sixteenth century. The corresponding women’s hats were twice as large -as the men’s but the brim was turned up in the front and back in the -same fashion. - -Most of the women wore felt hats of native manufacture, picturesque -coats of white cotton decorated with many little pieces of colored -calico, and as many heavy woollen petticoats as they could afford. The -majority wore rough rawhide sandals without socks but a few had -elaborately patterned knitted stockings. - -A considerable quantity of chocolate is manufactured here and, as in the -mountains of Colombia, no meal is considered complete without it. They -appreciate better than we do the advantage of having the drink as light -and airy as possible, and consequently never serve any without beating -it to a light froth by means of a wooden spindle that is inserted in the -pot and rapidly revolved between the palms of the hands. - -There are several Indian silversmiths here, as well as in Potosí, where -filigree-work, spoons, and simple silver dishes are hammered out. The -director of the mint in Potosí told me he was frequently offered pure -silver family heirlooms that have come down from the extravagant days of -the seventeenth century when in a well-to-do house every imaginable -utensil was made of silver. - -Another specialty of Sucre is the manufacture of tiny dolls out of -pieces of fine wire, lace, and tinsel. They range in size from four -inches down to half an inch. Sometimes an effort is made to copy a -native costume, but more generally the dressing is entirely fantastic or -suited only to high carnival. Similar dolls are made in south central -Mexico. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE ROAD TO CHALLAPATA - - -We were not sorry when the time came to leave Sucre. It not infrequently -happens that interior provincial cities of considerable local political -importance are not very lenient toward strangers, particularly if the -latter are dressed in breeches that seem at all outlandish to the -provincial mind. I understand that Chinese have found this to be true in -the capitals of our Western States. The thing had happened to me before -in Tunja, the capital of the province of Boyacá, Colombia. And it -happened here in Sucre. Whenever we walked the streets examining the -public buildings or visiting the market-place, we were considerably -annoyed by loafers, both men and boys, who, recognizing us as strangers -and foreigners, regarded us as the proper target for all manner of -witticisms. - -An hour after leaving the city, we turned to look back, and found the -view from the west quite attractive. In the foreground, dry gulches, -stony hillsides, and an occasional thatched mud hut. In the distance, -hills sloping down so abruptly that one could not see the bottom of the -gulch that lay between us and the city. Immediately beyond, the white -walls of Sucre overshadowed by a mountain whose twin peaks rise beyond -the eastern suburbs. There was just a suggestion of green, reminding us -that this is the last fertile spot on the outskirts of the great arid -plateau, towards which we now turned. - -As the road between Sucre and the railway is one of the most important -thoroughfares in Bolivia, it was to be expected that there would be -_postes_ every four or five leagues. The first one we came to was that -of Punilla, four leagues from Sucre. All we needed was a guide, but the -only _postillon_ we could secure had a very sore foot, scarcely -protected at all from the stony road by the primitive rawhide sandal -that he wore. Yet he came along quite cheerfully. - -The _postes_ between Sucre and Challapata are larger than those in -southern Bolivia. They are modelled on the Inca _tambos_ that used to -exist on all the more frequented trails in the highlands of Peru and -Bolivia; a range of low, windowless buildings, either of stone or adobe, -sometimes completely surrounding a courtyard, at other times only on -three sides, containing a few rooms of which one is furnished with a -rough and very shaky table and three or four adobe platforms intended -for bunks; mud floors that have accumulated dirt and filth of every -description ever since the building was constructed; poorly thatched -roofs from which bits of straw and pieces of dirt occasionally dislodge -themselves to fall on the table where we spread our canned repast, or to -alight on our faces just as we were trying to get to sleep. - -The trains of pack animals that we met on the road, whether llamas, -burros, or mules, were all engaged in bringing freight from the railway. -This consisted mostly of boxes of soap and canned goods, cases of wine -and beer and condensed milk, and small packages of general merchandise. - -The next _poste_, Pisculco, four leagues beyond Punilla over a good road -that wound through semi-arid hills, was an extremely primitive affair. -The master of the _poste_ and all the _postillons_ were “absent,” but we -secured the services of a small boy who bravely girded his belt, slung a -horn over his shoulder, received his pay and started out as our guide -and escort. He soon fell behind, however, and before we knew it, -disappeared among the brown bushes. Both his scanty raiment and his skin -were so nearly the color of the ground that it was a hopeless task to -look for him, and we went on, trusting we should be able to follow such -a well-travelled highway without the necessity of a guide. -Unfortunately, the road forked, and in choosing the more travelled -branch, we followed a short cut in the steps of llama pack trains. As -they camp in the open at night, we missed the road for Moromoro, took -the wrong turn, and after a perilous descent down a mile of treacherous, -slippery rocks, found ourselves at the abandoned _tambo_ of Challoma, -whose only inhabitants were an old woman and her pigs. She was greatly -alarmed at our arrival and told us in shrill tones that we were three -leagues off the road. Nevertheless, as it was rapidly getting dark and -we had had a hard ride of forty miles, we decided to take shelter under -the leaky roof of the ancient _poste_. - -Beyond Challoma the trail crossed a cañon and a shallow stream and -finally came out on a series of flat lands where we saw a few burros and -llamas - -[Illustration: AN ABANDONED TAMBO] - -[Illustration: OUR FIRST VIEW OF THE GREAT TABLE-LAND OF BOLIVIA] - -grazing on the dry grass which had been left over from the last rainy -season. - -In the middle of one such plain stood the next _poste_, Caracara, built -like a fortress in the desert. There are only three openings in the -great square inclosure: a barred window high up in a gable end near one -corner; a little door leading to a _cantina_ where one could purchase a -few drinks, matches, candles, and cigarettes; and a small arched -entrance through which loaded animals and travellers pass to the -courtyard. Although on one of the most important highways in Bolivia it -did not afford any food for the animals or ourselves. - -After leaving Caracara, we passed a few pink roses blooming under the -shelter of some rocks. They looked strangely out of place in this -Thibetan wilderness but they gave signs of the coming spring and the -rainy season. In the afternoon we had several thunder-showers. The -result of the showers of the past few days had been to stimulate also -the growth of an occasional geranium, or modest little fern. In general -there was little to relieve the monotonous brown wilderness. - -For league after league we continued our march westward through a -confused mountainous region. In southern Bolivia we had followed a long -valley running in a north and south direction, but here our route lay -across the valleys. Sometimes we followed the coach road for several -leagues and then took a short cut down a steep hillside. At times we did -not see a single hut in the twelve or fourteen miles separating the -_postes_. While not quite so sandy and desolate as the region farther -south, still it impresses one as being extremely inhospitable and -unlikely ever to support a larger population. - -In the evening of the second day we reached Ocurí, eighty miles from -Sucre. Just outside the town we crossed a very swampy plain where -cattle, horses, and pigs were feeding in treacherous bogs. - -Ocurí is a brown little Indian town of perhaps two thousand inhabitants, -with houses of sunburned brick and thatched roofs, lying high up on the -side of a mountain whose peak shelters it somewhat from the easterly -winds. It is higher than Potosí and has much the same cold, dismal -climate. It likewise owes its existence to the presence of mines of -silver and tin. There are several small smelters just outside the town. -We could get nothing to eat in the _poste_, but a pleasant-faced mestiza -woman who kept a sort of boarding-house near by, gave us a supper of -beefsteak and fried eggs, a welcome change from the canned food which -was our mainstay. - -The principal street in the town was lined with small shops where a -considerable variety of domestic and foreign merchandise was offered for -sale. This does not mean that there were any attractive window displays -but that when Mr. Smith felt brave enough to venture to step over the -little Aymará brats and the fierce Bolivian dogs who were playing around -the prostrate forms of drunken _arrieros_, he found hidden away in the -dark recesses of dusty shops, quite a variety of articles. Cigarettes, -onions, eggs, bread, canned salmon, sardines, home-made woollen ponchos, -imported cotton cloth, candles, cheap domestic pottery, straw hats, -shoes, belts, gloves, and condensed milk. It is a very poor place indeed -in Bolivia where one cannot buy a small can of Swiss condensed milk, the -one thing that is generally good. - -At Ocurí, we entered the country of the Aymarás for whom this is a kind -of outpost town. Our first evidence of their being here was the fact -that the _postillons_ in the _tambo_ unloaded our mules very carelessly, -allowing the bags to fall with a crash to the ground. They seemed to -think it a great joke to treat us as ignominiously as possible. From -here to Oruro, La Paz, and Lake Titicaca the Aymarás are in full sway. -They seem to be inserted like a wedge between the Quichuas of Peru and -those of southern Bolivia. - -The Quichuas are a mild and inoffensive folk, but the Aymarás, heavier -in build, coarser featured, and more vigorous in general appearance, are -brutally insolent in their manner and unruly in their behavior. We were -even regaled with stories of their cannibalism on certain occasions, but -unfortunately had no opportunity of proving the truth of such -statements. Neither Quichuas nor Aymarás are at all thrifty, and we were -everywhere impressed with their great poverty. Their clothing is -generally the merest rags and their food is as meagre as can possibly be -imagined. Coca and _chicha_ (_i. e._, cocaine and alcohol) seem to be -beginning and end of life with them. We rarely ever saw one riding, -although occasionally we met a _postillon_ returning to his _poste_ with -a mule that had been placed in his charge. - -A great majority of the population show little or no desire to vote or -to have anything to do with politics. They are uneducated, but have very -fixed ideas with regard to their absolute rights over land which they -have occupied for any length of time. Their ideas of squatter -sovereignty sometimes interfere with the desires of the government to -develop the resources of the country. - -It is unfortunate that no efforts are being made to establish a good -system of public schools and enforce attendance. One of the greatest -difficulties in the way of such an undertaking is the fact that the -Indians not only have no interest in securing the education of their -children, but also that they find it to their advantage to speak their -own tongue rather than Spanish. Probably less than fifteen per cent of -the population speak Spanish with fluency. They are lacking in ambition, -seem to have no desire to raise produce, bear ill-will towards -strangers, and prefer not to assist travellers to pass through their -country. Even if a man has plenty of chickens and sheep, he will -generally refuse to sell any although you offer him an excellent price. -With coaxing and coca you may succeed. Sometimes he pretends not to -understand Spanish and replies to all questions in guttural Quichua or -Aymará. - -So large a percentage of the population are Indians that nearly all the -whites are actively interested in politics and would like to be -office-holders. It is said that all elections are merely forms through -which the party in power goes, in order to maintain its supremacy. - -The majority of the inhabitants are in no sense fitted to be the -citizens of a republic. However much the theoretical lover of liberty -may bemoan the fact that Bolivia is in reality an oligarchy, one cannot -help feeling that that is the only possible outcome of an attempt to -simulate the forms of a republic in a country whose inhabitants are so -deficient both mentally and morally. Mexico has given a splendid example -of what can be accomplished in a region populated largely by Indians and -descendants of Spanish monarchists. The benevolent despotism which -President Diaz has exhibited now for more than a generation has done -wonders. The great San Martin foresaw the advantages of oligarchy or -monarchy and advocated something of the kind for the Spanish provinces -of South America when they secured their independence. Unfortunately, -his far-sighted statesmanship ran counter to the bombastic notions of -“liberty” held by the uneducated creoles who had secured control of the -reins of government and the result was the creation of republics. The -extreme difficulty of communication throughout Bolivia has made the way -of revolutions fairly easy. An entire province can rise against the -government before sufficient troops can be sent to quell the -disturbance. - -Whenever we got an early start from a _poste_, we were pretty sure to -come upon a llama camp before long; the drivers engaged in slowly -rounding up their grazing beasts and inducing them to receive their -loads for another day’s work. In the absence of rain, the loads are -merely piled up on the ground so as to form a shelter from the wind -during the night. If showers threaten, ponchos and tarpaulins are -thrown over the heap of merchandise. - -Many of the llama drivers carried primitive musical instruments. The -most common form was a bamboo flute or flageolet with six holes. On -these the Indians succeed in playing weird, monotonous airs in which a -fantastic reiteration of simple strains is varied with occasional bursts -of high, screechy notes. Some of the drivers had little guitars of a -very primitive construction on which they thrummed rather monotonously. -Some had their wives and children with them. The women were nearly -always engaged in spinning yarn with a wooden spindle which they handled -with the dexterity of a professional juggler. Two or three men, and a -boy or so, generally accompanied a caravan of sixty or seventy llamas. -Each driver carried a knitted sling made of llama wool and found no lack -of ammunition by the roadside with which to urge forward his flock or to -head off a stray animal. We were always amused when we met a drove. The -leaders would approach gingerly, stretching their long necks and looking -very much like timid, near-sighted dowagers. They scarcely knew whether -to advance or to retreat. A few flying rocks from the slings of the -drivers, followed up by encouraging shouts, generally decided the -leaders to proceed, but some were so palpably “frightened to death” by -everything they saw, we were surprised they had managed to live so long. -Occasionally a herd coming from Sucre laden with chocolate or sugar and -bound eastward, would meet one coming from the railroad with foreign -merchandise. This nearly always resulted in great confusion and much -shouting. The llamas looked so stupid we wondered how they ever -succeeded in extricating themselves and proceeding in the right -direction. At one point where the road almost disappeared among a -wilderness of huge, scattered boulders, we met a large drove that had -lost all sense of direction. Every attempt of the drivers to get their -animals headed the same way met with failure. The beasts seemed to be -infused with some centrifugal force which sent every one of them in a -different direction from his neighbor. Owing to the huge rocks, it was -impossible for the poor creatures to see one another or the drivers. -They may be there yet. - -There is something extremely amusing in the soft tread, the awkward -gait, the large innocent eyes, and the inquisitive ears of the llama. -Many had the tips of their ears decorated with bits of colored worsted. -I saw two that were decked out with very elaborate headdresses. They -never seemed to be in a hurry, any more than their Indian drivers, and -their disposition is much more gentle and inoffensive than I had been -led to suppose. - -About ten miles from Ocurí I saw several fat lizards each about six -inches long. The altitude at the time was about fourteen thousand feet, -the record height for lizards, so I am told. - -Soon afterwards we got a glimpse to the northwards of the sharp peaks -near Colquechaca, one of the highest towns in the world, which owes its -existence, as do so many of the Bolivian towns, to the presence in its -vicinity of rich silver mines. - -We reached Macha at noon on the third day, after a hot ride of thirty -miles from Ocurí. - -Macha is another dusty-brown, Indian town lying on the slopes of a large -valley. Near by we saw some evidences of cultivation. The fields were -surrounded with walls of dried mud and had large adobe gates reminding -me of the Sogamoso valley in Colombia. That region, however, was so much -greener and more fertile than this that the resemblance ceased with the -gates and fences. It should be remembered that the rainy season here had -only just begun. - -As we descended the east side of the valley, we met a six-mule coach on -its way from Challapata to Sucre. The curtains were drawn down on all -sides to protect the passengers from the dust and glare. Their outlook -was rather limited. A quarter of a mile beyond we met a drove of relay -coach mules, in charge of two mounted _postillons_. - -There is a moderately good coach-road two hundred and ten miles long -from Sucre to Challapata. The coach runs fortnightly, in pleasant -weather, and takes five days for the journey. Personally, I should -prefer almost anything rather than to be shut up in a Bolivian coach and -yanked over these rough, dusty roads, but I suppose some people would -relish even that better than jogging along forty miles a day on a mule, -as we chose to do. - -We left Macha after a light lunch but had not gone a mile before we were -pelted by a violent thunder-shower accompanied by hail, some of the -stones being as large as marbles. To add to our discomfort the mules had -made rapid marches since leaving Sucre and were very tired. The road -out of the valley was steep and slippery. When we reached the summit, -the storm renewed its fury, and we all shivered with the cold, in -contrast to the burning heat of the morning. At this height, whenever -the sun shines, the glare is trying and the heat really uncomfortable. -As soon as the sun passes behind a cloud, however, one experiences all -the rigors of winter. - -We arrived at the lonely isolated _poste_ of Aconcawa just at sunset. -The Aymará _postillons_ were as disobliging as possible. Four or five -Bolivian travellers had reached the _poste_ ahead of us and taken -possession of the only available sleeping room. The night was bitterly -cold and wet. The altitude was something over thirteen thousand feet. -After some difficulty, we succeeded in forcing our way into a room where -the _cebada_ or barley straw was stored. South of Potosí the fodder for -the mules is generally _alfa_ or alfalfa but hereabouts it is _cebada_. -The Indians were so afraid of our damaging the straw by sleeping on it -that they swept it up and piled it on one side of the room as high as -possible, raising clouds of fine dust in the meantime. The dust did not -settle for many hours and brought on asthma when we tried to sleep. Soon -after leaving Aconcawa, Fermin’s sharp eyes detected three vicuñas, -feeding, a mile away to the south of us. I could barely make them out -with powerful field-glasses and should never have seen them at all but -for the keen-eyed gaucho. It seemed strange that these should be the -only vicuñas which we saw in a wild state in our entire journey in -southern Bolivia. Travellers fifty years ago speak of meeting them -constantly in the more desolate parts of the mountains. Before the great -demand arose for vicuña rugs, those highly-prized trophies of the casual -visitor, these graceful and beautiful creatures, with their fawn-colored -coats, were one of the most interesting features of travel in the lonely -upland pastures of the Bolivian and Peruvian mountains. - -On the little plain near the vicuñas were a few pools of water that -seemed to be a feeding-ground for a few pigeons and some birds that -looked like Titicaca gulls. An occasional earth-colored guineapig was -practically the only other wild animal we could discover. - -Soon after seeing the vicuñas we continued to climb by a zigzag road -until we reached the highest point in this journey, the ridge of -Livichuco, fifteen thousand feet above the sea. Neither mules or llamas -seemed to mind this altitude but we found it very chilly and -disagreeable and were glad enough to descend as quickly as possible -without wasting much time in enjoying the extensive view over the -rock-strewn hills about us. It may seem strange that we did not stop to -rhapsodize on the fact that we were now leaving the basin of the Rio de -la Plata, or on the extensive panorama. But the latter was so cold, -desolate, and forbidding, the only effect was to make us urge forward -the mules at as rapid a pace as possible. - -The mountains were not snow-capped although, at times, we had had light -storms of hail and snow. This was particularly true of the afternoons, -the - -[Illustration: A FRIENDLY LLAMA BABY] - -[Illustration: MY MULE ON THE LAST DAY’S RIDE] - -mornings being generally fine and clear. As we went west, the valleys -grew broader. We occasionally passed over level plains four or five -miles wide. We had now crossed the watershed and left the basin of the -Rio de la Plata and its affluents for that of Lake Poopo and the -Bolivian tableland. - -Descending, we came to valleys that offered sufficient grass to support -a large number of llamas, alpacas, and sheep. This region seems to be a -favorite breeding-place for the llamas and we saw a number of baby -llamas. One of the latter, almost entirely black as to its body and -legs, with black ears, resembling the horns of a carnival devil, and a -white face that looked like a mask, was so interested in my efforts to -take his picture that he walked up to within eight feet of my mule, much -to his mother’s alarm. - -A cold wind and a cloudy sky that kept the sun from offering any warmth -made our arrival at the _poste_ of Livichuco anything but pleasant. To -add to our discomforts, Bolivian travellers had again arrived ahead of -us and monopolized everything in sight, as the scanty accommodations of -this wretched _tambo_ were insufficient to meet the demands of both -parties. A few eggs was all the _postillons_ could offer for our -entertainment, and as these turned out to be rotten their willingness to -sell food was not appreciated. - -The morning had been cloudy, cold, and disagreeable but the afternoon -was worse. Clouds of dust and peals of thunder ushered in the usual -storm. Our road, however, was not as rocky and precipitous as on the -preceding days. We crossed several broad plains, joined the -Potosí-Challapata trail and passed near Vilcapujio, another of the -battlefields of the War of Independence. In 1813 the soldiers of Buenos -Aires had again invaded Bolivia to assist the patriots of Upper Peru. -They reached Potosí in safety and were on their way north to Oruro when -they were met here at the fork in the road and defeated by the -Spaniards. A few days later came the battle of Ayoma, near Macha. The -result was temporarily fatal to the cause of Bolivian independence. - -We had another unpleasant experience on our arrival at Ancacato, on the -evening of the fourth day. Bolivian travellers had, as before, taken -possession of all the available rooms and we had a hard time persuading -the master of the _poste_ to allow us to remain. - -At a distance of two or three miles from the _tambo_ is the old Indian -town of Ancacato lying spread out on the level floor of the valley which -was at present brown and desolate although it had signs of being -cultivated in the rainy season. Like other Indian towns, the only -conspicuous feature of Ancacato was the tower of its large church. The -rest of the town consisted of brown huts as much as possible like the -color of the hills. - -The next morning we met an unusually large number of llamas on their way -from Challapata to the interior carrying small boxes of European -merchandise. The monotony of this morning’s ride was varied by the -spectacle of a mounted Indian trying, like “Mac,” to drive a pack mule -that was quite unaccustomed to such service and most unwilling to keep -the road. There are no fences or walls to mark off the road from the -surrounding country and an active pack animal can take to the hill as -often as he pleases. Most of them are either too weary, too tame or too -well acquainted with the punishment that follows, to attempt such -amusements, but this one was new at the game and he led his driver a -merry chase over frightful rocky slopes, up and down precipitous -hillsides, and through the dry bed of a stream. “Anywhere and -everywhere” seemed to be his motto. - -A short hour’s ride brought us through the pass over the Cordillera de -los Frailes and out onto the great tableland where the horizon on every -side, except behind us, seemed to be as level as the ocean. Far away to -the southwest we could just make out the dark lines and specks that -denoted the whereabouts of Challapata and the railway station. - -Challapata is an old Indian town, but there has grown up at some -distance from it, near the railway, a little modern settlement where -white-washed warehouses, hotels, stores, and a telegraph office offer a -marked contrast to the brown mud-huts of the more ancient city. The -population is said to be more than two thousand souls. Of these by far -the larger part are Aymarás who speak little or no Spanish. The streets -of the new town are wide and sandy, hot and glary like some of our -western towns. We thought the hotel was most comfortable and even -luxurious, after our experience of the past few weeks, but I dare say -that the traveller coming the other way would turn up his nose at its -primitive accommodations. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -ORURO TO ANTOFAGASTA AND VALPARAISO - - -Notwithstanding its comfortable beds, wash-stands, and billiard-table, -we were glad enough to leave the hotel at Challapata and take the train -for Oruro. Our only regret was that we had to say good-by to old Fermin -whose faithfulness in his care not only of the mules but of ourselves, -had made us grow very fond of him. We gave him a little gratuity which -he almost immediately offered to Mr. Smith in exchange for a cheap -silver watch the latter had purchased in Jujuy! - -On our way northward to Oruro we got distant glimpses of the saline -waters of Lake Poopo that receives the overflow from Lake Titicaca by -means of the Desaguadero River but has no outlet of its own. On our -right were the low summits of the Cordillera de los Frailes and on the -intervening plain was an occasional town with brown huts and a -conspicuous church. Once in a while we saw _chulpas_, so-called “Inca -tombs,” really Aymará, in which interesting remains are often found. The -Ferrocarril Antofagasta-Bolivia, a very narrow-gauge road constructed -and managed by Englishmen, was built to reach the important silver mines -of Huanchaca which, in the early ’90’s, exported annually eight million -ounces of silver. Once on the plateau, it was an easy matter to connect -the railroad with Oruro whose output of silver at that time was about a -million and a half ounces. Furthermore, Colquechaca, with an equal -output, was only two days away and pack trains could bring the silver -readily to the railway. - -The road has proved to be a splendid investment, yet Great Britain has -never favored Bolivia with much capital. Apart from this line and a -small bit of railroad near La Paz, there are almost no British -enterprises in the country. It is said that even Ecuador, backward as it -is, has twenty times as much British capital as Bolivia, while Argentina -has two hundred times as much. - -The ride to Oruro was devoid of interest except for a conversation which -I had with a distinguished Bolivian physician who had recently come from -the eastern provinces where he assured me lay the real wealth of his -country. He was most enthusiastic about the possibilities of the Gran -Chaco as a region likely some day to be well populated. Although a -native of this part of Bolivia, he told me that every time he came back -to this altitude, he suffered from _soroche_ or mountain sickness. I was -told by several other Bolivianos that they too suffered from _soroche_ -whenever they came up from the lower elevation, notwithstanding the fact -that the author of a recent book on South America says that the -Bolivianos themselves never suffer from this infirmity. - -We reached Oruro shortly after dark and were met by a pleasant-faced -Austrian hotel proprietor who obligingly put us on board of a mule-drawn -tram-car. A few minutes later we stopped in front of the Grand Hotel de -Francia y Inglaterra and were back in the civilized world again. - -There are two comfortable hotels in Oruro and an excellent Union Club -where all nationalities come to enjoy themselves. Besides this, a German -club has recently been started. Another feature of Oruro, which we might -not have noticed had we approached it from the civilized instead of the -uncivilized side of the world, was a rather palatial public -billiard-hall or casino where a dozen or fifteen good tables, and an -elaborate bar, attracted every evening a crowd of foreign engineers, -clerks, and bookkeepers. - -The climate of Oruro is cold and forbidding, the thermometer in the -shade usually being 50° F. The rainy season commences in November and -lasts until March; January and February being the rainiest months. -During our summer the weather here is intensely cold and snow-storms are -not infrequent. To the west and south of the city are barren hills and -the general lack of foliage makes the place rather melancholy, _muy -triste_. - -The next morning we crossed the plaza to the fine large government -building where the Prefect lives and has his offices. The present -incumbent, Dr. Moises Ascarrunz, was most kind and attentive. He -received us in state, opened champagne, drank our health and then drove -us out in the state carriage to a rifle range where, as it was a -holiday, the local sporting club was holding a match. - -The Prefect has taken great interest in the club and it has thriven -under his patronage. The facilities for rifle practice are excellent, -and we saw some - -[Illustration: THE PREFECTURA AND PLAZA OF ORURO] - -capital shooting. After a light lunch of beer and sandwiches at the -pleasant little club house, the Prefect showed us the sights of the -town. - -In his annual report which was just off the press at the time of our -visit, he calls special attention to the bad condition of the _postes_ -on the road from Sucre to Challapata! We were not inclined to dispute -his criticism. - -One day during our stay, a government proclamation was heralded about -town in the usual fashion. The local regiment of infantry paraded -through the principal streets, stopping at the important corners while -the colonel read the proclamation in a loud voice. The colonel seemed so -strong and healthy that I was greatly surprised to learn on my return to -Oruro a few weeks later that he had been taken down with one of the -sudden pulmonary fevers of this altitude and died in less than -twenty-four hours. - -A pleasant German-American, in charge of the local agency of a large New -York commercial house, told us that it was not at all uncommon for a man -to get a chill on his way home from an evening party and die the next -day of galloping pneumonia. The explanation seems to be that at this -altitude (13,000 feet) one needs all the lung capacity one has, as the -air is so rare. A congestive chill is followed by such a dangerous loss -in the capacity to receive oxygen, that the patient soon succumbs and -dies. - -The shops of Oruro, as might be expected of a mining city that has been -for several years in communication by rail and steam with the outside -world, contain a great variety of imported merchandise. One, owned by -Spaniards, is devoted almost exclusively to the manufactured products of -Spain. Another, owned by a German, contains an indefinite variety of -goods “made in Germany.” Two or three book shops contain several -thousand volumes of Spanish and French literature, law and medicine. -There is also a small public library and reading-room and the city hopes -to have a large accession to the number of its books in the near future. - -I called on one of the local physicians, not professionally, but because -I had heard of a remarkable collection of Bolivian pamphlets and -manuscripts that he possessed. One gets so accustomed to shiftlessness -and uncleanliness in South America that I could scarcely believe my eyes -when I found myself in an office whose spotless white furniture and -aseptic glass cases of modern surgical instruments would not have been -considered out of place on Madison Avenue. The surgeon had been educated -at the Chilean Medical School in Santiago although he was a Bolivian by -birth. His collection of manuscripts and prints was an extraordinary -one, but I must confess that his up-to-date professional methods -interested and surprised me more than his extensive bibliographical -learning. After having witnessed unspeakable conditions in the leading -hospital of Venezuela at Caracas where, as readers of my “Journal” will -recollect, surgeons educated in Paris and New York worked in an -operating theatre that had for its motto, “_Those who spit are requested -not to stand near the table during operations_,” I am afraid my views of -South American surgery, outside of such cities as Buenos Aires and -Santiago, had hitherto been decidedly uncomplimentary. - -Oruro owes its importance to valuable silver and tin mines in its -vicinity. There are several large smelters on the outskirts of the town, -and the offices of a number of important mining companies are to be -found here. Certain parts of Oruro are not pleasant places in which to -take a walk. In fact, I never felt more uncomfortable in my life than I -did on a solitary expedition in which I found myself among a lot of -half-drunken miners of all nationalities who were hanging about the -doors of a choice collection of grog-shops. The fearless, impudent stare -of the Aymarás was no less unpleasant than the menacing looks of three -or four burly Anglo-Saxon miners who had spent their last cent for -drinks and were looking for more. - -The silver mines have largely been abandoned and the principal industry -is connected with the tin deposits. No mines were discovered here until -some years after those of Potosí and they never produced as much silver, -although, during the colonial epoch, they ranked easily second. - -Oruro was founded about the time that the Dutch landed on Manhattan -Island. In the latter part of the seventeenth century there was already -a population of 76,000. In the eighteenth century, the city stood next -to Potosí in wealth and importance. - -Some of the churches still show the marks of that elegance with which -they were ornamented during the period of Oruro’s palmy days. There are, -however, few remains of any fine edifices. Indeed, we are told by “El -Lazarillo” in 1773 that “in this great city one will not encounter a -single building that corresponds at all to the immense fortunes which -have been spent here, during the past two hundred years, in an excess of -parades, shows, games, and banquets.” - -When the price of tin went up, a few years ago, Oruro enjoyed a boom. -Old buildings were torn down and pretentious new ones begun. Some of -them were only partly completed when tin fell and the boom collapsed. -The population now is about sixteen thousand, although during the boom -it rose to over twenty thousand, of whom more than five thousand were -foreigners. A good percentage were Chileans. - -Apart from its importance as a mining centre, Oruro has for some time -been distinguished as a railroad terminal. A line from here to Potosí is -planned. A line from Oruro to Cochabamba, on whose fertile valleys Oruro -depends for its food-supply, is in course of construction. The Bolivia -Railway’s line to La Paz has recently been completed. The road to -Antofagasta has been running since 1892. - -Oruro is nearly six hundred miles from Antofagasta and the journey used -formerly to take three days, for trains were only run by daylight and at -slow speed. We found, however, that the roadbed had been improved, -although the track was not widened, and a vestibuled train with two -compartment sleeping-cars and a restaurant-car can now make the journey -from Oruro to Antofagasta in two nights and a day. Three times a week a -Bolivia - -[Illustration: A QUAINT OLD BALCONY IN ORURO] - -[Illustration: A CORNER IN ORURO] - -railway train leaves La Paz in the morning and arrives at Oruro late in -the afternoon. Once a week, as soon after the arrival of this train as -possible, the new vestibuled train starts for Antofagasta. There is no -chance for a through service, for the Bolivia Railway has a meter gauge, -while the Antofagasta line is only three-quarters of a meter wide. -Furthermore owing to some unfortunate squabble between the railroad -companies, the stations are located at some distance from one another, -and the traveller must get across the town as best he may. - -When the Antofagasta line was completed, Oruro increased in population -by leaps and bounds, and the admiring Bolivians called their city the -“Chicago of Bolivia.” The only resemblance, however, that I was able to -discover was this forced transfer across the city. The streets of Oruro -which one has to cross in going from one terminal station to the other -are not paved, and the traveller who happens to take the journey in the -rainy reason, when the roads are two feet deep in mud, will wish this -were Chicago! - -The departure of the weekly train for Antofagasta is just as much of an -event for Oruro as that of the weekly steamer is for a port in the -Hawaiian Islands or the West Indies. Every one who can comes down to the -station, and those who can afford it crowd into the restaurant car, -order drinks and enjoy the iced luxuries just as the residents of the -Caribbean ports do when a mail-steamer calls. - -We had been advised by friends in New York not to attempt to use this -railway as it was only intended to carry ore and no one cared how many -passengers were killed. It did give one a creepy feeling to see a heavy -sleeping-car balanced on rails that were only twenty-eight inches apart. -It seemed like riding on a monorail and I could not help wondering -whether, if the berths on one side of the sleeping-car should happen to -be filled first, the car would not capsize. Evidently this thought had -occurred to the builders of the car, for by an ingenious arrangement the -berths are all in the centre of the car, directly over the rails! - -We left Oruro at dusk and during the night passed through Challapata, -the end of our mule trip, and Uyuni, where Don Santiago’s stages start -for Potosí, Tupiza, and La Quiaca _via_ Cotagaita. - -The scenery early next morning was not impressive. Before long, however, -gigantic volcanic peaks twenty thousand feet high rose into view, one of -them, the volcano of Ollawe, emitting a tiny cloud of sulphurous steam -that gives a yellow stain to its snow-capped peak. We soon left behind -the great sandy tableland of Bolivia, that veritable Thibetan Sahara, -and began climbing out of the great plateau through the western -Cordillera. - -At one of the stations an Indian came aboard the train with a young -vicuña that he had raised as a pet and which he was taking to be sold to -a gentleman in Chile. - -About noon we crossed the frontier. Our train was boarded by two -officials. One of them was a Bolivian, seeing to it that departing -passengers did not take any gold out of the country and violate the law -which prevents any exportation of the yellow metal. The other was a -polite Chilean customs officer. Their inspection of the luggage was very -superficial. In the afternoon, at Ascotan, after crossing a pass -thirteen thousand feet high, we commenced the descent and soon reached -the banks of that wonderful white sea of borax, glistening like snow in -the sun, which has made this region famous. - -The mountains were grand and inspiring but we were so tired of seeing -barren brown hillsides that we longed for something green, and yet the -further we went, the more desolate became the country. We had entered -the nitrate region which is part of that magnificent desert that extends -for two thousand miles up and down the west coast of South America. - -In the evening we stopped for a few minutes at Calamá, a small town but -important as a nitrate centre. It has a moderately good water-supply -which enables it to present an attractive greenness in contrast to the -absolute aridity of the surrounding desert. In this region are several -mines of silver, gold, and copper. - -Calamá was the scene of some skirmishing during the revolution against -Balmaceda in 1891, but its chief claim to fame rests on a battle that -was fought here in the war between Chile, Bolivia, and Peru in 1879, -when Bolivia lost her seaport and Chile made a large increase to her -territory at the expense of her two northern neighbors. The first thing -that Chile did after war was declared was to attack the unprotected -Bolivian seaport of Antofagasta. The majority of the population of -Antofagasta were Chileans and the small garrison was quite unable to -offer any adequate resistance to the Chilean invaders, so the Bolivian -authorities retreated at once to Calamá. Thither the Chileans sent six -hundred men to attack one hundred and forty. Although the Bolivian -forces took up a strong position the Chileans had the advantage of -superior numbers and won an overwhelming victory. The affair was -insignificant except that it destroyed all the hold that Bolivia had on -her seacoast. - -During the night, we passed through a large number of little stations in -the nitrate country. Early the next morning, as the last half hour of -the railway journey, came an exciting ride down a steep grade in full -view of the beautiful blue waters of the Pacific Ocean. After weeks of -everlasting browns, it was a tremendous relief to our eyes to see such -an expanse of blue. Of course no green was to be expected in this -vicinity. But blue did just as well. - -The railroad runs for some distance parallel to the shore back of the -town until it enters the terminal station. We had left Oruro Thursday at -6:30 P.M., were in Calamá by nine o’clock Friday evening, and reached -Antofagasta soon after seven o’clock Saturday morning. - -Hardly were we established in a hotel when we learned that the steamer -Mexico, of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, was to sail that -morning for Valparaiso. We had had no chance to explore the sandy -streets and well-stocked shops of Antofagasta, but this was the first -steamer to sail for six or seven days and it might be a week before -there would be another. Furthermore, there was little to tempt us in -this modern seaport with its ugly, galvanized-iron workshops and -warehouses. So we decided to board the Mexico as fast as possible. - -The harbor was crowded with boats and barges. A few steamers and -sailing-vessels were lying at anchor waiting for cargoes of minerals of -one sort or another, mostly nitrates and copper. - -Antofagasta is a seaport of considerable importance, being the port of -entry for a large part of Bolivia and northern Chile. Yet it shares with -Mollendo the reputation of being the worst harbor on the west coast of -South America. There is little protection against westerly and southerly -winds. Even in calm weather there is a considerable swell at the -boat-landing. - -Once in the boat, however, we were charmed by the gambols of inquisitive -sea-lions who thrust their snouts out of the water, a biscuit-toss away -from the boat. As a counter attraction great flocks of birds flew in -circles overhead looking for schools of fish that swim in this bay. As -soon as a school was located, the entire flock of birds would pause an -instant and then dive with the rapidity of lightning from the airy -height straight into the billows, leaving only a splash of white water -to show where they had gone. Another moment and they came to the -surface, shook themselves, flapped their wings, and were away again to -enjoy another magnificent dive a little later. - -I had heard much of the terrors of steamship travel on the West Coast. -Passengers who had recently experienced it assured me that it was -simply horrible. We must have been very lucky, for we found the Mexico -most comfortable and quite as good as one could expect in this part of -the world. Of course she was neither so large nor so luxurious as the -average trans-Atlantic liner. On the other hand she was not intended to -carry luxury-loving travellers three thousand miles over a rough ocean -and keep them amused, contented, and well-fed for a week. Her task -consists in stopping every afternoon, anchoring in a badly-sheltered bay -or an open roadstead, landing passengers, merchandise, and cattle into -row-boats and barges, taking on cargoes of hides, coffee, or provisions; -and meanwhile acting as a home for itinerant greengrocers whose business -it is to provide this two thousand mile desert with fresh vegetables. -Furthermore she was built to sail over the comparatively smooth waters -of the tropical Pacific Ocean and provide for passengers who are -travelling in a climate of perpetual spring and summer. All of this she -does admirably. - -The staterooms opened onto the promenade deck. There was a well-stocked -library of fiction with books in four languages. The Chilean stewards -were polite and obliging. Altogether we had little to find fault with. -The food might have been a little better, but when one looked toward the -land and saw that bleak desert coast continuing for hour after hour and -day after day and realized that in the mountains behind it there were -even greater desert solitudes, it did not seem surprising that the food -was not up to our ideas of what it should be on board an ocean steamer. - -Most of the passengers were natives of the West Coast. To them the diet -seemed quite luxurious. To us who had come from the _postes_ of southern -Bolivia the table fairly groaned with abundance. I can readily believe -that a traveller, who, while on his way south from Panama to Lima, has -his first South American meals on board of one of these West Coast -steamers would find the fare distressingly bad and the boats not very -clean. Perhaps the discipline would seem lax and the service execrable. -It all depends on one’s point of view. - -If one is going to travel in South America at all, it is necessary to -make up one’s mind to put up with a lot of this sort of thing. It need -only be remembered that these boats are as safe and comfortable as those -in other parts of the world, and that they have better accommodations -than will be found anywhere in South America outside of half a dozen -cities. - -The first day after leaving Antofagasta brought us to Caldera. On the -second day we reached Coquimbo which seems to be a flourishing seaport. -Of course there are no wharves, but the bay is fairly well protected and -steamers are able to anchor within three quarters of a mile of the -landing-stage. New villas in course of construction on the heights at -the south end of the bay testify to the prosperity of two of the leading -business men of the place. - -Devoted as Coquimbo has been to commercial pursuits, very little -attention has been given to making the buildings attractive, and only -recently has an effort been made to improve the appearance of the -plaza. I visited two book shops in the hopes of getting some local -prints and found a recently published anthology of the poets of -Coquimbo! The books for the most part were those such as are found in -the usual South American book store: French novels, French text-books, a -few Spanish novels, and the local legal commentaries and law books. - -It is a night’s journey by steamer from Coquimbo to Valparaiso. The -temperature was much cooler than we had expected, and grew more so as we -neared Valparaiso. To be sure, Valparaiso is as far south of the equator -as San Francisco is north and the same general climatic conditions -prevail. - -The beautiful bay and harbor of Valparaiso have been repeatedly -described by enthusiastic visitors for many years. Since the terrible -earthquake of 1906, the city has lost much of its beauty, although many -of the buildings have been restored and business is going on quite -briskly. In the harbor were fifteen or twenty ocean steamers lying at -anchor, two or three Chilean men-of-war and two large floating dry docks -capable of taking care of the West Coast merchant steamers. - -The naval dry dock is at Talcahuano. Although Valparaiso is the -principal seaport on the West Coast, there are no wharves. The business -section is built on the old beach and on a terrace. The hills rise -abruptly from this narrow shelf and the residential district is on the -hills. Elevators and trolley-lines connect the upper and the lower city. -The railroad station is very near the boat-landing. - -The railway fares were very moderate and the officials of the road -seemed to us quite courteous and obliging although, during our stay in -Santiago, we read in one of the local newspapers a letter from a lady -globe-trotter who declared the Chilean railway officials were the rudest -and most disobliging that she had found anywhere in the world. Chilean -railways have grown tremendously during the past fourteen years. At the -time of the revolution against Balmaceda, in 1892, there were barely -seven hundred miles; while, at the time of the Scientific Congress, the -trackage had increased to three thousand miles of which half is owned -and operated by the government. More lines are in course of -construction. - -Valparaiso is the commercial capital of Chile and her Stock Exchange -determines the rate of exchange. The shops of Valparaiso are filled with -things that appeal to Anglo-Saxons, for there is a large British colony -here. - -Perhaps it was natural that we welcomed most eagerly of all the presence -of an attractive English book shop where we purchased files of English -newspapers and all the recent pictorial weeklies and magazines that we -could find. Partly for this reason and partly because we had grown tired -of looking at scenery, the four hours’ railroad journey between -Valparaiso and Santiago passed without making much impression on us so -far as our immediate surroundings were concerned, and almost before we -knew it, we had entered the political and social capital of Chile. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -SANTIAGO AND THE FIRST PAN-AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS - - -From the railway station to the centre of Santiago is a two-mile ride on -a fine parkway, the Alameda de las Deliciosas. It has rows of trees, -muddy little brooks, and a shady promenade. Statues to some of Chile’s -more famous heroes have been placed in the centre of the promenade, and -stone benches, more artistic than comfortable, line its sides near the -brook. This sounds rather romantic, but the waters of the stream, which -is in reality a ditch two feet wide, are so dirty that it suggests an -open sewer rather than a mountain brook. - -During our stay some one became disgusted with either the brook or the -stone benches and exploded a bomb under one of the latter. It happened -late in the night and nothing was hurt, except the bench, which was -quite demolished. Had the bomb gone off earlier in the evening there -would have been a list of casualties, for all the world walks up and -down here in the cool of the evening admiring the view of the Andes. The -strictly fashionable world confines itself more often to the pavements -of the principal plazas where it may be found about nine o’clock, on -evenings when the band is playing, walking slowly round and round, -enjoying a glimpse of itself. But the broad Alameda, as wide as three -or four ordinary streets, is distinctly the more popular resort, and on -festivals like Christmas or New Year’s, it is thronged with -merry-makers. - -At the end of the Alameda, beyond the centre of the city, is the -romantic rock of Santa Lucia. Santiago owes its situation to the fact -that this precipitous hill of solid rock was left by nature in the -centre of a rich, fertile plain. The rock formed a natural fortress and -was fortified by the Spaniards when they first came to Chile. After -having been the scene of numerous bloody battles during Chile’s colonial -days, Santa Lucia is now a wonderfully attractive park with fine -driveways, well-made paths that command splendid panoramas of city, -plain, and mountains, and a theatre and restaurant on its summit. The -view is remarkably fine. The city spreads itself out on all sides -although the principal plaza and the business district lie more to the -west. The snow-capped Andes, the most characteristic feature of Santiago -scenery, rise majestically to the east. Low foot-hills bound the western -horizon. The fertile plain, which is none other than the great central -valley of Chile, lies to the north and south. Magnificent vineyards -yielding a larger crop of wine than those of California itself, are -scattered over this valley. Chile repeatedly reminds one of California -by its climate, its fruit, its mountain scenery, and its arid coast. -California has one advantage, its width between the ocean and the -Sierras, particularly in the fertile region, is so much greater than -that of Chile. - -The hotels of Santiago are not so luxurious and modern as those of -Buenos Aires, yet we found the “Annexo B” of the Oddo to be perfectly -comfortable. It is really a “bachelor apartment hotel.” No meals, except -early coffee, were served there, so we took advantage of the generous -hospitality of the two leading clubs, the Club Santiago and the Union. -Wearied as I was by the dismal brown desert of southern Bolivia, the -gardens and fountains in the patio of the Club Santiago seemed like -Paradise itself. To be able to sit at small tables, served by courteous -waiters, and enjoy immaculate linen and the best of food and drink, was -sufficiently novel to be charming, but only half as welcome as the -restful green of the trees and the pleasant splash of the fountains. - -We soon discovered that the coolest and easiest way to see Santiago was -from the second story of an electric car, especially when the upper tier -of seats was covered. The fare on the roof is intended for the -pocket-books of second-class passengers and is only five _centavos_ (a -cent and a quarter!) which makes it cheaper to take a car than to walk. -Unfortunately for the pleasures of life in Santiago, fashion frowns on -any one who climbs the stairs when he can afford to ride below. - -Our friends would not even allow us to ride below, however, and put us -instead into a kind of “hack” that is known here as an “_Americano_.” - -It seems that several generations ago, an American resident introduced a -carriage which he thought peculiarly adapted to Santiago. It might be -described as a two-seated rockaway. This vehicle soon became a vogue -and is now the established style for hackney carriages. There are -victorias for hire on the principal plazas, but their rates are -extortionately high while those of the “_Americanos_” are ridiculously -low. It is well they are, for otherwise no one would patronize them. -They seem to be without springs, cleanliness, or any ordinary comforts. -They are not without fleas and other insects. As you go bumping and -rattling over the cobblestones of Santiago in one of these antiquated -vehicles you come to wonder whether the Chilean’s proverbial dislike of -Americans has not been intensified by the discomforts he has suffered in -the “_Americanos_!” - -The first Pan-American Scientific Congress was the fruit of an idea -started some years ago in Buenos Aires where delegates from a few of the -South American countries met for the first _Latin-American_ Scientific -Congress. That was followed by a second which met at Montevideo, and a -third, at Rio, each showing an increase in numbers and importance. Plans -for the fourth Congress were left entirely in the hands of a Chilean -organization committee who decided that the time was ripe to include the -United States in the list of invitations and make the Congress -Pan-American instead of Latin-American. The visits of a number of -distinguished North Americans, including Secretary Root and Professors -Moses, Rowe, and Shepherd, had done much to pave the way for friendly -feeling between the scientific men of Chile and those of the United -States, and the proposal of the organization committee met with hearty -approval. Owing to the efforts of Secretary Root and Professor Rowe, the -United States Congress passed an appropriation to send an official -delegation to the Congress. A number of our leading universities -likewise appointed delegates. - -The programme suggested for the Congress was replete with all manner of -topics for discussion and covered almost the entire field of knowledge, -from questions of sanitation to those of international law, and from the -antiquity of primitive man in America to modern methods of primary -instruction. - -As was to be expected from such a comprehensive programme, the intention -was not so much to bring out the results of the latest research as to -furnish topics that would be sure to interest the delegates. Even the -meetings of our learned societies in the States are largely social. To -many of those who attend the chief attraction is the opportunity of -meeting others who are interested in the same lines, and the programme -is merely an excuse for the meeting. The Pan-American Scientific -Congress was not far different. It offered an excellent opportunity for -the scientists of Latin-America to renew old acquaintance, and it gave -the favored delegates from the United States a chance to make new -friends among men whose interests are chiefly intellectual. - -Under the circumstances, it is not surprising that few of the papers -presented new facts or the results of prolonged and scholarly research. -Nor is it at all remarkable that the most animated discussions took -place in the sessions devoted to international law and politics, -education, and political science. These are topics on which every man -has ideas which he is not afraid to express. And these discussions -served as a means of introducing men that might not otherwise have met. - -Politics were kept in the background, as far as possible, but national -feelings occasionally found opportunity for expression. - -Chile is the one country in South America that has never had and cannot -have a boundary dispute with Brazil. The Portuguese-American Republic is -not likely to meddle with West Coast matters, and Chile has nothing to -gain from troubling the beautiful harbors of Rio and Bahia. Indeed, so -lacking have been any causes of friction between the two Republics that -they are fond of emphasizing the _entente cordiale_ that exists between -them. It was natural, consequently, that the third Latin-American -Scientific Congress, meeting in Rio under Brazilian organization, should -have chosen Santiago as the seat of the fourth congress, and it was a -return of the courtesy when the organizing committee at Santiago, -composed of Chileans, selected the local Brazilian Minister as -President. - -The Congress opened with formal ceremonies, fine music, and much -oration. In answer to the roll-call of republics, the leading delegate -from each country responded with befittingly felicitous remarks. - -It is true that the learned Brazilian who replied, when the name of his -country was called, with a speech in Portuguese lasting nearly an hour -in length, stretched the friendly feelings toward the Brazilian -delegation almost to the breaking point. Few of the audience could -understand enough of what he said to follow his wordy address. Almost -everyone thought that its unnecessary length, added to the fact of its -being the only address of the evening that was not in Spanish, the -official language of the Congress, was at least a breach of good -manners. - -The state of mind of the Chilean audience was reflected in the daily -papers the next morning when full space was given to verbatim reports of -the speeches made by the representatives of all the other republics and -not even a synopsis was accorded to the speech of the learned Brazilian. -The Brazilian delegation took umbrage at this and also at the ovation -that was given the Argentine representative whose speech was short, -crisp, and filled with expressions of friendship. Like the Mexican -delegate, he had appreciated the fact that there were of necessity -seventeen other addresses, and that five minutes devoted to cordial -greetings was better than fifty minutes of erudite information. A month -afterwards when the Brazilian delegation was on its way home, I read in -the newspaper reports from Buenos Aires that the Brazilians felt that -the Chileans had gone out of their way to make friendly overtures to -Argentina, Brazil’s natural rival. But the only things of which they had -any cause to complain were brought about by their own unfortunate -mistakes and in no wise indicated any desire on Chile’s part to weaken -the ties of her long friendship with Brazil. - -Another interesting thing in the formal opening - -[Illustration: BATTLEFIELD OF MAIPO NEAR SANTIAGO] - -meeting was that although the Peruvian delegate received one of the most -enthusiastic and heartiest ovations of any, he took it in stolid -silence, making no motion and giving no sign that he heard or understood -what was going on. As a matter of fact, he and his colleagues felt out -of place. Peruvians hate and dread Chile and feel grievously wronged by -her continued occupation of Peru’s southernmost provinces, Tacna and -Arica. Consequently, they accepted all the Chilean overtures with very -bad grace, feeling that it would have been much more desirable to have -had fewer fine words and more kind actions. It was apparent that the -Chileans were doing everything in their power to try and patch up the -quarrel and let bygones be bygones, but the Peruvians felt that the -demonstration lacked the essential quality of sincerity which, of -course, could only have been given by a sacrifice of the provinces of -Tacna and Arica which Chile had no intention whatever of making. -Throughout the meetings the Peruvian delegates held themselves somewhat -aloof and took part in the exercises with a certain dignity which showed -how little they enjoyed being the recipients of Chilean hospitality. The -Chileans were undoubtedly annoyed at the cool reception of their -friendly overtures. It is entirely possible that this contributed not a -little to Chilean excitement over the incident of La Corona, of which I -shall have occasion to speak later on. - -The greater part of the time of the Congress, counted by hours, was -given over to receptions and teas, breakfasts and dinners, visits to -vineyards, public works, and exhibitions, military tournaments, -picnics, and balls. - -Hardly had we got settled in our hotel before invitations began to pour -in, and we soon found that the hospitable Chilenos had made up their -minds to overwhelm us with kindnesses from the moment of our arrival -until our departure. Never did a city give itself over more heartily and -more gracefully to entertaining an international gathering. For three -weeks, hardly a day passed that was not marked by elaborate -entertainments. Balls, distinguished by elegance and magnificence, were -attended by the youth and beauty of the most aristocratic society in -South America, clad in the height of fashion and behaving just as -society does in other parts of the world. The Club Santiago was -repeatedly the scene of banquets whose brilliance would have rather -startled those good people in the United States who think of South -America as being something like an African jungle. - -Most of the outdoor festivals were held at the racetrack where a fine -large grandstand, capable of seating ten thousand people, faces a -beautiful field and the magnificent snow-capped Andes. Here, on a sunny -afternoon, Santiago society met in a battle of flowers for the benefit -of charity. The participants, either standing on the terrace in front of -the grandstand or driving by in handsomely decorated equipages, were -neither noisy nor boisterous and yet entered heartily into a very pretty -event. - -One evening was devoted to the volunteer firemen of Santiago. Following -a parade was a distribution of premiums for bravery and length of -service. As there is no paid fire department, the city depends on these -volunteers for fire protection, and it has always been fashionable to -belong to one of the best companies. - -For over three hundred years Santiago has been the home of Spanish -families of distinction. Their income has never been so swollen as to -tempt them to extravagant display or so small as to drive them to petty -pursuits for the sake of gaining a livelihood. - -In such matters as magnificent hotels, expensive restaurants, luxurious -clubs, and showy automobiles, Santiago readily yields the palm to Buenos -Aires. There has been no great boom in Chile at all comparable to that -which Argentina has seen. Furthermore, earthquakes and fires have done -their worst to impoverish a nation not too bountifully supplied with -natural resources. To be sure, the enormous nitrate deposits of northern -Chile have made the government able to distribute millions of dollars -among its followers without overtaxing the population. Money has come in -so easily from the export duties on nitrate that no Finance Minister has -been greatly troubled by his budget. - -Although Santiago cannot boast of as many evidences of wealth as Buenos -Aires, she has other qualifications which give her the right to hold her -head higher than any city in South America. The chief of these is her -literary preëminence. - -She has produced during the past generation more writers of ability than -any other South American city. Easily first among these is José Toribio -Medina, whose untiring industry and genius for bibliography have made -him famous all over the world. Aided by a devoted wife, he has produced -more scholarly works than any other man now living in South America, and -more volumes of first-class bibliography than any in the western -hemisphere. A born collector, he spent years in various parts of the -world purchasing rare books in out-of-the-way places and making notes of -unpurchasable volumes in the great libraries, until he had built up a -magnificent collection of early Americana that is almost unparalleled. - -His modest house is replete with interest. Three large rooms are lined -from floor to ceiling with his treasures. One room is devoted almost -entirely to early Mexican imprints. To see gathered together in one -place ten thousand pamphlets printed before Mexico secured her -independence, leads one to modify somewhat those conceptions of Spanish -intolerance for learning which we have inherited from some of our older -writers. To be sure, the pamphlets are mostly of a religious character. -However much one may disagree with the dogmas they contain one cannot -but admit that the intention of their publishers was to raise the -religious and moral tone of the community. In the back part of Sr. -Medina’s house are the rooms of the “Elzevir” Press. Here have been -printed those sumptuous bibliographical quartos that are the envy of -every librarian and the despair of the average scholar. As Sr. Medina -was originally a printer, it is his recreation to assist in putting his -volumes into type. It is not often in the modern world that one finds -the whole process of making a book existing under one roof. Here are the -sources; here lives the scholar who knows them; here he extracts their -virtues; and from this same place he sends forth to the world the -results of his investigations, printed and bound, ready for the use of -the student. - -Besides Sr. Medina, Santiago has produced a number of historians, men -like Vicuña Mackenna and Diego Barros Arana who for careful statement -and concise diction have not been surpassed in South America. Even the -late Bartolome Mitre of Buenos Aires, one of Argentina’s greatest -statesmen and her greatest historian, never succeeded in getting away -from the Spanish trick of efflorescence in language which greatly marred -his work from the literary point of view. - -Santiago’s literary preëminence is further shown both by the fact that -in no other city in South America are there so many people who are fond -of books and reading--witness the large number of new and second-hand -book stores--and the excellent list of works that are published here -every year. While Buenos Aires, with a population three times as large, -can boast of a few booksellers whose shops are devoted to showy -imprints, and who cater to the needs of those who buy their libraries by -the yard, there is little evidence in Argentina of a discriminating -group of booklovers like those who patronize the score of old book -stalls in one of Santiago’s streets near the university. - -On the outskirts of Santiago is an excellent manual training school -where several hundred boys are lodged, fed, and taught all manner of -trades, from printing to forging, and carpentry to carving. Particular -attention is paid to electricity, and a large number of the students -become practical electricians. At the exhibition of the year’s work we -were particularly impressed with the fact that the school is able to -sell nearly all the articles made by the students. Churns, derricks, -chairs, and bells, well made and cheap, gave evidence that the school -was run on sound business principles. - -Not far off is the Quinta Normal, a fine large reservation where normal -and agricultural schools rub shoulders with museums of fine arts and -natural history. The result is a charming place for study and a -delightful public park. - -During our visit, the annual fine arts exhibition was in progress and -included a number of extremely meritorious paintings by Sotomayor, a -Spanish painter who has recently been engaged by the Chilean government -to teach in the Art School. Chile is certainly to be congratulated on -the class of teachers that she brings from abroad for her schools, and -her latest acquisition is well up to the standard. - -Chile’s appreciation of art and her policy of securing able foreign -talent to teach her youth are greatly in her favor. She is in fact a -young and vigorous nation. Her people are bred in a splendid climate, -well suited to the development of a strong race. In fact the Araucanian -aborigines were superior to anything that the Spaniards found in either -North or South America. The early Spanish immigrants were an unusually -good lot. And there has been a striking admixture of Anglo-Saxon blood -as is shown by the frequency of English family names in Santiago. - -As is well known, in the south of Chile there are many Germans and it is -commonly cited as one of the danger spots of German expansion in South -America. Those who argue so fail to take into consideration the -remarkably strong hold that Chile has on her children. In no other part -of South America do foreigners become so fond of the soil as in Chile. -Even those of English ancestry are prouder of the history of Chile than -they are of that of England. I have heard them go so far in praise of -their adopted land as to deride England and predict her downfall. In -Buenos Aires, on the other hand, they continually revisit the homeland -and pride themselves on their close connection with it. There one sees -little of that devotion to the country of their adoption which is in -evidence here. - -Among the spectacles provided for the benefit of the delegates, the most -interesting was a military tournament that was worth going a long way to -see. The Chilean cavalryman is a remarkably daring horseman. His Spanish -and Araucanian ancestry have given him qualities that appeal to the eye -and to one’s admiration of courage. Perhaps the most remarkable feat of -the afternoon was the charge made by a squadron of cavalry over a -burning hurdle. A brush fence, well soaked in kerosene, was erected in -front of the grandstand and set on fire. Starting to windward, the -squadron charged, vaulted over the flames and dashed away in the smoke, -only to turn in the face of a strong wind which blew the smoke and -flames into the very faces of the horses, dash back again, and in -perfect order clear the fiery obstacle with as much ease and grace as -though it had been a peaceful country fence. As an exhibition of -training it was extremely significant. - -President Montt,[1] who was extremely kind and courteous to us, and is -one of the most able and honest officials that South America has ever -seen, sent us an invitation one morning to attend the official -inspection of the Military Academy. All the Chilean officers speak -German and most of them have spent from two to three years studying in -Germany. Like the army, the school is run on German models and is -extremely well kept up. The neatness, discipline, cleanliness, and -excellent sanitary arrangements were in marked contrast to most public -buildings in South America. The cadets are a fine-looking lot of boys -who are largely put on their honor. Few rules are made for their -guidance but when any one is guilty of conduct unbecoming in an officer -and a gentleman, he is permanently discharged from the academy. The -instructors lay great stress on map-making. The exhibition of maps made -by the students was remarkably interesting. The students are taught not -only to make outline maps, but also to construct models of battlefields -and even to draw sectional panoramas on a uniform scale. Three cadets -are sent out to survey a position and to return in half an hour, each -with a drawing which, fitted to that of his mates, will make a panorama -that will enable the commanding officer to understand the situation and -direct his forces intelligently. This is only one instance of the -thoroughness with which the cadets are instructed. It is not remarkable -that several other Latin-American countries have sent for Chilean -officers to teach their cadets, and have even sent their own boys to -study here. - -The Congress closed on the evening of the 5th of January, 1909, with a -grand banquet that was a blaze of glory. Eloquent speeches of mutual -congratulation were delivered by the representatives of various parts of -the two continents. Perhaps the most striking thing of the evening was -the contrast between the speeches of that member of the American -delegation who had been chosen to respond to the toast, “The United -States,” and the one that followed it delivered by a brilliant young -orator from Uruguay. As might have been expected, the latter was fiery, -flowery, and ecstatic, while the former was dignified and well within -the bounds of reason even in his compliments. The unexpected and very -striking difference was that the American spoke better Spanish, pure -Castilian, melodious and graceful. The Uruguayan speech was in the -offensive dialect of Montevideo, harsh to the ear, resembling Portuguese -in its guttural quality. - -The only other speech of the evening that equalled the North American’s -in beauty of diction was that of General Uribe Uribe, the delegate from -Colombia. He ably upheld the reputation of his country for speaking the -best Castilian in America. So far as one who is not a native may be -permitted the privilege of judging by the effect on the ear, the -inhabitants of Colombia and Peru speak the best, while the people of the -countries of the River Plate speak the worst and most impure Spanish of -any on the continent. The impurity is a natural result of their -century-long dealings with the Portuguese in Southern Brazil; of the -presence in their midst of a very large number of Italians whose speech -is so like the Spanish that it easily corrupts it; and also of the fact -that during the colonial epoch, Buenos Aires was not a centre of Spanish -culture like Bogotá or Lima. On the contrary, as is well known, Buenos -Aires was filled with a fairly rough lot of traders who made their -fortune by smuggling and other illegitimate transactions. However much -we may be inclined to justify such actions on their part by the -injustice of the Spanish trade laws governing the commerce of the -Indies, we cannot be oblivious to the fact that the kind of individual -who would be willing to make his living by smuggling would probably not -take pains to speak his native tongue with either elegance or careful -attention to grammatical rules. In Lima and Bogotá, on the other hand, -society was dominated by the official class, and however critically we -may regard these proud Spaniards who were sent by their King to govern -America, we must be willing to admit that they were likely to speak the -beautiful language of Castile as perfectly as possible. - -So much has been said of the inability of Americans to learn Spanish -properly and to speak it gracefully (it is a common proverb in South -America that English and Americans murder the soft Castilian) that it -was a great pleasure to hear the official language of the Congress -spoken better by a North American than by a South American. Furthermore, -it was characteristic of their courtesy that the Spanish-American -delegates at once complimented us on such an achievement. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -NORTHERN CHILE - - -Two days after the closing banquet, we rose early and hurried down to -the station to take the morning express for Valparaiso. Notwithstanding -the unseasonableness of the hour and the fatigue of recent -entertainments, a large number of the hospitable folk of Santiago were -on hand to bid us “Godspeed” on our journey. It is an extremely pleasant -custom, this taking the trouble to welcome the coming and speed the -parting guest by going out of your way to greet him at the railway -station, or if in the country, to saddle your horse and ride out of town -for a mile or two to accompany him. It takes time, to be sure, and time -that, according to American standards, might be more profitably expended -on attending to the business of adding up dollars and cents. Yet it does -increase the store of friendly feelings in the world. The casual visitor -to the United States too often has occasion to feel that we are so -wrapped up in money-making that we have no time to be polite. As a -recent British visitor said in comparing us with Mexico, “when one -crosses the Rio Grande, the brisk and selfish American atmosphere is -left behind.” - -After an uneventful journey of four hours in a parlor car, we reached -the water-front of Valparaiso. - -Before going on board the steamer we had a few hours to give to -sight-seeing and the purchase of furs brought here from the Straits of -Magellan and the Andean highlands. We had time also to feel something of -the excitement caused by the rapid fluctuation in the value of the paper -dollar on the floor of the Valparaiso Stock Exchange. - -The national currency fluctuates considerably from day to day and is the -most serious drawback to commercial prosperity in Chile. During my stay -in Santiago it fluctuated so violently that some of the prominent -business men were very evidently less interested in their legitimate -business than in speculating in currency. The unit of value is the -_peso_, worth, while we were there, about twenty-five cents. It has gone -as low as fifteen cents, and as high as forty cents. All current -accounts in the large importing houses are carried in pounds sterling. - -British commercial houses have a very strong hold on Valparaiso. So -important are the dealings with Great Britain that English is actually -the language of commerce. This is the more noticeable because, although -no educated South American would for a moment admit that he could not -read and speak French, outside of the larger cities very few South -Americans can even understand English. Nor do I remember to have met -more than one or two, outside of Chile, who pretended to any knowledge -of German. A knowledge of English is generally limited to those who have -been in the United States or England and to those who have had large -business dealings with British commercial houses. At the same time, -English is taught in many of the schools in Chile and we repeatedly met -young Chileans who were anxious to practice it on us. - -Great Britain has always favored Chile ever since her merchantmen, -headed by the gallant Admiral Thomas Cochran, Earl of Dundonald, created -the Chilean navy which swept the West Coast clean of Spanish ships in -the Wars of Independence. It was the Chilean navy that enabled San -Martin’s troops to reach Peru and strike at the last stronghold of Spain -in South America. In those days, most of the vessels were commanded by -English and Scottish officers. The tendencies of the navy are still -British, and this extends even to the uniform of both officers and -cadets. In a word, the navy is as English as the army is German. -Furthermore, it has long maintained its preëminence among the navies of -South America. When Brazil gets the dreadnoughts for which she has -contracted, this supremacy will temporarily disappear. - -When we boarded the Chilean steamer Limarí, we found among our fellow -passengers quite a number of pleasant-faced little naval cadets bound -for some point up the coast where they were to join their training-ship. -They smoked too many cigarettes, and their manners on board were not -particularly good, although they were probably no worse than a similar -group of American schoolboys would have been under the circumstances. -Certainly our fellow passengers were not as bad as those cadets whom -Hugh de Bonelli encountered in his journey from Panama to Lima in 1850 -and describes in his entertaining “Travels in Bolivia.” In one corner -of the saloon on his steamer “sat an elderly gentleman and a maiden -lady, brother and sister, surrounded by parrots, a monkey, two cats, and -three ugly little dogs, all of whom they alternately kissed and hugged. -Two young cadets of sixteen, in uniform, who, without a figure of -speech, may be said to have smoked themselves away--for they were -scarcely perceptible behind the volumes of smoke they emitted,--got into -disgrace with these worthy people. One of these young sparks threw down, -on the sly, a lighted cigar upon the monkey, who had been watching him. -The animal seized it, and put the lighted end of it into his mouth; then -screamed, chattered, and cried--jumped upon the head of the old lady, -who was so frightened that she fainted away; then upon that of the old -man, from which he fell to the ground with the old gentleman’s wig -firmly held between his jaws!” - -We found the Limarí well crowded with passengers, most of them Chileans -bound for Coquimbo, Antofagasta, and Iquique. The absence of a railway -makes the semi-weekly steamers the only means of communication on this -desert coast. Yet it was not until we had experienced the decided -inconveniences of overcrowding and felt the relief caused by the heavy -disembarkation at the northern Chilean ports that we fully realized how -dependent the Chileans are on the control of sea-power. They are now -planning to construct a longitudinal railway that shall run parallel to -the shore line, and make them less dependent on naval predominance. - -The next day after leaving Valparaiso, we reached Coquimbo. The cable -had been used to warn the authorities that there were distinguished -passengers on board, and the leading citizens of the town came out to -invite the _delegados_ ashore and took us for a delightful drive along -the beach from Coquimbo to the old Spanish settlement of La Serena. At -the latter place we were entertained at the Club where an informal -reception was held, with the aid of the usual cocktails and champagne. - -At Caldera we were spared from official recognition and spent our time -catching lizards on the sandy hills back of the town. - -The third day brought us to Antofagasta where several of the delegation -left to take the railroad to Bolivia over the route by which I had come -out a month ago. The sea-lions and the diving birds were playing about -the harbor in the same fascinating manner as when I first saw this port. -But the effect, after living for several weeks amid the green parks of -Santiago and enjoying several days of blue ocean, was far less striking -than when we came from the bleak brown deserts of the Bolivian plateau. - -The morning of the fourth day saw us at Iquique, once the centre of -Peru’s nitrate industry, now rivaling Valparaiso as the scene of Chilean -commercial activity. Numbers of sailing-vessels were lying in the -roadstead waiting for cargoes of the precious fertilizers. It was a -pleasure to see several of the vessels actually flying the American -flag! The West Coast depends largely on Oregon and Puget Sound for its -lumber-supply and these three-masted American schooners find a -profitable trade in bringing lumber and returning with nitrates. The -Limarí’s cargo consisted largely of merchandise which had come from -Europe and America through the Straits of Magellan. While this was being -discharged we had time to see the city, where a few months before an -angry mob of strikers from the nitrate works, had been mown down by -well-trained government troops. - -We were entertained here by Mr. Rea Hanna, the enthusiastic American -Consul, who has a difficult rôle to play in a town where Chileans are in -control but where the Peruvian Club is the centre of aristocratic -society. That he is universally liked speaks volumes. - -At the southern end of the town there is good bathing; and in addition, -pavilions and beer gardens to entice the weary clerk from the nitrate -offices. The well-arranged grounds of the Jockey Club afford opportunity -for social intercourse, polo, and tennis. But the most interesting place -in Iquique is what is known as the Combination, the central office of -the Nitrate Association, where the different companies, mostly English, -unite to arrange scales of prices and quantity of output and maintain an -efficient Bureau of Propaganda. - -People frequently confuse Chilean nitrates with guano. One is a mineral, -the other an animal product. Whether the nitrate fields were not -originally guano deposits is a moot point, but I believe this idea has -been abandoned. There is, however, considerable difference of opinion as -to the actual origin of the great nitrate desert. - -As there is a heavy export duty on the nitrates, Chile has been, and -will continue to be, as long as the supply holds out, in the very -enviable position of making foreigners pay the bulk of her taxes. How -long this exceptional state of affairs will last is a problem for the -geologists to settle. As there is undoubtedly enough material in sight -to satisfy the demands of the present generation and the next, no one -has any very stringent reason for husbanding the output or for investing -the national income from the export duties in such a way as to provide -for the exigencies of future tax-payers. The natural result of this easy -method of securing a revenue is a tendency towards extravagance in the -Chilean budget and an absence of careful supervision. Few people care -whether the money is spent for the best interests of the country. -Political scientists say that when the voter has a very light burden of -taxes to bear, he does not mind seeing the government’s money wasted or -his favorite politicians grow wealthy. Doubtless in time such a -condition of affairs will have a serious influence for evil on Chilean -character. As yet the whole industry is too young to have produced any -marked effect. Fortunately for the race, the nitrate fields will -probably become exhausted before any lasting harm is done. Nevertheless -Chile would do well to take warning from the experience of Peru, whose -revenue for many years depended almost exclusively on the yield of guano -from the Chincha Islands. The exhaustion of that valuable product left -the country in a far worse state than she was before her easily acquired -income had commenced to corrupt her politicians and financiers. - -We left Iquique late that night and arrived early the next morning at -Pisagua, the northern limit of the nitrate country. Like all the other -ports at which we had touched since leaving Valparaiso, it is the -terminus of a little railway that goes back a few miles into the -interior and brings down minerals of one sort or another; sometimes -copper ore, generally nitrate, more rarely tin and silver. - -In the course of the afternoon we reached Arica. The southern side of -the bay is guarded by a picturesque cliff, not unlike Gibraltar, which -is celebrated in Peruvian history as the site of a memorable battle in -the war with Chile. At its crisis the commandant of the Peruvian -garrison, rather than fall into the hands of the victorious Chileans, -spurred his horse over the summit and was dashed to pieces among the -rocks and waves at the base of the cliff. To the Anglo-Saxon mind, he -would have died more creditably had he killed as many Chileans as -possible first, and fallen face to the front. But the more spectacular -death that he chose appeals strongly to the Latin temperament. - -Yet this trick of committing suicide instead of fighting to the last -breath is not a characteristic of Spanish heroes generally. It is not -easy to say whether the gallant soldier was influenced or not by any -Quichua ancestor that he may have had. Readers of Prescott’s “Conquest -of Peru” will remember that in the attack on Cuzco, made by one of the -Pizarros, a Quichua noble who had greatly distinguished himself in the -Inca army, seeing that his cause was irretrievably lost, jumped over the -precipice on the south side of the Sacsahuaman hill, and preferred to be -dashed to pieces rather than to see how many Spaniards he could kill -first. He in turn may have inherited the tendency from remote ancestors -in the Pacific Ocean. On the Island of Kusaie there is a picturesque -waterfall where, according to tradition, two young chiefs, defeated in -battle, ended their lives by casting themselves from the precipice into -the boiling pool below. The habit of jumping over a precipice in -preference to being killed in battle by one’s enemies is not uncommon in -the history of the Pacific races, both in the Carolines and in the -Hawaiian Islands. - -Arica is particularly interesting to Americans because it was here that -the U. S. S. Wateree was carried inland by the great tidal wave of 1868. -Not only has the port been devastated by earthquakes and tidal waves but -also by fire. At present it has a very squalid appearance. Before the -completion in 1871 of the Southern Peruvian railway from Mollendo to -Puno, Arica was an important port of entry for Bolivia. When the -Chileans finish the railway which they are building to connect this port -with La Paz by a line that shall cross the mountains back of Tacna, this -importance will be restored. - -At the close of the war between Chile and Peru the Treaty of Peace known -as the Treaty of Ancon stipulated that the territory of the provinces of -Tacna and Arica should remain in the possession of Chile for ten years -from 1883 to 1893. The Treaty continues: “The term having expired, a -plebiscite shall decide by popular vote if the territory of these -provinces shall remain definitely under the dominion and sovereignty of -Chile, or if they shall continue to form part of the territory of Peru. -The Government of the country in whose favor the provinces of Tacna and -Arica shall be annexed shall pay to the other ten millions of dollars -Chilean silver money or Peruvian _soles_, of equal percentage of fine -silver and of equal weight as the former. A special protocol, which -shall be considered an integral part of the present treaty, shall -establish the form in which the plebiscite shall take place, and the -terms and conditions in which the ten millions of dollars shall be paid -by the nation remaining in possession of Tacna and Arica.” - -As is well known, the special protocol, establishing the form in which -the plebiscite is to take place, has never been agreed upon. The -principal obstacle is that since 1883 a large number of Chileans have -settled, voluntarily or otherwise, in the provinces, enough to decide -the vote of the plebiscite in favor of Chile. The Chilean government -says all present residents should vote. The Peruvians maintain that the -voters in the plebiscite should consist only of those who were residents -of the provinces at the termination of the war. Naturally, the Chileans -will not agree to this as there is no doubt but that the majority of -such persons are of inherent Peruvian preferences. - -It is now seventeen years since the plebiscite was due to take place and -the question is still an open one. The fact, however, that in a recent -treaty with Bolivia, Chile promised to construct, at her expense, a -railway from Arica to La Paz, and has since granted a contract to a -reliable company to build that railway, would seem to indicate that -Chile considers the question settled although no plebiscite has been -held. No nation voluntarily commits itself to spend millions of dollars -in building a railway in a province which it considers in the slightest -degree likely to become the property of a neighbor. The Peruvians have -not overlooked the calm way in which the Chileans take it for granted -that Tacna and Arica are to be permanently Chilean territory, but they -are in no position to dispute such a conclusion. Their fighting strength -is far below the Chilean standard and they know it. - -The whole question was brought vividly to the fore just at the time of -our visit by a little international episode known as the “Incident of La -Corona.” Peru had erected a magnificent memorial to her soldiers that -fell in the conflict with Chile. As was customary and proper, the -representatives of the various foreign powers resident in Lima, -requested permission to deposit formal wreaths at the base of the -monument as an expression of the friendship of their governments. The -Chilean diplomat was not behind the others, and his request was granted, -only to be denied later on when his funeral wreath had been made ready -for the exercises. At this he took great umbrage, demanded his -passports, and sailed for home. His arrival in Santiago was the occasion -of a popular outburst. There was a strong demand on the part of a -portion of the public that the government resent the Peruvian “insult” -in a very practical way, viz., by holding elections in the provinces of -Tacna and Arica and summoning representatives to the National Congress -in the same manner as from the other Chilean provinces. This would be -taking the last step in formal annexation of the disputed territory and -final recognition of it as a definite part of the national domain. - -I was travelling in the interior of Peru at the time of these -demonstrations and it may be imagined that the press reports in the -Peruvian newspapers did not underestimate the gravity of the situation. -The fact that the Chilean government did not take any active steps -toward formally annexing Tacna and Arica in response to the popular -demand was attributed by many Peruvians and not a few Chileans to the -fact that in the harbor of Lima there happened to be at this time a -powerful squadron of American battleships. The long-standing friendship -between the United States and Peru, and the active hostility between the -United States and Chile at the time of the fall of Balmaceda and the -“Baltimore” episode, were regarded by the Peruvians as sufficient -guaranty of an intention on the part of the United States to interfere -in case trouble arose over an attempt on the part of Chile to terminate -the territorial dispute in a high-handed manner. - -Whether or not the government at Washington indicated its wishes in any -way or expressed any opinion whatever; whether or not the presence of -our battleship fleet in the waters of the West Coast at this time was -intentional or purely accidental, are matters about which I know nothing -and which do not affect the actual results. As it stands, the Peruvians -having avoided trouble with Chile feel grateful toward the United -States, and the Chileans feel correspondingly irritated that their -government was apparently kept from an overt act by the influence of the -_Yankis_. An enthusiastic Chilean, a vigorous “anti-American,” told me -some time afterwards that he had endeavored, to the best of his ability, -to find out from political friends in Valparaiso why nothing was done -when it would have been so easy to settle the whole matter. The reply in -every case was “fear of offending the United States.” - -After leaving Arica our next stop was to be at Ilo, the southernmost -harbor of Peru, a fact that was emphasized by the very marked depletion -of our passenger list. Few Chileans care to go to Peru. Because we came -from the “polluted” ports of a hated rival, the Limarí was subjected to -a thorough-going fumigation, a process rendered the more unnecessary and -offensive because nearly all of the Peruvian ports actually had cases of -bubonic plague and smallpox while the Chilean ports were free from the -pest. - -We reached Mollendo on the afternoon of January 14th, just seven days -after leaving Valparaiso. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -SOUTHERN PERU - - -Mollendo is one of those places where nature never intended man to live. -The natural port, and the one that was used for centuries, is the bay of -Islay, a few miles north. As a matter of fact, this was to have been the -terminus of the Southern Railway of Peru, the outlet for the commerce of -the Lake Titicaca region. But the owners of real estate at Islay were so -convinced that there had arrived that “tide in the affairs of men which, -taken at the flood, leads on to fortune,” that they attempted to make -the most of their opportunity and asked the railway prohibitive prices -for land and water-front. The result was that Islay missed its high tide -and the railway engineers carved out of the desert coast what is now the -port of Mollendo. - -It claims to be the worst harbor on the West Coast. In fact, the author -of a recent book on South America was so impressed with the terrors of -disembarking here that he described it fully in three separate chapters -of his book! Although there was quite a little breeze blowing at the -time of my landing, I confess to being very much disappointed at the -tameness of the procedure. The reverend author had led me to expect “a -surf-lashed landing-place--a tremendous tossing and bouncing on the -mountainous swell.” Even in calm weather the boat was “tossed about -like a cockle shell, now thrown up to heaven on the crest of a wave, now -dropped down towards the nadir in its hollow. The swarthy Peruvian -oarsmen strain at the oars, they avoid the jagged rocks between the boat -and the pier by a hair’s breadth!” etc. etc. - -One gets very little idea from such language of a busy little basin and -a dock where half a dozen steam cranes are at work loading and unloading -large freight barges. As would be expected from the fact that this is -the chief port in southern Peru, the docks were crowded with boxes and -bales of every description. Occasionally as many as eight or ten -freighters are anchored in the offing, and a large number of lighters -are kept busy most of the time. A new breakwater is being built of -enormous cubes of concrete, which it is hoped will resist the action of -the waves better than the natural rock of the neighborhood which -disintegrates rapidly. - -A climb of fifty or sixty feet up the face of a steep cliff back of the -landing stage brought us to the little platform and gate of the local -custom house. Our arrival here was not expected by the officials, and we -received the customary hard looks that are given every one coming from -Chile. Mollendo has not forgotten the war. Nevertheless it needed but -the mystic word _delegado_ to the collector of the port to cause all our -luggage to be passed graciously through the custom house without even -the formality of an examination. - -Our next difficulty, after landing on Peruvian soil, - -[Illustration: MOLLENDO] - -was in finding some one who would relieve us of our Chilean money and -give us coin of the realm in exchange. At first the local bank flatly -refused to oblige us, saying that so few people ever went from Peru to -Chile that there was no demand for Chilean money, and that they could -not realize anything on our Chilean currency without sending it by mail -to Valparaiso or Antofagasta, an expensive and risky undertaking which -they did not care to assume. In a word it was “against the rules.” So it -was necessary to say “_delegado_” again. As was to be expected, the -obliging cashier was now only too glad to relieve us of all our Chilean -money. How many bank cashiers in the States, after laying down a rule of -the bank to a foreigner, would be willing to break it because the -stranger was able to prove that he was an official delegate to a -Scientific Congress? I fear we are behind our southern neighbors in -realizing what is due to “science”! - -The only thing we could find of interest in Mollendo, was a cock-fight -in one of the side streets. An audience of fifty or sixty boatmen and -their friends, relieved from their duties at the end of the day, were -hazarding their silver _soles_ on whichever bird they judged would last -the longest in the tiresome and bloody battle that was being fought out -on the cobble-stones. The excitement grew fast and furious as the fight -neared its close, and one poor bleeding rooster, nearly totally blind, -and almost dying, received a few final pecks from his victorious -opponent, himself dripping with blood. I have occasionally watched these -Spanish-American cock-fights in an effort to understand why the -spectator with Spanish blood in his veins gets so excited over them. -Apart from a realization that at present cock-fighting is the national -sport of South America, and as such, takes the place that baseball does -in the United States, and cricket does in England, I must admit that I -have failed to work out any reason to account for the frenzied interest. - -Probably the Peruvians would have been just as bored if they had been -sandwiched into a crowd of “fans” at a baseball game. - -We had not expected to stay over night in Mollendo, which has the usual -reputation of West Coast ports for harboring persons afflicted with -contagious diseases. But the daily train for Arequipa had gone and there -would not be another until the following noon, so we were obliged to -make ourselves as comfortable as possible in the Hotel Ferro Carril -which was not at all bad. The worst feature of it was the partitions, -which were extremely thin. The room next to ours was occupied by an -English-speaking individual who received a call in the course of the -evening from a fellow countryman, resident here, who tried to frighten -him out of his senses by vivid details as to the number of cases of -“yellow fever, bubonic plague, and smallpox” now raging in the town. -“More deaths occurring every day than the undertakers could possibly -attend to!” “Scarcely a house without its sick folk!!” “Not a family -still intact!!!” etc., etc. What effect these remarks may have had on -the person for whom they were intended, I am unable to say. I do know -they caused no little uneasiness among those _delegados_ who had landed -here on their way to the interior. We did not stop to make personal -investigations as to the truth of the rumors but were promptly on hand -the next day to take the train for Arequipa. - -As there was not nearly enough space for all the people who desired to -leave Mollendo that morning, we were very much crowded for the first -hour or so. This exodus from town was not due to any fear of the -prevailing pest, but rather to the fact that January is the season for -leaving town and enjoying a short stay in the country. The train -followed the coast for eight miles to the south until it reached the bay -and beach of Mejia, a summer resort where many of the families of -Mollendo have built little villas. From here the road turns inland, east -and then north, climbing slowly and affording one a view of the pleasant -green valley of the Tambo River with its little country houses and its -plantations of sugarcane. Still climbing, the train continued almost due -north across the sandy plain known as the Pampa de Islay, or the desert -of Arequipa. For miles on either side of the track as far as the eye -could reach, there was not a green thing to be seen. Although there was -no animal or vegetable life, it is not exactly correct to say there was -not a living thing, for this is the home of the _medanos_, those -extraordinary crescent-shaped sand-dunes that travel across the hard -ground of the desert floor, driven by the prevailing southwesterly -winds. Each hill is a perfect crescent exquisitely drawn, the delicate -horns tapering off toward the north, away from the wind. They cause the -railroad no end of trouble, for when a _medano_ approaches the track, it -must get across some way or other. It is of no use to shovel back the -horns of the crescent as they encroach on the rails, for the main body -of the mound, twenty feet high and sixty feet or more wide, will advance -just the same and must be helped along. - -Although we had started from Mollendo immediately after lunch and the -journey is only one hundred miles in length, it took us seven hours to -ascend the 7500 feet, and it was dark when we left the train at -Arequipa. We found on the other side of the station a long line of -mule-trams, one of which was reserved for intending guests of the Gran -Hotel Marone. After some delay incident to transferring a train-load of -passengers and their hand luggage to this caravan of tram-cars, we -started off and jingled our way through poorly-lit streets of one-story -houses where attractively carved stone doorways, dimly visible in the -semi-darkness, told of well-built mansions of former Spanish grandees, -whose walls had withstood Arequipa’s earthquakes. - -To a person who has experienced a great earthquake, the mere mention of -the word is terrifying, and yet we were told by one of the astronomers -at the local Harvard Observatory that their seismograph recorded three -earthquakes during the four days of our stay here. In fact, scarcely a -week goes by without one or more disturbances. Fortunately for us, and -for Arequipa, these daily earthquakes that are so faithfully recorded by -the delicate instruments of the observatory are not usually -perceptible - -[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL OF AREQUIPA AND MOUNT CHACHANI] - -[Illustration: AN OLD DOORWAY IN AREQUIPA] - -[Illustration: CHACHANI AND MISTI] - -to human beings. However, like San Francisco, Valparaiso, and many -another city of the west coast of America, Arequipa does have a serious -shake once or twice in a century and people do not build two-story -houses unless they can afford to use very strong construction. - -We were most agreeably surprised and delighted with our accommodations -at the Hotel Marone. None of us had expected to find anything nearly so -comfortable outside of a South American capital. With this excellent -hotel and with the promised improvement of steamship service on the West -Coast, Arequipa is bound to become a Mecca for travellers. Charmingly -situated, with a delightful climate, picturesque streets, and remarkable -churches and monasteries, it offers the additional inducement of being a -base from which many pleasant excursions can be made. Mountain climbers -and those fond of mountain scenery will be attracted by the active -volcano El Misti, 19,000 feet high, and the snow-capped peaks of -Chachani that look down upon the city from their lofty altitude of over -20,000 feet above the sea. Arequipa is the distributing centre for -southern Peru and contains a number of banks and the warehouses of -several large importing houses. To the explorer intending to penetrate -the continent, it is an excellent place in which to purchase part of his -outfit. It was the base of the DeMilhau-Peabody Museum Expedition to the -Upper Amazon. I was astonished to find at the time of my visit, that in -one of the English warehouses it was not only possible to get a complete -supply of excellent canned goods, but even such luxuries as -folding-cots and Caracas chocolate. Professor Bandelier, that most -distinguished student of Spanish-American lands and peoples, says in his -recently published “Islands of Titicaca and Koati” that Mt. Koropuna, -lying about one hundred miles northwest of Arequipa, is probably the -highest mountain in America. Aconcagua is 6940 metres, while, according -to Raimondi’s map of the Department of Arequipa, Koropuna is 6949 -metres. Here is a chance for a well-equipped exploring expedition. - -For the less ambitious tourist there are shops where one may buy all -manner of foreign and domestic supplies, and excellent photographs, the -best of which I regret to say were stolen from a scientific expedition -many years ago by a native photographer. The lover of curious costumes -and quaint shops will be abundantly repaid by long strolls through the -Indian quarters. - -As soon as the Prefect of Arequipa, Sr. Don Lino Velarde, heard of our -arrival, he made haste to call and place himself “entirely at our -disposal.” Sometimes this gracious Spanish extension of hospitality -means very little, but in this case it was genuine, and the Prefect did -everything in his power to make our stay both pleasant and profitable. -Horses and a military escort were provided for an excursion to the -Harvard Observatory, and the Prefect’s secretary was detailed to act as -our cicerone and see to it that we were shown the treasures of the local -monasteries. - -We found the old Jesuit church the most interesting of all the sights -that the city afforded. It had once been superbly adorned and -embellished with elaborate gilded carvings and magnificent altars. The -last earthquake had overturned and destroyed three of the altars, but -the four remaining are well worth a visit, and there are many beautiful -paintings still on the walls. The west front of the church is a -marvellous example of stone-cutting and like the towers of the Jesuit -church in Potosí shows what excellent manual training the Jesuits taught -their followers. Their expulsion from South America was one of the most -serious in the long list of mistakes that Spain made in the government -of her American colonies. - -The atmosphere of the Franciscan monastery took one back to the middle -ages. Everything was scrupulously clean and in good order. In the -sacristy we found a beautiful Madonna by some artist of the sixteenth -century. The monks treasure it highly and with good reason for the face -is as beautiful as any I have ever seen. A pleasant-faced, communicative -monk, who seemed glad enough to be permitted to break through the -monotony of his quiet life in the cloisters, took us to his favorite -spot in the gardens where, under the grapevines, a rude seat had been -made from a great millstone that dated back to Spanish days. From here -he led us to different trees in the orchard and begged us to sample the -pears, peaches, and plums that it was his delight to cultivate. We were -permitted also to visit the library and found it well stocked with rare -and beautifully printed old books. Naturally most of them were devoted -to theology and religious philosophy, but there was one section into -which old-fashioned works on natural history had crept, including a fine -set of Buffon. On the door of the library was posted a notice telling -the monks that on Mondays and Thursdays they could consult books on -piety; Tuesdays and Fridays, works on theology; Wednesdays and -Saturdays, other classes of religious books, etc., etc. We looked in -vain for any day on which it was permitted to use the books on natural -history. Much has been written of the degenerate conditions prevailing -in the South American religious houses. The Franciscan monasteries we -visited here and in Santiago, where an electric dynamo runs a modern -printing press for the dissemination of religious information, cannot be -included in that category. - -As we wandered about Arequipa enjoying the picturesque Indian shops and -the bright colors of the native costumes, the Indians themselves were -courteous and polite and gave little evidence of any justification for -their reputation for turbulence. - -The only evidence which we witnessed of any eagerness to join an -uprising was on the arrival of Dr. Durand, a notorious revolutionist, -who had fled from the country on the failure of a revolution which he -had instigated not two years ago, and was now being allowed to return, -thanks to the clemency of the Government. He had taken refuge in Bolivia -and in going to his home at Lima, had to pass through Arequipa. We -happened to be calling on the Prefect when the chairman of the local -committee of the Liberal party came to request the privilege of giving -Dr. Durand a popular reception. The Prefect had evidently received -orders from the Government to allow any kind of a demonstration short of -rioting, and after warning the Liberal chairman that there must be no -disturbance of the peace, gave him permission to carry out the plans for -the reception. We were somewhat surprised at the daring, one might -almost say the bravado, of the Government in extending clemency to a -notorious agitator who had done his best to upset the administration by -violence. - -Our feelings were confirmed the next day on the arrival of the train -from Puno. The exile was received by a mob of three or four thousand -noisy Liberals who, inspired by the sight of their hero, went to the -limit in their manifestations of joy. It goes without saying that the -horses were taken from the exile’s carriage and that he was dragged -through the streets in triumph by his loyal supporters. The flat roofs -of the houses were crowded with interested spectators who did not care -to ally themselves with the Liberal party by joining the procession in -the streets. A few of the bolder Liberals, encouraged by cognac or -_chicha_, ventured to cry “Down with the Government!” “Down with the -President!” “_Viva Durand!_” “Long live the Liberal party!” - -It may seem ungracious to criticise the policy of a country where one -has received as much hospitality and kindness as I have in Peru. At the -same time I cannot help expressing the conviction that if Peru wishes to -give the world evidence that she belongs to the same category of nations -as does Mexico, for instance, where capitalists may safely invest and -develop the resources of the country; if she seriously proposes to do -away with revolutions and make them matters of ancient history rather -than of present politics, she cannot afford to allow the instigators of -revolutions to enjoy public triumphs such as are usually accorded to the -true heroes of a nation. - -There is too much of a tendency among South Americans to regard -revolutions as a popular game. One of the rules is that after the -conflict is over, your enemies must be treated with all the honors of -war, and that it will not do to be too severe on the conquered -revolutionist for fear that he may take revenge on you when the next -revolution succeeds. If these politico-military agitators were put to -death after being convicted of treason by a properly constituted -tribunal, Peru would enjoy an era of peace and prosperity such as she -scarcely dreams of at present--and the Peruvians are good dreamers. But -just as long as she enthusiastically welcomes home, after a brief exile, -men like Dr. Durand, she offers an extra inducement to any hot-headed -young firebrand to start another revolution. If he succeeds, all honor -and glory will be his, besides the emoluments of office and the -satisfaction of enjoying political power. If he fails and makes good his -exit from the country, it can mean at the worst but a brief exile and -then a triumphal return, crowned by an ovation. In either case, unless -he is so extremely unlucky as to get shot in the scrimmage, he is sure -of plenty of honor and glory and those plaudits so dear to the Latin -heart. Such a state of affairs insures more revolutions. - -In talking the matter over among ourselves the evening after we had -witnessed this extraordinary reception to a man whom we could not help -regarding as an enemy of his country, we ventured to predict that before -the end of the year Peru would see another revolution. It was an easy -prophecy and we were not surprised at its speedy fulfillment. In fact, -in less than six months a revolution broke out in Lima that for a time -seemed as though it would succeed in overthrowing the Government whose -mistaken clemency we had witnessed. The President and the Minister of -Foreign Affairs were captured and dragged through the streets, and -narrowly escaped death in the resulting collision between the -revolutionists and the government troops. Fortunately, like so many of -its predecessors, the revolution was a failure. But coming as it did -just at a time when the city of Lima was endeavoring to sell its bonds -on the New York market, it acted as a very effective warning to -capitalists who were attracted by an eight per cent municipal bond. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -LA PAZ, THE _DE FACTO_ CAPITAL OF BOLIVIA - - -It is a twelve hours’ run from Arequipa to the wharf at Puno where one -takes the steamer across Lake Titicaca. The distance is only two hundred -and eighteen miles, but there are fifteen or twenty stops, and there is -no hurry. - -Our train was mixed passenger and freight and one first-class coach was -amply sufficient to accommodate everybody. - -Shortly after ten o’clock, we stopped for breakfast at a primitive -little railway inn, where, although we had good appetites and were -accustomed to native fare, the food seemed exceptionally bad, and some -of it was quite inedible. Whether it was the result of this or not, -several of the passengers soon began to show signs of mountain sickness. -Arequipa is 7500 feet above the sea, but Crucero Alto, a water tank -station, which we reached about half past two, is 14,666 feet, so there -was good excuse for any one who is at all affected by rarefied -atmosphere. - -The eastern edge of the plateau brought us to the two mountain lakes of -Saracocha and Cachipascana. Although there was no green in the -landscape, the snow-capped mountains that surround the lakes lent an -atmosphere of romance and charm to the otherwise desolate view. -Continuing eastward, the train went rapidly down grade for two thousand -feet, stopping occasionally at little Indian villages until it reached -the important railway junction of Juliaca. Here the passengers for Cuzco -left us, and in the dusk we turned south and hurried over the remaining -thirty miles of level road. On reaching the wharf at Puno, we found to -our dismay that the steamer scheduled to cross Titicaca this evening was -the Yavarí, the smallest and oldest on the lake, and the first steam -vessel to be propelled at an altitude of 12,500 feet above sea-level. -She had already received her full complement of freight, and her deck -was covered with railway-ties brought from Oregon for the new Bolivia -Railway System. It took but a few moments to get passengers and their -luggage transferred from the train to the steamer, and before we -realized it, we were plowing through the troubled waters of the highest -large body of water in the world. The sky was beautifully clear and the -stars shone with wonderful brightness, attracting us to spend the -evening on deck, to the amazement of the natives who preferred to sit in -the stuffy little dining saloon. It did not take us long to agree with -them that it was too cold and damp to make the starlight very enjoyable. - -Our slumbers were disturbed by a terrific thunder-storm that made the -little Yavarí toss about like a cork. The rain descended in torrents and -obliged us to close our porthole. Of course, it was not the first squall -nor the worst that the stout little vessel had weathered, but out of -consideration for her age, we had unpleasant dreams of swimming in the -water of a lake which is so cold that none of the Indians who live on -its banks and navigate their crazy _balsas_ over its surface have ever -learned how to swim. - -We were up at daylight just in time to see the islands of Titicaca and -Koati and the promontory of Copacavana, the old centre of civilization -on the plateau. It is still the scene of many quaint Indian festivals. -The ancient terraces are still used in slow rotation for raising crops. -We passed quite close to the peninsula of Taraco which abuts from the -eastern shore and is thickly populated. In fact, so far as we could see, -all the valuable lands on the shores of the lake were cultivated to the -limit. - -Mr. Bandelier says there are probably more Indians here now than there -were in the days before the Conquest, all the sentimentalists to the -contrary notwithstanding. - -The atmosphere was wonderfully clear, and with the aid of glasses, we -could see people miles away going in and out of picturesque little -churches, driving their cattle to pasture, tending crops, and working on -the primitive threshing-floors where donkeys and oxen were treading out -the barley. Occasionally the effect was heightened by a mirage that -raised the shores up from the lake and enabled us to see new towns and -villages. Far in the distance snow-covered mountains added to the charm -of the scene. - -On the marshy shores the fisherfolk began to embark in their _balsas_, -those curious canoes, made of bundles of reeds tied together, quite -comfortable when new but most disagreeable when water-logged. At one -time we were able to count forty of them dotting the waters of the -lake. Not less interesting was a species of wild duck or diver that -amused us by swimming directly in the path of the steamer, then becoming -suddenly frightened, and with the aid of its wings, running over the -surface of the water with incredible swiftness. - -Numerous as have been the travellers that have crossed the lake, and -easy as it is of access, still Mr. Bandelier is able to write: “Lake -Titicaca in most of its features is as unknown as the least visited of -the inner African lakes. The shores are so indented and their topography -is so complicated, that a coasting voyage of a year at least would be -needed to achieve a complete investigation.” - -There is only a narrow channel between the peninsula of Copacavana on -the west and that of San Pedro on the east so that after one passes -through the narrow straits of Tiquina, one loses sight of the great -expanse of Titicaca and is in reality in a small lake at its southern -end. It took us several hours to cross this, however, and it was noon -before we entered the little artificial harbor of Guaqui. The only lake -traffic that pays is freight and the boats run frequently, but -irregularly, starting as soon as their loading of cargo is completed. -One reads in the guide-books that they have a regular schedule. The -natives say that you can never tell when the steamers will sail. As a -matter of fact, it is usually possible to find out a day or two ahead -from the railroad officials the hour and date of sailing. - -Soon after our arrival the daily train started. The first stop was at -the famous town of Tiahuanaco. We could see enough of the wonderful -ruins from the train to arouse the greatest curiosity, which a few boys -increased by trying to sell us trinkets which had possibly been dug up -in the vicinity. - -Beyond Tiahuanaco the country, part of the great tableland of Bolivia, -is covered with loose stone and an occasional low shrub. Not a single -tree breaks the monotony. Trees are rarely seen anywhere on this -plateau. A three hours’ run over the level plains brought us to Alto de -La Paz. - -My impressions of the approach to La Paz were so much like those of our -old friend Edmund Temple who came here from Potosí in 1828, that I shall -quote in full his quaint and vivid description. “After travelling -twelve, thirteen, and, as I imagined, every mile of the distance from -Ventilla to La Paz, my astonishment was excited by not perceiving on so -level a plain any object indicating the existence of a town. Sundry -groups of Indians, droves of mules, llamas, and asses, some unladen, -some with burdens, were indeed to be seen passing and repassing, as in -the bustle of business, but no buildings or habitation whatever; no -turret, dome, or steeple of church or convent appeared in view, although -the tolling of their bells occasionally struck faintly on the ear. Huge, -barren, weather-beaten rocks, and snow-covered mountains, apparently -close at hand, rose directly before me, and presented an impassable -barrier. - -“I could not perceive where I was to find a town; and, as I rode onwards -in strange perplexity, endeavoring to solve the enigma, I arrived -suddenly at the verge of an abrupt and prodigious precipice, at the - -[Illustration: MONOLITHIC IMAGE AT TIAHUANACO] - -bottom of which I beheld, in diminutive perspective, the large and -populous city of La Paz.... Through this fairy town may be faintly seen, -winding with occasional interruptions, a silver thread marked with -specks of frothy white, which, upon approaching, proves to be a -mountain-torrent, leaping from rock to rock, and sweeping through the -valley. In casting a glance farther round, you perceive squares and -patches of every shade of green and yellow, which, to a European, is -perhaps the most striking part of the interesting scene. Corn, and -fruit, and vegetables, and crops of every kind, may be seen in all their -stages, from the act of sowing to that of gathering them in; here, a -field of barley luxuriantly green; there, another in full maturity, -which the Indians are busily reaping; next to it, a crop just appearing -above the ground. Farther on, another arrived at half its growth; beyond -it, a man guiding a pair of oxen yoked to a shapeless stick, the point -of which scratches the earth sufficiently for the reception of the seed -which another man is scattering in the furrows; trees bearing fruit and -at the same time putting forth buds and blossoms complete the scene of -luxuriance.... Yet it requires only to raise the eyes from the lap of -this fruitful Eden to behold the widest contrast in the realms of -Nature. Naked and arid rocks rise in mural precipices around; high above -these, mountains beaten by furious tempests, frown in all the bleakness -of sterility; higher still, the tops of others, reposing in the region -of eternal snow, glisten uninfluenced in the presence of a tropical -sun. - -“I stopped for some minutes on the verge of the precipice to look upon a -scene so wonderfully strange; indeed, my horse, of his own accord, made -the first pause, and with outstretched neck, ears advanced, and frequent -snorting, showed that he was not unaware of the abyss beneath, and -seemed to inquire how it was to be descended, for the road, in a sudden -turn, winding round the face of the precipice, is at first completely -concealed from view; and, although it appeared as if I could have -‘thrown a biscuit’ into the town from the heights where I first -discovered it, a short league is the calculated distance, and full three -quarters of an hour were occupied in descending, before I entered the -suburbs. Here, again, I was surprised to find that the town, which, from -the height I had just left, appeared to be on a flat, was in reality -built upon hills, and that some of the streets were extremely steep, -which circumstance alone must convey a tolerable idea of the depth of -the valley in which the city of La Paz is situated.” - -The only change since the days of Temple, whose graphic pencil has so -ably described the scene, is that a well-built electric railroad winds -down the face of the western cliff into the town. At the time of his -visit he was obliged to go from _tambo_ to _tambo_ in search of a -lodging but found them all so full that there was no place for him. It -gave him the opportunity of putting to test those often proffered -services and complimentary generosities of the South American. -Addressing the first decent-looking person he passed, he made inquiry -who was the owner of a large and respectable mansion near by. On -learning that it belonged to a worthy and excellent man, he determined -to present himself and ask for lodgings. At first he was rather -brusquely received by the lady of the house, who “stood for some time -like a pillar of salt to my politely-studied address”; but he explained -his predicament and was soon given a kind and affable reception. - -Fortunately, we were not obliged to experiment upon the proverbial -Bolivian hospitality, but were met at the station by kind friends, -representatives of W. R. Grace & Co., who did everything in their power -to add to the debt of gratitude which I had owed their house ever since -I started on my journey. Comfortable quarters were found for us in the -Sucursal, a huge, modern, three-story building intended for a convent, -but now used as the annex of the leading hotel. It was not long before -we were exploring the streets and enjoying the sights of the most -picturesque Indian city in Spanish-America. - -There are, to be sure, the usual earmarks of a Latin-American capital: -well-stocked warehouses owned by English, German, and American firms; -native politicians, unmistakable, in frock coats and silk hats, who -spend their time chatting around the benches of the principal plaza near -the Government House; a telephone company with four hundred subscribers; -fine residences on a shady alameda, owned and occupied by people of -European descent; etc., etc. Nevertheless the general impression that -one gets of La Paz is that it is an Indian city, quite distinct from any -city seen anywhere else. Its Indians are not like the Quichuas of Cuzco -and Potosí, or the Chibchas of Bogotá. They are Aymarás. - -It is said that La Paz, with a population of sixty thousand people, has -thirty thousand Aymarás who neither speak nor understand a word of -Spanish. Judging by my experiences in the streets and in the -market-place, the proportion of people who do not understand Spanish is -considerably larger. I found very few, even of those who were most -anxious to sell their goods, who could so much as count in Spanish. - -The result of having such a large part of the population untouched by -Spanish language or custom is to make the streets much more picturesque. -The brilliant colors completely threw into the shade my impression of -Potosí. Never have I seen such gay ponchos and such kaleidoscopic -effects as in the La Paz market-place and the streets and squares near -it. - -The reason is not far to seek. In no other city of the Andes are the -aborigines so powerful as here. La Paz owes its political supremacy, and -its present possession of the President and Congress, to the fighting -qualities of the Aymarás. They are a barbarous folk whose cupidity, low -cunning, and savage cruelty is quite unlike their mild cousins the -Quichuas. Pampered and befriended by the Government, made to feel their -power and importance, they stalk unabashed through the streets of the -city and take pleasure in carrying their savage tastes to an extreme. -The natural result is to give the city an - -[Illustration: THE MARKET-PLACE OF LA PAZ] - -[Illustration: A REMARKABLE STAIRWAY AT TIAHUANACO] - -atmosphere of barbaric glitter which is lacking elsewhere. In cities -like Bogotá, Cuzco, and Potosí, although the Indians far outnumber the -whites, the latter are so absolutely dominant, and the Indians so -peaceable and humble, that there is an opportunity for ridicule to -mitigate against the more picturesque features of Indian costume. But in -La Paz few of the Spanish-speaking boys would dare to jeer at a stalwart -Aymará carrier, no matter what garb he chose to wear. - -In fact, the Aymará attitude is a striking example of the truth of Mr. -Bryce’s dictum that “serfs, when they have attained a measure of -independence, resent the inferiority, be it legal or social, to which -they find themselves condemned. Discontent appears and social friction -is intensified, not only because occasions for it grow more frequent, -but because the temper of each race is more angry and suspicious.” We -had noticed their insolent demeanor when we first met them in the -village of Ocurí on the road from Sucre to Challapata. Poor Mr. -Bandelier had many unpleasant experiences with them. - -The streets of La Paz, picturesque at all times, are particularly so on -Sunday, especially on Children’s Sunday. In 1909, that event came on -January 24th, when we had been in La Paz nearly a week. - -The fair held on that day was unusually interesting. From early morning -until the middle of the afternoon, the plazas and streets were thronged -with thousands of gaudily dressed Aymarás, bent on enjoying themselves, -and purchasing toys and other trinkets of the hundreds of peddlers who -displayed their wares in every inch of available space on the three -principal plazas and the streets connecting them. While the -characteristic feature of this fair is the number of toys that are -offered for sale, and the miniature models of everything the Indians use -and wear, the chance to sell all kinds of articles that appeal to Aymará -taste is not lost sight of. Spread out on ponchos on the edge of the -sidewalk and in the middle of the streets was pottery, large and small, -useful and ornamental; tinware, woodenware, and crockery; dresses for -women, girls, and dolls; ponchos of every grade and description, from -the expensive vicuña, worth forty dollars, to the cheapest kind of -llama, worth only two or three; musical instruments: little guitars with -bodies made of the hard shell armor of the Bolivian armadillo,[2] Aymará -flutes and flageolets of bamboo, drums and horns made in Germany; and -dolls made in France; in fact, everything that one can think of that -would appeal to the Indian and at the same time be within the -possibilities of his pocket-book. - -The proper thing to do, and the one that seemed to appeal most to the -half-tipsy Aymará porter that had saved up a few _pesos_ from the -rewards of his labor, was to purchase a fat little doll eight or ten -inches high, made in the form of a humpbacked clown, buy gaudy clothes -for it, and then load it down with tiny models of brandy bottles, coca -wallets, and _chicha_ jugs, in short everything it might be supposed to -desire. The result was not unlike a heavily laden Santa Claus, although -the face of the manikin, instead of being like our genial old saint, was -that of a hideous, debauched vagabond. - -The most interesting things that were offered for sale were little -plaster models of Aymará types; a carrier or porter with a red knitted -cap and a bit of rope in his hand, on the run to get his load; a woman -seated on the ground before a miniature loom on which she had begun to -make a bright-colored poncho; a _chola_ with her white straw hat, yellow -fringed shawl, jewelled neck, close-fitting bodice, gaudy petticoats, -and high-heeled French boots. Besides there were rudely made little rag -and wooden dolls, clad in characteristic native costumes; clay models of -llamas, cows, birds, and mythical animals; little balsas fifteen inches -long but resembling in every particular the craft of Lake Titicaca; -small packages of coca leaves done up in burlap exactly like the bundles -that the burros bring across the Andes from the warm valleys to the -eastward; little copper kettles from Coracora; tiny clay models of -cooking utensils, water-jugs, and little rawhide sandals scarcely more -than an inch in length, faithful imitations of the clumsy Aymará -footwear. - -One of the smaller plazas was given over almost entirely to games of -chance. The favorite variety consisted of a form of dice. Instead of -being marked with the usual aces and deuces, the dice were covered with -grotesque figures. Each outfit had a different set, but nearly always -one face bore the representation of a drunken man, another that of a -devil with forked tail and horns, and a third the effigy of the sun. The -others frequently carried pictures of wild animals such as lions, -tigers, or jaguars. As three dice were cast at a time, it was possible -to win three for one, provided all came up the same way, and you had -staked your money on the lucky figure. The gambling booths were well -thronged. Most of the betting was done with _reals_, a nickel coin worth -about four cents. On the pavement in the middle of this plaza a number -of games of lotto were going on, a game which I used to play in my -childhood when anything connected with gambling was strictly forbidden. -The La Paz game was played as usual with discs and cards. Instead of -numbers as in our game, each disc had a gaudily painted picture on it, -and each card several pictures and lines. The discs were drawn from a -greasy calico bag by an Indian boy, who called out the name of the -figure in a droning voice, and the corresponding grotesque picture on -the cards was then covered. The player who first covered all the -pictures on his card won the pool, less the bank’s percentage. I should -have liked to join the game, but as it was conducted entirely in Aymará, -I found it a little too difficult to learn the names of the different -men and animals that figured on the cards. - -Another game of chance that attracted a dense crowd consisted in selling -ten numbers at a _real_ apiece. If your number was drawn, you won five -_reals_ and the bank got the other five. The only novel feature of the -game was the way in which the drawing was made. At the top of a little -pole, five feet high, were ten wooden arms radiating from it like the -spokes of a wheel. From the end of each hung a little clay figure of an -animal, lions, llamas, dogs, and cows. These had numbers pasted to them. -By means of a spring, a wooden monkey was made to climb the pole, -carrying a stick in his hand with a hook on the end of it. In the -meantime, the wheel of numbered animals was rapidly revolved until the -monkey manikin made a jab with his hook and pulled off one of the clay -animals. This decided the winning number. To see how it worked, I bought -two numbers for two _reals_. The other numbers were soon sold in the -crowd; the monkey clambered painfully up his stick, and owing to some -defect of the mechanism, pulled off two clay figures instead of one. It -happened that both of them bore the numbers which I held in my hand, but -as I was a foreigner, and as the monkey had not played the game -squarely, the figures were re-arranged, the spring again set, and my -luck changed, much to the delight of the Aymarás. - -The home of Bolivia’s millionaires, and the centre of Bolivian capital, -is in Sucre, nevertheless there are nine banks of issue in La Paz, -including several small ones that have no agencies in southern Bolivia -and whose bills have only local circulation. While we were here, the -banks put into operation a new rule to the effect that bills torn in -two, after the favorite custom in Bolivia for making change, would be -no longer accepted at the bank at their face value. It seemed natural -and proper enough to us, but greatly disturbed the small tradesmen, and -seemed likely to cause considerable inconvenience owing to the scarcity -of subsidiary coinage. - -During my entire visit I was treated most courteously by the government -officials and I regret to feel any necessity of offering serious -criticism of anything in La Paz. Nevertheless I cannot pass by the -barbarous state of affairs which we found in the city prison, an -institution which is entirely inadequate for a city of this size and a -disgrace to any modern capital. The prisoners are herded together -without regard as to whether they are detained on suspicion of -misdemeanor or convicted of murder. - -Not all of the prisoners are treated so humanely. For our satisfaction, -the jailer unlocked the door of one cell, six feet high, three feet -wide, and eighteen _inches_ deep. As the door opened, the occupant of -the cell tumbled out onto the floor. He was a police officer in full -uniform who for some delinquency had been imprisoned for twenty-four -hours in this torture chamber where he could neither stand up nor lie -down. I shall offer no further criticism because I am conscious of the -fact that travellers in nearly every country are prone to find fault -with the methods of punishment employed there. Coming from a different -atmosphere, things seem dreadful to the stranger that attract no -attention from local observers, and which are really not as hard on -native prisoners as they would be on foreigners. Furthermore, the -distinguished Bolivian statesman who had politely but regretfully -yielded to our request to see the prison, told us he was very sorry we -had seen it and that it “would be improved before long.” - -The traveller in search of new itineraries or out-of-the-way routes will -have plenty of suggestions made to him by the hospitable English and -American colony in La Paz, and if he is at all uncertain in his mind as -to just what he wants to do, he is likely to become bewildered by the -number of attractive trips which he can make from La Paz as a base. La -Paz contains the principal offices of a number of mining and exploration -companies. The general manager of one of those that is engaged in -gold-mining in the valley of the Beni, very nearly persuaded me to -abandon my proposed trip overland from La Paz to Lima, and go across the -mountains to the Beni, thence to the Amazon, and so home. Had it not -required more time than I had at my disposal, and been a somewhat -uncertain venture at this time of the year, I should have accepted his -invitation. For the benefit of any who would like to plan a journey -across South America by one of the new trade-routes which few travellers -have yet seen, I give the itinerary as it was given me. It makes no -allowances for missing connections:-- - -La Paz to Sorata by coach or mule-back, 2 days. - -Sorata to Guanay, a hard trip on mule-back, 7 days. - -Guanay to Rurrenabaque, on the river Beni, by raft, 4 days. - -(In the rainy season, that is from January to April, there are very few -rafts to be had. The route then would be from Sorata direct to -Rurrenabaque, an interesting but rather difficult trip that would take -fourteen days on mule-back.) - -Rurrenabaque to river Alto at the junction of the Beni and the Madre de -Dios by steam launch, 4 days; or by boat, 18 days. - -From river Alto to Port San Antonio by boat, 6 days. - -From Port San Antonio to Manaos on the Amazon, by steamer, 5 days. - -Total: La Paz to Manaos, not counting time lost in making connection, 28 -to 45 days. - -[Illustration: BALSAS NEAR GUAQUI ON LAKE TITICACA] - -[Illustration: AN OLD CHURCH NEAR THE BOLIVIA RAILWAY] - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -THE BOLIVIA RAILWAY AND TIAHUANACO - - -In order to attend the Scientific Congress, I had been obliged to -interrupt my journey from Buenos Aires to Lima and had left my saddles -and impedimenta at Oruro. It was now necessary to return thither and -pick up the overland trail. - -Leaving La Paz early one morning by the electric train for the Alto, we -took the Guaqui train as far as Viacha, the northern terminus of the -Bolivia Railway. - -This railway was built to order for the Bolivian Government by an -American syndicate, and we found it equipped with American-made -locomotives and cars, and operated by American railroad men. Most of -them had had some experience in Mexico and were familiar with the -difficulties of handling Indian laborers, and also with the use (and -abuse) of the Spanish language. None of them seemed to be particularly -enthusiastic over the prospects of the country, and all were looking -forward with pleasure to the time of their vacation when, according to -the terms of their contract, they would be sent back to the States. - -The construction of this road over the plateau offered no great -engineering difficulties such as are met with by the roads that cross -the Cordillera. The heaviest grade is not over ten per cent, and there -are no tunnels. To offset this advantage, however, rock ballast is -difficult to procure, and the earth that has been dug up on each side of -the track to form the roadbed seems to lack cohesion. The gauge is one -metre. The ties are of California redwood and Oregon pine. Owing to the -high cost of rails and ties and the distance which they had to be -brought, the railroad has been an expensive one to build. There is only -a difference of eight hundred and sixteen feet between the highest and -lowest portion of the line, yet the hundred and twenty-five miles have -cost two million dollars and a quarter, or eighteen thousand dollars per -mile. - -The Bolivia Railway is remarkable for the promptness with which it was -constructed after the signing of the contract. The National City Bank of -New York and Speyer & Co. agreed, on the 22nd of May, 1906, to build the -line from Viachi to Oruro. Work was commenced seven months later, and -the line was opened for traffic in less than two years. Everything -considered, the prompt completion of the work is a great credit to the -American engineers who had the line in charge. - -There is another side to the story, however. Owing to the fact that the -opening of the road had to be rushed in order to please President Montes -of Bolivia, trains began to run before the road was really finished, and -it has been necessary to continue the service in order to avoid -criticism. The South American is not as patient as the North American -and is ever ready to enter vehement and furious protests against -anything short of perfection in railway management. Not content with -actual progress, and not having had any practical experience in the -difficulties of railroad construction and maintenance, he imagines that -all accidents and all shortcomings on the railway are due to gross -carelessness on the part of the chief officials. Every time a train is -late, he blames the management and accuses it of bad faith, although he -knows many of his friends and neighbors would miss any train that -started on time. The necessity of catering to the desires of the -politicians has made it extremely difficult to get the roadbed into good -shape. At the time of my visit six hundred Indian laborers, conscripts, -were still employed in getting the track properly ballasted. Their wages -average a trifle over fifty cents a day. - -I had heard that accidents occurred “every trip,” but thought it only -one of those extravagant criticisms that are so common, until I asked -the conductor. He admitted that some of the wheels generally left the -rails at least once a day. For an hour or so nothing happened, and in my -interest in the landscape, dotted here and there with mud-colored -villages and ancient tombs, I was beginning to forget the delightful -sense of approaching danger, when suddenly, with a rattle and a bang, we -came to a sharp stop. One of the forward cars had left the rails and -plowed its way across the ties for some distance. The train crew, well -experienced in such matters, soon had the refractory car back on the -rails again and, nothing the worse for our accident, we proceeded -merrily southward for another half hour until brought up with a sudden -jerk by a repetition of the rattle and bang. This time it proved to be -the tender whose wheels had found a weak spot in the roadbed. Upon -further examination, it looked as though we were going to be delayed for -at least four or five hours. The tender had lost its balance and was -lying over partly on one side, kept from a complete upset by the weight -of the engine and the strength of the couplings. In ten or fifteen -minutes, however, the crew, well trained by daily practice, had the port -wheels back on the track, but the starboard wheels continued to remain -in the air five or six inches above the rails. As the water tank had -recently been filled, the centre of gravity was too high to allow the -tender to assume its normal position, and the added weight of several -men failed to bring it down. The engineer suggested that a bend in the -track less than a quarter of a mile away would “do the business,” and so -he was allowed to pull down to the curve. It looked like an -extraordinarily clever acrobatic performance to see this refractory -tender going merrily along on a single rail. True to the engineer’s -expectations, as soon as the wheels felt the changed angle of the track, -down came the tender with a lurch that almost capsized it on the other -side. In less than twenty minutes we were again on our way, thankful -that we had experienced wreckers instead of the ordinary train crew of -the eastern United States, whom I have seen take several hours to -perform what these men did in a few minutes. - -Notwithstanding our two accidents we arrived at Oruro about five -o’clock in the evening, after a journey of nine hours, on time! - -We found the Government House surrounded by throngs of people. Presently -a company of infantry marched through the streets from their barracks -and took up a position in the courtyard. The occasion was the death of -the major who, six weeks before, had read the proclamation in the -streets and now had just died after an illness of twenty-four hours. - -The scene at the railroad station the next morning at eight o’clock, -when I left Oruro to return to La Paz, was characteristic. The local -regiment was drawn up in front of the train after having escorted the -remains of their major from the Prefecture. Several hundred citizens -thronged the platform and tried to crowd into the cars. Friends of the -deceased major and his family, men and women, were weeping loudly, and -some of the women uttered piercing shrieks and wild cries. Altogether, -it was rather trying. - -The plain over which we passed for a good part of the journey was very -flat, treeless, and covered only with small, scrubby growth. At one -station we were met by thirty or forty Indians who had brought bundles -of fagots, dry brush from the neighboring mountains. These they piled -onto a flat car and carried down the line to one of the new settlements -which have sprung up near the tracks, and which depend on the trains for -both fuel and fresh water. The latter is carried in tank cars, like oil. - -At the principal stations, a dozen or more Aymará women, seated in a -long line on the ground, offered for sale _chicha_, cakes, buns, and -little pears, brought from the fruitful valleys far to the eastward. - -The only part of the road that offered any attractive scenery was that -near the river Viscachani, an affluent of the Desaguadero. Near Ayoayo, -there are a number of ancient tombs east of the track. Some of them have -been opened by the railroad people and artificially flattened skulls -found. The railroad men told us that when they were building the line -they saw many vicuñas and biscachas, but these have now almost entirely -disappeared. - -We stopped for lunch at a little station whose new adobe buildings and -corrugated iron roofs told of railroad enterprise. The restaurant was -kept by a pleasant American, who did his best to please all of his -patrons, but chiefly the railroad “boys” on whom he depends for most of -his income. On my way down to Oruro, I had had the good fortune to sit -at the same table with part of the train crew, but this time the two -seats nearest me were occupied by Bolivian army officers who were as -rude and ill-mannered as possible. If I had introduced myself as a -_delegado_ they would have been the pink of politeness. Any one -connected with the Government would be sure to receive their kind -attention. But, so far as they could see, I was simply an American -traveller. Accordingly they proceeded to act as though they owned the -restaurant and everything in it, presuming that I would be glad enough -to get whatever they chose to leave. There is, however, a certain -relief in avoiding the excessive attentions which such men as these -bestow on any one with a government “pull,” and it was instructive to -see how they behave toward foreigners who were apparently travelling -without official recognition. It enabled me the better to appreciate the -different attitude that is taken toward South Americans by distinguished -foreign visitors who are in the hands of attentive friends during their -entire stay, and by casual travellers who have failed to fortify -themselves with official letters of introduction. I do not mean to imply -that one who merely wishes to visit the chief centres of interest will -fail to be comfortable unless he supplies himself with important looking -documents tied with red tape and sealed with a great seal, but I do know -from personal experience that such a preparation can give one, in at -least eleven Latin-American republics, a very different impression of -the country and of the courtesy of its inhabitants. - -There does not seem to be much likelihood of any large amount of traffic -being developed along this desolate plateau. The railroad must depend -for its freight on foreign merchandise coming to La Paz via Oruro and -the port of Antofagasta. As it has a longer haul than that of its -competitor, the Peruvian Southern from Mollendo to Puno, it will have -some difficulty in getting much of this. Furthermore, there is the new -Chilean government railroad now under construction, a direct line to La -Paz from the port of Arica. When that is finished, it is difficult to -say how the line from Oruro to La Paz can secure enough freight to pay -expenses. There will always be a certain amount of passenger traffic, -but at present one train, three times a week, is amply sufficient. - -A branch of the Bolivia Railway is now in course of construction from -Oruro to Cochabamba, which will bring to La Paz the food and coca -cultivated in the warm valleys northeast of Sucre where frost is unknown -and there is an abundance of rain. There is an imperative demand for -coca all over the plateau where it cannot possibly grow. Furthermore it -does not keep well, loses its flavor after four or five months, and -fresh supplies have to be brought continually from the eastern valleys. -This makes it an important article of commerce to be reckoned as one of -the surest sources of revenue for the Bolivia Railway. - -Shortly before reaching Viacha we passed a truncated hill, the Pan de -Sucre, that has been a favorite camping-ground in revolutionary wars. It -is easily defended and its summit is spacious enough to furnish refuge -for quite a number of troops. On the hills west of it, romantically -perched on an almost inaccessible peak, is a little church where -services are held once a year. To the eastward we could begin to see the -magnificent snow-range of the Bolivian Andes. Words fail to describe -adequately the grandeur of the Cordillera Real with its two hundred and -fifty miles of snow-capped mountains, scarcely one of which lies at a -lesser elevation than twenty thousand feet. It must be seen to be -appreciated. Still, one can get a very vivid impression of it in the -pages of Sir Martin Conway’s fascinating “Climbing and Exploration in -the Bolivian Andes.” - -The next day after my return from Oruro, through the courtesy of Mr. -Rankin Johnson, I enjoyed the privilege of visiting the village and -ruins of Tiahuanaco on the plains several miles south of Lake Titicaca. - -Leaving La Paz at eight o’clock in the morning, we had six hours in and -around the village and returned in time for dinner the same evening. It -was necessary to take our lunch with us, for there is no inn and the -little village shops afford scarcely anything that is fit to eat. The -Tiahuanaco station is within a mile of the most interesting ruins. The -railroad track passes within a few feet of three of the monolithic -images and one of the monolithic doorways. - -At the station we secured the services of a picturesquely dressed old -Aymará who the station master assured us was a competent guide. He took -us across the dusty plain towards a large mound which had once been -surrounded by terraces and stone walls. It is popularly known as the -“fortress.” Originally a truncated pyramid about six hundred feet long, -four hundred feet wide, and fifty feet high, treasure-seekers have dug -great holes in its sides and excavated part of its summit in an effort -to find the “buried riches of the Incas.” Besides the fortress there -seems to be evidence of a great “temple” and also of a “palace.” The -“temple,” roughly outlined by rude stone blocks, occupies an area of -nearly four acres. For the most part the blocks are from six to ten feet -in height and three feet in thickness. Within there is still evidence of -a terrace, and from this on the eastern side there leads a remarkable -stairway. Scattered about over the mound and all over the plain are many -rectangular stones whose purpose has been entirely lost, thanks to the -activity of treasure-seekers who have ruthlessly moved them from their -original position and left them lying in indescribable confusion. There -seems to be evidence that many of the blocks were held in place by -strong metal pins, for there are round holes drilled into the stones and -insertions made to receive “T” clamps. - -The principal ruins are in a broad level part of the plain where the -soil is firm and dry. They consist of rows of erect, roughly-shaped -monoliths, sections of foundations, portions of giant stairways, -monolithic doorways, some bearing carvings in low relief, monolithic -statues, and innumerable small cut stones strewn about on all sides. - -Great stone platforms, weighing many tons, aroused our keenest -curiosity. One looks around the plain in vain for a near-by quarry from -which they could have come. The most natural supposition is that they -must have been quarried on the spot from ledges outcropping here, for it -would seem scarcely possible that blocks twenty feet long, ten feet -wide, and four feet thick could have been transported any distance by -the primitive methods at the disposal of those prehistoric people. - -The ruins were much more complete in 1875 at - -[Illustration: “GREAT PLATFORMS OF STONE WEIGHING MANY TONS”] - -[Illustration: PART OF THE GREAT MONOLITHIC DOORWAY] - -the time of the visit of the American archæologist, E. G. Squier, who -spent some time here, and whose account of the ruins in his book on Peru -is one of the most complete and satisfactory that we possess. -Unfortunately, his drawings give an erroneous impression of the size of -many of the monuments which are not so large as he has represented them. - -Squier saw no subterranean vaults or passages, but we were more -fortunate, for only a short time previous to our visit, thanks to the -activity of Mr. John Pierce Hope of La Paz, who has taken a great -interest in the work of exploration, a small vault was discovered and we -were able to enter and examine it. It is about six feet square and the -same in depth and is made of beautifully cut stones, accurately fitted -together. Nothing of value was found in the vault and it is probably one -of those to which Von Tschudi, who was here before Squier’s visit, -refers. The winds that blow over these sandy plains will soon fill the -vault and cover it up again and leave it to be rediscovered by some -future traveller. - -The largest monolithic doorway, now broken, is covered with figures not -unlike some of the Central American monuments. It is very different from -anything else here or in Cuzco. The story goes, that when the Spaniards -first arrived, it was lying on its side, and there appears to be no -record to show who raised it nor when the crack developed which led -finally to the door breaking into two parts. The southern and larger -half has lost its balance and will soon be lying on the ground. By a -curious coincidence, Mr. Barbour, who made a careful photograph of the -carvings on this doorway, afterwards secured from a grave near -Pachacamac in the vicinity of Lima, a textile that was decorated with a -similar pattern. - -After examining the ruins, we spent an hour or more in the village -itself where we were struck by the great number of finely cut stones -inserted into the walls of the huts and used as paving in the streets. -The church on the plaza is built entirely of blocks brought from the -ruins. It has a fence or wall in front composed of a row of arches that -reminded me of Potosí and Bartolo. The exterior of the church gives no -evidence of the extraordinary magnificence within, which is quite in -keeping with the ancient importance of this little village. Here we -found religious paintings, some of them very good, elaborate gilded -carvings, and an altar built of pure silver, beautifully worked. - -La Paz has two or three remarkable collections of antiquities which -consist largely of material brought from Tiahuanaco. Perhaps the best is -in the National Museum, which owes its existence to the enlightened -patriotism of Sr. Don Manuel Vicente Ballivian, a descendant of one of -the most distinguished Bolivian families, and the leading antiquarian in -the republic. - -Of the ancient Tiahuanaco, there is comparatively little left now. Not -only did the Spaniards use cartloads of it in building the churches of -La Paz and Guaqui, but the modern Guaqui-to-La Paz railroad has taken -away within the past ten years more than five hundred trainloads of -stone for building its bridges and warehouses. From the point of view of -the railroad manager, whose business it is to secure lasting results -with the greatest possible economy, it must have seemed a most fortunate -circumstance that within a few rods of his tracks there should be such a -quantity of nicely cut stone, and “a lot of old stone walls,” all ready -to use! _O tempora! O mores!_ - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -CUZCO - - -We left La Paz on January 26, 1909, at 8.30 A.M. When we reached Guaqui -we found that our steamer was to be the old Yavarí that we had before. -She was late in arriving from Puno; the afternoon was spent in unloading -her cargo; and we did not sail until eight o’clock that evening. - -The night was wet and chilly. Thunder-storms and squalls made the lake -quite rough and we had the usual discomforts. The storm and the late -start kept us from reaching Puno before 11 A.M. The regular train had -gone, but a special was made up for the convenience of the Arequipa -passengers and we reached Juliaca at one o’clock. Here I bade the last -of the _delegados_ farewell and asked for the train for Cuzco. “It had -left several hours before and the next train was due to leave day after -to-morrow!” - -Thanks to the courtesy of the railway officials, however, a special -train, consisting of half a dozen freight cars and a small passenger -coach, was made up to take me as far as Checcacupe. - -The coach which had been put at my disposal was old and very small, -about the size of an ancient bob-tailed horse-car. Moreover, it was -already occupied by a dozen native passengers who, like myself, had -missed the regular train. As usual, they had no end of bags, bundles, -and boxes. There was hardly room to squeeze inside the door. Undoubtedly -they had better right on the train than I did, for they had paid their -fares while I was riding on a pass. So I relinquished any claim to the -coach and took the fireman’s seat in the locomotive, which afforded me a -better opportunity of seeing the country. - -We pulled out of Juliaca shortly after two o’clock and rattled along -over the plains north of Titicaca. Here I saw for the first time llamas -tied to stakes. Of all the thousands of llamas seen in Bolivia, I do not -remember one that was tied. But I soon found that the practice is -customary in and around Cuzco. - -The inquisitive Indians who gathered at the stations to stare at our -train while the engine was getting a drink of water were mild-mannered -Quichuas. Puno is the northern limit of the Aymarás. The Quichua women -here wore broad-brimmed black hats covered with velvet and ornamented -with tinsel. - -We did not reach Ayavari until six o’clock and it was dark before we -approached the upper part of the valley of the Pucará River and began to -climb up over the Vilcanota mountains. The night air was exceedingly -cold, but fortunately, by this time, most of the native passengers had -left the train and I was able to get a seat in the coach. - -The highest station on the road, La Raya, is 14,150 feet above sea -level. From here, there is a rapid descent of 2500 feet to Sicuani which -was for many years the northern terminal of the railroad. Here, in -search of supper, I stumbled through the dark streets with the -train-crew to a filthy little Indian _chicheria_ where a half-drunken -brigand and his besotted spouse were persuaded to give us hot tea, beer, -and stale bread. The conductor of the train said I would have to spend -the night at Sicuani as he did not propose to go any further in the -dark. Unfortunately for him, orders came directing him to proceed at -once twenty-five miles further to Checcacupe in order that I might catch -the north-bound morning train. The engineer declared that it was a -dreadfully risky run from Sicuani to Checcacupe and that we would -probably never reach our destination at all. But I was too tired and -sleepy to care very much, and as soon as I got back into my little -bobtailed car, pulled out my sleeping bag, and promptly forgot all about -the train and the danger of falling into the Vilcanota River. The next -thing I knew the Checcacupe station agent was flashing his lantern in my -face and telling me to lie still as this was much the best place for me -at this time of night (1 A.M.), and I should not be disturbed until -morning. I thanked him and dropped off to sleep again, dimly conscious -that some kind of an animal was scratching about on the floor of the -little car among my dunnage bags. When I woke up, aroused by the shouts -of the train-men who were making up the train for Cuzco, I found that my -visitor was a little seven-year-old Quichua street-Arab who could speak -no Spanish, but who said as plainly as possible that he would be my -slave for ever after and desired to travel in my company. I gave him -part of my breakfast and thought little more about it, especially as Mr. -Clarence Hay, who had kindly agreed to accompany me overland from Cuzco -to Lima, met me here. Mr. Smith had gone back to New Haven to pursue his -studies. - -Mr. Hay and I were soon installed on the train for Cuzco. We were -already well on our way when the polite Peruvian conductor smilingly -informed us that there was a boy in the second-class car who insisted he -belonged to me. It was too late to put the little fellow off, so I -decided to be responsible for him; but he was a foxy little rascal, -slipped out of the train at some station before we reached Cuzco, and -disappeared. Children mature early in the Andes. - -At the time of our visit, the Cuzco railroad had only just been -completed. The track runs along the steep side of a valley which has an -embarrassing habit of sending down landslides quite unexpectedly, so the -journey was a bit slow and uncertain. The natives are fond of -exaggerating its irregularities, and said it would take several days, -but we were to reach Cuzco on time, notwithstanding all their dismal -forebodings. - -The scenery was very pretty. The Vilcanota valley rapidly narrows as it -descends, and the river becomes a roaring torrent. The climate is -delightful and has been likened to that of Italy. The soil is extremely -fertile and produces a remarkable variety of crops. - -The road follows the west bank of the Vilcanota until it is met by the -Huatanay River. Here it turns abruptly to the left and enters the -lovely region that was once the very heart of the Inca Empire. The -valley of the Huatanay is still densely populated, as it always has -been. In quick succession the train passed the large Indian cities of -Oropeza, San Geronimo, and San Sebastian. Suddenly we stopped in the -fields and took on a group of laughing Peruvian sports who had waved a -piece of red flannel to save themselves the trouble of going to the -nearest railway station. One of the joys of this railroad is that -everybody that is anybody flags the train whenever he pleases. The habit -interferes somewhat with the time-tables, but no one cares (except the -railroad people), and it gives an individual a great sense of his own -importance to make a train stop while he climbs on board. A few minutes -later we reached the temporary Cuzco station, a group of small, -corrugated-iron buildings which stand in a plain a quarter of a mile -south of the city. - -The most agreeable approach is by way of the Alameda, an ill-kept avenue -with a double row of alder trees, on the west bank of the Rio Huatanay. -From it we had a fine view of the convent of Santo Domingo, the ancient -Temple of the Sun, across the ravine to the east. On the west of the -Alameda is the new rifle range of the local shooting club. The avenue -itself leads into one of the principal streets of the best residence -quarter, where Spanish houses have almost completely obliterated all -traces of Inca occupation. As soon as we reached the centre of the city, -long walls of beautifully cut stone, laid without cement, and fitted -together with the - -[Illustration: LLAMAS Of CUZCO] - -[Illustration: CUZCO FROM SACSAHUAMAN] - -patience of expert stone-cutters, assured us that this was verily the -Cuzco of Pizarro, Garcilasso de la Vega, and the Spanish chroniclers. -The one distinctive feature that separates Cuzco from all other cities -in America is the prevalence of these long, dark, sombre walls. When you -look at a building from a distance, it seems to be an ordinary two-story -Spanish house with a red-tiled roof, wooden balconies, and white-washed -adobe walls. As you come a little closer, it strikes you that the -whitewash has been worn off the lower part of the walls, but when you -come closer still, you find that this portion consists of unpainted Inca -stone-work, still fresh and attractive. - -The most striking wall in Cuzco is that of the palace said to have -belonged to the Inca Rocca, which is composed of very large irregular -boulders. They are of all sizes and shapes, some with as many as a dozen -angles, but all fitting perfectly. The stones used in most of the -ancient palaces and temples are more nearly rectangular. The -corner-stones of buildings are frequently rounded off, but there are -almost no circular walls in Cuzco. The principal exception to this is in -the Dominican Monastery, once the temple of the Sun, where the end of -one of the buildings is rounded like the chancel of a church. This is, -perhaps, the finest bit of stone-cutting in Cuzco, and is shown off by -the Dominican Fathers with great zest. E. G. Squier, who lived for some -time in the convent and made a minute examination of these walls, found -that the sides of contact of each stone are true radii of a double -circle, and that the line of general inclination of the wall is perfect -in every block. - -In some of the walls, the outer surfaces of the stones are perfectly -flat, but in general, they are slightly convex. The blocks vary in -length from a few inches to several feet, although it is very rare to -find any more than five feet long. All are laid with remarkable -precision and at first sight appear to be absolutely rectangular. On -closer examination, you find that there is scarcely an absolute right -angle in the whole wall. Each block is slightly irregular, but this -irregularity matches so exactly with that of the next that there is no -space for a needle to enter. The result of such careful workmanship, -combined with the use of dark-colored stone, is to produce a dignity and -solidity that is very impressive. - -The characteristics of Inca architecture are in part the same as those -of the older Egyptian ruins: individual blocks of great size; doors -narrower at the top than at the bottom, and walls with a base markedly -wider than the apex so that the sloping front is a distinct feature. -Probably the same methods which the Egyptians evolved in order to put in -position large monoliths too heavy to be lifted by hand, were employed -by the Incas. They seem to have thought nothing of fitting carefully -into place, on top of a wall fifteen feet high, boulders weighing -several tons. - -The followers of Pizarro who divided Cuzco among themselves, built their -homes on the massive walls of the Inca palaces. Sometimes they left the -Inca wall standing to a height of six or seven feet. In other instances -it still rises to fifteen or twenty feet. - -It is unfortunate that the Incas did not use cement. In that case the -Spaniards would have found it much more difficult to have destroyed the -ancient palaces, and more would have been left for the delectation of -students and travellers to-day. Under the circumstances, it was a simple -matter for the faithful disciples of the church to raise temples and -towers of great beauty by the simple process of tearing down Inca -palaces and using the material according to the ideas of ecclesiastical -architecture which they had brought with them from Spain. - -Many travellers have studied Cuzco but none with so great care as Mr. -Squier, in whose “Peru” may be found many drawings and plans of the -rooms. - -Thirty years ago, when he was here, there was no inn, and he was obliged -to depend on the kindness of the local officials and the hospitality of -the monasteries. But there is now a commodious Hotel Comercio where -reasonably good meals and decent bedrooms enabled us to be very -comfortable. Of course, the “plumbing” was conspicuous by its absence, -and there was by no means so much luxury as at the Hotel Marone in -Arequipa. However, even the Incas were not remarkably cleanly and it is -as well not to have too many of the conveniences of the twentieth -century when living in a metropolis of the fifteenth. - -Cuzco has long been notorious as one of the dirtiest cities in America; -and it justifies its reputation. The stone paving of the streets is -extremely rough and unspeakably filthy. To add to the slime, the sewers -are open conduits running through the middle of the narrow streets. In -the wet season, they are kept flushed by heavy downpours. In the dry -season, they are unspeakable. - -One has to be very careful where one steps while investigating the -ancient structures, for the present inhabitants are no more cleanly or -sanitary in their habits than their predecessors. It is pathetic to see -the filth and squalor that surround the walls of the magnificent old -edifices. - -Although we rarely forgot to pick our way carefully through the streets, -the practice soon became a habit and did not interfere with the -enjoyment of the brilliant colors affected by the Quichuas. Their -home-made ponchos and shawls, fastened with one pin instead of two as in -Potosí, are woven of native wool and cotton. Yet though the material may -be as rare and uncommon as real alpaca, vicuña, or llama wool, the -brilliant hues are unmistakably aniline. In fact, in the market-place of -almost every city in the Andes, one is pretty sure to find a native -peddler whose specialty is the sale of German dyes. - -The most striking part of the Cuzco Quichua costume is the pancake hat. -It is reversible, being made of a straw disc with a cloth-covered hole -in the centre. On one side, for rainy weather, the disc is lined with -coarse red flannel or some other worsted stuff, but the dry weather -side is elaborately covered with tinsel on black velvet. Likewise, the -loose, baggy cloth that covers the opening in the centre is lined with -velveteen on the fair-weather side and coarse woolen stuff for rain. The -men’s hats are slightly larger than the women’s, but otherwise the -fashion seems to be alike for both sexes. - -Opposite our hotel was the church and convent of La Merced. Its -cloisters are noted for their fine old paintings, their elaborately -carved stone columns and arches. Its gardens are filled with rare -flowers and shrubs. In the crypt beneath the altar, Pizarro’s partner, -Almagro, and his son are supposed to have been buried. The obliging -Brother who showed us the monastery had never heard of any such -tradition. “_Quien sabe?_” and a shrug of the shoulders was all he would -reply. - -Not far from La Merced is the warehouse of Sr. Lomellini, Cuzco’s -leading merchant, an Italian gentleman who, while building up an -extensive business, has devoted himself to a study of the Inca -civilization. He has brought himself in as close touch with it as -possible; the very entrance to his warehouse is a fine old Inca doorway, -while his home, half way up the side of Sacsahuaman, was once the site -of the palace of Manco Capac, the first famous Inca. He showed me with a -sad smile a few elaborately carved bronze figures or idols that looked -very much as though they had been buried for centuries in the mould of a -royal mausoleum, but instead were “made in Germany.” Later I found -similar specimens in Lima, where one “antiquarian” had the effrontery -to have three of identically the same pattern, differing only in color, -exposed for sale in the same showcase. - -West of Sr. Lomellini’s warehouse is the monastery and plaza of San -Francisco. The plaza is chiefly interesting for the Beggars Fair which -is held here every Saturday evening. There are practically no pawn shops -in Cuzco, but this fair takes their place. We were told it was an -excellent opportunity to obtain bargains. It may be so for the natives, -but as we were branded at once as “foreigners who had plenty of money,” -the prices of everything were put up to the highest possible notch and -kept there. I was surprised at the amount of old rubbish, rusty nails, -bits of broken pottery, and worn-out second-hand clothing, hundreds of -things that one rarely sees exposed for sale in a pawn shop, and many on -which no one but a junk dealer would advance a penny. As a picturesque -spectacle, however, the Fair was most attractive. The plaza was lit up -by smoking torches and crowded with a swarm of bargain hunters who -jostled each other noisily up and down the long lines of traders seated -on the ground behind their wares. - -Nearly all the fairs in the Andes are held on Sunday mornings. The -market-places are usually entirely deserted in the evening. I suppose in -this fair it would not do to expose cast-off household treasures to the -full light of day. Not only is the chance of making a sale much greater -when the article can only be seen by torch-light, but the newly-poor -individual, who is forced to bring hither his household goods, may more -easily avoid the scrutiny of his newly-rich neighbors. - -Looming up in the darkness, above the torches, the tall tower of the -Franciscan church added a touch of solemnity to the scene. One afternoon -we had an opportunity to visit the monastery and examine the beautiful -wood-carvings in the choir. Like all the Franciscan establishments that -we visited, the rule of the order is strictly enforced, the gardens are -well kept, and although one can easily see that the Order has seen -better days, there is little to criticise. - -The Great Plaza of Cuzco, once much larger than it is now, and the scene -of many Inca carnivals, is still very attractive. On its east side -stands the massive cathedral and its chapels, said to have been built -entirely of stones taken from Inca palaces near by. - -On the south are the beautifully carved stone towers of what was -formerly the Church of the Jesuits. Flanking these are picturesque -two-story buildings with red-tiled roofs and overhanging wooden -balconies supported by a row of columns and arches. In the arcades -numerous small tradesmen display their wares. On the west and north of -the plaza are more two-story houses with arcades filled with interesting -little booths. Here, and on the stones of the Plaza, are cloth merchants -who have gathered their wares from England and the Continent, North and -South America; venders of pottery and Quichua toys, made in the -neighborhood; market gardeners with corn and potatoes; and peddlers of -every variety of article imaginable; some protected from the rain by -cloth shelters that look as though they had been taken from the top of a -prairie schooner in the “days of ’49”; others squatting on the rough -pavement, their wares spread out on the skins of sheep or llamas, -exposed to wind and weather. - -The Plaza has had a varied history. Perhaps its most tragic day was when -it witnessed the death of Tupac Amaru. It was on the morning of the 18th -of May, 1781, that the Inca was brought forth to his execution from the -old Jesuit church. In order to prevent a repetition of Indian uprisings, -such as he had started, the Spanish authorities felt it necessary to -practice the most diabolical cruelties on both him and his wife. She was -placed on a lofty scaffold, her tongue was cut out, and an attempt was -made to garrote her with an iron screw. When it was found that her neck -was so small that she could not be strangled in this manner, the -executioners placed a lasso around her neck and pulled and hauled until -she was dead. After witnessing the death of his wife, the Inca was taken -into the centre of the square, his tongue was cut out, and his body was -drawn and quartered by four horses. - -The immediate effect of his revolution was to cause laws to be -promulgated prohibiting the use of the native language, ordering the -Indians to give up their national customs and to destroy all their -musical instruments. Fortunately, these laws were not carried out. In -fact, the Quichua tongue is - -[Illustration: SACSAHUAMAN] - -[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL--THE JESUIT CHURCH--THE PLAZA-CUZCO] - -still used to a large extent. It was supposed by Sir Clements Markham -and other travellers fifty years ago that owing to the constantly -increasing corruption of the ancient dialect and the introduction of -Spanish modes of expression, the language of the Incas would soon be a -thing of the past. We found, on the contrary, that nine out of ten -Indians, even those who occupied stalls in the market-place of the -largest cities, either could not or would not converse in Spanish. There -was usually an Indian in the crowd who was willing to act as an -interpreter, but the great majority of the people seem to have no -acquaintance with Spanish. Furthermore, we found that the -Spanish-speaking residents all recognize the necessity of learning -Quichua. - -The Prefect of Cuzco put his orderly at our disposal for the entire time -of our stay. He proved to be most useful and agreeable. A word from him -opened to us the doors of monasteries and churches, and his knowledge of -prices enabled us to get examples of Quichua handiwork without being -obliged to pay much more than the regular price. In our shopping -excursions whenever we began to accumulate more Indian toys and trinkets -than we could easily carry in our pockets, the orderly would summon the -next police officer and tell him to act as our porter. It was rather -hard to keep from laughing. Imagine a Broadway policeman toddling up -Murray Hill carrying bundles for a foreign delegate to a Scientific -Congress! - -After my experience in the La Paz jail, I was curious to see what that -of Cuzco might be like. Our obliging cicerone willingly consented to -show all there was to be seen. The jail consists of an old-fashioned -Spanish dwelling built around a large courtyard. Into this inclosure all -classes of prisoners are put without any regard as to whether they are -awaiting trial or condemned to life imprisonment. There did not seem to -be any cells, and the forty or fifty prisoners were enjoying themselves -after the fashion of the inmates of English prisons of the eighteenth -century. The Government’s provision for food does not include any -luxuries, but it is possible for the prisoners to earn money and -purchase what they need. So far as we could see, there was no forced -labor, and the men were thrown entirely on their own resources. Several -were busily working at hand-looms making ponchos which they were glad -enough to sell. Others had cups carved out of horns. One unfortunate, -who happened to be asleep at the time of our visit, sent to the hotel a -gaudily painted trinket with a note saying that he hoped we would -purchase it for a good price, as he was much in need of funds. On the -whole, although the building was old, dilapidated, and quite inadequate, -according to our ideas, the prisoners seemed to be having a good time, -and there was no evidence of cruelty. The Quichuas are such a mild, -inoffensive folk that the jailers do not have the same incentive to -punish them severely as do those in La Paz who have to deal with the -cantankerous Aymarás. - -On the south side of the historic plaza, next door to the Jesuit Church, -is the University of Cuzco, rather squalid by comparison with the -church, but containing some fine stone cloisters. It was founded in -1598, thirty-eight years before Harvard College. I had a very pleasant -call on its distinguished Rector, a well-read lawyer. The principal work -of the University at present consists of training men for the law. -According to the annual report of the Rector, during the year 1907 the -University conferred the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy and Letters on -four candidates, that of Bachelor of Jurisprudence on two, Bachelor of -Political Science on two, and Doctor of Jurisprudence on four. There are -eighteen instructors. They receive salaries of $35 a month, and give, on -the average, one hundred and thirty-five lectures a year. The Faculty of -Letters has a three-year course and thirty-three students. The Faculty -of Jurisprudence, a five-year course and forty-six students. The Faculty -of Political Science, a three-year course and twenty-four students. The -Section of Natural Science, a three-year course and nine students. The -total income for the year is in the neighborhood of $10,000. Of this the -Government gives $5500, and the rest is made up largely of students’ -fees. One source of revenue for 1907 was $40 in fines levied on the -members of the Faculty, “for failing to attend their classes and for -other acts”! - -The question of the education of South American youth is an interesting -one. The opinion of the majority of British residents has been well -expressed by an English mining engineer who has recently published a -book on Peru. He says: “The Spanish-American youth educated in the -United States, is not a happy product. London is the real home for the -cosmopolitan refinement suited to their character”! - -South American institutions of learning are built on such different -lines from those in the United States that it seems to me extremely -unlikely that a large number of students from South America will ever -come to American universities. Ought we to do anything to encourage more -to come? Spanish-Americans now studying in the States are devoting their -attention chiefly to engineering and dentistry. Very few South Americans -are likely to care for our academic or collegiate course or anything -corresponding to it. It does not fit in at all with their customary -scheme of education. To the average South American, a “college” means a -kind of high school from which a student graduates to enter at once upon -his professional studies. At first glance it looks like the familiar -German idea of a gymnasium course followed immediately by professional -studies in the university. But it would be unfair both to the gymnasium -and the _colegio_ to place their curriculum in parallel columns. - -A large number of physicians in South America claim to have studied in -Paris. The dentists usually advertise the fact that they were educated -in Philadelphia or New York. Lawyers rarely ever receive any special -training outside of the local university. On the other hand, while a -large percentage of the native civil engineers are trained in the local -engineering schools, a very considerable number have studied abroad. It -is a generally recognized fact in South America, outside of Argentina -and Chile, that the best engineers are Americans. - -On the whole I am not disposed to agree with those who disparage -American training for Latin-American youth. I am inclined to believe -that it increases their efficiency more than the “cosmopolitan -refinement” of London. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -SACSAHUAMAN - - -To defend Cuzco from attack by enemies coming from the north, the Incas -built a great fortress on a hill overlooking the city. To reach it, the -easiest way is to take a mule and ride through Cuzco’s narrow streets, -up the ravine to the ancient gateway in the east side of the hill. At -first sight it might seem ridiculous not to walk, as the fortress in -only 600 feet above the city. But Cuzco has an elevation of 11,500 feet, -and hill-climbing at this altitude is best done on mule-back. - -The Prefect kindly supplied us mules and an escort. On our way we passed -the church of Los Nazarenes whose superstructure is laid on ancient -walls that are noteworthy because of the many serpents that are carved -in relief on the stones. Among the crude pottery dishes that I bought in -the streets of La Paz was one decorated with these same little wriggling -serpents. - -Beyond Los Nazarenes the street narrowed until presently it became -simply a path in a rocky gorge. As we entered the gorge there was at -first little to be seen. Then in its narrowest and most easily defended -part we came suddenly upon a pile of massive rocks, roughly hewn. Huge -blocks of stone, five or six feet high, slightly rounded off and -accurately fitted together, are here built into a gateway twelve feet -high that opens into a passage defended by a wall of large boulders. -This leads to the hilltop. On the side toward the city, the slope is -nearly precipitous, but the approach was made even more difficult near -the summit by a series of three terraces each twelve or fourteen feet -high. There is nothing remarkable about the summit except the beautiful -view of Cuzco which one gets from here. - -The immediate front of the hill just below the upper terraces is -extremely steep. About half-way down to the city the spur broadens and -flattens out. It was there the first Inca built his palace. On the lower -continuation of this spur, between two rivulets, the palaces and temples -of the later Incas were built. - -It is the north side of Sacsahuaman, the side away from Cuzco, that is -the chief object of interest. Here the slope is very gentle and it was -necessary to fortify the place artificially. Furthermore, it was on this -side that attacks might be expected, not only from the savages of the -Amazonian wilds, but also from the hostile tribes of the Andean plateau, -including the Caras of Ecuador. Accordingly, here the Incas exerted -their utmost skill in the construction of a powerful line of defence. - -The fortifications extend for a third of a mile entirely across the back -of the hill, and are flanked by steep valleys at each end. They consist -of three lines of zigzag terraces, one above another, each faced with -walls of colossal boulders, some of them twelve feet in diameter. The -lower terrace has an average height of about twenty-five feet; the -middle and upper ones are some six feet less. There are few sights in -the world more impressive than these Cyclopean walls. - -The Incas were accustomed to build great terraces and I have seen them -in many places in Peru. In every other case, however, the terrace walls -are straight, or nearly so. Here, although the walls are parallel, they -are also zigzag and consist for the entire length of salients and -reëntrant angles. The apex of each salient in the lower wall is usually -formed by a conspicuously large block, twenty-five feet high and ten or -twelve feet thick. - -The size and strength of the walls and the employment of salients which -enabled the defenders to cover the entire face of the fortification with -a flanking fire, a device unknown even to the European Crusaders, made -the Inca fortress practically impregnable. It was certainly quite secure -from the assaults of any Indian assailants, armed only with such -primitive weapons as bows and arrows, slings and spears. - -Next to the colossal size of the stones which the builders used for the -lower wall, the most impressive thing is the care they took to fit the -stones together without cement, so that they should stand for ages. - -It is said that most of the smaller stones have been carried off for -building purposes in the city. Be this as it may, what remains is the -most impressive spectacle of man’s handiwork that I have ever seen in -America. Photographs absolutely fail to - -[Illustration: A SECTION OF THE LOWER TERRACE, SACSAHUAMAN] - -do it justice, for at best they show only a few boulders, a small part -of one of the walls. If taken far enough away to show the whole fort, -the eye loses all sense of the great size of the stone units owing to -the fact that they are so much larger than any stones to which it is -accustomed. - -The Inca author, Garcilasso de la Vega, wrote, in the sixteenth century, -as follows of Sacsahuaman: “This was the greatest and most superb of the -edifices that the Incas raised to demonstrate their majesty and power. -Its greatness is incredible to those who have not seen it.... It passes -the power of imagination to conceive how so many and so great stones -could be so accurately fitted together as scarcely to admit the -insertion of the point of a knife between them. And all of this is the -more wonderful as they had no squares or levels to place on the stones -and ascertain if they would fit together. How often must they have taken -up and put down the stones to ascertain if the joints were perfect! Nor -had they cranes, or pulleys, or other machinery whatever.... But what is -most marvellous of the edifice is the incredible size of the stones, and -the astonishing labor of bringing them together and placing them.” -Compare this with what a recent writer on the Caroline Islands says, in -describing the colossal stone ruins on the Island of Lele near Kusaie: -“Looking at their solid outlines, seamed and furrowed with the rain and -sun of untold generations, one cannot help marvelling at the ingenuity -and skill of these primitive engineers, in moving, lifting, and poising -such huge and unwieldy masses of rock into their present position, -where these mighty structures, shadowed by great forest trees, stand -defying Time’s changing seasons and the fury of tropic elements.” - -Also this from Captain Cook’s “Voyages”: “The platforms are faced with -hewn stones of a very large size. They used no sort of cement, yet the -joints are exceedingly close and the stones mortised and tenoned one -into another in a very artful manner and the side walls were not -perpendicular but sloping a little inwards.” This is an accurate -description of Sacsahuaman. Yet Captain Cook never came to the highlands -of Peru and probably never even saw a picture of these walls. In this -paragraph he is describing the stone ruins on Easter Island.[3] - -The resemblances between the ruins of upper Peru and those of Easter -Island and the Caroline Islands offer a remarkably interesting field for -ethnological speculation. Unfortunately as yet they have told us but -little of the builders of Sacsahuaman. - -It is generally conceded that the fortress was commenced in the reign of -the Inca Viracocha, two hundred years before the Spanish Conquest. -Whether this tradition is well founded, it is difficult to say. It may -be due to the fact that the name “Viracocha,” as Sir Clements Markham -points out, was simply the term applied to a powerful character, a term -of admiration, equivalent to the word “gentleman” in English. - -Whoever built it, the task was certainly heroic. Many of the stones were -undoubtedly quarried near by. As for methods of transportation, we know -that the Incas understood the manufacture of strong cables, for they -built suspension bridges across many of the chasms of central Peru. By -the aid of these cables and of wooden rollers, it would have been -entirely possible to have dragged very large stones for a considerable -distance, up inclined planes. Although they had no draft animals, llamas -being only accustomed to carrying, they had thousands of patient -Quichuas at their disposal, whose combined efforts, extended over long -lines of cables, would have been amply sufficient to move even the -largest of these great blocks. Nevertheless, when one considers the -difficulty of fitting together two irregular boulders, both of them -weighing eight or ten tons, one’s admiration for the skill of these old -builders knows no bounds. - -The modern Peruvians are very fond of speculating as to the method which -the Incas employed to make their stones fit so perfectly. One of the -favorite stories is that the Incas knew of a plant whose juices rendered -the surface of a block so soft that the marvellous fitting was -accomplished by rubbing the stones together for a few moments with this -magical plant juice! - -Discussion and speculation will undoubtedly continue indefinitely, yet -one can come to at least two conclusions: the Incas had an unlimited -amount of labor at their disposal, and time was no object. - -Furthermore, they were apparently very fond of playing the game of -stone-cutting. From the fortress we rode across the little grassy plain -that separates the terraces from the rocks of Rodadero hill. On its -summit, terraces have been hewn out of the solid rock, and it is said -that the Incas were fond of sitting here to watch their patient workmen -engaged in putting together the magnificent walls of Sacsahuaman. On the -north side of the hill, the rock has been worn into grooves by the water -and polished by the ponchos of generations of pleasure-seekers who have -used this curious formation as a “toboggan slide.” Our guides assured us -that the habit of coasting down this hill on ponchos was started by the -Incas. At all events, it is still a favorite Sunday amusement. - -In the rolling country north of the Rodadero are numbers of rocks and -ledges that have been carved into fantastic seats, nooks, and crannies -by a people who seem to have taken a keen delight in stone-carving for -its own sake. It is difficult to explain in any other way the maze of -niches and shelves, seats and pedestals that are scattered about on -every hand. Writers are accustomed to label as “Inca thrones” every -stone seat they find in the mountains of Peru. But here the ledges are -carved so irregularly as almost to bewilder the imagination. - -A mile away to the northeast we discovered the dim outlines of a large -amphitheatre where the Incas may have gathered on the grassy slopes to - -[Illustration: AN INCA VASE FROM CUZCO] - -[Illustration: ARTICLES OF DRESS AND A DECORATED MULE HALTER FROM -CUZCO] - -watch games and religious festivals. It offers an attractive field for -digging, as it seems to have been entirely overlooked hitherto. - -On our way back to the city we were invited to rest at Sr. Lomellini’s -country house which is built in the gardens of Manco Capac, the first -Inca. The entrance is through a gate in the wall of the ancient outer -terrace. Near the house stands a section of the palace wall, thirty feet -long and ten feet high, containing a recessed door and window. In the -outer terrace the stones are of irregular shapes while in this wall they -are practically rectangular. In his house, Sr. Lomellini has collected a -number of extremely interesting specimens of the ceramic art of the -Incas. The most striking are two very large vases resembling in shape -and marking the small one figured here. This is only six inches high; -those are nearly three feet. There are quite a number of imperfect -specimens in the American Museum of Natural History. - -After the gardener had given us a handful of roses, we left the -precincts of the ancient Inca and clattered down the hill over the rough -cobblestones to the picturesque sights--and distressing smells--of -modern Cuzco. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -THE INCA ROAD TO ABANCAY - - -There are several ways of going from Cuzco to Lima. The easiest and most -frequented now is by rail to Mollendo and then by steamer to Callao, the -seaport of Lima. Before the days of railroads the common route was by -mule _via_ Ayacucho, Pisco, and the Coast. Since the building of the -Oroya railroad and more particularly since the extension of the line -south to Huancayo, instead of going west to the coast from Ayacucho the -overland traveller continues north to the Jauja valley until he meets -the railway. It was this road that we proposed to take. - -For centuries the overland trail from Cuzco to Huancayo and the north -was the most celebrated highway in Peru. The Incas used it in their -conquests and improved it. When Atahualpa fell into the clutches of -Pizarro, the largest part of his golden ransom was brought over this -road. After the death of the Inca, Pizarro in his march on Cuzco found -this road most convenient for his little cavalcade. During the civil -wars that followed the conquest this highway was repeatedly the scene of -action. For three hundred years it was replete with historic incident. -Finally, the road that had seen the beginnings of Spain’s conquest, was -destined to see the - -[Illustration: - -Sketch Map -of -SOUTHERN BOLIVIA -to illustrate the route -of -HIRAM BINGHAM -from -LA QUIACA to CHALLAPATA -] - -bitter end. For, in 1824, it witnessed the last campaign, the final act -in the drama of Spain’s Colonial Empire, when La Serna, last viceroy of -Peru, was defeated by the patriot forces under General Sucre in the -battle of Ayacucho. - -In journeying over the three hundred miles of this historic highway, I -should have preferred to have hired mules for the whole trip, but nobody -was willing to undertake the contract. We were told that “in the good -old times” before the railway came to Cuzco, it was very easy to hire -mules; and _arrieros_ were willing enough to go anywhere, but now there -was so little demand for this sort of thing that the supply had stopped. -The best we could do was to get an _arriero_ to take us to Abancay, the -capital of the next Department. - -Two American civil engineers whom I had met in Arequipa had told me that -the journey from Cuzco to Huancayo would be full of trouble and -countless difficulties, as a large part of the region was uninhabited! -They said that if it were possible to buy a tent in Cuzco, to do so, by -all means, as we should otherwise be obliged to spend many nights in the -open, exposed to rain and snow. They had not been over the road but had -lived for months in Cuzco and had “heard all about it.” I mention this -merely as an instance of the difficulty of finding out the truth about -South America by hearsay. - -We now learned from those who had actually been over the road that while -there were no inns to be encountered anywhere except in Ayacucho, it -would be only owing to extremely bad luck if we failed to reach the -shelter of a village every night. Accordingly we contented ourselves -with a few canned goods and kitchen utensils and found them to be all -that was necessary. - -In the Peruvian highlands the rains commence in November and continue -until the end of March. February is supposed to be the worst of all. -During that month the discomfort of travelling over the bridle-paths of -the Andes is so great that the natives never undertake a journey for -pleasure and stay at home as much as possible. Yet it was February that -we had chosen for our march. It was “Hobson’s choice,” but I was not -sorry. Several travellers have given a picture of the region as it -appears in the dry season when the roads are comparatively good. We were -to have an opportunity of seeing what they could be like in the worst of -the rainy season, and we were further favored by the fact that this -particular February turned out to be “the rainiest month of the rainiest -season that any one remembered to have experienced in Peru for at least -twenty-five years.” In a word, we were to see the mountain trails at -their worst. - -We left Cuzco on the morning of the first of February, 1909. The day -promised ill. Rain fell in torrents. The preceding day we had received -calls from a number of local dignitaries, all of whom assured us that -they would be on hand in the morning to escort us out of town. But the -continuous downpour overcame their conscientious scruples. Even the -Prefect’s polite orderly, who had been unremitting in his attention, was -glad enough to take our hint that we were sufficiently honored by his -accompanying us for three blocks from the hotel. - -The Prefect had been very solicitous about our welfare and, although we -assured him that we preferred to travel without a military escort, he -insisted that a sergeant and at least one soldier should accompany us as -long as we were in his Department. I never discovered why he was so -insistent. There was no danger, and highway robbery is unheard of in -Peru. Possibly he was afraid that the _delegados_ might otherwise go -hungry at villages where inhospitable, half-starved Quichuas would say -that there was no food to be had; or he may have thought it undignified -for us to travel without an escort. Whatever his reasons, he meant well -and it was not a case of graft, for the soldiers were ordered to -accompany us at the expense of the government. - -We started off in a northwesterly direction, leaving Sacsahuaman on the -right. After climbing out of the Cuzco valley we descended gradually to -the great plain of Anta, famous as the scene of numerous battles in the -wars of the Incas. We crossed it by the ancient Inca road, a stony -pathway five or six feet wide, with ditches and swamps on either side. -The Peruvians have allowed it to fall into decay, and for a good part of -the distance it has disappeared. At noon we reached Puquiura, a village -with a plaza very like that of Tiahuanaco. At half past three, after -making a long detour in order to avoid the swamps and ponds that in the -wet season cover the direct road, we crossed a little stone bridge and -rode into the dismal plaza of the old Indian town of Huarocondo. This -is only a few miles from Urubamba, and the remarkably interesting ruins -of Ollantaytambo, which have been so graphically described by Squier. - -Unfortunately we had no time to visit them and took instead the road to -the southwest. Skirting the hills north of the plain of Anta, we passed -several great terraces a third of a mile long and fourteen or fifteen -feet high, and towards evening entered Zurita, a small Indian town. Here -we were directed to the house of a hospitable Gobernador where we found -that two Peruvian travellers had preceded us. - -As in other houses of the better class in this vicinity, the entrance -was through a large gate into a courtyard. Opposite the gate was a -two-story building with a balcony running the length of the second -floor. On another side of the court were smaller structures one of which -had a wide stone verandah where the _arrieros_ and the soldiers piled up -the saddles and bags and spread their blankets for the night. Two -unfortunate parrots, cold, sickly, and bedraggled, had their perches -attached to the posts of the verandah. - -An hour after our arrival, four Indian _alcaldes_ and _tenientes_ -carrying silver-tipped canes as symbols of office, presented themselves -in the courtyard in answer to the summons of the Gobernador. When that -official appeared on the balcony, they humbly removed their hats and -stood in silence while he told them how many bundles of fresh barley -straw to bring for our mules. An hour later they returned with other -Indians who, acting under their orders, brought the _cebada_. The -conversation was carried on in Quichua, which we were unable to follow, -but the Gobernador said that for the fodder the _alcaldes_ wanted one -_sol_, a Peruvian silver dollar worth forty-eight cents. This we -cheerfully gave him, whereupon, in a most unabashed manner, he put the -_sol_ in his pocket, took out a few small coins worth about half a _sol_ -and threw them down into the courtyard where they were gratefully picked -up by the _alcaldes_. - -We left Zurita the next morning, accompanied by the Gobernador and our -fellow lodgers. They were all well-mounted on excellent horses. The -horsemen of this vicinity affect a bit of harness that seems to be a -relic of the trappings of Spanish war horses. The crupper is covered -with a V-shaped piece of solid leather elaborately stamped and marked. -From it hang hip straps supporting very loose breeching that dangles -almost to the points of the hocks and actually rests on the ham strings. -Although it is of no use whatever, and in fact, actually impedes the -horse’s action, the effect is rather picturesque. - -Leaving the _arriero_ and his pack mules to follow in charge of our -military escort, we pushed on at a good pace with our friends and found -ourselves at noon at Challabamba on the divide that separates the waters -of the river Urubamba from those of the Apurimac. In marked distinction -to the grassy, treeless plain of Anta from which we had just ascended, -we saw before us deep green, wooded valleys. - -The trail, a rocky stairway not unlike the bed of a mountain torrent, -led us rapidly into a warm tropical region whose dense foliage and -tangled vines were grateful enough after the bleak mountain plateau. -Beautiful yellow broom flowers were abundant. The air was filled with -the fragrance of heliotrope. Parti-colored lantanas ran riot through a -maze of agaves and hanging creepers. We had entered a new world. - -A steep descent brought us to the town of Limatambo where there are -interesting terraces and other evidences of an Inca fortress. The valley -of the Limatambo River is here extremely narrow and the fortifications -were well placed to defend an enemy coming against Cuzco from the west -and north. - -Rain had been falling most of the day and the river Limatambo had risen -considerably. The ford was quite impassable, and we were obliged to use -a frail improvised bridge over which our mules crept very cautiously -sniffing doubtfully as it bent under their weight. Soon afterwards we -crossed the river Blanco and left the old trail, which goes through the -Indian village of Mollepata, described by Squier as “a collection of -wretched huts on a high shelf of the mountain with a tumbled-down -church, a drunken Governor who was also keeper of a hovel which was -called the post-house, and a priest as dissolute as the Governor ... a -place unsurpassed in evil repute by any in Peru.” Fortunately for us, -since the days of Squier’s visit, an enterprising Peruvian has carved a -sugar plantation out of the luxuriant growth on the mountain side, at -La Estrella. Here we were given an extremely cordial welcome although -Sr. Montes, the owner,--the fame of whose hospitality had reached even -to Cuzco,--was not at home. Our military escort did not arrive until -nearly three hours later, with a sad story of wretched animals and -narrow escapes. - -We were considerably surprised to find here at La Estrella an excellent -piano in fairly good tune. It had been brought from Cuzco on the -shoulders of Quichua bearers. This seems extraordinary enough, but -before the days of the railroad, pianos were formerly carried by Indians -all the way from the Pacific Coast to Cuzco. The next time I saw five -stalwart Irish truckmen groaning and shaking under the weight of an -upright piano which they had to carry fifty feet from the truck into a -house in New Haven, I wondered what they would think of half-starved -Indians who could carry it from sea-level over mountains fourteen -thousand feet high. - -The presence of the piano at La Estrella meant that here as everywhere -else we were to be favored with the strains of the “Tonquinoise” and -“Quand L’Amour Meurt.” This is the kind of music that most appeals to -the South Americans. Wherever there was a piano in the heart of Peru or -Bolivia, it mattered not whether the place was Potosí or Arequipa, these -tunes were everlastingly drummed into our ears. - -The next morning we descended from the canefields of La Estrella by an -extremely precipitous winding trail. In places it seemed as though our -heavily-laden mules must surely loose their footing and roll down the -fifteen hundred feet to the raging Apurimac River below. At length, -however, we came to an excellent modern bridge which we were actually -able to cross without dismounting, something that rarely happens with -the bridges of Peru. - -In the old days a wonderfully lofty suspension bridge made by the -Indians in the Peruvian fashion, was the only means of crossing this -river. Vivid pictures of it, no two alike, are given in Squier’s “Peru,” -Markham’s “Cuzco and Lima,” and Lt. Gibbon’s “Exploration of the Valley -of the Amazon.” Although they all differ as to its height above the -water and its length, all were greatly impressed by the remarkable cañon -that it crossed. Gibbon says “the bridge was ... 150 feet above the dark -green waters”; Sir Clements Markham, who crossed the bridge two years -later says, “the bridge spanned the chasm in a graceful curve at a -height of full 300 feet above the river.” As he crossed it in the middle -of March just at the end of the rainy season when it may be supposed the -waters were high, while Lt. Gibbon crossed it in August, the middle of -the dry season, when the river is very low, the contrast between their -estimates of the height of the bridge above the river is all the more -striking. Unfortunately it has disappeared and travellers can no longer -dispute over its dimensions. - -The scenery to-day was superb; the great green mountains piling up on -one another, their precipitous sides streaked with many lovely -waterfalls. Green parrots overhead and yellow iris underfoot lent -additional color to the scene. To add to our joy - -[Illustration: THE GOBERNADOR OF CURAHUASI AND HIS FAMILY] - -the sun shone all day long. A comparatively easy journey over steep but -well-travelled mountain-trails brought us to the town of Curahuasi where -we were met by Lt. Caceres, who had been directed to act as our escort, -and who proved to be a most genial and exceptionally spirited young -Peruvian, a member of an old and distinguished family. - -Immediately on our arrival at Curahuasi we were taken to the local -telegraph office where Caceres sent off an important message announcing -the approach of the “distinguished visitors”! To recompense us for -waiting while he wrote the messages, bottles of stout were opened and -toasts solemnly proposed. We expected to spend the night in the town, -but found that the Gobernador, who desired us to be his guests, lived a -couple of miles up the valley at Trancapata on the road to Abancay. - -Although his establishment was a primitive one, it was charmingly -situated on the edge of a deep ravine. The dining-room was an old -verandah overlooking the gorge, and we enjoyed the view and the generous -hospitality quite as much as though the villa had had all modern -conveniences. In fact, neither of us had ever before experienced such a -cordial welcome from a total stranger. We were to learn, however, before -we left the Department, that such friendliness was characteristic of -nearly every village and town that enjoyed the over-lordship of the -genial Prefect of Apurimac. - -The next morning when we finally managed to bid our cordial host -good-by, it was not until he had accompanied us for a long distance up -the deep valley. As we climbed the ascent under a bright sun, a -wonderful panorama spread itself out behind us, the snowy peaks of Mt. -Sargantay gleaming in the distance. We soon left the region of luxurious -vegetation, lantanas, cacti, and tropical plants, and ran into a chilly -drizzle at an elevation of thirteen thousand feet. Then we descended, -came out of the rain, and had a delightful ride over a trail lined with -masses of blue salvia and pink begonias. - -At last we caught glimpses of the fields of sugarcane that have made -Abancay famous throughout Peru. To one who has seen the broad canefields -of Hawaii or the great plantations of Cuba and Porto Rico, the fame of -this rather small district would be surprising. But after passing over -the bleak highlands of Peru and experiencing the chill of the mountain -climate, one feels more ready to appreciate that a warm, rich valley, -eight thousand feet above the sea, where sugar can be easily raised, is -a matter for profound congratulation. - -A long descent down a very bad road brought us into a charming region. A -mile from Abancay itself we were met by the sub-Prefect and a dozen -sugar planters and _caballeros_ who had taken the trouble to saddle -their horses and come out to give us a fitting welcome. After an -interchange of felicitations, we clattered gayly into town and were -taken at once to the Prefecture. Here Hon. J. J. Nuñes, the genial -Prefect, gave us a cordial reception and apologized for the fact that he -had quite a large family and could not give us suitable sleeping -quarters in the Prefecture. As it was, he placed the local club -entirely at our disposal. We were only too glad to accept, for the -club’s two pleasant rooms overlooked the little plaza and commanded a -very pretty view of the ancient church and steep hills beyond. - -Hardly had we had time to turn around in our new quarters before the -Prefect came to make a formal call. He at once broached the subject of -the ruins of Choqquequirau and begged us to visit them. - -It seems that in Quichua, the language of the Incas, still spoken by a -majority of the mountaineers of Peru, Choqquequirau means a “Cradle of -Gold.” Attracted by this romantic name and by the lack of all positive -knowledge concerning its last defenders, several attempts had been made -during the past century to explore its ruins and to discover the -treasure which it is supposed the Incas hid here instead of allowing it -to fall into the hands of Pizarro with the ransom of Atahualpa. Owing to -the very great difficulty of reaching the site of the ruins a tradition -had grown up that the Incas built a great city that once contained over -fifteen thousand inhabitants, high up on the mountain-side, six thousand -feet above the river Apurimac. That the tradition had a basis of fact -had been demonstrated occasionally by bold mountain-climbers who -succeeded in reaching a part of the ruins. - -We were told that the first man to reach there went and came alone. All -he saw was a stone wall which he reached late in the afternoon, -exhausted and without food. He slept in its shelter, left his gun as -proof that he had been there, and came away early the next morning, -anxious only to get home. A generation later a small party of -adventurers succeeded in reaching the ruins with enough food to last -them for two days. They excavated two or three holes in a vain effort to -find buried treasure and returned with a tale of sufferings that kept -any one from following their example for twenty years. They brought back -reports of rocky “palaces, paved squares, temples, prisons, and baths,” -all crumbling away beneath luxuriant tropical vegetation. Then a local -magistrate, dreaming of untold riches, so ran the tale, endeavored to -construct a path by which it might be possible to reach Choqquequirau -and to maintain a transportation service of Indian carriers who could -provide workmen with food while they were engaged in making a systematic -effort to unearth the “Cradle of Gold.” This man had at his disposal the -services of a company of soldiers and a large number of Indians, and it -is said that he expended a large amount of time and money in his quest. -He succeeded in reaching the top of the ridge 12,000 feet above the -river and 6000 feet above Choqquequirau, but was unable to scale the -precipices that surround the ruins, and all his labor came to nought. -Others tried to utilize the path that he had made, but without success, -until the present Prefect of the department of Apurimac, Honorable J. J. -Nuñes, assumed office and became interested in the local traditions. -Under his patronage, a company of treasure-seekers was formed and -several thousand dollars subscribed. - -The first difficulty that they encountered was the construction of a -bridge over the frightful rapids of the Apurimac. All efforts failed. -Not a Peruvian could be found willing to venture his life in the -whirlpool rapids. Finally “Don Mariano,” an aged Chinese peddler, who -had braved the terrors of the Peruvian mountains for thirty years, dared -to swim the river with a string tied to his waist. Then after much -patient effort he succeeded in securing six strands of telegraph wire -from which he hung short lengths of fibre rope and wove a mat of reeds -two feet wide to serve as a foot path for a frail suspension bridge. -Once on the other side, the company was able to use a part of the trail -made twenty years ago, but even with that aid it took three months of -hard work to surmount the difficulties that lay between the river and -Choqquequirau. Cheered on by the enthusiastic Prefect and his aide, -Lieut. Caceres, an exceptionally bold officer, the task which had defied -all comers for four hundred years was accomplished. A trail that could -be used by Indian bearers was constructed through twelve miles of -mountain forest, over torrents and precipices, and across ravines from -the river to the ruins. - -With these and similar stories we were regaled by one and another of the -local antiquarians, including the president of the treasure company and -our friend the Prefect. - -We felt at first as though we could not possibly spare the week which -would be necessary for a visit that would be worth while. Furthermore -we were not on the lookout for new Inca ruins and had never heard of -Choqquequirau. But the enthusiasm of the Prefect and his friends was too -much for us. The Prefect held it out as an extra inducement that no -foreigners had ever visited Choqquequirau, a statement that I later -found to be incorrect. Finally he said that President Leguia of Peru, -knowing that we were to pass this way, had requested the company to -suspend operations until we had had a chance to see the ruins in their -original condition. In short so urgent were the Prefect’s arguments, and -so ready was he to make it easy for us, that we finally consented to go -and see what his energy had uncovered. - -That night he gave us an elaborate banquet to which he had invited -fifteen of the local notables. After dinner we were shown the objects of -interest that had been found at Choqquequirau, including several ancient -shawl-pins and a few nondescript metallic articles. The most interesting -was a heavy club fifteen inches long and rather more than two inches in -diameter, square, with round corners, much like the wooden clubs with -which the Hawaiians beat _tapa_. It has a yellowish tinge that gave rise -to a story that it was pure gold. Unfortunately we had no means of -analyzing it, but I presume it was made, like the ancient Inca axes, of -copper hardened with tin. - -The next afternoon, amidst a heterogeneous mess of canned provisions, -saddles, rugs, and clothes, we packed, and received distinguished -guests. Almost everyone who called told us that he was going to -accompany us on the morrow, and we had visions of a general hegira from -Abancay. - -In the evening we were most hospitably entertained at one of the sugar -estates. To this dinner a genial gathering came from far and near. The -planters of Abancay are a fine class of _caballeros_, hospitable, -courteous, and intelligent, kind to their working people, interested -both in one another’s affairs and in the news of the outside world. Many -of them spend part of each year or two in Lima, and a few have travelled -abroad. - -One of our hosts had recently made an excursion to Choqquequirau, which -“nearly killed him.” He lost one mule: it slid down a precipice. He -lamed another badly. On the whole, although urged to do so by his -friends, he decided _not_ to offer to go with us on the morrow. At least -one man proposed to stay in Abancay! - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -THE CLIMB TO CHOQQUEQUIRAU - - -The next morning, accompanied by a large cavalcade, we started for -Choqquequirau. Most of our escort contented themselves with a mile or -so, and then wishing us good luck, returned to Abancay. We did not blame -them. Owing to unusually heavy rains, the trail was in a frightful -state. Well-nigh impassable bogs, swollen torrents, avalanches of -boulders and trees, besides the usual concomitants of a Peruvian -bridle-path, cheered us on our way. - -Soon after leaving our friends we had to ford a particularly dangerous -torrent where the mules had all they could possibly do to keep their -footing in the foamy waters. After the crossing we rested to watch -Castillo, one of the soldiers who had been assigned to accompany us, -cross the stream on foot. His mule, tired out by the dreadful trail, was -being rested. It had forded the stream with the others and was standing -by us watching the soldier take perilous leaps from boulder to boulder, -where a misstep would have meant certain death. Hardly had Castillo -gained our side of the stream when the mule decided to return to Abancay -and plunged back across the dangerous ford. With a shout of rage, the -soldier repeated his performance, gained the other side of the torrent, -and started after the mule, now quite rested, and trotting off briskly -for home. A chase of a mile and a half put Castillo into no very -pleasant frame of mind, and the mule had little respite for the -remainder of the day. At noon we stopped a few moments in the village of -Cachora where the Prefect had instructed the Gobernador to prepare us a -“suitable luncheon.” This intoxicated worthy offered us instead many -apologies, and we had to get along as best we could with three or four -boiled eggs, all the village could provide. - -All day long through rain and heavy mist that broke away occasionally to -give us glimpses of wonderfully deep green valleys and hillsides covered -with rare flowers, we rode along a slippery path that grew every hour -more treacherous and difficult. In order to reach the little camp on the -bank of the Apurimac that night, we hurried forward as fast as possible -although frequently tempted to linger by the sight of acres of -magnificent pink begonias and square miles of blue lupins. By five -o’clock, we began to hear the roar of the great river seven thousand -feet below us in the cañon. The Apurimac, which flows through the -Ucayali to the Amazon, rises in a little lake near Arequipa, so far from -the mouth of the Amazon that it may be said to be the parent stream of -that mighty river. By the time it reaches this region, it is a raging -torrent two hundred and fifty feet wide, and at this time of the year, -over eighty feet deep. Its roaring voice can be heard so many miles away -that it is called by the Quichuas, the Apurimac, or the “Great -Speaker.” - -Our guide, the enthusiastic Caceres, declared that we had now gone far -enough. As it was beginning to rain and the road from there on was -“worse than anything we had as yet experienced,” he said it would be -better to camp for the night in an abandoned hut near by. His opinion -was eagerly welcomed by two of the party, young men from Abancay, who -were having their first real adventure, but the two _Yankis_ decided -that it was best to reach the river if possible. Caceres finally -consented, and aided by the dare-devil Castillo, we commenced a descent -that for tortuous turns and narrow escapes beat anything we had yet -seen. Just as darkness came on, we encountered a large tree that had so -fallen across our path as completely to block all progress. It seemed as -though we must return to the hut. Half an hour’s work enabled us to pass -this obstacle only to reach a part of the hillside where an avalanche -had recently occurred. Here even the mules and horses trembled with -fright as we led them across a mass of loose earth and stones which -threatened to give way at any moment. Only two weeks previously, two -mules had been lost here. Their crossing had started a renewal of the -avalanche which had taken the poor animals along with it. - -An hour after dark we came out on a terrace. The roar of the river was -so great that we could scarcely hear Caceres shouting out that our -troubles were now over and “all the rest was level ground.” This turned -out to be only his little joke. We were still a thousand feet above the -river and a path cut in - -[Illustration: A CHASM DOWN WHICH PLUNGED A SMALL CATARACT] - -[Illustration: THE WONDERFUL CAÑON OF THE APURIMAC] - -the face of a precipice had yet to be negotiated. In broad daylight we -should never had dared to ride down the tortuous trail that led from the -terrace to the bank of the river. But as it was quite dark and we were -quite innocent of any danger we readily followed the cheery voice of our -guide. The path is what is known as a corkscrew and descended the wall -of the cañon by means of short turns each twenty feet long. At one end -of each turn was the precipice, while at the other was a chasm down -which plunged a small cataract which had a clear fall of seven hundred -feet. Half way down the path my mule stopped, trembling, and I -dismounted to find that in the darkness he had walked off the trail and -had slid down the cliff to a ledge. How to get him back was a problem. -It is not easy to back an animal up a steep hill, and there was no room -in which to turn him around. It was such a narrow escape that when I got -safely back onto the trail, I decided to walk the rest of the way and -let the mule go first, preferring to have him fall over the precipice -alone if that were necessary. - -Two thirds of the way down the descent came the crux of the whole -matter, for here the path crossed the narrow chasm close to and directly -in front of the cataract, and in the midst of its spray. There was no -bridge. To be sure, the waterfall was only three feet wide, but it was -pitch dark. As I could not see the other side of the chasm, I did not -dare to jump alone, but remounted my mule, held my breath, and gave him -both spurs at once. His jump was successful. - -Ten minutes later we saw the welcome light of the master of the camp who -came out to guide us through a thicket of mimosa trees that grew on the -lower terrace just above the river. - -The camp consisted of two huts, six by seven, built of reeds. Here we -passed a most uncomfortable night. Mr. Hay has described the next few -hours so vividly in his diary that, with his permission, I am going to -quote his account of it. - -“Our luggage, including the folding cots, did not arrive that night till -very late, so we slept on benches made of bamboo poles, in our boots, -under an open thatch-roofed shelter. During the night the Prefect’s -secretary, _el periodista_, either in exuberance over reaching the -bottom of the mountain in safety, or being unstrung on account of his -recent experience, or simply because he was a bounder, fired his -revolver off at three different times, the ball fortunately passing -through the roof each time. I must admit that I was so sound asleep as -to hear only one of the shots, though I was so near the “young idea” -that I could have touched him with my hand. Even he, though, wearied of -that form of amusement after a time, and quiet was restored until 3 A.M. -At that hour a rooster, who had quietly been resting with his women-folk -on a pole over our heads, decided that dawn was coming on, or if it -wasn’t, ought to be, and showed us conclusively what a healthy pair of -feathered lungs, in a rarified atmosphere, was capable of. He was within -reach, but I bided my time. Not half enough notice had been taken of the -alarm to suit him, and I saw the chest of Sr. Chanticlerio expand for a -supreme effort. He raised himself to his full height and let loose. With -ever increasing volume the notes poured out, until just as it seemed he -would burst, in the concluding notes of the anthem, I arose, and with -the side of my hand, caught him in the place that needed it most. He -summoned up the courage to give one defiant little crow three hours -later. But his spirit was broken, and his style was cramped by the -_periodista_, who, awake by this time, was firing at him with his -revolver. There were no casualties.” - -While breakfast was being prepared we went out to take pictures and -measurements of the bridge. This was 273 feet long by 32 inches wide, -and the river 250 feet wide. “Don Mariano,” the builder of the bridge, -told us that when construction commenced, the water was nearly eighty -feet below the bridge although at present the river had risen so that it -was only twenty-five feet below it, an increase in depth of over _fifty -feet_. An almost incredible bulk of water was roaring between its steep -banks. It was estimated at 100 feet deep, and yet the water piled up on -itself in such a way as to give the appearance of running against huge -boulders in midstream. - -We sent the Indian bearers ahead with our luggage. Pack animals could -not possibly use the trail on the other side of the river and the bridge -was not constructed to carry their weight. The surprising thing was that -the Indians were very much afraid of the frail little bridge which -Chinese courage and ingenuity had built, and crept gingerly across it -on their hands and knees while they carried our luggage and supplies to -the other side of the river. They had been accustomed for centuries to -using frail suspension bridges much less strong in reality than this -little structure. But they are not acquainted with the tenacity of wire, -and it seemed the height of frivolity to them that we should be willing -to trust our lives to such a small “rope.” Yet the much larger fibre -ropes of which their suspension bridges were constructed would not begin -to stand the strain as well as these six telegraph wires. - -After a breakfast of thin soup and boiled sweet potatoes, we girded -ourselves for the ascent. The river at this point is about 5000 feet -above sea-level. We had had little practice in mountain climbing, except -on mule-back, for many months, and it seemed like a pretty serious -undertaking to attempt to climb six thousand feet more to an elevation -of 11,000 feet. This will sound tame enough to the experienced mountain -climber although it was anything but easy for us. Our patient, -long-suffering Quichua bearers, coming of a race that, at high -altitudes, is in the habit of marching distances which appear incredibly -long to those students of military history that have confined their -attention to the movements of European troops, bore their burdens most -cheerfully. At the same time they gave frequent evidence of great -fatigue which was not at all to be wondered at under the circumstances. - -Of one incident of the ascent Mr. Hay wrote: “Most of the party started -long before the two ‘Yanquis,’ but in half an hour we caught up with - -[Illustration: SUNRISE AT CHOQQUEQUIRAU] - -[Illustration: THE FRAIL LITTLE BRIDGE OVER THE APURIMAC] - -them. They had waylaid an Indian bearer and were having beer and other -refreshments under a tree. Here we noticed an example of the height of -generosity towards an Indian in Peru. This is to let him carry all day, -among other things, the refreshments. Then take the beer, drink it, and -return him the bottle. The bottle, be it noted, should be received with -many expressions of thanks on the part of the Indian. We passed the -revellers and plodded on up together. Unfortunately for history but -fortunately for our nerves, at least, the _periodista_ gave out soon -after this and was forced to turn back. So the chronicle of the events -at Choqquequirau must come only from the pen of an alien? Not for a -minute! _El periodista_ was ever with us in spirit, and the report for -the Lima Journal fared far better at the hands of Imagination than it -ever could have through plain Experience.” - -The enthusiastic Caceres kept shouting “valor” at the top of his lungs -as evidence of his good spirits and in an effort to encourage the -others. The two _Yankis_ had a hard time of it and were obliged to stop -and rest nearly every fifty feet. - -At times the trail was so steep that it was easier to go on all fours -than to attempt to maintain an erect attitude. Occasionally we crossed -streams in front of waterfalls on slippery logs or treacherous little -foot-bridges. At other times we clung to the face of rocky precipices or -ascended by roughly constructed ladders from one elevation to another. -Although the hillside was too precipitous to allow much forest growth, -no small part of the labor of making the path had been the work of -cutting through dense underbrush. - -As we mounted, the view of the valley became more and more magnificent. -Nowhere have I ever witnessed such beauty and grandeur as was here -displayed. A white torrent raged through the cañon six thousand feet -below us. Where its sides were not too precipitous to admit of -vegetation, the steep slopes were covered with green foliage and -luxuriant flowers. From the hilltops near us other slopes rose six -thousand feet beyond and above to the glaciers and snow-capped summits -of Mts. Sargantay and Soray. In the distance, as far as we could see, a -maze of hills, valleys, tropical jungle, and snow-capped peaks held the -imagination as though by a spell. Such were our rewards as we lay -panting by the side of the little path when we had reached its highest -point. - -After getting our wind, we followed the trail westward, skirting more -precipices and crossing other torrents, until, about two o’clock, we -rounded a promontory and caught our first glimpse of the ruins of -Choqquequirau on the slopes of a bold mountain headland 6000 feet above -the river. Between the outer hilltop and the ridge connecting it with -the snow-capped mountains, a depression or saddle had been terraced and -levelled so as to leave a space for the more important buildings of the -Inca stronghold. - -At three o’clock we reached a glorious waterfall whose icy waters, -coming probably from the glaciers on Soray, cooled our heads and -quenched our thirst. We had now left our companions far behind, and -were pushing slowly along through the jungle, when shortly before four -o’clock we saw terraces in the near distance. Just as we began to enjoy -the prospect of reaching Choqquequirau alone, Caceres and Castillo -caught up with us. They had stayed behind in a futile attempt to -encourage the Indian bearers, and the other adventurers to have more -“valor.” The others did not arrive until the next morning; not even the -Quichua carriers on whom we depended for food and blankets. - -Soon after our arrival, we clambered up to a little bit of flat ground, -where evidently the Incas once cultivated their crops, to enjoy the -view. Here we were discovered by a huge condor who proceeded to -investigate the invaders of his domain. Apparently without moving a -muscle, he sailed gracefully down in ever narrowing circles until we -could see clearly not only his cruel beak and great talons, but even the -whites of his eyes. We had no guns and not even a club with which to -resist his attack. It was an awe-inspiring moment, for he measured at -least twelve feet from tip to tip of wing. When within forty feet of us -he decided not to disturb us, and seemingly without changing the -position of a feather, soared off into space. We were told afterwards by -Caceres and Castillo that they had been greatly alarmed by condors when -they first commenced operations here. - -Owing to the non-appearance of the carriers we passed an uncomfortable -night in the smallest of the little thatched huts which the workmen had -erected for their own use. It was scarcely three feet high and about six -feet long by four feet wide. The day had been warm, and in our efforts -to make climbing as easy as possible, we had divested ourselves of all -our warm clothes. Notwithstanding the fact that a shelter tent was -pulled down and wrapped around us for warmth, and stacks of dry grass -piled about us, we were scarcely able to close our eyes for the cold and -chilling dampness all night long. - -The humidity was one hundred or nearly so during the four days which we -spent on the mountain. Consequently we passed the majority of the time -in thick mist or rain. - -[Illustration: - -CHOQQUEQUIRAU & VICINITY, PERU. -Drawn by C. W. Drysdale -From -Measurements and Photographs taken Feb. 7, 8, 9, 10, 1909 -by -DR. HIRAM BINGHAM and CLARENCE HAY Esq. -] - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -CHOQQUEQUIRAU - - -The next morning we began at once to take measurements and get what -pictures we could. We found that the ruins were clustered in several -groups both on terraces and natural shelves, reached by winding paths or -stairways. Some buildings were long and narrow and of one story; others -of a story and a half with tall gables. The buildings were placed close -together, probably in order to economize all the available space. It is -likely that every square yard that could be given to agriculture was -cultivated. - -Magnificent precipices guard the ruins on every side and render -Choqquequirau virtually inaccessible to an enemy. Every avenue of -ascent, except such as the engineers determined to leave open, was -closed, and every strategic spot was elaborately fortified. Wherever it -might have been possible for a bold mountaineer to gain a foothold, the -Incas had built well-faced walls of stone so as to leave an adventurous -assailant no support. The terraces thus made served the double purpose -of military defence and of keeping the soil from sliding away from the -gardens down the steep hillside. - -As may be seen from the map, the ruins consist of three distinct groups -of buildings. - -All had been more or less completely hidden by trees and vines during -the centuries of solitude. Fortunately for us the treasure-seeking -company had done excellent work in clearing away from the more important -buildings the tangled mass of vegetation that had formerly covered them. -Dynamite had also been used in various likely spots where treasure might -have been buried. But the workmen had found no gold and only a few -objects of interest including, besides those we saw at Abancay, a few -clay pots and two or three grinding stones of a pattern still in use in -this part of the Andes and as far north as Panama. - -At the top of the southern and outer precipice, five thousand eight -hundred feet immediately above the river, stands a parapet and the walls -of two buildings without windows. The view from here, both up and down -the valley of the Apurimac, surpasses the possibilities of language for -adequate description. The photograph gives but the faintest idea of its -beauty and grandeur. Far down the gigantic cañon one catches little -glimpses of the Apurimac, a white stream shut in between guardian -mountains, so narrowed by the distance that it seems like a mere -brooklet. Here and there through the valley are marvellous cataracts, -one of which, two thousand feet high, has a clear fall of over one -thousand feet. The panorama in every direction is wonderful in variety, -contrast, beauty, and grandeur. - -North of this outer group of buildings is an artificially truncated -hill. It is probable that on this flattened hilltop, which commands a -magnificent - -[Illustration: BUILT OF STONES LAID IN CLAY] - -[Illustration: THE PARTY WALL RISES TO THE PEAK] - -view up and down the valley, signal fires could be built to telegraph to -the heights overlooking Cuzco, intelligence of the approach of an enemy -from the Amazonian wilds. - -We noticed on this hilltop that small stones had been set into the -ground, in straight lines crossing and recrossing at right angles as -though to make a pattern. So much of it was covered by grass, however, -that we did not have a chance to sketch it in the time at our disposal. - -North of the lookout and on the saddle between it and the main ridge is -located the main group of ruins: a rude fortification fifteen feet high, -running across the little ridge from one precipitous slope to the other; -a long one-story building of uncertain use in which curious carved stone -rings are set into the walls in such a manner as to serve possibly for -the detention of prisoners; a long one-story building that might have -been a grand hall or place of meeting, whose walls are surrounded with -numerous niches; and a block of story-and-a-half houses whose gabled -ends are still standing. The use of gables was almost universal in the -central and southern part of the land of the Incas. - -These double buildings stand transversely to the general line of the -edifices and have a middle or party-wall exactly dividing the gable. It -rises to the peak of the structure and once doubtless supported the -upper ends of the rafters. These houses bear a striking resemblance to -one of the Inca buildings at Ollantaytambo described by Squier[4] in -the following words: “It is a story and a half high, built of rough -stones laid in clay, and originally stuccoed, with a central wall -reaching to the apex of the gables, dividing it into two apartments of -equal size.... There seems to have been no access to the upper story -from the interior, but there are two entrances to it through one of the -gables, where four flat projecting stones seem to have supported a kind -of balcony or platform, reached probably by ladders.” This description -fits these structures almost exactly. There are other resemblances -between Choqquequirau and the Inca fortresses visited and described by -Mr. Squier. In fact, one might use many a sentence from his accounts of -Pisac and Ollantaytambo that would adequately describe Choqquequirau and -its surroundings. Like the buildings of Ollantaytambo, these are nearly -perfect, lacking only the roof. - -The two-story houses had an exterior measurement of 42 by 38 feet. -Similar ones measured by Squier near the temple of Viracocha north of -Lake Titicaca, were also divided into two equal apartments and measured -46 by 38 feet. The fronts of each building have two entrances and the -interior of every apartment is ornamented with irregular niches within -which some of the stucco still remains. The walls are irregular but -usually about three feet thick, and are composed of unhewn fragments of -lava cemented together with a stiff clay. - -In general, all the walls appear to have been built entirely of stone -and clay. The construction, compared with that of the Inca palaces in -Cuzco, is - -[Illustration: - -GENERAL PLAN -OF -LOWER PLAZA -CHOOQUEQUIRAU -] - -extremely rude and rough and no two niches or doors are exactly alike. -Occasionally the lintels of the doors were made of timber, the builders -not having taken the trouble to provide stones wide enough for the -purpose. One such lintel was still standing, the wood being of a -remarkably hard texture. - -Probably the ruins to-day present a more striking appearance than they -did when they were covered with thatched roofs. - -Ornamental niches which constitute a characteristic and constant feature -in Inca architecture appear on the interior of all the Choqquequirau -buildings and on the exterior of a few. Some of those on the outside are -of the re-entering variety. Those on the inside are of two kinds. The -larger ones about five feet high reach to the floors of the apartments -and are mere closets, as it were, without doors, being slightly wider at -the bottom, about thirty-four inches, than at the top, about -twenty-eight inches, and of varying depth, thirteen to sixteen inches. A -second line, smaller and not reaching to the ground, is also found in -several of the structures. There is good evidence that some of the walls -were faced with stucco and possibly painted in colors. In the case of -one wall that had been partly pushed out of the perpendicular by the -action of time, several of the niches retained almost entirely their -coating of stucco, and so did some of the more protected portions of the -wall. - -Almost the only ornamentation which the houses contained besides the -ever-present niches, were cylindrical blocks of stone about three inches -in diameter projecting twelve or fourteen inches from the wall seven -feet above the ground between each niche. - -In one of the niches I found a small stone whirlbob of a spindle-wheel, -in size and shape like those made from wood and used to-day all over the -Andes by Indian women. This simple spinning apparatus consists of a -stick about as large as the little finger and from ten to twelve inches -long. Its lower end is fitted with a whirlbob of wood to give it proper -momentum when it is set in motion by a twirl of the forefinger and thumb -grasping the upper end of the spindle. It is in universal use by Indian -women from the Andes of Colombia to those of Chile, and one rarely sees -a woman tending sheep or walking along the high road who is not busily -engaged in using this old-fashioned spindle. In the tombs of Pachacamac -near Lima have been found spindles still fitted with similar whirlbobs -of stone. - -The third group of buildings is higher up on the spur, a hundred feet or -more above the second group. Near the path from the lower to the upper -plaza are the remains of a little _azequia_ or watercourse, now dry, -lined with flat stones. The southeast corner of the third group is -marked by a huge projecting rock twenty feet high and twelve or fifteen -feet in diameter. Beside it, facing the eastern slope, is a giant -stairway. It consists of fourteen great steps roughly made and of -varying dimensions. They average about fifteen feet wide, with risers -four and a half feet high and treads about six and a half feet deep. It -is possible to ascend these stairs by means of small stone steps erected -on one - -[Illustration: THE BUILDINGS NEAR THE OUTER PRECIPICE] - -[Illustration: THE UPPER SIX STEPS OF THE GIANT STAIRWAY] - -end or the other of the giant step. Walls on each side, two feet wide, -serve as a balustrade. A peculiarity of the construction is the locating -of a huge flat stone in the centre of the riser of each step. The view -to the eastward from this stairway is particularly fine. Perhaps the -rising sun, chief divinity of the Incas, was worshipped here. - -Beyond the stairway are terraces, alley-ways, walls, and -story-and-a-half houses, filled with niches and windows. The length of -the first terrace is slightly over two hundred feet and its height is -twelve feet. The second terrace above it has a height of ten feet and a -length of one hundred and twenty-nine feet. Above these are two long -alley-ways or halls with niches in their walls and windows looking out -over the terraces. These halls are five feet wide. Back of these are -buildings resembling in their construction those in the lower group. -They also are decorated with irregular niches and cylindrical stone -projections. Under these houses, however, there ran a small passage-way -or drain twelve inches wide and ten inches deep. These two houses, -although roughly built, were as nearly the same size as possible. -Between them ran a narrow passage-way leading to a back alley. This was -curiously paved with slabs of slate half an inch thick. Back of this is -another hall five and a half feet wide with windows in front and niches -on the rear, or hill, side. - -The gables of the upper group are steeper than those of the lower group -and are in fact quite as pointed as those seen in Dutch cities. The two -gable buildings of the upper group stand on the slope of the hill in -such a manner that there is no gable on the side nearest the declivity. -In other words, they are only half the size of the double houses below. -Nearly all of these houses have two or three small, rude windows. A -narrow stone stairway leads from the back alley to a terrace above. This -opens out into the upper plaza on which are several buildings that -overlook the western precipices. Two of the houses have no windows and -one of them contains three cells. The Peruvians said they were used for -the detention of prisoners. They were more likely storehouses. On the -north side of the plaza is a curious little structure built with the -utmost care and containing many niches and nooks. It may possibly have -been for the detention of so-called “virgins of the sun” or have been -the place in which criminals, destined to be thrown over the precipice, -according to the laws of the Incas, awaited their doom. The plan gives a -good idea of its irregular construction. - -Above it the hillside rises steeply, and on the crest of the ridge runs -a little conduit which we followed until it entered the impenetrable -tropical jungle at the foot of a steep hill. The water in this little -_azequia_, now dry, coming straight down the spur, was conducted over a -terrace into two well-paved tanks on the north side of the plaza. Thence -it ran across the plaza to a little reservoir or bath-house on the south -side. This was ten feet long by five feet wide with low walls not over -five feet high and had on its north side a small stone basin let down -into the floor two feet by three in such a manner as to - -[Illustration: - -GENERAL PLAN -OF -UPPER PLAZA AND GIANT STAIRWAY -CHOQQUEQUIRAU - -Drawn by C. W. Drysdale from Measurements and Photographs taken Feb. 7, -8, 9, 10, 1909 by Dr. HIRAM BINGHAM and CLARENCE HAY Esq.] - -catch the water that flowed over the edge of the wall. A small outlet -had been provided at the end of this basin so that the water could flow -underneath the floor of the bathroom or tank house and then proceed on -its way down the ridge to the buildings below. - -As the western slope of the Choqquequirau spur is a sheer precipice, -little attempt at fortification was made on that side. The eastern -slope, however, is not so steep. On this side it was necessary to build -enormous terraces hundreds of feet long faced with perpendicular walls -twelve feet wide. Two narrow paved stairways lead from one terrace to -another. - -Near one of the terraces I picked up either a _bola_ or a hammerstone -nearly as large as my fist. - -In the jungle immediately below the last terrace, under ledges and huge -boulders, were dug little caves in which the bones of the dead were -placed. I found that the bones were heaped in a little pile as though -they had been cleaned before being interred. No earth had been placed on -them, but on top of the little pile in one grave I found a small -earthen-ware jar about one inch in diameter. It had no handles and was -not closed at the top although the opening, a quarter of an inch in -diameter, had been fitted with a specially well-made perforated cap. -There was nothing in the jar, although it had retained its upright -position during all the years of its interment. The natural entrance to -the little tomb had been walled up with wedge-shaped stones from the -inside in such a way as to make it extremely difficult to enter the -cave from the front. I found, however, that by digging away a little on -one side of the huge boulder, I could easily remove the stones which had -evidently been placed there by the grave-digger after the bones had been -deposited in the tomb. - -The workmen had excavated under a dozen or more of the projecting ledges -and in each case had found bones and occasionally shreds of pottery. In -no case, however, had they found anything of value to indicate that the -dead were of high degree. Probably they were common soldiers and -servants. If any of the officers of the garrison or Inca nobles were -ever buried in this vicinity, their tombs have not yet been discovered, -or else the graves were rifled years ago. But of this there is no -evidence. - -All the conspicuously large rocks below the terraces have been found to -cover graves. The skulls were not found alone but always near the -remainder of the skeleton. The larger bones were in fairly good -condition but the smallest ones had completely disintegrated. -Nevertheless, ribs were frequently met with. Some of the largest bones -could be crumbled with the fingers and easily broken, while others were -very hard and seemed to be extremely well preserved. Some skulls -likewise were decayed and could be easily crushed with the fingers while -others were white and hard; all that we found were those of adults, -although one or two of them seemed to be of persons not over twenty -years of age. So far as has been observed, no superincumbent soil was -placed on the skeleton. - -[Illustration: 1. A Hawaiian. 2-4. Skulls from Choqquequirau. 5. A -Flat-head Indian. - -6. Bola found at Choqquequirau. 7. Whirl-bob. - -8. Jar found in a grave, Choqquequirau.] - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A BUILDING AT CHOQQUEQUIRAU] - -The Quichua Indian carriers and workmen watched our operations with -interest, but they became positively frightened when we began the -careful measurement and examination of the bones. They had been in doubt -as to the object of our expedition up to that point, but all doubts then -vanished and they decided we had come there to commune with the spirits -of the departed Incas. - -As a rule, the evidence of deformation of the skull was slight in a -majority of the specimens examined. Nevertheless one had been much -flattened behind and another extremely so in front. There was no -evidence of any having been trephined or of any decorative patterns -having been made on any part of either skulls or bones. Three of the -skulls are now in the Peabody Museum in New Haven, with the other -articles I found here. - -On the steep hillside southeast of the terraces and graves, we found -many less important ruins, completely covered by the forest. Were it -possible to clear away all the rich tropical growth that has been -allowed to accumulate for centuries, one would undoubtedly find that -there is not a point which is not somehow commanded or protected by a -maze of outworks. No clearing or path having been constructed in order -to enable them to be seen, we could not form an adequate idea of their -extent. There seemed to be, however, no limit to the ruins of the huts -where lived the private soldiers and the servants of the garrison. One -hall measured 75 by 25 feet while another was 30 by 10, and it is -entirely possible that there are others that have not yet been located, -so dense is the jungle. - -On the opposite side of the valley are the ruins of Incahuasy, near -Tambobamba, which have been described by M. Charles Wiener.[5] So far as -I can judge from the drawings he gives of one of the “palaces,” the -construction is very similar to that used at Choqquequirau. - -I believe that Incahuasy and Choqquequirau were originally frontier -fortresses that defended the valley of the Apurimac, one of the natural -approaches to Cuzco, from the Amazonian wilds. A glance at the map will -show that Pisac and Paucartambo, northeast of Cuzco, with Ollantaytambo -to the north and Choqquequirau to the west form a complete line of -defence. Each is located in one of the valleys by which the unconquered -Indians of the great forest could attack the sacred capital of the -Incas. The Incas were never able to extend their empire far into the -forests that covered the eastern slopes of the Andes or the valleys of -the rivers that flow toward the Amazon. They did, however, push their -empire down the valleys until they encountered the savage inhabitants of -these wild forests, savage Chunchas or Antis, who with their poisoned -arrows and their woodcraft were well able to protect themselves. The -Incas were obliged to stop short when they reached the thick forests. -The massive and complicated fortresses of Paucartambo, Pisac, and -Ollantaytambo marked the extent of their sway. There were undoubtedly -several less important outlying - -[Illustration: CUZCO AND NEIGHBORING FORTRESSES] - -fortresses lower down the rivers, situated in such a way as to be able -to prevent the incursions of small parties of wild savages and give -notice of any large expeditions that might attempt to march on Cuzco. -They were so placed as to be practically impregnable. Choqquequirau was -evidently one of these. - -I fear that no amount of dynamite will ever disclose at Choqquequirau a -“Cradle of Gold” or any articles of great value. It was not a temple or -a treasure house, but a fortress where life was strenuous. The officers -of its garrison were not likely to bring with them gold ornaments or -utensils, and the poor Incas had few such baubles left at the end of -their career. - -Why then should it have been called the “Cradle of Gold?” One answer is -that the ridge or spur on which Choqquequirau lies, when seen from a -distance, looks not unlike a hammock. The setting sun often tinges it -with gold and the romantic Incas might easily have named Choqquequirau -from its resemblance to the only cradles with which they were familiar. - -The other answer is that the name, which does not occur in any of the -chronicles, so far as I have been able to discover, is a modern -invention. In one of the buildings we found several slabs of slate on -which visitors have been accustomed to register their names. According -to these inscriptions Choqquequirau was visited in 1834 by a French -explorer M. Eugène de Sartiges, and in July, 1834, by two Peruvians, -José Maria de Tejada and Marcelino Leon, who may have come with de -Sartiges. - -Charles Wiener, in his very unreliable but highly interesting “Perou et -Bolivie” (Paris, 1880), says (footnote, p. 294) that Choqquequirau has -also been visited by another Frenchman, “M. Angrand whose MS. notes, -with plans and drawings, were bequeathed to the Bibliothèque Nationale -in Paris.” I find they are merely hastily-drawn sketches. One, a -route-map, is dated “30 7bre,” [1847]. Angrand’s name does not appear on -any of the slates. - -Besides de Sartiges, and the two Peruvians already mentioned, the slate -records show that in 1861, on the 10th of November, José Benigno Samanez -(“pro Presidente Castilla”) Juan Manuel Rivas Plata, and Mariano -Cisneros reached the ruins. Also that on July 4, 1885, Luis E. Almanza, -J. Antonio Almanza, Emiliano Almanza, Pio Mogrovejo and a party of -workmen did what they could to find the buried treasure. So much for the -existing evidence of former visitors. - -M. de Sartiges, writing under the nom de plume E. de Lavandais, -published an account of his visit in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, in -June, 1850. His route, the only one possible at the time, was -exceedingly circuitous. From Mollepata, a village near the sugar -plantation of La Estrella, he went north across the high pass between -Mts. Sargantay and Soray to the river Urubamba, to a village called -Yuatquinia (Huadquiña [?]). He engaged Indians to cut a trail to -Choqquequirau. After three weeks he found that the difficulties of -making a trail were so great that it would take at least two months to -finish the undertaking, so he and his companions made their way through -the jungle and along the precipices as best they could for four days. On -the fifth day they arrived at the ruins. In his projects for -exploration, he had failed to take into account the fact that tropical -vegetation had been at work for centuries covering up the remains of the -Inca civilization, and as he was only able to stay at Choqquequirau for -two or three days, he failed to see some of the most interesting ruins. -The giant stairway and the buildings on the upper plaza seem to have -escaped his attention entirely. He was greatly impressed with the -fortifications on the south side of the lower plaza and speaks of them -as though they formed a triumphal wall (“_mur triomphal_”). He seems to -have spent most of his time hunting for treasure behind this wall. He -had expected to spend eight days here, but the difficulties of reaching -the place were so great and the food-supply was so limited that he had -to hurry back without seeing more than the buildings of the lower plaza, -the lower terraces, and a grave or two. It was his opinion that fifteen -thousand people lived here once. One wonders what they lived on. - -M. de Sartiges’s description made us realize how much we were indebted -to the labors of the treasure-seeking company for penetrating the jungle -and uncovering buildings whose presence otherwise would never have been -suspected. - -Raimondi says that in 1862, Don Juan Gastelu, a Peruvian traveller, left -Ayacucho in an effort to go up the valley of the Apurimac in a canoe, -hoping in this way to reach the ancient fortress. After seven days of -perilous navigation, he gave up the attempt long before reaching its -vicinity. - -The interesting question remains: Was this the ultimate refuge of the -last Inca? - -It is reasonably certain that Manco Ccapac, the last emperor, fleeing -from the wrath of the conquerors, took refuge in a place called -“Vilcabamba.” There is a village of that name, two or three days journey -over the mountains north of Choqquequirau, on the Vilcabamba River, an -affluent of the Urubamba. It has never been explored so far as I know. - -Peruvian writers like Paz Soldan and the great geographer, Raimondi, are -positive that Manco Ccapac’s “Vilcabamba” was really Choqquequirau. They -base their belief on the fact that in 1566 an Augustinian Friar, Marcos -Garcia, undertook to penetrate to “Vilcabamba,” where poor old Manco -Ccapac had found a refuge. In describing his tour, Father Calancha, the -author of the “Chronica moralizada del Orden de San Augustin, Libro III, -Cap. XXIV and XLII,” says that Garcia founded a church in Pucyura, “two -long days’ journey from Vilcabamba.” Raimondi calls attention to the -fact that Pucyura is only two leagues from the present village of -“Vilcabamba,” and while he admits that it is possible that Father -Calancha wrote “_days’_ journey” instead of “_leagues_” by mistake, he -believes that the reference is to Choqquequirau which is in fact two -long days’ journey from Pucyura. It is at least a very roundabout method -of inference.[6] - -Raimondi may be correct, but until some one shall have explored the -present village of Vilcabamba and its vicinity, I am inclined to the -opinion that Choqquequirau was merely a fortress. - - * * * * * - -Since writing the above I have received, through the kindness of Prof. -Roland Dixon of Harvard University, a copy of a pamphlet by the -distinguished Peruvian historian, Carlos A. Romero, entitled “Las Ruinas -de Choqquequirau,” which gives the result of his careful researches -through all the works of writers who refer to Choqquequirau. It does not -add to our actual knowledge of the early history of the ruins. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -ABANCAY TO CHINCHEROS - - -One of the conditions on which we had based our decision to visit -Choqquequirau was that the Prefect was to see to it that animals should -be ready for our departure as soon as we got back, and that his -officials along the road should facilitate our progress in every -possible manner. To his credit be it said that he kept his promise -faithfully, notwithstanding all the rules in the books to the effect -that a South American rarely remembers his promise. - -The next day after our return to Abancay, we spent in re-arranging our -luggage and making ready for a rapid march to Ayacucho. The Prefect sent -in an official request for a report on the ruins of Choqquequirau. Not -being a Latin-American, I was unable to sit down and dash off a -“thorough satisfactory official report” in an hour and a half and had to -explain that it would take days and even weeks to draw plans from the -data in our field-books and from the ten dozen negatives we had exposed. - -On the following day, much refreshed in body and mind, we succeeded in -getting an early start. We were accompanied out of town by a score of -enthusiastic friends whose interest in our undertaking was perfectly -ingenuous and of whom we had learned to be very fond. They not only -decided to extend - -[Illustration: OUR CAVALCADE ON THE BRIDGE OF PACHACHACA] - -the customary “mile of courtesy” to a dozen or more, but later they -followed us up with congratulatory telegrams speeding us on our way. - -Our cavalcade clattered gayly out of town on a fine brisk morning when -for some reason or other it did not happen to be raining. A short stop -at Yllanya to enable us to pay our respects to the kind Letona family, -who had given us a pleasant banquet the week before, was rewarded by the -young master of the house having his horse saddled at once and insisting -on taking us by a short cut through his own canefields. These looked -prosperous enough, but a swarm of locusts that had just made their -appearance was pointed out to us, and the planter feared greatly for his -crops. - -At ten o’clock we reached the river Pachachaca, the first large affluent -of the Apurimac. We crossed it on a stone bridge whose magnificent -single arch was erected under the direction of a Jesuit architect, two -hundred and fifty years ago. It is said to be one of the longest spans -in the Andes. Here we stopped to have a round of drinks and to enjoy the -scenery. - -It was a beautiful spot: green mountains on both sides of a valley -filled with waving sugar-cane through the midst of which ran a roaring, -rushing torrent. A few miles farther up this valley there are a number -of small Indian towns in which General Sucre had his headquarters a few -weeks before the battle of Ayacucho. - -An hour’s brisk trot brought us to Auquibamba, a sugar mill and -plantation, owned by Don Federico Martinelli who was unfortunately ill -in bed and not able to see us, although his engineer and manager did -the honors most hospitably. Quantities of delicious oranges were brought -to appease our appetites while an elaborate lunch was being prepared for -the dozen more people than had been expected. - -After lunch we all mounted at once. The custom of taking a siesta does -not seem to prevail at this altitude, 7000 feet. After all were on -horseback, affectionate good-bys had to be said, and notwithstanding the -nervousness of some of the more high-strung animals, their riders -succeeded in embracing the departing guests with true Spanish fervor. - -Our road from Auquibamba led through a charming country until it -gradually climbed out of the valley and across a pass, at an altitude of -11,700 feet, where there was a small lake but no signs of tropical -vegetation. - -We saw no llamas at all. Mules, horses, and burros were the pack animals -that we met carrying out kegs of aguardiente and loads of sugar and -bringing in foreign merchandise. Thanks to the rainy season, the fields -were covered with flowers, many varieties of which have been imported -for our own gardens at home. Wonderfully large begonias, excelling in -size anything I had ever seen before, lupins, cosmos, and many others -added great charm to the scene and partly made up for the frightful -condition of the roads. - -Every one with whom we talked expressed surprise that we should attempt -a journey at this season of the year when all good Peruvians stay at -home. Not only are the roads positively dangerous in places, but the -heavy rainfall insures a thorough daily drenching unless one is so -fortunate as to be protected by a very heavy rubber poncho. As the -natives depend almost entirely on woolen ponchos for protection against -the rain, it may be imagined that they get well soaked after two or -three hours’ riding, notwithstanding the fact that the best and most -expensive vicuña ponchos are beautifully and closely woven and will shed -an ordinary shower. - -At half past four we began the descent into the pretty cultivated valley -of Huancarama. The descent was steep and the path extremely slippery, -and we were paying so much attention to the manner of our going that we -barely noticed the cavalcade of eight horsemen riding at full gallop up -the valley. The Gobernador had been informed of our approach by the -kind-hearted Prefect, and had brought with him half a dozen of his -friends to do us honor. We were taken at once to his house, a small -adobe hut, and treated most courteously. The priest of the village and -two of the leading citizens were urged to remain and dine with us, which -they readily consented to do. After dinner we were piloted through the -muddy streets to the plaza where a room, evidently used for various -governmental purposes, was placed at our disposal. All went well until -the next morning when we were told that one of the animals which the -Prefect had furnished us belonged to the Gobernador, who had lent it to -the Secretary of the Department for the expedition to Choqquequirau, and -he was unwilling to have it go any farther. He said that “one of his -friends” had an excellent horse which he would rent us for that day. The -Gobernador was firm, and as he had sent the animal to pasture, he had -more than “nine points of the law” on his side. Anyhow we had no desire -to impose on him, and requested him to have his “friend’s horse” brought -around. There seemed, however, to be some sort of an understanding -between the Gobernador and his “friend,” as the horse, a fairly -good-looking beast, was brought out from the Gobernador’s own backyard. -We suspicioned that the “friend” was probably a confederate in graft, if -not actually a servant. The price asked for the use of the horse for one -day was five dollars. Evidently we were considered to be “easy.” We -appealed the matter to the soldier who had been sent as our escort, but -he would only shake his head sadly and shrug his shoulders. So we told -the Gobernador the price was outrageous and that rather than pay it, we -would settle down in Huancarama and live at his expense. With this -terrible alternative staring him in the face he sent his servant to -another “friend” with orders to bring up another animal. This time the -price asked was only $1, and although the soldier said that was twice as -much as the regular charge, we preferred to pay it rather than be -delayed any longer. - -The day was very rainy. It may have been for this reason, or it may have -been because he was disappointed at his unsuccessful attempt at -“legitimate graft,” that the Gobernador did not assemble his friends and -escort us out of town. In either case we did not blame him. It was -rather a relief to escape the oft-repeated expressions of sincere sorrow -at departure which one can make two or three times, but which somehow -lack spontaneity and sincerity when they must be repeated to a cavalcade -of sixteen. - -The road was no improvement on that of the day before. A long climb -through the rain and sleet, a long descent through the clouds into the -valley of the river Pincos, whose tantalizing roar helped us to realize -what magnificent scenery we were missing; a little glimpse of green -fields, a dilapidated village, an old bridge, and another long steep -ascent led us finally to a bleak _paramo_ where we were as uncomfortable -as cold winds and drenching rain could make us. - -Just before four o’clock we were gladdened by the sight of a good-sized -town and hoped that it was Andahuaylas, our destination, but our escort -said it was only San Geronimo, a suburb of Andahuaylas. We found it to -be a densely populated Indian town of the usual type. Before we had much -of an opportunity to take in its points of interest, however, we were -surrounded by twenty horsemen, including the sub-Prefect of Andahuaylas, -the secretary of the province, and their friends who had ridden to meet -us. Much as we appreciated their courtesy and the liquid refreshments -they brought with them, we were still more gratified by being asked to -dismount and allow the soldiers to put our saddles on two fresh horses. -It may have been because the rain had stopped its torrential downpour, -or because our tired, jaded animals had made us lose all sense of -proportion, or it may possibly have been that those two horses really -were the finest animals in Peru; whatever the cause, we both of us -agreed that we had never enjoyed any ride so much as that last mile to -Andahuaylas, and that we had never ridden such magnificent, fiery steeds -that so closely resembled the high mettled war-horse that one usually -sees surmounted by General Bolivar either in bronze or in historical -paintings. - -The good people of Andahuaylas had heard by telegraph of the banquet -which had been “tendered us” in Abancay and of the enthusiasm with which -the Prefect had welcomed us back from Choqquequirau. They determined not -to be outdone. If an additional reason was needed to spur them on to do -their utmost, it came in the press despatches that day which stated that -Chile was about to throw down the gauntlet to Peru by definitively -announcing her permanent occupancy of the provinces of Tacna and Arica. -To the minds of the older Peruvian generation who had felt the cruel -lash of the Chilean conqueror in 1883 and had witnessed the burning of -the Lima Library and the stabling of Chilean horses in Peruvian -churches, there seemed little hope of a satisfactory settlement of the -dispute and no desire to engage in another war. Their one idea seemed to -be that the United States, with its love of fair play, would see to it -that Chile did not take advantage of the weakness of Peru to rob her of -her southernmost province. As we were the only Americans in sight, and -as there was about us a certain reflected glamour of officialdom, we -were treated as though we were diplomats, instead of being, as they knew -perfectly well, merely a delegate to a Scientific Congress, and his -“secretary.” Anyhow, they had done their best to provide a banquet that -should eclipse the glories of Abancay; the table was set for forty-five -and it may safely be assumed that most of the leading citizens of -Andahuaylas were present. Little American flags, made for the occasion, -were crossed with Peruvian flags on the walls of the room. Portraits of -President Roosevelt and President Leguia, suitably framed, decorated the -wall immediately behind us. “Ice cream,” made of snow brought from the -Nevada of Chillihua on the backs of llamas, was on the menu. There was -enough food and drink to last until 2.30 A.M. Unfortunately I had to -leave early for I was simply used up with the amount of “entertainment” -that I had had to undergo during the preceding week. - -Our hosts came to call rather late the next morning and looked pretty -mournful. It was not due entirely to the fact of the pouring rain. -Nevertheless the sub-Prefect was most kind, and had us take all our -meals at his house, a picturesque old compound whose large patio was -surrounded by one and two-storied buildings. The roofs, with their heavy -old-fashioned mission tiles, had long ago lost any straight line they -ever possessed. To add to their beauty, rain and sun and mosses had -given them every variety of color. In a corner of the patio, an Indian -man-servant and a little girl were busy grinding meal by rocking one -stone upon another in the same fashion as did the builders of -Choqquequirau and with stones almost the exact counterparts of those we -found there. - -In the afternoon, our friends felt a little better, and the rain held up -enough for us to be shown the sights of the town. A well-proportioned -stone church, designed by the same architect who had built the bridge -near Abancay, testified again to the excellent crafts that the Jesuits -taught in this country two hundred and fifty years ago. Some of the -booths on the plaza were extremely picturesque, the various colored -wares offered for sale being protected from the sun by umbrella-shaped -shelters rudely made from old sticks covered with faded ponchos or with -the dried skins of animals, cured with the hair on. - -Some one with a great fondness for Lombardy poplars had lived here years -ago and the view of the town which we got from the heights across the -river was most attractive. On the side of a mountain to the north were -many farms. The fields of corn divided from each other by hedges gave a -very pleasing background; the roaring rapids of the little river formed -the foreground; while in the middle distance the red-tiled roofs, white -walls, poplar trees, and fine old stone church made a charming picture. - -The sub-Prefect and his secretary, who had most generously placed his -own very comfortable quarters at our disposal, took great pleasure in -showing us two new _alamedas_ or avenues which had been laid out -recently under his direction. It is pleasant to remember these signs of -progress even though we also remember a little old street through which -we had to pass after leaving the _alameda_. The old street, scarcely as -wide as the sidewalks of the new, had no conveniences whatsoever for -foot-passengers. Owing to the recent downpour, part of it had been -converted into a pond, and we had an amusing and not altogether -successful time getting across dry-shod. - -All our friends promised to be on hand the next morning to accompany us -out of town although we assured them that it was quite unnecessary. When -they woke up and saw the rain coming down in sheets, they decided we -were right. The sub-Prefect came through the downpour to bid us good-by, -but was still suffering from dyspepsia and excused himself for not -mounting his horse. By his orders, the Gobernador of the neighboring -town of Talavera, through which we passed half an hour after leaving -Andahuaylas, accompanied us on our way. - -Talavera is noted for the manufacture of the finest grade of Vicuña -ponchos. Mr. Squier gave it a bad name and was impressed by the evil -looks of its inhabitants, but we saw nothing to differentiate it from -the other crowded little towns of the interior. Wherever possible, the -land is occupied. There is, in fact, very little evidence that there was -a much larger population in Peru before the arrival of the Spanish -conquerors. Although it is true that some of the irrigating ditches have -been destroyed, it does not seem likely that this region could ever have -supported a much more numerous population than lives here to-day. Those -writers who believe that the Peruvian Indians were reduced “from upwards -of thirty millions to three millions within the space of two centuries,” -must have forgotten to make allowances for the fondness for exaggeration -in the Spanish chronicles. The country is actually as crowded to-day as -its resources will allow. In fact, most of the Indians are half starved -all the time. It is difficult to believe that twice as many, to say -nothing of ten times as many Indians, could find support on these bleak -highlands, even when they were forced to practice an extensive -cultivation of the soil by Inca laws and usages, which provided for -almost every action of their lives. - -Since writing the above I have been reading Prof. Bandelier’s remarkable -book, “The Islands of Titicaca and Koati,” and am glad to notice that he -says, p. 27: “The conclusion is reached that the Indian population, of -that district (Chucuito) at least, has not at all diminished since the -early times of Spanish colonization, but has rather increased. It shows -how unjustified is the hue and cry about extermination of the natives of -Peru by the Spaniards. I could easily furnish more examples of the kind -from all over Peru and Bolivia.” - -It is pleasant to have my amateurish opinions substantiated so -unexpectedly and from such a high authority. - -In the valleys above Talavera there was abundant pasturage and we saw -many flocks of sheep and herds of cattle. Some of the sheep had very -long curly horns, reminding one of the Rocky Mountain - -[Illustration: SOME OF THE SHEEP HAD VERY LONG CURLY HORNS] - -goats, while others were distinguished by having four horns instead of -two. From Talavera the road turned northward and followed for some -distance the valley of the Andahuaylas River, then crossed it and -climbed out of the valley, passed the ruins of a _tambo_ at a place -called Monobamba, and surmounted an exceedingly bleak plateau, a -veritable _paramo bravo_ where the barometer showed an elevation of -14,500 feet. The neighboring hills, the summits of the Andes, were -covered with snow. More snow began to fall before we left the _paramo_. - -The descent to Chincheros was particularly difficult owing to the fact -that a little mountain torrent, usually easy to ford, had become very -much swollen. Furthermore, the mud was so deep in places that we should -have found it impossible to proceed had it not been for our excellent -guide, the Gobernador of Talavera, who knew how to avoid the worst -places and was able to pilot us across stretches of treacherous -pasture-land where the soggy soil barely sustained the weight of our -animals. - -It was a long forty-mile ride. The Gobernador of Chincheros, who had -come out, with a dozen of his friends, to meet us two miles from his -town, had been waiting in the shelter of a hut for more than an hour -before we appeared. Nevertheless our tardy arrival in no wise interfered -with their welcome, and the long wait had not even induced them to make -any lighter the load of the Indian servant who had brought on foot a -basket-load of bottled beer and coñac. We had learned by this time, from -sad experience, that our stomachs, well emptied by a long day in the -saddle, would rebel at being treated to fire-water even though it was -“the custom of the country.” Although a refusal would have been -misunderstood, no objection was offered to the fact that we merely -touched the fiery draft and did not drain the glass. With the kindly -escort was an officer who had been sent all the way from Ayacucho -bearing a letter of welcome from the Prefect of that department, with -orders to attend to our comforts on the way. We felt as though we were -in the hands of our friends, but at the same time we were not prepared -for what was to follow. - -After paddling painfully along for a mile or so through awful mud and -slush, we came to a roadside inn whose proprietor had stretched a line -of flags across the road and erected a primitive framework for them. As -it was late in the afternoon, we did not tarry long to return his -courteous greetings but trotted on down the valley. A sudden turn in the -road brought us into view of a charmingly situated town. Deep green -valleys, high mountains, and pleasant trees gave a fine setting to -picturesque Chincheros with its little old church and its red-tiled -roofed houses. We had to cross a stone bridge just before entering the -town, and here we were met by an Indian bearing on a pole an enormous -flag. Although it had less than twenty stars and only eight stripes, it -was unmistakably intended to be “Old Glory.” Welcoming us with a loud -shout, the bearer turned about and marched at the head of our cavalcade. -Flags fluttered from every house. The streets were thronged with people, -many of whom showered us with rose-leaves! As we entered the plaza, the -church bells, which had been ringing ever since we rounded the turn in -the road, redoubled their noise; the shouts increased, and we were -almost carried from our horses on the shoulders of the crowd. We -realized perfectly the spirit with which our arrival was celebrated, and -knew that it was merely an expression of cordial goodwill toward the -United States, arising from a mistaken idea that we were the official -personification of that great country; but it was all we could do to -keep our faces straight. - -After we were finally lodged in a comfortable room belonging to the -little local club, we thought the crowd would disperse. Not at all. -Nothing would satisfy them but that one of us should make a speech -which, however feebly delivered, was received with great enthusiasm. -More rose-petals were thrown, the bells were rung again, the flags -waved, the people cheered, and we were made to know what it must be like -to be a returning military chief and to hear the band play “Lo the -Conquering Hero Comes!” - -The little group of Chinchereños, whose public spirit had established -the club, tendered us a banquet that evening. They had determined to -outdo the celebrations which they had heard of as taking place in -Abancay and Andahuaylas, but they insisted that the outside celebration -was quite spontaneous, and that the Indians had taken it into their own -heads to improve on that which the club had planned. After the banquet -that evening, there was a display of fireworks consisting of a set -piece fixed to a pole which was held by a poor Indian who did not seem -to mind in the least the shower of sparks that fell on every side. To -prolong his danger, the rain kept putting out the fuse so that it had to -be lighted six or seven times. If he felt any pain, however, he failed -to show it, and seemed only too delighted to be the centre of -attraction. - -The celebration had a strange witness. In the crowd that welcomed us -near the bridge there was a haggard man with German features who called -out in English, “Hurrah for the United States!” He soon came to call on -us and told quite a tragic story. - -He said his name was Emilio Smith (or Schmidt) and that his home was in -Düsseldorf on the Rhine. With three companions, he had made a wager in -New York that they could walk from Buenos Aires across both continents -to New York City without funds and without begging. He said that the New -York “Herald” and the Buenos Aires “La Prensa” had offered a prize of -five thousand dollars, if they would accomplish the feat. They had had -no particular difficulty in crossing Argentina, but one of them -succumbed at Tupiza soon after they reached Bolivia. Nothing daunted, -the other three pressed on over much the same road that we had followed -from Tupiza to Potosí and thence direct to the Antofagasta railway. At -each place they had secured the signature of official witnesses to the -effect that they were not riding and were not begging but were -conducting their overland tramp fairly. They raised money by giving -lectures and - -[Illustration: THE CLUB AT CHINCHEROS] - -entertainments in the towns through which they passed, and had -frequently been given food and lodging by kindly disposed Indians, -although often they had been very rudely received. They had walked -around Lake Titicaca, and had reached Cuzco, followed the old trail to -Lima, walked up the coast, and penetrated the equatorial rain-belt in -Ecuador before disaster overtook them. Weakened by months of exposure, -they were in no condition to encounter tropical fevers, and all were -soon flat on their backs. Two of them never recovered and were buried in -Ecuador. Smith, now alone, cabled to the New York “Herald” for -instructions, stating that he was too weak to continue the journey -alone, and had no funds. The answer came back: “Return to Buenos Aires.” -Although he had been dismayed by the difficulties that lay ahead of him -in Ecuador and Colombia, he knew enough of the road over which he had -come to believe that he could safely get back to Buenos Aires and that -then the “Herald” and the “Prensa” would probably reward him for his -foolhardy excursion. Accordingly, he was retracing his steps, and had -reached Chincheros that noon. He had intended to go along further in the -afternoon, but hearing of the expected arrival of two Americans, and -being invited to the banquet, he had stayed over. - -It was a dismal story that he told, but he took great pride in it, and -his eyes flashed as he recounted his exploits. The only bitter in the -sweet was that he had lost his friends, and that we had not heard of -him. - -“What, you don’t know about me? Why, I am the foot-walker. I go from -Buenos Aires to New York. I don’t get there. I go back to Buenos Aires. -You haven’t heard of me? You haven’t heard of me, Emilio Smith, the -foot-walker? That is very strange. And the Prefect of Abancay? He is a -good fellow. Didn’t he tell you about me? Didn’t he show you my picture? -My picture of me and my two friends?” - -I think he felt that we really hadn’t been to Abancay after all. Poor -fellow, living for months on the narration of his exploits, it was a -hard pill for him to swallow that the only Americans he had seen who had -come over the road where he had passed several months before, had never -heard any mention made of his overland journey. The reason was not far -to seek. He travelled on foot. No one but an Indian travels on foot. It -is perfectly inconceivable to the Spanish mind that any one should do -any feat of pedestrianism unless compelled to, either by poverty or the -instincts of a vagabond. Poor people and vagabonds are too common to -attract much attention. We never heard of him again. He left early the -next morning. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -BOMBON TO THE BATTLEFIELD OF AYACUCHO - - -The next morning we were furnished fresh horses by our kind hosts, and -accompanied by five or six of them, climbed out of the beautiful valley -of Chincheros up to the heights of Bombon overlooking the river Pampas. -Here in 1824, the patriot forces under General Sucre, marching along -this road to Lima, encountered the Royalists under La Serna, trying to -cut off their retreat. The advance guard of each army met on the 20th of -November on the heights of Bombon. The Royalists were driven down into -the valley and across the river Pampas. - -After reaching the level of the river, our path followed the Pampas, -down stream, in a northerly direction, for some distance among groves of -mimosa trees and cacti. This is a famous place for mosquitoes, and there -is said to be a great deal of malaria in the vicinity. The altitude is -slightly over six thousand feet. - -My interest in the Pampas valley was considerably increased by finding -the trees and cacti covered with white land shells, some of them -reminding me of those tree shells that I had gathered as a boy in the -beautiful valleys of the Island of Oahu. I filled my pockets, and later -spent the evening cleaning the shells, much to the amusement of my -hosts. My labor was amply rewarded by finding, after reaching home, that -among the shells were three new species which Dr. Dall, the Curator of -the Division of Mollusks in the United States National Museum, has named -and described.[7] - -The bridge over the Pampas has long attracted the notice of travellers. -The approach to it is at the foot of perpendicular cliffs. The -surrounding scenery although not so imposing as that of the Apurimac is -nevertheless magnificent. The bridge is about 150 feet long, and at the -time of my visit, February, 1909, was 50 feet above the river. There are -two pictures of the old bridge in Mr. Squier’s book, and although wire -rope has replaced the old cables that the Incas made from maguey fibre, -it is still the most unwelcome feature of the road from the point of -view of the mules. - -One of our mules simply would not cross the bridge. No amount of pushing -and pulling, beating and shouting, would make him budge an inch. Finally -he was blindfolded and a rope tied to each front leg. His hind legs were -tied securely together, to prevent him from kicking, and by alternately -pulling the ropes attached to his front feet, he was forced in a most -ignominious manner to come onto the bridge and go a third of the way -across. Then the ropes were loosened and the blind taken off. - -[Illustration: THE LARGE PLAZA OF AYACUCHO] - -[Illustration: THE BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER PAMPAS] - -We expected to see him turn and bolt for the nearest side but he was too -frightened to do anything of the sort, and became at once most docile, -and finished the trip in peace. - -He was not the only one who did not like the bridge. The priest of -Chincheros, who had been delayed from accompanying us by the arrival of -a visiting cleric that morning, overtook us here. Although a sturdy -native Indian, he was rather portly and preferred not only to leave to -some one else the leading across of his mule, but even to have a poor -Indian bearer give him his shoulder to steady him on the swaying -structure. - -From the other end of the bridge we ascended the precipitous cliff by a -narrow winding path and found ourselves on a lofty terrace where the -enterprising Parodi Brothers have planted waving fields of sugarcane. -Here we were met by the Gobernador of Tambillo and the Parodis who -escorted us to their sugar factory at Pajonal, a most attractive -hacienda nestled in a valley at the foot of beetling crags. Our hosts -had inherited from their father an unusual stock of energy and skill. -Owing to his efforts, a good irrigation ditch had been constructed that -furnished the canefields with an abundant supply of water. The houses -were in good repair and everything bore the marks of prosperity. It was -a pleasure to see such evidence of enterprise and energy in this wild -region. One brother, who ordinarily practices medicine in Lima, was here -on a visit. Another brother is being educated in the States. - -We left Pajonal the next morning, accompanied by the Gobernador of -Tambillo, a very agreeable person of German-Peruvian descent. From -Pajonal the road ascends a little valley and then climbs a mountainside -to the village of Ocros, a most forlorn and wretched place, with an -elevation of nearly ten thousand feet. - -The adobe church, like that at Chincheros, was set back from the plaza, -and had a new adobe wall around it. Earth for this seemed to have been -taken right out of the plaza. No attempt had been made to fill up the -huge holes that remained. The only building at Ocros that seemed to be -in any kind of repair was the local telegraph office where the officer -from Ayacucho who accompanied us, went to send a despatch to the -Prefect. - -On the way we had been struck by the extraordinary method of hanging -telegraph wires that prevails in this country. The linesmen had thought -nothing of planting three poles together on the top of one hill and the -next three not less than a quarter of a mile away on the top of another, -stretching their wire across the intervening distance in midair. This -occurred not once or twice but whenever they could save poles by so -doing. The strain on the wire must have been tremendous. We learned that -the service was “frequently interrupted.” - -The road up from Ocros was the worst that we encountered anywhere. It -was really the bed of a mountain stream and our animals had the greatest -difficulty in picking their way among the rocks and boulders. It was -hard to imagine that this was really the highway between Cuzco and Lima. -The “road” grew worse and worse until it reached a bleak _paramo_ at an -elevation of thirteen thousand feet, where snow, hail, and sleet, driven -in our faces by a high wind, added to our discomforts. A steep descent -on the other side of the range greatly tried the patience of our -animals. The ground seemed to be a hard clay that offered no support to -their feet and they slid and slipped, sometimes eight or ten feet at a -time, without being able to stop. Night was falling as we reached the -little collection of wretched huts called Matara. No one seemed to have -any desire to receive us. In fact, the Indian who had charge of the only -dry hut in the place, locked the front door and disappeared into the -night. Unlike vigorous Caceres, who would sooner have died than allow an -inhospitable Indian to refuse admission to the foreigner in his charge, -the officer from Ayacucho was a timid soul who had gone through the -world bemoaning his ill fortune and doing nothing to make it better. He -could think of no solution of the problem except that we make ourselves -as comfortable as possible in the shelter of a kind of a porch in front -of this thatched hut. So we passed an exceedingly uncomfortable night -and experienced some of the hardships that the British soldiers, who -aided the patriot army in that last campaign against the Spanish -viceroy, must have suffered in this very locality. - -The next morning our road led across half a dozen deep gulches whose -streams feed the river Colpahuayo. In one of these I was so fortunate as -to find in a gravel-bank at the side of the road, which had been -heavily washed by recent rains, a portion of an ancient Inca stone -war-club shaped like a huge doughnut. - -The road continued to be extremely slippery and was not improved by the -almost continuous rain. At half past two we reached Tambillo. Here we -were welcomed by the pleasant wife of the Gobernador who had ridden -ahead to have a good breakfast prepared while we had waited in vain on a -hilltop hoping the rain would hold up sufficiently to let us photograph -a magnificent panorama that included the distant city of Ayacucho and -the heights of Condorkanqui and the famous battlefield. - -After lunch we crossed another gulch whose treacherous sides more than -once caused our mules to fall heavily. In the village of Los Neques, we -were met by a very courteous emissary of the Prefect of Ayacucho who -turned out to be proprietor of the hotel. He had been sent out in the -rain to apologize for the fact that there was no committee to meet us -and to explain that the notables had mounted and ridden out to await us -until driven back by the inclemency of the weather, for all of which we -were duly thankful, as it meant that we had escaped the necessity of -hurting anybody’s feelings by declining to drink more _copitas_ of -brandy on an empty stomach. - -Here at Los Neques the Indians were getting ready to celebrate the days -of Carnival which were soon to be upon us. A hundred men and women had -gathered in the courtyard of an old house. In one corner a red cloth -shelter had been erected - -[Illustration: AYACUCHO] - -[Illustration: THE COURTYARD OF THE HOTEL] - -under which sat the old men around a table on which was scattered -popcorn, roast maize, and dishes of succotash. The other men and women -squatted on the ground with dishes of succotash and bowls of _chicha_ in -front of them. As long as we looked on, all was orderly and quiet except -that two musicians with a violin and a primitive old harp were -endeavoring to cheer them up. - -Soon after dark, in a pouring rain, we passed the high walls of the -Ayacucho cemetery, clattered over the cobble-stones of the narrow -streets, entered the plaza, and were ushered with a flourish through a -stone arch into the courtyard of the hotel. Acting on the orders of the -Prefect, the proprietor had reserved for our use an enormous parlor or -reception room where at least forty people could be comfortably seated, -and a great bedroom of nearly the same dimensions in which were four -large bedsteads. Notwithstanding the attractiveness of the hotel -bedsteads, such is the perversity of human nature that I decided to use -my own little “Gold Medal” folding cot that had served me faithfully for -many weeks, and my own blankets which, as they were folded up every -morning as soon as I arose and not unfolded until I was ready to sleep, -could be relied upon to be free from fleas, etc. - -The plaza of Ayacucho is surrounded on three sides with private houses -that have arcades supported by stone pillars. The ground floors are -taken up with shops, while over the arcades are balconies that lead to -the principal rooms of the dwelling houses. Our hotel had been once -occupied by one of the principal families of the town and was a good -specimen of the old Spanish method of building. It had a large courtyard -from which a flight of stone steps led up to the galleries, and was -ornamented by potted plants and caged birds. - -Hardly had we examined our rooms when we received a call from the -Prefect, Don Gaspar Mauro Cacho, a tall, finely proportioned Peruvian -with a remarkable sense of humor and an unfailing store of courtesy. On -the following day he took upon himself to show us the sights of the -town, including the fine old cathedral, the large public market, clean -and well kept, the picturesque old churches, and the Prefecture, a large -double quadrangle where were located the offices of the Department, the -barracks of the few troops stationed here, and the rooms allotted for -the use of himself and his family. - -His wife and children had arrived from Lima not many months previous, -and the terrors of the overland journey were vividly in their minds. His -señora assured me that she had feared she would never reach Ayacucho -alive, notwithstanding the fact that the government had made every -possible provision for their comfort on the journey. One of the “guides” -lost his way, and they were quartered at an abandoned _tambo_ where -there was nothing to eat or drink and no firewood. Having lived in Lima -all their lives, they felt the discomforts keenly. It was an interesting -commentary on the state of the roads that even a Prefect could not be -sure that his family would travel with a moderate degree of comfort. - -I had sometimes felt that the life of an official in Peru was as easy as -the life of the poor Indians was hard, but I had to reverse that opinion -before leaving the country. While the Prefects are appointed directly by -the President and are responsible only to him, they are likely to be -considered troublesome by the local magistrates who, although elected by -the citizens, exercise very limited prerogatives. Were it not for the -dozen or more soldiers that take their orders directly from the Prefect, -he would often be in a precarious position. He must govern as well as he -can, and yet if he does not make himself popular with the people of the -city in which he lives, his lot is not at all an easy one. With such men -as the Prefects whom we met in Arequipa, Abancay, and Ayacucho, the -central government is fortunate in being able to be sure that the power -which it delegates to them will be used firmly and wisely and without -causing friction. - -This city, one of the largest in Peru, occupies an excellent central -situation and from it diverge roads in every direction. Yet so great is -the difficulty of bringing foreign merchandise over these mountain -roads, that we found few shops here of any importance, and almost all -seemed to be owned by natives of the country. The streets were all of -the same pattern, paved with rough stones, sloping, not away from the -centre as with us, but towards the centre, where in the middle there is -invariably a ditch, practically an open sewer. For those walking on the -sidewalk, it is certainly much pleasanter to have this ditch in the -middle of the street. - -In anticipation of the joys of eating and drinking connected with -Carnival, Indian women with huge cauldrons of _chupe_ and immense jars -of _chicha_ were preparing to take up all-night stands, sometimes in the -centre of the street or else on a busy corner where they would be sure -to attract trade. The effect of the women’s head-gear was most curious. -It was exactly as though the lady had found her shawl a bit too warm and -had taken it off, folded it into a square, and proceeded to carry it on -her head for convenience. We went through one old crumbling archway, -attracted by some beautiful clay jars, and found ourselves in a backyard -that would have delighted a painter. Not all painters, but the kind that -loves a natural combination of picturesque ruins, fine old jars tumbled -about helter-skelter, dirty little Indian children in dirtier hats and -ponchos, very much too big for them, a cat, and a long-legged pig who -nosed about among the jars trying to see which one contained _chicha_ -fit to gratify his thirst. - -From the tower of one of the oldest churches we secured a splendid view -of the city and the surrounding country including nearly the entire -region occupied by the forces of Sucre and La Serna in the week -preceding the final battle of Ayacucho. - -The old name of Ayacucho was Guamanga, which is said to have been a -Spanish adaptation of the Inca Huaman-ca (Take it, Falcon), a name that -was given to the district by an incident that followed a fierce battle -in which a warlike tribe of this vicinity was defeated and almost -annihilated by the armies - -[Illustration: A PICTURESQUE CORNER IN AYACUCHO] - -[Illustration: CROSSING THE PONGORA RIVER ON THE SHAKY SUSPENSION -BRIDGE] - -of the Inca Viracocha. It is said that when serving out rations of flesh -to his troops after the battle, the Inca threw a piece to a falcon that -was soaring over his head, saying “Huaman-ca.” However this may be, the -town of Guamanga was one of the earliest to be founded by Pizarro and -was later the site of a bloody encounter between Vaca de Castro, the -legitimate Viceroy, and young Almagro and his followers, who had -assassinated Pizarro. - -The name Ayacucho was given to the town after the famous battle of -December 9, 1824, which was fought near the village of Quinua, thirteen -miles north. “Ayacucho” means “corner (or heap) of dead men” and refers -to the bloody character of this conflict and of those that had preceded -it in the Inca Conquest and in the Spanish Conquest of Peru. - -On February 21, the three days of Carnival began. Although I had often -read of the impossibility of doing anything in Peru during that period -of jollification, I succeeded in persuading the kind-hearted Prefect to -procure us animals that we might ride to Quinua, thirteen miles away, -and spend a day or so investigating the battlefield. He tried to -dissuade us, but as he knew that it was for this purpose that we had -come to Ayacucho, everything was soon ready. The Gobernador of Quinua -had been given orders to be on hand, to act as our guide. Accompanied by -him and the Secretary of the Department and a small military escort, we -left the hotel and took the road to the northwest. - -Our little cavalcade was strung out over a block or more by the time we -reached the suburbs as the streets were narrow and not in particularly -good repair. Suddenly the horses of our guides wheeled and bolted and -were with difficulty kept in the road. The cause was a characteristic -piece of carelessness on the part of somebody. A horse had recently died -and his thrifty owner had at once skinned him to save his hide, leaving -the hideous carcass in the very centre of the narrow road. It was -necessary to make a considerable detour through the neighboring fields, -for none of our animals would go within fifty feet of the disgusting -spectacle. - -For the first two leagues we followed the regular road to Lima and the -north, branching off when we reached the ford over the Pongora River, -then passing through several small plantations and near two vineyards, -we crossed the river Yucaes on a new suspension bridge and climbed the -face of a steep cliff by a zigzag trail. We had good animals and kept -them going at a comfortable trot so that we arrived at the little -village of Quinua in three and a half hours after leaving Ayacucho. - -The plaza of Quinua is surrounded on three sides by houses and ruins, -the fourth side being taken up by the church. Like the other houses in -the vicinity, these were built of stone and earth and roofed with red -tiles. Many of the roofs had been allowed to fall into decay, and the -house which was pointed out as the place where the truce was signed -after the battle, and where the Spanish General surrendered to General -Sucre, had entirely lost its covering. - -A hasty lunch was prepared for us at a little mud hut called a tavern, -and as soon after as possible we re-mounted and rode north for half a -mile up the face of a little hill and found ourselves on the plain where -was fought the last great battle of the South American Wars of -Independence. A monument, apparently made of some kind of plaster, and -naturally in a very bad state of repair, marked the centre of the plain. -Near by was a kind of shed or shelter for the horses, and a little to -the westward the walls of a memorial chapel that had not yet been -completed. North of the plain the heights of Condorkanqui rise abruptly. -A new road had recently been constructed over them to the warm valleys -beyond, but it was still perfectly possible to see the old trail down -which the Spanish troops marched in their attack on the patriots. - -The altitude of the field is nearly eleven thousand feet, and -romantically inclined writers have sometimes spoken of this as the -“battle above the clouds.” As a matter of fact, we had considerable -difficulty in taking photographs owing to the low hanging clouds that -continually swept down from the summits of Condorkanqui. Fortunately it -did not rain _all_ the time. - -Few battles have ever been fought on a height that offered such a -magnificent view. From all parts of the battlefield, a superb panorama -is spread out to the east, south, and west, embracing the entire valley -of Ayacucho. - -After spending the afternoon on the field, we returned to the little -tavern where the evening passed very pleasantly and we were entertained -by the Indian villagers who were celebrating the Carnival. They came in -throngs bringing us parched corn, popcorn, and _chicha_, swearing -eternal friendship, and expressing their appreciation that we should -come such a long distance to see their famous battlefield. The village -appeared to be divided into three wards, and the alcalde of each ward -was anxious that we should eat and drink just as much of his offering as -we had of the others. - -They were easily satisfied, however, and appeared to be having a very -good time. I never saw Indians enjoy themselves more. As a conclusion to -the entertainment, two Indian women were instructed to sing for us. -Their performance consisted in a wailing duet, beginning loud and high, -ascending with a powerful crescendo to screeching falsetto notes and -then gradually descending and diminishing into a wheeze like a very old -parlor organ with leaky bellows. - -We spent the next morning photographing different parts of the -battlefield and trying to get a better idea of the reasons for Sucre’s -victory. I was very forcibly impressed by the skill with which he had -chosen his position. - -The little plain, really a plateau, is literally surrounded by ravines. -It was just large enough to allow Sucre to use his seven or eight -thousand men to the best advantage. An enemy attacking him must perforce -come up hill on every side, even though it would seem as though the -Spanish troops descending from Condorkanqui would have had some -advantage. But they were under fire all the time they were descending to -the plain, and just - -[Illustration: THE BATTLEFIELD OF AYACUCHO] - -[Illustration: THE BATTLEFIELD AS IT APPEARED TO THE SPANIARDS] - -before they reached it, they found themselves in a little gully up the -sides of which they had to scramble at a disadvantage before they could -actually be on a level with the defenders. La Serna was too good a -general not to have appreciated the strength of Sucre’s position. In -fact, as General Miller points out, the mistake of the Viceroy in -attacking originated in allowing himself to be over-persuaded by the -eagerness of his troops. Their patience had been exhausted by terrible -marches which seemed to them to be endless. Only a few days before the -battle, the tents of the Viceroy and his chief general had had lampoons -pasted on them, accusing them of cowardice. It may fairly be said that -he was goaded into action contrary to his own judgment. - -The battle of Ayacucho, besides being the final combat, was one of the -most brilliant in the history of the Wars of Independence. The troops on -both sides were well-seasoned veterans. The generals in command were -among the ablest that the long wars had developed. Every man fought with -bravery. Although the Patriots were outnumbered, they made up for it by -enthusiasm and by a knowledge that there was no opportunity for them to -retreat. They were aided by the lay of the land, but the result was due -to a most determined valor and a heroic daring that must always gratify -lovers of Peruvian history. - -We returned to the city in the middle of the afternoon in time to take a -little walk in the streets and be bombarded by little Carnival balloons -filled with scented water, egg-shells filled with colored powder, and -the other missiles that are commonly employed to bear witness to the -fact that Lent is approaching. The ladies and children, who occupied -points of vantage in the second-story windows, kept up a brisk fire on -everyone who ventured along the streets, and we had to do some very -rapid dodging to avoid being entirely soaked and colored with all the -hues of the rainbow. - -In the evening, notwithstanding a terrific downpour of rain, the -“society of Ayacucho,” including the Archbishop, the Prefect, and fifty -or sixty of their friends, “tendered us” an elaborate banquet which -quite took the palm for variety of food and drink. There were no less -than fourteen courses besides seven kinds of wine including champagne. -The after-dinner speeches were also quite remarkable. Hitherto, the -chief interest in us had been the fact that we had “visited the lost -city of Choqquequirau,” but here Choqquequirau meant little or nothing. -The battlefield of Ayacucho meant everything, and the fact that we were -_delegados_ from a country whose aid Peru hoped to receive in case Chile -became troublesome meant a great deal more. Whether it was at this -banquet or at one of those that preceded it in the past three weeks, I -do not remember, but the opinion was expressed more than once that, -rather than have another war with Chile, they would surrender to the -United States and become a protectorate. I mention this not as an -indication of national sentiment, but merely to show the state of -feeling that prevailed in the interior of Peru at the time, and the -attitude with which they regarded the possibility of another war with -Chile. - -A large part of the hatred that exists between Chilean and Peruvian is -due to their native ancestry. In the Chilean there is a large percentage -of Araucanian blood. In the Peruvian there is as much of the blood of -the Quichuas. The Araucanians are the hereditary foes of the Quichuas. -For centuries there was no peace between them. The Incas pushed their -army of Quichuas as far south as possible, but they never could conquer -the lands where the Araucanians roved. Even the all-conquering Spanish -soldiers were blocked in southern Chile. It is not necessary to repeat -here the long story of the Araucanian wars and the heroic deeds of -Lautaro and his kinsmen. Instead of being easily conquered by the -handful of Spanish adventurers as were the Incas and Quichuas, the -Araucanians kept the Spaniards at bay for centuries, and were in fact -never subdued. - -The Araucanians and the Quichuas had as different racial characteristics -as can be imagined. Although the Araucanians did not constitute a nation -in the proper sense of the word but were divided into a large number of -clans, each independent and recognizing no master, they never allowed -any outside people to interfere with their national life. They were -intensely independent. Even the chiefs lacked authority in time of -peace. There were no serfs or slaves. More important still, there were -no laws; private wrongs had to be settled privately. All of these -elements must be taken into consideration when contemplating the -character of the Chilean of to-day. His Spanish ancestors brooked no -interference and recognized no central government, but his Araucanian -forebears were still more intensely fond of individual liberty. His -Spanish ancestors were brave and fearless. No better soldiers existed in -Europe in the sixteenth century. The Araucanians were even more warlike, -and after their first few defeats by the invaders, they successfully -assumed the offensive, storming Spanish towns and carrying off cattle -and horses. They organized troops of cavalry, learning to excel on an -animal that their fathers had never heard of, and which the Quichuas -even now rarely dare to mount. The entire Araucanian nation was less -numerous than the army of Quichuas that surrounded Atahualpa when he was -successfully attacked by Pizarro, yet they killed more Spanish soldiers -than fell in the conquest of the entire remainder of the continent. With -such an ancestry, it is not remarkable that the Chileans are notoriously -the best fighters on the continent to-day. Contrast their inheritance -with that of the Peruvians. - -The Quichuas were and are a timid, peaceful folk lacking in dignity, -defending themselves rather with cunning and falsehood than by deeds of -arms. The servile sentiment is deeply rooted in the Quichua nature. He -maintains a sense of loyalty for his former masters, but he has -absolutely no idea of liberty or independence. The Quichuas had reached -a higher state of culture than the Araucanians but their manly -characteristics were far less developed. In fact, at the time of the -Spanish conquest, they seem to have been already in a decadent -condition. With such blood in their veins, it is not surprising that the -Peruvians were easily defeated by the Chileans, their country overrun -and humiliated, their valuable nitrate fields seized, and the seeds of -intense national hatred planted that will take generations to -eradicate. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -AYACUCHO TO LIMA - - -Every one had told us that it would be “absolutely impossible” to leave -Ayacucho until two or three days had elapsed after the end of the -Carnival. Possibly because we were a trifle homesick, and possibly -because we had been assured so positively that it could not be done, we -determined to try to leave Ayacucho on the last day of the three devoted -to Carnival. I must confess that it was rather cruel, not only to the -two soldiers who were ordered to accompany us, but also the _arriero_ -who was informed that he must provide us with mules and go when we were -ready to start. The morning was spent in a great row over the mules and -the question as to how far they were to go with us, in which many tears -were shed by drunken Indian women who declared that they were sure they -would never see their husbands or animals back again. If it had not been -for the Prefect’s willingness to help us, we could never have persuaded -any one to go, but he did his part splendidly. We at length got off just -at noon. The Prefect and his friends, to the number of fourteen, -escorted us for the first league out of the city. Then we bade them an -affectionate farewell and started off on the last stage of our journey, -determined, if possible, to travel henceforth as much like private -citizens as we could. To be sure, we had our little military escort. -Without them we should have found it almost impossible to proceed at all -for the next few days. Our first two leagues were over the same road -which we had used in going to Quinua, then, instead of fording the -river, we kept on its left bank until we reached a shaky suspension -bridge. Its floor was made of loose planks that were so easily misplaced -by the mules that Hay declared he had to set them all over again after I -had passed in order to avoid falling into the river. - -We met on the road many Indians, celebrating Carnival, marching along -gayly, beating primitive little drums and blowing on bamboo-fifes. They -stopped at almost every house they passed, shouting and hullabalooing -and getting a few drinks of _chicha_. - -As we were crossing the rocky bed of a little stream we met an itinerant -musician, a blind harpist, who was being helped across by a friend. His -harp was very curious, being a wooden box shaped like half a cone with -two wooden legs tacked into its base, and two eye-holes on the flat side -which made it look very much like some dwarfish animal. With great -difficulty we tried to persuade him to set up his harp in the dry bed of -the stream and play us a tune while we took his picture. Not having the -slightest conception of what we were trying to do, the poor blind -musician was rather frightened, and as he understood no Spanish -whatever, we should not have succeeded had it not been for the kind -offices of a pleasant-faced mestizo family party who were picnicking on -the bank of the stream and who translated our poor Spanish into Quichua. -In the evening we reached Huanta, an historic little town where savage -Indian tribes from the Amazonian forests have frequently come into -collision with armed Peruvian forces. Although we hoped to be able to -slip into town unnoticed, we were met, a mile out, by the usual dozen of -hospitably inclined _caballeros_ who, with the Gobernador at their head, -had been “celebrating” for the past two or three days. We were by this -time so fatigued by the labors of crossing Peru in the wet season, that -we found it very difficult to be as polite as we were expected to be to -the reception committees that had been our lot hitherto. However, in -this case, to put it bluntly, the Gobernador was very drunk, which made -him only the more friendly, and he insisted that we were two “princes of -America,” and that his house would be everlastingly famous in history as -having been the place where we stayed! - -His wife and daughters behaved splendidly. They seemed to realize that -we knew it was customary for all the men to get drunk at this season of -the year. At the same time they did their best to make us comfortable -and to see that the male members of the family did not annoy us any more -than they could help. - -Naturally, the “morning after” was a sad occasion, and had it not been -for our excellent soldiers, who had gone to bed sober, it would have -been very difficult to have persuaded our hosts to let us go. The -Gobernador was extremely cross. He had - -[Illustration: THE BRIDGE OVER THE HUARPA] - -forgotten all about our princely lineage, and only remembered to charge -us treble for everything he could think of. Although we had gotten up at -five o’clock, no Indians sober enough to act as guides could be found -for several hours, and it was after ten before we finally left Huanta. - -The son of the Gobernador was the only person who had energy enough, or -had sufficiently recovered from the debauch of the night before, to do -us the honor of escorting us out of town. This had come to be such a -regular feature of our travels since leaving Cuzco that we always looked -forward with curiosity to see what would happen. This young fellow was -very polite and went with us as far as the entrance of the local -cemetery, a bizarre white-washed adobe gate, protected from the weather -by a little covering of red tiles. There must have been something -prophetic about his bidding us good-by at the gates of a cemetery, for -he was the last honorary escort that we had in Peru. - -Our road led us through a thickly populated region. Here and there on -the roadside, unfortunate individuals, both men and women, who had been -too far gone to reach home the night before, were sleeping off the -effects of the Carnival. Ordinarily one does not see much drunkenness in -Peru, but this certainly was an exception. - -Small towns and villages followed in quick succession. Then we descended -into the valley of the Huarpa River and across a well-built toll-bridge. -The bridge was so long and so high above the stream that my mule -concluded he would stay on the east bank. He yielded to our combined -efforts, but only after much beating. We now passed through a semi-arid -region of cactus and mimosa trees like the basin of the Pampas River, -until we began to climb an extremely steep ravine. Several times we lost -our way, and in places the path had been completely washed out by the -rains. The crux came at a little waterfall only five feet high. So -smooth was the face of the rock over which the little stream of water -trickled that our sure-footed animals found it impossible to reach the -upper level until we had built a rude stone stairway which they -cheerfully essayed to climb. Their energetic scrambles were finally -rewarded by success. For three hours the trail wound upwards as steeply -as it was possible to go, until we reached the bleak _paramo_ near -Marcas. - -A magnificent panorama lay spread out before us. In the foreground were -hillsides dotted with thatched huts and fields where sheep and cattle -grazed; in the middle distance, deep valleys whose rivers had cut their -way down into gorges out of our sight; and far beyond, a magnificent -range of mountains, some capped with snow and others with clouds. It was -a little after five o’clock when we entered the picturesque little -village of Marcas with its two dozen huts scattered about under the lee -of the rocks or clustered near the road. We recognized it as just the -sort of village where we would have been refused both food and shelter -had we been alone. But as we were accompanied by an energetic sergeant -who did not propose to allow any poor Indians to stand in the way of our -progress, a hut no dirtier or more comfortless than the rest was soon -put at our disposal, and the sergeant did his best to get us all a good -supper out of our own provisions. - -Our baggage animals had had a frightfully hard day of it and our -soldiers assured us that if we intended to catch the weekly train out of -Huancayo, it would be necessary to have at least one more beast of -burden, for although our luggage could be conveniently carried by two -mules going at a walk, if we expected to make forty miles a day, as we -hoped to do, one animal must be rested every other day. Accordingly the -Indian alcalde of Marcas was instructed to get us a mule. “But there are -no mules here” he replied. A horse then. “Very well, there is one old -one which I will have ready for you in the morning.” Soon after -breakfast an old white horse appeared, accompanied by a weeping Indian -woman who had no desire to take our money and who was thoroughly -convinced that she would never see her horse again. It was finally -agreed that the horse should go only to the next town where we could get -another beast and send this one back by one of the Indian alcaldes that -now accompanied us from village to village, returning as their task of -acting as guides was taken up by the alcaldes of the next place. - -With the aid of the fresh horse, we made good time and skirted the -slopes of a high range of hills leaving the trim little town of Acobamba -far off on our left. It lies in the valley of the Lircay which is quite -densely populated and seemed to be very fertile. In the middle of the -afternoon we reached Urumyosi where there are curious great rocks -shaped like sugar loaves. They are of soft sandstone which is easily -worked, and a number of caves have been made by poor people at the base -of the rocks. After a long cold ride and ten hours in the saddle, we -came in sight of a mud-colored town called Paucara which has long had a -very evil reputation. Whether this is deserved or not we did not -endeavor to discover. The sergeant persuaded the owner of a rude little -hut, half a mile from the town and on the direct road, to let us spend -the night there. One of our neighbors brought freshly cut barley-straw -for the mules, another brought a dozen eggs, and with the aid of our own -supplies and cooking utensils, we fared splendidly. - -The night was excessively damp and as bitterly cold as it can be only in -a genuinely tropical country when the temperature drops forty degrees -after the sun goes down and an icy wind penetrates your very bones, even -though you have hurriedly put on two or three sweaters and a couple of -ponchos as it grew dark. There is no cold like the cold of the tropics. -Furthermore the carcass of a recently killed sheep hung dripping in the -hut. The floor was wet and muddy, there were no windows and only a small -door. We wished we had a tent. - -There being no incentive to linger at this charming country-house, our -Indians were actually up and away before six o’clock. We had saved four -eggs the evening before to be cooked for our breakfast, and after -loading our pack animals and seeing them safely off with all our -supplies, we handed our - -[Illustration: URUMYOSI] - -[Illustration: THE HUT NEAR PAUCARA] - -eggs and some tea to the housewife and asked her to prepare us a frugal -meal. Alas! it was quite impossible. The cooking activities of the -evening before had used up every stick of firewood within a radius of a -mile, and there was no way in which water could be boiled. The only -provisions for our breakfast were the raw eggs. We had before us a ride -of forty miles over an exceedingly rough country, part of which lay at -an elevation of fourteen thousand feet above the sea, so we hastily -swallowed our eggs as best as we could and started off with the prospect -of twelve hours in the saddle. - -At first the road wound slowly up the valley of Lircay, until finally it -climbed over the edge of the hills to a great bleak plateau where -hundreds of llamas were feeding. When you come to a llama range you may -be fairly certain that the altitude is not far from that of the top of -Pike’s Peak. Add to this a blinding snow-storm that keeps you from -seeing more than six feet ahead of you, a wearied mule, a very hungry -rider, and the uncertainty as to whether you are on the right road or -not, and you will have a picture of our predicament during part of that -never-to-be-forgotten day. At length, to our great delight, the trail -began slowly to descend from cheerless _paramos_ and little mountain -lakes into a great valley where, thousands of feet below, we could see -huts and cultivated fields. - -Skirting the hills half-way up the valley and avoiding the attractive -little trails that led down to Indian villages, we kept turning more and -more to the westward until we rounded a spur and came on a magnificent -view of the great river Mantaro that on its way to join the Apurimac has -cut a wonderfully deep cañon through this part of Peru. A tortuous -descent of two thousand feet brought us to the new toll-bridge of -Tablachaca and onto an excellent road. Of course, this does not mean -that it could be used for wheeled vehicles, for of carts there are none -in this part of the world. It simply means that a trail four or five -feet wide and reasonably free from rocks and holes allowed the mules to -jog along at a gait of nearly five miles an hour. So slow had been our -progress over the _paramo_ that it was considerably after dark before we -reached the picturesque old stone bridge of Yscuchaca, re-crossed the -Mantaro, and clattered over the cobble-tones of this well-built little -town. - -We had rather flattered ourselves that no one here knew we were coming -and so we had avoided an official reception and all possible attacks on -our digestive faculties. But we had to pay for it by finding that it -took nearly two hours longer than usual before we were able to secure -any accommodations whatsoever for the night. The Gobernador of Yscuchaca -lived a mile or more out of town on his country estate, and learning -finally that there were two “distinguished foreigners” in town, sent his -head servant to welcome us, gave us the use of a room in his town house, -provided our mules with pasturage, and the next morning charged us three -times the regular tariff. I regret to say that we took advantage of the -absence of the Gobernador to pay his major-domo what our sergeant told -us was the - -[Illustration: THE TOLL BRIDGE OF TABLACHACA] - -legitimate price and left him wondering why he had not been able to -overcharge us as he had certain American civil engineers who had been -here not long before, surveying for the extension of the central railway -of Peru. - -At present, that railway, begun many years ago, goes from Lima to Oroya -and thence south to Huancayo which is nearly fifty miles from Yscuchaca. -It is proposed now to continue it from Huancayo to Yscuchaca and thence -due south to Huancavelica where there are mines of quicksilver and -copper. Eventually it will form one of the links in the chain of the -Pan-American Railway. - -Our mules were pretty tired and so were we, but when one is on the home -stretch it is easy to travel from early to late. We rose before five -o’clock. Our road first crossed the Mantaro, ascended the left bank of -the stream for several miles, passed several mineral springs, and then -climbed out of the narrowing cañon up toward the village of Acostambo. -At one place where the road had been cut through what looked like a -fossil bed, I was so fortunate as to find, _in situ_, a fossil bivalve. -Professor Charles Schuchert of Yale University has been so good as to -identify it for me as _allorisma subcuneata_. It has been found also in -Brazil. Its geological horizon, the upper carboniferous, is widely -distributed in South America and is well known about Lake Titicaca. The -location of this fossil here may indicate the presence in this vicinity -of coal-beds. If any could be found, it would be the greatest benefit, -not only to the railway that hopes some day to pass through this -valley, but also to the copper-smelters in the vicinity. As a matter of -fact, Peru does not need the coal for power; these great and rapidly -flowing rivers like the Mantaro, the Pampas, and the Apurimac offer an -abundant water-power that, transformed into electricity, would run all -the railroads and factories that could possibly be crowded into Peru. - -Personally, I do not believe in the construction of steam railroads in -this country. The difficulties of overcoming steep grades are serious, -and the cost of building is necessarily all out of proportion to the -traffic that is likely to be developed. I do believe, however, that the -future of Peru depends upon the development of her water-power and the -building of light electric railways that would be sufficient to handle -economically the product of the mines and to accommodate passengers. If -the region were one where extensive crops could be cultivated and a -large amount of heavy freight developed, this argument would not hold. -Under the circumstances, however, I believe that it is a much safer -investment for capital and a much more practical work for the government -to develop electric traction. - -At Acostambo, a town of perhaps two thousand inhabitants, we tried to -buy something to eat for lunch, but there was nothing to be had except -some dough cakes that had been “cooked” in cold ashes. After passing -through two or three small villages where most of the Indians seemed to -be in a state of intoxication, we crossed the Cordillera Marcavalle and -found ourselves on the well-travelled road to Pampas. Before us, spread -out in a magnificent panorama, the fertile, densely populated valley of -Jauja. Watered by the Upper Mantaro River and its affluents, there are -over fifty villages, towns, and cities, clustered together in this rich -plain. Immediately ahead lay four towns almost exactly in a straight -line and less than ten miles apart: Pucará, where we stopped long enough -to buy some parched corn and freshly roasted pork for supper, -Sapallauga, Punta, and Huancayo. Instead of the desolate region in which -we had passed most of yesterday, we were now in one of the most thickly -populated parts of Peru, and felt as though we were back again in -civilization. This sensation was increased when we began to clatter down -the long street of Huancayo. It seemed like an age before we finally -reached the business centre of the city at 9 P.M. and surrendered -ourselves into the hands of a courteous Austrian hotel proprietor. - -We had spent nearly fourteen hours in the saddle. This was quite -forgotten when we learned to our delight that there was to be a train -for Oroya the next day, for the first time in two weeks. - -We had heard that the train from Huancayo left usually on Sundays, so we -had promised our soldiers a sovereign apiece if they would see to it -that we reached Huancayo by Saturday night. As they had to accompany the -slow-moving pack animals, they did not arrive themselves until the next -morning, somewhat in fear lest they had lost their promised reward. When -they were assured, however, that we had caught our train, and when they -had received their gold and what was left of our kitchen utensils and -supplies, their delight knew no bounds, and they were constrained to -embrace us in truly oriental fashion. - -Sunday morning is a great event in Huancayo. Before sunrise, thousands -of Indians come in from the surrounding towns and villages for the -weekly Fair. Two large plazas are crowded with vendors of every -conceivable kind of merchandise: oxen and mules raised nearby, toys -“made in Germany,” pottery and ponchos made in Huancayo, and beer made -in Milwaukee. Overflowing from the crowded plazas the Fair extends for -nearly a mile through the main street of the city. The picturesque -Indians in their brilliantly colored ponchos, thronging the streets and -alternately buying and selling their wares, offer a field for diversion -that no one should miss who reaches Lima. - -Like the Mexican Indians, so vividly depicted by Mr. Kirkham in his -artistic “Mexican Trails,” there are many among the throng who will -“sell a hen, later to bargain for a sombrero, presently to go upon their -knees within the church yonder, candle in hand; lastly to lie by the -roadside, overfull of _pulque_ and oblivious of this world, or the -next.” - -The type is the same whether it be seen on a Sunday in the Andes of -Mexico, Peru, or Colombia. Only here it is _chicha_ that is the favorite -beverage instead of _pulque_. - -The long expected train was due to arrive at noon and “to leave soon -afterwards.” The platform and the newly constructed booths near the -little corrugated-iron station were crowded for hours by - -[Illustration: SUNDAY MORNING IN HUANCAYO] - -intending passengers and friends of expected arrivals. But it was late -in the afternoon, almost dark in fact, before the belated little train -pulled into the station and the runners from the three Huancayo hotels -had the satisfaction of greeting their “friends.” We were informed that -the train would not leave before six o’clock the next morning so we -tried to possess ourselves in patience at our comfortable little hotel. - -We were on hand, bright and early, just in time to see the train pull -out of the station. Happily it was only a false alarm, and the train -soon backed down to the platform again and waited for three quarters of -an hour for intending passengers to arrive. At length the conductor -decided he could wait no longer, and at 6:40 we pulled out, just before -the sub-Prefect and his friends arrived on the scene. A young politician -on the train, who thought that the sub-Prefect wanted to go to Lima, -pulled violently at the bell-rope. The engineer, accustomed to that form -of stopping the train, had detached the ropes from the locomotive so -that all that the friends of the sub-Prefect were able to do was to pull -several yards of it into the rear coach. Rather characteristically, the -only four people who were on hand at six o’clock ready for the train to -start on time, were all Americans. The two besides ourselves were -artisans from the great copper mines of Cerro de Pasco who were enjoying -a week’s vacation. - -At Jauja there is a spur track which runs from the main line a mile or -more back to the historic old city, celebrated in the annals of the -Spanish Conquest and the Wars of Independence. The good people of -Jauja, not yet accustomed to the necessary rules of a railroad train -service, flocked on board the train to say “good-by” to their departing -friends and chat as long as possible. Taking no heed of the screams of -the engine and the cries of the conductor, more than twenty ladies, who -had no intention of leaving town, were still on board when the train -pulled out of the station. The conductor took them a mile and a half -down the track to the main line; then, fearing that the mere fact that -they would have to walk home would not sufficiently impress them, he -made each one pay for riding! Twenty more sheepish-looking individuals -than the garrulous ladies, whom the conductor lined up in the field a -short distance from the tracks and charged for their short ride, would -be hard to find. - -At eleven o’clock we came to a wash-out and had to cross the Oroya River -on planks hastily thrown over the unfinished new railroad bridge. A -train was waiting for us on the other side, and with very little delay, -all the passengers and luggage were safely carried across and we reached -Oroya before four o’clock that evening. - -Although there are rich mines in the vicinity and it is the terminus of -the new line, built by American capital, to the great Cerro de Pasco -smelters, Oroya is chiefly famous as the terminus of “the highest -railroad in the world,” and we looked forward with interest to our -journey on the morrow. - -The magnificent great viaduct which has frequently been pictured as -formerly one of the highest railroad bridges in existence, had come to -grief only a short time before, in a rather tragic manner. A car, -loaded with bridge-construction material and occupied by several -American engineers, was standing on the bridge to which repairs were -being made. A run-away engine came flying down the grade, struck the -car, jumped into the air, crashed back on the frail viaduct, which gave -way and allowed a tangled mass of men and metal to fall into the cañon -two hundred and twenty feet below. - -This accident necessitated many delays, as all the passengers and -freight had to be transferred by mules or on foot down into the cañon -and up the other side to the train for Lima. - -The ride from Oroya to Lima has been so frequently described by many -travellers and the excitement of coasting down from the summit tunnel -where the altitude is 15,666 feet to the Lima station, which is only a -little above sea level, is so well known, that I will not attempt to -give my own impressions here. Suffice it to say that the excitement was -increased if anything by the fact that besides the bridge accident -another had occurred only a few days previously in which a locomotive -had left the tracks and rolled down an embankment. - -Owing to these accidents our train was provided with a very old engine -whose boilers were so leaky that we had a hard time climbing up from -Oroya to the divide. Several times we stopped; once for three quarters -of an hour to allow enough steam to accumulate to pull us around a -curve. We did not object, however, for the scenery was wonderful. The -great craggy cliffs, their slopes covered with snow and ice, made us -realize that this was really the roof tree of the continent. Just before -entering the summit tunnel, the train stopped again, and we had a chance -to enjoy a magnificent panorama of snow-capped mountains. - -A hand-car with two workmen was sent down the road just ahead of our -train so as to give us some sense of assurance. It is well known that -most people coming up this road from Lima suffer greatly from _soroche_ -before they reach the summit. On our way down, however, most of the -passengers were so well accustomed to high elevations that not more than -three or four, and they Peruvian ladies from Jauja and Oroya, seemed to -be affected. So far as I could judge, their trouble was due more to -car-sickness and the lack of ventilation than to the elevation. - -We reached Lima about half past eight on the evening of March 2d. Who -can describe the comfort and luxury of those first few hours in the -excellent Hotel Maury? - -My first duty the next day was to call on President Leguia, report on -what I had seen at Choqquequirau and tell him how very hospitably we had -been received in the interior towns and cities. After talking with him -for a few moments, we were no longer at a loss to understand why the -Prefects and sub-Prefects of Peru had been so courteous to us, for their -chief is himself the soul of courtesy. Well-travelled, well-educated, -speaking English fluently, a trained business man, not in the slightest -degree the type of South American President with which novel-readers -and playgoers are familiar, he impressed us as a man who would do his -best to advance the welfare of Peru without caring in the least how his -own affairs might prosper in the meantime. - -The door-keeper was a fine, tall, gray-haired soldier who had the -manners of a general, was rather suspicious of us at first, but returned -almost immediately after taking in our cards and, with a magnificent bow -and a courtly gesture, ushered us at once into the inner reception room, -greatly to the disgust of several pompous, perspiring politicians who -had been warming their heels in the gilded salon for some time before we -arrived. We did not stay long, and on our way out were again given a -demonstration of interest by the courteous old brigadier. To our sorrow -we read a few months afterward that in the unsuccessful revolution -already referred to in the chapter on Arequipa, which began by seizing -the presidential offices and in securing the President himself and his -Minister of Foreign Affairs, the revolutionists had ruthlessly killed -the old door-keeper. - -Like every visitor to Lima, we too went into the cathedral to see the -mummified remains of Francisco Pizarro, the Conqueror of Peru, and then -we took a little victoria, drawn by a pair of speedy little trotters, -and explored the parks and boulevards. We saw the monuments and the new -public buildings, called on the American Minister, whom we found to be a -charming southern gentleman, exceedingly well suited to his diplomatic -profession; admired the many substantial foreign banks and business -houses, and regretted that so much of the flavor of the old colonial -Lima had been lost in the Chilean war and in the recent era of business -prosperity. With electric lights and electric cars and abundant foreign -capital, it is not easy to preserve those picturesque features which are -so charming in the interior cities. - -At last my journey overland from Buenos Aires had been completed. I -cannot claim to know it as well or as intimately as the poor -“foot-walker” who, if he has been successful, must by this time have -reached Buenos Aires and walked on foot twice over this long dreary -road. Nevertheless, I can appreciate keenly some of the difficulties of -travel in Spanish-America during the colonial period when Lima was the -gay capital and Buenos Aires was merely a frontier post. It is small -wonder that there was little sympathy between Lima and Buenos Aires in -those days. - -Like my journey across Venezuela and Colombia, this taught me to feel -anew the stupendous difficulties that lie in the way of advancing South -American civilization. It made me admire tremendously the courage and -determination of those heroes of the Wars of Independence who marched up -and down this road for fourteen years until they had driven from it the -last vestige of a foreign army. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -CERTAIN SOUTH AMERICAN TRAITS - - -As one travels through the various South American republics, becomes -acquainted with their political and social conditions, reads their -literature, and talks with other American travellers, there are a number -of adverse criticisms that frequently arise. I shall attempt here to -enumerate some of them, to account for a few, and to compare others with -criticisms that were made of the people of the United States, half a -century ago, by a distinguished English visitor. - -Although it is true that the historical and geographical background of -the South Americans is radically different from ours, it is also true -that they have many social and superficial characteristics very like -those which European travellers found in the United States fifty years -ago. The period of time is not accidental. The South American Republics -secured their independence nearly fifty years later than we did. -Moreover, they have been hampered in their advancement by natural -difficulties and racial antipathies much more than we have. Although the -conditions of life in the United States, as depicted by foreign critics -seventy-five years after the battle of Yorktown, were decidedly worse -than the conditions of life in South America seventy-five years after -the battle of Ayacucho, the resemblances between the faults that were -found with us fifty years ago and those that are noticeable among the -South Americans of to-day, are too striking to be merely coincidences. -It is surely not for us to say that there is anything inherently wrong -with our Southern neighbors if their shortcomings are such as we -ourselves had not long ago, and possibly have to-day. - -The first criticism that one hears, and the first one is likely to make -after getting beyond the pale of official good breeding in South -America, is that the manners of the ordinary South American are very -bad. Lest the traveller be inclined to take such a state of affairs too -seriously, let him read what Dickens wrote about us and our ways in -1855. It was a faithful picture of a certain phase of American life. It -should be confessed that it paints a condition of affairs worse than -anything I have seen in South America. - -Travellers who are prone to find fault with the service at South -American hotels and restaurants will enjoy Dickens’ description of the -dining-room of a New York boarding-house. “In the further region of this -banqueting-hall was a stove, garnished on either side with a great brass -spittoon.... Before it, swinging himself in a rocking-chair, lounged a -large gentleman with his hat on, who amused himself by spitting -alternately into the spittoon on the right hand of the stove, and the -spittoon on the left, and then working his way back again in the same -order. A negro lad in a soiled white jacket was busily engaged in -placing on the table two long rows of knives and forks, relieved at -intervals by jugs of water; and as he travelled down one side of this -festive board, he straightened with his dirty hands, the dirtier cloth, -which was all askew, and had not been removed since breakfast.” - -It is indeed hard for us to overlook the table manners of the average -South American. But how many years is it since North Americans were all -reading and conning “Don’t! A Guide to Good Manners”? It is less than a -quarter of a century since our self-conscious use of the fork on all -possible (and impossible) viands showed that we felt the need of -improvement. - -To one inclined to criticise the speed with which a company of South -Americans will dispose of their food, let me recommend Dickens’ American -boarding-house table where a “very few words were spoken; and everybody -seemed to eat his utmost in self-defence, as if a famine were expected -to set in before breakfast-time to-morrow morning, and it had become -high time to assert the first law of nature. The oysters, stewed and -pickled, leaped from their capacious reservoirs, and slid by scores into -the mouths of the assembly. The sharpest pickles vanished; whole -cucumbers at once, like sugar-plums; and no man winked his eye. Great -heaps of indigestible matter melted away as ice before the sun. It was a -solemn and awful thing to see. Dyspeptic individuals bolted their food -in wedges; feeding, not themselves, but broods of nightmares, who were -continually standing at livery within them. Spare men, with lank and -rigid cheeks, came out unsatisfied from the destruction of heavy dishes, -and glared with watchful eyes upon the pastry.” - -The conversation of a group of young South Americans is not such as -appeals to our taste. There is usually too much running criticism on the -personal qualities and attractions of their women acquaintances. To them -it seems doubtless most gallant. At all events, it is not sordid, as was -that conversation which Dickens describes as “summed up in one -word--dollars.” - -When Dickens visited America, he remarked the frequency of the -expression “Yes, sir” and made a great deal of fun of us for our use of -it. Singularly enough, the Spanish “Yes sir”--_si señor_--is so -extremely common throughout South America as to attract one’s attention -continually. - -Another thing that Dickens noticed was our tendency to postpone and put -off from day to day things that did not have to be done. Yet there is no -more common criticism of Spanish-Americans than that known as the -“Mañana” habit. You will hear almost any one who pretends to know -anything at all about Spanish-America say that the great difficulty is -the ease with which the Spanish-American says “Mañana.” Personally, I do -not agree with this criticism for I have heard the expression very -seldom in South America. It is true that it is hard to get things done -as quickly as one would wish, but I believe that the criticism has been -much overworked. Undoubtedly Dickens was honest in reporting that the -habit of postponing one’s work was characteristic of the middle west as -he saw it, but it would be greatly resented to-day and would not be -true. - -In many South American cities one is annoyed by the continual -handshaking. No matter how many times a day you meet a man, he expects -you solemnly to shake hands with him just as did those western Americans -who annoyed “Martin Chuzzlewit.” - -So also with “spitting.” I have been repeatedly annoyed, not only in the -provinces, but also in the very highest circles of the most advanced -Republics, by the carelessness of South Americans in this particular, -even at dinner parties. But how many years is it since “The Last -American” was prophetically depicted by J. A. Mitchell as sitting amid -the ruins of the national Capitol with his feet on the marble rail, -spitting tobacco juice? One can hardly ride in our street cars to-day -without being reminded that only recently have the majority of Americans -put the ban on spitting. The fact that there are already printed notices -in some of the principal South American cathedrals begging people, in -the name of the local “Anti-Tuberculosis Association,” not to spit on -the floor, shows that this unpleasant habit will undoubtedly be -eradicated in considerably less than fifty years after we have ceased to -offend. - -We also dislike intensely the South American habit of staring at -strangers and of making audible comments on ladies who happen to be -passing. Unfortunately, this is a Latin habit which will be hard to -change. The South American has a racial right to look at such customs -differently. But if some of his personal habits are unpleasant, and even -disgusting from our point of view, there is no question that we irritate -him just as much as he does us. Our curt forms of address; our impatient -disregard of the amenities of social intercourse; our unwillingness to -pass the time of day at considerable length and inquire, each time we -see a friend, after his health and that of his family; our habit of -elevating our feet and often sitting in a slouchy attitude when -conversing with strangers, are to him extremely distasteful and -annoying. Our unwillingness to take the trouble to speak his language -grammatically, and our general point of view in regard to the “innate -superiority” of our race, our language, and our manufactures, are all -evidences, to his mind, of our barbarity. We care far too little for -appearances. This seems to him boorish. We criticise him because he does -not bathe as frequently as we do. He criticises us because we do not -show him proper respect by removing our hats when we meet him on the -street. - -Furthermore, he regards us as lacking in business integrity. We are too -shrewd. Our standard of honor seems low to him. In fact, a practical -obstacle with which one accustomed to American business methods has to -contend in South America, is the extreme difficulty of securing accurate -information as to a man’s credit. Inquiries into the financial standing -of an individual, which are regarded as a matter of course with us, are -resented by the sensitive Latin temperament as a personal reflection on -his honesty. It seems to be true that the South American regards the -payment of his debts as a matter more closely touching his honor than we -do. He is accustomed to receiving long credits; he always really intends -to pay sometime, and he generally manages to raise installments without -much difficulty. Yet when pressed hard in the courts, he is likely to -turn and resent as an intentional insult the judgment which has been -secured against him. I have known personally of a case where a debtor -informed his creditor that it would be necessary for him to come well -armed if he accompanied the sheriff in an effort to satisfy the judgment -of the court, for the first man, and as many more as possible, that -crossed the door of his shop on such an errand would be shot. This we -criticise as defiance of the law. To the South American, the law has -committed an unpardonable fault in venturing to convict him of -neglecting his honorable debts. - -It is unfortunate that the South Americans themselves are generally -quite unaware of their failings--a species of blindness that has -frequently been laid at our own doors. It is due to a similar cause. - -South American writers who have travelled abroad and seen enough to -enable them to point out the defects of their countrymen rarely venture -to do so. The South American loves praise but cannot endure criticism. -It makes him fairly froth at the mouth, as it did the Americans in the -days of Charles Dickens’ first visit. So the pleasant-faced gentleman -from Massachusetts, Mr. Bevan, told young Martin Chuzzlewit. “If you -have any knowledge of our literature, and can give me the name of any -man, American born and bred, who has anatomized our follies as a people, -and not as this or that party; and has escaped the foulest and most -brutal slander, the most inveterate hatred and intolerant pursuit, it -will be a strange name in my ears, believe me. In some cases, I could -name to you, where a native writer has ventured on the most harmless and -good-humoured illustrations of our vices or defects, it has been found -necessary to announce, that in a second edition the passage has been -expunged, or altered, or explained away, or patched into praise.” - -There is a story in Santiago de Chile of a young American scholar who -spent some time there studying localisms. When he returned to New York -he ventured to publish honest but rather severe criticisms of society, -as he saw it, in that most aristocratic of South American republics. As -a result, the university from which he came received a bad name in Chile -and his visit is held in such unpleasant memory that his welcome, were -he to return there, would be far from friendly. This seems narrow-minded -and perverse but is exactly the way we felt not long ago towards -foreigners who spent a few months in the States and wrote, for the -benefit of the European public, sincere but caustic criticisms. American -sensitiveness became a byword in Europe. Possibly it is growing less -with us. However that may be, South American sensitiveness is no keener -to-day than ours was fifty years since. - -I am willing to admit that it ill becomes an American to offer serious -adverse criticisms of the people of any country. Our own defects have -been so repeatedly pointed out by foreigners, many of them with -distressing unanimity, that we cannot afford to set ourselves up as -judges of what South Americans should or should not do. It is true that -the South Americans have certain graces of manner which we lack. They -are more formal in their social intercourse, and use more of the oil of -polite speech in the mechanism of their daily life than we do. - -Climatic conditions and difficulties of rapid transportation have had -much to do with the backwardness of the South American republics. With -the progress of science, the great increase in transportation facilities -and the war that is being successfully waged against tropical diseases, -a change is coming about which we must be ready to meet. - -It is particularly important that we should realize that the political -conditions of the larger republics are very much more stable than our -newspaper and novel-reading public are aware of. Lynchings are unheard -of. Serious riots, such as some of our largest American cities have seen -within the past generation, are no more common with them than with us. -It is true that the Latin temperament finds it much more difficult to -bow to the majesty of the law and to yield gracefully to governmental -decrees than the more phlegmatic Teuton or Anglo-Saxon. But the -revolutions and riots that Paris has witnessed during the past century -have not kept us from a serious effort to increase our business with -France. The occasional political riot that takes place, of no more -significance than the riots caused by strikers with which we are all too -familiar at home, is no reason why we should be afraid to endeavor to -capture the South American market. - -There is not the slightest question that there is a great opportunity -awaiting the American manufacturer and exporter when he is willing to -grasp it with intelligent persistence and determination. South America -is ready to take American goods in very large quantities as soon as we -are ready to take time to give attention to her needs. As Mr. Lincoln -Hutchinson aptly says: “There is no quick and easy remedy; money must be -spent, thoroughly equipped export managers must be employed, export -houses specializing on South American trade must be established, -efficient travellers must be sent out, technical experts employed, -agencies established, credits be given, minutiæ of orders attended to, -and, above all, trade connections adhered to in spite of allurements of -the home market, if we would succeed in the face of our competitors. -Half-way measures can accomplish but little, and that only temporary.” - -Germany teaches her young business men Spanish or Portuguese and sends -them out to learn conditions in the field. American Universities long -ago learned the advantage of adopting Germany’s thorough-going methods -of scientific research. American business men have hitherto failed to -realize the importance of adopting Germany’s thorough-going methods of -developing foreign commerce. It is high time that they took a leaf out -of the experience of the “unpractical” universities. - -Finally, a word of caution to those in search of information regarding -the history, politics, or geography of South America. The most -unfortunate result of the seven centuries during which Arab, Moorish, or -Mohammedan rule dominated a part or the whole of the Spanish peninsula, -is the truly Oriental attitude which the Spanish and the -Spanish-American maintains towards reliable information, or what we call -“facts.” - -The student of the East realizes that Orientals, including Turks and -Celestials, have no sense of the importance of agreeing with fact. They -have furthermore a great abhorrence of a vacuum. If they do not know the -reply to a question they answer at random, preferring anything to the -admission of ignorance. If they do know, and have no interest in -substituting something else for what they know, they give the facts. -When they have no facts they give something else. They not only deceive -the questioner, they actually deceive themselves. - -The same thing is true to a certain degree in South Americans. Sometimes -I have thought they were actually too polite to say “I don’t know.” - -In South America as in the East it is of primitive importance to reach -the men who know and to pay no attention to any one else. No one really -knows, who is not actually on the spot in contact with the facts. The -prudent observer must avoid all evidence that is not first hand and -derived from a trustworthy source. - -I do not bring this as a charge against the South Americans. I state it -as a condition which I have found to be nearly universally true. So far -as the South Americans are concerned, it is an inherited trait and one -which they are endeavoring to overcome. They are not to be blamed for -having it, any more than we are to be blamed for having inherited traits -from our Anglo-Saxon ancestors which are unpleasant to our Latin -neighbors and for which they have to make allowance in dealing with us. - -In offering these adverse criticisms of the South American as he appears -to me to-day, I must beg not to be misunderstood. There are naturally -many exceptions to the rule. I know personally many individuals that do -not have any of the characteristics here attributed to South Americans -in general. I have in mind one South American, a resident of a much -despised republic, whose ancestors fought in one of the great battles of -the Wars of Independence, who has as much push and energy as a veritable -New York captain of industry. He has promoted a number of successful -industrial enterprises. He keeps up with the times; he meddles not in -politics; he enjoys such sports as hunting with hounds and riding across -country. The difference between him and the New Yorker is that he speaks -three or four languages where the New Yorker only speaks one and he has -sense enough to take many holidays in the year where the New Yorker -takes but few. I know another, a distinguished young lawyer who gives -dinner parties where the food is as good, the manners as refined, the -conversation as brilliant, and the intellectual enjoyment as keen as -any given anywhere. He, too, speaks four languages fluently and could -put to shame the average New York lawyer of his own age in the variety -of topics upon which he is able to converse, not only at his ease but -brilliantly and with flashes of keen wit. I know another, a -distinguished historian, who has been described by a well-known American -librarian, himself a member of half a dozen learned societies, as the -“most scholarly and most productive” bibliographer in either North or -South America. But these are exceptions to the general rule. - -When we look at South Americans at close range we may dislike some of -their manners and customs, but not any more so than European critics -disliked ours half a century ago. And not any more so, be it remembered, -than the South American dislikes ours at the present day. - -In this chapter and, in fact, throughout the book, I must confess to -having spoken more frankly and critically than will please some of my -kind friends in South America. Although they placed me under many -obligations by their generous hospitality, I feel that it is better for -all concerned that the truth should be told, even when it is unpleasant. -We cannot have confidence unless we have facts. I cannot pretend to have -succeeded in always finding the facts, but it has not been for lack of -endeavor. I have had no interest in concealing anything favorable or -unfavorable which I thought would make the picture clearer or more -distinct. Were we not already deluged with so much official propaganda, -it would have been my privilege to tell more of the wonderful natural -resources which all the South American republics possess. But just -because it has not been the business of “boosters” or promoters to -advertise difficulties or obstacles to progress, it becomes the more -necessary for the unprejudiced traveller to lay more stress on the -existing human handicaps, than on the wonderful natural resources. It is -an unpleasant task, but I believe it is worth doing. I have no patience -with those writers who paint everything in glowing colors and leave -others to discover the truth at their own expense. Nor have I any -sympathy with those who distort or emphasize disagreeable truths for the -sake of creating a sensation. I will, however, plead guilty to being a -prejudiced observer in so far as I am an ardent advocate of closer and -more intelligent relations between the United States and the South -American republics, and a firm believer in the truth that international -friendships, in order to be lasting, must be built on an honest -understanding of prevailing conditions and racial tendencies. - - - - -INDEX - - -Abancay, 289, 290, 295, 324. - -Acobamba, 365, 370. - -Aconcagua, 218. - -Aconcawa, 159. - -Acostambo, 369. - -Agave plant, 71, 286. - -Aguardiente, 326. - -Alcaldes, Indian, 284, 365. - -Alfa. _See_ Alfalfa. - -Alfalfa, 77, 84, 100, 108, 159. - -Allorisma subcuneata, 369. - -Almagro, 263, 351. - -Almanza, Emiliano, 320. - -----, J. Antonio, 320. - -----, Luis E., 320. - -Alpacas, 137, 161. - -Alto de La Paz, 228. - -Amazon, 139, 240, 297, 318. - -Americans in La Paz, 239. - -Americans in South America, 10, 13-15, 24, 26-28, - 29, 32, 39-40, 62, 182, 241, 388. - -Amphitheatre, Inca, 278. - -Ancacato, 162. - -Ancon, Treaty of, 206. - -Andahuaylas, 329-335. - -Anderson, Geo. E., 28. - -Andines. _See_ Terraces. - -Angosta de Tupiza, 87. - -Angrand, M., 320. - -Anta, plain of, 283-285. - -Antis, 318. - -Antofagasta, 170-175, 201-2. - -Antofagasta Railway, 88, 92, 170. - -Aniline dyes, 262. - -Animal Industries, 37-39. - -Apurimac, 285, 291, 297, 325, 368, 370. - -----, bridge over, 288. - -Apurimac, rapids of, 293. - -----, valley of the, 318, 321. - -Aramayo, Señor, 90. - -Araucanians, 192, 357, 358. - -Architect, Jesuit, 325. - -Architecture, Inca, 260, 311. - -Arequipa, 215-224. - -Argentina, 30-82 and passim. - -Arica, 187, 205-209. - -Armadillo, 234. - -Art School of Chile, 192. - -Ascarrunz, Dr. Moises, 166. - -Ascotan, 173. - -Atacama, 78. - -Atahualpa, 280, 358. - -Auquibamba, 325-26. - -Automobiles, 18, 25, 31, 33, 36. - -Ayacucho, 108, 144, 321, 324, 346-351, 360. - -----, battle of, 281, 325, 350-355. - -Ayalá, Alejandro, ix. - -Ayamarás, 145, 152-154, 163, 169, 232, 249, 255, 268. - -Ayavari, 255. - -Ayoayo, 246. - -Ayoma, battle of, 162. - -Azequia, 312, 314. - - -Bahia, 10-15. - -Bahia Blanca, 31, 63. - -Ballivian, Sr. Don Manuel Vicente, 252. - -Balmaceda, Pres., 173, 179, 209. - -Balsas, 226, 235. - -“Baltimore” episode, 209. - -Bamboo pipes, 361. - -Banco Nacional de Bolivia, 145. - -Bandelier, Professor Ad. F., 218, 226, 227, 233, 334. - -Banks and Banking, 145; - in Arequipa, 217; - Argentina, 39-40; - Brazil, 31-32; - La Paz, 237; - Tupiza, 88. - -Banquets, Peruvian, 331, 337, 356. - -Barbour, Thos., 252. - -Barley straw, 84, 159, 284, 366. - -Barros Arana, Diego, 191. - -Bartolo, 135, 252. - -Beazley, J. B., ix. - -Beer, 335, 372. - -Beggars’ Fair in Cuzco, 264. - -Begonias, 290, 297, 326. - -Belgrano, 48, 67. - -Beni, valley of the, 239, 240. - -Bibliographer, 391. - -Billiards, 119, 166. - -Birds, 110, 175, 202. - -Biscachas, 246. - -Blanco River, 286. - -“Blind Man’s Guide.” _See_ El Lazarillo. - -Bogotá, 35, 47, 196, 223. - -Bola, 315. - -Bolivar, General Simon, 50, 52, 118, 144. - -Bolivia, 49, 56, 57, 73, 79. 83, and passim. - -Bolivia Railway, ix. - -Bolivian Andes, climbing and exploration in the, 249. - -Bolivian army, 89, 104. - ----- customs service, 85. - ----- Government, 79, 92. - ----- National Museum, 252. - ----- paper currency, 114. - ----- physician, 116. - -Bombon, 341. - -de Bonelli, Hugh, 200. - -Book shops, 168, 178-79, 191. - -Brazil, chapters I and II, 42, and passim. - -Brazil, trade of, 10, 14, 20, 24-28. - -British enterprises in Bolivia, 165. - -Broom flower, 286. - -Bryce, Rt. Hon. James, 233. - -Bubonic plague, 210, 214. - -Buenos Aires, 30-45, 60, 72, 73, and passim; - foreign trade of, 68; - history of, 46-51. - -Buenos Aires and Rosario R. R., ix, 61, 69. - -Bulimulus, 342. - -Business methods, 384. - - -Caceres, Lieutenant, vii, 289, 293, 298, 303, 305, 345. - -Cachimayo, 140. - -Cachipascana, 224. - -Cacho, Don Gaspar Mauro, 348. - -Cachora, 297. - -Cactus, 77, 86, 95, 341, 364. - -Caisa, 112. - -Calamá, 173. - -Calancha, Father, 322. - -Caldera, 177, 202. - -Calera, 140. - -Callao, 109. - -Camacho, General, 138. - -Camargo, 100. - -Caracara, 151. - -Caracas, 35. - -Caras of Ecuador, 273. - -Carnival balloons, 355. - -Carnival season, 346, 350-353, 360-363. - -Caroline Islands, 206, 275. - -Casa Nacional de Moneda, 129. - -Castelnau, 143. - -Castilla, President, 320. - -Castillo, 296, 298, 305. - -Cattle, 37, 38, 152, 334, 364. - -Ccapac, Manco, 322. - -Cebada. _See_ barley straw. - -Central America, 42. - -Cerro de Pasco, 3, 373, 374. - -Chachani, Mt., 217. - -Chaco, 70, 78, 131, 139, 165. - -Chaile, Fermin, 109, 164, and passim. - -Challabama, 285. - -Challapata, 145, 158, 162, 163, 172. - -Challoma, 150. - -Chavez, Lopez, ix. - -Checcacupe, 254, 256. - -Chibchas of Bogotá, 232. - -Chicha, 134, 153, 246, 347, 350, 354, 361, 372. - -Chicherias, 134, 256. - -Children’s Sunday in La Paz, 233. - -Chile, 40, 42, 51, 57, 58, 179, 181, 330, and passim. - -Chile and Brazil, 185. - -Chile and Peru, 357. - -Chilean and Peruvian engineers, 125. - -Chilean character, 204. - ----- hospitality, 187. - ----- navy, 200. - -Chileans, 124. - ----- of to-day, 358. - -Chincha Islands, 204. - -Chincheros, 335-341. - -Chincona plants, 146. - -Chocolate, 147, 156. - -Chola, 235. - -Choqquequirau, 291-323. - -Chorolque, 100. - -Chucuito, 334. - -Chulpas, 164. - -Chunchas, 318. - -Chuno, 110. - -Chupe, 111, 126, 128, 350. - -Chuquisaca, 143. - -Cinti, 100. - -Cisneros, Mariano, 320. - -Civil Engineers, 242, 270-71, 369, 375, 387. - -Clausilia, 342. - -Coal-beds, 369. - -Coca, 107, 126, 127, 153, 235, 248. - -Cochabamba, 170, 248. - -Cochran, Thos. Earl of Dundonald, 51, 200. - -Cock fight, 213. - -Cocoa, 14, 107. - -Coffee, 21, 23, 24. - -Coins and coinage of Bolivia, 88, 128, 238; - Brazil, 25; - Peru, 145, 146, 213; - Uruguay, 30. - -Colombia, 147, 378. - -Colpahuayo, 345. - -Colquechaca, 157, 165. - -Commerce. _See_ Trade. - -Commercial houses, British, in Valparaiso, 199. - -Commercial prosperity in Chile, 199. - -Commercial travellers, 9. - -Condor, 305. - -Condorkanqui, 346, 353. - -“Conquest of Peru”--Prescott, 205. - -Convents in Potosí, 129. - -Conway, Sir Martin, 249. - -Coñac, 355. - -Cook, Capt. James, 276. - -Copacavana, 226, 227. - -Copper-ore, 205. - -Copper smelters, 370. - -Coquimbo, 177, 201-02. - -Coracora, 235. - -Corapuna. _See_ Koropuna. - -Corcovado, 21. - -Cordillera de los Frailes, 163-64. - -Cordillera Real, 248. - -Corn, in Potosí, 128. - ----- parched, 254, 371. - -Corrugated iron, 70. - -Cosmos, 326. - -Costume, Quichua, 262. - -Cotagaita, 100-2. - -Cotton, 14. - -Covadonga, 53. - -“Cradle of Gold,” 319. - -Creveaux, 139. - -Criticisms of Americans, 379, 387. - -Crucero Alto, 224. - -Cuchu Ingenio, 112. - -Curahuasi, 289. - -Currency of Chile, 199. - ----- of Peru, 213. - -Custom Houses, in Argentina, 31; - Bolivia, 88; - Brazil, 7, 9, 20, 21; - Peru, 212. - -Cuzco, 205, 233, 251, 255, 258-282, 309, 318; - elevation of, 272; - university of, 268, 269. - -Cuzco and Lima, 288. - - -Dall, Dr., 342. - -Dasypus vellurosus, 234. - -Dentists in South America, 270. - -Desaguadero River, 164, 246. - -Desert of Arequipa, 215. - -Dickens, Charles, 380, 385. - -Discovery of silver at Potosí, 121. - -Diseases, tropical, 387. - -Dishes, silver, 147. - -Dixon, Prof. Roland B., 323. - -Dolls of Sucre, 147. - -“Don Mariano,” 293, 301. - -Doorways, monolithic, 249, 251. - -Drug store in Potosí, 127. - -Drums at Carnival, 361. - -Dry season, the, 84; cf. Rainy season. - -Duck, 227. - -Durand, Dr., 220. - -Dutch in Brazil, 5-6. - - -Earthquakes in Arequipa, 216. - -Easter Island, 276. - -Ecuador, 57, 339. - -Education of South American youth, 269. - -Electric car, 182. - ----- Railways, 370. - ----- R. R. of La Paz, 230. - -“El Lazarillo,” 60, 111, 170. - -“Elzevir” Press of Santiago, 190. - -English in Argentina, 31-33, 43-44, 47-48, 62, 64; - Bolivia, 124, 239; - Brazil, 4, 8, 20, 23-26; - Chile, 179, 193, 199-200. - -Escara, 100, 104. - -Estarca, 86. - -Estero Patino, 139. - -Estrella, La, 287. - -Eucalyptus trees, 61. - -Exhibition, fine arts, 192. - -“Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon,”--Gibbon, 288. - -Exposition, National, of Brazil, 16, 19-20. - -Eyre, W. S., viii. - - -Ferdinand and Isabella, 54. - -Ferdinand VII. of Spain, 48. - -Fermin. _See_ Chaile. - -Fern, 151. - -Fincas, 141. - -Firemen, volunteer, of Santiago, 188. - -Fireworks, 338. - -Fish, 175. - -Flute, Ayamará, 234. - -Folding-cots, 218. - -Fortifications, Inca, 273. - -Fortress, Inca, 274, 286, 310. - -Fossils, 369. - -Franco, Sr. A., ix. - -French, in Argentina, 61; - Bolivia, 124; - Brazil, 4, 17, 20, 31, 61; - South America, 124. - -Fruit, in Argentina, 73; - Bolivia, 246. - -Furs, 199. - - -Gables in Inca houses, 309, 313. - -Games of chance, 235-36. - -Garcia, Marcos, 322. - -Garcilasso de la Vega, 259, 275. - -Gastelu, Don Juan, 321. - -Gauchos, 67, 72. - -Geranium, 151. - -German-Americans, 167. - -German business methods, 96, 388. - ----- Club of Oruro, 166. - -Germans, in Argentina, 43-62; - Brazil, 4, 7, 20, 27, 31; - Chile, 193. - -Goats, 70, 75, 97, 110. - -Gobernador of Chincheros, 335; - Huancarama, 328; - Quinua, 351; - Talavera, 333, 335; - Tambillo, 343, 344; - Yscuchaca, 368. - -Grace & Co., W. R., viii, ix, 231. - -Gran Chaco. _See_ Chaco. - -Grapes, 110. - -Grinding stones, 308. - -Guamanga, 350-51. - -Guanay, 239. - -Guano, 203-4. - -Guaqui, 252, 254. - -Guemes Gral., 72. - -Guinea pig, 84, 110, 143, 160. - -Guitars, 156, 234. - -Gulls, 160. - - -Hail, 158, 345. - -Hand loom, 134. - -Hanna, Rea, ix, 203. - -Harness, 285. - -Harp, 347, 361. - -Harvard Observatory at Arequipa, 216. - -Hats, 146, 263. - -Hay, Clarence, ix, 257, 300, 302. - -Head-gear, women’s, 350. - -Heliotrope, 286. - -Herford, Oliver, 127. - -Hispanic Race, 53-56. - -Historian, South American, 391. - -Hope, John Pierce, ix, 251. - -Horse racing, 36. - -Horses, 37, 110, 152, 326. - -Hospitality, Bolivian, 231. - -Hotels, in Arequipa, 217; - Ayacucho, 347; - Buenos Aires, 34; - Challapata, 217; - Cuzco, 261; - Huancayo, 371, 373; - Jujuy, 72-74; - La Paz, 231; - La Quiaca, 78; - Lima, 376; - Mollendo, 214; - Montevideo, 29; - Oruro, 166; - Pernambuco, 8; - Potosí, 115, 125; - Rio de Janeiro, 18; - Santiago, 182; - South America, 380; - Sucre, 142; - Tupiza, 89-90. - -Huadquiña, 320. - -Huancarama, 327. - -Huancavelica, 369. - -Huancayo, 369-372. - -Huanchaca, 164. - -Huanta, 362-63. - -Huarocondo, 284. - -Huarpa River, 363. - -Huatanay River, 257-58. - -Humahuaca, 77. - -Humidity, 70, 306. - -Hutcheon, Don Santiago, ix, 80. - -Hutchinson, Lincoln, 28, 388. - - -Ice cream, 331. - -Iglehart, D. S., ix. - -Ilo, 210. - -Images, monolithic, 249. - -Inca Empire, 318, 258. - ----- palaces, 261. - ----- roads, 283. - ----- Rocca, 259. - ----- stairway, 312. - ----- stonework, 259. - ----- stucco, 310, 311. - ----- Tambos, 149. - -“Inca Thrones,” 278. - ----- vases, 279. - ----- Viracocha, 276. - -Incas, 84, 130, 206, 291, 307-323, 357, and passim. - -Incahuasy, near Tambobamba, 318. - -Ingenios in Potosí, 124. - -Iquique, 201, 202, 205. - -Iris, yellow, 288. - -Irrigation, 77, 84, 100, 110, 343. - -“Islands of Titicaca and Koati,” the, 334. - -Islay, 211. - -Italians in Argentina, 31-34, 45, 67, 72; - in Brazil, 4, 20. - -Itaparica, 11. - - -Jail in Cuzco, 267. - ----- in La Paz, 238. - -Jar, earthen-ware, 315. - -Jauja, 373; valley of, 371. - -Jesuit church, 265; - in Arequipa, 218; - in Potosí, 126. - -Jesuits, 332. - -Jockey Club of Buenos Aires, 35. - -Johnson, Rankin, ix, 249. - -“Jornal do Comercio,” 22. - -Jujuy, 69, 72-74. - -Juliaca, 225, 254. - -Juramento, 72. - - -Kari Kari, battlefield of, 132. - -Kirkham, Mr., 372. - -Koati, 226. - -Koropuna, Mt., 218. - -Kusaie, Island of, 206, 275. - - -“La Corona,” incident of, 187, 208. - -“La Estrella,” 287, 320. - -“La Glorieta,” 141. - -Laja Tambo, 113. - -“La Nacion,” 34. - -Lantanas, 286. - -La Paz, 145, 170, 228-240. - -La Plata, 143. - -La Plata, National University of, 38. - -“La Prensa,” 34, 338. - -La Quiaca, 69, 78, 82, 172. - -La Raya, 255. - -La Serena, 202, 281, 341, 355. - -Latin-American Scientific Congress, 183. - -Lautaro, 357. - -Lavandais, E. de, 320. - -Lawyers in South America, 270, 390. - -Leguia, A. B., Pres. of Peru, viii, 294, 331, 376. - -Lele, 275. - -Leon, 75. - -Leon, Marcelino, 319. - -Letona family, 325. - -Liberal party in Peru, 221. - -Lima, 35, 47, 49, 51, 56, 73, 196, 369, 376, 378. - -Limarí, str., 200, 201, 210. - -Limatambo, 286. - -Liniers, 47. - -Lircay, valley of, 365, 367. - -Lisbon, 14. - -Livichuco, 160. - -Lizards, 157, 202. - -Llama drivers, 156. - -Llamas, 77, 110, 113, 115, 133, 149, 155-161, 255, 326, 331, 367. - ----- in Potosí, 117, 126. - -Locusts, 61, 70, 325. - -Lombardy poplars, 332. - -Lomellini, Sr. C., 263, 279. - -Los Neques, 346. - -Lotto, 236. - -Lupins, 297, 326. - - -Mac, 94, 101. - -Macha, 158. - -Mackenna Vicuña, B., 191. - -Madre de Dios, river, 240. - -Magellan, straits of, 179. - -Maimará, 76. - -Maipo, 51. - -Maize, 110. - -Malaria, 341. - -Mamoré, river, 139. - -Manaos, 240. - -Manco Capac, 263, 279. - -Mantaro River, 368-371. - -“Mañana” habit, 382. - -Marcas, 364. - -Marcavalle, 370. - -Markham, Sir Clements, 146, 267, 276. - -“Martin Chuzzlewit,” 383, 386. - -Martinelli, Don Federico, 325. - -Matan, 71. - -Matara, 345. - -May, the 25th of, 46-48. - -Medanos, 215. - -Medical School in Santiago, 168. - -Medicines, 127. - -Medina, José Toribio, 189-190. - -Mejia, 215. - -Mendoza, 51. - -Merchandise, foreign, 326. - -Merino, Capt. Louis, ix. - -“Mexican Trails,” 372. - -Mexico, 41, 42. - -Mexico steamer, 174. - -Military Academy, Chilean, 194. - -Milk, condensed, 153. - -Miller, General Wm., 117, 355. - -Mimosa trees, 71, 72, 95, 300, 341, 364. - -Miners at Potosí, 122. - -Mines, copper, 173. - ----- ---- of Cerro de Pasco, 373. - -Mines, gold, 173; - silver, 157, 164, 169, 173; - tin, 123, 169. - -Mint in Potosí, 129. - -Misti, 217. - -Mitchell, J. A., 383. - -Mitre Bartolome, 191. - -Mogrovejo Pio, 320. - -Mojo, 84. - -Mollendo, 175, 210-214. - -Mollepata, 286, 320. - -Monasteries, 129; - Dominican, 259; - Franciscan, 219, 220, 265. - -Monobamba, 335. - -Monroe Doctrine, 42-43. - -“Monroe Palace,” 19. - -Montes, Pres. of Bolivia, 242, 287. - -Montevideo, 29, 30. - -Montt, Pres. Pedro of Chile, viii, 194. - -Moromoro, 150. - -Moses, Professor Bernard, 183. - -Mosquitoes, 341. - -Mountain sickness, 113, 165. - -Mules, 110, 134, 149, 281, 326, 342, 360, 372, and passim. - -“Mur triomphal,” 321. - - -Napoleon, 48. - -National Bank of Bolivia, 88. - -National Bank of Francisco Argondaño, 88. - -National City Bank of New York, 242. - -Negroes in South America, 13. - -Nevada of Chillihua, 331. - -Newspapers in Rio, 22; - Buenos Aires, 34; - Tupiza, 90. - -New York Herald, 338-340. - -Niches, Inca, 310, 311. - -Nictheroy, 16. - -Nitrate Association, 203. - -Nitrates, Chilean, 173, 202-205. - -“North Americans,” 40-43, 381. - -North Central Railway of Argentina, 69. - -Notre Dame University, 130. - -Novoa, C. A., ix. - -Nuñez, J. J., vii, 290. - - -Oahu, 341. - -Ocros, 344. - -Ocurí, 152. - -Oddo, the hotel, 182. - -O’Driscoll, Mr., 75. - -Olinda, 5. - -Ollaneta, General, 108. - -Ollantaytambo, 284, 309, 318. - -Ollawe, volcano of, 172. - -“O Paiz,” 22. - -Oranges, 326. - -Oropeza, 258. - -Oroya, 369, 371, 374. - -Oruro, 79, 80, 162, 164-172, 241, 245, 248. - ----- climate of, 166. - ----- population of, 170. - -Oruro-Antofagasta Line, 79, 173. - - -Pachacamac, 252, 312. - -Pachachaca, 325. - -Pacific Steam Navigation Co., 174. - -Paintings, religious, 252. - -Pajonal, 343. - -Pampa de Islay, 215. - -Pampa Tambo, 138. - -Pampas, the Argentine, 62-66. - -Pampas River, 341, 370. - -Pan-American, railway, 76, 369; - Scientific Congress, 183; - Union, viii. - -Pan de Sucre, 248. - -Paraguay, 50, 139. - -Paraguay River, 139. - -Paramo, 329, 335, 345, 367. - -Paraná River, 63, 139. - -Parodi Brothers, 343. - -Parrots, 284, 288. - -Patagonia, 63. - -Paucara, 366. - -Paucartambo, 318. - -Paz Soldan, 322. - -Peaches, 219. - -Pears, 246. - -Peas, 219. - -Pederneiras, Col. A. de, ix. - -Pernambuco, 3-10, 14. - -Peru, 42, 49-52, 57, 211-224, 254-378, and passim. - -Peru, Upper, 73, 86, 143, 144. - -Peruvian Corporation, ix. - -Peruvian engineers, 125. - -Petticoats of Quichuas, 147. - -Physicians in Bolivia, 168; - South America, 270. - -Pianos, 287. - -Pigs, 110, 152. - -Pilcomayo, 78, 100, 137, 139, 140. - -Pilsbry, Dr. H. A., 342. - -Pincos River, 329. - -Pine, Oregon, 242. - -Pino Toranzo, Arturo, ix. - -Pisac, 310, 318. - -Pisagua, 205. - -Pisculco, 150. - -Pizarro, 106, 259, 280, 351, 358; - followers of, viii, 260; - remains of, 377. - -Plata, Juan Manuel Rivas, 320. - -Plums, 219. - -Pneumonia, 167. - -Polo, 203. - -Ponchos, 327, 372. - -Ponchos, vicuña, 234, 333. - -Pongora River, 352. - -Poopo, lake, 161, 164. - -Popcorn, 354. - -Poplar trees, 332. - -Pork, 371. - -Porteños, 34, and passim. - -Portuguese in Brazil, 5, 7, 8, 20, 46. - -Postes, 99, 104, 149, and passim. - -Postilions, 104, 136, 137, 149, 159. - -Potatoes, 110; in Potosí, 128. - -Potosí, 73, 79, 92, 100, 112, 115-133, 169, 233, 252, 338; - Cerro of, 115, 120; - La Paz and Peruvian Mining Association, 61; - stage, 109. - -Pottery, 308, 312, 316. - -Prescott’s “Conquest of Peru,” 205. - -Prices, in Santos, 23; - Buenos Aires, 33; - Montevideo, 30; - Tupiza, 89. - -Prince and Princess of Glorieta, 141. - -Prison. _See_ Jail. - -Projection, cylindrical stone, 313. - -Pucará River, 255, 371. - -Pucyura, 322. - -Pulque, 372. - -Punilla, 149. - -Puno, 112, 225, 254. - -Punta, 371. - -Puquiura, 283. - - -“Quand L’Amour Meurt,” 287. - -Quebracho, 70-71. - -Quebrada Honda, 138. - -Quichua garments, 128. - -Quichua tongue, 266. - -Quichuas, 84, 86, 95, 98, 104-108, 124, 130, 153-54, - 232, 255, 267, 268, 277, 287, 317, 348, 357. - -Quinoa, 100, 110. - -Quinta Normal, 192. - -Quinua, 351, 352. - -Quirve, 104, 108, 109. - - -Railroads, in Argentina, 32, 61-79; - Bolivia, 79-80, 164-65, 170-74, 225, 227, 230, 241, 249, 252; - Brazil, 8, 9, 21, 23; - Chile, 170-74, 178, 179, 205, 208; - Peru, 206, 211, 215, 216, 224-25, 254-58, 370, 372-76; - Uruguay, 30. - -Raimondi, 321, 322. - -Rainy season, in Bolivia, 84, 87, 138, 240; - Peru, 282. - -Recife (Pernambuco), 4-10. - -Redwood, California, 242. - -Restaurants in South America, 380. - -Revolutions, 68, 222. - -Rio Bebribe, 7. - -Rio de Janeiro, 16-22. - -Rio de la Plata, 31, 37, 46, 56, 160. - -Rio Piedras, 71. - -Riots, 387. - -Rivas, Rafael, 109. - -River Alto, 240. - -Rodadero, 278. - -Rodriguez, Dr. J. C., 22. - -Romero, Carlos A., 323. - -Roosevelt, President, 331. - -Root, Elihu, viii, 183. - -Rosario, 31, 63. - -Roses, 151, 337. - -Rowe, Leo S., viii, 183. - -Rua Ouvidor, 19. - -Rubber, 24. - -Ruins, 115, 121, 250, 272, 291, 307, and passim. - -Ruis de los Llanos, 70. - -Rurrenabaque, 239. - - -Sacsahuaman, 206, 263, 272-279. - -Salta, 72. - -Salvia, 290. - -Samanez, José Benigno, 320. - -San Antonio, Port, 240. - -Sand-dunes, crescent shaped, 215. - -Sandstone, 366. - -San Geronimo, 258, 329. - -San Martin, José de, 50-52, 155, 200. - -San Pedro, 227. - -San Sebastian, 258. - -Santa Fé, 66. - -Santa Lucia, 181. - -Santiago, Chile, 35, 47, 180-196, 386. - -Santiago del Estero, 66. - -Santo Domingo, Convent of, 258. - -Santos, 22-23. - -Saõ Paulo, 21, 23, 25. - -Sapallauga, 371. - -Saracocha, 224. - -Sargantay, Mt., 290, 304, 320. - -Sarmiento, 66. - -Saropalca, 110. - -Sartiges, Eugène de, 319. - -Schaefer, J. Louis, viii. - -Schmidt, Emilio, 338-340. - -School, Manual Training, 192. - -School of Mines in Potosí, 130. - -Schools, Public, 97, 154. - -Schuchert, Prof. Chas., 369. - -Scots in South America, 4. - -Sea-lions, 175, 202. - -Shawl-pins, 294. - -Sheep, 37, 75, 137, 161, 334, 364, 366. - -Shells, land, 341. - -Shepherd, Wm. R., 183. - -Sicuani, 255. - -Siesta, 326. - -Silver. _See_ Mines. - -Silversmiths, 147. - -Singing of Quichua women, 354. - -Skulls, 316. - -Skulls, Deformation of, 246, 317. - -Slate, 313. - -Sleet, 345. - -Sling of llama wool, 156. - -Smallpox, 210, 214; - in Rio, 18. - -Smelters in Bolivia, 112, 115, 124. - -Smith, Emilio, 338-340. - -Smith, Huntington, Jr., ix, 61, 257. - -Smith, U. S. Grant, ix. - -Snow, 112, 335, 345, 367. - -Snyder, A. G., ix. - -Sorata, 239. - -Soray, Mt., 304, 320. - -Soroche, 113, 143, 165, 376. - -Sotomayor, 192. - -South Americans, characteristics of, 52; - manners of, 379, 391. - -Spain, 53-55. - -Spanish Armies, 67, 144, 354. - -Spanish in South America, 12, 29, 33, 45-52, 61, 67. - -Speyer & Co., 242. - -Spindle wheel, 312. - -“Spitting,” 383. - -Sport, 214. - -Squier, E. G., 251, 259, 261, 342. - -Stage coach, 83. - -Steamers, Atlantic, 3, 6, 10, 17, 26, 29-31, 44; - Chilean, 200-203; - Lake Titicaca, 227; - West Coast, 175-177. - -Stewards, Chilean, 176. - -Stone, cylindrical blocks of, 311. - -Stone-cutting, game of, 278. - -Succotash, 347. - -Sucre, city of, 108, 112, 133, 142-148, 158, 248. - -Sucre, General A. J., 52, 108, 144, 325, 341, 352, 354. - -Sugar, 5, 9, 14, 156, 290. - -Sugar-cane, 66, 286, 290, 295, 325, 343. - -Suipacha, 85. - -Sulphur springs, 111, 134. - -Sweet potatoes, 302. - - -Tablachaca, 368. - -Tacna, 187, 206-209, 330. - -Talavera, 330, 334. - -Talcahuano, 178. - -Tambillo, 346. - -Tambo River, 215. - -Tambobamba, 318. - -Tambos, 99, 149. - -Taraco, peninsula of, 226. - -Tarija, 86. - -Tea, 125. - -Tejada, José Maria de, 319. - -Temperature, 98, 113, 143, 178, 366. - -Temple, Edmund, 61, 76, 144, 228. - -Temple of the Sun, 258. - -Tenientes, Indian, 284. - -Tennis, 203. - -Terraces, 110, 307, 313, 315. - -Textiles, 252. - -Theatres, 34-35. - -Thompson, paymaster, 276. - -Tiahuanaco, 228, 249-253. - -Ties from Oregon, 225. - -Tigre River, 62. - -Tin. _See_ Mines. - -Tiquina, straits of, 227. - -Titicaca, island of, 226, 334. - -Titicaca, Lake, 86, 164, 224-227, 249, 310. - -Tobacco, 14. - -Tombs, ancient, 164, 246, 315. - -“Tonquinoise,” 287. - -Toropalca, 111. - -Totora, 99. - -Toys, Ayamará, 234; - German, 372. - -Trade and commerce, 10, 14, 20, 24-28, 38-39, 46, 127, and passim. - -Trade Routes, 49, 60, 73, 93, 239-240, 280. - -Trancapata River, 289. - -Transportation, difficulties of, 387. - -Treasure-seekers, 250, 292, 308, 321. - -Tres Cruces, 77. - -Tucuman, 66-69, 73. - -Tucuman Express, 64. - -Tumusla River, 108. - -Tunja, 148. - -Tupac Amaru, 106, 266. - -Tupiza, 79-80, 87-92, 100, 172, 338. - - -Ucayali, 297. - -United States and Peru, 209, 337. - -Uquia, 77. - -Uribe, General Uribe, 195. - -Urubamba, 284-85, 320. - -Uruguay, 29-30. - -Urumyosi, 366. - -Uspallata Pass, 51, 57. - -Uyuni, 80, 92, 100, 172. - - -Vaca de Castro, 351. - -Valparaiso, 178, 179, 198-201. - -Vargas, Moises, ix. - -Velarde, Don Lino, 218. - -Venezuela, 56, 57, 70, 378. - -Ventilla, 228. - -Viachi, 241-42, 248. - -Vicuña Ponchos, 234, 327. - -Vicuñas, 159, 160, 172, 246. - -Vilcabamba, 322. - -Vilcanota Mts., 255. - -Vilcanota River, 256, 257. - -Vilcapujio, 162. - -Villazon, Pres. of Bolivia, viii. - -Vineyards, 181. - -Viracocha, 276, 310, 351. - -“Virgins of the Sun,” 314. - -Viscachani, 246. - -Volcan, 75-76. - -Von Tschudi, 250. - - -Wages, 243. - -War between Chile, Bolivia, and Peru, 173, 206. - -War-Club, stone, 346. - -Wars of Emancipation. _See_ Wars of Independence. - -Wars of Independence, viii, 46-58, 67, 86, 89, 100, 162, 200, 273, 353. - -Wateree, U. S. S., 206. - -Waterfalls, 288, 299. - -Water power, 370. - -Whirl-bob, 312. - -Whirlwinds, 70. - -Wiener, Chas., 318, 320. - -Wilson, Chas. L., ix. - -Wind, the prevailing, 77. - -Wine, 181. - -Wool, 30. - - -Yavarí, 225, 254. - -Yellow fever, 214. - -“Yes, sir,” 382. - -Yllanya, 325. - -Yotala, 112, 140. - -Yscuchaca, 367-68. - -Yuatquinia, 320. - -Yucaes River, 352. - - -Zurita, 284-85. - - The Riverside Press - - CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS - - U . S . A - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] His sudden death in August, 1910, is a very great loss to Chile. - - [2] Mr. Thomas Barbour, of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy, Harvard - University, tells me these are generally _Dasypus vellurosus_. Colored - plates of many of the interesting Aymará toys and textiles can be - found in Stubel’s _Kultur und Industrie Süd Amerikanischer Völker_. - - [3] In Paymaster Thompson’s report of his visit to Easter Island, - he gives drawings and photographs of walls that bear a striking - resemblance to Sacsahuaman. There is the same peculiar close fitting - of one stone to another, the same striking size of the stones and lack - of cement in the joints. See also Cook’s _Voyage Around the World in - 1772-1775_, London, 1777. - - [4] E. G. Squier, _Peru_, p. 503. - - [5] _Perou et Bolivie_, pp. 293-5. - - [6] Raimondi, _Peru_, vol. ii, p. 161. - - [7] “On some Land Shells Collected by Dr. Hiram Bingham, in Peru”; - Proceedings of the U. S. Nat. Mus., xxxviii. 177-182. The shells - “comprised various species and varieties of Bulimulus and a single - species of Clausilia.” The latter was described by Dr. H. A. Pilsbry. - - -Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber: - -It it to be hoped=> It is to be hoped {pg 76} - -the sevententh century=> the seventeenth century {pg 121} - -When the Antogafasta=> When the Antofagasta {pg 171} - -late Bartolome Mitré=> late Bartolome Mitre {pg 191} - -port been devasted by earthquakes=> port been devastated by earthquakes -{pg 206} - -More deaths occuring=> More deaths occurring {pg 214} - -Futhermore, they were=> Furthermore, they were {pg 278} - -surmouted an exceedingly bleak plateau=> surmounted an exceedingly bleak -plateau {pg 335} - -in this vicintiy=> in this vicinity {pg 369} - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Across South America, by Hiram Bingham - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA *** - -***** This file should be named 52248-0.txt or 52248-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/2/4/52248/ - -Produced by Rachael Schultz, Chuck Greif and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Across South America - An account of a journey from Buenos Aires to Lima by way - of Potosí - -Author: Hiram Bingham - -Release Date: June 6, 2016 [EBook #52248] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA *** - - - - -Produced by Rachael Schultz, Chuck Greif and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="352" height="500" alt="Image unavailable: cover" /> -</p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="border: 2px black solid;margin:auto auto;max-width:50%; -padding:1%;"> -<tr><td> - -<p class="c"><a href="#CONTENTS"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>.</a></p> -<p class="c">Some typographical errors have been corrected; -<a href="#transcrib">a list follows the text</a>.<br /> -<a href="#INDEX"><span class="smcap">Index</span></a>: -<a href="#A">A</a>, -<a href="#B">B</a>, -<a href="#C">C</a>, -<a href="#D">D</a>, -<a href="#E">E</a>, -<a href="#F">F</a>, -<a href="#G">G</a>, -<a href="#H">H</a>, -<a href="#I-i">I</a>, -<a href="#J">J</a>, -<a href="#K">K</a>, -<a href="#M">M</a>, -<a href="#N">N</a>, -<a href="#O">O</a>, -<a href="#P">P</a>, -<a href="#Q">Q</a>, -<a href="#R">R</a>, -<a href="#S">S</a>, -<a href="#T">T</a>, -<a href="#U">U</a>, -<a href="#V-i">V</a>, -<a href="#W">W</a>, -<a href="#Y">Y</a>, -<a href="#Z">Z</a></p> - -<p class="c"><a href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span class="smcap">List of Illustrations</span></a><br /> -<a href="#MAPS"><span class="smcap">Maps</span></a><br /> -<span class="nonvis">(In certain versions of this etext [in certain browsers] -clicking directly on the image, will bring up a larger version.)</span></p> - -<p class="c">(etext transcriber's note)</p></td></tr> -</table> - -<div class="bbox"> -<p class="ceng">By the Same Author</p> - -<p class="hang"><small><span class="sans">THE JOURNAL OF AN EXPEDITION ACROSS VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA, -1906-07</span>. With 133 illustrations and a map. Published by the Yale -University Press.</small></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ii" id="page_ii"></a>{ii}</span></p> - -<p class="cb">ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA</p> - -<p><a name="front" id="front"></a></p> -<p><a name="RIO_FROM" id="RIO_FROM"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_frontis_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_frontis_sml.jpg" width="407" height="332" alt="Image unavailable: RIO FROM THE CORCOVADO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">RIO FROM THE CORCOVADO</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iii" id="page_iii"></a>{iii}</span> </p> - -<h1>ACROSS<br /> -SOUTH AMERICA</h1> - -<p class="cb">AN ACCOUNT OF A JOURNEY FROM BUENOS<br /> -AIRES TO LIMA BY WAY OF POTOSÍ<br /> -<br /> -WITH NOTES ON BRAZIL, ARGENTINA,<br /> -BOLIVIA, CHILE, AND PERU<br /> -<br /> -BY<br /> -<big>HIRAM BINGHAM</big><br /> -<small>YALE UNIVERSITY</small><br /> -<br /> -WITH EIGHTY ILLUSTRATIONS<br /> -AND MAPS<br /> -<br /> -<img src="images/colophon.png" -width="100" -height="140" -alt="[Image of the colophon unavailabl.e]" -/> -<br /> -BOSTON AND NEW YORK<br /> -HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY<br /> -<span class="ceng">The Riverside Press Cambridge</span><br /> -1911<br /> -<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iv" id="page_iv"></a>{iv}</span> <br /> -<br /><small> -COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY HIRAM BINGHAM<br /> -<br /> -ALL RIGHTS RESERVED<br /> -<br /> -<i>Published April 1911</i></small><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_v" id="page_v"></a>{v}</span> <br /> -<br /> -THIS VOLUME IS<br /> -<br /> -AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED<br /> -<br /> -TO<br /> -<br /> -THE MOTHER OF<br /> -<br /> -SIX LITTLE BOYS<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vi" id="page_vi"></a>{vi}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vii" id="page_vii"></a>{vii}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span><span class="smcap">n</span> September, 1908, I left New York as a delegate of the United States -Government and of Yale University to the First Pan-American Scientific -Congress, held at Santiago, Chile, in December and January, 1908-09. -Before attending the Congress I touched at Rio de Janeiro and the -principal coast cities of Brazil, crossed the Argentine Republic from -Buenos Aires to the Bolivian frontier, rode on mule-back through -southern Bolivia, visiting both Potosí and Sucre, went by rail from -Oruro to Antofagasta, and thence by steamer to Valparaiso. After the -Congress I retraced my steps into Bolivia by way of the west coast, -Arequipa, and Lake Titicaca. Picking up the overland trail again at -Oruro, I continued my journey across Bolivia and Peru, via La Paz, -Tiahuanaco, and Cuzco, thence by mules over the old Inca road as far as -Huancayo, the present terminus of the Oroya-Lima Railroad. At Abancay I -turned aside to explore Choqquequirau, the ruins of an Inca fortress in -the valley of the Apurimac; an excursion that could not have been -undertaken at all had it not been for the very generous assistance of -Hon. J. J. Nuñez, the Prefect of Apurimac, and his zealous aide, -Lieutenant Caceres of the Peruvian army. I reached Lima in March, 1909.</p> - -<p>The chief interest of the trip lay in its being an exploration of the -most historic highway in South America, the old trade route between -Lima, Potosí, and Buenos Aires. The more difficult parts of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_viii" id="page_viii"></a>{viii}</span> road -were used by the Incas and their conqueror Pizarro; by Spanish viceroys, -mine owners, and merchants; by the liberating armies of Argentina; and -finally by Bolivar and Sucre, who marched and countermarched over it in -the last campaigns of the Wars of Independence.</p> - -<p>Realizing from previous experience in Venezuela and Colombia that the -privilege of travelling in a semi-official capacity would enable me to -enjoy unusual opportunities for observation, I made it the chief object -of my journey to collect and verify information regarding the South -American people, their history, politics, economics, and physical -environment. The present volume, however, makes no pretence at -containing all I collected or verified. Such a work would be largely a -compilation of statistics. The ordinary facts are readily accessible in -the current publications of the ably organized Pan-American Bureau in -Washington. Nevertheless, I have included some data that seemed likely -to prove serviceable to intending travellers.</p> - -<p>Grateful acknowledgment for kind assistance freely rendered in many -different ways is due to President Villazon of Bolivia, the late -President Montt of Chile, and President Leguia of Peru; to Secretary, -now Senator, Root and the officials of the Diplomatic and Consular -Service; to Professor Rowe and my fellow delegates to the Pan-American -Scientific Congress; and particularly to J. Luis Schaefer, Esq., W. S. -Eyre, Esq., and their courteous associates of the house of W. R. Grace & -Co. Although business houses rarely take the trouble to make the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ix" id="page_ix"></a>{ix}</span> path -of the scientist or investigator more comfortable, it would be no easy -task to enumerate all the favors that were shown, not only to me, but -also to the other members of the American delegation, by Messrs. Grace & -Co. and the managers and clerks of their many branches.</p> - -<p>Acknowledgments are likewise due to the officials of the Buenos Aires -and Rosario Railroad, the Peruvian Corporation, and the Bolivia Railway; -and to Colonel A. de Pederneiras, Sr. Amaral Franco, Don Santiago -Hutcheon, Sr. C. A. Novoa, Sr. Arturo Pino Toranzo, Dr. Alejandro Ayalá, -Captain Louis Merino of the Chilean army, Don Moises Vargas, Sr. Lopez -Chavez, and Messrs. Charles L. Wilson, A. G. Snyder, U. S. Grant Smith, -J. B. Beazley, D. S. Iglehart, John Pierce Hope, Rankin Johnson, Rea -Hanna, and a host of others who helped to make my journey easier and -more profitable.</p> - -<p>I desire also to express my gratitude, for unnumbered kindnesses, both -to Huntington Smith, who accompanied me during the first part of my -journey, and to Clarence Hay, who was my faithful companion on the -latter part.</p> - -<p>Some parts of the story have already been told in the “American -Anthropologist,” the “American Political Science Review,” the “Popular -Science Monthly,” the “Bulletin of the American Geographical Society,” -the “Records of the Past,” and the “Yale Courant,” to whose editors -acknowledgment is due for permission to use the material in its present -form.</p> - -<p class="r"> -<span class="smcap">Hiram Bingham.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p class="hang"> -<span class="smcap">Yale University, New Haven, Conn.</span><br /> -<i>20 November, 1910</i>.<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_x" id="page_x"></a>{x}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xi" id="page_xi"></a>{xi}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="rt"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Pernambuco and Bahia</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_003">3</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Rio, Santos, and Brazilian Trade</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_016">16</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Buenos Aires</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_029">29</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Argentine Independence and Spanish-American Solidarity</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_046">46</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">The Tucuman Express</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_060">60</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Through the Argentine Highlands</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_069">69</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Across the Bolivian Frontier</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_081">81</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Tupiza to Cotagaita</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_092">92</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Escara to Laja Tambo</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_104">104</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">X.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Potosí</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_117">117</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Sucre, the <i>de jure</i> Capital of Bolivia</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_133">133</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">XII.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">The Road to Challapata</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_148">148</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">XIII.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Oruro to Antofagasta and Valparaiso</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_164">164</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">XIV.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Santiago and the First Pan-American Scientific Congress</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_180">180</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">XV.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Northern Chile</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_198">198</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">XVI.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Southern Peru</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_211">211</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">XVII.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">La Paz, the <i>de facto</i> Capital of Bolivia</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_224">224</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">XVIII.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">The Bolivia Railway and Tiahuanaco</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xii" id="page_xii"></a>{xii}</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_241">241</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">XIX.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Cuzco</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_254">254</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">XX.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Sacsahuaman</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_272">272</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">XXI.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">The Inca Road to Abancay</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_280">280</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">XXII.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">The Climb to Choqquequirau</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_296">296</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">XXIII.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Choqquequirau</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_307">307</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">XXIV.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Abancay to Chincheros</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_324">324</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXV">XXV.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Bombon to the Battlefield of Ayacucho</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_341">341</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">XXVI.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Ayacucho to Lima</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_360">360</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII">XXVII.</a></td><td> <span class="smcap">Certain South American Traits</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_379">379</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td> </td><td valign="top"><span class="smcap">Index</span>: <a href="#A">A</a>, -<a href="#B">B</a>, -<a href="#C">C</a>, -<a href="#D">D</a>, -<a href="#E">E</a>, -<a href="#F">F</a>, -<a href="#G">G</a>, -<a href="#H">H</a>, -<a href="#I-i">I</a>, -<a href="#J">J</a>, -<a href="#K">K</a>, -<a href="#M">M</a>, -<a href="#N">N</a>, -<a href="#O">O</a>, -<a href="#P">P</a>, -<a href="#Q">Q</a>, -<a href="#R">R</a>, -<a href="#S">S</a>, -<a href="#T">T</a>, -<a href="#U">U</a>, -<a href="#V-i">V</a>, -<a href="#W">W</a>, -<a href="#Y">Y</a>, -<a href="#Z">Z</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_393">393</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xiii" id="page_xiii"></a>{xiii}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><td valign="top"> </td><td class="rt"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#RIO_FROM"><span class="smcap">Rio from the Corcovado</span></a> (<a href="#page_021">page 21</a>)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#front"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#LOOKING_DOWN"><span class="smcap">Looking down into the Lower City, Bahia</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_012">12</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_CORCOVADO"><span class="smcap">The Corcovado from Rio</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_020">20</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_HARBOR"><span class="smcap">The Harbor of Santos</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_024">24</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_DOCKS"><span class="smcap">The Docks of Buenos Aires</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_030">30</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#AVENIDA_DE"><span class="smcap">Avenida 25 de Mayo, Buenos Aires</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_034">34</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_USPALLATA"><span class="smcap">The Uspallata Pass</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_050">50</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#OUR_COACH"><span class="smcap">Our Coach leaving the Hotel at La Quiaca</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_082">82</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_ANGOSTA"><span class="smcap">The Angosta de Tupiza</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_086">86</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#FANTASTIC_PINNACLES"><span class="smcap">Fantastic Pinnacles in the Valleys North of Tupiza</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_090">90</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#A_QUICHUA"><span class="smcap">A Quichua Family going to plough</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_094">94</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_VALLEY"><span class="smcap">The Valley through which we had come</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_098">98</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#OUR_FIRST_GLIMPS"><span class="smcap">Our First Glimpse of a Snow-clad Bolivian Mountain</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_112">112</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#VIEW_OF"><span class="smcap">View of the Cerro from the Roof of the Mint</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_120">120</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_CERRO"><span class="smcap">The Cerro of Potosí from the Spanish Reservoirs</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_124">124</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#AN_ANCIENT"><span class="smcap">An Ancient Quichua Ore Crusher</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_124">124</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_MARKET"><span class="smcap">The Market-Place of Potosí</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_128">128</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#GREENER_AND"><span class="smcap">Greener and more Populous Valleys</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_132">132</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_PICTURESQUE"><span class="smcap">The Picturesque Old Church of Bartolo</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_134">134</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#A_PASTURE"><span class="smcap">A Pasture for Sheep and Alpacas</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_138">138</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#A_QUICHUA_WOMAN"><span class="smcap">A Quichua Woman weaving at Quebrada Honda</span></a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xiv" id="page_xiv"></a>{xiv}</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_138">138</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_GREAT"><span class="smcap">The Great River Pilcomayo</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_142">142</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#OUR_HOTEL"><span class="smcap">Our Hotel in Sucre</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_142">142</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#AN_ABANDONED"><span class="smcap">An Abandoned Tambo</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_150">150</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#OUR_FIRST"><span class="smcap">Our First View of the Great Table-land of Bolivia</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_150">150</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#A_FRIENDLY"><span class="smcap">A Friendly Llama Baby</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_160">160</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#MY_MULE"><span class="smcap">My Mule on the Last Day’s Ride</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_160">160</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_PREFECTURA"><span class="smcap">The Prefectura and Plaza of Oruro</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_166">166</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#A_QUAINT"><span class="smcap">A Quaint Old Balcony in Oruro</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_170">170</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#A_CORNER"><span class="smcap">A Corner in Oruro</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_170">170</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#BATTLEFIELD_OF"><span class="smcap">Battlefield of Maipo near Santiago</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#MOLLENDO"><span class="smcap">Mollendo</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_212">212</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_CATHEDRAL"><span class="smcap">The Cathedral of Arequipa and Mt. Chachani</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_216">216</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#AN_OLD"><span class="smcap">An Old Doorway in Arequipa</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_216">216</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#CHACHANI_AND"><span class="smcap">Chachani and Misti</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_216">216</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#MONOLITHIC_IMAGE"><span class="smcap">Monolithic Image at Tiahuanaco</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_228">228</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_MARKET_PAZ"><span class="smcap">The Market-Place of La Paz</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_232">232</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#A_REMARKABLE"><span class="smcap">A Remarkable Stairway at Tiahuanaco</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_232">232</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#BALSAS_NEAR"><span class="smcap">Balsas near Guaqui on Lake Titicaca</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_240">240</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#AN_OLD_CHURCH"><span class="smcap">An Old Church near the Bolivia Railway</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_240">240</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#GREAT_PLATFORMS"><span class="smcap">Great Platforms of Stone weighing Many Tons</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_250">250</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#PART_OF"><span class="smcap">Part of the Great Monolithic Doorway</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_250">250</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#LLAMAS"><span class="smcap">Llamas of Cuzco</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_258">258</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#CUZCO_FROM"><span class="smcap">Cuzco from Sacsahuaman</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_258">258</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#SACSAHUAMAN"><span class="smcap">Sacsahuaman</span></a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xv" id="page_xv"></a>{xv}</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_266">266</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_PLAZA"><span class="smcap">The Plaza, Cuzco, with Cathedral and Jesuit Church</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_266">266</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#A_SECTION"><span class="smcap">A Section of the Lower Terrace, Sacsahuaman</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_274">274</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#AN_INCA"><span class="smcap">An Inca Vase from Cuzco</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_278">278</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#ARTICLES_OF"><span class="smcap">Articles of Dress and a Decorated Mule Halter from Cuzco</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_278">278</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_GOBERNADOR"><span class="smcap">The Gobernador of Curahuasi and his Family</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_288">288</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#A_CHASM"><span class="smcap">A Chasm down which plunged a Small Cataract</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_298">298</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_WONDERFUL"><span class="smcap">The Wonderful Cañon of the Apurimac</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_298">298</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#SUNRISE_AT"><span class="smcap">Sunrise at Choqquequirau</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_302">302</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_FRAIL"><span class="smcap">The Frail Little Bridge over the Apurimac</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_302">302</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#BUILT_OF"><span class="smcap">A Story and a Half High, built of Stones laid in Clay</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_308">308</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_PARTY"><span class="smcap">The Party Wall rises to the Peak</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_308">308</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_INTERIOR"><span class="smcap">The Interior of the Buildings near the Outer Precipice</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_312">312</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_UPPER"><span class="smcap">The Upper Six Steps of the Giant Stairway</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_312">312</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#SKULLS"><span class="smcap">Skulls, etc., from Choqquequirau</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_316">316</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#INTERIOR_OF"><span class="smcap">Interior of a Building at Choqquequirau</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_316">316</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#OUR_CAVALCADE"><span class="smcap">Our Cavalcade on the Bridge of Pachachaca</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_324">324</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#SOME_OF"><span class="smcap">Some of the Sheep had very Long Curly Horns</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_334">334</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_CLUB"><span class="smcap">The Club at Chincheros</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_338">338</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_LARGE"><span class="smcap">The Large Plaza of Ayacucho</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_342">342</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_BRIDGE"><span class="smcap">The Bridge over the River Pampas</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_342">342</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#AYACUCHO"><span class="smcap">Ayacucho</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_346">346</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_COURTYARD"><span class="smcap">The Courtyard of the Hotel</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_346">346</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#A_PICTURESQUE"><span class="smcap">A Picturesque Corner in Ayacucho</span></a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xvi" id="page_xvi"></a>{xvi}</span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_350">350</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#CROSSING_THE"><span class="smcap">Crossing the Pongora River on the Shaky Suspension Bridge</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_350">350</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_BATTLEFIELDAYACUCHO"><span class="smcap">The Battlefield of Ayacucho</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_354">354</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_BATTLEFIELD"><span class="smcap">The Battlefield as it appeared to the Spaniards</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_354">354</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_BRIDGEHUARPA"><span class="smcap">The Bridge over the Huarpa</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_362">362</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#URUMYOSI"><span class="smcap">Urumyosi</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_366">366</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_HUT"><span class="smcap">The Hut near Paucara</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_366">366</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_TOLL"><span class="smcap">The Toll-Bridge of Tablachaca</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_368">368</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#SUNDAY_MORNING"><span class="smcap">Sunday Morning in Huancayo</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_372">372</a></td></tr> - -<tr><th colspan="2" class="c"><a name="MAPS" id="MAPS"></a>MAPS</th></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#THE_AUTHOR"><span class="smcap">The Author’s Route across South America</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_003">3</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#SOUTHERN_PERU"><span class="smcap">Southern Peru</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_081">81</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#SOUTHERN_BOLIVIA"><span class="smcap">Southern Bolivia</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_281">281</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#CHOQQUEQUIRAU"><span class="smcap">Choqquequirau and Vicinity</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_307">307</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#LOWER_PLAZA"><span class="smcap">Lower Plaza Choqquequirau</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_310">310</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#UPPER_PLAZA"><span class="smcap">Upper Plaza Choqquequirau</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_314">314</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td valign="top"><a href="#CUZCO_AND"><span class="smcap">Cuzco and Neighboring Fortresses</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_318">318</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The frontispiece and the illustration at page 20 are from -photographs by Marc Ferrez. Those at pages 50, 216, 226, 232, 258, -298, 302, 324, 342, 346, 350, 354, and 362 are from photographs by -Mr. C. L. Hay; and those at pages 150, 160, 170 from photographs by -Mr. H. Smith.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xvii" id="page_xvii"></a>{xvii}</span></p> - -<p class="cb">ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_001" id="page_001"></a>{1}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_AUTHOR" id="THE_AUTHOR"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_003fp_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_003fp_sml.png" width="424" height="265" alt="Sketch Map -to illustrate -ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA -by -HIRAM BINGHAM" /></a> -<br /><span class="nonvis"> -[<a href="images/i_003fp_lg.png">Larger version</a>] -[<a href="images/i_003fp_huge.png">Largest version</a>]</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_002" id="page_002"></a>{2}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_003" id="page_003"></a>{3}</span></p> - -<h1>ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA</h1> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I<br /><br /> -<small>PERNAMBUCO AND BAHIA</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span><span class="smcap">here</span> are two ways of going to the east coast of South America. The -traveller can sail from New York in the monthly boats of the direct line -or, if he misses that boat, as I did, and is pressed for time, he can go -to Southampton or Cherbourg and be sure of an excellent steamer every -week. The old story that one was obliged to go by way of Europe to get -to Brazil is no longer true, although this pleasing fiction is still -maintained by a few officials when they are ordered to go from Lima on -the Pacific to the Peruvian port of Iquitos on the Amazon. If they -succeed in avoiding the very unpleasant overland journey via Cerro de -Pasco, they are apt to find that the “only feasible” alternative route -is by way of Panama, New York, and Paris!</p> - -<p>Personally I was glad of the excuse to go the longer way, for I knew -that the exceedingly comfortable new steamers of the Royal Mail Line -were likely to carry many Brazilians and Argentinos, from whom I could -learn much that I wanted to know. They proved to be most kind and -communicative, and gave me an excellent introduction to the point of -view of the modern denizen of the east coast whose lands have received -the “golden touch” that comes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_004" id="page_004"></a>{4}</span> from foreign capital, healthy -immigration, and rapidly expanding railway systems. I was also fortunate -in finding on board the Aragon a large number of those energetic -English, Scots, and French, whose well-directed efforts have built up -the industries of their adopted homes, until the Spanish-Americans can -hardly recognize the land of their birth, and the average North -American, who visits the east coast for the first time, rubs his eyes in -despair and wonders where he has been while all this railroad building -and bank merging has been going on. If there were few Germans and -Italians on board, it was not because they were not crossing the ocean -at the same time, but because they preferred the new steamers of their -own lines. I could have travelled a little faster by sailing under the -German or the Italian flag, but in that case I should not have seen -Pernambuco and Bahia, which the more speedy steamers now omit from their -itinerary.</p> - -<p>The Brazilians call the easternmost port of South America, Recife, “The -Reef,” but to the average person it will always be known as Pernambuco. -Most travellers who touch here on their way from Europe to Buenos Aires, -prefer to see what they can of this quaint old city from the deck of the -steamer, anchored a mile out in the open roadstead. The great ocean -swell, rolling in from the eastward, makes the tight little surf boats -bob up and down in a dangerous fashion. It seems hardly worth while to -venture down the slippery gangway and take one’s chances at leaping into -the strong arms of swarthy boatmen, whom the waves bring upward toward -you with startling<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_005" id="page_005"></a>{5}</span> suddenness, and who fall away again so -exasperatingly just as you have made up your mind to jump.</p> - -<p>Out of three hundred first-cabin passengers on the Aragon, there were -only five of us who ventured ashore,—three Americans, a Frenchman, and -a Scotchman. The other passengers, including several representatives of -the English army—but I will say no more, for they afterwards wrote me -that, on their return journey to England, the charms of Pernambuco -overcame their fear of the “white horses of the sea,” and they felt well -repaid.</p> - -<p>Pernambuco is unquestionably one of the most interesting places on the -East Coast. From the steamer one can see little more than a long low -line of coast, dotted here and there with white buildings and a -lighthouse or two. To the north several miles away, on a little rise of -ground, is the ancient town of Olinda, founded by the Portuguese in the -sixteenth century, a hundred years before Henry Hudson stepped ashore on -Manhattan Island. By the time that our ancestors were beginning to -consider establishing a colony in Massachusetts, the Portuguese had -already built dozens of sugar factories in this vicinity. Then the Dutch -came and conquered, built Pernambuco and, during their twenty-five years -on this coast, made it the administrative centre for their colony in -northeast Brazil. Their capital, four miles north of the present -commercial centre, is now a village of ruined palaces and ancient -convents. The Dutch had large interests on the Brazilian seaboard and -carried away quantities of sugar and other precious commodities, as is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_006" id="page_006"></a>{6}</span> -set forth in many of their quaint old books. The drawings which old -Nieuhof put in his sumptuous folio two centuries ago are still vivid and -lifelike, even if they serve only to emphasize the great change that has -come over this part of the world in that time.</p> - -<p>Now, three trans-Atlantic cables touch here, and it is a port of call -for half a dozen lines of steamers. The old Dutch caravels used to find -excellent shelter behind the great natural breakwater, the reef that -made the port of Recife possible. No part of the east coast of Brazil -possesses more strategical importance, and modern improvements have -deepened the entrance so that vessels drawing less than fifteen feet may -enter and lie in quiet water, although the great ocean liners are -obliged to ride at anchor outside. Tugs bring out lighters for the -cargo, but the passengers have to trust to the mercy of the surf boats.</p> - -<p>It took six dusky oarsmen to pull us through the surf and around the -lighthouse that marks the northern extremity of the reef, into the calm -waters of the harbor. On the black reef a few rods south of the -lighthouse stands an antiquated castle, which modern guns would make -short work of, but which served its purpose admirably by defending the -port against the sea rovers of the seventeenth century. Opposite this -breakwater, on two or three “sea islands” whose tidal rivers cut them -off from the mainland, the older part of Pernambuco is built.</p> - -<p>It was with a feeling of having miraculously escaped from the dangers of -a very stormy voyage,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a>{7}</span> that we clambered up the slippery stone stairs of -the landing stage and entered the little two-storied octagonal structure -which serves the custom house as a place in which to examine incoming -passengers. This took but a moment, and then we went out into the -glaring white sunlight of this ancient tropical city and began our tour -of inspection.</p> - -<p>Immediately in front of us was a line of warehouses three or four -stories high and attractively built of stone. They give the water-front -an air of permanency and good breeding. Between them and the sea-wall -there was a tree-planted, stone-paved area, the Rialto of Recife, where -all classes, from talkative half-tipsy pieces of foreign driftwood to -well-dressed local merchants, clad in immaculate white suits, congregate -and gossip. Beyond the sea-wall a dozen small ocean steamers lay inside -the harbor, moored to the breakwater; while numbers of smaller vessels, -sloops, schooners, and brigantines were anchored near the custom house -docks or in the sluggish Rio Beberibe, which separates Recife from the -mainland.</p> - -<p>As we wandered through the streets past the Stock Exchange, the naval -station, and the principal business houses, we saw various sights: a -poorly dressed Brazilian, of mixed African and Portuguese descent, -carrying a small coffin on his head; barefooted children standing in -pools of water left in the paved sidewalks by the showers of the -morning; bareheaded women, with gayly colored shawls over their -shoulders; neat German clerks dressed in glistening white duck suits; -lounging boatmen in nonde<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a>{8}</span>script apparel; and everywhere long, low drays -loaded with bags of sugar, each vehicle drawn by a single patient ox -whose horns are lashed to a cross-piece that connects the front end of -the thills. Those who moved at all moved as if there were abundant time -in which to do everything, and as though the hustle and bustle of lower -New York never existed at all. The scene was distinctively -Latin-American. One must be careful not to say “Spanish-American” here, -for if there is one thing more than another that the Brazilian is proud -of, it is that he is not a Spaniard and does not speak Spanish. However, -the difference between the two languages is not so great and the local -pride not so strong but that the obliging natives will understand you, -even if you have the bad taste to address them in Spanish. They will -reply, however, in Portuguese, and then it is your turn to be obliging -and understand them, if you can.</p> - -<p>West of Recife, on another island and on the mainland, are the other -public buildings, parks, and the finest residences. A primitive -tram-car, pulled by mules, crosses the bridge and jangles along toward -the suburbs, which are quite pretty, although some of the houses strive -after bizarre color-effects which would not be appropriate in the -Temperate Zone. There are fairly good hotels here, and there is quite a -little English colony. But it is not a place where the white man -thrives. The daily range of temperature is very small, and it is claimed -that the average difference between the wet and dry season is only three -degrees.</p> - -<p>From Pernambuco there radiate three or four<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a>{9}</span> railways, north, west, and -south. None of them are more than two hundred miles long, but all serve -to gather up the rich crops of sugar and cotton for which the -surrounding region is noted, and bring them to the cargo steamers that -offer in exchange the manufactured products of Europe and America. If -one may judge from the size of the custom house and the busy scene -there, where half a dozen steam cranes were actively engaged in -unloading goods destined to pay the annoyingly complex Brazilian tariff, -the business of the port is very considerable. It seemed quite strange -to see such mechanical activity and such a modern customs warehouse so -closely associated with the narrow, foul-smelling streets of the old -town. But it gives promise of a larger and more important city in the -years to come, when the new docks shall have been built and still more -modern methods introduced.</p> - -<p>Yet even now there are over one hundred and fifty thousand people in the -city, and the mercantile houses do a good business. The clerks move -slowly, and there is little appearance of enterprise; but one must -always remember, when inclined to criticise the business methods of the -tropics, that this is not a climate where one can safely hurry. Things -must be done slowly if the doer is to last any length of time. The -commercial traveller who comes here full of brusque and zealous -activity, will soon chafe himself into a fever if he is not careful. -These are easy-going folk, and political and commercial changes do not -affect them seriously. They are willing to stand governmental conditions -that would be almost in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a>{10}</span>tolerable to us, and their haphazard methods of -business are well suited to their environment. The European, although -proverbially less adaptable than the American, is forced by keener -competition at home to adjust himself as best he may to the local -conditions here and elsewhere in South America. His American colleague, -on the other hand, has as yet not felt the necessity of learning to meet -what seems to him ridiculous prejudice.</p> - -<p>Emblematic of this Brazilian trade are the primitive little catamarans -in which the fishermen of Recife venture far out into the great ocean. -The frail little craft are only moderately safe, and at best can bring -back but a small quantity of fish. They are most uncomfortable, and -their occupants are kept wet most of the time by the waves that dash -over them. Furthermore, a glimpse of them is as much of Pernambuco as -most steamship passengers get. It is only by venturing and taking the -trouble to go ashore that one can see the modern custom house dock on -the other side of Recife, and learn the lesson of the possibilities of -commerce here.</p> - -<p>We left Pernambuco in the afternoon and reached the green hills of the -coast near Bahia the next morning. The steamers pass near enough to the -shore to enable one to make out, with the glasses, watering-places and -pretty little villas that have been built on the ocean side of the -peninsula by the wealthier citizens of Bahia. At the end of the -promontory, just above the rocks and the breakers, is the picturesque -white tower of a lighthouse. Unfortunately, it did not avail to save a -fine German steamer that was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a>{11}</span> lying wrecked on the dangerous shoals near -the entrance to the harbor when we passed in.</p> - -<p>As we steamed slowly around the southern end of the low promontory, the -city of Bahia gradually came into view, its large stone warehouses -lining the water-front, its lower town separated by a steep hill, -covered with gardens and graceful palms, from the upper city, -conspicuous with the towers and cupolas of numerous churches and public -buildings.</p> - -<p>On the left, as one enters the harbor, rises the interesting island of -Itaparica, which England once offered to take in payment of a debt due -her by Portugal. It bears a resemblance to Gibraltar in more ways than -one, but it was not destined to become a British stronghold. A favorite -resort of the citizens of Bahia, it is called “the Europe of the poor,” -because it has a genial climate and is frequented by those who cannot -afford to cross the Atlantic.</p> - -<p>As we leave it on our left, in front of us, and to the north, lies the -magnificent bay that has given the city its name. It lacks the romantic -mountains that make Rio so famous, yet its beautiful blue waters are -most alluring, dotted as they are here and there with the white sails of -fishing-boats and catamarans.</p> - -<p>We have to anchor a mile from the shore, and a steam launch carrying the -port officials soon comes alongside. The local boatmen, whose little -craft, suited only to the quiet waters of the bay, bear no resemblance -to the seaworthy surf boats of Pernambuco, line up at a distance of half -a mile, awaiting the signal which permits them to hoist sail and race -for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a>{12}</span> the steamer. It is a pretty sight, enlivened by the shouts of the -boat crews. Some boats are loaded with delicious tropical fruits that -are eagerly bargained for by our steerage passengers, most of whom are -Spanish peasants on their way to harvest the crops of Argentina. Others -are anxious to take us ashore. And after the usual delay, we make a deal -with a boatman, a lazy fellow who wastes a lot of time trying to sail in -against the wind while his more energetic competitors are rowing. On the -way we pass half a dozen steamers and a few sailing vessels, and steer -carefully between scores of huge lighters and dozens of smaller craft. -In place of the steel steam cranes which we saw at Pernambuco, on the -wharves are numerous wooden cranes worked by hand.</p> - -<p>We land on slippery wooden stairs, and hurry across the blistering hot -pavements of the street to rest for a few moments in the shade of the -large warehouses and wholesale shops that crowd the lower town. Some of -the signs are decidedly bizarre and scream as loudly for patronage as -the limits of modern Frenchified Portuguese art will permit. There is -none of the picturesqueness of Pernambuco, and we soon betake ourselves -to one of the cog railways where, for a few cents, we are allowed to -scramble into a bare little wooden passenger coach and be yanked up the -steep incline by a cable that looks none too strong for its purpose. -Once in the upper city, the narrow streets of commerce seem to be left -behind, and we are in broader thoroughfares, with here and there a green -park full of palms and other tropical plants. There are churches on -every side,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a>{13}</span></p> - -<p><a name="LOOKING_DOWN" id="LOOKING_DOWN"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_012fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_012fp_sml.jpg" width="268" height="355" alt="Image unavailable: LOOKING DOWN INTO THE LOWER CITY, BAHIA" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">LOOKING DOWN INTO THE LOWER CITY, BAHIA</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">some of them wonderfully decorated and most attractive. Bahia is not -quite so old as Pernambuco, its foundation dating only from the middle -of the sixteenth century; but it early became the religious and -intellectual centre of Portuguese-America, and it is still noted for its -literature and culture, although long ago passed in the race by Rio.</p> - -<p>The glaring white sunlight throws everything into bold relief and makes -the shadows seem unusually dark and cool. On the corners of the streets -are little folding stands bearing a heavy load of toothsome -confectionery. Their barefooted coal-black owners, clad generally in -white, lean against the iron posts of the American Trolley Car System -and watch patiently for the trade that seems sure to come to him who -waits. On every side one sees black faces.</p> - -<p>In fact, Bahia is sometimes popularly spoken of as the “Old Mulattress,” -in affectionate reference to the fact that more than ninety per cent of -its two hundred thousand people are of African descent. For over two -centuries Bahia monopolized the slave trade of Brazil. Her traders -continued to be the chief importers of negroes down to the middle of the -nineteenth century. It is said that as many as sixty thousand slaves -were brought in within a single year.</p> - -<p>We took one of the American-made trolleys and soon went whizzing along -through well-paved streets and out into the suburbs. Here villas, -fearfully and wonderfully made, like the baker’s best wedding cake in -his shop window, attest to the local fondness for rococo extravagance. -In general, however, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a>{14}</span> principal buildings appear to be well built, -and are frequently four or five stories in height.</p> - -<p>The architecture of Bahia is decidedly Portuguese, much more so than -that of Pernambuco, which still bears traces of its Dutch origin and -even reminds one of Curaçao. Some of the villas in Bahia are strikingly -like those in Lisbon. And there are other likenesses between the -Portuguese capital and this ecclesiastical metropolis of Brazil. Both -are situated on magnificent estuaries, and present a fine spectacle to -the traveller coming by sea. Both have upper and lower towns, with hills -so steep as to require the services of elevators and cog or cable -railways to connect them. The upper town of each commands an extensive -view of the shipping, the roadstead, and the surrounding country. But -here the similarity ends; for Lisbon is built on several hills, while -Bahia occupies but a single headland, the verdure-clad promontory which -shelters the magnificent bay.</p> - -<p>Bahia is the centre for a considerable commerce in sugar and cotton, -cocoa and tobacco. These are brought to the port by land and water, but -chiefly by the railroads that go north to the great river San Francisco -and west into the heart of the state. There are many evidences of wealth -in the city, and there is certainly an excellent opportunity for -developing foreign trade. One looks in vain, however, for great American -commercial houses like those which mark the presence of English, French, -and German enterprise. Nevertheless the electric car line, with its -American equipment, gives a promise of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a>{15}</span> things hoped for. And there is a -decided air of friendliness toward Americans on the part of the -Brazilians whom one meets on the streets and in the shops. There is none -of that “chip on the shoulder” attitude which the Argentino likes to -exhibit toward the citizens of the “United States of North America.” The -Brazilian appears to realize that Americans are his best customers, and -he is desirous of maintaining the most friendly relations with us.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a>{16}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<br /><br /> -<small>RIO, SANTOS, AND BRAZILIAN TRADE</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span><span class="smcap">wo</span> days’ sail from Bahia brought us within sight of the wonderful -mountains that mark the entrance to the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. As one -approaches land, the first thing that catches the eye is the far-famed -Sugar Loaf Mountain which seems to guard the southern side of the -entrance. Back of it is a region even more romantic, a cluster of higher -mountains, green to their tops, yet with sides so precipitous and -pinnacles so sharp one wonders how anything can grow on them. The region -presents, in fact, such a prodigious variety of crags and precipices, -peaks and summits, that the separate forms are lost in a chaos of -beautiful hills.</p> - -<p>The great granite rocks that guard the entrance to the harbor leave a -passage scarcely a mile in width. At the base of the Sugar Loaf we saw a -fairy white city romantically nestling in the shadow of the gigantic -crag. It is the new National Exposition of Brazil.</p> - -<p>Once safely inside the granite barriers, the bay opens out and becomes -an inland sea, dotted with hundreds of islands, a landlocked basin with -fifty square miles of deep water.</p> - -<p>On the northern shores of the bay lies the town of Nictheroy, the -capital of the state. Its name per<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a>{17}</span>petuates the old Indian title of the -bay, “hidden water.” The name of the capital of the Republic, on the -south side of the bay, carries with it a remembrance of the fact that -when first discovered, the bay was mistaken for the mouth of a great -river, the River of January.</p> - -<p>Since the early years of the sixteenth century, Rio has been conspicuous -in the annals of discovery and conquest. Magellan touched here on his -famous voyage round the world. The spot where he landed is now the site -of a large hospital and medical school. French Huguenots attempted to -find here a refuge in the time of the great Admiral Coligny. As one -steams slowly into the harbor, one passes close to the historic island -of Villegagnon, whose romantic story has been so graphically told by -Parkman.</p> - -<p>Hither came the King of Portugal, flying from the wrath of Napoleon. -Here lived the good Emperor Don Pedro II, one of the most beneficent -monarchs the world has ever seen. And into these waters are soon to come -Brazil’s new Dreadnoughts, about which all the world has been -speculating, and which have made Argentina almost forget the necessities -of economic development in her anxiety to keep up with Brazil in the way -of armament.</p> - -<p>An elaborate system of new docks, that has been in the course of -construction for a long time, has not been completed yet; so we anchor a -mile or more from the shore, not far from a score of ocean steamers and -half a hundred sailing vessels. Before the anchor falls we are -surrounded by a noisy fleet of steam launches, whose whistles keep up a -most in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a>{18}</span>fernal tooting. A score of these insistent screamers attempt to -get alongside of our companion-way at the same time. In addition, half a -hundred row-boats attack the ladder where some of the steerage -passengers are trying to disembark.</p> - -<p>We had heard, before entering the port, that there were several hundred -cases of smallpox here, besides other infectious diseases. Yet this did -not prevent everybody that wanted to, and could afford the slight cost -of transportation, from coming out from the shore and boarding our -vessel. Such a chattering, such a rustling of silk skirts and a -fluttering of feathers on enormous hats, such ecstatic greetings given -to returning citizens! Such ultra-Parisian fashions!</p> - -<p>On shore we found the marks of modern Rio—electric cars, fashionable -automobiles, well-paved streets, electric lights, and comfortable -hotels—very much in evidence. Were it not for the blinding sunlight -that fairly puts one’s eyes out in the middle of the day, one could -readily forget one’s whereabouts. To be sure, if you go to look for it, -there is the older part of the city which still needs cleaning up -according to modern ideas of sanitation. But if you are content to spend -your time in the fashionable end of the town or speeding along the fine -new thoroughfares in a fast motor car, it is easy to think no more of -Rio’s bad record as an unhealthy port.</p> - -<p>The city of Rio is spread over a large peninsula that juts out from the -south into the waters of the great bay. Across the peninsula, through -the centre of the busiest part of the city, the Brazilians have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a>{19}</span> -recently opened a broad boulevard, the Avenida Central. Fine modern -business blocks have sprung up as if by magic, and the effect is most -resplendent. The spacious avenue is in marked contrast with the very -narrow little streets that cross it. One of them, the Rua Ouvidor, the -meeting-place of the wits of Rio, is in many ways the most interesting -street in Brazil. Here one may see everybody that is anybody in Rio.</p> - -<p>At one end of the Avenida Central is Monroe Palace, which once did duty -at an International Exposition, and more recently was the meeting-place -of the third Pan-American Conference, made notable by the presence of -Secretary Root. Beyond the showy palace to the east there are a number -of little bays, semi-circular indentations in the shore, which have -recently been lined with splendid broad driveways, where one may enjoy -the sea breeze and a marvellous view over the inland sea to the -mountains beyond.</p> - -<p>At the far end of the new parkway rises the ever-present Sugar Loaf, at -whose feet are the buildings of the National Exposition. They are -wonderfully well situated, lying as they do on a little isthmus wedged -in between two gigantic rocks, with the ocean on one side and the -beautiful bay on the other. The buildings themselves are not -particularly remarkable, being decorated in the gorgeous style of -elaborate whiteness that one is accustomed to associate with -expositions.</p> - -<p>The crowds I saw there were composed exclusively of Brazilians, most of -whom had apparently visited<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a>{20}</span> the grounds many times and accepted them as -the fashionable evening rendezvous. Each of the states of Brazil had a -building of its own in which to exhibit its products, and there was a -theatre, a “Fine Arts” building, a Hall of Manufactures, and a sad -attempt at a Midway. An entire building was devoted to the manufactures -and exports of Portugal. All other buildings were devoted to the states -or industries of Brazil, making the prejudice in favor of the mother -country all the more noticeable.</p> - -<p>A change is coming over the foreign commerce of Rio. Twenty years ago, -the largest importing firms were French and English. Many of these have -practically disappeared, having been driven out by Portuguese, Italian, -and German houses. The marked leaning toward goods of Portuguese origin -is very striking and naturally difficult to combat.</p> - -<p>Brazil has recently established in Paris an office for promoting the -country and aiding its economic expansion. This office is publishing a -considerable literature, mostly in French, and will undoubtedly be able -to bring about an increase of European commerce and that immigration -which Brazil so much needs. The completion of the new docks will greatly -help matters.</p> - -<p>But besides new docks Rio needs a reformed customs service. Every one is -agreed that the most vexatious thing in Rio is the attitude of the -custom house officials. Either because they are poorly paid or else -simply because they have fallen into extremely bad habits, they are -allowed to receive tips and gratuities openly. The result may easily be -imagined.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a>{21}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_CORCOVADO" id="THE_CORCOVADO"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_020fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_020fp_sml.jpg" width="416" height="326" alt="Image unavailable: THE CORCOVADO FROM RIO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE CORCOVADO FROM RIO</span> -</div> - -<p>A few days after my arrival, an American naturalist, thoroughly honest -but of a rather short temper, was treated with outrageous discourtesy, -and his personal effects strewn unceremoniously over the dirty floor of -the warehouse by angry inspectors, simply because he was unwilling to -bribe them. There was no question as to his having any dutiable goods.</p> - -<p>The population of Rio is variously estimated at between seven and eight -hundred thousand, but her enthusiastic citizens frequently exaggerate -this and speak in an offhand way of her having a million people. They -are naturally reluctant to admit that Rio has any fewer than Buenos -Aires.</p> - -<p>The suburbs of Rio are remarkably attractive. On the great bay, dotted -with its beautiful islands, are various resorts that take advantage of -the natural beauties of the place, and cater to the pleasure-loving -Brazilians. From various ports on the bay, railroads radiate in all -possible directions, going north into the heart of the mining region and -west through the coffee country to Saõ Paulo. The terminus of a little -scenic railway is the top of one of the highest and most remarkable of -the near-by peaks, the Corcovado. The view from the summit can scarcely -be surpassed in the whole world. The intensely blue waters of the bay, -the bright white sunlight reflected from the fleecy cumulous clouds so -typical of the tropics, the verdure-clad hills, and the white city -spread out like a map on the edge of the bay, combine to make a -marvellous picture.</p> - -<p>No account of Rio, however brief, would be com<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a>{22}</span>plete without some -reference to the “Jornal do Comercio,” the leading newspaper of Brazil, -whose owner and editor, Dr. J. C. Rodriguez, is one of the most -influential men in the country. In addition to guiding public opinion -through his powerful and ably edited newspaper, he has had the time to -attend to numerous charities and to the collection of a most remarkable -library of books relating to Brazil. He has recently taken high rank as -a bibliographer by publishing a much sought after volume on early -Braziliana, basing his information largely on his own matchless -collection.</p> - -<p>Another well-edited paper is “O Paiz,” which like the “Jornal do -Comercio” has its own handsome edifice on the new Avenida Central. A -subscription to it for one year costs “thirty thousand reis”—a trifle -over nine dollars! As in the case of other South American newspapers, -its offices are far more luxurious and elaborate than those of their -contemporaries in North America. These southern dailies give -considerable space to foreign cablegrams, so much more, in fact, than do -our own papers, that it almost persuades one that we are more provincial -than our neighbors.</p> - -<p>Santos, the greatest coffee port in the world and the only city in -Brazil having adequate docking facilities, is a day’s sail from Rio. It -is separated from the ocean by winding sea-rivers or canals. The marshes -and flats that surround it, and the bleaching skeletons of sailing -vessels that one sees here, are sufficient reminders of the terrible -epidemics that have been the scourge of Santos in the past.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a>{23}</span> Stories are -told of ships that came here for coffee, whose entire crews perished of -yellow fever before the cargo could be taken aboard, leaving the vessel -to rot at her moorings. All of this is changed now, and the port is as -healthy as could be expected.</p> - -<p>Yet the town is not attractive. It lacks the picturesque ox-drays of -Pernambuco and the charming surroundings of Rio. The streets are badly -paved and muddy; the clattering mule-teams that bring the bags of coffee -from the great warehouses to the docks are just like thousands of others -in our own western cities. The old-fashioned tram-cars, running on the -same tracks that the ramshackle suburban trains use, are dirty but not -interesting. Prices in the shops are enormously high. In fact, on all -sides there is too much evidence of the upsetting influence of a great -modern commerce.</p> - -<p>A long line of steamers lying at the docks taking on coffee is the -characteristic feature of the place, and a booklet that has recently -been issued to advertise the resources of Brazil bears on its cover a -branch of the coffee tree, loaded with red berries, behind which is the -photograph of a great ocean liner, into whose steel sides marches an -unending procession of stevedores carrying on their backs sacks of -coffee. It not only emphasizes Brazil’s greatest industry, but it is -also thoroughly typical of Santos.</p> - -<p>Most of the coffee is grown in the mountains to the north, and comes to -Santos from Saõ Paulo on a splendidly equipped British-built railway. -The line is one of the finest in South America. It rises rapidly through -a beautiful tropical valley by a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a>{24}</span> gradient so steep as to necessitate -the use of a cable and cogs for a large part of the distance. The -powerhouses scattered at intervals along the line are models of -cleanliness and mechanical perfection.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the fact that America is by far the greatest consumer of -Santos coffee, the greater part of the local enterprises are in British -hands. The investment of British capital in Brazil is enormous. It has -been computed that it amounts to over six hundred million dollars. -Americans do not seem yet to have waked up to the possibilities of -Brazilian commerce, or to the fact that the question of American trade -with Brazil is an extremely important one.</p> - -<p>It is only necessary to realize that the territory of Brazil is larger -than that of the United States, that the population of Brazil is greater -than all the rest of South America put together, and that Brazil’s -exports exceed her imports by one hundred million dollars annually, to -understand the opportunity for developing our foreign trade.</p> - -<p>Brazil produces considerably more than half of the world’s supply of -coffee, besides enormous quantities of rubber. The possibilities for -increased production of raw material are almost incalculable. It is just -the sort of market for us. Here we can dispose of our manufactured -products and purchase what will not grow at home.</p> - -<p>We have made some attempts to develop the field, even though our -knowledge is too often limited to that of the delightful person who knew -Brazil was “the place where the nuts come from!” We have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a>{25}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_HARBOR" id="THE_HARBOR"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_024fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_024fp_sml.jpg" width="410" height="320" alt="Image unavailable: THE HARBOR OF SANTOS" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE HARBOR OF SANTOS</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">little conception of the great distances that separate the important -cities of Brazil and of the difficulties of transportation.</p> - -<p>A story is told in Rio of an attempt to go from Rio to Saõ Paulo by -motor, over the cart-road that connects the two largest cities in the -Republic. The trip by railway takes about twelve hours. The automobile -excursion took three weeks of most fearful drudgery. Needless to say, -the cars did not come back by their own power.</p> - -<p>It is more difficult for a merchant in one of the great coast cities of -Central Brazil to keep in touch with the Amazon, than it is for a -Chicago merchant to keep in touch with Australia.</p> - -<p>Furthermore, to one who tries to master the situation, the coinage and -the monetary system seem at first sight to present an insuperable -obstacle. To have a bill for dinner rendered in thousands of <i>reis</i> is -rather confusing, until one comes to regard the thousand <i>rei</i> piece as -equivalent to about thirty cents.</p> - -<p>Another and much more serious difficulty is the poor mail service to and -from New York. To the traveller in South America, unquestionably the -most exasperating annoyance everywhere is the insecurity and -irregularity of the mails. The Latin-American mind seems to be more -differently constituted from ours in that particular than in any other. -He knows that the service is bad, slow, and unreliable. But it seems to -make little difference to him, and the only effort he makes to overcome -the frightfully unsatisfactory conditions is by resorting to the -registered mail, to which he intrusts everything that is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a>{26}</span> of importance. -Add to this fact the infrequency of direct mail steamers from the United -States to the East Coast, and it may readily be seen where lies one of -the most serious obstacles in the way of extending our commerce with -Brazil.</p> - -<p>A marked peculiarity of the Brazilian market is its extreme -conservatism. Brazilians who have become accustomed to buying French, -English, and German products are loath to change. American products are -unfashionable. The Brazilian who can afford it travels on the -luxuriously appointed steamers of the Royal Mail, and he and his friends -regard articles of English make as much more fashionable and luxurious -than those from the United States.</p> - -<p>This is largely due to the lack of commercial prestige which we enjoy in -the coast cities of Brazil. The Brazilians cannot understand why they -see no American banks and no American steamship lines. Our flag never -appears in their ports except as it is carried by a man-of-war or an -antiquated wooden sailing vessel. To their minds this is proof -conclusive that the American, who claims that his country is one of the -most important commercial nations in the world, is merely bluffing.</p> - -<p>Such prejudices can only be overcome by strict attention to business, -and this attention our exporters have in large measure not yet thought -it worth while to give. The agents that they send to Brazil rarely speak -Portuguese, and are unable to compete with the expert linguists who come -out from Europe. Frequently they even lack that technical<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a>{27}</span> training in -the manufacture of the goods which they are trying to sell, which gives -their German competitors so great an advantage.</p> - -<p>Still more important than commercial travellers in a country like -Brazil, is the establishment of agencies where goods may be attractively -displayed. An active importer told me that, in his opinion, the most -essential thing for Americans to do was to maintain permanent depots or -expositions where their goods could be seen and handled. Relatively -little good seems to result from the use of catalogues, even when -printed in the language of the country, owing to the insecurity of the -mails and the absence of American banks or express companies which would -insure the delivery of goods ordered.</p> - -<p>Finally, it is disgraceful to be obliged to repeat the old story of -American methods of packing goods for shipment to South America. This -fact has been so often alluded to in many different publications that it -might seem as though further criticism were unnecessary. Unfortunately, -however, in spite of repeated protests, American shippers, forgetful of -the almost entire absence of docks and docking facilities here, continue -to pack their goods as if they were destined for Europe.</p> - -<p>At most of the ports, lighters have to be used. These resemble small -coal barges, into which the goods are lowered over the side of the -vessel. Often more or less of a sea is running, and notwithstanding all -the care that may be used the durability of the packing-cases is tested -to the utmost. I saw a box containing a typewriter dumped on top of a -pile<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a>{28}</span> of miscellaneous merchandise, from which it rolled down, bumping -and thumping into the farther corner of the barge. Fortunately, this -particular typewriter belonged to a make of American machines whose -manufacturers have learned to pack their goods in such form as to stand -just that kind of treatment. The result is that one sees that brand of -machine all over South America.</p> - -<p>The American consul in Rio, Mr. Anderson, has been doing a notable -service in recent years by sending north full and accurate reports of -business conditions in Brazil, and our special agent, Mr. Lincoln -Hutchinson, has written excellent reports on trade conditions in South -America. To the labors of both these gentlemen I am greatly indebted for -information on this subject.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a>{29}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<br /><br /> -<small>BUENOS AIRES</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span><span class="smcap">e</span> left Santos late on a Tuesday afternoon, and after two pleasant days -at sea entered the harbor of Montevideo on Friday morning. It was -crowded with ships of all nations, and we were particularly delighted to -see the American flag flying from three small steamers. Could it be -possible that the flag which had been so conspicuous for its absence -from South American waters, was regaining in the twentieth century the -preëminence it had in the early years of the nineteenth? Alas, no; the -boats were only government vessels in the lighthouse service, towing -lightships from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. They had stopped here -to coal, for Montevideo is a favorite port of call for steamers bound -through the Straits of Magellan. Ever since the days when it was the -home of active smugglers, who were engaged in defying Spain’s -restrictive colonial policy, Montevideo has been a prosperous trading -centre. To-day, clean streets, new buildings, electric cars, fine shops, -elaborate window displays, well-dressed people, and excellent hotels -mark it as modern and comfortable.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to realize that this is the capital of Uruguay, “one of -the most tumultuous of the smaller revolutionary states of South -America.” The Amer<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a>{30}</span>ican is chagrined to find that the Uruguayan gold or -paper dollar is worth two cents more than our own. And the Englishman is -most annoyed to find the “sovereign” at a discount. But chagrin gives -way to frank amazement at the high prices which the Montevidean is -willing to pay for his imported luxuries.</p> - -<p>The republic is small but there is no waste land, and the railroads -bring in quantities of wool and food-stuffs destined for the European -market. More than three thousand steamers enter the port annually. Most -of them belong to the eighteen British lines that touch here. No wonder -the city is wealthy and has attractive shops and boulevards. To be sure, -the harbor improvements, not completed yet, have been greatly retarded -by the most flagrant kind of political graft. But what American city, -from New York to San Francisco, has a clean record in this particular?</p> - -<p>Splendidly equipped steamers, resembling our Fall River boats, ply -nightly between Montevideo and Buenos Aires, in order to accommodate the -increasing numbers who wish to do business in both cities.</p> - -<p>A generation ago the traveller to Buenos Aires was obliged to disembark -in the stream seven or eight miles from the city, proceed in small boats -over the shallow waters, and then clamber into huge ox-carts and enjoy -the last mile or two of his journey as best he could. Since then, -extraordinary harbor improvements, costing millions of dollars, have -been completed, and ocean steamers are now able<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a>{31}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_DOCKS" id="THE_DOCKS"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_030fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_030fp_sml.jpg" width="429" height="289" alt="Image unavailable: THE DOCKS OF BUENOS AIRES" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE DOCKS OF BUENOS AIRES</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">to approach the city through dredged channels. Yet such has been the -phenomenal growth of the port that the magnificent modern docks are -already overcrowded and the handling of cargo goes on very slowly, -retarded by many exasperating delays. The regular passenger and mail -steamers are given prompt attention, however, and the customs house -examination is both speedy and courteous, in marked contrast to that at -Rio. In years to come, the two other important ports of -Argentina—Rosario, higher up the Rio de la Plata, and Bahia Blanca, -farther down the Atlantic coast—are destined to grow at a rapid rate -because of the better docking facilities they will be able to afford.</p> - -<p>Bahia Blanca in particular is destined to have a great future, as it is -the natural outlet for the rapidly developing agricultural and pastoral -region of southern Argentina.</p> - -<p>Buenos Aires, however, will always maintain her political and commercial -supremacy. She is not only the capital of Argentina, but out of every -five Argentinos, she claims at least one as a denizen of her narrow -streets. Already ranking as the second Latin city in the world, her -population equals that of Madrid and Barcelona combined.</p> - -<p>Hardly has one left the docks on the way to the hotel before one is -impressed with the commercial power of this great city. Your taxicab -passes slowly through crowded streets where the heavy traffic retards -your progress and gives you a chance to marvel at the great number of -foreign banks, English, German, French, and Italian, that have taken -pos<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a>{32}</span>session of this quarter of the city. With their fine substantial -buildings and their general appearance of solidity, they have a firm -grip on the situation. One looks in vain for an American bank or agency -of any well-known Wall Street house. American financial institutions are -like the American merchant steamers, conspicuous by their absence. The -Anglo-Saxons that you see briskly walking along the sidewalks are not -Americans, but clean-shaven, red-cheeked, vigorous Britishers.</p> - -<p>In England they talk familiarly of “B.A.” and the “River Plate”; -disdaining to use the Spanish words Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and -Buenos Aires. To hear them you might suppose they were speaking of -something they owned, and you would not be so very far from the truth. -What Mexico owes to American capital and enterprise, the countries and -cities of the Rio de la Plata owe to Great Britain. British capitalists -have not been slow to realize the possibilities of this great -agricultural region. They know its potentiality as a food-producer, and -they have covered it with a network of railways much as we have covered -the prairies of Illinois and the plains of Kansas. Of the billion and a -quarter dollars of British capital invested in Argentina, over seven -hundred millions are in railways. Thousands of active, energetic young -Englishmen, backed by this enormous British capital, have aided in the -extraordinary progress which Argentina has made during the past -generation.</p> - -<p>In some ways this is an English colony. The majority of the people do -not speak English, except in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a>{33}</span> the commercial district, and the -Englishman is here on sufferance. But it is his railroads that tie this -country together. It is his enterprises that have opened thousands of -its square miles, and although the folly of his ancestors a century ago -caused him to lose the political control of this “purple land,” the -energy of his more recent forebears has given him a splendid heritage. -Not only has he been able to pay large dividends to the British -stockholders who had such great faith in the future of Argentina, he has -made many native Argentinos wealthy beyond the dreams of avarice.</p> - -<p>Land-owners, whose parents had not a single change of clothes, are -themselves considering how many motor cars to order. Their patronage -sustains the finely appointed shops which make such a brave display on -Florida and Cangallo Streets. These streets may be so narrow that -vehicles are only allowed to pass in one direction, but the shops are -first class in every particular and include the greatest variety of -goods, from the latest creations of Parisian millinery to the most -modern scientific instruments. Fine book shops, large department stores, -gorgeous restaurants, expensive to the last degree, emphasize the wealth -and extravagance of the upper classes.</p> - -<p>On the streets one may hear all of the European languages. In the -business district it is quite as likely to be English as Spanish, and in -the poorer quarters Italian is growing more common every day. The speech -of the common people is nominally Spanish, very bad Spanish. In reality -it is a hybrid<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a>{34}</span> into which Portuguese, Italian, and Indian words and -accents have entered to disfigure the beautiful Castilian.</p> - -<p>When Rio cut her Avenida Central through the middle of her business -district, she had in mind the Avenida 25 de Mayo of Buenos Aires, a -typical imitation Parisian Boulevard that was opened not many years ago -to facilitate traffic and beautify the city. On the Avenida, as in Rio, -the leading newspaper has its luxurious home.</p> - -<p>All the world has heard of “La Prensa” and its marvellously -well-appointed building where distinguished foreigners are entertained, -lectures are given, and all sorts of advertising dodges are featured. It -was “La Prensa” that had the news of President Taft’s election two -minutes after it was known in New York. Many Porteños, as the people of -Buenos Aires are called, think the columns of “La Prensa” are too yellow -and that its business methods are almost too modern. They prefer the -more dignified pages of the “Nacion.”</p> - -<p>The hotels on the Avenida are not up to the standard of three of those -on the narrower thoroughfares. In fact, it would be hard to find more -comfortable hostelries than the Grand or the Palace. The new Phœnix -Hotel, one of the first skyscrapers to be erected here, promises even -greater comforts and is to be the rendezvous of the British colony.</p> - -<p>There are many theatres and they have a brilliant season, which begins -in June. The pleasure-loving Porteños are willing to pay very high -prices for the best seats, and managers can offer good<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a>{35}</span></p> - -<p><a name="AVENIDA_DE" id="AVENIDA_DE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_034fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_034fp_sml.jpg" width="455" height="293" alt="Image unavailable: AVENIDA DE MAYO, BUENOS AIRES" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">AVENIDA DE MAYO, BUENOS AIRES</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">salaries to tempt the best performers to leave Europe. Variety shows are -popular and carried to an extreme with which we are not familiar in the -United States. Some of them are poor copies of questionable Parisian -enterprises. But even these are not as bad as the moving picture shows -that have captured Buenos Aires. Public opinion is astonishingly lax in -the southern capital. Exhibitions of shocking indecency are -countenanced, that would no longer be tolerated in Europe or North -America. In this matter Buenos Aires also offers a marked contrast to -Santiago de Chile where morals are on a much higher plane, thanks to the -Catholic Church, which unfortunately seems to have lost its grip here.</p> - -<p>The Porteño has not only forgotten his religion, he seems also to have -lost the pleasing manners of his Castilian ancestors. I have been in -eight South American capitals and in none have I seen such bad manners -as in Buenos Aires. Nowhere else in South America is one jostled so -rudely. Nowhere else does one see such insolent behavior and such bad -taste. Santiago, Lima, Bogotá, and Caracas seem to belong to a different -civilization. To be sure, none of them are as rich and prosperous. But -in all of them good society is a much more ancient concern than in this -overgrown young metropolis.</p> - -<p>Here the newly rich are in full sway and their ideas and instincts seem -to predominate. On Sunday afternoon, all the world dashes madly out to -the race course, where it exercises its passion for gambling to the -fullest capacity. In the Jockey Club inclosure are gathered the youth -and beauty, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a>{36}</span> wealth and fashion of the city. And yet the ladies -carry the artificial tricks of feminine adornment to such an amazing -extent that it is almost impossible to realize that they belong to the -fashionable world and not to the demi-monde. The races that I attended -drew an audience of thirty thousand. One race had a first prize -amounting to fifteen thousand dollars. The horses seemed to be of a -rather heavier build than ours but they did not interest the spectators. -Facilities for betting were provided on an elaborate scale. There were -no bookmakers, and the odds depended entirely on the popular choice, as -is commonly done in Europe. The gate receipts and the proceeds of the -“percentage” are enormous and have enabled the Jockey Club to build one -of the most luxurious and extravagant club houses in the world.</p> - -<p>After the races, hundreds of motor cars and carriages promenade slowly -up and down that part of the parkway which society has decreed shall be -her rendezvous. Here one sees an astonishing display of paint and powder -illuminating the faces of the devotees of a fashion which decrees that -all ladies must have brilliant complexions. The effect is very -unpleasant. I suppose it is simply another evidence of the newness of -modern Buenos Aires. Very few wealthy families have a long-established -social position. Culture and refinement are at a discount. Otherwise it -is difficult to imagine how any society can tolerate such artificiality. -This garish Sunday parade is quite a swing of the pendulum from the old -days when Creole ladies, mod<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a>{37}</span>estly attired in lovely black lace -mantillas, walked quietly to church and home again, as they still do in -most South American cities.</p> - -<p>It is hardly necessary to speak of the more usual evidences of great -wealth, palatial residences that would attract attention even in Paris -and New York, charming parks beautifully laid out on the shores of the -great Rio de la Plata, and a thousand luxurious automobiles of the -latest pattern carrying all they can hold of Parisian millinery.</p> - -<p>One does not need to be told that this is a city of electric cars, -telephones, and taxis. These we take for granted. But there is a -characteristic feature of the city that is unexpected and striking: the -central depots for imported thoroughbreds. Only a few doors from the -great banks and railway offices are huge stables where magnificent -blooded horses and cattle, sheep and pigs, which have brought records of -distinguished ancestry across the Atlantic, are offered for sale and -command high prices.</p> - -<p>These permanent cattle-shows are the natural rendezvous of the wealthy -ranchmen and breeders who are sure to be found here during a part of -each day while they are in town. So are foreigners desirous of -purchasing ranches and reporters getting news from the interior. The -cattle-fairs offer ocular evidence of the wealth of the modern Argentino -and the importance of the pastoral industry. There are over a hundred -million sheep on the Pampas. Cattle and horses also are counted by the -millions.</p> - -<p>The problems of Argentine agriculture and animal industries are being -continually studied by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a>{38}</span> great land-owners, who have already done -much to improve the quality of their products.</p> - -<p>During my stay in Buenos Aires, it was my privilege to visit an -agricultural school in one of the neighboring towns. The occasion was -the celebration of its twenty-fifth anniversary. The festivities were -typically Spanish-American. An avenue of trees was christened with -appropriate ceremonies, being given the name of the anniversary date. To -each tree a bunch of fire-crackers had been tied. At the beginning and -end of the avenue a new sign-post bearing its name had been put up and -veiled with a piece of cheese cloth. A procession consisting of the -officials of the school and of the National University of La Plata, with -which the school is affiliated, alumni and visitors, formed at the -school-buildings after the reading of an appropriate address, and -marched down the new avenue following the band. As we progressed, the -signs were unveiled and the bunches of fire-crackers touched off. At the -far end, in a grove of eucalyptus trees, a collation was served, and we -were entertained by having the fine horses and cattle belonging to the -school paraded up and down. The school has an extensive property, is -doing good work, and shows a practical grasp of the needs of the -country.</p> - -<p>Argentina has worked hard to develop those industries that are dependent -upon stock-raising. The results have amply justified her. The -exportation of frozen meat from Argentina amounts to nearly twenty -million dollars annually. Only re<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a>{39}</span>cently one of the best known -packing-houses of Chicago opened a large plant here and is paying -tribute to the excellence of the native stock. Every year Argentina -sends to Europe the carcasses of millions of sheep and cattle as well as -millions of bushels of wheat and corn, more in fact than we do. Of all -the South American republics, she is our greatest natural competitor, -and she knows it. Nevertheless, she lacks adequate resources of iron, -coal, lumber, and water power, and notwithstanding a high protective -tariff, can never hope to become a competitor in manufactured products. -Argentina exports more than three times as much per capita as we do, and -must do so in order to pay for the necessary importation of manufactured -goods. It also means that she will always find it to her advantage to -buy her goods from England, France, and Germany, where she sells her -food-stuffs. Brazil can send us unlimited amounts of raw materials that -we cannot raise at home, while at present Argentina has little to offer -us. Yet we are already buying her wool and hides, and before long will -undoubtedly be eating her beef and mutton, as England has been doing for -years.</p> - -<p>The banks of Buenos Aires have learned to be extremely conservative. For -a long time this city was a favorite resort of absconding bank cashiers -from the United States, and stories are told of many well-dressed -Americans who have come here from time to time without letters of -introduction but with plenty of money to spend, who have been kindly -received by the inhabitants, only to prove<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a>{40}</span> to be undesirable -acquaintances. What we consider “old-fashioned and antiquated” English -bank methods are the rule, and it frequently takes a couple of hours to -draw money on a letter of credit even when one has taken the pains to -notify one’s bankers beforehand that the letter was to be used in South -America. Personally, I have found American Express checks extremely -useful in all parts of South America and have had no difficulty in -getting them accepted in Buenos Aires. In the interior it is more -difficult unless one comes well introduced. But the necessity for -letters of introduction is quite generally recognized all over the -continent. Strangers who have “neglected to supply themselves with -credentials,” frequently turn out to be fugitives from justice.</p> - -<p>Another local peculiarity noticeable also in Chile, is that many of the -citizens bitterly begrudge us our attempted monopoly of the title of -“Americans.” They catalogue us at all possible times under “N” instead -of “A.” They also speak of us as <i>North</i> Americans or as “Yankis,” and -they call our Minister the “North American Minister,” quite ignoring the -existence of Mexico and Canada.</p> - -<p>Certain Americans who are desirous of securing an increase of our trade -with South America and of placating in every possible manner the South -Americans, overlooking the practical side of the question, have -acquiesced in the local prejudice and speak of themselves as North -Americans, even though they do not address their letters to the “United -States of North America.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a>{41}</span></p> - -<p>The fact that the South American refuses to grant us our title of -“Americans” is really an indirect compliment. It is chiefly owing to the -industry and intelligence of the citizens of the United States, that the -word “American” has come to have a complimentary meaning,—far more -complimentary in fact than it had fifty years ago when distinguished -foreigners were wont to use that adjective as a peculiarly opprobrious -epithet. With this change in the significance of the term has come a -natural desire on the part of the South Americans to apply it to -themselves. They reason that they have as good a right, geographically, -to the term as we have, and they wilfully forget that each of their -republics has in its legal title a word which conveniently and -euphoniously characterizes its citizens. The people of the United States -of Brazil are called Brazilians, and those of the United States of -Mexico are Mexicans by the same right that those of the United States of -America are Americans. To be sure, the world generally thinks of our -country as the United States, quite forgetful that there are several -other republics of the same name. It is a pity that a euphonious -appellation cannot be manufactured from one or both of those two words. -We cannot distinguish ourselves by the title “North American,” as that -ignores the rightful claim to that title which the denizens of the -larger part of this continent, the Mexicans and Canadians, have in -common with us. It is difficult to see how we are to avoid calling -ourselves Americans even if it gives offence to our neighbors. It is not -a point of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_042" id="page_042"></a>{42}</span> great importance and it seems to me that in time, with the -natural growth of Chile and the Argentine Republic, their citizens will -be so proud of being called Chilenos or Argentinos that they will not -begrudge us our only convenient and proper title.</p> - -<p>There is another point, however, in their criticism of us which is more -reasonable and on which they might be accorded more satisfaction. I -refer to that part of our foreign policy known as the Monroe Doctrine. -Many a Chileno and Argentino resents the idea of our Monroe Doctrine -applying in any sense to his country and declares that we had better -keep it at home. He regards it as only another sign of our overweening -national conceit. And on mature consideration, it does seem as though -the justification for the Monroe Doctrine, both in its original and its -present form, had passed. Europe is no longer ruled by despots who -desire to crush the liberties of their subjects. As is frequently -remarked, England has a more democratic government than the United -States. In all the leading countries of Europe, the people have -practically as much to say about the government as they have in America. -There is not the slightest danger that any European tyrant will attempt -to enslave the weak republics of this hemisphere. Furthermore, such -republics as Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Peru no more need our -Monroe Doctrine to keep them from being robbed of their territory by -European nations than does Italy or Spain. If it be true that some of -the others, like the notoriously lawless group in Central America, need -to be looked after<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_043" id="page_043"></a>{43}</span> by their neighbors, let us amend our outgrown Monroe -Doctrine, as has already been suggested by one of our writers on -international law, so as to include in the police force of the Western -Hemisphere, those who have shown themselves able to practice -self-control. With our lynchings, strikes, and riots, we shall have to -be very careful, however, not to make the conditions too severe or we -shall ourselves fail to qualify.</p> - -<p>The number of “North Americans” in Buenos Aires is very small. While we -have been slowly waking up to the fact that South America is something -more than “a land of revolutions and fevers,” our German cousins have -entered the field on all sides.</p> - -<p>The Germans in southern Brazil are a negligible factor in international -affairs. But the well-educated young German who is being sent out to -capture South America commercially, is a power to be reckoned with. He -is going to damage England more truly than Dreadnoughts or gigantic -airships. He is worth our study as well as England’s.</p> - -<p>Willing to acquaint himself with and adapt himself to local prejudices, -he has already made great strides in securing South American commerce -for his Fatherland. He has become a more useful member of the community -than the Englishman. He has taken pains to learn the language -thoroughly, and speak it not only grammatically but idiomatically as -well; something which the Anglo-Saxon almost never does. He has entered -into the social life of the country with a much more gracious<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_044" id="page_044"></a>{44}</span> spirit -than his competitors and rarely segregates himself from the community in -pursuing his pleasures as the English do. His natural prejudices against -the Spanish way of doing things are not so strong.</p> - -<p>His steamers are just as luxurious and comfortable as the new English -boats. It is said that even if the element of danger that always exists -at sea is less on the British lines, the German boats treat their -passengers with more consideration, giving them better food and better -service. No wonder the Spanish-American likes the German better than he -does the English or American. Already the English residents in Buenos -Aires, who have regarded the River Plate as their peculiar province for -many years, are galled beyond measure to see what strides the Germans -have made in capturing the market for their manufactured products and in -threatening their commercial supremacy. And neither English nor Germans -are going to hold out a helping hand or welcome an American commercial -invasion.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the Argentinos realize that their country cannot get along -without foreign capital, much as they hate to see the foreigner made -rich from the products of their rolling prairies.</p> - -<p>Politically, Buenos Aires and Argentina are in the control of the native -born. They have a natural aptitude for playing politics, and they much -prefer it to the more serious world of business. This they are quite -willing to leave to the foreigner.</p> - -<p>They realize also that they greatly need more immigrants. The population -is barely five per square<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_045" id="page_045"></a>{45}</span> mile, and as a matter of fact, is practically -much less than that for so large a part of the entire population is -crowded into the city and province of Buenos Aires. Consequently they -are doing all they can to encourage able-bodied immigrants to come from -Italy and Spain.</p> - -<p>And the immigrants are coming. My ship brought a thousand. Other ships -brought more than three hundred thousand in 1908. Argentina is not -standing still. Nor is she waiting for “American enterprise.” During -1908 considerably more than two thousands vessels entered the ports of -the republic. Four flew the American flag.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_046" id="page_046"></a>{46}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV<br /><br /> -<small>ARGENTINE INDEPENDENCE AND SPANISH-AMERICAN SOLIDARITY</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">O</span><span class="smcap">n</span> the 25th of May, 1910, the Argentine nation in general, and Buenos -Aires in particular, observed with appropriate ceremonies the one -hundredth anniversary of their independence. Great preparations were -made to insure a celebration that should suitably represent the -importance of the event.</p> - -<p>In 1810 Buenos Aires had been a Spanish colony for two hundred and fifty -years following her foundation in the sixteenth century. But the Spanish -crown had never valued highly the great rolling prairies drained by the -Rio de la Plata. There were no mines of gold or silver here, and Spain -did not send her colonists into far-away America to raise corn and wine -that should compete with Spanish farmers at home. Buenos Aires was -regarded as the end of the world. All persons and all legitimate -commerce bound thither from Spain were obliged to go by way of Panama -and Peru, over the Andes, across the South American continent, before -they could legally enter the port of Buenos Aires. The natural result of -this was the building up of a prosperous colony of Portuguese smugglers -in southern Brazil. Another result was that no Spaniards cared to live<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_047" id="page_047"></a>{47}</span> -so far away from home if they could possibly help it, and society in -Buenos Aires was not nearly so brilliant as in the fashionable -Spanish-American capitals of Lima, Santiago, or Bogotá.</p> - -<p>During the closing years of the eighteenth century the Spaniards became -convinced of their short-sighted policy and made Buenos Aires an open -port. The English were not slow to realize that this was one of the best -commercial situations in South America, and that far from being the end -of the world, as the Spaniards thought, it was a natural centre through -which the wealth of a large part of South America was bound to pass. The -great Mr. Pitt, who was most interested in developing British commerce -with South America, felt that it would probably be necessary to -introduce British manufactures in the wake of a military expedition, and -decided to seize Buenos Aires, which was so poorly defended that it -could easily be captured by a small resolute force.</p> - -<p>Accordingly in June, 1806, an attack was made. The Viceroy, -notwithstanding repeated warnings, had made no preparations to defend -the city, and it was captured without difficulty. There was great -rejoicing in London at the report of the victory, but it was soon turned -to dismay by the news of a disgraceful and unconditional surrender. The -sudden overthrow of the English was due largely to the ability of a -local hero named Liniers who played successfully on the wounded pride of -the Porteños.</p> - -<p>The significance of the episode is that it gave to the Porteños the idea -that the power of Spain could<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_048" id="page_048"></a>{48}</span> be easily overthrown, and that they -actually had the courage and strength to win and hold their own -independence.</p> - -<p>Hardly had the city recovered from the effects of its bombardment by the -English before events, destined to produce a profound change throughout -South America, commenced to attract attention in Spain. Napoleon -inaugurated his peninsula campaigns, and the world beheld the spectacle -of a Spanish king become the puppet of a French emperor. In July, 1809, -a new Viceroy, appointed by the Spanish cortes then engaged in fighting -against Napoleon, took possession of the reins of government in Buenos -Aires. In the early months of 1810, Napoleon’s armies were so successful -throughout the Spanish peninsula that it seemed as if the complete -subjection of Spain was about to be accomplished.</p> - -<p>On May 18, the unhappy Viceroy allowed this news from Spain to become -known in the city. At once a furor of popular discussion arose. Led by -Belgrano and other liberal young Creoles, the people decided to defy -Napoleon and his puppet king of Spain as they had defied the soldiers of -England. On the 25th of May, the Viceroy, frightened out of his wits, -surrendered his authority, and a great popular assembly that crowded the -plaza to its utmost capacity appointed a committee to rule in his stead. -So the 25th of May, 1810, became the actual birthday of Argentina’s -independence, although the acts of the popular government were for six -years done in the name of Ferdinand, the deposed king of Spain, and the -Act of Independence<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_049" id="page_049"></a>{49}</span> was not passed by the Argentine Congress until -1816.</p> - -<p>No sooner had Buenos Aires thrown off the yoke of Spain than she began -an active armed propaganda much as the first French republic did before -her. Other cities of Argentina were forcibly convinced of the advantages -of independence, and the armies of Buenos Aires pressed northward into -what is now southern Bolivia. It was their intention to drive the -Spanish armies entirely out of the continent, and what seemed more -natural than that they should follow the old trade route which they had -used for centuries, and go from Buenos Aires to Lima by way of the -highlands of Bolivia and Peru. But they reckoned without counting the -cost. In the first place the Indians of those lofty arid regions do not -take great interest in politics. It matters little to them who their -masters are. Furthermore, their country is not one that is suited to -military campaigns. Hundreds of square miles of arid desert plateaux ten -or twelve thousand feet above the sea, a region suited only to support a -small population and that by dint of a most careful system of -irrigation, separated by frightful mountain trails from any adequate -basis of supplies, were obstacles that proved too great for them to -overcome. Their little armies were easily driven back. On the other -hand, when the royalist armies attempted to descend from the plateaux -and attack the patriots, they were equally unsuccessful. The truth is -that southern Bolivia and northern Argentina are regions where it is far -easier to stay at home and defend one’s self than<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_050" id="page_050"></a>{50}</span> to make successful -attacks on one’s neighbors. An army cannot live off the country as it -goes along, and the difficulties of supplying it with provisions and -supplies are almost insurmountable. The first man to appreciate this was -José San Martin.</p> - -<p>It is not too much to say that San Martin is the greatest name that -South America has produced. Bolivar is better known among us, and he is -sometimes spoken of as the “Washington of South America.” But his -character does not stand investigation; and no one can claim that his -motives were as unselfish or his aims as lofty as those of the great -general to whose integrity and ability the foremost republics of Spanish -South America, Argentina, Chile, and Peru, owe their independence.</p> - -<p>San Martin was born of Spanish parents not far from the present boundary -between Argentina and Paraguay. His father was a trusted Spanish -official. His mother was a woman of remarkable courage and foresight. -His parents sent him to Spain at an early age to be educated. Military -instincts soon drew him into the army and he served in various -capacities, both in Africa and later against the French in the -peninsula. He was able to learn thoroughly the lessons of war and the -value of well-trained soldiers. He received the news of the popular -uprising in Argentina while still in Spain, and soon became interested -in the struggles of his fellow-countrymen to establish their -independence. In 1812 he returned to Buenos Aires where his unselfish -zeal and intelligence promptly marked him out as an unusual leader. The -troops under him<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_051" id="page_051"></a>{51}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_USPALLATA" id="THE_USPALLATA"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_050fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_050fp_sml.jpg" width="413" height="203" alt="Image unavailable: THE USPALLATA PASS" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE USPALLATA PASS</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">became the best-drilled body of patriots in South America.</p> - -<p>After witnessing the futile attempts of the patriots to drive the -Spanish armies out of the mountains of Peru by way of the highlands of -Bolivia, he conceived the brilliant idea of cutting off their -communication with Spain by commanding the sea power of the West Coast. -He established his headquarters at Mendoza in western Argentina, a point -from which it would be easy to strike at Chile through various passes -across the Andes. Here he stayed for two years governing the province -admirably, building up an efficient army, organizing the refugees that -fled from Chile to Mendoza, making friends with the Indians, and keeping -out of the factional quarrels that threatened to destroy all proper -government in Buenos Aires. In January, 1817, his army was ready. He led -the Spaniards to think that he might cross the Andes almost anywhere, -and succeeded in scattering their forces so as to enable him to bring -the main body of his army over the most practical route, the Uspallata -Pass.</p> - -<p>The expedition was successful, and in 1818 San Martin had the -satisfaction of administering such a decisive defeat to the Spaniards at -Maipo as to insure Chilean independence. With the aid of a remarkable -soldier of fortune, Thomas Cochran, Earl of Dundonald, and an -interesting group of Anglo-Saxon seamen, San Martin drove the Spaniards -from the West Coast and captured the city of Lima. The aid which was -given him by Buenos Aires and Chile was not sufficient to enable him to -penetrate<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_052" id="page_052"></a>{52}</span> the great Andes of the interior and totally destroy the last -Spanish army. He sought Bolivar’s aid, but that proud Liberator would -only come as Commander-in-chief. So, rather than sacrifice the cause of -independence, San Martin, with unexampled self-effacement, gave up his -well-trained veterans to Bolivar and Sucre and quietly withdrew to his -modest home in Argentina. His unwillingness to enter into political -squabbles, his large-minded statesmanship, and his dignified bearing did -not endear him to his fellow countrymen, and he was forced to pass the -declining years of his life in Europe, an exile from his native land.</p> - -<p>The history of the period is full of petty personal rivalries and absurd -political squabbles. Against these as a background the magnificent -figure of San Martin, efficient soldier, wise statesman, and unselfish -patriot, stands out plainly distinct. His achievements are worthy to be -remembered with those of the greatest heroes of history. His character, -the finest that South America has ever produced, has few equals in the -annals of any country.</p> - -<p>For many years he was disliked by his fellow patriots because he openly -expressed the belief that they were not fit for pure democratic -government. Since his day many South Americans agree with him.</p> - -<p>The most serious criticism, however, which we can lay at the door of the -South American is his lack of political cohesion. The border provinces -are everlastingly rebelling against the decrees of the central -government. Furthermore, when the Spanish colonies secured their -independence, they either did not<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_053" id="page_053"></a>{53}</span> combine or else combining soon fell -apart. The reason for this lack of solidarity may be found in the -history of the Hispanic race and in the geographical conditions that -exist in the southern continent.</p> - -<p>In criticising South American habits of mind and political tendencies, -one must remember that the moral and intellectual characteristics that -form the soul of a people have been developed by its entire past and -represent the inheritance of its ancestors. For the motives of its -conduct, one must look to its history.</p> - -<p>Historically, the Hispanic race was led to develop individualistic -rather than coöperative action. The forces at work in the peninsula were -centrifugal rather than centripetal. A small handful of brave -mountaineers were almost the only inhabitants of the peninsula that were -able to defy the Moorish conquerors. The process of the Christian -re-conquest of Spain was so slow that it took nearly eight centuries for -her to grow from the lonely, rocky fastness of Covadonga to the group of -Christian kingdoms that embraced the entire peninsula. During these -eight hundred years, preceding the Conquest of America, the Spaniards -fought almost continuously against an ever-present enemy. This developed -a strong municipal spirit, for the towns on the frontier were in -constant danger of attacks from the Moors, and it was necessary to grant -them very considerable powers. As the boundaries of Christian Spain -extended southward, new cities came to be frontier posts, but the old -ones retained the powers and the semi-independence they had previously -gained.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_054" id="page_054"></a>{54}</span></p> - -<p>The result was a race of men devoted primarily to their cities; only -secondarily to the province or kingdom to which their city belonged, and -quite incidentally to Spain as a geographical and linguistic unit. Such -a racial tendency could not help developing that disregard of large -national interests in preference to petty local concerns which has been -a most unfortunate trait in the history of the South American republics. -For while it may be true that the conception of the city as the soul of -the native country has always been effective from the point of view of -the development of civilization, it has been disastrous in its effect on -national progress. It was just that loyalty to the municipality that -prevented the growth of the Greek Empire.</p> - -<p>Another result of the eight hundred years of Christian warfare against -the infidel Moor, was the development of moral and physical qualities -that made possible the marvellously rapid conquest of America by small -companies of <i>conquistadores</i>. Brave, bigoted, courageous, accustomed to -continuous hostilities, ardently devoted to a cause for which they were -willing to lay down their lives, fighting to the last ditch, it is not -surprising that the ancestors of the South Americans were able to -achieve such wonderful results in the early sixteenth century.</p> - -<p>Only a vigorous and rising nation could have accomplished the great work -of exploring, conquering, and colonizing America which was done at that -time.</p> - -<p>As a matter of fact, a wonderful transformation was then taking place in -Spain. The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella had united by personal<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_055" id="page_055"></a>{55}</span> -bonds what had formerly been a handful of detached kingdoms. These -countries each had their own laws, their own peculiar customs and -separate administrative systems. Some of the provinces were inhabited by -people of different stock. The process of unification was almost -contemporaneous with the conquest and colonization of America.</p> - -<p>For a career destined to be as great as that of any of the larger -empires of history, Spain had at the beginning of the colonizing period -an inadequate political organization. Spanish racial unity and religious -uniformity were of recent growth. The European progenitors of the -conquerors did not fight for Spain as a whole, but rather as citizens of -a municipality or as vassals of a petty king. The spirit of a -centralized, unified government whose citizens are willing to sacrifice -everything for the sake of their nation, did not run in their blood. -They belonged to a fragmentary and embryonic group of nations. Spain did -not adopt a policy of centralization long enough before the acquisition -of her American colonies to allow the results of such a change in -methods of government to affect popular habits of thought. In the -meantime, South America was being colonized by men who had no sense of -racial unity and few tendencies towards concerted political action.</p> - -<p>Hence it is not at all surprising that their descendants, the heroes of -the Wars of Emancipation, did not find it easy or natural to unite under -one government. It was in accordance with the history of their race that -they should form separate political establishments. It was also in -accordance with that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_056" id="page_056"></a>{56}</span> Spanish colonial policy which forbade -communication between the different colonies and in no way encouraged a -community of interests.</p> - -<p>Historically then, there was little to cause the South American colonies -on achieving their independence, to unite, even had they not been -separated by tremendous natural obstacles.</p> - -<p>Although the basins of the Amazon, the La Plata, and the Orinoco offered -many thousands of miles of navigable highways, the masses of water were -too copious and too irregular to be controlled until the era of steam -navigation. In the great valleys east of the Andes, the excessive -fertility of the soil has produced an enormous area of continuous -woodlands, a mass of vegetation that has defied the efforts of centuries -to effect clearings and roads. This densely timbered and sparsely -inhabited region keeps Venezuela from having any dealings with Bolivia -more effectually than if an absolute desert lay between them.</p> - -<p>There is nothing that separates one of the United States from another -that is at all comparable to the lofty chain of the Andes and the -impenetrable jungle that lies for hundreds of miles on the eastern slope -of the Cordillera. The more one considers the matter, the more it seems -as though nature could not have placed more impassable obstacles in the -way of intercommunication if she had set out with that definite purpose -in view. In comparison with the difficulties of travelling from Lima, -the centre of the old Spanish domain, to Buenos Aires, a journey from -New York to Charleston in the days of the Ameri<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_057" id="page_057"></a>{57}</span>can revolution was a -mere pleasure jaunt, and yet it seemed difficult enough at that time! -Nowhere in the English colonies existed such impediments to -communication as the deserts of northern Chile and southern Peru, the -swamps of eastern Colombia and western Venezuela, the forests of -Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, or the gigantic chain of the Andes whose -lowest point for thousands of miles is ten thousand feet above the sea.</p> - -<p>The founders of the original thirteen English colonies not only -inherited racial unity but providentially built their homes on a short -strip of coast and occupied a homogeneous country, no larger than a -single Spanish colony. Their union followed as a matter of course.</p> - -<p>It was quite otherwise in South America. For, as though it were not -enough that the tendency of the race was towards building up individual -communities rather than federations, as though the laws forbidding the -colonists from trading with one another and from travelling from one -colony to another were not a sufficient preventive of union, all the -forces of nature, mountains, rivers, deserts, swamps, and even winds, -combined to promote the isolation of the new republics. The top of the -highest mountain in the thirteen English colonies was not half as high -as the lowest point in the ranges of lofty mountains that separated the -Spanish colonies; nor one third as high as the Uspallata Pass by which -Chile is connected with Argentina.</p> - -<p>It is not for us to criticise the South Americans for having failed to -unite and form a great nation. Our<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_058" id="page_058"></a>{58}</span> ancestors were favored by nature -with a region that is comparatively accessible in all parts. It is not -any more creditable to the English colonists that they united than it is -discreditable to the Latin-Americans that they did not. In both cases, -racial characteristics, aided by diverse policies of colonial -administration made a foundation for growth which by an extraordinary -coincidence, was in every possible way favored by local geographical -conditions.</p> - -<p>The English colonists, on securing their independence, had been -acquainted with one another for generations; had fought side by side in -the French and Indian wars; had intermarried, built up social and -business friendships; united in sending agents to the mother country and -in sending representatives to Congresses where the leading men of each -colony came to know one another’s desires and aspirations. Placed by -fate on a narrow strip of coast less in length than the seaboard of -Chile alone, enabled by nature to communicate both by sea and land, -separated from one another by neither deserts nor lofty mountains, what -more likely than that they should have followed their natural traditions -and formed a single nation? The difficulties in the way of the South -American colonists following such an example were stupendous. Scattered -over an enormous area, separated by the greatest natural boundaries that -nature has produced, it was scarcely to be expected that they too should -not follow the traditions of their race and build up local governments -instead of forming a federation.</p> - -<p>The historical and geographical reasons that pre<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_059" id="page_059"></a>{59}</span>vented the formation of -confederations have also mitigated against the building up of strong -national governments. The citizen is still inclined to favor the affairs -of his city rather than the good of his country. He finds it easier to -be loyal to the local chieftain than to the central government. The cure -for this, however, is already in sight. The energy and enterprise of -English, French, and German capitalists are overcoming the obstacles -that nature has placed in the way of intercommunication.</p> - -<p>In time, aided by steam and electric systems of transportation, some of -the Southern Republics may even unite with others. But before this comes -about it may confidently be expected in the near future that the -development of new transportation facilities will make possible the -growth of strong national feeling and will prevent the states from -falling apart. It will certainly make revolutions less frequent and -bring a condition of stability that will even attract American capital -and greatly augment European immigration.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_060" id="page_060"></a>{60}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V<br /><br /> -<small>THE TUCUMAN EXPRESS</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">F</span><span class="smcap">or</span> nearly three centuries the most important trade-route in South -America was the overland trail from Buenos Aires to Lima by way of the -silver mines of Potosí. The system of travel for both passengers and -freight was well established. In 1773 there was published a little book -called “El Lazarillo,” “The Blind Man’s Guide,” which contains full -information for travellers going from Buenos Aires to Lima with exact -itineraries and “with some useful notes for those new business men who -traffic by means of mules.” The road with its post-houses, its relays of -mules, and its provisions for the comfort of man and beast is well -described. Buenos Aires is credited with having twenty-two thousand -souls, of whom “ninety-nine are orphans and sixty-eight are in jail!”</p> - -<p>I should have liked nothing better than to have been able to follow “The -Blind Man’s Guide” from post-house to post-house along the entire -distance. But alas, since the days of railways, many of the road-houses -that formerly offered “good accommodations to travellers,” have -disappeared, and it is necessary to go as the world goes and take the -train—when there is one.</p> - -<p>On November 13, 1908, accompanied by Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_061" id="page_061"></a>{61}</span> Huntington Smith, Jr., I left -Buenos Aires for Bolivia. The first stage of the journey, seven hundred -and twenty miles, was by train to Tucuman, over the tracks of the Buenos -Aires and Rosario R. R., one of the oldest and richest railways in -Argentina. Our train was made up entirely of vestibuled sleeping and -dining cars.</p> - -<p>Among the first-class passengers was a newly arrived Spanish mercantile -clerk and a French commercial traveller. I noticed more French in -Argentina and Brazil than on the West Coast or in the northern -countries. Especially in the large cities, they, with the Germans and -English, have been very active in promoting local enterprises.</p> - -<p>In the first fifteen miles out from Buenos Aires we saw numbers of -villas shaded by groves of eucalyptus trees standing in the midst of the -owner’s broad acres. There is considerable evidence of market gardening -and general agriculture. So far as we could see from the train, the -roads are very bad and have not improved since the days of the -woe-begotten travellers who had to cross these plains in ox-carts.</p> - -<p>When Edmund Temple, the breezy secretary of the Potosí, La Paz & -Peruvian Mining Association, crossed Argentina on his way to Bolivia in -1825, he was struck with the immense number of “hoppers” that they -passed on the Pampas. He says the locusts covered the road and adjacent -parts for miles. In those days, pasturage was plenty, and cultivated -fields were scarce, so nobody cared very much. It is only with the -increasing importance of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_062" id="page_062"></a>{62}</span> crops that the Argentinos have come to regard -the swarms of locusts as a great pest, and have spent many thousands of -dollars fighting them. They are now planning to build a fence of sheet -zinc, costing several million dollars, to keep back the “hoppers.” Some -modern travellers have had their trains delayed by locust swarms on the -tracks, but we saw comparatively few.</p> - -<p>Our first stops were at suburban towns, which are more attractive than -one would suppose in a country that is so flat. At one of them, on the -River Tigre, the English colony has made boating fashionable, with -festivals like those at Henley. We had showers in the course of the -morning, but the country over which we passed looked rather dry.</p> - -<p>A characteristic feature of the Pampas are the modern windmills with -their steel frames. Most of them are of American make, for despite our -backwardness in some lines, we have been peculiarly successful in -supplying Argentina with windmills. In fact, we have almost monopolized -that particular business. Fortunately, our manufacturers seem also to -excel in the production of small and inexpensive motors, such as are -particularly desired on farms and ranches where, owing to the extreme -difficulty of getting workmen, there is an excellent market for -labor-saving machinery. Notwithstanding this encouraging feature, for -every million dollars’ worth of goods which Argentina imports from the -United States, she imports six millions from Europe.</p> - -<p>Many of the interior towns have their own electric lighting plants. The -agents of German manu<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_063" id="page_063"></a>{63}</span>facturers have been far-sighted in following up -new concessions and in getting large contracts for the installation of -German machinery. It takes a good many windmills to equal one electric -lighting plant.</p> - -<p>Our train made a short stop at Rosario, the second largest city in -Argentina. Owing to its advantageous situation at the bend of the Paraná -River, it has become a most important port.</p> - -<p>Accessible throughout the year to vessels drawing sixteen feet, it is -the terminus of many trans-Atlantic lines which bring European -manufactured goods here in exchange for wheat and cattle. Some ore from -Bolivia is also shipped from here. On our mule trip in Southern Bolivia -we saw hundreds of animals laden with huge packing-cases from Europe -marked “via Rosario.”</p> - -<p>The other important new port in Argentina is Bahia Blanca, which is -situated several hundred miles south of Buenos Aires and is connected by -railways with the newly opened regions in northern Patagonia. There is -no scarcity of good agricultural land as yet undeveloped. Were the -government of Argentina as well managed for the interests of the -individual farmer as the governments of our western states, there is no -question that Argentina would secure a much higher grade of immigrant. -The opportunities are truly magnificent, but I was repeatedly told by -foreign residents who are engaged in farming, that there are many -unpleasant features. The truth of the matter is that the Argentino is -too fond of keeping political power in his own hands. He does not -understand all that is meant by a constitu<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_064" id="page_064"></a>{64}</span>tional democratic form of -government. It is not his fault, for his race history, as we have seen, -has given him other inheritances and prejudices. Nevertheless he is -learning.</p> - -<p>Leaving Rosario we plunged into the heart of a great agricultural and -pastoral region. The heat and dust were rather trying. The humidity was -considerable, being about eighty per cent in our car. In truth, we -experienced all the various annoyances to which one is subject when -crossing our western plains, in a moderately slow train. We had been -told that this Tucuman express was “the finest train in America.” Some -of the young Englishmen on our steamer were extremely enthusiastic over -it and assured us that we could have nothing so fine in the United -States. Consequently we were somewhat disappointed to find the standard -of comfort not any greater than it was on our western trains fifteen -years ago.</p> - -<p>There is one thing, however, in which the “B. A. and R.” is ahead of -most American railroads. At each station are one or two very large -sign-boards conveniently placed so that the stranger has no difficulty -in ascertaining whether he has reached his destination or not. And there -are other little things along the line that make one feel the presence -of railway officials carefully trained in English railway methods. It -goes without saying that the road is largely owned in England and has -Anglo-Saxons for its principal officers.</p> - -<p>Argentina has about thirteen thousand miles of railway operated under -some twenty companies.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_065" id="page_065"></a>{65}</span> One thousand seven hundred miles are owned by -the government, but by far the larger part of the railway system is -controlled by British capitalists. A little more than half of the -mileage consists of the very broad five and a half foot gauge. The -remainder is one metre or less. The three gauges necessitate -considerable transferring of freight and passengers.</p> - -<p>To one who is accustomed to thinking of Argentina as a rich but -undeveloped region, it seems incredible that she should have fifty -thousand freight-cars and two thousand passenger-coaches. It is still -more astonishing to learn that every year her railways carry thirty -million passengers, and thirty million tons of freight, of which about -one third are cereals. During the year 1906, the receipts from the -passenger traffic amounted to more than $18,000,000, and from freight -traffic to something over $55,000,000. Statistics are dry and -uninteresting except as they open our eyes to conditions of which we -have formed but a small conception. The extremely rapid growth of the -Argentine railways is shown by the fact that while in 1884 the capital -invested did not amount to $100,000,000, it now amounts to over -$700,000,000.</p> - -<p>So far as killing people is concerned, the Argentine railways do not -come up to our record, although they do fairly well. In 1905 they -killed, all told, two hundred and eighteen persons, and in 1906, two -hundred and fifty. This is a heavier percentage per passenger carried -than in the United States.</p> - -<p>Towards evening we left the farming country and entered a barren region -where great stretches of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_066" id="page_066"></a>{66}</span> perfectly flat land seemed to promise splendid -results if it could be irrigated.</p> - -<p>The dust increased, and we were glad enough to be hauled over these dry -pampas of Santa Fé and Santiago del Estero in a night, instead of being -obliged to spend a fortnight on them following a slow-moving Spanish -caravan.</p> - -<p>When we looked out of the car window the next morning all was changed. -Sugar-cane fields waving attractively in the sunlight, big wheeled carts -lumbering noisily along drawn by oxen or mules, lithe horsemen riding -strong little ponies through thickets of dry scrub, had transformed the -scene from the everlasting prairies of the pampas into the highlands of -the northwest. The hills beyond the fields of cane were covered with a -scrubby growth. To the north-west and north arose green mountains that -seemed to be forested to their tops. Some of the trees were in bloom -with brilliant yellow flowers.</p> - -<p>The contrast between the dry, barren pampas and the green cane-fields of -Tucuman is so striking that Argentine writers have been accustomed to -speak of the latter in terms of the most extravagant praise. Even the -well-travelled Sarmiento called it the “Eden of America,” “where nature -had displayed its greatest pomp!” As a matter of fact Tucuman is -admirably situated in a very fertile and highly cultivated plain, and is -the centre of the most important sugar-growing region in Argentina. In -its immediate vicinity we counted a dozen tall chimneys of sugar -factories.</p> - -<p>We reached the city about ten o’clock.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_067" id="page_067"></a>{67}</span></p> - -<p>It was founded about the time that Sir Walter Raleigh was looking for -Eldorado. Here in 1816, the Argentine Congress passed their Declaration -of Independence. Here Belgrano won a great victory over the Spanish -armies that had descended from Peru to crush the Argentine patriots.</p> - -<p>The Tucuman station, a large modern affair, was chiefly interesting -because of the picturesque character of the luggage that was lying about -the platforms. Chairs and cots, pots and pans, spring mattresses, and -hen-coops, all bore evidence to the fact that this is still a young -country into which new settlers are coming, and that the Railroad -Company has the good sense to make it easy for people to travel with all -their possessions. Everything was checked and went in the luggage-van, -as a matter of course, instead of being handed over to “slow-freight” or -rapacious express companies, as with us.</p> - -<p>Most of the immigrants were Italians from Genoa and the north of Italy. -A few came from Galicia, the home of Spain’s most sturdy peasantry. -Neither immigrants nor residents wore picturesque costumes. Even the -Gauchos are dressed in civilized raiment and bear little resemblance to -the South American Indian of our dreams. It is too progressive a country -to allow its clothes to get in its way.</p> - -<p>The facts relating to Buenos Aires and Argentina are at every one’s -elbow so it is all the more astonishing how ignorant the average -American is regarding the great metropolis of the southern hemisphere. -We are very fond of telling stories of our English cousins who imagine -that our western states are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_068" id="page_068"></a>{68}</span> overrun with wild Indians and desperadoes. -And we think it inexcusable in them to judge from the frequent press -reports of lynchings and “hold-ups” that we are an uncivilized, lawless -people. Yet we judge the Argentino just as hastily. Not only are we -quite ignorant of his material progress, we also frequently slander him -for having an “unstable government.” “Revolutions” or struggles for -governmental control occur, it is true, but they do not amount to much -and hardly deserve the exaggerated reports of them which are published -abroad. In a country that has been bound together by such a network of -railroads as Argentina, making it possible for the government in power -to send its troops rapidly wheresoever it will, the habit of playing -with revolutions is sure to die out. In the old days when transportation -was slow and difficult, it was possible for a popular leader to gather a -considerable band of followers and prepare to march on the capital -before the government knew of his existence. Such uprisings, however, -are necessarily the work of days or weeks, and it is becoming more and -more difficult to bring them to a successful issue. As an evidence of -the more stable condition of the government and as showing how Argentina -has recovered from the setback which it got at the time of the failure -of the Baring Brothers, it is well to note that in the ten years between -1895 and 1905, the foreign trade of Buenos Aires more than doubled, -growing to more than half a billion dollars annually.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_069" id="page_069"></a>{69}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<br /><br /> -<small>THROUGH THE ARGENTINE HIGHLANDS</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span><span class="smcap">t</span> Tucuman we left the broad gauge of the British-built Buenos Aires and -Rosario R. R. for the metre gauge of the North Central Railway, an -Argentine Government line, that runs to Jujuy and has recently been -continued northward to La Quiaca, on the Bolivian frontier. The distance -from Buenos Aires to La Quiaca is 1150 miles. Of this we had done 700 -miles in the first twenty-four hours. The last 450 miles required -another twenty-four hours, divided into two daylight periods, as -sleeping-cars are not run on the North Central R. R. In this stretch the -elevation rises from thirteen hundred feet to twelve thousand feet, and -the journey lies entirely in the Argentine Highlands.</p> - -<p>Our train was mixed passenger and freight. The locomotive was a -“Baldwin” and the cars were made in Wilmington, Del. We had, besides, an -excellent dining-car that seated sixteen people and provided a table -d’hôte meal served in the usual Spanish style. The third-class -passengers, however, patronized the enterprising women who sold flat -loaves of bread, hard-boiled eggs, and native drinks at the stations -where we stopped.</p> - -<p>Not long after leaving Tucuman, we passed through a tunnel, the first -one in eight hundred miles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_070" id="page_070"></a>{70}</span> Rather a different experience from my -journey in Venezuela, from Caracas to Valencia, where in the course of -an hour we passed through sixty-five tunnels, one every minute!</p> - -<p>With many windings we climbed up into the hills. Grass became scarcer -and cactus and mimosa trees more common. We passed a small flock of -goats. Dust and sand came into the train in clouds. Occasionally we -passed lofty whirlwinds, but none of them troubled us. The humidity -to-day was very much less, being under forty per cent. The streams -seemed to be very low. We saw a few locusts.</p> - -<p>At many of the stations were carts drawn by mules harnessed three -abreast, with a loose rope-tackle that is characteristic of this hilly -region. The houses of some of the more well-to-do were built of -corrugated iron and wood, but most were made of mud. As it was the dry -season, the cots were usually out of doors.</p> - -<p>The evidences of prosperity at Ruis de los Llanos consisted of new -stucco buildings of attractive construction with arcades in front and -courtyards in the interior, a modern application of old Spanish -architectural ideas. Other buildings were nearing completion, to -accommodate the bakers and grocers who supply the <i>quebracho</i> cutters. -There are great forests of <i>quebracho</i> on the plains of the Gran Chaco -to the east and northeast. The wood is extremely hard and very -serviceable for railway-ties. Owing to the difficulty that is -experienced in cutting it, it has earned for itself the sobriquet of -“axe-breaker.” It is the chief article of export from this region. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_071" id="page_071"></a>{71}</span> -bark is shipped to tanneries as far away as California.</p> - -<p>At Matan, another important station, there was a new hotel, the -“Cosmopolita,” a clean-looking Spanish inn, near the railway station. -Near by lay huge logs of <i>quebracho</i> awaiting shipment. The hills were -well wooded, and we saw a number of agave plants and mimosa trees. -Firewood is shipped from here to the treeless Pampas. Here we noticed, -for the first time, riding-boots of a curious fashion, so very -corrugated that we dubbed them “concertinas.” They are much in vogue -also in southern Bolivia.</p> - -<p>At Rio Piedras, where a dozen of our third-class passengers alighted -with many baskets and bundles, we heard the familiar hum of a sawmill. -Near the track were more <i>quebracho</i> logs. A burly passenger who had -joined us at Tucuman, ready dressed and prepared for a long horseback -ride, left us here. With a large broad-brimmed hat, loose white jumper, -large baggy white cotton trousers, and “concertinas,” he came very near -being picturesque. Throwing over his shoulder a pair of cotton -saddle-bags well stocked with interesting little bundles, he walked -slowly away from the train with that curious shuffling gait common to -those who spend most of their lives in the saddle.</p> - -<p>Not far away we saw some newly arrived American farm machinery, a part -of the largest item of Argentine imports from the United States.</p> - -<p>During the course of the afternoon, we wound out of the hills far enough -to be able to see far over the plains to the east. Here there was more -vegetation<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_072" id="page_072"></a>{72}</span> and some corn growing. On the left were jagged hills and -mountains. The temperature in the car about four o’clock was eighty-five -degrees. Our altitude was about twenty-five hundred feet.</p> - -<p>As we went north through hot, dusty valleys, climbing up into the -foot-hills of the Andes, the faces of the loiterers at the stations lost -the cosmopolitan aspect that they have in and about Buenos Aires. We saw -more of the typical Gaucho who is descended from the aboriginal Indians -of the Pampas and bold Spanish cattle-drivers. Tall in stature, with a -robust frame and a swarthy complexion, he possesses great powers of -endurance and is a difficult person to handle. His tendencies are much -like those of the fast disappearing American “cow puncher,” but he has -the disadvantage of having inherited a contempt for manual labor and an -excessive vanity which finds expression in silver spurs and brilliantly -colored ponchos. His territory is rapidly being invaded by hard-working -Italians, more desirable because more dependable.</p> - -<p>Near Juramento the country grows more arid and desolate. A few scrubby -mimosa trees, sheltering the white tents of railway engineers, offered -but little welcome to intending settlers.</p> - -<p>Just at dark we reached Guemes, where we were obliged to change cars. -The through train from Tucuman goes west to Salta, the most important -city of the vicinity. We arrived at Jujuy shortly after nine o’clock. A -score of ancient vehicles were waiting to take us a mile up into the -town to one of the three hotels. We went to the Bristol and found<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_073" id="page_073"></a>{73}</span> it -quite comfortable according to Spanish-American ideas. That means that -the toilet facilities were absent, that the room had a tile floor, and -that there were beds and chairs.</p> - -<p>In the morning we got up early enough to look at the town for a few -minutes before leaving on the semi-weekly train for La Quiaca.</p> - -<p>Jujuy was built by Spanish settlers a generation before the Pilgrims -landed at Plymouth, and still preserves the white-walled, red-tiled-roof -aspect of the old Spanish-American towns. Lying in a pleasant, -well-watered plain, a trifle over four thousand feet above the sea, it -is attractively surrounded by high hills. Beyond them, we caught -glimpses of lofty barren mountains, the summits of the Andes. The -near-by valleys were green, and there is some rainfall even in the dry -time of the year. Although Jujuy produces a large amount of sub-tropical -fruit, it really owes its importance to its strategical position on the -old trade route to Bolivia. It is the last important town on the road -because it is the last place that enjoys a salubrious situation. For -centuries it has been the natural resting-place for overland travellers.</p> - -<p>In fact, these northwestern highlands of Argentina, Jujuy, and Tucuman, -were first settled by emigrants from the mountains of Upper Peru now -called Bolivia, of which they form the southern extension. Their -political and commercial relations were with Potosí and Lima rather than -Buenos Aires. The great prosperity of the mining regions of the lofty -plateau created a demand for provisions that could<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_074" id="page_074"></a>{74}</span> not be met by the -possibilities of agriculture in the semi-arid irrigated valleys of -southern Bolivia. Beef and other provisions could most easily be brought -from the fertile valleys near Tucuman and Jujuy. The necessity for some -better animal than the llama, to carry not only freight but also -passengers, caused a demand for the horses and mules which, raised on -the Argentine Pampas, were brought here to be put into shape for -mountain travel, and were an important item in the early fairs.</p> - -<p>When the railroad came, Jujuy was for many years the northern terminus. -This only added to the importance of the town, and increased the -reputation of its annual fair. But with the building of the continuation -to La Quiaca, its importance is bound to decrease. However, it will -always be a favorite resort for Bolivians seeking a refuge from the -rigors of their Thibetan climate. We met many families in southern -Bolivia who had at one time or another passed the winter season here.</p> - -<p>Before leaving the Bristol we succeeded in getting eggs and coffee only -with considerable difficulty as the train was due to leave at seven -o’clock, and the average Spanish-American traveller is quite willing to -start off on a long day’s journey without even a cup of coffee if he can -be sure of something substantial about ten or eleven o’clock.</p> - -<p>When we arrived at the station, we found a scene of great confusion. The -line had been running only a few months, and many of the intending -passengers were not accustomed to the ways of railroads. An official, -and his family of three, had spread himself<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_075" id="page_075"></a>{75}</span> over one half of the car, -with bags, bird-cages, bundles, rolls, and potted plants. He filled so -many seats with his impedimenta that several of the passengers had to -stand up, although that did not worry him in the least. Had we known how -much luggage belonged to him, we should have dumped it on the floor and -had a more comfortable ride, but unfortunately we did not discover how -greatly he had imposed on everybody until the end of the day.</p> - -<p>From Jujuy the train climbs slowly through a valley toward a wonderful -vista of great mountains. At 6000 feet the verdure disappeared, the -grass became brown, and on the barren mountains a few sheep and goats -were trying to pick up a living.</p> - -<p>The railway had a hard time overcoming the difficulties of the first -part of the way. The grade is so steep that for some distance a cog road -was found to be necessary. In the first one hundred and fourteen miles, -the line climbs up 8000 feet to an altitude of over 12,000 feet above -sea-level.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the newness of the road and the steepness of the grade, -we carried with us an excellent little restaurant car that gave us two -very good meals before we reached La Quiaca.</p> - -<p>The cog railway begins at Leon at an altitude of 5300 feet and continues -to Volcan, rising 1500 feet in a distance of eight miles. At Volcan -there is supposed to be a mud volcano, but, as was pointed out some -years ago by Mr. O’Driscoll in the “Geographical Journal,” there is no -volcano at all. It is simply a mud avalanche, that comes down after -unusually heavy rains from the rapidly disintegrating hillside.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_076" id="page_076"></a>{76}</span> -Although not a volcano, it is nevertheless a difficult problem for the -engineers. It has already completely submerged a mile or two of track -more than once.</p> - -<p>This is on the line of the proposed Pan-American railway from New York -to Buenos Aires. With a sufficiently vivid imagination, one can picture -a New Yorker of the year 1950 being detained here by a mud-slide which -will have put the tracks over which he proposes to travel two or three -feet under ground. It is to be hoped that he will not be obliged to stay -at the local inn where Edmund Temple stopped on his journey from Buenos -Aires to Potosí. Temple was aroused in the middle of the night by a -noise under his bed as if of a struggle between two animals. To his -astonishment (and to that of the reader of his charming volumes) he -“discovered, by the light of the moon, a cat eating the head of a viper -which she had just subdued: a common occurrence I was informed, and -without any ill consequences to the cat, however venomous the snake!”</p> - -<p>Some effort had been made to plant a few trees in the sandy, rocky soil -around the station of Volcan, which is not far from the mud-slide. They -seemed, however, to be having a hard time of it, although, at a ranch -near by, quite a grove of eucalyptus trees had been successfully raised -by means of irrigation. The mountains round about are very barren and -gave evidence of being rapidly wasted away by erosion, their summits -assuming many fantastic forms.</p> - -<p>Twenty miles beyond Volcan is Maimará, where<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_077" id="page_077"></a>{77}</span> there was further evidence -of irrigation in the valley, the trees and green fruits being in marked -contrast to the barren hillsides.</p> - -<p>As the road ascends, the country becomes more and more arid. Cactus is -common. Sometimes it is used as a hedge; at other times, by being -planted on the top of a mud-fence, it answers the same purpose as a -barbed wire.</p> - -<p>Great barren mountains on each side continue for mile after mile, making -the scenery unspeakably dreary. Judging by the northward inclination of -the cactus and the trees, the prevailing wind is from the south.</p> - -<p>Some of the valley is irrigated, but there is little sign of life -anywhere. Nothing grows without irrigation. In the days before the -railway it was absolutely necessary to have alfalfa and other animal -fodder grown near the post-houses that supplied travellers and -freight-carriers with shelter at night. This business has, of course, -fallen off very much in the past few months, yet just before reaching -Humahuaca we stopped at Uquia, where enough hay is still raised to make -it worth while to bale it and ship it north to the barren plateau -beyond.</p> - -<p>Late in the afternoon, we saw a group of llamas, but they are not at all -common in this region.</p> - -<p>At Tres Cruces, 1052 miles from Buenos Aires, we reached our highest -elevation, something over 12,000 feet. It was a dreary spot with -scarcely anything in sight except barren mountains, the two wire fences -that everlastingly line the railroad tracks, and the mud-walled railroad -station. The little “hotel”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_078" id="page_078"></a>{78}</span> looked like an abandoned adobe dwelling in -Arizona, and the region bore a striking resemblance to the unirrigated -part of our new southwest. Erosion has cut the hillsides into -interesting sections of shallow gulches and semi-cylindrical slopes. The -only green things to be seen are occasional clumps of bushes like -sage-brush.</p> - -<p>From here to La Quiaca, sixty miles, we maintained about the same -altitude, although La Quiaca itself is 500 feet lower than Tres Cruces. -We had, in fact, surmounted the great plateau of the Andes. South of us -lay the desert of Atacama; to the north the arid valleys of southern -Bolivia and the Bolivian tableland. East of us, beyond many intervening -ranges and the steep slopes of the eastern Andes, lay the Gran Chaco of -Bolivia and the valley of the lower Pilcomayo with its wild Indian -tribes and its tropical forests. To the west lay the still higher Andes -of the great Cordillera, some of whose peaks rise at this point to an -altitude of twenty thousand feet. Notwithstanding these interesting -surroundings, the extreme bareness of this desolate region reacts on -one’s enthusiasm.</p> - -<p>We reached La Quiaca just before nine o’clock. The railroad offices were -still incomplete, as the line had only been opened to traffic for a -month or two. The old town of La Quiaca, a small mud-walled affair two -miles away from the railroad station, is destined soon to be deserted -for the thriving young settlement that is springing up near the terminus -of the railway. There are two “hotels.” Ours, the 25 de Mayo, had only -just been opened. In fact, its ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_079" id="page_079"></a>{79}</span>terior walls had not yet received -their proper coat of whitewash and stucco.</p> - -<p>All day long we had been travelling through an extremely sparsely -populated region, so dry, high, and inhospitable as to dispel any idea -that this railroad can rely upon it for much traffic. In fact, the line -was built by the Argentine Government, not so much to open up this part -of the Republic as to tap the mining region of southern Bolivia, with -the idea of developing Argentina’s foreign commerce by securing in -Bolivia a good market for her food-stuffs and bringing back in return -ore to be shipped to Europe from the ports of the Paraná.</p> - -<p>An agreement was entered into between Argentina and Bolivia whereby -Bolivia was to extend her system of national railways southeast from -Oruro to Potosí and thence due south to Tupiza, fifty miles north of the -Argentine boundary. The Argentinos on their part agreed to continue -their railway north from Jujuy to Tupiza. By the time they reached La -Quiaca, however, the English Company that owns the rich -Oruro-Antofagasta line became alarmed lest such an arrangement as was -proposed would interfere with their profits. By some means or other, the -Bolivian government was persuaded to change its plans and decide to -build the national railways so as to connect with the Antofagasta line -rather than with the Argentine lines. This breach of faith on the part -of the Bolivianos was naturally resented not only in Argentina but also -by the southern Bolivianos themselves who would be much more benefited -by hav<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_080" id="page_080"></a>{80}</span>ing good connections with Buenos Aires than with the Chilean -seaboard.</p> - -<p>As a result of this difficulty, the Argentinos, at the time of my visit, -had not carried their railway beyond the frontier. This makes La Quiaca -the outfitting point for mule-trains that now start here with -merchandise destined for the cities of southern Bolivia.</p> - -<p>A stage-line has been opened, running once a week to Tupiza, where it -connects with stages for Uyuni on the Antofagasta line and Potosí. This -stage-line was owned and operated by that same energetic Scotchman, Don -Santiago Hutcheon, who used to run stages between La Paz and Oruro -before the completion of the Bolivia Railway. By great good fortune, we -found him in La Quiaca where he had arrived that day on one of his own -stages.</p> - -<p><a name="SOUTHERN_PERU" id="SOUTHERN_PERU"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_080fp_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_080fp_sml.png" width="424" height="268" alt="Image unavailable: Sketch Map of Southern Peru -to illustrate the route of -HIRAM BINGHAM -from -CUZCO to HUANCAYO" /></a> -<br /><span class="nonvis"> -[<a href="images/i_080fp_lg.png">Larger version</a>] -[<a href="images/i_080fp_huge.png">Largest version</a>]</span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_081" id="page_081"></a>{81}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII<br /><br /> -<small>ACROSS THE BOLIVIAN FRONTIER</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">S</span><span class="smcap">oon</span> after our arrival at La Quiaca, at 9 <small>P.M.</small> on November 15, 1908, we -received a call from two rough-looking Anglo-Saxons who told us -hair-raising stories of the dangers of the Bolivian roads where highway -robbers driven out of the United States by the force of law and order -and hounded to death all over the world by Pinkerton detectives, had -found a pleasant resting-place in which to pursue their chosen -occupation without let or hindrance. We found out afterwards that one of -our informants was one of this same gang of robbers. Either he decided -that we were disposed to regard his “pals” in a sufficiently lenient -manner to make our presence in Bolivia immaterial to them, or else he -came to the conclusion that we had nothing worth stealing, for we were -allowed to proceed peaceably and without any annoyance wherever we -journeyed in Bolivia. He put the case quite emphatically to us that it -was necessary for them to make a living, that they were not allowed to -do so peaceably in the States, that they desired only to be let alone -and had no intention of troubling travellers except those that sought to -get information against them. They relied entirely for their support on -being able to overcome armed escorts accompanying loads of cash going to -the mines<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_082" id="page_082"></a>{82}</span> to liquidate the monthly payroll. This they claimed was -legitimate plunder taken in fair fight. The only individuals who had to -suffer at their hands were those who took up the case against them. -Having laid this down for our edification, he proceeded to tell us what -a reckless lot they were and how famous had been their crimes, at the -same time assuring us that they were all very decent fellows and quite -pleasant companions. Don Santiago, who in his capacity as coach-master -and stage-driver, has had to carry hundreds of thousands of dollars in -cash over the unprotected Bolivian highways, assured us that he had -never been molested by any of these highwaymen because he never troubled -them in any way either by carrying arms or spreading information of -their doings. If the Bolivian bandits are half as bad as they were -painted to us that night, Don Santiago must lead a charmed life for he -and his stages certainly offer an easy mark for any enterprising outlaw.</p> - -<p>The view from our hotel the next morning across the sandy plaza of La -Quiaca was anything but inspiring. The plateau is so high and dry that -nothing grows here. Even the mountains, whose tops are really higher -than our own far-famed Pike’s Peak, look stunted like low sand-hills. -Partly finished adobe houses, which were gradually meeting the demands -of the newly-born commercial life of La Quiaca add to the forlorn and -desolate appearance of everything. There was nothing to make us wish to -stay any longer in Argentina, and we eagerly welcomed Don Santiago and -his eight-mule team that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_083" id="page_083"></a>{83}</span></p> - -<p><a name="OUR_COACH" id="OUR_COACH"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_082fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_082fp_sml.jpg" width="416" height="242" alt="Image unavailable: OUR COACH LEAVING THE HOTEL AT LA QUIACA" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">OUR COACH LEAVING THE HOTEL AT LA QUIACA</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">rattled up to the door a few minutes after six o’clock.</p> - -<p>A quarter of a mile north of the town we crossed the frontier and -entered Bolivia. For the next four hours there was little in the -landscape to relieve the monotony of the journey. As those who are -familiar with stage travel know to their cost, bumping over rough roads -of stone or sand, in a cloud of dust with nothing to see on either side -except a brown, treeless, rolling plateau, is not exciting. Nevertheless -the process of keeping eight mules on the go, up hill and down hill, is -never absolutely devoid of interest. As it was quite impossible for the -driver to reach the foremost mules with his long whip, he employed a -strong-lunged boy to race alongside of the mules, pelt them with stones, -curse them in his worst Spanish, and frighten them into frantic activity -with the lash of a short-handled whip which he laid on with no delicate -hand. The mules became so afraid of his mad rushes that when they heard -him coming they bolted in the opposite direction, sometimes pulling the -stage-coach a rod or two off the road.</p> - -<p>In a rarefied atmosphere that would almost kill a foreigner who should -try to run any distance, the Indian boy only found it necessary to take -short rests on the running-board of the coach, and even then he had -breath enough left to keep up shrill whistling and loud shouting so as -to make the mules remember his presence. If he stopped this continuous -performance he heard from the driver in no uncertain language. The -result was that, notwithstanding the primitive cart-track, the stage was -able to make the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_084" id="page_084"></a>{84}</span> sixty miles between La Quiaca and Tupiza in twelve -hours. To be sure, there are two changes of mules and the luggage is -carried on a separate wagon. But the road is as bad as it possibly can -be. So much of it is in the bed of a stream, the coaches can only run in -the dry season, May to November. In the rainy season the road disappears -under swollen rivers and resort has to be had to saddle and pack -animals.</p> - -<p>In this extremely arid region the business of feeding the mules is a -most difficult one. The rainfall is very slight. It is only by -irrigation that fodder will grow at all. The ground is not sterile but -it is so dry and parched that it does not look as if it would ever grow -anything. The Indians in the vicinity are Quichuas, who speak the same -language as did their former masters, the Incas. They are a patient race -with little ambition and few wants. This does not prevent them, however, -from charging all the traffic will bear when any one desires to purchase -alfalfa or barley straw for his mules. Don Santiago told me that he had -once been obliged to pay as high as forty dollars, gold, for enough -fodder to give an eight-mule team a proper luncheon. Needless to say, -transportation is expensive. The coach-fare from La Quiaca to Tupiza was -ten dollars, about sixteen cents a mile. A charge of two cents a pound -is made for luggage. None is carried free.</p> - -<p>Our first stop was at Mojo, to change mules and eat a “breakfast” which -consisted of the customary highly-spiced mutton and potatoes. We were -not “favored by the addition of an excellent roasted guinea pig” as was -Edmond Temple when he stopped<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_085" id="page_085"></a>{85}</span> here in 1826. Yet guinea-pigs are still -common hereabouts and we saw several on the road.</p> - -<p>Mojo is a village of four hundred inhabitants. There is a small branch -office of the Bolivian customs service here which is supposed to look -after travellers and their baggage. The principal custom house for -southern Bolivia is at Tupiza, a much more agreeable spot for the -residence of the officials and a natural distributing point for the -region.</p> - -<p>A short distance from Mojo we began an abrupt descent. In one place the -hill was too steep to permit the road to make a proper turn, so we all -had to get out and help lift the stage-coach around a “switch back.” -After this tortuous zigzag we came out on a broad plain over which we -passed without difficulty to the banks of the river Suipacha.</p> - -<p>The water was low and the cart-track attempted to steer a straight -course up stream. But as the shrunken current meandered over the sandy -river-bed, we were obliged to ford it every three or four minutes. This -entailed constant difficulties, for the leading mules would invariably -stop to walk as soon as they entered the water, while the others trotted -briskly in and tangled up the whole team. Perhaps the fault was mine, -for I was having my first experience in driving an eight-in-hand, and -the hard-mouthed mules took particular delight in giving me a bad time. -Notwithstanding our difficulties, we reached Suipacha on time, and -stopped to change mules.</p> - -<p>This valley was the scene of one of the earliest victories of the -patriots in 1810 at the beginning of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_086" id="page_086"></a>{86}</span> wars of independence. It will -be remembered that after the glorious 25th of May, recently celebrated -in Buenos Aires, the Argentinos attempted to free the province of Upper -Peru from Spanish control. The result of the victory of Suipacha was to -cause the Bolivians to rise and join the Argentinos against their -oppressors. The patriot army marched joyously northward across the -plateau, although the Argentinos suffered greatly from the cold and the -high altitude. When they reached the southern end of Lake Titicaca, the -Spanish army, augmented by hundreds of obedient Quichuas, attacked the -patriots and practically annihilated them.</p> - -<p>Suipacha itself, situated on a slight elevation above the banks of the -river, looks like all the other small villages of this arid region. -Plenty of sand and stones, a few mud-walled hovels, some thorny scrub, -here and there an irrigation ditch and a green field, and on every side -barren mountains. A favorite form of fence here is a wall of adobe -blocks, adorned with cactus or thorny mimosa branches.</p> - -<p>Suipacha is said to have six hundred inhabitants but it did not seem to -be any larger than Mojo. From here a road goes east to the important -city of Tarija, a pleasant, fertile town in southeastern Bolivia that -enjoys a charming climate, and has often served as a city of refuge for -defeated Argentine politicians who are glad enough to escape to such a -land of corn and wine after unsuccessful revolutions on the dreary -pampas.</p> - -<p>The road to Tupiza took us northwest, and continued to follow the bed of -the Suipacha or Estarca,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_087" id="page_087"></a>{87}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_ANGOSTA" id="THE_ANGOSTA"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_086fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_086fp_sml.jpg" width="271" height="352" alt="Image unavailable: THE “ANGOSTA DE TUPIZA”" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE “ANGOSTA DE TUPIZA”</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">and one of its tributaries. In the valley were several farms or <i>fincas</i> -as they are called here, where small crops are raised by irrigation. -Half-way from Suipacha to Tupiza we passed through a magnificent rocky -gateway called the Angosta de Tupiza. Cliffs five hundred feet high rise -abruptly on each side of the river, leaving barely room enough for the -road even in dry weather. For a distance of seventy feet, the width is -less than thirty feet. Beyond the gate the mountains form a spacious -amphitheatre. During the rainy season, from November to March, it is -frequently impossible to pass through this gorge, even on good -saddle-mules. Fortunately for us, the rains had not yet begun, and we -had no difficulty.</p> - -<p>We reached Tupiza, a town of about two thousand inhabitants, just at six -o’clock. It is only ten thousand feet above sea-level, nearly two -thousand feet lower than La Quiaca, and is prettily situated in a plain -less than a mile in width, that in this region may fairly be called -fertile, so great is the contrast with the surrounding desert. Good use -has been made of the water in the little stream, and there are many -cultivated fields and trees in the vicinity.</p> - -<p>The plaza is quite an oasis in the wilderness. It is carefully -cultivated and the shrubbery and willow trees make it a delightful spot. -Around the plaza are a few kerosene oil street-lamps on top of wooden -poles set in stone foundations. The white tower of a new church rises -above the trees and makes a good landmark. Near by is the large -two-story warehouse belonging to the Bolivian government and used as a -post-office and custom house.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_088" id="page_088"></a>{88}</span></p> - -<p>In the early ’80’s, before the construction of the Antofagasta railway, -most of the commerce of Southern Bolivia passed through Tupiza and the -custom house had more importance than it has now. To-day it has less -than a tenth of its former business. With the completion of the railway -to La Quiaca and its contemplated projection to Tupiza, however, the -local revenue business is bound to increase.</p> - -<p>Even at the time of my visit (November, 1908), the street in front of -the custom house was blocked by scores of bales and boxes recently -arrived from La Quiaca and awaiting examination prior to being shipped -north to Potosí on the backs of mules.</p> - -<p>On the opposite side of the plaza was a branch of the National Bank of -Bolivia. Here we found that the Bolivian dollar or <i>peso</i> is worth about -forty cents in our money.</p> - -<p>The common currency consists of banknotes ranging from one to twenty -<i>pesos</i> in value. These depend entirely for their value upon the -solvency of the bank of issue. Several banks have failed, and the -Indians are very particular what bills they accept. They dislike the -bills of banks that have no agencies in the vicinity and prefer the -bills of the National Bank of Francisco Argondaño.</p> - -<p>The nickel subsidiary coinage is usually genuine and is in great demand, -but the smaller silver coins are frequently either counterfeit or so -badly made that they do not ring true and are not accepted by the -Indians with whom one has most to do on the road. Consequently it is the -common practice to tear bills in two when change cannot be made in any<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_089" id="page_089"></a>{89}</span> -other way. The result is that perfect bills are growing scarce and the -expense of issuing new ones is being felt by the banks. Several times -when cashing checks at branches of these banks, I was paid entirely in -half bills. They are accepted in almost all parts of Bolivia but are at -a discount in La Paz and are not received at all in some localities.</p> - -<p>We are told that the scarcity of subsidiary coinage, and the relative -frequency of counterfeit money, is due to the native habit of burying -all coins of real value lest they fall into the hands of unscrupulous -officials and rapacious soldiers. Since time immemorial, enormous -quantities of articles made of the precious metals have been buried by -the Indians.</p> - -<p>Tupiza was the scene in 1819 of one of those ineffectual skirmishes in -which the unaided Bolivian patriots endeavored to secure their -independence. In fact, this old trade-route from the Pampas to Potosí -was the scene of numerous engagements during the Wars of Independence.</p> - -<p>There are two hotels in Tupiza, one of them being the headquarters of -that section of the Bolivian army which is stationed here to guard the -frontier. The other is more commonly resorted to by travellers. Our inn, -the Grand Hotel Terminus, a long, low building once white-washed, with a -courtyard paved with cobblestones and a few bedrooms opening into the -court, was run by an amiable rascal who I believe claimed to be an -Austrian. However that may be, he belonged to the type that believes in -charging foreigners double the regular tariff. “For one roast fowl, -$2.00, a bottle of vichy, $1.25, one bottle of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_090" id="page_090"></a>{90}</span> German beer, $1.00, half -pint of Appolinaris, $.40.” We were not able to get any discount. -Instead of fighting our own battles we foolishly referred the matter to -Don Santiago who lives at the hotel, has his office here, and depends -upon the hotel proprietor for a number of favors. Our request naturally -put him in an embarrassing situation, and all he could say was that the -charges seemed to him to be regular. The proprietor appeared to be drunk -most of the time, but he was not too drunk to charge up all drinks to -his American guests.</p> - -<p>There is a club here which was not in a very prosperous condition at the -time of my visit. This may have been due to a patriotic celebration that -had taken place a fortnight before. At that time a little poetical -drama, reminiscent of the first conflict for independence in 1810, was -played in the club-rooms. The drama, written by a local poet, was -dedicated to Señor Aramayo, the Mæcenas of Tupiza, a member of the -wealthiest family of southern Bolivia, and the owner of several rich -silver mines and a large importing warehouse.</p> - -<p>The shops of Tupiza were not brilliantly lighted although they contained -quite an assortment of articles of European origin. The trade which they -appeal to is that of the mule-drivers, the <i>arrieros</i>, who congregate -here while their cargoes are being inspected by the revenue officers. -The Indians of the vicinity, whose money comes chiefly from the product -of their irrigation ditches, have little to spend.</p> - -<p>Tupiza boasts two newspapers; one of them a biweekly, now in its third -year, and the other a literary<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_091" id="page_091"></a>{91}</span></p> - -<p><a name="FANTASTIC_PINNACLES" id="FANTASTIC_PINNACLES"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_090fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_090fp_sml.jpg" width="435" height="220" alt="Image unavailable: FANTASTIC PINNACLES IN THE VALLEYS NORTH OF TUPIZA" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">FANTASTIC PINNACLES IN THE VALLEYS NORTH OF TUPIZA</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">weekly that had recently been started by the author of the poetical -drama just alluded to. The weekly refers to the celebration in most -flattering terms. “Undoubtedly social life in Tupiza had increased so -far that it is high time to commence to notice its faults and -deficiencies. These could easily be removed with proper enthusiasm and -good will. Tupiza is a centre of social culture, but unfortunately it is -not yet able to appreciate such worthy theatrical spectacles as have -recently taken place!”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_092" id="page_092"></a>{92}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br /><br /> -<small>TUPIZA TO COTAGAITA</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span><span class="smcap">e</span> found that the Bolivian government had recently subsidized a weekly -stage line from Tupiza to Uyuni on the Antofagasta railway and another -from Tupiza to Potosí, our next objective point. The fare to Potosí is -twenty-two dollars, and the journey takes only four days. But we had -enough of being shaken to pieces in a stage-coach, and decided we could -see the country better and be more independent if we used saddle mules.</p> - -<p>Two weeks before our arrival a couple of bandits, one of whom had been -hunted out of Arizona by Pinkerton detectives, had held up a cart -containing twenty thousand dollars, on its way to pay off the laborers -in a large mine. The owners, wealthy Bolivians, immediately offered a -large reward for the capture of the bandits, dead or alive, -notwithstanding that the robbers and their friends, of whom there seemed -to be a score or more, let it be carefully understood that they would -take a definite revenge for any lives that might be lost in pursuit of -the highwaymen. This did not deter the mine owners, however, and a party -of fifty Bolivian soldiers went on the trail of the robbers, who were -found lunching in an Indian hut. They had carelessly left their mules -and rifles several yards away from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_093" id="page_093"></a>{93}</span> door of the hut and were unable -to escape. After a fight, in which three or four of the soldiers were -killed and as many more wounded, the thatch roof of the hut was set on -fire and the bandits forced out into the open where they finally fell, -each with half a dozen bullets in his body. Their mules were captured -and sold to Don Santiago who let me have one of them for my journey. He -turned out to be a wonderfully fine saddle mule. When his former owner -had had the benefit of his fleet legs and his splendid lungs, there was -no question of his being caught by the Bolivian soldiery.</p> - -<p>In that part of the Andes where one is following the usual trade-routes, -there are four modes of travelling. One may purchase one’s own animals, -employ servants to attend to them, and sell them for a song at the end -of the journey. This is the most expensive, the most satisfactory, and -the surest method of travel, provided always that one succeeds in -getting a reliable, well-recommended <i>arriero</i>. A careless <i>arriero</i> -will soon drive you to despair and allow your mules to get into a state -of semi-starvation and sore back that will speedily destroy their -usefulness. The second method is to hire a professional carrier who, for -a stipulated sum of money, will provide you with animals, go along with -them, feed and care for them, and get you to your destination as -speedily as possible. If your sole object is speed, this method is even -surer than the first, for owing to the high price of fodder in the -post-houses, the contractor may be relied upon to push the caravan -forward as speedily as possible. The third method is by far the least -expensive,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_094" id="page_094"></a>{94}</span> the most troublesome, and the least certain. This is to -depend on the mules that are supposed to be in readiness for travellers -at the post-houses. We frequently amused ourselves on our journey by -imagining what we could possibly have done had we attempted to rely on -this last method. Repeatedly we reached post-houses where there was not -a mule to be seen, or where the two or three that were there, were -drearily hanging their melancholy heads in the corral, so worn out and -broken down as to convince us of their inability to carry even an -ordinary load at anything faster than a slow walk. The traveller who -trusts to post-house mules rarely remembers much of the scenery or the -nature of the country. His chief impression is that of unfortunate mules -continually being beaten in order to reach the next post before dark. -The fourth method, and the one we decided to adopt, is to hire from a -reputable contractor a number of his best mules and one of his most -trusted <i>arrieros</i> at so much per day. In this way, you are not hurried -faster than you want to go, the mules are sure to be well cared for, and -the discomforts of mountain travel are reduced to a minimum. Except on a -long journey, it is not as expensive as buying one’s own animals and is -less risky.</p> - -<p>Thanks to the energy of Don Santiago, the necessary mules and provisions -were ready in two days. On his suggestion, we took with us as <i>arriero</i>, -one Mac, a wandering Scotchman who had seen service in the Boer War, had -drifted thence to Argentina, and was now trying his luck in southern -Bolivia. He seemed just the sort of person to make a good orderly,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_095" id="page_095"></a>{95}</span></p> - -<p><a name="A_QUICHUA" id="A_QUICHUA"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_094fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_094fp_sml.jpg" width="456" height="258" alt="Image unavailable: A QUICHUA FAMILY GOING TO PLOW" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">A QUICHUA FAMILY GOING TO PLOW</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">and we thought we were quite fortunate in securing his services. Relying -on his past experience, we told him to purchase such provisions as were -necessary for the next five days. He proceeded to purchase four dozen -hard-boiled eggs and three roast fowls. These he packed carelessly in my -leather saddle-bags, together with a bottle of Eno’s fruit salts of -which he was very fond. The expected happened. The eggs were reduced to -an unrecognizable mass, the bottle of fruit salts was broken and the -contents well rubbed into the chicken, so that our fare for the next two -or three days was not much above the ordinary.</p> - -<p>We left Tupiza on a bright, clear morning and rode northward through a -semi-arid region where we were continually reminded of Utah and southern -Colorado. For two leagues we saw no house and met no one. The floor of -the valley was broad and flat, covered with sand and pebbles, and -occasionally intersected by small irrigating ditches. Almost the only -green things were cactus and mimosa trees. Barren hills that appear to -be crumbling rapidly away rose abruptly on each side. In some places, -the eroded hillside took the form of chimneys, ruined factories, or even -forts. In others erosion had produced fantastic pinnacles, and often the -buttressed hills looked very much like cathedrals.</p> - -<p>About nine o’clock we met a Quichua family, the wife carrying the baby -and spinning, the man carrying his wooden plough on his shoulder and -driving his oxen to an irrigated field where he proposed to do<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_096" id="page_096"></a>{96}</span> his -spring ploughing. His wife had on as many gaudy-colored petticoats as -she could afford. Such is the fashion of the country.</p> - -<p>Near one of the irrigating ditches under the shadow of the buttressed -walls of the cañon, we came upon a hundred mules. Some of them were -carrying huge packing-cases, large enough to hold the entire body of the -patient mule, provided of course that it were properly cut up and the -extremities shortened. In general the pack-mules were fine, large -animals, well able to carry their three-hundred-pound loads. With such a -caravan as this go a dozen <i>arrieros</i> who rise each day three hours -before dawn and commence the everlasting task of saddling and loading. -When this is done, the men eat a hearty breakfast, prepared in the -meantime by one of their number, and then start out for an eight-hour -march. About five o’clock in the afternoon, or earlier, if they have by -that time reached a suitable camping-place, the caravan stops and -unloading begins, which is finished barely in time to give the men a few -hours of slumber before the whole process has to be repeated.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, most of these cases of merchandise were packed in Germany -where they know how to meet the exigencies of South American mountain -travel, and although the great wooden boxes were banged against -projecting rocks by the roadside and often allowed to fall with a crash -when the saddle-ropes were untied at the end of the day, the contents -were practically sure to reach their destination in good condition.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_097" id="page_097"></a>{97}</span></p> - -<p>At noon we came to a group of freshly white-washed adobe farm buildings, -the property of an absentee landlord. Here we were able to purchase -green fodder for the mules, and luncheon, in the shape of very hot soup -and tea, for ourselves. In one of the buildings was a district school -with six or eight pupils, the scholars evincing their studiousness by -learning their lessons out loud. The resultant noise would considerably -jar on the ear of a highly strung New England “schoolmarm,” but the -good-natured Bolivian teacher did not know that he had any nerves, and -only wanted to be sure that all his pupils were busy.</p> - -<p>After lunch our road continued up the same arid valley past flocks of -goats that strove to get a living from the low-hanging branches of the -mimosa trees. Some of the more adventurous had even gone up into the -trees to secure a meal.</p> - -<p>In the middle of the afternoon, we climbed out of one valley and looked -down into another. From the pass we had a fine view of the valley -through which we had come. The prevailing color was brown with here and -there a touch of dusty green. All around there was a confusion of barren -hills and arid mountains without a single evidence of human habitation. -The only sign of life was the long line of the mule caravan which we had -passed earlier in the day. The country is so unfitted for the habitation -of man that the general effect of this and of most of the scenery in -southern Bolivia is oppressive and dispiriting.</p> - -<p>Shortly before sunset, however, we came to a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_098" id="page_098"></a>{98}</span>beautiful spring called -the “Eye of the Water,” which bubbled up by the roadside and flowed off -into carefully guarded irrigating ditches. As was to be expected, there -was a small Indian village in the vicinity. The villagers were Quichuas, -wearing small felt hats, scanty shirts, and short loose pantaloons made -of what seemed to be homespun cloth. It was rather attractive in -appearance, and as it had the romantic flavor of being made here by the -Indians, we were inclined to purchase some until we discovered that it -was only “imitation” and was made in great quantities in Manchester, -England. These Quichuas are a humble folk, excessively polite to each -other, doffing their hats whenever they meet. Both men and women wore -their hair in long braids down their backs.</p> - -<p>The little village sprawled up the side of the cañon just out of reach -of the floods which occasionally pour through this valley in the rainy -season. In one of the huts a kind of spring carnival was being -celebrated with a reasonable amount of drinking. Solemn singing and a -monotonous tom-tomming of a primitive drum were the only signs of gaiety -except a few bright flowers which they had gathered somewhere and put in -their hair. As no rain was to be expected and the village had the usual -component of filth and insects, we set up our folding cots in the dry -bed of the stream. The elevation was about ten thousand feet. The stars -were very brilliant. The night was cool, the minimum temperature being -47°F., a drop of forty degrees from the afternoon’s maximum.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_099" id="page_099"></a>{99}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_VALLEY" id="THE_VALLEY"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_098fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_098fp_sml.jpg" width="363" height="271" alt="Image unavailable: THE VALLEY THROUGH WHICH WE HAD COME" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE VALLEY THROUGH WHICH WE HAD COME</span> -</div> - -<p>The next morning, after a breakfast of cold chicken and Eno’s fruit -salts, all that our Boer War veteran could provide for our comfort, we -pushed up the valley, and before long reached Totora, a typical Bolivian -<i>poste</i> or <i>tambo</i>. It consisted of a small inclosure surrounded by half -a dozen low mud-huts without windows. In one of these was kept alfalfa -fodder to be sold to passing travellers. In another lived the keeper of -the <i>poste</i> and his family. Here also was a fire from which one had the -right to demand hot water, the only thing furnished for the comfort of -humans. In another, two or three well-baked mounds of earth, flattened -on top, were intended for beds. A roof, an earth floor, and a wooden -door were the only other conveniences at the disposition of travellers.</p> - -<p>These <i>postes</i>, more or less dirty and uncomfortable, may usually be -found on the well-travelled roads in southern Bolivia at a distance -varying from fifteen to twenty-five miles from each other. They are not -picturesque, but after some little experience in travelling in that -desolate region, one learns to welcome the little collection of -mud-huts, with possibly a green spot or two of alfalfa, as a perfect -haven of rest. To be sure, the only thing to eat is the food you bring -with you, but you may be always certain of having hot water, and your -<i>arriero</i> (unless he happens to be a veteran of the Boer War) will bring -you a cup of excellent tea within twenty minutes after your arrival.</p> - -<p>The road from Totora continued to be the rocky floor of a valley in -which from time to time little<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_100" id="page_100"></a>{100}</span> streams of water or irrigation ditches -appeared, only to lose themselves in fields of alfalfa or quinoa. During -the dry season carts attempt to use this road, and we overtook a dozen -of them on their way north. Each cart was drawn by six mules driven -three abreast by a driver who rode postillion on the nigh mule nearest -the cart. Before noon we climbed out of this valley and descended into a -rocky, sandy plain through which flowed the river Cotagaita on its way -eastward to join the great Pilcomayo. At this time of the year, the -latter part of November, the river is a broad, shallow stream, easily -fordable. On sandy bars left dry by the receding waters were camped -caravans of pack-mules and carts. Beyond them lay the little town of -Cotagaita, where the Argentine patriots were badly defeated in 1816. -This place is, in a sense, the crossroads of southern Bolivia and is one -of the main stations of Don Santiago’s stage-lines. Uyuni, on the -Antofagasta railway, is one hundred and fifteen miles west of here, -three or four days by stage. The mines of Potosí are nearly the same -distance north. Camargo, the capital of the province of Cinti, is a few -days due east, while Tupiza is fifty-four miles due south. There are -several routes from Tupiza to Uyuni but the most important and the only -one practicable for coaches is by way of Cotagaita. The road is new and -said to be very uncomfortable. There is not much to interest the -traveller, except a few mines. Not far away is Chorolque, a famous -silver mine, at an altitude of over seventeen thousand feet.</p> - -<p>The town of Cotagaita is an old Spanish settle<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_101" id="page_101"></a>{101}</span>ment with the customary -plaza, a few trees, a fountain in the centre and a church on one side; -one story white-washed houses built of baked mud, the usual narrow -streets crossing each other at right angles, their stone paving sloping -toward the centre where a ditch does duty as a sewer; a few Indians and -a few shops to minister to their wants. There are said to be twelve -hundred inhabitants but I doubt it. The elevation is slightly lower than -Tupiza.</p> - -<p>We left Cotagaita after lunch, hoping to make the <i>tambo</i> at Escara -before dark, but we were destined to disappointment. Mac, our Scotch -<i>arriero</i>, had decided that the pack-mules, which Don Santiago selected -for us at Tupiza, were not good enough to stand the march to Potosí, so -he requested the coach agent here to give us two better animals. The -latter allowed our veteran to go into the corral and take any mules he -pleased. Rich in knowledge of the Boer War, but poor in experience with -Bolivian mules, he picked out two strong-looking beasts that had been -driven in the stage-coach but had never carried a pack in their lives. -After being blindfolded they were saddled, with some difficulty, and we -were about to start when it was discovered that one of them lacked a -shoe on its nigh hind-foot. The blacksmith, a half-drunk, strongly built -Indian, was summoned. He brought a new shoe, a few nails, and a hammer -out into the street. The blindfolded mule was held by Mac while an -Indian tied the foot that was to be shod securely to the mule’s tail. -Then the blacksmith went to work. No attempt was made to fit the shoe, -and when the second nail was driven, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_102" id="page_102"></a>{102}</span> mule kicked and struggled so -violently as to throw itself and all three men in a heap in the middle -of the road. Finally, after much tribulation, the shoe was securely -fastened, and amid the cheers of the populace, we started briskly off -for Potosí.</p> - -<p>The new pack-mules, lacking all road sense and missing the bridle, -promptly ran away. One of them was secured without much difficulty, but -the other one went up the hillside through a grove of young mimosa trees -which attempted to detain the load with their thorny branches. They only -succeeded in partly dislodging it, however, and the mule continued his -headlong career until his load turned completely under him, tripped him -up, and ended by rolling him down-hill. Fortunately the dunnage bags -were new and no great harm was done. Mac insisted that he could drive -this mule as well as any other—which may have been true—so the poor -coach-mule was reloaded. Then four of us tried for over an hour to make -the two wretched animals carry their packs properly and stick to the -road as pack-animals should. But they declined to enter our service, and -we were obliged to send them back to Cotagaita, minus their loads. -Meanwhile the two mules which Mac had so thoughtfully discarded at lunch -time were reengaged. The exhibition was useful, for it showed us that -Mac knew even less about saddling pack-animals than we did and was -perfectly useless in an emergency. Fortunately, an excellent fellow, a -brother of Don Santiago, became our <i>deus ex machina</i>, helped us out of -our difficulty, and promised to join us the next morning with a new<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_103" id="page_103"></a>{103}</span> -<i>arriero</i>. By hard riding we arrived at the little <i>tambo</i> of Escara an -hour after dark and had some difficulty in securing admittance. No one -has any business to travel at night in this country, unless bent on -mischief.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_104" id="page_104"></a>{104}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX<br /><br /> -<small>ESCARA TO LAJA TAMBO</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span><span class="smcap">e</span> got up early enough the next morning to witness a phase of Bolivian -life which we had heard of but had not as yet seen. An officer and two -soldiers of the Bolivian army, travelling southward, had spent the night -at Escara and desired to proceed promptly. The <i>postes</i> are subsidized -by the Government on the understanding that all travelling government -officials shall be furnished with mules and a man. Each <i>poste</i> has -three or four guides called <i>postillons</i>, connected with it. This -morning things did not move fast enough to suit the officer. The mules -were not ready when he wanted to start and the meek Quichua <i>postillon</i> -was offering an explanation. In the midst of it, the officer lost his -temper, and taking his strong riding-whip, commenced to lash the poor -half-clad Indian across the face and shoulders. The latter stood it for -a few minutes stolidly and then commenced to back off, followed by the -officer who continued to lay on the blows as fast as possible. At length -the <i>postillon</i> turned to run and the officer pursued him, beating him -and cursing him until out of breath. It was a sickening sight, but the -strangest part of all was the absolute meekness with which the Indian -took his beating. There was not the slightest sign of resentment or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_105" id="page_105"></a>{105}</span> -even annoyance. The strokes of the whip made the blood start and trickle -down his face and sides, but he gave no evidence of feeling it.</p> - -<p>Later in the day at Quirve, another <i>poste</i>, we witnessed a similar -exhibition, only in this case the Indian did not even run away. The son -of the proprietor, a great hulking brute, six feet tall and powerfully -built, found fault with one of the <i>postillons</i> for some trifling -mistake and beat him across the face and chest with a rawhide thong -until the blood flowed freely. Like the other Indian, his face remained -perfectly stolid, and he showed no signs of anger or irritation.</p> - -<p>We had been furious with the officer in the morning and this exhibition -was even more trying. Yet the Bolivianos thought nothing of it. As Mr. -Bryce has so ably put it: “One must have lived among a weaker race in -order to realize the kind of irritation which its defects produce in -those who deal with it, and how temper and self-control are strained in -resisting temptations to harsh or arbitrary action. It needs something -more than the virtue of a philosopher—it needs the tenderness of a -saint to preserve the same courtesy and respect towards the members of a -backward race as are naturally extended to equals.” There is no doubt -about the Quichuas being a backward race.</p> - -<p>From the earliest historical times these poor Indians have virtually -been slaves. Bred up to look upon subjection as their natural lot, they -bear it as the dispensation of Providence. The Incas treated them well, -so far as we can judge, and took pains to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_106" id="page_106"></a>{106}</span> see that the irrigation -works, the foot-paths over the mountains, the suspension bridges over -the raging torrents and <i>tambos</i> for the convenience of travellers, -should all be kept in good condition. The gold-hunting Spanish -<i>conquistadores</i>, on the other hand, had no interest in the servile -Quichuas further than to secure their services as forced laborers in the -mines. The modern Bolivianos have done little to improve their -condition.</p> - -<p>After seeing these two Indians meekly take such severe beatings, I found -it easier to understand why Pizarro had been able to conquer the Empire -of Peru with a handful of determined Spanish soldiers, and why the -unfortunate Tupac Amaru could make so little headway in 1781 when he -attempted to rouse the Indians to revolt against Spanish tyranny. -Although he had sixty thousand men under him, the Spanish general easily -defeated him with barely twenty thousand, of whom only a few hundred -were Spaniards, the majority being friendly Indians.</p> - -<p>How much the extremely severe conditions of life that prevail on this -arid plateau have had to do in breaking the spirit of the race is a -question. It is a generally accepted fact that a race who are dependent -for their living on irrigating ditches, can easily be conquered. All -that the invading army has to do is to destroy the dams, ruin the crops, -and force the inhabitants to face starvation.</p> - -<p>The Quichua shows few of the traits which we ordinarily connect with -mountaineers. His country is too forlorn to give him an easy living or -much time for thought. He is half starved nearly all the time.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_107" id="page_107"></a>{107}</span> His only -comfort comes from chewing coca leaves. Coca is the plant from which we -extract cocaine. It is said that the Quichua can go for days without -food, provided he has a good supply of coca. It would be extremely -interesting to determine the effect on his intelligence of this cocaine -habit, which seems to be centuries old. If a man can stand up and take -severe punishment for trivial offences without getting angry, showing -vexation, or apparently without bearing any grudge against his -oppressor, there must be something constitutionally wrong with him. I -believe that the coca habit is answerable for a large part of this very -unsatisfactory state of affairs. Coca has deadened his sensibilities to -a degree that passes comprehension. It has made him stupid, willing to -submit to almost any injury, lacking in all ambition, caring for almost -none of the things which we consider the natural desires of the human -heart.</p> - -<p>In travelling through Bolivia and Peru, I found it repeatedly to be the -case that the Quichua does not care to sell for money either food or -lodging. Presents of coca leaves and tobacco are acceptable. A liberal -offer of money rarely moves him, although it would be possible for him -to purchase with it many articles of necessity or comfort in near-by -towns. As a rule he prefers neither to rent his animal, nor sell you -cheese or eggs, or anything else. The first Quichua words one learns, -and the answer which one most commonly receives to all questions as to -the existence of the necessaries of life, is “<i>mana canca</i>,” “there is -none.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_108" id="page_108"></a>{108}</span></p> - -<p>This condition of affairs is not new. When Temple travelled through -Bolivia in 1825, he was struck by the prevailing “<i>no hay nada</i>” (there -is nothing at all). Poverty, want, misery, and negligence are the story -that is told by the melancholy phrase. The truth is, the Quichua not -only has no ambition, he has long ago ceased to care whether you or he -or anybody else has more than just barely enough to keep body and soul -together.</p> - -<p>Needless to say, the Quichuas have no concern with the politics of -Bolivia, although they constitute a large majority of the inhabitants.</p> - -<p>From Escara our road continued to follow a semi-arid valley. We passed a -caravan of mule-carts bound for Potosí and Sucre. In one of the carts -was an upright piano; in another, pieces of mining machinery, while -still others contained large cast-iron pipes destined for Sucre’s new -waterworks. Nearly all of the carts carried bales of Argentine hay as -this region is so arid that it is extremely difficult to secure any -fodder for the animals, and the barley or alfalfa, when procurable, is -often too expensive.</p> - -<p>The weather continued to be fine. After a hot, dusty ride of twenty -miles, we stopped at the <i>poste</i> of Quirve.</p> - -<p>Just before reaching Quirve, we crossed the Tumusla River, the site of -the last battle of the Bolivian wars of independence. After Sucre’s -great victory at Ayacucho, in 1824, the only Spanish troops which -remained unconquered in all South America were the garrison of Callao -and a small band under General Ollaneta in southern Bolivia. His men -were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_109" id="page_109"></a>{109}</span> badly disaffected by the news of the battle of Ayacucho, and an -officer who commanded a small garrison at this strategic point, came out -openly for the patriotic cause. Ollaneta tried in vain to suppress the -revolt. The result was a battle here on the first of April, 1825, in -which the Spanish general was defeated and slain. The garrison of Callao -held out for a few months longer, but this was the end of active -warfare.</p> - -<p>We found the <i>tambo</i> of Quirve to be of the most primitive sort, not -even affording shelter for man or beast. The weekly Potosí stage-coach -came in from the north about six o’clock carrying one passenger. He soon -spread his bed under the wagon and made himself comfortable for the -night. The luggage from Potosí was shipped on pack-animals and was in -charge of an Argentine Gaucho named Fermin Chaile. This man we took in -exchange for Mac, whom we were glad enough to get rid of. Fermin, the -Gaucho, tall and gaunt, round-shouldered and bow-legged, his dark -Mongolian-like features crowned by a mop of coarse, black hair, proved -to be a god-send. His loose-fitting suit of brown corduroys, far better -raiment than most <i>arrieros</i> can afford, bore witness to the fact that -he was sober, industrious, and trustworthy. No one ever had a better -muleteer. Like Rafael Rivas, the faithful Venezuelan peon who had guided -my cart across the Llanos in 1907, he took excellent care of the mules, -yet drove them almost to the limit of their endurance, was devoted to -us, and proved to be reliable and attentive. He was a plainsman, as -different in spirit and achieve<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_110" id="page_110"></a>{110}</span>ment from the wretched mountaineers -through whose country we were passing, as though he had belonged to a -different continent.</p> - -<p>As we continued northward from Quirve, the valley grew narrower and our -road continued to be in the dry river course. All the water that was -visible was collected in little ditches and conducted along the -hillsides fifteen or twenty feet above the bed of the stream. On some of -the hillsides of this valley are terraces or <i>andines</i> where maize, -quinoa, potatoes, and even grapes are made to grow, with much -painstaking labor. These terraces, common enough farther north, were the -first we had seen. The staple food of the Indians is <i>chuno</i>, a small -potato that has been put through a freezing process until its natural -flavor is completely lost. One of the principal dishes at this time of -the year is the fruit of the cactus. Everybody seems to be very fond of -the broad-leaved edible species, a thornless variety of which we are -developing in Arizona and New Mexico.</p> - -<p>Farther up the valley I was struck by the ingenuity which had been -exercised in carrying the irrigation ditches along the side of -precipitous cliffs. Numerous little tunnels, connected by small -viaducts, enabled a tiny stream of water to travel three or four miles -until it reached a level space sufficiently above highwater mark to -warrant the planting of a small field. The only animals to be seen -beside mules and horses, goats, pigs, dogs, and a very few birds, were -the little wild guinea-pigs of a color closely resembling the -everlasting brown hills. I was surprised not to see any llamas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_111" id="page_111"></a>{111}</span></p> - -<p>Soon after leaving Quirve, we came to the little village of Toropalca, -in every way as brown and dusty as the guinea-pigs. In fact, it melted -into the landscape as perfectly as they did.</p> - -<p>About noon we reached another hillside village, Saropalca, its houses -placed so closely one above another on the steep slope as to give the -appearance of a giant stairway. We climbed up through the irregular -lanes of the little village, until we found a wretched little <i>tambo</i> -where we bought a few bundles of alfalfa and a bowl of soup.</p> - -<p>Whenever we could secure sufficient alfalfa for the mules and a bowl of -hot <i>chupe</i> for ourselves in addition to the customary pot of hot water -for our tea, we considered ourselves most fortunate and were willing to -admit that the <i>poste</i> was well provided with “all the necessaries of -life.” <i>Chupe</i> is a kind of stew or thick soup consisting of frozen -potatoes and tough mutton or llama meat. In its natural state, its taste -is disagreeable enough, but when it is served to the liking of the -natives it is seasoned so highly with red pepper as to be far too fiery -for foreign palates.</p> - -<p>In the course of the afternoon, the valley narrowed to a gorge in which -we passed more heavily-laden mule-carts making their way along with the -utmost difficulty. Beyond the gorge we found sulphur springs and some -banks of sulphur. One of the hot springs gushed up close by the -roadside. “El Lazarillo,” the eighteenth century Baedeker, says there -was once a “modest thermal establishment” here, intended to attract -bathers from Potosí.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_112" id="page_112"></a>{112}</span></p> - -<p>At the end of the day we reached Caisa, after having made nearly forty -miles since morning. Caisa is an old Spanish town and looks like all the -rest. One-story houses, narrow streets, badly paved, a city block left -open for a plaza, on one side of it a church and the house of the -priest, on the other three sides, a few shops where we bought -newly-baked hot bread, beer, cheese, and candles. The <i>tambo</i> was called -“La Libertad” and bore the legend “<i>Muy barato</i>” (very cheap). We -surmised this meant that the proprietor would charge all the traffic -would bear; and such proved to be the case. In fact, we had a very -disagreeable dispute with the landlady the next morning. Fermin -indignantly declared she had tripled the usual prices.</p> - -<p>At Caisa the road from Argentina to Sucre branches off to the right, -going due north to Puna and thence to Yotala, where it joins the road -from Potosí to Sucre.</p> - -<p>Leaving Caisa on November 22, we went north-west and soon had our first -glimpse of a snow-clad Bolivian mountain. The snow was not very deep, -however, as it had fallen during the night, and before noon it was all -gone. Our road crossed several ridges and then descended into a partly -cultivated valley near an old silver mine and a smelter called Cuchu -Ingenio. The road here was unusually good. Even in 1773 “The Blind Man’s -Guide” says it was a “camino de Trote, y Galope.”</p> - -<p>As we ascended a gorge, I was attracted by a little waterfall of crystal -clearness that came tumbling down from the heights above, and was -tempted to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_113" id="page_113"></a>{113}</span></p> - -<p><a name="OUR_FIRST_GLIMPS" id="OUR_FIRST_GLIMPS"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_112fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_112fp_sml.jpg" width="459" height="290" alt="Image unavailable: OUR FIRST GLIMPSE OF A SNOW-CLAD BOLIVIAN MOUNTAIN" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">OUR FIRST GLIMPSE OF A SNOW-CLAD BOLIVIAN MOUNTAIN</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">take a hearty drink of the delicious cool liquid. A Boliviano from -Tupiza, who was travelling with us for company, warned me against such a -rash act as drinking cold water at this altitude. I had noticed that no -one in this region ever touches cold water, and I thought the universal -prejudice against it was founded on a natural preference for alcohol. So -I laughingly enjoyed my cup of cold water and assured him that there -could be no harm in it. An hour later we reached Laja Tambo, a wretched -little <i>poste</i>, standing alone on the edge of a tableland twenty miles -from Potosí. The altitude was about thirteen thousand feet. The sun had -been very warm, and soon after alighting on the rough stone pavement of -the inn yard, I arranged the thermometers so as to test the difference -in temperature between sun and shade. The temperature in the sun at noon -was 85° F. In the shade it was 48° F. Scarcely had I taken the readings -when I began to feel chilly. Hot tea followed by hot soup and still -hotter brandy and water failed to warm me, notwithstanding the fact that -I had unpacked my bag and put on two heavy sweaters. A wretched sense of -dizziness and of longing to get warm made me lie down on the warm stones -of the courtyard. I grew rapidly worse, and was soon experiencing the -common symptoms of <i>soroche</i>, <i>puna</i>, or mountain sickness. The -combination of vomiting, diarrhœa, and chills was bad enough, but the -prospect of being ill in this desolate <i>poste</i>, twenty miles from the -nearest doctor, with nothing better than the usual accessories of a -Bolivian <i>tambo</i>, was infinitely worse. Somehow or other, I man<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_114" id="page_114"></a>{114}</span>aged to -persuade Fermin to saddle and load the animals and put me on my mule, -where I was determined to stay until we should reach Potosí.</p> - -<p>The last thing to do before leaving the <i>tambo</i> was to pay the bill, and -this I proceeded to do in the Bolivian paper currency which I had -purchased in Tupiza. Alas, one of the bills was on a bank situated two -hundred and fifty miles away in La Paz, a bank, in fact, in which the -<i>postillon</i> did not have much confidence. The idea of having a servile -Quichua <i>postillon</i> decline to receive good money was extremely -irritating, and I tried my best, notwithstanding my <i>soroche</i>, to force -him to take it. He persisted and I was obliged to find another bill in -my wallet. I suppose my hand trembled a little with chill or excitement -and in taking out the bill I partly tore it.</p> - -<p>This would not have mattered had the tear been in the middle, but it was -nearer one end than the other and the Indian refused to accept it. I had -no other small bills and was at a loss to know what to do. In the -meantime, Fermin and the pack-mules had left the inclosure of the -<i>tambo</i> and started for Potosí while Mr. Smith was just outside of the -gate waiting for me. So I rolled up the sound bill which the Indian had -declined to receive, gave it to him, and while he was investigating it, -made a dash for the road. He was too quick for me, however, and gripped -my bridle. Exasperated beyond measure, I rode him against the wall of -the <i>tambo</i> and made him let go long enough to allow me to escape. It -seemed on the whole a lawless performance, although the bank-note was -perfectly good. I fully expected<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_115" id="page_115"></a>{115}</span> that he would follow us with stones or -something worse, but as he was only a Quichua he accepted the inevitable -and we saw no more of him.</p> - -<p>In the face of a bitterly cold wind we crossed the twenty-mile plateau -that lies between Laja Tambo and the famous city of Potosí. On the plain -were herds of llamas feeding, but these did not interest us as much as -the conical hill ahead. It was the Cerro of Potosí, the hill that for -two hundred and fifty years, was the marvel of the world. No tale of the -Arabian Nights, no dream of Midas, ever equalled the riches that flowed -from this romantic cone. Two billion ounces of silver is the record of -its output and the tale is not yet told.</p> - -<p>Rounding the eastern shoulder of the mountain, we passed several large -smelters, some of them abandoned. Near by are the ruins of an edifice -said to have been built by the Spaniards to confine the poor Indians -whom they brought here by the thousands to work in the mines. The road -descends a little valley and runs for a mile, past the ruins of hundreds -of buildings. In the eighteenth century, Potosí boasted a population of -over one hundred and fifty thousand. Now there are scarcely fifteen -thousand. The part of the city that is still standing is near the -ancient plaza, the mint, and the market-place.</p> - -<p>Our caravan clattered noisily down the steep, stony streets until we -reached the doors of the Hotel Colon where an attentive Austrian -landlord made us welcome, notwithstanding the fact that one of the party -was evidently quite ill. I could not help wondering whether an American -hotel-keeper would<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_116" id="page_116"></a>{116}</span> have been so willing to receive a sick man as this -benighted citizen of Potosí. The paved courtyard was small, but the -rooms on the second floor were commodious and so much better than the -unspeakably forlorn adobe walls of Laja Tambo, that I felt quite willing -to retire from active exploration for a day or two. Fortunately, I fell -into the hands of a well-trained Bolivian physician, who knew exactly -what to do, and with his aid, and the kind nursing of Fermin and Mr. -Smith, I was soon on my feet again.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_117" id="page_117"></a>{117}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X<br /><br /> -<small>POTOSÍ</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span><span class="smcap">e</span> had not been in Potosí many hours before we realized that it was a -most fascinating place with an atmosphere all its own. By the time we -had been here a week we were ready to agree with those who call it the -most interesting city in South America.</p> - -<p>The prestige of its former wealth, the evidence on every side of former -Spanish magnificence, the picturesquely clad Indians and the troops of -graceful, inquisitive llamas in the streets, aroused to the utmost our -curiosity and interest.</p> - -<p>Our first duty was to call on the Prefect who had been expecting our -arrival and was most kind during our entire stay. A Bolivian prefect has -almost unlimited power in his department and is directly responsible to -the President. His orders are carried out by the sub-prefect who is also -chief of police and has a small body of soldiers under his immediate -control.</p> - -<p>We found the Government House, or <i>Prefectura</i>, to be a fine old -building dating back to colonial days. Probably the most interesting -person that has ever occupied it was General William Miller, that -picturesque British veteran who fought valiantly through all the -Peruvian Wars of Independence, re<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_118" id="page_118"></a>{118}</span>ceiving so many wounds that he was -said to have been “honeycombed with bullets.” At the end of the wars he -was appointed Prefect of Potosí, and it was during his incumbency that -the great liberator Simon Bolivar made his visit. There is a vivid -description of it in Miller’s “Memoirs.” When Bolivar arrived in sight -of the far-famed mountain, the flags of Peru, Buenos Aires, Chile, and -Colombia were unfurled on its summit. As he entered the town, twenty-one -petards were exploded on the peak, an aërial salute “that had a very -singular and imposing effect.” “Upon alighting at the Government House, -under a grand triumphal arch, decorated with flags, the reception of His -Excellency was according to the Hispanic-American taste. Two children, -dressed as angels, were let down from the arch as he approached, and -each pronounced a short oration! Upon entering the grand saloon, six -handsome women, representing the fair sex of Potosí, hailed the arrival -of His Excellency, crowned him with a wreath of laurel, and strewed -flowers, which had been brought from a great distance for the occasion.” -This was followed by seven weeks of bull-fights, grand dinners, balls, -fireworks, illuminations, and other signs of public rejoicing, which -would seem to have surfeited even a person so fond of pomp and adulation -as the great liberator.</p> - -<p>Opposite the Government House, on the east side of the plaza, is a -curious many-arched arcade which incloses a new plaza, the work of an -ambitious prefect. The tall column surmounted by a statue, that stands -as the only ornament in the new plaza, once<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_119" id="page_119"></a>{119}</span> stood in the centre of the -old, but was moved to its new position by the Prefect who decided that -his work would be incomplete unless properly graced by a monument.</p> - -<p>On a corner of the new plaza is Potosí’s only bookshop. Judging by the -stock in trade, the principal customers are school children and lawyers. -The book trade was dull when we were there, but considerable interest -was shown in other departments of the store where toys and picture post -cards were on sale.</p> - -<p>Near by is the “University” where second-rate secondary instruction is -given to poor little boys who sit on damp adobe seats in badly-lighted, -foul-smelling rooms. It was once a convent, but the church connected -with it has long since been transformed into a theatre. The only -attractive thing about the “University” is the charming old convent -garden where rare old flowers still try to bloom.</p> - -<p>Opposite the “University” is the club. Here there are billiard tables -(it is really remarkable how many billiard tables one finds scattered -all over South America, even in the most inaccessible places) and a bar. -The custom of serving a little felt mat with each drink is resorted to, -and when a member chooses to stand treat, he goes about and gathers up -all the mats in sight and takes them to the bar where he cashes them -with his own money, or some that he has recently won. The bar was well -patronized. And no one is to blame but the climate, which is the worst -in South America.</p> - -<p>Although Potosí is in the Tropics, the highest re<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_120" id="page_120"></a>{120}</span>corded temperature -here in the shade on the hottest day ever known, was 59° F. The city is -nearly thirteen thousand five hundred feet above the sea, almost as high -as Pike’s Peak. Every afternoon cold winds sweep down through the -streets striking a chill into one’s very marrow. A temperature of 22° F. -is not unknown, yet none of the houses have stoves or any appliances -(except soup) for warming their shivering inhabitants. As the prevailing -temperature indoors is below 50° F., almost every one wears coats and -hats in the house as much as outdoors, or even more so, for a brisk walk -of a block or two at this altitude makes one quite warm, and in the -middle of the day the sun is hot.</p> - -<p>Wherever we wandered in this fascinating city, our eyes continually -turned southward to the Cerro, the beautifully colored cone that raises -itself fifteen hundred feet above the city. It is impossible to describe -adequately the beauty of its colors and the marvellous way in which they -change as the sun sinks behind the western Andes. I hope that some day a -great painter will come here and put on canvas the marvellous hues of -this world-renowned hill. Pink, purple, lavender, brown, gray, and -yellow streaks make it look as though the gods, having finished painting -the universe, had used this as a dumping-ground for their surplus -pigments. In reality, the hand of man has had much to do with its -present variegated aspect, for he has been busily engaged during the -past three hundred years in turning the hill inside out. Much of the -most beautifully colored material has been painfully brought out from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_121" id="page_121"></a>{121}</span></p> - -<p><a name="VIEW_OF" id="VIEW_OF"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_120fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_120fp_sml.jpg" width="383" height="272" alt="Image unavailable: VIEW OF THE CERRO FROM THE ROOF OF THE MINT" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">VIEW OF THE CERRO FROM THE ROOF OF THE MINT</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">the very heart of the hill through long tunnels, in man’s effort to get -at the rich veins of silver and tin which lie within.</p> - -<p>The discovery of silver at Potosí was made by a llama driver about the -middle of the sixteenth century. It was soon found that the mountain was -traversed by veins of extremely rich ore. After the gold of the Incas -had been gathered up and disposed of, Potosí became the most important -part of all the Spanish possessions in America. At the beginning of the -seventeenth century, when New York and Boston were still undreamed of, -Potosí was already a large and extremely wealthy city. It attracted the -presence of hundreds of Spanish adventurers including many grandees. In -short it had taken on all the signs of luxury that are common to big -mining camps. Grandees in sumptuous apparel rode gayly caparisoned -horses up and down the stony streets, bowing graciously to charming -ladies dressed in the most costly attire that newly-gotten wealth could -procure. On feast days, and particularly on great national holidays, -like the King’s birthday, elaborate and expensive entertainments were -given.</p> - -<p>If it were not for the great expanse of ruins and the very large number -of churches, it would be difficult to realize to-day that for over a -century this was the largest city in the Western Hemisphere. The routes -which led to the Bolivian plateau became the greatest thoroughfares in -America. Money flowed more freely than water. In fact, the Spaniards -found great difficulty during the dry season in supplying the city with -sufficient water to use in washing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_122" id="page_122"></a>{122}</span> ore and in meeting the ordinary -needs of a large population. Consequently, they went up into the hills -above the city and built, at great expense, a score of dams to hold back -the water that fell during the rainy season and preserve it for the dry.</p> - -<p>Immediately following the Wars of Independence and the consequent -opening of the country to foreign capital, a wild mining fever set in -among London capitalists. Greedy and ignorant directors took advantage -of the cupidity of the British public to enrich themselves, while -incidentally working the mines of Potosí with disproportionately -expensive establishments. So eager was the public to take stock in -Potosí that shares which at the outset were quoted at 75 or 80, rose -incredibly in the short space of six weeks. Some of them went up above -5000. As was to be expected, this speculative fever was followed by a -panic which ruined not only the stockholders but those unfortunates like -Edmund Temple, who had gone to Potosí in the employ of one of the -wildcat companies, and those South Americans that had honored their -drafts on London.</p> - -<p>Then followed a long period of stagnation. But as railroads came nearer -and cart-roads began to multiply, transportation became cheaper and new -enterprises sprang up.</p> - -<p>Any one is at liberty to secure a license from the proper authorities to -dig a mine in the side of the mountain, provided he does not interfere -with the property of someone else. The records show that since the Cerro -was first discovered licenses have been issued for over five thousand -mines. It is easy<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_123" id="page_123"></a>{123}</span> to imagine what a vast underground labyrinth exists -beneath those many-colored slopes. Most of the openings, however, have -been closed by avalanches of refuse from mines higher up the hill.</p> - -<p>One day I was invited to visit several new mines that had recently been -opened by a Chilean Company. In one mine, at an altitude of about -fifteen thousand feet, I undertook to crawl into the depths for five -hundred yards in order to see a new vein of silver ore that had recently -been encountered. The exertion of getting in and out again at that -altitude was terrific, yet the miners did not appear to feel it. They -wear thick knitted caps which save their heads from the bumps and shield -them from falling rocks. Their knees are protected by strong leather -caps. Their feet they bind in huge moccasins. Those that carry out the -ore frequently wear leather aprons tied on their backs. The workmen are -a sordid, rough-looking lot who earn and deserve very good wages. -Sometime ago when tin was higher than it is now, a large number of new -mines were opened and unheard-of prices were paid for labor. Now that -the price of tin has fallen, it is extremely difficult to get the -Indians to accept a lower scale of wages. Consequently, most of the new -mines have had to be closed.</p> - -<p>In the old days, the tin was discarded as the eager Spanish miners -thought only of the silver. But now the richer veins of silver have -become exhausted, and although some are being worked, most of the -activity is confined to the tin ore. At the top of the cone there is an -immense quantity of it; the only diffi<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_124" id="page_124"></a>{124}</span>culty is how to get it down to -the smelters in the valley between the hill and the city.</p> - -<p>In this valley runs a small stream of water that comes from the hill -reservoirs. Attracted by its presence, most of the smelters have located -themselves on one side or the other of the little gorge. There are -innumerable small <i>ingenios</i> worked by the Indians in a very primitive -fashion. Some of them are scarcely more than a family affair. Besides -these there are twenty-eight large smelters, and all of them devoted -more to tin than to silver. Not one of these is owned by a Bolivian. A -few belong to English capitalists, more to Chileans, and the largest of -all to a Frenchman who has constructed an aërial railway to bring the -ore from high up on the mountainside to his furnaces. The never ending -line of iron buckets adds a curiously modern note to the ruins over -which they pass. Ore is also brought down on the backs of donkeys and -llamas. The workmen are mostly Quichuas. Some of them are evidently not -city bred, for they dress with the same pigtails and small clothes that -they wore when Spanish <i>conquistadores</i> forced them to take the precious -metal out of the hill without any thought of reward other than the fact -that they were likely to die sooner and reach heaven earlier than if -they stayed quietly at home. The product of this smelter is shipped both -as pure tin in ingots and also as highly concentrated and refined ore.</p> - -<p>The most picturesque feature of the valley was a small chimney smoking -lustily away all by itself, high up on the opposite hillside, like a -young volcano with a smoke stack. In order to get a good draft for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_125" id="page_125"></a>{125}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_CERRO" id="THE_CERRO"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_124fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_124fpa_sml.jpg" width="273" height="175" alt="Image unavailable: THE CERRO OF POTOSÍ FROM THE SPANISH RESERVOIRS" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE CERRO OF POTOSÍ FROM THE SPANISH RESERVOIRS</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="AN_ANCIENT" id="AN_ANCIENT"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_124fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_124fpb_sml.jpg" width="267" height="176" alt="Image unavailable: AN ANCIENT QUICHUA ORE CRUSHER" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">AN ANCIENT QUICHUA ORE CRUSHER</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">the blast furnaces, the smoke is conducted across the stream on a stone -viaduct, enters the hill by a tunnel, and ascends a vertical shaft for -one hundred and fifty feet to the chimney which then carries it thirty -feet further up into the air. The tunnel does just as good work in the -way of producing a draft as though it were a modern brick chimney, two -hundred feet high, but the effect is uncanny, to say the least.</p> - -<p>We found among the boarders at the Hotel Colon a group of young Peruvian -and Chilean mining engineers who were very congenial. They made the best -of their voluntary exile, and although none of them enjoyed the fearful -climatic conditions, they managed to make their surroundings quite -tolerable with hard work, cheerful conversation, birthday dinners, and -social calls.</p> - -<p>The courtyard of the hotel was a fine example of the prevailing mixture -of old and new. The roof was covered with beautiful large red tiles -whose weight had crushed down the rafters in places so as to produce a -wavy effect. Meanwhile the shaky old balcony that ran around the court -connecting the rooms on the second floor, was sheltered from the rain by -strips of corrugated iron! The fine old stone-paved <i>patio</i> was marred -by a vile wainscoting painted in imitation of cheap oil-cloth. In one -corner stood a little old-fashioned stove where <i>arrieros</i>, who need to -make an early start, cook their tea without disturbing the hotel -servants. An archway running under the best bedrooms of the second -floor, led out to the street. Another archway led in to the filth of the -backyard where, amid indescribable scenes and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_126" id="page_126"></a>{126}</span> smells, six-course -dinners were prepared for our consumption. It was a miracle that we did -not get every disease in the calendar.</p> - -<p>Opposite the hotel was a fine old building with a wonderfully carved -stone gateway and attractive iron balconies jutting out with stone -supports from each second-story window. It is now the residence and -warehouse of one of the largest importers in Bolivia. Once it was the -abode of a Spanish marquis. The exquisitely finished exterior bears -witness to the good taste of its builder and the riches and extravagance -that once ran riot in Potosí.</p> - -<p>So also do the beautiful towers, all that are left standing of the -Jesuit church. The church itself has disappeared, but the solidly -constructed, exquisitely carved stone towers remain as silent witnesses -to the power of that Christian order that did most to advance the cause -of civilization in South America.</p> - -<p>Unquestionably the most picturesque part of Potosí is the market-place -and the streets in its immediate vicinity. Hither come the miners and -their families to spend their hard-earned wages. Here can be purchased -all the native articles of luxury: coca, <i>chupe</i>, frozen potatoes, -parched corn, and <i>chicha</i> (native hard cider made from anything that -happens to be handy). The streets are lined with small merchants who -stack their wares on the sidewalk against the walls of the buildings. -There are no carriages and few horseback riders, so that one does not -mind being crowded off the sidewalks by the picturesque booths of the -Quichua merchants.</p> - -<p>In the streets flocks of llamas driven by <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_127" id="page_127"></a>{127}</span>gayly-dressed Indians add a -rare flavor not easily forgotten. The llamas move noiselessly only -making little grunts of private conversation among themselves; quite -haughty, yet so timid withal, they are easily guided in droves of fifty -by a couple of diminutive Indians.</p> - -<p>To see these ridiculous animals stalking slowly along, looking -inquisitively at everyone, continually reminded me of Oliver Herford’s -verses about that person in Boston who</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Looked about him with that air<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Of supercilious despair<br /></span> -<span class="i1">That very stuck-up people wear<br /></span> -<span class="i1">At some society affair<br /></span> -<span class="i1">When no one in their set is there.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>In the immediate vicinity of the market-place every available inch on -each side of the street is used by the small tradesmen. They are allowed -to erect canopies to protect their goods from the sun and rain, and the -general effect is not unlike a street in Cairo. On one corner are piled -up bolts of foreign cloth, their owners squatting on the sidewalk in -front of them. On another corner, leaning against the white-washed walls -of a building, is a native drug store. The different herbs and medicines -exposed for sale in the little cloth bags are cleverly stacked up so as -to show their contents without allowing the medicines to mix. The most -conspicuous article offered for sale is coca, which is more to the -Quichua than tobacco is to the rest of mankind.</p> - -<p>The market-place itself is roughly paved with ir<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_128" id="page_128"></a>{128}</span>regular stone blocks -and is surrounded by arcades where are the more perishable European -goods. The vendors of Indian merchandise squat on the stones wherever -they can find a place and spread out before them their wares, whether -they consist of eggs or pottery, potatoes or sandals.</p> - -<p>It is the custom to arrange the corn and potatoes in little piles, each -pile being worth a <i>real</i>, about four cents in our money, the standard -of value in the market-place. Under umbrella-like shelters are gathered -the purveyors of food and drink, their steaming cauldrons of <i>chupe</i> -surrounded by squatting Indians who can thus get warmed and fed at the -same time.</p> - -<p>The Quichua garments are of every possible hue, although red -predominates. The women dress in innumerable petticoats of many-colored -materials and wear warm, heavy, colored shawls, brought together over -the shoulders and secured with two large pins, occasionally of handsome -workmanship, but more often in the shape of spoons. Generally they are -content with uninteresting felt hats, but now and then one will have a -specimen of a different design, the principal material of which is black -velveteen, ornamented with red worsted and colored beads. On their feet -the women usually wear the simplest kind of rawhide sandals, although -when they can afford it, they affect an extraordinary footgear, a sandal -with a French heel an inch and a half high, and shod with a leather -device resembling a horse shoe.</p> - -<p>Near the market-place is an interesting old church, its twin towers -still in good repair. Services are rarely held here, and it was with -some difficulty that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_129" id="page_129"></a>{129}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_MARKET" id="THE_MARKET"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_128fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_128fp_sml.jpg" width="376" height="275" alt="Image unavailable: THE MARKET-PLACE OF POTOSÍ" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE MARKET-PLACE OF POTOSÍ</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">we succeeded in finding the sexton, who finally brought a large key and -allowed us to see the historical pictures that hang on the walls of two -of the chapels. They are of considerable interest and appeared to date -from the sixteenth century. We commented on the fact that a large -painting had recently been removed and were regaled with a story of how -a foreign millionaire had bribed some prelate or other to sell him the -treasured relic!</p> - -<p>In the eighteenth century Potosí boasted of sixty churches but of these -considerably more than half are now in ruins. The ruined portion of the -city lies principally to the east and south. A few strongly built -churches or church towers are still standing amid the remains of -buildings that have tumbled down in heaps.</p> - -<p>Several of the old convents and monasteries, however, are still in a -flourishing condition. To us the chief interest consisted of their -collections of fine old paintings and their beautiful flowers. Nothing -was more refreshing in this mountainous desert than to walk in their -lovely green gardens.</p> - -<p>The principal object of interest in the city, however, is the Casa -Nacional de Moneda, the great mint, which was begun in colonial days to -receive the plunder that the Spaniards took out of the hill by means of -the forced labor of their Indian slaves. It covers two city blocks, and -is really a collection of buildings covered by a massive roof and -surrounded by a high wall with only one entrance. The front is striking. -At regular intervals along the roof are little stone ornaments like -funeral urns. The few<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_130" id="page_130"></a>{130}</span> windows are carefully guarded with iron bars. On -either side of the elaborately decorated façade of the two-storied -portal are wooden balconies over which projects the heavily timbered -roof covered with large red tiles.</p> - -<p>As one enters the great building from the street and passes between -heavy doors into a large courtyard, the first thing that attracts one’s -attention is an enormous face, four feet in diameter, which looks down -at the intruder from over an archway that leads to a second courtyard. -The gigantic face has a malicious grin yet bears a distinct resemblance -to Bacchus. Who put it here and what it signifies does not seem to be -known. Suffice it to say that many of the Quichuas before starting on a -journey, come to this courtyard and make obeisance to the face, throwing -down in front of it a quid of coca leaves just as they used to do to the -rising sun in the time of the Incas.</p> - -<p>The courtyard is surrounded by an arcade with massive arches over which -runs the carved wooden balustrade of the second-story balcony. In the -second patio, which is also paved with cut stones, a tiny narrow-gauge -railway is used to carry silver ingots from the treasure-room to the -stamping-machines. In one of the buildings is a physics laboratory. In -another a little gymnasium. In still a third, a collection of minerals. -All of which are evidences that here are the beginnings of a school of -mines that is being built up under the able direction of an intelligent -young Bolivian engineer who received his training at Notre Dame -University in the United States. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_131" id="page_131"></a>{131}</span> one old building are still standing -the great wooden machines that were formerly used in the process of -hammering out the silver. In a large room on the second floor of another -building are kept the vellum-bound records of the mint and all the dies -which have been used for the past two hundred years. According to the -records, the value of the silver taken from here in the colonial days -amounted to about one billion dollars. Most of the stamping was done by -hand. The Bolivian government has cleared out two or three of the -buildings and installed modern machinery, imported from the United -States.</p> - -<p>One of the most remarkable features of the mint is the size and -condition of the huge timbers that support the roof. They are as sound -to-day as they were two hundred years ago when, with infinite labor, -they were brought across the mountains from the distant forests of the -Chaco.</p> - -<p>The roof is surmounted by a number of small sentry-boxes which are -connected by little paths and stairways that lead to all parts of the -structure. In the old days, it was necessary not only to protect the -“money-house” against possible attacks from without, but to make sure -that the Indians, who were assigned to work in the mint, did not escape -from the attics where they slept at night.</p> - -<p>I crawled through several of these attics where not even an underfed -Indian could stand upright. The roof was scarcely four feet above the -floor. In the corners were rude fireplaces where they may have cooked -their <i>chupe</i>, with dried llama dung as their only fuel. The rooms were -dark, even in midday.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_132" id="page_132"></a>{132}</span> The tiny peek-holes that served as windows -admitted scarcely any light. Altogether it was as wretched a dormitory -as could possibly be imagined.</p> - -<p>The view from the roof was most interesting. The romantic cone of the -mountain-of-silver rises to the south beyond the graceful towers of the -cathedral. East of it are the hills where the Spaniards built their -famous reservoirs. Further east are higher hills which have been the -scene of several bloody encounters in the unprofitable civil wars that -have devastated Bolivia. Here on the battle-field of Kari Kari, several -hundred unfortunate Indians, fighting for revolutionary leaders with -whose selfish aims they had little sympathy, fell victims to the -unfortunate habit of appealing to arms instead of ballots.</p> - -<p>North of us, in the foreground, is the picturesque market-place, while -northwest, in the distance, the old trail for Oruro and Lima winds away -through the barren hills. To the west the far extending vista discloses -a wilderness of variegated hills and mountain ranges. While all around, -the quaint old arched roofs, rolling like giant swells of the Pacific, -are surrounded by the narrow streets, the red-tiled houses, and the -ruinous towers of the ancient city.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_133" id="page_133"></a>{133}</span></p> - -<p><a name="GREENER_AND" id="GREENER_AND"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_132fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_132fp_sml.jpg" width="392" height="271" alt="Image unavailable: GREENER AND MORE POPULOUS VALLEYS" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">GREENER AND MORE POPULOUS VALLEYS</span> -</div> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI<br /><br /> -<small>SUCRE THE <i>DE JURE</i> CAPITAL OF BOLIVIA</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">P</span><span class="smcap">otosí</span> was an irresistible attraction to thousands, but the dreadful -climate, the high altitude, the cold winds, and the chilling rains drove -away those who could afford it to the more hospitable valleys a few -days’ journey eastward where, with an abundant water-supply at an -elevation of eight thousand feet, charming villas sprang up surrounded -by attractive plantations, the present suburbs of Sucre.</p> - -<p>A fairly good coach road has recently been completed, and a weekly stage -carries mail and passengers between the two cities. We preferred, -however, to continue on our saddle mules and followed the older route. -The new road is a hundred miles long. The old trail is only -seventy-five. With good animals it need take but two days. We were in no -hurry, however, and decided to do it in three.</p> - -<p>The valleys through which our road descended, at first arid and -desolate, gradually became greener and more populous. The views were -often very fine and extensive and we saw a few snow-covered mountains. -In the middle of winter, that is June and July, the snow frequently -covers everything. Now, on the 29th of November, the prevailing color -was a tawny brown.</p> - -<p>On the road we met long strings of llamas, donkeys,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_134" id="page_134"></a>{134}</span> and mules laden -with every conceivable shape of basket, bag, and bundle bringing from -the fertile valleys to the eastward, potatoes, maize, wine, green -vegetables and fruits, the produce that feeds Potosí.</p> - -<p>Further evidence of the extent of this traffic and the number of -<i>arrieros</i> that continually pass over this road is the frequency of -little <i>chicherias</i>, wretched little huts built of stone and mud, baked -in the sun, and thatched with grass or bushes, where “<i>chicha</i>” can be -bought for a penny a gourd.</p> - -<p>On the bare ground in front of one of them a woman had pegged down the -framework of a hand loom and was beginning to weave a poncho. Near her -the family dinner of <i>chupe</i> was simmering away in a huge earthen-ware -pot, supported on three stones, over a tiny fire of thorns and llama -dung. Other picturesque jars filled with <i>chicha</i> awaited her customers.</p> - -<p>We lunched at what Baedeker would call “a primitive thermal -establishment,” a favorite weekend resort for German clerks in the -importing houses of Potosí. A swimming-pool that affords opportunity to -luxuriate in the warm sulphur water attracts many visitors, as it is -practically the only place in southern Bolivia where one can get a hot -tub bath.</p> - -<p>The proprietor of the Baths, a type of Englishman that in the Pacific -Ocean is called a “beach comber,” was an amusing old vagabond who made a -great fuss ordering his half-starved Indians to prepare us a suitable -meal. Our expectations were aroused to a high pitch by his enthusiasm, -but the quality of the food was not any better than that of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_135" id="page_135"></a>{135}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_PICTURESQUE" id="THE_PICTURESQUE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_134fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_134fp_sml.jpg" width="416" height="266" alt="Image unavailable: THE PICTURESQUE OLD CHURCH OF BARTOLO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE PICTURESQUE OLD CHURCH OF BARTOLO</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">the ordinary native inn. There was one very marked difference, however. -We were not met by any declaration of “<i>no hay nada</i>.”</p> - -<p>Our second stopping-place was Bartolo, a small town of a thousand -inhabitants, chiefly Quichua Indians, and a picturesque old church -surrounded by a wall made of stone arches. We arrived on a Sunday -evening and found the <i>tambo</i> already so full of travellers that there -was no room for us or our beasts. The Prefect of Potosí had given us a -circular letter requesting the masters of all the post-houses on our -route to accord us “every facility for our journey.” We soon found the -letter to be of little avail, for when there was any difficulty such as -lack of accommodation or of fodder we were invariably informed that the -master of the <i>poste</i> was away attending to some business in another -village. As our letter, however, included also the governors of towns, -we now asked to be directed to the house of the Gobernador of Bartolo -and found that worthy gentleman bidding good-bye to some Sunday visitors -with whom he had been partaking freely of brandy and <i>chicha</i>. He was at -first inclined to be insolent, and although he had a comparatively large -house, declared that he had no room for us and that we must return to -the inn. As the situation approached that point where it was becoming -necessary to use force in order to secure shelter for the night, an -obliging guest, who had possession of the largest room in the inn, -learning from Fermin, the Gaucho, that we were <i>delegados</i>, offered us -the use of his quarters while he sought accommodation among his -acquaintances in the town.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_136" id="page_136"></a>{136}</span></p> - -<p>In the meantime, the family of the tipsy governor had sobered him up -enough to make him realize that he had shown discourtesy to the bearer -of a government passport and he came to the inn with profuse offers of -entertainment which we unfortunately could not accept.</p> - -<p>We left Bartolo early the next morning. The dust had been laid by -thunder-showers in the night and the crisp mountain air was most -refreshing. Occasionally we passed the ruins of a rude stone cairn -erected in colonial days to measure the leagues between Sucre and -Potosí. Fermin had never been beyond Potosí, so we were obliged to fall -back upon the service of guides or <i>postillons</i> from here on. They -cannot be taken farther than from one <i>poste</i> to another, generally six -leagues or twenty miles. They receive a regular tariff of four cents per -league, and a small gratuity besides.</p> - -<p>For this munificent sum of a little over a cent a mile, they are -supposed to assist in catching and saddling the animals, to hold the -packs while they are being loaded, and then to run beside the trotting -pack-animals, ready to help if the loads become loosened, constantly at -hand, a willing slave to the <i>arriero</i> and a guide to the traveller. -Generally lightly clad with the regulation Quichua small clothes, that -look as though made of meal-sacks, they march or lope along cheerily, -now and then blowing lustily on an ox-horn, which they carry slung over -the shoulder as a badge of their position.</p> - -<p>The <i>postillons</i> will not budge unless their tariff is paid in advance, -for they have learned through cen<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_137" id="page_137"></a>{137}</span>turies of experience that while the -traveller with a stout whip, mounted on a good animal, with the -authority of the government at his back, can force them to go the -required distance after the fee has been paid, they have no means -whatever of forcing him to pay after he has arrived at his destination -and has no further need of their services. The first <i>postilion</i> we had, -recognizing the fact that our <i>arriero</i> was a stranger in this part of -the country and that we were foreigners, ran far ahead of the little -caravan, and would have disappeared among the thorny shrubs of the arid -hillside had we not galloped after him and threateningly ordered him to -return to his post at the heels of the mules. The next one proved to be -a good fellow and did his work well, notwithstanding the dust which was -his portion during most of the day.</p> - -<p>This morning we passed a field in which alpacas that looked like -overgrown woolly dogs were feeding. As the sparse foliage increased, we -met numerous flocks of sheep watched over by diminutive children in -shawls and ponchos who ran away and hid behind rocks when they saw us -coming.</p> - -<p>About the middle of the morning we came to the edge of a plateau and -enjoyed a wonderful view of fertile valleys, whose waters flow rapidly -down to the Pilcomayo. It seemed difficult to realize that a Bolivian -landscape could have any other color than brown. Our descent was now -rapid, and the temperature grew warmer except when we encountered a -small hail-storm.</p> - -<p>After passing the scene of a battle in the unsuc<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_138" id="page_138"></a>{138}</span>cessful revolution of -General Camacho, a militant politician with whom Bolivia had -considerable difficulty in the ’90’s, we stopped for lunch at a -tumbled-down hostelry called Quebrada Honda, in honor of a deep little -valley whose steep sides rise abruptly from a roaring mountain torrent. -Squatting on the ground in front of the tambo was a Quichua woman -weaving a bright-colored poncho.</p> - -<p>In the afternoon we passed some primitive dwellings which consisted of -huge flat boulders under which excavations had been made leaving them -partially supported by piles of stones at the corners. The method did -not seem to have proved successful, for in most cases, the roof, too -heavy for the supports, was lying on the ground.</p> - -<p>About five o’clock we arrived at the <i>poste</i> of Pampa Tambo. We found a -<i>postilion</i> in charge; the “master of the <i>poste</i> was absent” as usual. -The <i>postilion</i> decided to charge us three times the regular rate for -forage and Fermin protested vigorously, but in vain. Although it was a -matter of only a dollar or so, I decided to see whether my letter from -the Prefect of Potosí would make any difference with his attitude toward -us. The sight of the official seal, and an emphatic threat that he would -get himself into trouble if he persisted in his outrageous demands, -gradually brought him to lower the price until it came within two or -three cents of the regular tariff.</p> - -<p>Hardly had we settled the dispute when a violent thunder-storm came up. -This was the last day of November and the rainy season was beginning. -From now on we had showers nearly every afternoon.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_139" id="page_139"></a>{139}</span></p> - -<p><a name="A_PASTURE" id="A_PASTURE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_138fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_138fpa_sml.jpg" width="271" height="167" alt="Image unavailable: A PASTURE FOR SHEEP AND ALPACAS" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">A PASTURE FOR SHEEP AND ALPACAS</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="A_QUICHUA_WOMAN" id="A_QUICHUA_WOMAN"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_138fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_138fpb_sml.jpg" width="269" height="175" alt="Image unavailable: A QUICHUA WOMAN WEAVING AT QUEBRADA HONDA" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">A QUICHUA WOMAN WEAVING AT QUEBRADA HONDA</span> -</div> - -<p>In the evening a party of foreigners arrived, consisting of a wealthy -Franco-Boliviano and his two sons who were on their way home from Paris. -They amused us by their elaborate preparations to supply themselves with -drinks and edibles. Little alcohol stoves were kept busy making hot -toddy, and drinks without number soon produced a very drowsy party.</p> - -<p>We got an early start the next morning and, in an hour after leaving -Pampa Tambo, came in sight of the great river Pilcomayo which is -associated with the tragic death of the French explorer, Creveaux. The -Pilcomayo rises west of Potosí, receives the turbid waters that have -passed through Potosí’s smelters, flows east and then southeast towards -Paraguay, finally joining the Paraguay River just above Asuncion. Were -it not for the gigantic morass, the Estero Patino, which interrupts its -course for about fifty miles, it would serve as a convenient means of -communication between the mining region of Bolivia and the Rio de la -Plata. Most of its course is through the Gran Chaco, a debateable land -that has been only partly explored.</p> - -<p>East of the Andes, where the affluents of the Pilcomayo are almost -interlaced with those of the Mamoré, in the watershed between the basins -of the Amazon and the Paraná, lies a region of rich tropical forests -with possibilities of development that appeal very strongly to -far-sighted Bolivianos. The conditions are tropical, the soil is -fertile, and there is an abundance of rain. There are, however, in this -region, many tribes of wild Indians of whom little is known and who have -shown no desire to encour<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_140" id="page_140"></a>{140}</span>age the advent of strangers. Transportation is -exceedingly difficult.</p> - -<p>We found that a suspension bridge had been built across the Pilcomayo at -its narrowest and deepest point, but owing to the tardiness of the wet -season, we were able to ford the stream lower down and save a détour of -several miles. After crossing the river we rode up a dry gulch in which -an attempt at cultivation by means of irrigating ditches was producing -both pomegranates and peaches.</p> - -<p>An hour’s ride beyond the river brought us to Calera, a little hamlet of -Indian huts with a very primitive <i>tambo</i>. We had counted on resting -here during the middle of the day, but there was absolutely nothing to -be had either for man or beast. We could have unloaded and unpacked our -own supplies, but there is no point in eating when your mules cannot -eat, and so we pushed on, twelve miles further, to the town of Yotala. -Our path crossed a low range of barren hills and then descended a -thousand feet or more by a steep, winding path to the river Cachimayo -which we forded without difficulty. In this little valley we found many -attractive plantations, the <i>fincas</i> or country houses of the wealthy -residents of Sucre. Extensive irrigation has transformed the bed of the -valley into what seems like a veritable paradise, so great is its -contrast with the barren region around about.</p> - -<p>Yotala is an old Spanish town, much more dead than alive. There was an -inn, misnamed a “restaurant,” where there was nothing to be had in the -way of food for any of us. Fermin finally succeeded<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_141" id="page_141"></a>{141}</span> in finding a poor -widow who had a little fodder for sale and was willing to let the mules -eat it in her back yard. As for ourselves, we had to fall back as usual -on canned goods, just as though this were an isolated <i>poste</i>, twenty -miles from anywhere, instead of being a town of several thousand -inhabitants. We spread out our little lunch on the stones of the plaza -under two trees.</p> - -<p>As it was noon, and the sky cloudless, the sun shone with considerable -ferocity. Presently a slovenly official with an expression on his face -that said plainly he was not quite sure whether we were distinguished -travellers who ought to be looked after or only vagabonds who should be -driven off, came and inquired if we were French merchants. On receiving -a negative reply he seemed rather relieved and withdrew to the shade of -his own house. Of course if we had whispered the magic words “<i>delegados -de los Estados Unidos</i>,” all would have been different.</p> - -<p>After the mules had had a rest we covered the remaining six miles to -Sucre, passing on the way a number of large <i>fincas</i>. One of them seemed -to bear a distant resemblance to a pleasure park. Statues of men and -animals, summer houses, pagodas, and a small intramural railway whose -imitation locomotive was a small automobile in disguise, lent the place -a festive air which was increased by one or two minarets and other -fantastic towers. We learned afterwards that this was La Glorieta, the -seat of the Prince and Princess of Glorieta. The story, as told us by a -pleasant old lady in Sucre, is as follows:—<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_142" id="page_142"></a>{142}</span></p> - -<p>It seems that the head of the richest family in Bolivia, who is also the -leading banker of Sucre, wearying of republican simplicity, decided to -make a large donation to the Pope. Soon afterwards his great generosity -was rewarded with the title of “Prince of Glorieta.” Unfortunately, our -presence in this part of the world was not properly made known to this -Bolivian royal house and I am unable to give an adequate description of -the beauties of Glorieta. They have, however, been published by the -owners in a pamphlet, and from all that I could hear, Glorieta has a -distant resemblance to Coney Island.</p> - -<p>After passing Glorieta, we crossed a small cañon, climbed the sides of a -deep gorge, and suddenly found ourselves at the city gates.</p> - -<p>Sucre has a population of twenty thousand souls, including fifty -negroes, and two or three hundred foreigners, a large number of whom are -Spaniards engaged in mercantile business. There are two or three hotels -here, and we were in some doubt as to which might offer the best -welcome. After a vain effort to locate the Prefect and get his advice, -we decided to go to the Hotel Colon where we found large comfortable -rooms on the second floor, facing the plaza. The proprietor was most -polite and attentive. The only fault that we had to find with him was -his continual spitting. The fact that there were no cuspidors and that -he was ruining his own carpet did not deter him in the least. Perhaps he -had rented the furnishings.</p> - -<p>It is superfluous to speak of the filth of the kitchen<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_143" id="page_143"></a>{143}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_GREAT" id="THE_GREAT"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_142fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_142fpa_sml.jpg" width="268" height="185" alt="Image unavailable: THE GREAT RIVER PILCOMAYO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE GREAT RIVER PILCOMAYO</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="OUR_HOTEL" id="OUR_HOTEL"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_142fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_142fpb_sml.jpg" width="272" height="197" alt="Image unavailable: OUR HOTEL IN SUCRE" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">OUR HOTEL IN SUCRE</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">through which we had to pass to reach the back yard. It differed from -others only in the large number of guinea-pigs that swarmed everywhere. -They helped to make the bill-of-fare more interesting.</p> - -<p>Sucre owes its importance to its comparatively pleasant climate. The -average temperature is 56° F. Bolivianos, accustomed as they are to one -of the worst climates in the world, say that Sucre has “the finest -climate in existence,” which means, being translated, that it is fairly -tolerable. Nevertheless, we found it very agreeable to be down at this -lower elevation, and we could scarcely sympathize with Castelnau, who, -coming up from the eastern plains in 1845, thought Sucre very -“<i>triste</i>.” He and his associates had been for many months in the warm -regions of Brazil and found it difficult “to resist the cold and the -effects of the altitude.” Most of them suffered severely from <i>soroche</i> -although few people now-a-days think of being troubled at an altitude of -anything less than twelve thousand feet and Sucre is only a little over -nine thousand.</p> - -<p>If the miners had felt as Castelnau did, the old Indian city of -Chuquisaca would never have become the social and literary capital of -upper Peru. Its name was changed to La Plata in recognition of the -stream of silver that flowed to it from Potosí. Here resided an -important bishop who looked after the souls of countless thousands of -Indians scattered up and down the Bolivian plateau and in the tangled -jungles east of the Andes. The citizens of Chuquisaca, or La Plata, -acquired before long a reputation for wealth and intelligence which -spread far and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_144" id="page_144"></a>{144}</span> wide. They called their city the “Athens of Peru” and -they established here a university where students still come to study -law and medicine.</p> - -<p>After the great battle of Ayacucho in December, 1824, when General Sucre -won the memorable victory that defeated the last Spanish army in South -America, Upper Peru was erected into an independent Republic, taking its -name from the great General Bolivar and giving to its capital city the -name of its first president.</p> - -<p>President Sucre was living at the capital when Edmond Temple came here -in 1826. That entertaining writer describes him as tall and thin with -mild, prepossessing manners and diffident address. Temple had lived in -Bolivia for nearly a year and was moved to say that General Sucre was -the best choice that could have been made to fill “the arduous, -troublesome, and thankless office of Supreme Chief of the new republic -of Bolivia.” Temple attended a session of Congress where he was -unfavorably impressed by the custom of remaining seated during the whole -debate and by the constant practice of spitting, “which is a breach of -decorum which no Englishman can patiently witness!” The innkeeper must -have been a descendant of a Congressman.</p> - -<p>As long as Congress sat here the representatives came mostly from this -region and were naturally influenced by the aristocratic society of the -capital. The wealthy politicians of Sucre succeeded in diverting a large -part of the national revenues to beautifying their city, building -extravagant public works,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_145" id="page_145"></a>{145}</span> and neglecting the just claims of La Paz. La -Paz, far more populous, and enjoying a much more important situation -commercially, was overlooked. Little of the public revenue found its way -thither. The result was a revolution in which La Paz emphatically -proclaimed its desire to share in the distribution of the public moneys -and public offices. The then President gathered the Government forces -together in Sucre and proceeded to march on the rebellious metropolis. -He was defeated not far from La Paz with great losses, and the war-like -Aymarás of La Paz followed up the victory with orgies of a disgusting -and barbaric if not cannibalistic character. The result was that while -Sucre retained the Supreme Court and the title of Capital, La Paz became -the actual seat of government, and few foreign diplomats have ever -undertaken the five days of hard travel which separates Sucre from -Challapata, the nearest railway station.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless the wealthiest people in Bolivia live in Sucre. They are -very aristocratic and extremely exclusive, and they feel very superior -to the citizens of La Paz although that place is really much more -important than Sucre. The great land-owners have established here the -headquarters of the most important banks in the country.</p> - -<p>At the largest of all, the Banco Nacional de Bolivia, I drew some money -on my letter of credit. Among the coins which I trustfully accepted were -seven or eight that proved to be bad. The Indians always ring a coin -before accepting it. The result was I found myself the victim of a -clever bank cashier.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_146" id="page_146"></a>{146}</span> The coins were probably not counterfeit. The -Bolivian government has not been above issuing “silver” coins, -particularly “half <i>pesos</i>,” that contain so much “alloy” as to be -valueless.</p> - -<p>These debased half dollars have long been a subject of annoyance not -only to travellers but to the neighboring Peruvians. Sir Clements -Markham says that at the time of his visit to Peru in 1859, when he was -on that famous mission that secured Chincona plants from eastern Peru -for transportation to India, war was imminent between Peru and Bolivia -and one <i>casus belli</i> was that the Bolivian government persisted in -coining and deluging Peru with debased half dollars. These ill-omened -chickens have certainly come back to roost, for one never sees them now -in Peru and they are all too frequent here. Perhaps that is one reason -why the local banks are so unusually well built.</p> - -<p>There is also a pretentious “legislative palace,” and at the time of my -visit a large theatre was in the course of construction. It was hoped to -have this completed in time for the celebration of the one hundredth -anniversary of the beginning of the War of Independence.</p> - -<p>The market-place is neither so interesting nor so picturesque as that of -Potosí. A few of the men wore curious helmet-like hats with small visors -turned up in front and back. It would be interesting to know whether -this were the original hat of the vicinity or whether it had been copied -from the head-gear of the armored Spaniard <i>conquistadores</i> of the -sixteenth century. The corresponding women’s hats<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_147" id="page_147"></a>{147}</span> were twice as large -as the men’s but the brim was turned up in the front and back in the -same fashion.</p> - -<p>Most of the women wore felt hats of native manufacture, picturesque -coats of white cotton decorated with many little pieces of colored -calico, and as many heavy woollen petticoats as they could afford. The -majority wore rough rawhide sandals without socks but a few had -elaborately patterned knitted stockings.</p> - -<p>A considerable quantity of chocolate is manufactured here and, as in the -mountains of Colombia, no meal is considered complete without it. They -appreciate better than we do the advantage of having the drink as light -and airy as possible, and consequently never serve any without beating -it to a light froth by means of a wooden spindle that is inserted in the -pot and rapidly revolved between the palms of the hands.</p> - -<p>There are several Indian silversmiths here, as well as in Potosí, where -filigree-work, spoons, and simple silver dishes are hammered out. The -director of the mint in Potosí told me he was frequently offered pure -silver family heirlooms that have come down from the extravagant days of -the seventeenth century when in a well-to-do house every imaginable -utensil was made of silver.</p> - -<p>Another specialty of Sucre is the manufacture of tiny dolls out of -pieces of fine wire, lace, and tinsel. They range in size from four -inches down to half an inch. Sometimes an effort is made to copy a -native costume, but more generally the dressing is entirely fantastic or -suited only to high carnival. Similar dolls are made in south central -Mexico.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_148" id="page_148"></a>{148}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII<br /><br /> -<small>THE ROAD TO CHALLAPATA</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span><span class="smcap">e</span> were not sorry when the time came to leave Sucre. It not infrequently -happens that interior provincial cities of considerable local political -importance are not very lenient toward strangers, particularly if the -latter are dressed in breeches that seem at all outlandish to the -provincial mind. I understand that Chinese have found this to be true in -the capitals of our Western States. The thing had happened to me before -in Tunja, the capital of the province of Boyacá, Colombia. And it -happened here in Sucre. Whenever we walked the streets examining the -public buildings or visiting the market-place, we were considerably -annoyed by loafers, both men and boys, who, recognizing us as strangers -and foreigners, regarded us as the proper target for all manner of -witticisms.</p> - -<p>An hour after leaving the city, we turned to look back, and found the -view from the west quite attractive. In the foreground, dry gulches, -stony hillsides, and an occasional thatched mud hut. In the distance, -hills sloping down so abruptly that one could not see the bottom of the -gulch that lay between us and the city. Immediately beyond, the white -walls of Sucre overshadowed by a mountain whose twin peaks rise beyond -the eastern suburbs. There was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_149" id="page_149"></a>{149}</span> just a suggestion of green, reminding us -that this is the last fertile spot on the outskirts of the great arid -plateau, towards which we now turned.</p> - -<p>As the road between Sucre and the railway is one of the most important -thoroughfares in Bolivia, it was to be expected that there would be -<i>postes</i> every four or five leagues. The first one we came to was that -of Punilla, four leagues from Sucre. All we needed was a guide, but the -only <i>postillon</i> we could secure had a very sore foot, scarcely -protected at all from the stony road by the primitive rawhide sandal -that he wore. Yet he came along quite cheerfully.</p> - -<p>The <i>postes</i> between Sucre and Challapata are larger than those in -southern Bolivia. They are modelled on the Inca <i>tambos</i> that used to -exist on all the more frequented trails in the highlands of Peru and -Bolivia; a range of low, windowless buildings, either of stone or adobe, -sometimes completely surrounding a courtyard, at other times only on -three sides, containing a few rooms of which one is furnished with a -rough and very shaky table and three or four adobe platforms intended -for bunks; mud floors that have accumulated dirt and filth of every -description ever since the building was constructed; poorly thatched -roofs from which bits of straw and pieces of dirt occasionally dislodge -themselves to fall on the table where we spread our canned repast, or to -alight on our faces just as we were trying to get to sleep.</p> - -<p>The trains of pack animals that we met on the road, whether llamas, -burros, or mules, were all engaged in bringing freight from the railway. -This consisted mostly of boxes of soap and canned goods,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_150" id="page_150"></a>{150}</span> cases of wine -and beer and condensed milk, and small packages of general merchandise.</p> - -<p>The next <i>poste</i>, Pisculco, four leagues beyond Punilla over a good road -that wound through semi-arid hills, was an extremely primitive affair. -The master of the <i>poste</i> and all the <i>postillons</i> were “absent,” but we -secured the services of a small boy who bravely girded his belt, slung a -horn over his shoulder, received his pay and started out as our guide -and escort. He soon fell behind, however, and before we knew it, -disappeared among the brown bushes. Both his scanty raiment and his skin -were so nearly the color of the ground that it was a hopeless task to -look for him, and we went on, trusting we should be able to follow such -a well-travelled highway without the necessity of a guide. -Unfortunately, the road forked, and in choosing the more travelled -branch, we followed a short cut in the steps of llama pack trains. As -they camp in the open at night, we missed the road for Moromoro, took -the wrong turn, and after a perilous descent down a mile of treacherous, -slippery rocks, found ourselves at the abandoned <i>tambo</i> of Challoma, -whose only inhabitants were an old woman and her pigs. She was greatly -alarmed at our arrival and told us in shrill tones that we were three -leagues off the road. Nevertheless, as it was rapidly getting dark and -we had had a hard ride of forty miles, we decided to take shelter under -the leaky roof of the ancient <i>poste</i>.</p> - -<p>Beyond Challoma the trail crossed a cañon and a shallow stream and -finally came out on a series of flat lands where we saw a few burros and -llamas<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_151" id="page_151"></a>{151}</span></p> - -<p><a name="AN_ABANDONED" id="AN_ABANDONED"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_150fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_150fpa_sml.jpg" width="380" height="110" alt="Image unavailable: AN ABANDONED TAMBO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">AN ABANDONED TAMBO</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="OUR_FIRST" id="OUR_FIRST"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_150fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_150fpb_sml.jpg" width="376" height="119" alt="Image unavailable: OUR FIRST VIEW OF THE GREAT TABLE-LAND OF BOLIVIA" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">OUR FIRST VIEW OF THE GREAT TABLE-LAND OF BOLIVIA</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">grazing on the dry grass which had been left over from the last rainy -season.</p> - -<p>In the middle of one such plain stood the next <i>poste</i>, Caracara, built -like a fortress in the desert. There are only three openings in the -great square inclosure: a barred window high up in a gable end near one -corner; a little door leading to a <i>cantina</i> where one could purchase a -few drinks, matches, candles, and cigarettes; and a small arched -entrance through which loaded animals and travellers pass to the -courtyard. Although on one of the most important highways in Bolivia it -did not afford any food for the animals or ourselves.</p> - -<p>After leaving Caracara, we passed a few pink roses blooming under the -shelter of some rocks. They looked strangely out of place in this -Thibetan wilderness but they gave signs of the coming spring and the -rainy season. In the afternoon we had several thunder-showers. The -result of the showers of the past few days had been to stimulate also -the growth of an occasional geranium, or modest little fern. In general -there was little to relieve the monotonous brown wilderness.</p> - -<p>For league after league we continued our march westward through a -confused mountainous region. In southern Bolivia we had followed a long -valley running in a north and south direction, but here our route lay -across the valleys. Sometimes we followed the coach road for several -leagues and then took a short cut down a steep hillside. At times we did -not see a single hut in the twelve or fourteen miles separating the -<i>postes</i>. While not quite so sandy and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_152" id="page_152"></a>{152}</span> desolate as the region farther -south, still it impresses one as being extremely inhospitable and -unlikely ever to support a larger population.</p> - -<p>In the evening of the second day we reached Ocurí, eighty miles from -Sucre. Just outside the town we crossed a very swampy plain where -cattle, horses, and pigs were feeding in treacherous bogs.</p> - -<p>Ocurí is a brown little Indian town of perhaps two thousand inhabitants, -with houses of sunburned brick and thatched roofs, lying high up on the -side of a mountain whose peak shelters it somewhat from the easterly -winds. It is higher than Potosí and has much the same cold, dismal -climate. It likewise owes its existence to the presence of mines of -silver and tin. There are several small smelters just outside the town. -We could get nothing to eat in the <i>poste</i>, but a pleasant-faced mestiza -woman who kept a sort of boarding-house near by, gave us a supper of -beefsteak and fried eggs, a welcome change from the canned food which -was our mainstay.</p> - -<p>The principal street in the town was lined with small shops where a -considerable variety of domestic and foreign merchandise was offered for -sale. This does not mean that there were any attractive window displays -but that when Mr. Smith felt brave enough to venture to step over the -little Aymará brats and the fierce Bolivian dogs who were playing around -the prostrate forms of drunken <i>arrieros</i>, he found hidden away in the -dark recesses of dusty shops, quite a variety of articles. Cigarettes, -onions, eggs, bread, canned salmon, sardines, home-made woollen ponchos, -imported cotton cloth, candles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_153" id="page_153"></a>{153}</span> cheap domestic pottery, straw hats, -shoes, belts, gloves, and condensed milk. It is a very poor place indeed -in Bolivia where one cannot buy a small can of Swiss condensed milk, the -one thing that is generally good.</p> - -<p>At Ocurí, we entered the country of the Aymarás for whom this is a kind -of outpost town. Our first evidence of their being here was the fact -that the <i>postillons</i> in the <i>tambo</i> unloaded our mules very carelessly, -allowing the bags to fall with a crash to the ground. They seemed to -think it a great joke to treat us as ignominiously as possible. From -here to Oruro, La Paz, and Lake Titicaca the Aymarás are in full sway. -They seem to be inserted like a wedge between the Quichuas of Peru and -those of southern Bolivia.</p> - -<p>The Quichuas are a mild and inoffensive folk, but the Aymarás, heavier -in build, coarser featured, and more vigorous in general appearance, are -brutally insolent in their manner and unruly in their behavior. We were -even regaled with stories of their cannibalism on certain occasions, but -unfortunately had no opportunity of proving the truth of such -statements. Neither Quichuas nor Aymarás are at all thrifty, and we were -everywhere impressed with their great poverty. Their clothing is -generally the merest rags and their food is as meagre as can possibly be -imagined. Coca and <i>chicha</i> (<i>i. e.</i>, cocaine and alcohol) seem to be -beginning and end of life with them. We rarely ever saw one riding, -although occasionally we met a <i>postillon</i> returning to his <i>poste</i> with -a mule that had been placed in his charge.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_154" id="page_154"></a>{154}</span></p> - -<p>A great majority of the population show little or no desire to vote or -to have anything to do with politics. They are uneducated, but have very -fixed ideas with regard to their absolute rights over land which they -have occupied for any length of time. Their ideas of squatter -sovereignty sometimes interfere with the desires of the government to -develop the resources of the country.</p> - -<p>It is unfortunate that no efforts are being made to establish a good -system of public schools and enforce attendance. One of the greatest -difficulties in the way of such an undertaking is the fact that the -Indians not only have no interest in securing the education of their -children, but also that they find it to their advantage to speak their -own tongue rather than Spanish. Probably less than fifteen per cent of -the population speak Spanish with fluency. They are lacking in ambition, -seem to have no desire to raise produce, bear ill-will towards -strangers, and prefer not to assist travellers to pass through their -country. Even if a man has plenty of chickens and sheep, he will -generally refuse to sell any although you offer him an excellent price. -With coaxing and coca you may succeed. Sometimes he pretends not to -understand Spanish and replies to all questions in guttural Quichua or -Aymará.</p> - -<p>So large a percentage of the population are Indians that nearly all the -whites are actively interested in politics and would like to be -office-holders. It is said that all elections are merely forms through -which the party in power goes, in order to maintain its supremacy.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_155" id="page_155"></a>{155}</span></p> - -<p>The majority of the inhabitants are in no sense fitted to be the -citizens of a republic. However much the theoretical lover of liberty -may bemoan the fact that Bolivia is in reality an oligarchy, one cannot -help feeling that that is the only possible outcome of an attempt to -simulate the forms of a republic in a country whose inhabitants are so -deficient both mentally and morally. Mexico has given a splendid example -of what can be accomplished in a region populated largely by Indians and -descendants of Spanish monarchists. The benevolent despotism which -President Diaz has exhibited now for more than a generation has done -wonders. The great San Martin foresaw the advantages of oligarchy or -monarchy and advocated something of the kind for the Spanish provinces -of South America when they secured their independence. Unfortunately, -his far-sighted statesmanship ran counter to the bombastic notions of -“liberty” held by the uneducated creoles who had secured control of the -reins of government and the result was the creation of republics. The -extreme difficulty of communication throughout Bolivia has made the way -of revolutions fairly easy. An entire province can rise against the -government before sufficient troops can be sent to quell the -disturbance.</p> - -<p>Whenever we got an early start from a <i>poste</i>, we were pretty sure to -come upon a llama camp before long; the drivers engaged in slowly -rounding up their grazing beasts and inducing them to receive their -loads for another day’s work. In the absence of rain, the loads are -merely piled up on the ground so as to form a shelter from the wind -during the night.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_156" id="page_156"></a>{156}</span> If showers threaten, ponchos and tarpaulins are -thrown over the heap of merchandise.</p> - -<p>Many of the llama drivers carried primitive musical instruments. The -most common form was a bamboo flute or flageolet with six holes. On -these the Indians succeed in playing weird, monotonous airs in which a -fantastic reiteration of simple strains is varied with occasional bursts -of high, screechy notes. Some of the drivers had little guitars of a -very primitive construction on which they thrummed rather monotonously. -Some had their wives and children with them. The women were nearly -always engaged in spinning yarn with a wooden spindle which they handled -with the dexterity of a professional juggler. Two or three men, and a -boy or so, generally accompanied a caravan of sixty or seventy llamas. -Each driver carried a knitted sling made of llama wool and found no lack -of ammunition by the roadside with which to urge forward his flock or to -head off a stray animal. We were always amused when we met a drove. The -leaders would approach gingerly, stretching their long necks and looking -very much like timid, near-sighted dowagers. They scarcely knew whether -to advance or to retreat. A few flying rocks from the slings of the -drivers, followed up by encouraging shouts, generally decided the -leaders to proceed, but some were so palpably “frightened to death” by -everything they saw, we were surprised they had managed to live so long. -Occasionally a herd coming from Sucre laden with chocolate or sugar and -bound eastward, would meet one coming from the railroad with foreign -merchandise.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_157" id="page_157"></a>{157}</span> This nearly always resulted in great confusion and much -shouting. The llamas looked so stupid we wondered how they ever -succeeded in extricating themselves and proceeding in the right -direction. At one point where the road almost disappeared among a -wilderness of huge, scattered boulders, we met a large drove that had -lost all sense of direction. Every attempt of the drivers to get their -animals headed the same way met with failure. The beasts seemed to be -infused with some centrifugal force which sent every one of them in a -different direction from his neighbor. Owing to the huge rocks, it was -impossible for the poor creatures to see one another or the drivers. -They may be there yet.</p> - -<p>There is something extremely amusing in the soft tread, the awkward -gait, the large innocent eyes, and the inquisitive ears of the llama. -Many had the tips of their ears decorated with bits of colored worsted. -I saw two that were decked out with very elaborate headdresses. They -never seemed to be in a hurry, any more than their Indian drivers, and -their disposition is much more gentle and inoffensive than I had been -led to suppose.</p> - -<p>About ten miles from Ocurí I saw several fat lizards each about six -inches long. The altitude at the time was about fourteen thousand feet, -the record height for lizards, so I am told.</p> - -<p>Soon afterwards we got a glimpse to the northwards of the sharp peaks -near Colquechaca, one of the highest towns in the world, which owes its -existence, as do so many of the Bolivian towns, to the presence in its -vicinity of rich silver mines.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_158" id="page_158"></a>{158}</span></p> - -<p>We reached Macha at noon on the third day, after a hot ride of thirty -miles from Ocurí.</p> - -<p>Macha is another dusty-brown, Indian town lying on the slopes of a large -valley. Near by we saw some evidences of cultivation. The fields were -surrounded with walls of dried mud and had large adobe gates reminding -me of the Sogamoso valley in Colombia. That region, however, was so much -greener and more fertile than this that the resemblance ceased with the -gates and fences. It should be remembered that the rainy season here had -only just begun.</p> - -<p>As we descended the east side of the valley, we met a six-mule coach on -its way from Challapata to Sucre. The curtains were drawn down on all -sides to protect the passengers from the dust and glare. Their outlook -was rather limited. A quarter of a mile beyond we met a drove of relay -coach mules, in charge of two mounted <i>postillons</i>.</p> - -<p>There is a moderately good coach-road two hundred and ten miles long -from Sucre to Challapata. The coach runs fortnightly, in pleasant -weather, and takes five days for the journey. Personally, I should -prefer almost anything rather than to be shut up in a Bolivian coach and -yanked over these rough, dusty roads, but I suppose some people would -relish even that better than jogging along forty miles a day on a mule, -as we chose to do.</p> - -<p>We left Macha after a light lunch but had not gone a mile before we were -pelted by a violent thunder-shower accompanied by hail, some of the -stones being as large as marbles. To add to our discomfort the mules had -made rapid marches since leaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_159" id="page_159"></a>{159}</span> Sucre and were very tired. The road -out of the valley was steep and slippery. When we reached the summit, -the storm renewed its fury, and we all shivered with the cold, in -contrast to the burning heat of the morning. At this height, whenever -the sun shines, the glare is trying and the heat really uncomfortable. -As soon as the sun passes behind a cloud, however, one experiences all -the rigors of winter.</p> - -<p>We arrived at the lonely isolated <i>poste</i> of Aconcawa just at sunset. -The Aymará <i>postillons</i> were as disobliging as possible. Four or five -Bolivian travellers had reached the <i>poste</i> ahead of us and taken -possession of the only available sleeping room. The night was bitterly -cold and wet. The altitude was something over thirteen thousand feet. -After some difficulty, we succeeded in forcing our way into a room where -the <i>cebada</i> or barley straw was stored. South of Potosí the fodder for -the mules is generally <i>alfa</i> or alfalfa but hereabouts it is <i>cebada</i>. -The Indians were so afraid of our damaging the straw by sleeping on it -that they swept it up and piled it on one side of the room as high as -possible, raising clouds of fine dust in the meantime. The dust did not -settle for many hours and brought on asthma when we tried to sleep. Soon -after leaving Aconcawa, Fermin’s sharp eyes detected three vicuñas, -feeding, a mile away to the south of us. I could barely make them out -with powerful field-glasses and should never have seen them at all but -for the keen-eyed gaucho. It seemed strange that these should be the -only vicuñas which we saw in a wild state in our entire journey in -southern Bolivia.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_160" id="page_160"></a>{160}</span> Travellers fifty years ago speak of meeting them -constantly in the more desolate parts of the mountains. Before the great -demand arose for vicuña rugs, those highly-prized trophies of the casual -visitor, these graceful and beautiful creatures, with their fawn-colored -coats, were one of the most interesting features of travel in the lonely -upland pastures of the Bolivian and Peruvian mountains.</p> - -<p>On the little plain near the vicuñas were a few pools of water that -seemed to be a feeding-ground for a few pigeons and some birds that -looked like Titicaca gulls. An occasional earth-colored guineapig was -practically the only other wild animal we could discover.</p> - -<p>Soon after seeing the vicuñas we continued to climb by a zigzag road -until we reached the highest point in this journey, the ridge of -Livichuco, fifteen thousand feet above the sea. Neither mules or llamas -seemed to mind this altitude but we found it very chilly and -disagreeable and were glad enough to descend as quickly as possible -without wasting much time in enjoying the extensive view over the -rock-strewn hills about us. It may seem strange that we did not stop to -rhapsodize on the fact that we were now leaving the basin of the Rio de -la Plata, or on the extensive panorama. But the latter was so cold, -desolate, and forbidding, the only effect was to make us urge forward -the mules at as rapid a pace as possible.</p> - -<p>The mountains were not snow-capped although, at times, we had had light -storms of hail and snow. This was particularly true of the afternoons, -the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_161" id="page_161"></a>{161}</span></p> - -<p><a name="A_FRIENDLY" id="A_FRIENDLY"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_160fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_160fpa_sml.jpg" width="261" height="173" alt="Image unavailable: A FRIENDLY LLAMA BABY" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">A FRIENDLY LLAMA BABY</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="MY_MULE" id="MY_MULE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_160fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_160fpb_sml.jpg" width="271" height="249" alt="Image unavailable: MY MULE ON THE LAST DAY’S RIDE" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">MY MULE ON THE LAST DAY’S RIDE</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">mornings being generally fine and clear. As we went west, the valleys -grew broader. We occasionally passed over level plains four or five -miles wide. We had now crossed the watershed and left the basin of the -Rio de la Plata and its affluents for that of Lake Poopo and the -Bolivian tableland.</p> - -<p>Descending, we came to valleys that offered sufficient grass to support -a large number of llamas, alpacas, and sheep. This region seems to be a -favorite breeding-place for the llamas and we saw a number of baby -llamas. One of the latter, almost entirely black as to its body and -legs, with black ears, resembling the horns of a carnival devil, and a -white face that looked like a mask, was so interested in my efforts to -take his picture that he walked up to within eight feet of my mule, much -to his mother’s alarm.</p> - -<p>A cold wind and a cloudy sky that kept the sun from offering any warmth -made our arrival at the <i>poste</i> of Livichuco anything but pleasant. To -add to our discomforts, Bolivian travellers had again arrived ahead of -us and monopolized everything in sight, as the scanty accommodations of -this wretched <i>tambo</i> were insufficient to meet the demands of both -parties. A few eggs was all the <i>postillons</i> could offer for our -entertainment, and as these turned out to be rotten their willingness to -sell food was not appreciated.</p> - -<p>The morning had been cloudy, cold, and disagreeable but the afternoon -was worse. Clouds of dust and peals of thunder ushered in the usual -storm. Our road, however, was not as rocky and precipitous as on the -preceding days. We crossed several<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_162" id="page_162"></a>{162}</span> broad plains, joined the -Potosí-Challapata trail and passed near Vilcapujio, another of the -battlefields of the War of Independence. In 1813 the soldiers of Buenos -Aires had again invaded Bolivia to assist the patriots of Upper Peru. -They reached Potosí in safety and were on their way north to Oruro when -they were met here at the fork in the road and defeated by the -Spaniards. A few days later came the battle of Ayoma, near Macha. The -result was temporarily fatal to the cause of Bolivian independence.</p> - -<p>We had another unpleasant experience on our arrival at Ancacato, on the -evening of the fourth day. Bolivian travellers had, as before, taken -possession of all the available rooms and we had a hard time persuading -the master of the <i>poste</i> to allow us to remain.</p> - -<p>At a distance of two or three miles from the <i>tambo</i> is the old Indian -town of Ancacato lying spread out on the level floor of the valley which -was at present brown and desolate although it had signs of being -cultivated in the rainy season. Like other Indian towns, the only -conspicuous feature of Ancacato was the tower of its large church. The -rest of the town consisted of brown huts as much as possible like the -color of the hills.</p> - -<p>The next morning we met an unusually large number of llamas on their way -from Challapata to the interior carrying small boxes of European -merchandise. The monotony of this morning’s ride was varied by the -spectacle of a mounted Indian trying, like “Mac,” to drive a pack mule -that was quite unaccustomed to such service and most unwilling<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_163" id="page_163"></a>{163}</span> to keep -the road. There are no fences or walls to mark off the road from the -surrounding country and an active pack animal can take to the hill as -often as he pleases. Most of them are either too weary, too tame or too -well acquainted with the punishment that follows, to attempt such -amusements, but this one was new at the game and he led his driver a -merry chase over frightful rocky slopes, up and down precipitous -hillsides, and through the dry bed of a stream. “Anywhere and -everywhere” seemed to be his motto.</p> - -<p>A short hour’s ride brought us through the pass over the Cordillera de -los Frailes and out onto the great tableland where the horizon on every -side, except behind us, seemed to be as level as the ocean. Far away to -the southwest we could just make out the dark lines and specks that -denoted the whereabouts of Challapata and the railway station.</p> - -<p>Challapata is an old Indian town, but there has grown up at some -distance from it, near the railway, a little modern settlement where -white-washed warehouses, hotels, stores, and a telegraph office offer a -marked contrast to the brown mud-huts of the more ancient city. The -population is said to be more than two thousand souls. Of these by far -the larger part are Aymarás who speak little or no Spanish. The streets -of the new town are wide and sandy, hot and glary like some of our -western towns. We thought the hotel was most comfortable and even -luxurious, after our experience of the past few weeks, but I dare say -that the traveller coming the other way would turn up his nose at its -primitive accommodations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_164" id="page_164"></a>{164}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII<br /><br /> -<small>ORURO TO ANTOFAGASTA AND VALPARAISO</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">N</span><span class="smcap">otwithstanding</span> its comfortable beds, wash-stands, and billiard-table, -we were glad enough to leave the hotel at Challapata and take the train -for Oruro. Our only regret was that we had to say good-by to old Fermin -whose faithfulness in his care not only of the mules but of ourselves, -had made us grow very fond of him. We gave him a little gratuity which -he almost immediately offered to Mr. Smith in exchange for a cheap -silver watch the latter had purchased in Jujuy!</p> - -<p>On our way northward to Oruro we got distant glimpses of the saline -waters of Lake Poopo that receives the overflow from Lake Titicaca by -means of the Desaguadero River but has no outlet of its own. On our -right were the low summits of the Cordillera de los Frailes and on the -intervening plain was an occasional town with brown huts and a -conspicuous church. Once in a while we saw <i>chulpas</i>, so-called “Inca -tombs,” really Aymará, in which interesting remains are often found. The -Ferrocarril Antofagasta-Bolivia, a very narrow-gauge road constructed -and managed by Englishmen, was built to reach the important silver mines -of Huanchaca which, in the early ’90’s, exported annually eight million -ounces of silver. Once on the plateau, it was an easy matter<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_165" id="page_165"></a>{165}</span> to connect -the railroad with Oruro whose output of silver at that time was about a -million and a half ounces. Furthermore, Colquechaca, with an equal -output, was only two days away and pack trains could bring the silver -readily to the railway.</p> - -<p>The road has proved to be a splendid investment, yet Great Britain has -never favored Bolivia with much capital. Apart from this line and a -small bit of railroad near La Paz, there are almost no British -enterprises in the country. It is said that even Ecuador, backward as it -is, has twenty times as much British capital as Bolivia, while Argentina -has two hundred times as much.</p> - -<p>The ride to Oruro was devoid of interest except for a conversation which -I had with a distinguished Bolivian physician who had recently come from -the eastern provinces where he assured me lay the real wealth of his -country. He was most enthusiastic about the possibilities of the Gran -Chaco as a region likely some day to be well populated. Although a -native of this part of Bolivia, he told me that every time he came back -to this altitude, he suffered from <i>soroche</i> or mountain sickness. I was -told by several other Bolivianos that they too suffered from <i>soroche</i> -whenever they came up from the lower elevation, notwithstanding the fact -that the author of a recent book on South America says that the -Bolivianos themselves never suffer from this infirmity.</p> - -<p>We reached Oruro shortly after dark and were met by a pleasant-faced -Austrian hotel proprietor who obligingly put us on board of a mule-drawn -tram-car. A few minutes later we stopped in front<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_166" id="page_166"></a>{166}</span> of the Grand Hotel de -Francia y Inglaterra and were back in the civilized world again.</p> - -<p>There are two comfortable hotels in Oruro and an excellent Union Club -where all nationalities come to enjoy themselves. Besides this, a German -club has recently been started. Another feature of Oruro, which we might -not have noticed had we approached it from the civilized instead of the -uncivilized side of the world, was a rather palatial public -billiard-hall or casino where a dozen or fifteen good tables, and an -elaborate bar, attracted every evening a crowd of foreign engineers, -clerks, and bookkeepers.</p> - -<p>The climate of Oruro is cold and forbidding, the thermometer in the -shade usually being 50° F. The rainy season commences in November and -lasts until March; January and February being the rainiest months. -During our summer the weather here is intensely cold and snow-storms are -not infrequent. To the west and south of the city are barren hills and -the general lack of foliage makes the place rather melancholy, <i>muy -triste</i>.</p> - -<p>The next morning we crossed the plaza to the fine large government -building where the Prefect lives and has his offices. The present -incumbent, Dr. Moises Ascarrunz, was most kind and attentive. He -received us in state, opened champagne, drank our health and then drove -us out in the state carriage to a rifle range where, as it was a -holiday, the local sporting club was holding a match.</p> - -<p>The Prefect has taken great interest in the club and it has thriven -under his patronage. The facilities for rifle practice are excellent, -and we saw some<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_167" id="page_167"></a>{167}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_PREFECTURA" id="THE_PREFECTURA"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_166fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_166fp_sml.jpg" width="454" height="194" alt="Image unavailable: THE PREFECTURA AND PLAZA OF ORURO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE PREFECTURA AND PLAZA OF ORURO</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">capital shooting. After a light lunch of beer and sandwiches at the -pleasant little club house, the Prefect showed us the sights of the -town.</p> - -<p>In his annual report which was just off the press at the time of our -visit, he calls special attention to the bad condition of the <i>postes</i> -on the road from Sucre to Challapata! We were not inclined to dispute -his criticism.</p> - -<p>One day during our stay, a government proclamation was heralded about -town in the usual fashion. The local regiment of infantry paraded -through the principal streets, stopping at the important corners while -the colonel read the proclamation in a loud voice. The colonel seemed so -strong and healthy that I was greatly surprised to learn on my return to -Oruro a few weeks later that he had been taken down with one of the -sudden pulmonary fevers of this altitude and died in less than -twenty-four hours.</p> - -<p>A pleasant German-American, in charge of the local agency of a large New -York commercial house, told us that it was not at all uncommon for a man -to get a chill on his way home from an evening party and die the next -day of galloping pneumonia. The explanation seems to be that at this -altitude (13,000 feet) one needs all the lung capacity one has, as the -air is so rare. A congestive chill is followed by such a dangerous loss -in the capacity to receive oxygen, that the patient soon succumbs and -dies.</p> - -<p>The shops of Oruro, as might be expected of a mining city that has been -for several years in communication by rail and steam with the outside -world, contain a great variety of imported merchandise. One,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_168" id="page_168"></a>{168}</span> owned by -Spaniards, is devoted almost exclusively to the manufactured products of -Spain. Another, owned by a German, contains an indefinite variety of -goods “made in Germany.” Two or three book shops contain several -thousand volumes of Spanish and French literature, law and medicine. -There is also a small public library and reading-room and the city hopes -to have a large accession to the number of its books in the near future.</p> - -<p>I called on one of the local physicians, not professionally, but because -I had heard of a remarkable collection of Bolivian pamphlets and -manuscripts that he possessed. One gets so accustomed to shiftlessness -and uncleanliness in South America that I could scarcely believe my eyes -when I found myself in an office whose spotless white furniture and -aseptic glass cases of modern surgical instruments would not have been -considered out of place on Madison Avenue. The surgeon had been educated -at the Chilean Medical School in Santiago although he was a Bolivian by -birth. His collection of manuscripts and prints was an extraordinary -one, but I must confess that his up-to-date professional methods -interested and surprised me more than his extensive bibliographical -learning. After having witnessed unspeakable conditions in the leading -hospital of Venezuela at Caracas where, as readers of my “Journal” will -recollect, surgeons educated in Paris and New York worked in an -operating theatre that had for its motto, “<i>Those who spit are requested -not to stand near the table during operations</i>,” I am afraid my views of -South American surgery, outside of such<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_169" id="page_169"></a>{169}</span> cities as Buenos Aires and -Santiago, had hitherto been decidedly uncomplimentary.</p> - -<p>Oruro owes its importance to valuable silver and tin mines in its -vicinity. There are several large smelters on the outskirts of the town, -and the offices of a number of important mining companies are to be -found here. Certain parts of Oruro are not pleasant places in which to -take a walk. In fact, I never felt more uncomfortable in my life than I -did on a solitary expedition in which I found myself among a lot of -half-drunken miners of all nationalities who were hanging about the -doors of a choice collection of grog-shops. The fearless, impudent stare -of the Aymarás was no less unpleasant than the menacing looks of three -or four burly Anglo-Saxon miners who had spent their last cent for -drinks and were looking for more.</p> - -<p>The silver mines have largely been abandoned and the principal industry -is connected with the tin deposits. No mines were discovered here until -some years after those of Potosí and they never produced as much silver, -although, during the colonial epoch, they ranked easily second.</p> - -<p>Oruro was founded about the time that the Dutch landed on Manhattan -Island. In the latter part of the seventeenth century there was already -a population of 76,000. In the eighteenth century, the city stood next -to Potosí in wealth and importance.</p> - -<p>Some of the churches still show the marks of that elegance with which -they were ornamented during the period of Oruro’s palmy days. There are, -however, few remains of any fine edifices. Indeed, we<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_170" id="page_170"></a>{170}</span> are told by “El -Lazarillo” in 1773 that “in this great city one will not encounter a -single building that corresponds at all to the immense fortunes which -have been spent here, during the past two hundred years, in an excess of -parades, shows, games, and banquets.”</p> - -<p>When the price of tin went up, a few years ago, Oruro enjoyed a boom. -Old buildings were torn down and pretentious new ones begun. Some of -them were only partly completed when tin fell and the boom collapsed. -The population now is about sixteen thousand, although during the boom -it rose to over twenty thousand, of whom more than five thousand were -foreigners. A good percentage were Chileans.</p> - -<p>Apart from its importance as a mining centre, Oruro has for some time -been distinguished as a railroad terminal. A line from here to Potosí is -planned. A line from Oruro to Cochabamba, on whose fertile valleys Oruro -depends for its food-supply, is in course of construction. The Bolivia -Railway’s line to La Paz has recently been completed. The road to -Antofagasta has been running since 1892.</p> - -<p>Oruro is nearly six hundred miles from Antofagasta and the journey used -formerly to take three days, for trains were only run by daylight and at -slow speed. We found, however, that the roadbed had been improved, -although the track was not widened, and a vestibuled train with two -compartment sleeping-cars and a restaurant-car can now make the journey -from Oruro to Antofagasta in two nights and a day. Three times a week a -Bolivia<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_171" id="page_171"></a>{171}</span></p> - -<p><a name="A_QUAINT" id="A_QUAINT"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_170fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_170fpa_sml.jpg" width="194" height="176" alt="Image unavailable: A QUAINT OLD BALCONY IN ORURO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">A QUAINT OLD BALCONY IN ORURO</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="A_CORNER" id="A_CORNER"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_170fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_170fpb_sml.jpg" width="269" height="208" alt="Image unavailable: A CORNER IN ORURO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">A CORNER IN ORURO</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">railway train leaves La Paz in the morning and arrives at Oruro late in -the afternoon. Once a week, as soon after the arrival of this train as -possible, the new vestibuled train starts for Antofagasta. There is no -chance for a through service, for the Bolivia Railway has a meter gauge, -while the Antofagasta line is only three-quarters of a meter wide. -Furthermore owing to some unfortunate squabble between the railroad -companies, the stations are located at some distance from one another, -and the traveller must get across the town as best he may.</p> - -<p>When the Antofagasta line was completed, Oruro increased in population -by leaps and bounds, and the admiring Bolivians called their city the -“Chicago of Bolivia.” The only resemblance, however, that I was able to -discover was this forced transfer across the city. The streets of Oruro -which one has to cross in going from one terminal station to the other -are not paved, and the traveller who happens to take the journey in the -rainy reason, when the roads are two feet deep in mud, will wish this -were Chicago!</p> - -<p>The departure of the weekly train for Antofagasta is just as much of an -event for Oruro as that of the weekly steamer is for a port in the -Hawaiian Islands or the West Indies. Every one who can comes down to the -station, and those who can afford it crowd into the restaurant car, -order drinks and enjoy the iced luxuries just as the residents of the -Caribbean ports do when a mail-steamer calls.</p> - -<p>We had been advised by friends in New York not to attempt to use this -railway as it was only intended to carry ore and no one cared how many -passengers<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_172" id="page_172"></a>{172}</span> were killed. It did give one a creepy feeling to see a heavy -sleeping-car balanced on rails that were only twenty-eight inches apart. -It seemed like riding on a monorail and I could not help wondering -whether, if the berths on one side of the sleeping-car should happen to -be filled first, the car would not capsize. Evidently this thought had -occurred to the builders of the car, for by an ingenious arrangement the -berths are all in the centre of the car, directly over the rails!</p> - -<p>We left Oruro at dusk and during the night passed through Challapata, -the end of our mule trip, and Uyuni, where Don Santiago’s stages start -for Potosí, Tupiza, and La Quiaca <i>via</i> Cotagaita.</p> - -<p>The scenery early next morning was not impressive. Before long, however, -gigantic volcanic peaks twenty thousand feet high rose into view, one of -them, the volcano of Ollawe, emitting a tiny cloud of sulphurous steam -that gives a yellow stain to its snow-capped peak. We soon left behind -the great sandy tableland of Bolivia, that veritable Thibetan Sahara, -and began climbing out of the great plateau through the western -Cordillera.</p> - -<p>At one of the stations an Indian came aboard the train with a young -vicuña that he had raised as a pet and which he was taking to be sold to -a gentleman in Chile.</p> - -<p>About noon we crossed the frontier. Our train was boarded by two -officials. One of them was a Bolivian, seeing to it that departing -passengers did not take any gold out of the country and violate the law -which prevents any exportation of the yellow metal.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_173" id="page_173"></a>{173}</span> The other was a -polite Chilean customs officer. Their inspection of the luggage was very -superficial. In the afternoon, at Ascotan, after crossing a pass -thirteen thousand feet high, we commenced the descent and soon reached -the banks of that wonderful white sea of borax, glistening like snow in -the sun, which has made this region famous.</p> - -<p>The mountains were grand and inspiring but we were so tired of seeing -barren brown hillsides that we longed for something green, and yet the -further we went, the more desolate became the country. We had entered -the nitrate region which is part of that magnificent desert that extends -for two thousand miles up and down the west coast of South America.</p> - -<p>In the evening we stopped for a few minutes at Calamá, a small town but -important as a nitrate centre. It has a moderately good water-supply -which enables it to present an attractive greenness in contrast to the -absolute aridity of the surrounding desert. In this region are several -mines of silver, gold, and copper.</p> - -<p>Calamá was the scene of some skirmishing during the revolution against -Balmaceda in 1891, but its chief claim to fame rests on a battle that -was fought here in the war between Chile, Bolivia, and Peru in 1879, -when Bolivia lost her seaport and Chile made a large increase to her -territory at the expense of her two northern neighbors. The first thing -that Chile did after war was declared was to attack the unprotected -Bolivian seaport of Antofagasta. The majority of the population of -Antofa<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_174" id="page_174"></a>{174}</span>gasta were Chileans and the small garrison was quite unable to -offer any adequate resistance to the Chilean invaders, so the Bolivian -authorities retreated at once to Calamá. Thither the Chileans sent six -hundred men to attack one hundred and forty. Although the Bolivian -forces took up a strong position the Chileans had the advantage of -superior numbers and won an overwhelming victory. The affair was -insignificant except that it destroyed all the hold that Bolivia had on -her seacoast.</p> - -<p>During the night, we passed through a large number of little stations in -the nitrate country. Early the next morning, as the last half hour of -the railway journey, came an exciting ride down a steep grade in full -view of the beautiful blue waters of the Pacific Ocean. After weeks of -everlasting browns, it was a tremendous relief to our eyes to see such -an expanse of blue. Of course no green was to be expected in this -vicinity. But blue did just as well.</p> - -<p>The railroad runs for some distance parallel to the shore back of the -town until it enters the terminal station. We had left Oruro Thursday at -6:30 <small>P.M.</small>, were in Calamá by nine o’clock Friday evening, and reached -Antofagasta soon after seven o’clock Saturday morning.</p> - -<p>Hardly were we established in a hotel when we learned that the steamer -Mexico, of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, was to sail that -morning for Valparaiso. We had had no chance to explore the sandy -streets and well-stocked shops of Antofagasta, but this was the first -steamer to sail for six or seven days and it might be a week before -there<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_175" id="page_175"></a>{175}</span> would be another. Furthermore, there was little to tempt us in -this modern seaport with its ugly, galvanized-iron workshops and -warehouses. So we decided to board the Mexico as fast as possible.</p> - -<p>The harbor was crowded with boats and barges. A few steamers and -sailing-vessels were lying at anchor waiting for cargoes of minerals of -one sort or another, mostly nitrates and copper.</p> - -<p>Antofagasta is a seaport of considerable importance, being the port of -entry for a large part of Bolivia and northern Chile. Yet it shares with -Mollendo the reputation of being the worst harbor on the west coast of -South America. There is little protection against westerly and southerly -winds. Even in calm weather there is a considerable swell at the -boat-landing.</p> - -<p>Once in the boat, however, we were charmed by the gambols of inquisitive -sea-lions who thrust their snouts out of the water, a biscuit-toss away -from the boat. As a counter attraction great flocks of birds flew in -circles overhead looking for schools of fish that swim in this bay. As -soon as a school was located, the entire flock of birds would pause an -instant and then dive with the rapidity of lightning from the airy -height straight into the billows, leaving only a splash of white water -to show where they had gone. Another moment and they came to the -surface, shook themselves, flapped their wings, and were away again to -enjoy another magnificent dive a little later.</p> - -<p>I had heard much of the terrors of steamship travel on the West Coast. -Passengers who had recently<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_176" id="page_176"></a>{176}</span> experienced it assured me that it was -simply horrible. We must have been very lucky, for we found the Mexico -most comfortable and quite as good as one could expect in this part of -the world. Of course she was neither so large nor so luxurious as the -average trans-Atlantic liner. On the other hand she was not intended to -carry luxury-loving travellers three thousand miles over a rough ocean -and keep them amused, contented, and well-fed for a week. Her task -consists in stopping every afternoon, anchoring in a badly-sheltered bay -or an open roadstead, landing passengers, merchandise, and cattle into -row-boats and barges, taking on cargoes of hides, coffee, or provisions; -and meanwhile acting as a home for itinerant greengrocers whose business -it is to provide this two thousand mile desert with fresh vegetables. -Furthermore she was built to sail over the comparatively smooth waters -of the tropical Pacific Ocean and provide for passengers who are -travelling in a climate of perpetual spring and summer. All of this she -does admirably.</p> - -<p>The staterooms opened onto the promenade deck. There was a well-stocked -library of fiction with books in four languages. The Chilean stewards -were polite and obliging. Altogether we had little to find fault with. -The food might have been a little better, but when one looked toward the -land and saw that bleak desert coast continuing for hour after hour and -day after day and realized that in the mountains behind it there were -even greater desert solitudes, it did not seem surprising that the food -was not up to our ideas of what it should be on board an ocean steamer.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_177" id="page_177"></a>{177}</span></p> - -<p>Most of the passengers were natives of the West Coast. To them the diet -seemed quite luxurious. To us who had come from the <i>postes</i> of southern -Bolivia the table fairly groaned with abundance. I can readily believe -that a traveller, who, while on his way south from Panama to Lima, has -his first South American meals on board of one of these West Coast -steamers would find the fare distressingly bad and the boats not very -clean. Perhaps the discipline would seem lax and the service execrable. -It all depends on one’s point of view.</p> - -<p>If one is going to travel in South America at all, it is necessary to -make up one’s mind to put up with a lot of this sort of thing. It need -only be remembered that these boats are as safe and comfortable as those -in other parts of the world, and that they have better accommodations -than will be found anywhere in South America outside of half a dozen -cities.</p> - -<p>The first day after leaving Antofagasta brought us to Caldera. On the -second day we reached Coquimbo which seems to be a flourishing seaport. -Of course there are no wharves, but the bay is fairly well protected and -steamers are able to anchor within three quarters of a mile of the -landing-stage. New villas in course of construction on the heights at -the south end of the bay testify to the prosperity of two of the leading -business men of the place.</p> - -<p>Devoted as Coquimbo has been to commercial pursuits, very little -attention has been given to making the buildings attractive, and only -recently has an effort been made to improve the appearance of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_178" id="page_178"></a>{178}</span> the -plaza. I visited two book shops in the hopes of getting some local -prints and found a recently published anthology of the poets of -Coquimbo! The books for the most part were those such as are found in -the usual South American book store: French novels, French text-books, a -few Spanish novels, and the local legal commentaries and law books.</p> - -<p>It is a night’s journey by steamer from Coquimbo to Valparaiso. The -temperature was much cooler than we had expected, and grew more so as we -neared Valparaiso. To be sure, Valparaiso is as far south of the equator -as San Francisco is north and the same general climatic conditions -prevail.</p> - -<p>The beautiful bay and harbor of Valparaiso have been repeatedly -described by enthusiastic visitors for many years. Since the terrible -earthquake of 1906, the city has lost much of its beauty, although many -of the buildings have been restored and business is going on quite -briskly. In the harbor were fifteen or twenty ocean steamers lying at -anchor, two or three Chilean men-of-war and two large floating dry docks -capable of taking care of the West Coast merchant steamers.</p> - -<p>The naval dry dock is at Talcahuano. Although Valparaiso is the -principal seaport on the West Coast, there are no wharves. The business -section is built on the old beach and on a terrace. The hills rise -abruptly from this narrow shelf and the residential district is on the -hills. Elevators and trolley-lines connect the upper and the lower city. -The railroad station is very near the boat-landing.</p> - -<p>The railway fares were very moderate and the offi<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_179" id="page_179"></a>{179}</span>cials of the road -seemed to us quite courteous and obliging although, during our stay in -Santiago, we read in one of the local newspapers a letter from a lady -globe-trotter who declared the Chilean railway officials were the rudest -and most disobliging that she had found anywhere in the world. Chilean -railways have grown tremendously during the past fourteen years. At the -time of the revolution against Balmaceda, in 1892, there were barely -seven hundred miles; while, at the time of the Scientific Congress, the -trackage had increased to three thousand miles of which half is owned -and operated by the government. More lines are in course of -construction.</p> - -<p>Valparaiso is the commercial capital of Chile and her Stock Exchange -determines the rate of exchange. The shops of Valparaiso are filled with -things that appeal to Anglo-Saxons, for there is a large British colony -here.</p> - -<p>Perhaps it was natural that we welcomed most eagerly of all the presence -of an attractive English book shop where we purchased files of English -newspapers and all the recent pictorial weeklies and magazines that we -could find. Partly for this reason and partly because we had grown tired -of looking at scenery, the four hours’ railroad journey between -Valparaiso and Santiago passed without making much impression on us so -far as our immediate surroundings were concerned, and almost before we -knew it, we had entered the political and social capital of Chile.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_180" id="page_180"></a>{180}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV<br /><br /> -<small>SANTIAGO AND THE FIRST PAN-AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">F</span><span class="smcap">rom</span> the railway station to the centre of Santiago is a two-mile ride on -a fine parkway, the Alameda de las Deliciosas. It has rows of trees, -muddy little brooks, and a shady promenade. Statues to some of Chile’s -more famous heroes have been placed in the centre of the promenade, and -stone benches, more artistic than comfortable, line its sides near the -brook. This sounds rather romantic, but the waters of the stream, which -is in reality a ditch two feet wide, are so dirty that it suggests an -open sewer rather than a mountain brook.</p> - -<p>During our stay some one became disgusted with either the brook or the -stone benches and exploded a bomb under one of the latter. It happened -late in the night and nothing was hurt, except the bench, which was -quite demolished. Had the bomb gone off earlier in the evening there -would have been a list of casualties, for all the world walks up and -down here in the cool of the evening admiring the view of the Andes. The -strictly fashionable world confines itself more often to the pavements -of the principal plazas where it may be found about nine o’clock, on -evenings when the band is playing, walking slowly round and round, -enjoying a glimpse of itself. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_181" id="page_181"></a>{181}</span> the broad Alameda, as wide as three -or four ordinary streets, is distinctly the more popular resort, and on -festivals like Christmas or New Year’s, it is thronged with -merry-makers.</p> - -<p>At the end of the Alameda, beyond the centre of the city, is the -romantic rock of Santa Lucia. Santiago owes its situation to the fact -that this precipitous hill of solid rock was left by nature in the -centre of a rich, fertile plain. The rock formed a natural fortress and -was fortified by the Spaniards when they first came to Chile. After -having been the scene of numerous bloody battles during Chile’s colonial -days, Santa Lucia is now a wonderfully attractive park with fine -driveways, well-made paths that command splendid panoramas of city, -plain, and mountains, and a theatre and restaurant on its summit. The -view is remarkably fine. The city spreads itself out on all sides -although the principal plaza and the business district lie more to the -west. The snow-capped Andes, the most characteristic feature of Santiago -scenery, rise majestically to the east. Low foot-hills bound the western -horizon. The fertile plain, which is none other than the great central -valley of Chile, lies to the north and south. Magnificent vineyards -yielding a larger crop of wine than those of California itself, are -scattered over this valley. Chile repeatedly reminds one of California -by its climate, its fruit, its mountain scenery, and its arid coast. -California has one advantage, its width between the ocean and the -Sierras, particularly in the fertile region, is so much greater than -that of Chile.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_182" id="page_182"></a>{182}</span></p> - -<p>The hotels of Santiago are not so luxurious and modern as those of -Buenos Aires, yet we found the “Annexo B” of the Oddo to be perfectly -comfortable. It is really a “bachelor apartment hotel.” No meals, except -early coffee, were served there, so we took advantage of the generous -hospitality of the two leading clubs, the Club Santiago and the Union. -Wearied as I was by the dismal brown desert of southern Bolivia, the -gardens and fountains in the patio of the Club Santiago seemed like -Paradise itself. To be able to sit at small tables, served by courteous -waiters, and enjoy immaculate linen and the best of food and drink, was -sufficiently novel to be charming, but only half as welcome as the -restful green of the trees and the pleasant splash of the fountains.</p> - -<p>We soon discovered that the coolest and easiest way to see Santiago was -from the second story of an electric car, especially when the upper tier -of seats was covered. The fare on the roof is intended for the -pocket-books of second-class passengers and is only five <i>centavos</i> (a -cent and a quarter!) which makes it cheaper to take a car than to walk. -Unfortunately for the pleasures of life in Santiago, fashion frowns on -any one who climbs the stairs when he can afford to ride below.</p> - -<p>Our friends would not even allow us to ride below, however, and put us -instead into a kind of “hack” that is known here as an “<i>Americano</i>.”</p> - -<p>It seems that several generations ago, an American resident introduced a -carriage which he thought peculiarly adapted to Santiago. It might be -described<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_183" id="page_183"></a>{183}</span> as a two-seated rockaway. This vehicle soon became a vogue -and is now the established style for hackney carriages. There are -victorias for hire on the principal plazas, but their rates are -extortionately high while those of the “<i>Americanos</i>” are ridiculously -low. It is well they are, for otherwise no one would patronize them. -They seem to be without springs, cleanliness, or any ordinary comforts. -They are not without fleas and other insects. As you go bumping and -rattling over the cobblestones of Santiago in one of these antiquated -vehicles you come to wonder whether the Chilean’s proverbial dislike of -Americans has not been intensified by the discomforts he has suffered in -the “<i>Americanos</i>!”</p> - -<p>The first Pan-American Scientific Congress was the fruit of an idea -started some years ago in Buenos Aires where delegates from a few of the -South American countries met for the first <i>Latin-American</i> Scientific -Congress. That was followed by a second which met at Montevideo, and a -third, at Rio, each showing an increase in numbers and importance. Plans -for the fourth Congress were left entirely in the hands of a Chilean -organization committee who decided that the time was ripe to include the -United States in the list of invitations and make the Congress -Pan-American instead of Latin-American. The visits of a number of -distinguished North Americans, including Secretary Root and Professors -Moses, Rowe, and Shepherd, had done much to pave the way for friendly -feeling between the scientific men of Chile and those of the United -States, and the proposal of the organization committee met with hearty<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_184" id="page_184"></a>{184}</span> -approval. Owing to the efforts of Secretary Root and Professor Rowe, the -United States Congress passed an appropriation to send an official -delegation to the Congress. A number of our leading universities -likewise appointed delegates.</p> - -<p>The programme suggested for the Congress was replete with all manner of -topics for discussion and covered almost the entire field of knowledge, -from questions of sanitation to those of international law, and from the -antiquity of primitive man in America to modern methods of primary -instruction.</p> - -<p>As was to be expected from such a comprehensive programme, the intention -was not so much to bring out the results of the latest research as to -furnish topics that would be sure to interest the delegates. Even the -meetings of our learned societies in the States are largely social. To -many of those who attend the chief attraction is the opportunity of -meeting others who are interested in the same lines, and the programme -is merely an excuse for the meeting. The Pan-American Scientific -Congress was not far different. It offered an excellent opportunity for -the scientists of Latin-America to renew old acquaintance, and it gave -the favored delegates from the United States a chance to make new -friends among men whose interests are chiefly intellectual.</p> - -<p>Under the circumstances, it is not surprising that few of the papers -presented new facts or the results of prolonged and scholarly research. -Nor is it at all remarkable that the most animated discussions took -place in the sessions devoted to international law and politics, -education, and political science. These<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_185" id="page_185"></a>{185}</span> are topics on which every man -has ideas which he is not afraid to express. And these discussions -served as a means of introducing men that might not otherwise have met.</p> - -<p>Politics were kept in the background, as far as possible, but national -feelings occasionally found opportunity for expression.</p> - -<p>Chile is the one country in South America that has never had and cannot -have a boundary dispute with Brazil. The Portuguese-American Republic is -not likely to meddle with West Coast matters, and Chile has nothing to -gain from troubling the beautiful harbors of Rio and Bahia. Indeed, so -lacking have been any causes of friction between the two Republics that -they are fond of emphasizing the <i>entente cordiale</i> that exists between -them. It was natural, consequently, that the third Latin-American -Scientific Congress, meeting in Rio under Brazilian organization, should -have chosen Santiago as the seat of the fourth congress, and it was a -return of the courtesy when the organizing committee at Santiago, -composed of Chileans, selected the local Brazilian Minister as -President.</p> - -<p>The Congress opened with formal ceremonies, fine music, and much -oration. In answer to the roll-call of republics, the leading delegate -from each country responded with befittingly felicitous remarks.</p> - -<p>It is true that the learned Brazilian who replied, when the name of his -country was called, with a speech in Portuguese lasting nearly an hour -in length, stretched the friendly feelings toward the Brazil<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_186" id="page_186"></a>{186}</span>ian -delegation almost to the breaking point. Few of the audience could -understand enough of what he said to follow his wordy address. Almost -everyone thought that its unnecessary length, added to the fact of its -being the only address of the evening that was not in Spanish, the -official language of the Congress, was at least a breach of good -manners.</p> - -<p>The state of mind of the Chilean audience was reflected in the daily -papers the next morning when full space was given to verbatim reports of -the speeches made by the representatives of all the other republics and -not even a synopsis was accorded to the speech of the learned Brazilian. -The Brazilian delegation took umbrage at this and also at the ovation -that was given the Argentine representative whose speech was short, -crisp, and filled with expressions of friendship. Like the Mexican -delegate, he had appreciated the fact that there were of necessity -seventeen other addresses, and that five minutes devoted to cordial -greetings was better than fifty minutes of erudite information. A month -afterwards when the Brazilian delegation was on its way home, I read in -the newspaper reports from Buenos Aires that the Brazilians felt that -the Chileans had gone out of their way to make friendly overtures to -Argentina, Brazil’s natural rival. But the only things of which they had -any cause to complain were brought about by their own unfortunate -mistakes and in no wise indicated any desire on Chile’s part to weaken -the ties of her long friendship with Brazil.</p> - -<p>Another interesting thing in the formal opening<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_187" id="page_187"></a>{187}</span></p> - -<p><a name="BATTLEFIELD_OF" id="BATTLEFIELD_OF"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_186fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_186fp_sml.jpg" width="458" height="216" alt="Image unavailable: BATTLEFIELD OF MAIPO NEAR SANTIAGO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">BATTLEFIELD OF MAIPO NEAR SANTIAGO</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">meeting was that although the Peruvian delegate received one of the most -enthusiastic and heartiest ovations of any, he took it in stolid -silence, making no motion and giving no sign that he heard or understood -what was going on. As a matter of fact, he and his colleagues felt out -of place. Peruvians hate and dread Chile and feel grievously wronged by -her continued occupation of Peru’s southernmost provinces, Tacna and -Arica. Consequently, they accepted all the Chilean overtures with very -bad grace, feeling that it would have been much more desirable to have -had fewer fine words and more kind actions. It was apparent that the -Chileans were doing everything in their power to try and patch up the -quarrel and let bygones be bygones, but the Peruvians felt that the -demonstration lacked the essential quality of sincerity which, of -course, could only have been given by a sacrifice of the provinces of -Tacna and Arica which Chile had no intention whatever of making. -Throughout the meetings the Peruvian delegates held themselves somewhat -aloof and took part in the exercises with a certain dignity which showed -how little they enjoyed being the recipients of Chilean hospitality. The -Chileans were undoubtedly annoyed at the cool reception of their -friendly overtures. It is entirely possible that this contributed not a -little to Chilean excitement over the incident of La Corona, of which I -shall have occasion to speak later on.</p> - -<p>The greater part of the time of the Congress, counted by hours, was -given over to receptions and teas, breakfasts and dinners, visits to -vineyards,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_188" id="page_188"></a>{188}</span> public works, and exhibitions, military tournaments, -picnics, and balls.</p> - -<p>Hardly had we got settled in our hotel before invitations began to pour -in, and we soon found that the hospitable Chilenos had made up their -minds to overwhelm us with kindnesses from the moment of our arrival -until our departure. Never did a city give itself over more heartily and -more gracefully to entertaining an international gathering. For three -weeks, hardly a day passed that was not marked by elaborate -entertainments. Balls, distinguished by elegance and magnificence, were -attended by the youth and beauty of the most aristocratic society in -South America, clad in the height of fashion and behaving just as -society does in other parts of the world. The Club Santiago was -repeatedly the scene of banquets whose brilliance would have rather -startled those good people in the United States who think of South -America as being something like an African jungle.</p> - -<p>Most of the outdoor festivals were held at the racetrack where a fine -large grandstand, capable of seating ten thousand people, faces a -beautiful field and the magnificent snow-capped Andes. Here, on a sunny -afternoon, Santiago society met in a battle of flowers for the benefit -of charity. The participants, either standing on the terrace in front of -the grandstand or driving by in handsomely decorated equipages, were -neither noisy nor boisterous and yet entered heartily into a very pretty -event.</p> - -<p>One evening was devoted to the volunteer firemen of Santiago. Following -a parade was a distri<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_189" id="page_189"></a>{189}</span>bution of premiums for bravery and length of -service. As there is no paid fire department, the city depends on these -volunteers for fire protection, and it has always been fashionable to -belong to one of the best companies.</p> - -<p>For over three hundred years Santiago has been the home of Spanish -families of distinction. Their income has never been so swollen as to -tempt them to extravagant display or so small as to drive them to petty -pursuits for the sake of gaining a livelihood.</p> - -<p>In such matters as magnificent hotels, expensive restaurants, luxurious -clubs, and showy automobiles, Santiago readily yields the palm to Buenos -Aires. There has been no great boom in Chile at all comparable to that -which Argentina has seen. Furthermore, earthquakes and fires have done -their worst to impoverish a nation not too bountifully supplied with -natural resources. To be sure, the enormous nitrate deposits of northern -Chile have made the government able to distribute millions of dollars -among its followers without overtaxing the population. Money has come in -so easily from the export duties on nitrate that no Finance Minister has -been greatly troubled by his budget.</p> - -<p>Although Santiago cannot boast of as many evidences of wealth as Buenos -Aires, she has other qualifications which give her the right to hold her -head higher than any city in South America. The chief of these is her -literary preëminence.</p> - -<p>She has produced during the past generation more writers of ability than -any other South American city. Easily first among these is José Toribio -Medina,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_190" id="page_190"></a>{190}</span> whose untiring industry and genius for bibliography have made -him famous all over the world. Aided by a devoted wife, he has produced -more scholarly works than any other man now living in South America, and -more volumes of first-class bibliography than any in the western -hemisphere. A born collector, he spent years in various parts of the -world purchasing rare books in out-of-the-way places and making notes of -unpurchasable volumes in the great libraries, until he had built up a -magnificent collection of early Americana that is almost unparalleled.</p> - -<p>His modest house is replete with interest. Three large rooms are lined -from floor to ceiling with his treasures. One room is devoted almost -entirely to early Mexican imprints. To see gathered together in one -place ten thousand pamphlets printed before Mexico secured her -independence, leads one to modify somewhat those conceptions of Spanish -intolerance for learning which we have inherited from some of our older -writers. To be sure, the pamphlets are mostly of a religious character. -However much one may disagree with the dogmas they contain one cannot -but admit that the intention of their publishers was to raise the -religious and moral tone of the community. In the back part of Sr. -Medina’s house are the rooms of the “Elzevir” Press. Here have been -printed those sumptuous bibliographical quartos that are the envy of -every librarian and the despair of the average scholar. As Sr. Medina -was originally a printer, it is his recreation to assist in putting his -volumes into type. It is not often in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_191" id="page_191"></a>{191}</span> modern world that one finds -the whole process of making a book existing under one roof. Here are the -sources; here lives the scholar who knows them; here he extracts their -virtues; and from this same place he sends forth to the world the -results of his investigations, printed and bound, ready for the use of -the student.</p> - -<p>Besides Sr. Medina, Santiago has produced a number of historians, men -like Vicuña Mackenna and Diego Barros Arana who for careful statement -and concise diction have not been surpassed in South America. Even the -late Bartolome Mitre of Buenos Aires, one of Argentina’s greatest -statesmen and her greatest historian, never succeeded in getting away -from the Spanish trick of efflorescence in language which greatly marred -his work from the literary point of view.</p> - -<p>Santiago’s literary preëminence is further shown both by the fact that -in no other city in South America are there so many people who are fond -of books and reading—witness the large number of new and second-hand -book stores—and the excellent list of works that are published here -every year. While Buenos Aires, with a population three times as large, -can boast of a few booksellers whose shops are devoted to showy -imprints, and who cater to the needs of those who buy their libraries by -the yard, there is little evidence in Argentina of a discriminating -group of booklovers like those who patronize the score of old book -stalls in one of Santiago’s streets near the university.</p> - -<p>On the outskirts of Santiago is an excellent man<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_192" id="page_192"></a>{192}</span>ual training school -where several hundred boys are lodged, fed, and taught all manner of -trades, from printing to forging, and carpentry to carving. Particular -attention is paid to electricity, and a large number of the students -become practical electricians. At the exhibition of the year’s work we -were particularly impressed with the fact that the school is able to -sell nearly all the articles made by the students. Churns, derricks, -chairs, and bells, well made and cheap, gave evidence that the school -was run on sound business principles.</p> - -<p>Not far off is the Quinta Normal, a fine large reservation where normal -and agricultural schools rub shoulders with museums of fine arts and -natural history. The result is a charming place for study and a -delightful public park.</p> - -<p>During our visit, the annual fine arts exhibition was in progress and -included a number of extremely meritorious paintings by Sotomayor, a -Spanish painter who has recently been engaged by the Chilean government -to teach in the Art School. Chile is certainly to be congratulated on -the class of teachers that she brings from abroad for her schools, and -her latest acquisition is well up to the standard.</p> - -<p>Chile’s appreciation of art and her policy of securing able foreign -talent to teach her youth are greatly in her favor. She is in fact a -young and vigorous nation. Her people are bred in a splendid climate, -well suited to the development of a strong race. In fact the Araucanian -aborigines were superior to anything that the Spaniards found in either -North or South America. The early Spanish immigrants were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_193" id="page_193"></a>{193}</span> an unusually -good lot. And there has been a striking admixture of Anglo-Saxon blood -as is shown by the frequency of English family names in Santiago.</p> - -<p>As is well known, in the south of Chile there are many Germans and it is -commonly cited as one of the danger spots of German expansion in South -America. Those who argue so fail to take into consideration the -remarkably strong hold that Chile has on her children. In no other part -of South America do foreigners become so fond of the soil as in Chile. -Even those of English ancestry are prouder of the history of Chile than -they are of that of England. I have heard them go so far in praise of -their adopted land as to deride England and predict her downfall. In -Buenos Aires, on the other hand, they continually revisit the homeland -and pride themselves on their close connection with it. There one sees -little of that devotion to the country of their adoption which is in -evidence here.</p> - -<p>Among the spectacles provided for the benefit of the delegates, the most -interesting was a military tournament that was worth going a long way to -see. The Chilean cavalryman is a remarkably daring horseman. His Spanish -and Araucanian ancestry have given him qualities that appeal to the eye -and to one’s admiration of courage. Perhaps the most remarkable feat of -the afternoon was the charge made by a squadron of cavalry over a -burning hurdle. A brush fence, well soaked in kerosene, was erected in -front of the grandstand and set on fire. Starting to windward, the -squadron charged, vaulted over the flames and dashed away in the smoke, -only<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_194" id="page_194"></a>{194}</span> to turn in the face of a strong wind which blew the smoke and -flames into the very faces of the horses, dash back again, and in -perfect order clear the fiery obstacle with as much ease and grace as -though it had been a peaceful country fence. As an exhibition of -training it was extremely significant.</p> - -<p>President Montt,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> who was extremely kind and courteous to us, and is -one of the most able and honest officials that South America has ever -seen, sent us an invitation one morning to attend the official -inspection of the Military Academy. All the Chilean officers speak -German and most of them have spent from two to three years studying in -Germany. Like the army, the school is run on German models and is -extremely well kept up. The neatness, discipline, cleanliness, and -excellent sanitary arrangements were in marked contrast to most public -buildings in South America. The cadets are a fine-looking lot of boys -who are largely put on their honor. Few rules are made for their -guidance but when any one is guilty of conduct unbecoming in an officer -and a gentleman, he is permanently discharged from the academy. The -instructors lay great stress on map-making. The exhibition of maps made -by the students was remarkably interesting. The students are taught not -only to make outline maps, but also to construct models of battlefields -and even to draw sectional panoramas on a uniform scale. Three cadets -are sent out to survey a position and to return in half an hour, each -with a drawing which, fitted to that of his mates, will make a panorama -that will<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_195" id="page_195"></a>{195}</span> enable the commanding officer to understand the situation and -direct his forces intelligently. This is only one instance of the -thoroughness with which the cadets are instructed. It is not remarkable -that several other Latin-American countries have sent for Chilean -officers to teach their cadets, and have even sent their own boys to -study here.</p> - -<p>The Congress closed on the evening of the 5th of January, 1909, with a -grand banquet that was a blaze of glory. Eloquent speeches of mutual -congratulation were delivered by the representatives of various parts of -the two continents. Perhaps the most striking thing of the evening was -the contrast between the speeches of that member of the American -delegation who had been chosen to respond to the toast, “The United -States,” and the one that followed it delivered by a brilliant young -orator from Uruguay. As might have been expected, the latter was fiery, -flowery, and ecstatic, while the former was dignified and well within -the bounds of reason even in his compliments. The unexpected and very -striking difference was that the American spoke better Spanish, pure -Castilian, melodious and graceful. The Uruguayan speech was in the -offensive dialect of Montevideo, harsh to the ear, resembling Portuguese -in its guttural quality.</p> - -<p>The only other speech of the evening that equalled the North American’s -in beauty of diction was that of General Uribe Uribe, the delegate from -Colombia. He ably upheld the reputation of his country for speaking the -best Castilian in America. So far as one who is not a native may be -permitted the priv<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_196" id="page_196"></a>{196}</span>ilege of judging by the effect on the ear, the -inhabitants of Colombia and Peru speak the best, while the people of the -countries of the River Plate speak the worst and most impure Spanish of -any on the continent. The impurity is a natural result of their -century-long dealings with the Portuguese in Southern Brazil; of the -presence in their midst of a very large number of Italians whose speech -is so like the Spanish that it easily corrupts it; and also of the fact -that during the colonial epoch, Buenos Aires was not a centre of Spanish -culture like Bogotá or Lima. On the contrary, as is well known, Buenos -Aires was filled with a fairly rough lot of traders who made their -fortune by smuggling and other illegitimate transactions. However much -we may be inclined to justify such actions on their part by the -injustice of the Spanish trade laws governing the commerce of the -Indies, we cannot be oblivious to the fact that the kind of individual -who would be willing to make his living by smuggling would probably not -take pains to speak his native tongue with either elegance or careful -attention to grammatical rules. In Lima and Bogotá, on the other hand, -society was dominated by the official class, and however critically we -may regard these proud Spaniards who were sent by their King to govern -America, we must be willing to admit that they were likely to speak the -beautiful language of Castile as perfectly as possible.</p> - -<p>So much has been said of the inability of Americans to learn Spanish -properly and to speak it gracefully (it is a common proverb in South -America that English and Americans murder the soft Castilian)<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_197" id="page_197"></a>{197}</span> that it -was a great pleasure to hear the official language of the Congress -spoken better by a North American than by a South American. Furthermore, -it was characteristic of their courtesy that the Spanish-American -delegates at once complimented us on such an achievement.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_198" id="page_198"></a>{198}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV<br /><br /> -<small>NORTHERN CHILE</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span><span class="smcap">wo</span> days after the closing banquet, we rose early and hurried down to -the station to take the morning express for Valparaiso. Notwithstanding -the unseasonableness of the hour and the fatigue of recent -entertainments, a large number of the hospitable folk of Santiago were -on hand to bid us “Godspeed” on our journey. It is an extremely pleasant -custom, this taking the trouble to welcome the coming and speed the -parting guest by going out of your way to greet him at the railway -station, or if in the country, to saddle your horse and ride out of town -for a mile or two to accompany him. It takes time, to be sure, and time -that, according to American standards, might be more profitably expended -on attending to the business of adding up dollars and cents. Yet it does -increase the store of friendly feelings in the world. The casual visitor -to the United States too often has occasion to feel that we are so -wrapped up in money-making that we have no time to be polite. As a -recent British visitor said in comparing us with Mexico, “when one -crosses the Rio Grande, the brisk and selfish American atmosphere is -left behind.”</p> - -<p>After an uneventful journey of four hours in a parlor car, we reached -the water-front of Valparaiso.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_199" id="page_199"></a>{199}</span></p> - -<p>Before going on board the steamer we had a few hours to give to -sight-seeing and the purchase of furs brought here from the Straits of -Magellan and the Andean highlands. We had time also to feel something of -the excitement caused by the rapid fluctuation in the value of the paper -dollar on the floor of the Valparaiso Stock Exchange.</p> - -<p>The national currency fluctuates considerably from day to day and is the -most serious drawback to commercial prosperity in Chile. During my stay -in Santiago it fluctuated so violently that some of the prominent -business men were very evidently less interested in their legitimate -business than in speculating in currency. The unit of value is the -<i>peso</i>, worth, while we were there, about twenty-five cents. It has gone -as low as fifteen cents, and as high as forty cents. All current -accounts in the large importing houses are carried in pounds sterling.</p> - -<p>British commercial houses have a very strong hold on Valparaiso. So -important are the dealings with Great Britain that English is actually -the language of commerce. This is the more noticeable because, although -no educated South American would for a moment admit that he could not -read and speak French, outside of the larger cities very few South -Americans can even understand English. Nor do I remember to have met -more than one or two, outside of Chile, who pretended to any knowledge -of German. A knowledge of English is generally limited to those who have -been in the United States or England and to those who have had large -business dealings with British commercial houses. At the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_200" id="page_200"></a>{200}</span> same time, -English is taught in many of the schools in Chile and we repeatedly met -young Chileans who were anxious to practice it on us.</p> - -<p>Great Britain has always favored Chile ever since her merchantmen, -headed by the gallant Admiral Thomas Cochran, Earl of Dundonald, created -the Chilean navy which swept the West Coast clean of Spanish ships in -the Wars of Independence. It was the Chilean navy that enabled San -Martin’s troops to reach Peru and strike at the last stronghold of Spain -in South America. In those days, most of the vessels were commanded by -English and Scottish officers. The tendencies of the navy are still -British, and this extends even to the uniform of both officers and -cadets. In a word, the navy is as English as the army is German. -Furthermore, it has long maintained its preëminence among the navies of -South America. When Brazil gets the dreadnoughts for which she has -contracted, this supremacy will temporarily disappear.</p> - -<p>When we boarded the Chilean steamer Limarí, we found among our fellow -passengers quite a number of pleasant-faced little naval cadets bound -for some point up the coast where they were to join their training-ship. -They smoked too many cigarettes, and their manners on board were not -particularly good, although they were probably no worse than a similar -group of American schoolboys would have been under the circumstances. -Certainly our fellow passengers were not as bad as those cadets whom -Hugh de Bonelli encountered in his journey from Panama to Lima in 1850 -and describes in his enter<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_201" id="page_201"></a>{201}</span>taining “Travels in Bolivia.” In one corner -of the saloon on his steamer “sat an elderly gentleman and a maiden -lady, brother and sister, surrounded by parrots, a monkey, two cats, and -three ugly little dogs, all of whom they alternately kissed and hugged. -Two young cadets of sixteen, in uniform, who, without a figure of -speech, may be said to have smoked themselves away—for they were -scarcely perceptible behind the volumes of smoke they emitted,—got into -disgrace with these worthy people. One of these young sparks threw down, -on the sly, a lighted cigar upon the monkey, who had been watching him. -The animal seized it, and put the lighted end of it into his mouth; then -screamed, chattered, and cried—jumped upon the head of the old lady, -who was so frightened that she fainted away; then upon that of the old -man, from which he fell to the ground with the old gentleman’s wig -firmly held between his jaws!”</p> - -<p>We found the Limarí well crowded with passengers, most of them Chileans -bound for Coquimbo, Antofagasta, and Iquique. The absence of a railway -makes the semi-weekly steamers the only means of communication on this -desert coast. Yet it was not until we had experienced the decided -inconveniences of overcrowding and felt the relief caused by the heavy -disembarkation at the northern Chilean ports that we fully realized how -dependent the Chileans are on the control of sea-power. They are now -planning to construct a longitudinal railway that shall run parallel to -the shore line, and make them less dependent on naval predominance.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_202" id="page_202"></a>{202}</span></p> - -<p>The next day after leaving Valparaiso, we reached Coquimbo. The cable -had been used to warn the authorities that there were distinguished -passengers on board, and the leading citizens of the town came out to -invite the <i>delegados</i> ashore and took us for a delightful drive along -the beach from Coquimbo to the old Spanish settlement of La Serena. At -the latter place we were entertained at the Club where an informal -reception was held, with the aid of the usual cocktails and champagne.</p> - -<p>At Caldera we were spared from official recognition and spent our time -catching lizards on the sandy hills back of the town.</p> - -<p>The third day brought us to Antofagasta where several of the delegation -left to take the railroad to Bolivia over the route by which I had come -out a month ago. The sea-lions and the diving birds were playing about -the harbor in the same fascinating manner as when I first saw this port. -But the effect, after living for several weeks amid the green parks of -Santiago and enjoying several days of blue ocean, was far less striking -than when we came from the bleak brown deserts of the Bolivian plateau.</p> - -<p>The morning of the fourth day saw us at Iquique, once the centre of -Peru’s nitrate industry, now rivaling Valparaiso as the scene of Chilean -commercial activity. Numbers of sailing-vessels were lying in the -roadstead waiting for cargoes of the precious fertilizers. It was a -pleasure to see several of the vessels actually flying the American -flag! The West Coast depends largely on Oregon and Puget Sound for its -lumber-supply and these three-masted American<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_203" id="page_203"></a>{203}</span> schooners find a -profitable trade in bringing lumber and returning with nitrates. The -Limarí’s cargo consisted largely of merchandise which had come from -Europe and America through the Straits of Magellan. While this was being -discharged we had time to see the city, where a few months before an -angry mob of strikers from the nitrate works, had been mown down by -well-trained government troops.</p> - -<p>We were entertained here by Mr. Rea Hanna, the enthusiastic American -Consul, who has a difficult rôle to play in a town where Chileans are in -control but where the Peruvian Club is the centre of aristocratic -society. That he is universally liked speaks volumes.</p> - -<p>At the southern end of the town there is good bathing; and in addition, -pavilions and beer gardens to entice the weary clerk from the nitrate -offices. The well-arranged grounds of the Jockey Club afford opportunity -for social intercourse, polo, and tennis. But the most interesting place -in Iquique is what is known as the Combination, the central office of -the Nitrate Association, where the different companies, mostly English, -unite to arrange scales of prices and quantity of output and maintain an -efficient Bureau of Propaganda.</p> - -<p>People frequently confuse Chilean nitrates with guano. One is a mineral, -the other an animal product. Whether the nitrate fields were not -originally guano deposits is a moot point, but I believe this idea has -been abandoned. There is, however, considerable difference of opinion as -to the actual origin of the great nitrate desert.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_204" id="page_204"></a>{204}</span></p> - -<p>As there is a heavy export duty on the nitrates, Chile has been, and -will continue to be, as long as the supply holds out, in the very -enviable position of making foreigners pay the bulk of her taxes. How -long this exceptional state of affairs will last is a problem for the -geologists to settle. As there is undoubtedly enough material in sight -to satisfy the demands of the present generation and the next, no one -has any very stringent reason for husbanding the output or for investing -the national income from the export duties in such a way as to provide -for the exigencies of future tax-payers. The natural result of this easy -method of securing a revenue is a tendency towards extravagance in the -Chilean budget and an absence of careful supervision. Few people care -whether the money is spent for the best interests of the country. -Political scientists say that when the voter has a very light burden of -taxes to bear, he does not mind seeing the government’s money wasted or -his favorite politicians grow wealthy. Doubtless in time such a -condition of affairs will have a serious influence for evil on Chilean -character. As yet the whole industry is too young to have produced any -marked effect. Fortunately for the race, the nitrate fields will -probably become exhausted before any lasting harm is done. Nevertheless -Chile would do well to take warning from the experience of Peru, whose -revenue for many years depended almost exclusively on the yield of guano -from the Chincha Islands. The exhaustion of that valuable product left -the country in a far worse state than she was before her easily acquired -income<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_205" id="page_205"></a>{205}</span> had commenced to corrupt her politicians and financiers.</p> - -<p>We left Iquique late that night and arrived early the next morning at -Pisagua, the northern limit of the nitrate country. Like all the other -ports at which we had touched since leaving Valparaiso, it is the -terminus of a little railway that goes back a few miles into the -interior and brings down minerals of one sort or another; sometimes -copper ore, generally nitrate, more rarely tin and silver.</p> - -<p>In the course of the afternoon we reached Arica. The southern side of -the bay is guarded by a picturesque cliff, not unlike Gibraltar, which -is celebrated in Peruvian history as the site of a memorable battle in -the war with Chile. At its crisis the commandant of the Peruvian -garrison, rather than fall into the hands of the victorious Chileans, -spurred his horse over the summit and was dashed to pieces among the -rocks and waves at the base of the cliff. To the Anglo-Saxon mind, he -would have died more creditably had he killed as many Chileans as -possible first, and fallen face to the front. But the more spectacular -death that he chose appeals strongly to the Latin temperament.</p> - -<p>Yet this trick of committing suicide instead of fighting to the last -breath is not a characteristic of Spanish heroes generally. It is not -easy to say whether the gallant soldier was influenced or not by any -Quichua ancestor that he may have had. Readers of Prescott’s “Conquest -of Peru” will remember that in the attack on Cuzco, made by one of the -Pizarros, a Quichua noble who had greatly distinguished him<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_206" id="page_206"></a>{206}</span>self in the -Inca army, seeing that his cause was irretrievably lost, jumped over the -precipice on the south side of the Sacsahuaman hill, and preferred to be -dashed to pieces rather than to see how many Spaniards he could kill -first. He in turn may have inherited the tendency from remote ancestors -in the Pacific Ocean. On the Island of Kusaie there is a picturesque -waterfall where, according to tradition, two young chiefs, defeated in -battle, ended their lives by casting themselves from the precipice into -the boiling pool below. The habit of jumping over a precipice in -preference to being killed in battle by one’s enemies is not uncommon in -the history of the Pacific races, both in the Carolines and in the -Hawaiian Islands.</p> - -<p>Arica is particularly interesting to Americans because it was here that -the U. S. S. Wateree was carried inland by the great tidal wave of 1868. -Not only has the port been devastated by earthquakes and tidal waves but -also by fire. At present it has a very squalid appearance. Before the -completion in 1871 of the Southern Peruvian railway from Mollendo to -Puno, Arica was an important port of entry for Bolivia. When the -Chileans finish the railway which they are building to connect this port -with La Paz by a line that shall cross the mountains back of Tacna, this -importance will be restored.</p> - -<p>At the close of the war between Chile and Peru the Treaty of Peace known -as the Treaty of Ancon stipulated that the territory of the provinces of -Tacna and Arica should remain in the possession of Chile for ten years -from 1883 to 1893. The Treaty<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_207" id="page_207"></a>{207}</span> continues: “The term having expired, a -plebiscite shall decide by popular vote if the territory of these -provinces shall remain definitely under the dominion and sovereignty of -Chile, or if they shall continue to form part of the territory of Peru. -The Government of the country in whose favor the provinces of Tacna and -Arica shall be annexed shall pay to the other ten millions of dollars -Chilean silver money or Peruvian <i>soles</i>, of equal percentage of fine -silver and of equal weight as the former. A special protocol, which -shall be considered an integral part of the present treaty, shall -establish the form in which the plebiscite shall take place, and the -terms and conditions in which the ten millions of dollars shall be paid -by the nation remaining in possession of Tacna and Arica.”</p> - -<p>As is well known, the special protocol, establishing the form in which -the plebiscite is to take place, has never been agreed upon. The -principal obstacle is that since 1883 a large number of Chileans have -settled, voluntarily or otherwise, in the provinces, enough to decide -the vote of the plebiscite in favor of Chile. The Chilean government -says all present residents should vote. The Peruvians maintain that the -voters in the plebiscite should consist only of those who were residents -of the provinces at the termination of the war. Naturally, the Chileans -will not agree to this as there is no doubt but that the majority of -such persons are of inherent Peruvian preferences.</p> - -<p>It is now seventeen years since the plebiscite was due to take place and -the question is still an open<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_208" id="page_208"></a>{208}</span> one. The fact, however, that in a recent -treaty with Bolivia, Chile promised to construct, at her expense, a -railway from Arica to La Paz, and has since granted a contract to a -reliable company to build that railway, would seem to indicate that -Chile considers the question settled although no plebiscite has been -held. No nation voluntarily commits itself to spend millions of dollars -in building a railway in a province which it considers in the slightest -degree likely to become the property of a neighbor. The Peruvians have -not overlooked the calm way in which the Chileans take it for granted -that Tacna and Arica are to be permanently Chilean territory, but they -are in no position to dispute such a conclusion. Their fighting strength -is far below the Chilean standard and they know it.</p> - -<p>The whole question was brought vividly to the fore just at the time of -our visit by a little international episode known as the “Incident of La -Corona.” Peru had erected a magnificent memorial to her soldiers that -fell in the conflict with Chile. As was customary and proper, the -representatives of the various foreign powers resident in Lima, -requested permission to deposit formal wreaths at the base of the -monument as an expression of the friendship of their governments. The -Chilean diplomat was not behind the others, and his request was granted, -only to be denied later on when his funeral wreath had been made ready -for the exercises. At this he took great umbrage, demanded his -passports, and sailed for home. His arrival in Santiago was the occasion -of a popular outburst. There was a strong demand<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_209" id="page_209"></a>{209}</span> on the part of a -portion of the public that the government resent the Peruvian “insult” -in a very practical way, viz., by holding elections in the provinces of -Tacna and Arica and summoning representatives to the National Congress -in the same manner as from the other Chilean provinces. This would be -taking the last step in formal annexation of the disputed territory and -final recognition of it as a definite part of the national domain.</p> - -<p>I was travelling in the interior of Peru at the time of these -demonstrations and it may be imagined that the press reports in the -Peruvian newspapers did not underestimate the gravity of the situation. -The fact that the Chilean government did not take any active steps -toward formally annexing Tacna and Arica in response to the popular -demand was attributed by many Peruvians and not a few Chileans to the -fact that in the harbor of Lima there happened to be at this time a -powerful squadron of American battleships. The long-standing friendship -between the United States and Peru, and the active hostility between the -United States and Chile at the time of the fall of Balmaceda and the -“Baltimore” episode, were regarded by the Peruvians as sufficient -guaranty of an intention on the part of the United States to interfere -in case trouble arose over an attempt on the part of Chile to terminate -the territorial dispute in a high-handed manner.</p> - -<p>Whether or not the government at Washington indicated its wishes in any -way or expressed any opinion whatever; whether or not the presence of -our battleship fleet in the waters of the West Coast<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_210" id="page_210"></a>{210}</span> at this time was -intentional or purely accidental, are matters about which I know nothing -and which do not affect the actual results. As it stands, the Peruvians -having avoided trouble with Chile feel grateful toward the United -States, and the Chileans feel correspondingly irritated that their -government was apparently kept from an overt act by the influence of the -<i>Yankis</i>. An enthusiastic Chilean, a vigorous “anti-American,” told me -some time afterwards that he had endeavored, to the best of his ability, -to find out from political friends in Valparaiso why nothing was done -when it would have been so easy to settle the whole matter. The reply in -every case was “fear of offending the United States.”</p> - -<p>After leaving Arica our next stop was to be at Ilo, the southernmost -harbor of Peru, a fact that was emphasized by the very marked depletion -of our passenger list. Few Chileans care to go to Peru. Because we came -from the “polluted” ports of a hated rival, the Limarí was subjected to -a thorough-going fumigation, a process rendered the more unnecessary and -offensive because nearly all of the Peruvian ports actually had cases of -bubonic plague and smallpox while the Chilean ports were free from the -pest.</p> - -<p>We reached Mollendo on the afternoon of January 14th, just seven days -after leaving Valparaiso.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_211" id="page_211"></a>{211}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI<br /><br /> -<small>SOUTHERN PERU</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">M</span><span class="smcap">ollendo</span> is one of those places where nature never intended man to live. -The natural port, and the one that was used for centuries, is the bay of -Islay, a few miles north. As a matter of fact, this was to have been the -terminus of the Southern Railway of Peru, the outlet for the commerce of -the Lake Titicaca region. But the owners of real estate at Islay were so -convinced that there had arrived that “tide in the affairs of men which, -taken at the flood, leads on to fortune,” that they attempted to make -the most of their opportunity and asked the railway prohibitive prices -for land and water-front. The result was that Islay missed its high tide -and the railway engineers carved out of the desert coast what is now the -port of Mollendo.</p> - -<p>It claims to be the worst harbor on the West Coast. In fact, the author -of a recent book on South America was so impressed with the terrors of -disembarking here that he described it fully in three separate chapters -of his book! Although there was quite a little breeze blowing at the -time of my landing, I confess to being very much disappointed at the -tameness of the procedure. The reverend author had led me to expect “a -surf-lashed landing-place—a tremendous tossing and bouncing on the -moun<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_212" id="page_212"></a>{212}</span>tainous swell.” Even in calm weather the boat was “tossed about -like a cockle shell, now thrown up to heaven on the crest of a wave, now -dropped down towards the nadir in its hollow. The swarthy Peruvian -oarsmen strain at the oars, they avoid the jagged rocks between the boat -and the pier by a hair’s breadth!” etc. etc.</p> - -<p>One gets very little idea from such language of a busy little basin and -a dock where half a dozen steam cranes are at work loading and unloading -large freight barges. As would be expected from the fact that this is -the chief port in southern Peru, the docks were crowded with boxes and -bales of every description. Occasionally as many as eight or ten -freighters are anchored in the offing, and a large number of lighters -are kept busy most of the time. A new breakwater is being built of -enormous cubes of concrete, which it is hoped will resist the action of -the waves better than the natural rock of the neighborhood which -disintegrates rapidly.</p> - -<p>A climb of fifty or sixty feet up the face of a steep cliff back of the -landing stage brought us to the little platform and gate of the local -custom house. Our arrival here was not expected by the officials, and we -received the customary hard looks that are given every one coming from -Chile. Mollendo has not forgotten the war. Nevertheless it needed but -the mystic word <i>delegado</i> to the collector of the port to cause all our -luggage to be passed graciously through the custom house without even -the formality of an examination.</p> - -<p>Our next difficulty, after landing on Peruvian soil,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_213" id="page_213"></a>{213}</span></p> - -<p><a name="MOLLENDO" id="MOLLENDO"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_212fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_212fp_sml.jpg" width="407" height="278" alt="Image unavailable: MOLLENDO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">MOLLENDO</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">was in finding some one who would relieve us of our Chilean money and -give us coin of the realm in exchange. At first the local bank flatly -refused to oblige us, saying that so few people ever went from Peru to -Chile that there was no demand for Chilean money, and that they could -not realize anything on our Chilean currency without sending it by mail -to Valparaiso or Antofagasta, an expensive and risky undertaking which -they did not care to assume. In a word it was “against the rules.” So it -was necessary to say “<i>delegado</i>” again. As was to be expected, the -obliging cashier was now only too glad to relieve us of all our Chilean -money. How many bank cashiers in the States, after laying down a rule of -the bank to a foreigner, would be willing to break it because the -stranger was able to prove that he was an official delegate to a -Scientific Congress? I fear we are behind our southern neighbors in -realizing what is due to “science”!</p> - -<p>The only thing we could find of interest in Mollendo, was a cock-fight -in one of the side streets. An audience of fifty or sixty boatmen and -their friends, relieved from their duties at the end of the day, were -hazarding their silver <i>soles</i> on whichever bird they judged would last -the longest in the tiresome and bloody battle that was being fought out -on the cobble-stones. The excitement grew fast and furious as the fight -neared its close, and one poor bleeding rooster, nearly totally blind, -and almost dying, received a few final pecks from his victorious -opponent, himself dripping with blood. I have occasionally watched these -Spanish-American cock-fights in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_214" id="page_214"></a>{214}</span> an effort to understand why the -spectator with Spanish blood in his veins gets so excited over them. -Apart from a realization that at present cock-fighting is the national -sport of South America, and as such, takes the place that baseball does -in the United States, and cricket does in England, I must admit that I -have failed to work out any reason to account for the frenzied interest.</p> - -<p>Probably the Peruvians would have been just as bored if they had been -sandwiched into a crowd of “fans” at a baseball game.</p> - -<p>We had not expected to stay over night in Mollendo, which has the usual -reputation of West Coast ports for harboring persons afflicted with -contagious diseases. But the daily train for Arequipa had gone and there -would not be another until the following noon, so we were obliged to -make ourselves as comfortable as possible in the Hotel Ferro Carril -which was not at all bad. The worst feature of it was the partitions, -which were extremely thin. The room next to ours was occupied by an -English-speaking individual who received a call in the course of the -evening from a fellow countryman, resident here, who tried to frighten -him out of his senses by vivid details as to the number of cases of -“yellow fever, bubonic plague, and smallpox” now raging in the town. -“More deaths occurring every day than the undertakers could possibly -attend to!” “Scarcely a house without its sick folk!!” “Not a family -still intact!!!” etc., etc. What effect these remarks may have had on -the person for whom they were intended, I am unable to say. I do know -they caused no little<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_215" id="page_215"></a>{215}</span> uneasiness among those <i>delegados</i> who had landed -here on their way to the interior. We did not stop to make personal -investigations as to the truth of the rumors but were promptly on hand -the next day to take the train for Arequipa.</p> - -<p>As there was not nearly enough space for all the people who desired to -leave Mollendo that morning, we were very much crowded for the first -hour or so. This exodus from town was not due to any fear of the -prevailing pest, but rather to the fact that January is the season for -leaving town and enjoying a short stay in the country. The train -followed the coast for eight miles to the south until it reached the bay -and beach of Mejia, a summer resort where many of the families of -Mollendo have built little villas. From here the road turns inland, east -and then north, climbing slowly and affording one a view of the pleasant -green valley of the Tambo River with its little country houses and its -plantations of sugarcane. Still climbing, the train continued almost due -north across the sandy plain known as the Pampa de Islay, or the desert -of Arequipa. For miles on either side of the track as far as the eye -could reach, there was not a green thing to be seen. Although there was -no animal or vegetable life, it is not exactly correct to say there was -not a living thing, for this is the home of the <i>medanos</i>, those -extraordinary crescent-shaped sand-dunes that travel across the hard -ground of the desert floor, driven by the prevailing southwesterly -winds. Each hill is a perfect crescent exquisitely drawn, the delicate -horns tapering off toward the north, away from the wind. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_216" id="page_216"></a>{216}</span> cause the -railroad no end of trouble, for when a <i>medano</i> approaches the track, it -must get across some way or other. It is of no use to shovel back the -horns of the crescent as they encroach on the rails, for the main body -of the mound, twenty feet high and sixty feet or more wide, will advance -just the same and must be helped along.</p> - -<p>Although we had started from Mollendo immediately after lunch and the -journey is only one hundred miles in length, it took us seven hours to -ascend the 7500 feet, and it was dark when we left the train at -Arequipa. We found on the other side of the station a long line of -mule-trams, one of which was reserved for intending guests of the Gran -Hotel Marone. After some delay incident to transferring a train-load of -passengers and their hand luggage to this caravan of tram-cars, we -started off and jingled our way through poorly-lit streets of one-story -houses where attractively carved stone doorways, dimly visible in the -semi-darkness, told of well-built mansions of former Spanish grandees, -whose walls had withstood Arequipa’s earthquakes.</p> - -<p>To a person who has experienced a great earthquake, the mere mention of -the word is terrifying, and yet we were told by one of the astronomers -at the local Harvard Observatory that their seismograph recorded three -earthquakes during the four days of our stay here. In fact, scarcely a -week goes by without one or more disturbances. Fortunately for us, and -for Arequipa, these daily earthquakes that are so faithfully recorded by -the delicate instruments of the observatory are not usually -perceptible<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_217" id="page_217"></a>{217}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_CATHEDRAL" id="THE_CATHEDRAL"></a></p> -<p><a name="AN_OLD" id="AN_OLD"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_216fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_216fpa_sml.jpg" width="314" height="132" alt="Image unavailable: THE CATHEDRAL OF AREQUIPA AND MOUNT CHACHANI" /></a> -<br /> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" - class="caption" style="margin:auto auto;max-width:40%;"> - -<tr class="c"><td>THE CATHEDRAL OF AREQUIPA AND MOUNT CHACHANI</td> -<td>AN OLD DOORWAY IN AREQUIPA</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - - -<p><a name="CHACHANI_AND" id="CHACHANI_AND"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_216fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_216fpb_sml.jpg" width="374" height="148" alt="Image unavailable: CHACHANI AND MISTI" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">CHACHANI AND MISTI</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">to human beings. However, like San Francisco, Valparaiso, and many -another city of the west coast of America, Arequipa does have a serious -shake once or twice in a century and people do not build two-story -houses unless they can afford to use very strong construction.</p> - -<p>We were most agreeably surprised and delighted with our accommodations -at the Hotel Marone. None of us had expected to find anything nearly so -comfortable outside of a South American capital. With this excellent -hotel and with the promised improvement of steamship service on the West -Coast, Arequipa is bound to become a Mecca for travellers. Charmingly -situated, with a delightful climate, picturesque streets, and remarkable -churches and monasteries, it offers the additional inducement of being a -base from which many pleasant excursions can be made. Mountain climbers -and those fond of mountain scenery will be attracted by the active -volcano El Misti, 19,000 feet high, and the snow-capped peaks of -Chachani that look down upon the city from their lofty altitude of over -20,000 feet above the sea. Arequipa is the distributing centre for -southern Peru and contains a number of banks and the warehouses of -several large importing houses. To the explorer intending to penetrate -the continent, it is an excellent place in which to purchase part of his -outfit. It was the base of the DeMilhau-Peabody Museum Expedition to the -Upper Amazon. I was astonished to find at the time of my visit, that in -one of the English warehouses it was not only possible to get a complete -supply of excellent canned goods, but even<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_218" id="page_218"></a>{218}</span> such luxuries as -folding-cots and Caracas chocolate. Professor Bandelier, that most -distinguished student of Spanish-American lands and peoples, says in his -recently published “Islands of Titicaca and Koati” that Mt. Koropuna, -lying about one hundred miles northwest of Arequipa, is probably the -highest mountain in America. Aconcagua is 6940 metres, while, according -to Raimondi’s map of the Department of Arequipa, Koropuna is 6949 -metres. Here is a chance for a well-equipped exploring expedition.</p> - -<p>For the less ambitious tourist there are shops where one may buy all -manner of foreign and domestic supplies, and excellent photographs, the -best of which I regret to say were stolen from a scientific expedition -many years ago by a native photographer. The lover of curious costumes -and quaint shops will be abundantly repaid by long strolls through the -Indian quarters.</p> - -<p>As soon as the Prefect of Arequipa, Sr. Don Lino Velarde, heard of our -arrival, he made haste to call and place himself “entirely at our -disposal.” Sometimes this gracious Spanish extension of hospitality -means very little, but in this case it was genuine, and the Prefect did -everything in his power to make our stay both pleasant and profitable. -Horses and a military escort were provided for an excursion to the -Harvard Observatory, and the Prefect’s secretary was detailed to act as -our cicerone and see to it that we were shown the treasures of the local -monasteries.</p> - -<p>We found the old Jesuit church the most interesting of all the sights -that the city afforded. It had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_219" id="page_219"></a>{219}</span> once been superbly adorned and -embellished with elaborate gilded carvings and magnificent altars. The -last earthquake had overturned and destroyed three of the altars, but -the four remaining are well worth a visit, and there are many beautiful -paintings still on the walls. The west front of the church is a -marvellous example of stone-cutting and like the towers of the Jesuit -church in Potosí shows what excellent manual training the Jesuits taught -their followers. Their expulsion from South America was one of the most -serious in the long list of mistakes that Spain made in the government -of her American colonies.</p> - -<p>The atmosphere of the Franciscan monastery took one back to the middle -ages. Everything was scrupulously clean and in good order. In the -sacristy we found a beautiful Madonna by some artist of the sixteenth -century. The monks treasure it highly and with good reason for the face -is as beautiful as any I have ever seen. A pleasant-faced, communicative -monk, who seemed glad enough to be permitted to break through the -monotony of his quiet life in the cloisters, took us to his favorite -spot in the gardens where, under the grapevines, a rude seat had been -made from a great millstone that dated back to Spanish days. From here -he led us to different trees in the orchard and begged us to sample the -pears, peaches, and plums that it was his delight to cultivate. We were -permitted also to visit the library and found it well stocked with rare -and beautifully printed old books. Naturally most of them were devoted -to theology and religious philosophy,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_220" id="page_220"></a>{220}</span> but there was one section into -which old-fashioned works on natural history had crept, including a fine -set of Buffon. On the door of the library was posted a notice telling -the monks that on Mondays and Thursdays they could consult books on -piety; Tuesdays and Fridays, works on theology; Wednesdays and -Saturdays, other classes of religious books, etc., etc. We looked in -vain for any day on which it was permitted to use the books on natural -history. Much has been written of the degenerate conditions prevailing -in the South American religious houses. The Franciscan monasteries we -visited here and in Santiago, where an electric dynamo runs a modern -printing press for the dissemination of religious information, cannot be -included in that category.</p> - -<p>As we wandered about Arequipa enjoying the picturesque Indian shops and -the bright colors of the native costumes, the Indians themselves were -courteous and polite and gave little evidence of any justification for -their reputation for turbulence.</p> - -<p>The only evidence which we witnessed of any eagerness to join an -uprising was on the arrival of Dr. Durand, a notorious revolutionist, -who had fled from the country on the failure of a revolution which he -had instigated not two years ago, and was now being allowed to return, -thanks to the clemency of the Government. He had taken refuge in Bolivia -and in going to his home at Lima, had to pass through Arequipa. We -happened to be calling on the Prefect when the chairman of the local -committee of the Liberal party came to request the privilege of giving -Dr. Durand a popular reception. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_221" id="page_221"></a>{221}</span> Prefect had evidently received -orders from the Government to allow any kind of a demonstration short of -rioting, and after warning the Liberal chairman that there must be no -disturbance of the peace, gave him permission to carry out the plans for -the reception. We were somewhat surprised at the daring, one might -almost say the bravado, of the Government in extending clemency to a -notorious agitator who had done his best to upset the administration by -violence.</p> - -<p>Our feelings were confirmed the next day on the arrival of the train -from Puno. The exile was received by a mob of three or four thousand -noisy Liberals who, inspired by the sight of their hero, went to the -limit in their manifestations of joy. It goes without saying that the -horses were taken from the exile’s carriage and that he was dragged -through the streets in triumph by his loyal supporters. The flat roofs -of the houses were crowded with interested spectators who did not care -to ally themselves with the Liberal party by joining the procession in -the streets. A few of the bolder Liberals, encouraged by cognac or -<i>chicha</i>, ventured to cry “Down with the Government!” “Down with the -President!” “<i>Viva Durand!</i>” “Long live the Liberal party!”</p> - -<p>It may seem ungracious to criticise the policy of a country where one -has received as much hospitality and kindness as I have in Peru. At the -same time I cannot help expressing the conviction that if Peru wishes to -give the world evidence that she belongs to the same category of nations -as does Mexico, for instance, where capitalists may safely invest and -de<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_222" id="page_222"></a>{222}</span>velop the resources of the country; if she seriously proposes to do -away with revolutions and make them matters of ancient history rather -than of present politics, she cannot afford to allow the instigators of -revolutions to enjoy public triumphs such as are usually accorded to the -true heroes of a nation.</p> - -<p>There is too much of a tendency among South Americans to regard -revolutions as a popular game. One of the rules is that after the -conflict is over, your enemies must be treated with all the honors of -war, and that it will not do to be too severe on the conquered -revolutionist for fear that he may take revenge on you when the next -revolution succeeds. If these politico-military agitators were put to -death after being convicted of treason by a properly constituted -tribunal, Peru would enjoy an era of peace and prosperity such as she -scarcely dreams of at present—and the Peruvians are good dreamers. But -just as long as she enthusiastically welcomes home, after a brief exile, -men like Dr. Durand, she offers an extra inducement to any hot-headed -young firebrand to start another revolution. If he succeeds, all honor -and glory will be his, besides the emoluments of office and the -satisfaction of enjoying political power. If he fails and makes good his -exit from the country, it can mean at the worst but a brief exile and -then a triumphal return, crowned by an ovation. In either case, unless -he is so extremely unlucky as to get shot in the scrimmage, he is sure -of plenty of honor and glory and those plaudits so dear to the Latin -heart. Such a state of affairs insures more revolutions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_223" id="page_223"></a>{223}</span></p> - -<p>In talking the matter over among ourselves the evening after we had -witnessed this extraordinary reception to a man whom we could not help -regarding as an enemy of his country, we ventured to predict that before -the end of the year Peru would see another revolution. It was an easy -prophecy and we were not surprised at its speedy fulfillment. In fact, -in less than six months a revolution broke out in Lima that for a time -seemed as though it would succeed in overthrowing the Government whose -mistaken clemency we had witnessed. The President and the Minister of -Foreign Affairs were captured and dragged through the streets, and -narrowly escaped death in the resulting collision between the -revolutionists and the government troops. Fortunately, like so many of -its predecessors, the revolution was a failure. But coming as it did -just at a time when the city of Lima was endeavoring to sell its bonds -on the New York market, it acted as a very effective warning to -capitalists who were attracted by an eight per cent municipal bond.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_224" id="page_224"></a>{224}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII<br /><br /> -<small>LA PAZ, THE <i>DE FACTO</i> CAPITAL OF BOLIVIA</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span><span class="smcap">t</span> is a twelve hours’ run from Arequipa to the wharf at Puno where one -takes the steamer across Lake Titicaca. The distance is only two hundred -and eighteen miles, but there are fifteen or twenty stops, and there is -no hurry.</p> - -<p>Our train was mixed passenger and freight and one first-class coach was -amply sufficient to accommodate everybody.</p> - -<p>Shortly after ten o’clock, we stopped for breakfast at a primitive -little railway inn, where, although we had good appetites and were -accustomed to native fare, the food seemed exceptionally bad, and some -of it was quite inedible. Whether it was the result of this or not, -several of the passengers soon began to show signs of mountain sickness. -Arequipa is 7500 feet above the sea, but Crucero Alto, a water tank -station, which we reached about half past two, is 14,666 feet, so there -was good excuse for any one who is at all affected by rarefied -atmosphere.</p> - -<p>The eastern edge of the plateau brought us to the two mountain lakes of -Saracocha and Cachipascana. Although there was no green in the -landscape, the snow-capped mountains that surround the lakes lent an -atmosphere of romance and charm to the otherwise desolate view. -Continuing eastward, the train<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_225" id="page_225"></a>{225}</span> went rapidly down grade for two thousand -feet, stopping occasionally at little Indian villages until it reached -the important railway junction of Juliaca. Here the passengers for Cuzco -left us, and in the dusk we turned south and hurried over the remaining -thirty miles of level road. On reaching the wharf at Puno, we found to -our dismay that the steamer scheduled to cross Titicaca this evening was -the Yavarí, the smallest and oldest on the lake, and the first steam -vessel to be propelled at an altitude of 12,500 feet above sea-level. -She had already received her full complement of freight, and her deck -was covered with railway-ties brought from Oregon for the new Bolivia -Railway System. It took but a few moments to get passengers and their -luggage transferred from the train to the steamer, and before we -realized it, we were plowing through the troubled waters of the highest -large body of water in the world. The sky was beautifully clear and the -stars shone with wonderful brightness, attracting us to spend the -evening on deck, to the amazement of the natives who preferred to sit in -the stuffy little dining saloon. It did not take us long to agree with -them that it was too cold and damp to make the starlight very enjoyable.</p> - -<p>Our slumbers were disturbed by a terrific thunder-storm that made the -little Yavarí toss about like a cork. The rain descended in torrents and -obliged us to close our porthole. Of course, it was not the first squall -nor the worst that the stout little vessel had weathered, but out of -consideration for her age, we had unpleasant dreams of swimming in the -water<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_226" id="page_226"></a>{226}</span> of a lake which is so cold that none of the Indians who live on -its banks and navigate their crazy <i>balsas</i> over its surface have ever -learned how to swim.</p> - -<p>We were up at daylight just in time to see the islands of Titicaca and -Koati and the promontory of Copacavana, the old centre of civilization -on the plateau. It is still the scene of many quaint Indian festivals. -The ancient terraces are still used in slow rotation for raising crops. -We passed quite close to the peninsula of Taraco which abuts from the -eastern shore and is thickly populated. In fact, so far as we could see, -all the valuable lands on the shores of the lake were cultivated to the -limit.</p> - -<p>Mr. Bandelier says there are probably more Indians here now than there -were in the days before the Conquest, all the sentimentalists to the -contrary notwithstanding.</p> - -<p>The atmosphere was wonderfully clear, and with the aid of glasses, we -could see people miles away going in and out of picturesque little -churches, driving their cattle to pasture, tending crops, and working on -the primitive threshing-floors where donkeys and oxen were treading out -the barley. Occasionally the effect was heightened by a mirage that -raised the shores up from the lake and enabled us to see new towns and -villages. Far in the distance snow-covered mountains added to the charm -of the scene.</p> - -<p>On the marshy shores the fisherfolk began to embark in their <i>balsas</i>, -those curious canoes, made of bundles of reeds tied together, quite -comfortable when new but most disagreeable when water-logged. At one -time we were able to count forty of them dot<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_227" id="page_227"></a>{227}</span>ting the waters of the -lake. Not less interesting was a species of wild duck or diver that -amused us by swimming directly in the path of the steamer, then becoming -suddenly frightened, and with the aid of its wings, running over the -surface of the water with incredible swiftness.</p> - -<p>Numerous as have been the travellers that have crossed the lake, and -easy as it is of access, still Mr. Bandelier is able to write: “Lake -Titicaca in most of its features is as unknown as the least visited of -the inner African lakes. The shores are so indented and their topography -is so complicated, that a coasting voyage of a year at least would be -needed to achieve a complete investigation.”</p> - -<p>There is only a narrow channel between the peninsula of Copacavana on -the west and that of San Pedro on the east so that after one passes -through the narrow straits of Tiquina, one loses sight of the great -expanse of Titicaca and is in reality in a small lake at its southern -end. It took us several hours to cross this, however, and it was noon -before we entered the little artificial harbor of Guaqui. The only lake -traffic that pays is freight and the boats run frequently, but -irregularly, starting as soon as their loading of cargo is completed. -One reads in the guide-books that they have a regular schedule. The -natives say that you can never tell when the steamers will sail. As a -matter of fact, it is usually possible to find out a day or two ahead -from the railroad officials the hour and date of sailing.</p> - -<p>Soon after our arrival the daily train started. The first stop was at -the famous town of Tiahuanaco.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_228" id="page_228"></a>{228}</span> We could see enough of the wonderful -ruins from the train to arouse the greatest curiosity, which a few boys -increased by trying to sell us trinkets which had possibly been dug up -in the vicinity.</p> - -<p>Beyond Tiahuanaco the country, part of the great tableland of Bolivia, -is covered with loose stone and an occasional low shrub. Not a single -tree breaks the monotony. Trees are rarely seen anywhere on this -plateau. A three hours’ run over the level plains brought us to Alto de -La Paz.</p> - -<p>My impressions of the approach to La Paz were so much like those of our -old friend Edmund Temple who came here from Potosí in 1828, that I shall -quote in full his quaint and vivid description. “After travelling -twelve, thirteen, and, as I imagined, every mile of the distance from -Ventilla to La Paz, my astonishment was excited by not perceiving on so -level a plain any object indicating the existence of a town. Sundry -groups of Indians, droves of mules, llamas, and asses, some unladen, -some with burdens, were indeed to be seen passing and repassing, as in -the bustle of business, but no buildings or habitation whatever; no -turret, dome, or steeple of church or convent appeared in view, although -the tolling of their bells occasionally struck faintly on the ear. Huge, -barren, weather-beaten rocks, and snow-covered mountains, apparently -close at hand, rose directly before me, and presented an impassable -barrier.</p> - -<p>“I could not perceive where I was to find a town; and, as I rode onwards -in strange perplexity, endeavoring to solve the enigma, I arrived -suddenly at the verge of an abrupt and prodigious precipice, at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_229" id="page_229"></a>{229}</span></p> - -<p><a name="MONOLITHIC_IMAGE" id="MONOLITHIC_IMAGE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_228fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_228fp_sml.jpg" width="284" height="364" alt="Image unavailable: MONOLITHIC IMAGE AT TIAHUANACO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">MONOLITHIC IMAGE AT TIAHUANACO</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">bottom of which I beheld, in diminutive perspective, the large and -populous city of La Paz.... Through this fairy town may be faintly seen, -winding with occasional interruptions, a silver thread marked with -specks of frothy white, which, upon approaching, proves to be a -mountain-torrent, leaping from rock to rock, and sweeping through the -valley. In casting a glance farther round, you perceive squares and -patches of every shade of green and yellow, which, to a European, is -perhaps the most striking part of the interesting scene. Corn, and -fruit, and vegetables, and crops of every kind, may be seen in all their -stages, from the act of sowing to that of gathering them in; here, a -field of barley luxuriantly green; there, another in full maturity, -which the Indians are busily reaping; next to it, a crop just appearing -above the ground. Farther on, another arrived at half its growth; beyond -it, a man guiding a pair of oxen yoked to a shapeless stick, the point -of which scratches the earth sufficiently for the reception of the seed -which another man is scattering in the furrows; trees bearing fruit and -at the same time putting forth buds and blossoms complete the scene of -luxuriance.... Yet it requires only to raise the eyes from the lap of -this fruitful Eden to behold the widest contrast in the realms of -Nature. Naked and arid rocks rise in mural precipices around; high above -these, mountains beaten by furious tempests, frown in all the bleakness -of sterility; higher still, the tops of others, reposing in the region -of eternal snow, glisten uninfluenced in the presence of a tropical -sun.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_230" id="page_230"></a>{230}</span></p> - -<p>“I stopped for some minutes on the verge of the precipice to look upon a -scene so wonderfully strange; indeed, my horse, of his own accord, made -the first pause, and with outstretched neck, ears advanced, and frequent -snorting, showed that he was not unaware of the abyss beneath, and -seemed to inquire how it was to be descended, for the road, in a sudden -turn, winding round the face of the precipice, is at first completely -concealed from view; and, although it appeared as if I could have -‘thrown a biscuit’ into the town from the heights where I first -discovered it, a short league is the calculated distance, and full three -quarters of an hour were occupied in descending, before I entered the -suburbs. Here, again, I was surprised to find that the town, which, from -the height I had just left, appeared to be on a flat, was in reality -built upon hills, and that some of the streets were extremely steep, -which circumstance alone must convey a tolerable idea of the depth of -the valley in which the city of La Paz is situated.”</p> - -<p>The only change since the days of Temple, whose graphic pencil has so -ably described the scene, is that a well-built electric railroad winds -down the face of the western cliff into the town. At the time of his -visit he was obliged to go from <i>tambo</i> to <i>tambo</i> in search of a -lodging but found them all so full that there was no place for him. It -gave him the opportunity of putting to test those often proffered -services and complimentary generosities of the South American. -Addressing the first decent-looking person he passed, he made inquiry -who was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_231" id="page_231"></a>{231}</span> owner of a large and respectable mansion near by. On -learning that it belonged to a worthy and excellent man, he determined -to present himself and ask for lodgings. At first he was rather -brusquely received by the lady of the house, who “stood for some time -like a pillar of salt to my politely-studied address”; but he explained -his predicament and was soon given a kind and affable reception.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, we were not obliged to experiment upon the proverbial -Bolivian hospitality, but were met at the station by kind friends, -representatives of W. R. Grace & Co., who did everything in their power -to add to the debt of gratitude which I had owed their house ever since -I started on my journey. Comfortable quarters were found for us in the -Sucursal, a huge, modern, three-story building intended for a convent, -but now used as the annex of the leading hotel. It was not long before -we were exploring the streets and enjoying the sights of the most -picturesque Indian city in Spanish-America.</p> - -<p>There are, to be sure, the usual earmarks of a Latin-American capital: -well-stocked warehouses owned by English, German, and American firms; -native politicians, unmistakable, in frock coats and silk hats, who -spend their time chatting around the benches of the principal plaza near -the Government House; a telephone company with four hundred subscribers; -fine residences on a shady alameda, owned and occupied by people of -European descent; etc., etc. Nevertheless the general impression that -one gets of La Paz is that it is an Indian city, quite distinct from any -city seen anywhere else. Its In<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_232" id="page_232"></a>{232}</span>dians are not like the Quichuas of Cuzco -and Potosí, or the Chibchas of Bogotá. They are Aymarás.</p> - -<p>It is said that La Paz, with a population of sixty thousand people, has -thirty thousand Aymarás who neither speak nor understand a word of -Spanish. Judging by my experiences in the streets and in the -market-place, the proportion of people who do not understand Spanish is -considerably larger. I found very few, even of those who were most -anxious to sell their goods, who could so much as count in Spanish.</p> - -<p>The result of having such a large part of the population untouched by -Spanish language or custom is to make the streets much more picturesque. -The brilliant colors completely threw into the shade my impression of -Potosí. Never have I seen such gay ponchos and such kaleidoscopic -effects as in the La Paz market-place and the streets and squares near -it.</p> - -<p>The reason is not far to seek. In no other city of the Andes are the -aborigines so powerful as here. La Paz owes its political supremacy, and -its present possession of the President and Congress, to the fighting -qualities of the Aymarás. They are a barbarous folk whose cupidity, low -cunning, and savage cruelty is quite unlike their mild cousins the -Quichuas. Pampered and befriended by the Government, made to feel their -power and importance, they stalk unabashed through the streets of the -city and take pleasure in carrying their savage tastes to an extreme. -The natural result is to give the city an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_233" id="page_233"></a>{233}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_MARKET_PAZ" id="THE_MARKET_PAZ"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_232fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_232fpa_sml.jpg" width="382" height="123" alt="Image unavailable: THE MARKET-PLACE OF LA PAZ" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE MARKET-PLACE OF LA PAZ</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="A_REMARKABLE" id="A_REMARKABLE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_232fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_232fpb_sml.jpg" width="383" height="188" alt="Image unavailable: A REMARKABLE STAIRWAY AT TIAHUANACO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">A REMARKABLE STAIRWAY AT TIAHUANACO</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">atmosphere of barbaric glitter which is lacking elsewhere. In cities -like Bogotá, Cuzco, and Potosí, although the Indians far outnumber the -whites, the latter are so absolutely dominant, and the Indians so -peaceable and humble, that there is an opportunity for ridicule to -mitigate against the more picturesque features of Indian costume. But in -La Paz few of the Spanish-speaking boys would dare to jeer at a stalwart -Aymará carrier, no matter what garb he chose to wear.</p> - -<p>In fact, the Aymará attitude is a striking example of the truth of Mr. -Bryce’s dictum that “serfs, when they have attained a measure of -independence, resent the inferiority, be it legal or social, to which -they find themselves condemned. Discontent appears and social friction -is intensified, not only because occasions for it grow more frequent, -but because the temper of each race is more angry and suspicious.” We -had noticed their insolent demeanor when we first met them in the -village of Ocurí on the road from Sucre to Challapata. Poor Mr. -Bandelier had many unpleasant experiences with them.</p> - -<p>The streets of La Paz, picturesque at all times, are particularly so on -Sunday, especially on Children’s Sunday. In 1909, that event came on -January 24th, when we had been in La Paz nearly a week.</p> - -<p>The fair held on that day was unusually interesting. From early morning -until the middle of the afternoon, the plazas and streets were thronged -with thousands of gaudily dressed Aymarás, bent on enjoying themselves, -and purchasing toys and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_234" id="page_234"></a>{234}</span> other trinkets of the hundreds of peddlers who -displayed their wares in every inch of available space on the three -principal plazas and the streets connecting them. While the -characteristic feature of this fair is the number of toys that are -offered for sale, and the miniature models of everything the Indians use -and wear, the chance to sell all kinds of articles that appeal to Aymará -taste is not lost sight of. Spread out on ponchos on the edge of the -sidewalk and in the middle of the streets was pottery, large and small, -useful and ornamental; tinware, woodenware, and crockery; dresses for -women, girls, and dolls; ponchos of every grade and description, from -the expensive vicuña, worth forty dollars, to the cheapest kind of -llama, worth only two or three; musical instruments: little guitars with -bodies made of the hard shell armor of the Bolivian armadillo,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Aymará -flutes and flageolets of bamboo, drums and horns made in Germany; and -dolls made in France; in fact, everything that one can think of that -would appeal to the Indian and at the same time be within the -possibilities of his pocket-book.</p> - -<p>The proper thing to do, and the one that seemed to appeal most to the -half-tipsy Aymará porter that had saved up a few <i>pesos</i> from the -rewards of his labor, was to purchase a fat little doll eight or ten -inches high, made in the form of a humpbacked clown, buy gaudy clothes -for it, and then load it<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_235" id="page_235"></a>{235}</span> down with tiny models of brandy bottles, coca -wallets, and <i>chicha</i> jugs, in short everything it might be supposed to -desire. The result was not unlike a heavily laden Santa Claus, although -the face of the manikin, instead of being like our genial old saint, was -that of a hideous, debauched vagabond.</p> - -<p>The most interesting things that were offered for sale were little -plaster models of Aymará types; a carrier or porter with a red knitted -cap and a bit of rope in his hand, on the run to get his load; a woman -seated on the ground before a miniature loom on which she had begun to -make a bright-colored poncho; a <i>chola</i> with her white straw hat, yellow -fringed shawl, jewelled neck, close-fitting bodice, gaudy petticoats, -and high-heeled French boots. Besides there were rudely made little rag -and wooden dolls, clad in characteristic native costumes; clay models of -llamas, cows, birds, and mythical animals; little balsas fifteen inches -long but resembling in every particular the craft of Lake Titicaca; -small packages of coca leaves done up in burlap exactly like the bundles -that the burros bring across the Andes from the warm valleys to the -eastward; little copper kettles from Coracora; tiny clay models of -cooking utensils, water-jugs, and little rawhide sandals scarcely more -than an inch in length, faithful imitations of the clumsy Aymará -footwear.</p> - -<p>One of the smaller plazas was given over almost entirely to games of -chance. The favorite variety consisted of a form of dice. Instead of -being marked with the usual aces and deuces, the dice were cov<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_236" id="page_236"></a>{236}</span>ered with -grotesque figures. Each outfit had a different set, but nearly always -one face bore the representation of a drunken man, another that of a -devil with forked tail and horns, and a third the effigy of the sun. The -others frequently carried pictures of wild animals such as lions, -tigers, or jaguars. As three dice were cast at a time, it was possible -to win three for one, provided all came up the same way, and you had -staked your money on the lucky figure. The gambling booths were well -thronged. Most of the betting was done with <i>reals</i>, a nickel coin worth -about four cents. On the pavement in the middle of this plaza a number -of games of lotto were going on, a game which I used to play in my -childhood when anything connected with gambling was strictly forbidden. -The La Paz game was played as usual with discs and cards. Instead of -numbers as in our game, each disc had a gaudily painted picture on it, -and each card several pictures and lines. The discs were drawn from a -greasy calico bag by an Indian boy, who called out the name of the -figure in a droning voice, and the corresponding grotesque picture on -the cards was then covered. The player who first covered all the -pictures on his card won the pool, less the bank’s percentage. I should -have liked to join the game, but as it was conducted entirely in Aymará, -I found it a little too difficult to learn the names of the different -men and animals that figured on the cards.</p> - -<p>Another game of chance that attracted a dense crowd consisted in selling -ten numbers at a <i>real</i> apiece. If your number was drawn, you won five<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_237" id="page_237"></a>{237}</span> -<i>reals</i> and the bank got the other five. The only novel feature of the -game was the way in which the drawing was made. At the top of a little -pole, five feet high, were ten wooden arms radiating from it like the -spokes of a wheel. From the end of each hung a little clay figure of an -animal, lions, llamas, dogs, and cows. These had numbers pasted to them. -By means of a spring, a wooden monkey was made to climb the pole, -carrying a stick in his hand with a hook on the end of it. In the -meantime, the wheel of numbered animals was rapidly revolved until the -monkey manikin made a jab with his hook and pulled off one of the clay -animals. This decided the winning number. To see how it worked, I bought -two numbers for two <i>reals</i>. The other numbers were soon sold in the -crowd; the monkey clambered painfully up his stick, and owing to some -defect of the mechanism, pulled off two clay figures instead of one. It -happened that both of them bore the numbers which I held in my hand, but -as I was a foreigner, and as the monkey had not played the game -squarely, the figures were re-arranged, the spring again set, and my -luck changed, much to the delight of the Aymarás.</p> - -<p>The home of Bolivia’s millionaires, and the centre of Bolivian capital, -is in Sucre, nevertheless there are nine banks of issue in La Paz, -including several small ones that have no agencies in southern Bolivia -and whose bills have only local circulation. While we were here, the -banks put into operation a new rule to the effect that bills torn in -two, after the favorite custom in Bolivia for making change, would<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_238" id="page_238"></a>{238}</span> be -no longer accepted at the bank at their face value. It seemed natural -and proper enough to us, but greatly disturbed the small tradesmen, and -seemed likely to cause considerable inconvenience owing to the scarcity -of subsidiary coinage.</p> - -<p>During my entire visit I was treated most courteously by the government -officials and I regret to feel any necessity of offering serious -criticism of anything in La Paz. Nevertheless I cannot pass by the -barbarous state of affairs which we found in the city prison, an -institution which is entirely inadequate for a city of this size and a -disgrace to any modern capital. The prisoners are herded together -without regard as to whether they are detained on suspicion of -misdemeanor or convicted of murder.</p> - -<p>Not all of the prisoners are treated so humanely. For our satisfaction, -the jailer unlocked the door of one cell, six feet high, three feet -wide, and eighteen <i>inches</i> deep. As the door opened, the occupant of -the cell tumbled out onto the floor. He was a police officer in full -uniform who for some delinquency had been imprisoned for twenty-four -hours in this torture chamber where he could neither stand up nor lie -down. I shall offer no further criticism because I am conscious of the -fact that travellers in nearly every country are prone to find fault -with the methods of punishment employed there. Coming from a different -atmosphere, things seem dreadful to the stranger that attract no -attention from local observers, and which are really not as hard on -native prisoners as they would be on foreigners. Furthermore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_239" id="page_239"></a>{239}</span> the -distinguished Bolivian statesman who had politely but regretfully -yielded to our request to see the prison, told us he was very sorry we -had seen it and that it “would be improved before long.”</p> - -<p>The traveller in search of new itineraries or out-of-the-way routes will -have plenty of suggestions made to him by the hospitable English and -American colony in La Paz, and if he is at all uncertain in his mind as -to just what he wants to do, he is likely to become bewildered by the -number of attractive trips which he can make from La Paz as a base. La -Paz contains the principal offices of a number of mining and exploration -companies. The general manager of one of those that is engaged in -gold-mining in the valley of the Beni, very nearly persuaded me to -abandon my proposed trip overland from La Paz to Lima, and go across the -mountains to the Beni, thence to the Amazon, and so home. Had it not -required more time than I had at my disposal, and been a somewhat -uncertain venture at this time of the year, I should have accepted his -invitation. For the benefit of any who would like to plan a journey -across South America by one of the new trade-routes which few travellers -have yet seen, I give the itinerary as it was given me. It makes no -allowances for missing connections:—</p> - -<p>La Paz to Sorata by coach or mule-back, 2 days.</p> - -<p>Sorata to Guanay, a hard trip on mule-back, 7 days.</p> - -<p>Guanay to Rurrenabaque, on the river Beni, by raft, 4 days.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_240" id="page_240"></a>{240}</span></p> - -<p>(In the rainy season, that is from January to April, there are very few -rafts to be had. The route then would be from Sorata direct to -Rurrenabaque, an interesting but rather difficult trip that would take -fourteen days on mule-back.)</p> - -<p>Rurrenabaque to river Alto at the junction of the Beni and the Madre de -Dios by steam launch, 4 days; or by boat, 18 days.</p> - -<p>From river Alto to Port San Antonio by boat, 6 days.</p> - -<p>From Port San Antonio to Manaos on the Amazon, by steamer, 5 days.</p> - -<p>Total: La Paz to Manaos, not counting time lost in making connection, 28 -to 45 days.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_241" id="page_241"></a>{241}</span></p> - -<p><a name="BALSAS_NEAR" id="BALSAS_NEAR"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_240fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_240fpa_sml.jpg" width="269" height="179" alt="Image unavailable: BALSAS NEAR GUAQUI ON LAKE TITICACA" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">BALSAS NEAR GUAQUI ON LAKE TITICACA</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="AN_OLD_CHURCH" id="AN_OLD_CHURCH"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_240fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_240fpb_sml.jpg" width="270" height="155" alt="Image unavailable: AN OLD CHURCH NEAR THE BOLIVIA RAILWAY" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">AN OLD CHURCH NEAR THE BOLIVIA RAILWAY</span> -</div> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII<br /><br /> -<small>THE BOLIVIA RAILWAY AND TIAHUANACO</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span><span class="smcap">n</span> order to attend the Scientific Congress, I had been obliged to -interrupt my journey from Buenos Aires to Lima and had left my saddles -and impedimenta at Oruro. It was now necessary to return thither and -pick up the overland trail.</p> - -<p>Leaving La Paz early one morning by the electric train for the Alto, we -took the Guaqui train as far as Viacha, the northern terminus of the -Bolivia Railway.</p> - -<p>This railway was built to order for the Bolivian Government by an -American syndicate, and we found it equipped with American-made -locomotives and cars, and operated by American railroad men. Most of -them had had some experience in Mexico and were familiar with the -difficulties of handling Indian laborers, and also with the use (and -abuse) of the Spanish language. None of them seemed to be particularly -enthusiastic over the prospects of the country, and all were looking -forward with pleasure to the time of their vacation when, according to -the terms of their contract, they would be sent back to the States.</p> - -<p>The construction of this road over the plateau offered no great -engineering difficulties such as are met with by the roads that cross -the Cordillera.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_242" id="page_242"></a>{242}</span> The heaviest grade is not over ten per cent, and there -are no tunnels. To offset this advantage, however, rock ballast is -difficult to procure, and the earth that has been dug up on each side of -the track to form the roadbed seems to lack cohesion. The gauge is one -metre. The ties are of California redwood and Oregon pine. Owing to the -high cost of rails and ties and the distance which they had to be -brought, the railroad has been an expensive one to build. There is only -a difference of eight hundred and sixteen feet between the highest and -lowest portion of the line, yet the hundred and twenty-five miles have -cost two million dollars and a quarter, or eighteen thousand dollars per -mile.</p> - -<p>The Bolivia Railway is remarkable for the promptness with which it was -constructed after the signing of the contract. The National City Bank of -New York and Speyer & Co. agreed, on the 22nd of May, 1906, to build the -line from Viachi to Oruro. Work was commenced seven months later, and -the line was opened for traffic in less than two years. Everything -considered, the prompt completion of the work is a great credit to the -American engineers who had the line in charge.</p> - -<p>There is another side to the story, however. Owing to the fact that the -opening of the road had to be rushed in order to please President Montes -of Bolivia, trains began to run before the road was really finished, and -it has been necessary to continue the service in order to avoid -criticism. The South American is not as patient as the North American -and is ever ready to enter vehement and furious protests<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_243" id="page_243"></a>{243}</span> against -anything short of perfection in railway management. Not content with -actual progress, and not having had any practical experience in the -difficulties of railroad construction and maintenance, he imagines that -all accidents and all shortcomings on the railway are due to gross -carelessness on the part of the chief officials. Every time a train is -late, he blames the management and accuses it of bad faith, although he -knows many of his friends and neighbors would miss any train that -started on time. The necessity of catering to the desires of the -politicians has made it extremely difficult to get the roadbed into good -shape. At the time of my visit six hundred Indian laborers, conscripts, -were still employed in getting the track properly ballasted. Their wages -average a trifle over fifty cents a day.</p> - -<p>I had heard that accidents occurred “every trip,” but thought it only -one of those extravagant criticisms that are so common, until I asked -the conductor. He admitted that some of the wheels generally left the -rails at least once a day. For an hour or so nothing happened, and in my -interest in the landscape, dotted here and there with mud-colored -villages and ancient tombs, I was beginning to forget the delightful -sense of approaching danger, when suddenly, with a rattle and a bang, we -came to a sharp stop. One of the forward cars had left the rails and -plowed its way across the ties for some distance. The train crew, well -experienced in such matters, soon had the refractory car back on the -rails again and, nothing the worse for our accident, we proceeded -merrily southward for another<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_244" id="page_244"></a>{244}</span> half hour until brought up with a sudden -jerk by a repetition of the rattle and bang. This time it proved to be -the tender whose wheels had found a weak spot in the roadbed. Upon -further examination, it looked as though we were going to be delayed for -at least four or five hours. The tender had lost its balance and was -lying over partly on one side, kept from a complete upset by the weight -of the engine and the strength of the couplings. In ten or fifteen -minutes, however, the crew, well trained by daily practice, had the port -wheels back on the track, but the starboard wheels continued to remain -in the air five or six inches above the rails. As the water tank had -recently been filled, the centre of gravity was too high to allow the -tender to assume its normal position, and the added weight of several -men failed to bring it down. The engineer suggested that a bend in the -track less than a quarter of a mile away would “do the business,” and so -he was allowed to pull down to the curve. It looked like an -extraordinarily clever acrobatic performance to see this refractory -tender going merrily along on a single rail. True to the engineer’s -expectations, as soon as the wheels felt the changed angle of the track, -down came the tender with a lurch that almost capsized it on the other -side. In less than twenty minutes we were again on our way, thankful -that we had experienced wreckers instead of the ordinary train crew of -the eastern United States, whom I have seen take several hours to -perform what these men did in a few minutes.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding our two accidents we arrived at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_245" id="page_245"></a>{245}</span> Oruro about five -o’clock in the evening, after a journey of nine hours, on time!</p> - -<p>We found the Government House surrounded by throngs of people. Presently -a company of infantry marched through the streets from their barracks -and took up a position in the courtyard. The occasion was the death of -the major who, six weeks before, had read the proclamation in the -streets and now had just died after an illness of twenty-four hours.</p> - -<p>The scene at the railroad station the next morning at eight o’clock, -when I left Oruro to return to La Paz, was characteristic. The local -regiment was drawn up in front of the train after having escorted the -remains of their major from the Prefecture. Several hundred citizens -thronged the platform and tried to crowd into the cars. Friends of the -deceased major and his family, men and women, were weeping loudly, and -some of the women uttered piercing shrieks and wild cries. Altogether, -it was rather trying.</p> - -<p>The plain over which we passed for a good part of the journey was very -flat, treeless, and covered only with small, scrubby growth. At one -station we were met by thirty or forty Indians who had brought bundles -of fagots, dry brush from the neighboring mountains. These they piled -onto a flat car and carried down the line to one of the new settlements -which have sprung up near the tracks, and which depend on the trains for -both fuel and fresh water. The latter is carried in tank cars, like oil.</p> - -<p>At the principal stations, a dozen or more<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_246" id="page_246"></a>{246}</span> Aymará women, seated in a -long line on the ground, offered for sale <i>chicha</i>, cakes, buns, and -little pears, brought from the fruitful valleys far to the eastward.</p> - -<p>The only part of the road that offered any attractive scenery was that -near the river Viscachani, an affluent of the Desaguadero. Near Ayoayo, -there are a number of ancient tombs east of the track. Some of them have -been opened by the railroad people and artificially flattened skulls -found. The railroad men told us that when they were building the line -they saw many vicuñas and biscachas, but these have now almost entirely -disappeared.</p> - -<p>We stopped for lunch at a little station whose new adobe buildings and -corrugated iron roofs told of railroad enterprise. The restaurant was -kept by a pleasant American, who did his best to please all of his -patrons, but chiefly the railroad “boys” on whom he depends for most of -his income. On my way down to Oruro, I had had the good fortune to sit -at the same table with part of the train crew, but this time the two -seats nearest me were occupied by Bolivian army officers who were as -rude and ill-mannered as possible. If I had introduced myself as a -<i>delegado</i> they would have been the pink of politeness. Any one -connected with the Government would be sure to receive their kind -attention. But, so far as they could see, I was simply an American -traveller. Accordingly they proceeded to act as though they owned the -restaurant and everything in it, presuming that I would be glad enough -to get whatever they chose to leave. There is, however, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_247" id="page_247"></a>{247}</span> certain -relief in avoiding the excessive attentions which such men as these -bestow on any one with a government “pull,” and it was instructive to -see how they behave toward foreigners who were apparently travelling -without official recognition. It enabled me the better to appreciate the -different attitude that is taken toward South Americans by distinguished -foreign visitors who are in the hands of attentive friends during their -entire stay, and by casual travellers who have failed to fortify -themselves with official letters of introduction. I do not mean to imply -that one who merely wishes to visit the chief centres of interest will -fail to be comfortable unless he supplies himself with important looking -documents tied with red tape and sealed with a great seal, but I do know -from personal experience that such a preparation can give one, in at -least eleven Latin-American republics, a very different impression of -the country and of the courtesy of its inhabitants.</p> - -<p>There does not seem to be much likelihood of any large amount of traffic -being developed along this desolate plateau. The railroad must depend -for its freight on foreign merchandise coming to La Paz via Oruro and -the port of Antofagasta. As it has a longer haul than that of its -competitor, the Peruvian Southern from Mollendo to Puno, it will have -some difficulty in getting much of this. Furthermore, there is the new -Chilean government railroad now under construction, a direct line to La -Paz from the port of Arica. When that is finished, it is difficult to -say how the line from Oruro to La Paz<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_248" id="page_248"></a>{248}</span> can secure enough freight to pay -expenses. There will always be a certain amount of passenger traffic, -but at present one train, three times a week, is amply sufficient.</p> - -<p>A branch of the Bolivia Railway is now in course of construction from -Oruro to Cochabamba, which will bring to La Paz the food and coca -cultivated in the warm valleys northeast of Sucre where frost is unknown -and there is an abundance of rain. There is an imperative demand for -coca all over the plateau where it cannot possibly grow. Furthermore it -does not keep well, loses its flavor after four or five months, and -fresh supplies have to be brought continually from the eastern valleys. -This makes it an important article of commerce to be reckoned as one of -the surest sources of revenue for the Bolivia Railway.</p> - -<p>Shortly before reaching Viacha we passed a truncated hill, the Pan de -Sucre, that has been a favorite camping-ground in revolutionary wars. It -is easily defended and its summit is spacious enough to furnish refuge -for quite a number of troops. On the hills west of it, romantically -perched on an almost inaccessible peak, is a little church where -services are held once a year. To the eastward we could begin to see the -magnificent snow-range of the Bolivian Andes. Words fail to describe -adequately the grandeur of the Cordillera Real with its two hundred and -fifty miles of snow-capped mountains, scarcely one of which lies at a -lesser elevation than twenty thousand feet. It must be seen to be -appreciated. Still, one can get a very vivid<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_249" id="page_249"></a>{249}</span> impression of it in the -pages of Sir Martin Conway’s fascinating “Climbing and Exploration in -the Bolivian Andes.”</p> - -<p>The next day after my return from Oruro, through the courtesy of Mr. -Rankin Johnson, I enjoyed the privilege of visiting the village and -ruins of Tiahuanaco on the plains several miles south of Lake Titicaca.</p> - -<p>Leaving La Paz at eight o’clock in the morning, we had six hours in and -around the village and returned in time for dinner the same evening. It -was necessary to take our lunch with us, for there is no inn and the -little village shops afford scarcely anything that is fit to eat. The -Tiahuanaco station is within a mile of the most interesting ruins. The -railroad track passes within a few feet of three of the monolithic -images and one of the monolithic doorways.</p> - -<p>At the station we secured the services of a picturesquely dressed old -Aymará who the station master assured us was a competent guide. He took -us across the dusty plain towards a large mound which had once been -surrounded by terraces and stone walls. It is popularly known as the -“fortress.” Originally a truncated pyramid about six hundred feet long, -four hundred feet wide, and fifty feet high, treasure-seekers have dug -great holes in its sides and excavated part of its summit in an effort -to find the “buried riches of the Incas.” Besides the fortress there -seems to be evidence of a great “temple” and also of a “palace.” The -“temple,” roughly outlined by rude stone blocks, occupies an area of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_250" id="page_250"></a>{250}</span> -nearly four acres. For the most part the blocks are from six to ten feet -in height and three feet in thickness. Within there is still evidence of -a terrace, and from this on the eastern side there leads a remarkable -stairway. Scattered about over the mound and all over the plain are many -rectangular stones whose purpose has been entirely lost, thanks to the -activity of treasure-seekers who have ruthlessly moved them from their -original position and left them lying in indescribable confusion. There -seems to be evidence that many of the blocks were held in place by -strong metal pins, for there are round holes drilled into the stones and -insertions made to receive “T” clamps.</p> - -<p>The principal ruins are in a broad level part of the plain where the -soil is firm and dry. They consist of rows of erect, roughly-shaped -monoliths, sections of foundations, portions of giant stairways, -monolithic doorways, some bearing carvings in low relief, monolithic -statues, and innumerable small cut stones strewn about on all sides.</p> - -<p>Great stone platforms, weighing many tons, aroused our keenest -curiosity. One looks around the plain in vain for a near-by quarry from -which they could have come. The most natural supposition is that they -must have been quarried on the spot from ledges outcropping here, for it -would seem scarcely possible that blocks twenty feet long, ten feet -wide, and four feet thick could have been transported any distance by -the primitive methods at the disposal of those prehistoric people.</p> - -<p>The ruins were much more complete in 1875 at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_251" id="page_251"></a>{251}</span></p> - -<p><a name="GREAT_PLATFORMS" id="GREAT_PLATFORMS"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_250fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_250fpa_sml.jpg" width="269" height="159" alt="Image unavailable: “GREAT PLATFORMS OF STONE WEIGHING MANY TONS”" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">“GREAT PLATFORMS OF STONE WEIGHING MANY TONS”</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="PART_OF" id="PART_OF"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_250fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_250fpb_sml.jpg" width="254" height="203" alt="Image unavailable: PART OF THE GREAT MONOLITHIC DOORWAY" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">PART OF THE GREAT MONOLITHIC DOORWAY</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">the time of the visit of the American archæologist, E. G. Squier, who -spent some time here, and whose account of the ruins in his book on Peru -is one of the most complete and satisfactory that we possess. -Unfortunately, his drawings give an erroneous impression of the size of -many of the monuments which are not so large as he has represented them.</p> - -<p>Squier saw no subterranean vaults or passages, but we were more -fortunate, for only a short time previous to our visit, thanks to the -activity of Mr. John Pierce Hope of La Paz, who has taken a great -interest in the work of exploration, a small vault was discovered and we -were able to enter and examine it. It is about six feet square and the -same in depth and is made of beautifully cut stones, accurately fitted -together. Nothing of value was found in the vault and it is probably one -of those to which Von Tschudi, who was here before Squier’s visit, -refers. The winds that blow over these sandy plains will soon fill the -vault and cover it up again and leave it to be rediscovered by some -future traveller.</p> - -<p>The largest monolithic doorway, now broken, is covered with figures not -unlike some of the Central American monuments. It is very different from -anything else here or in Cuzco. The story goes, that when the Spaniards -first arrived, it was lying on its side, and there appears to be no -record to show who raised it nor when the crack developed which led -finally to the door breaking into two parts. The southern and larger -half has lost its balance and will soon be lying on the ground. By a -curious coincidence,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_252" id="page_252"></a>{252}</span> Mr. Barbour, who made a careful photograph of the -carvings on this doorway, afterwards secured from a grave near -Pachacamac in the vicinity of Lima, a textile that was decorated with a -similar pattern.</p> - -<p>After examining the ruins, we spent an hour or more in the village -itself where we were struck by the great number of finely cut stones -inserted into the walls of the huts and used as paving in the streets. -The church on the plaza is built entirely of blocks brought from the -ruins. It has a fence or wall in front composed of a row of arches that -reminded me of Potosí and Bartolo. The exterior of the church gives no -evidence of the extraordinary magnificence within, which is quite in -keeping with the ancient importance of this little village. Here we -found religious paintings, some of them very good, elaborate gilded -carvings, and an altar built of pure silver, beautifully worked.</p> - -<p>La Paz has two or three remarkable collections of antiquities which -consist largely of material brought from Tiahuanaco. Perhaps the best is -in the National Museum, which owes its existence to the enlightened -patriotism of Sr. Don Manuel Vicente Ballivian, a descendant of one of -the most distinguished Bolivian families, and the leading antiquarian in -the republic.</p> - -<p>Of the ancient Tiahuanaco, there is comparatively little left now. Not -only did the Spaniards use cartloads of it in building the churches of -La Paz and Guaqui, but the modern Guaqui-to-La Paz railroad has taken -away within the past ten years more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_253" id="page_253"></a>{253}</span> five hundred trainloads of -stone for building its bridges and warehouses. From the point of view of -the railroad manager, whose business it is to secure lasting results -with the greatest possible economy, it must have seemed a most fortunate -circumstance that within a few rods of his tracks there should be such a -quantity of nicely cut stone, and “a lot of old stone walls,” all ready -to use! <i>O tempora! O mores!</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_254" id="page_254"></a>{254}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX<br /><br /> -<small>CUZCO</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">W</span><span class="smcap">e</span> left La Paz on January 26, 1909, at 8.30 <small>A.M.</small> When we reached Guaqui -we found that our steamer was to be the old Yavarí that we had before. -She was late in arriving from Puno; the afternoon was spent in unloading -her cargo; and we did not sail until eight o’clock that evening.</p> - -<p>The night was wet and chilly. Thunder-storms and squalls made the lake -quite rough and we had the usual discomforts. The storm and the late -start kept us from reaching Puno before 11 <small>A.M.</small> The regular train had -gone, but a special was made up for the convenience of the Arequipa -passengers and we reached Juliaca at one o’clock. Here I bade the last -of the <i>delegados</i> farewell and asked for the train for Cuzco. “It had -left several hours before and the next train was due to leave day after -to-morrow!”</p> - -<p>Thanks to the courtesy of the railway officials, however, a special -train, consisting of half a dozen freight cars and a small passenger -coach, was made up to take me as far as Checcacupe.</p> - -<p>The coach which had been put at my disposal was old and very small, -about the size of an ancient bob-tailed horse-car. Moreover, it was -already occupied by a dozen native passengers who, like myself, had -missed the regular train. As usual,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_255" id="page_255"></a>{255}</span> they had no end of bags, bundles, -and boxes. There was hardly room to squeeze inside the door. Undoubtedly -they had better right on the train than I did, for they had paid their -fares while I was riding on a pass. So I relinquished any claim to the -coach and took the fireman’s seat in the locomotive, which afforded me a -better opportunity of seeing the country.</p> - -<p>We pulled out of Juliaca shortly after two o’clock and rattled along -over the plains north of Titicaca. Here I saw for the first time llamas -tied to stakes. Of all the thousands of llamas seen in Bolivia, I do not -remember one that was tied. But I soon found that the practice is -customary in and around Cuzco.</p> - -<p>The inquisitive Indians who gathered at the stations to stare at our -train while the engine was getting a drink of water were mild-mannered -Quichuas. Puno is the northern limit of the Aymarás. The Quichua women -here wore broad-brimmed black hats covered with velvet and ornamented -with tinsel.</p> - -<p>We did not reach Ayavari until six o’clock and it was dark before we -approached the upper part of the valley of the Pucará River and began to -climb up over the Vilcanota mountains. The night air was exceedingly -cold, but fortunately, by this time, most of the native passengers had -left the train and I was able to get a seat in the coach.</p> - -<p>The highest station on the road, La Raya, is 14,150 feet above sea -level. From here, there is a rapid descent of 2500 feet to Sicuani which -was for many years the northern terminal of the railroad.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_256" id="page_256"></a>{256}</span> Here, in -search of supper, I stumbled through the dark streets with the -train-crew to a filthy little Indian <i>chicheria</i> where a half-drunken -brigand and his besotted spouse were persuaded to give us hot tea, beer, -and stale bread. The conductor of the train said I would have to spend -the night at Sicuani as he did not propose to go any further in the -dark. Unfortunately for him, orders came directing him to proceed at -once twenty-five miles further to Checcacupe in order that I might catch -the north-bound morning train. The engineer declared that it was a -dreadfully risky run from Sicuani to Checcacupe and that we would -probably never reach our destination at all. But I was too tired and -sleepy to care very much, and as soon as I got back into my little -bobtailed car, pulled out my sleeping bag, and promptly forgot all about -the train and the danger of falling into the Vilcanota River. The next -thing I knew the Checcacupe station agent was flashing his lantern in my -face and telling me to lie still as this was much the best place for me -at this time of night (1 <small>A.M.</small>), and I should not be disturbed until -morning. I thanked him and dropped off to sleep again, dimly conscious -that some kind of an animal was scratching about on the floor of the -little car among my dunnage bags. When I woke up, aroused by the shouts -of the train-men who were making up the train for Cuzco, I found that my -visitor was a little seven-year-old Quichua street-Arab who could speak -no Spanish, but who said as plainly as possible that he would be my -slave for ever after and desired to travel in my company.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_257" id="page_257"></a>{257}</span> I gave him -part of my breakfast and thought little more about it, especially as Mr. -Clarence Hay, who had kindly agreed to accompany me overland from Cuzco -to Lima, met me here. Mr. Smith had gone back to New Haven to pursue his -studies.</p> - -<p>Mr. Hay and I were soon installed on the train for Cuzco. We were -already well on our way when the polite Peruvian conductor smilingly -informed us that there was a boy in the second-class car who insisted he -belonged to me. It was too late to put the little fellow off, so I -decided to be responsible for him; but he was a foxy little rascal, -slipped out of the train at some station before we reached Cuzco, and -disappeared. Children mature early in the Andes.</p> - -<p>At the time of our visit, the Cuzco railroad had only just been -completed. The track runs along the steep side of a valley which has an -embarrassing habit of sending down landslides quite unexpectedly, so the -journey was a bit slow and uncertain. The natives are fond of -exaggerating its irregularities, and said it would take several days, -but we were to reach Cuzco on time, notwithstanding all their dismal -forebodings.</p> - -<p>The scenery was very pretty. The Vilcanota valley rapidly narrows as it -descends, and the river becomes a roaring torrent. The climate is -delightful and has been likened to that of Italy. The soil is extremely -fertile and produces a remarkable variety of crops.</p> - -<p>The road follows the west bank of the Vilcanota until it is met by the -Huatanay River. Here it turns<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_258" id="page_258"></a>{258}</span> abruptly to the left and enters the -lovely region that was once the very heart of the Inca Empire. The -valley of the Huatanay is still densely populated, as it always has -been. In quick succession the train passed the large Indian cities of -Oropeza, San Geronimo, and San Sebastian. Suddenly we stopped in the -fields and took on a group of laughing Peruvian sports who had waved a -piece of red flannel to save themselves the trouble of going to the -nearest railway station. One of the joys of this railroad is that -everybody that is anybody flags the train whenever he pleases. The habit -interferes somewhat with the time-tables, but no one cares (except the -railroad people), and it gives an individual a great sense of his own -importance to make a train stop while he climbs on board. A few minutes -later we reached the temporary Cuzco station, a group of small, -corrugated-iron buildings which stand in a plain a quarter of a mile -south of the city.</p> - -<p>The most agreeable approach is by way of the Alameda, an ill-kept avenue -with a double row of alder trees, on the west bank of the Rio Huatanay. -From it we had a fine view of the convent of Santo Domingo, the ancient -Temple of the Sun, across the ravine to the east. On the west of the -Alameda is the new rifle range of the local shooting club. The avenue -itself leads into one of the principal streets of the best residence -quarter, where Spanish houses have almost completely obliterated all -traces of Inca occupation. As soon as we reached the centre of the city, -long walls of beautifully cut stone, laid without cement, and fitted -together with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_259" id="page_259"></a>{259}</span></p> - -<p><a name="LLAMAS" id="LLAMAS"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_258fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_258fpa_sml.jpg" width="329" height="185" alt="Image unavailable: LLAMAS Of CUZCO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">LLAMAS Of CUZCO</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="CUZCO_FROM" id="CUZCO_FROM"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_258fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_258fpb_sml.jpg" width="394" height="167" alt="Image unavailable: CUZCO FROM SACSAHUAMAN" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">CUZCO FROM SACSAHUAMAN</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">patience of expert stone-cutters, assured us that this was verily the -Cuzco of Pizarro, Garcilasso de la Vega, and the Spanish chroniclers. -The one distinctive feature that separates Cuzco from all other cities -in America is the prevalence of these long, dark, sombre walls. When you -look at a building from a distance, it seems to be an ordinary two-story -Spanish house with a red-tiled roof, wooden balconies, and white-washed -adobe walls. As you come a little closer, it strikes you that the -whitewash has been worn off the lower part of the walls, but when you -come closer still, you find that this portion consists of unpainted Inca -stone-work, still fresh and attractive.</p> - -<p>The most striking wall in Cuzco is that of the palace said to have -belonged to the Inca Rocca, which is composed of very large irregular -boulders. They are of all sizes and shapes, some with as many as a dozen -angles, but all fitting perfectly. The stones used in most of the -ancient palaces and temples are more nearly rectangular. The -corner-stones of buildings are frequently rounded off, but there are -almost no circular walls in Cuzco. The principal exception to this is in -the Dominican Monastery, once the temple of the Sun, where the end of -one of the buildings is rounded like the chancel of a church. This is, -perhaps, the finest bit of stone-cutting in Cuzco, and is shown off by -the Dominican Fathers with great zest. E. G. Squier, who lived for some -time in the convent and made a minute examination of these walls, found -that the sides of contact of each stone are true radii of a double<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_260" id="page_260"></a>{260}</span> -circle, and that the line of general inclination of the wall is perfect -in every block.</p> - -<p>In some of the walls, the outer surfaces of the stones are perfectly -flat, but in general, they are slightly convex. The blocks vary in -length from a few inches to several feet, although it is very rare to -find any more than five feet long. All are laid with remarkable -precision and at first sight appear to be absolutely rectangular. On -closer examination, you find that there is scarcely an absolute right -angle in the whole wall. Each block is slightly irregular, but this -irregularity matches so exactly with that of the next that there is no -space for a needle to enter. The result of such careful workmanship, -combined with the use of dark-colored stone, is to produce a dignity and -solidity that is very impressive.</p> - -<p>The characteristics of Inca architecture are in part the same as those -of the older Egyptian ruins: individual blocks of great size; doors -narrower at the top than at the bottom, and walls with a base markedly -wider than the apex so that the sloping front is a distinct feature. -Probably the same methods which the Egyptians evolved in order to put in -position large monoliths too heavy to be lifted by hand, were employed -by the Incas. They seem to have thought nothing of fitting carefully -into place, on top of a wall fifteen feet high, boulders weighing -several tons.</p> - -<p>The followers of Pizarro who divided Cuzco among themselves, built their -homes on the massive walls of the Inca palaces. Sometimes they left the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_261" id="page_261"></a>{261}</span> -Inca wall standing to a height of six or seven feet. In other instances -it still rises to fifteen or twenty feet.</p> - -<p>It is unfortunate that the Incas did not use cement. In that case the -Spaniards would have found it much more difficult to have destroyed the -ancient palaces, and more would have been left for the delectation of -students and travellers to-day. Under the circumstances, it was a simple -matter for the faithful disciples of the church to raise temples and -towers of great beauty by the simple process of tearing down Inca -palaces and using the material according to the ideas of ecclesiastical -architecture which they had brought with them from Spain.</p> - -<p>Many travellers have studied Cuzco but none with so great care as Mr. -Squier, in whose “Peru” may be found many drawings and plans of the -rooms.</p> - -<p>Thirty years ago, when he was here, there was no inn, and he was obliged -to depend on the kindness of the local officials and the hospitality of -the monasteries. But there is now a commodious Hotel Comercio where -reasonably good meals and decent bedrooms enabled us to be very -comfortable. Of course, the “plumbing” was conspicuous by its absence, -and there was by no means so much luxury as at the Hotel Marone in -Arequipa. However, even the Incas were not remarkably cleanly and it is -as well not to have too many of the conveniences of the twentieth -century when living in a metropolis of the fifteenth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_262" id="page_262"></a>{262}</span></p> - -<p>Cuzco has long been notorious as one of the dirtiest cities in America; -and it justifies its reputation. The stone paving of the streets is -extremely rough and unspeakably filthy. To add to the slime, the sewers -are open conduits running through the middle of the narrow streets. In -the wet season, they are kept flushed by heavy downpours. In the dry -season, they are unspeakable.</p> - -<p>One has to be very careful where one steps while investigating the -ancient structures, for the present inhabitants are no more cleanly or -sanitary in their habits than their predecessors. It is pathetic to see -the filth and squalor that surround the walls of the magnificent old -edifices.</p> - -<p>Although we rarely forgot to pick our way carefully through the streets, -the practice soon became a habit and did not interfere with the -enjoyment of the brilliant colors affected by the Quichuas. Their -home-made ponchos and shawls, fastened with one pin instead of two as in -Potosí, are woven of native wool and cotton. Yet though the material may -be as rare and uncommon as real alpaca, vicuña, or llama wool, the -brilliant hues are unmistakably aniline. In fact, in the market-place of -almost every city in the Andes, one is pretty sure to find a native -peddler whose specialty is the sale of German dyes.</p> - -<p>The most striking part of the Cuzco Quichua costume is the pancake hat. -It is reversible, being made of a straw disc with a cloth-covered hole -in the centre. On one side, for rainy weather, the disc is lined with -coarse red flannel or some other worsted<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_263" id="page_263"></a>{263}</span> stuff, but the dry weather -side is elaborately covered with tinsel on black velvet. Likewise, the -loose, baggy cloth that covers the opening in the centre is lined with -velveteen on the fair-weather side and coarse woolen stuff for rain. The -men’s hats are slightly larger than the women’s, but otherwise the -fashion seems to be alike for both sexes.</p> - -<p>Opposite our hotel was the church and convent of La Merced. Its -cloisters are noted for their fine old paintings, their elaborately -carved stone columns and arches. Its gardens are filled with rare -flowers and shrubs. In the crypt beneath the altar, Pizarro’s partner, -Almagro, and his son are supposed to have been buried. The obliging -Brother who showed us the monastery had never heard of any such -tradition. “<i>Quien sabe?</i>” and a shrug of the shoulders was all he would -reply.</p> - -<p>Not far from La Merced is the warehouse of Sr. Lomellini, Cuzco’s -leading merchant, an Italian gentleman who, while building up an -extensive business, has devoted himself to a study of the Inca -civilization. He has brought himself in as close touch with it as -possible; the very entrance to his warehouse is a fine old Inca doorway, -while his home, half way up the side of Sacsahuaman, was once the site -of the palace of Manco Capac, the first famous Inca. He showed me with a -sad smile a few elaborately carved bronze figures or idols that looked -very much as though they had been buried for centuries in the mould of a -royal mausoleum, but instead were “made in Germany.” Later I found -similar specimens in Lima, where one “anti<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_264" id="page_264"></a>{264}</span>quarian” had the effrontery -to have three of identically the same pattern, differing only in color, -exposed for sale in the same showcase.</p> - -<p>West of Sr. Lomellini’s warehouse is the monastery and plaza of San -Francisco. The plaza is chiefly interesting for the Beggars Fair which -is held here every Saturday evening. There are practically no pawn shops -in Cuzco, but this fair takes their place. We were told it was an -excellent opportunity to obtain bargains. It may be so for the natives, -but as we were branded at once as “foreigners who had plenty of money,” -the prices of everything were put up to the highest possible notch and -kept there. I was surprised at the amount of old rubbish, rusty nails, -bits of broken pottery, and worn-out second-hand clothing, hundreds of -things that one rarely sees exposed for sale in a pawn shop, and many on -which no one but a junk dealer would advance a penny. As a picturesque -spectacle, however, the Fair was most attractive. The plaza was lit up -by smoking torches and crowded with a swarm of bargain hunters who -jostled each other noisily up and down the long lines of traders seated -on the ground behind their wares.</p> - -<p>Nearly all the fairs in the Andes are held on Sunday mornings. The -market-places are usually entirely deserted in the evening. I suppose in -this fair it would not do to expose cast-off household treasures to the -full light of day. Not only is the chance of making a sale much greater -when the article can only be seen by torch-light, but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_265" id="page_265"></a>{265}</span> newly-poor -individual, who is forced to bring hither his household goods, may more -easily avoid the scrutiny of his newly-rich neighbors.</p> - -<p>Looming up in the darkness, above the torches, the tall tower of the -Franciscan church added a touch of solemnity to the scene. One afternoon -we had an opportunity to visit the monastery and examine the beautiful -wood-carvings in the choir. Like all the Franciscan establishments that -we visited, the rule of the order is strictly enforced, the gardens are -well kept, and although one can easily see that the Order has seen -better days, there is little to criticise.</p> - -<p>The Great Plaza of Cuzco, once much larger than it is now, and the scene -of many Inca carnivals, is still very attractive. On its east side -stands the massive cathedral and its chapels, said to have been built -entirely of stones taken from Inca palaces near by.</p> - -<p>On the south are the beautifully carved stone towers of what was -formerly the Church of the Jesuits. Flanking these are picturesque -two-story buildings with red-tiled roofs and overhanging wooden -balconies supported by a row of columns and arches. In the arcades -numerous small tradesmen display their wares. On the west and north of -the plaza are more two-story houses with arcades filled with interesting -little booths. Here, and on the stones of the Plaza, are cloth merchants -who have gathered their wares from England and the Continent, North and -South America; venders of pottery and Quichua toys, made in the -neighborhood;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_266" id="page_266"></a>{266}</span> market gardeners with corn and potatoes; and peddlers of -every variety of article imaginable; some protected from the rain by -cloth shelters that look as though they had been taken from the top of a -prairie schooner in the “days of ’49”; others squatting on the rough -pavement, their wares spread out on the skins of sheep or llamas, -exposed to wind and weather.</p> - -<p>The Plaza has had a varied history. Perhaps its most tragic day was when -it witnessed the death of Tupac Amaru. It was on the morning of the 18th -of May, 1781, that the Inca was brought forth to his execution from the -old Jesuit church. In order to prevent a repetition of Indian uprisings, -such as he had started, the Spanish authorities felt it necessary to -practice the most diabolical cruelties on both him and his wife. She was -placed on a lofty scaffold, her tongue was cut out, and an attempt was -made to garrote her with an iron screw. When it was found that her neck -was so small that she could not be strangled in this manner, the -executioners placed a lasso around her neck and pulled and hauled until -she was dead. After witnessing the death of his wife, the Inca was taken -into the centre of the square, his tongue was cut out, and his body was -drawn and quartered by four horses.</p> - -<p>The immediate effect of his revolution was to cause laws to be -promulgated prohibiting the use of the native language, ordering the -Indians to give up their national customs and to destroy all their -musical instruments. Fortunately, these laws were not carried out. In -fact, the Quichua tongue is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_267" id="page_267"></a>{267}</span></p> - -<p><a name="SACSAHUAMAN" id="SACSAHUAMAN"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_266fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_266fpa_sml.jpg" width="380" height="110" alt="Image unavailable: SACSAHUAMAN" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">SACSAHUAMAN</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="THE_PLAZA" id="THE_PLAZA"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_266fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_266fpb_sml.jpg" width="376" height="97" alt="Image unavailable: THE CATHEDRAL—THE JESUIT CHURCH—THE PLAZA-CUZCO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE CATHEDRAL—THE JESUIT CHURCH—THE PLAZA-CUZCO</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">still used to a large extent. It was supposed by Sir Clements Markham -and other travellers fifty years ago that owing to the constantly -increasing corruption of the ancient dialect and the introduction of -Spanish modes of expression, the language of the Incas would soon be a -thing of the past. We found, on the contrary, that nine out of ten -Indians, even those who occupied stalls in the market-place of the -largest cities, either could not or would not converse in Spanish. There -was usually an Indian in the crowd who was willing to act as an -interpreter, but the great majority of the people seem to have no -acquaintance with Spanish. Furthermore, we found that the -Spanish-speaking residents all recognize the necessity of learning -Quichua.</p> - -<p>The Prefect of Cuzco put his orderly at our disposal for the entire time -of our stay. He proved to be most useful and agreeable. A word from him -opened to us the doors of monasteries and churches, and his knowledge of -prices enabled us to get examples of Quichua handiwork without being -obliged to pay much more than the regular price. In our shopping -excursions whenever we began to accumulate more Indian toys and trinkets -than we could easily carry in our pockets, the orderly would summon the -next police officer and tell him to act as our porter. It was rather -hard to keep from laughing. Imagine a Broadway policeman toddling up -Murray Hill carrying bundles for a foreign delegate to a Scientific -Congress!</p> - -<p>After my experience in the La Paz jail, I was curious to see what that -of Cuzco might be like.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_268" id="page_268"></a>{268}</span> Our obliging cicerone willingly consented to -show all there was to be seen. The jail consists of an old-fashioned -Spanish dwelling built around a large courtyard. Into this inclosure all -classes of prisoners are put without any regard as to whether they are -awaiting trial or condemned to life imprisonment. There did not seem to -be any cells, and the forty or fifty prisoners were enjoying themselves -after the fashion of the inmates of English prisons of the eighteenth -century. The Government’s provision for food does not include any -luxuries, but it is possible for the prisoners to earn money and -purchase what they need. So far as we could see, there was no forced -labor, and the men were thrown entirely on their own resources. Several -were busily working at hand-looms making ponchos which they were glad -enough to sell. Others had cups carved out of horns. One unfortunate, -who happened to be asleep at the time of our visit, sent to the hotel a -gaudily painted trinket with a note saying that he hoped we would -purchase it for a good price, as he was much in need of funds. On the -whole, although the building was old, dilapidated, and quite inadequate, -according to our ideas, the prisoners seemed to be having a good time, -and there was no evidence of cruelty. The Quichuas are such a mild, -inoffensive folk that the jailers do not have the same incentive to -punish them severely as do those in La Paz who have to deal with the -cantankerous Aymarás.</p> - -<p>On the south side of the historic plaza, next door to the Jesuit Church, -is the University of Cuzco,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_269" id="page_269"></a>{269}</span> rather squalid by comparison with the -church, but containing some fine stone cloisters. It was founded in -1598, thirty-eight years before Harvard College. I had a very pleasant -call on its distinguished Rector, a well-read lawyer. The principal work -of the University at present consists of training men for the law. -According to the annual report of the Rector, during the year 1907 the -University conferred the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy and Letters on -four candidates, that of Bachelor of Jurisprudence on two, Bachelor of -Political Science on two, and Doctor of Jurisprudence on four. There are -eighteen instructors. They receive salaries of $35 a month, and give, on -the average, one hundred and thirty-five lectures a year. The Faculty of -Letters has a three-year course and thirty-three students. The Faculty -of Jurisprudence, a five-year course and forty-six students. The Faculty -of Political Science, a three-year course and twenty-four students. The -Section of Natural Science, a three-year course and nine students. The -total income for the year is in the neighborhood of $10,000. Of this the -Government gives $5500, and the rest is made up largely of students’ -fees. One source of revenue for 1907 was $40 in fines levied on the -members of the Faculty, “for failing to attend their classes and for -other acts”!</p> - -<p>The question of the education of South American youth is an interesting -one. The opinion of the majority of British residents has been well -expressed by an English mining engineer who has recently published a -book on Peru. He says: “The Spanish-American<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_270" id="page_270"></a>{270}</span> youth educated in the -United States, is not a happy product. London is the real home for the -cosmopolitan refinement suited to their character”!</p> - -<p>South American institutions of learning are built on such different -lines from those in the United States that it seems to me extremely -unlikely that a large number of students from South America will ever -come to American universities. Ought we to do anything to encourage more -to come? Spanish-Americans now studying in the States are devoting their -attention chiefly to engineering and dentistry. Very few South Americans -are likely to care for our academic or collegiate course or anything -corresponding to it. It does not fit in at all with their customary -scheme of education. To the average South American, a “college” means a -kind of high school from which a student graduates to enter at once upon -his professional studies. At first glance it looks like the familiar -German idea of a gymnasium course followed immediately by professional -studies in the university. But it would be unfair both to the gymnasium -and the <i>colegio</i> to place their curriculum in parallel columns.</p> - -<p>A large number of physicians in South America claim to have studied in -Paris. The dentists usually advertise the fact that they were educated -in Philadelphia or New York. Lawyers rarely ever receive any special -training outside of the local university. On the other hand, while a -large percentage of the native civil engineers are trained in the local -engineering schools, a very considerable number have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_271" id="page_271"></a>{271}</span> studied abroad. It -is a generally recognized fact in South America, outside of Argentina -and Chile, that the best engineers are Americans.</p> - -<p>On the whole I am not disposed to agree with those who disparage -American training for Latin-American youth. I am inclined to believe -that it increases their efficiency more than the “cosmopolitan -refinement” of London.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_272" id="page_272"></a>{272}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX<br /><br /> -<small>SACSAHUAMAN</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span><span class="smcap">o</span> defend Cuzco from attack by enemies coming from the north, the Incas -built a great fortress on a hill overlooking the city. To reach it, the -easiest way is to take a mule and ride through Cuzco’s narrow streets, -up the ravine to the ancient gateway in the east side of the hill. At -first sight it might seem ridiculous not to walk, as the fortress in -only 600 feet above the city. But Cuzco has an elevation of 11,500 feet, -and hill-climbing at this altitude is best done on mule-back.</p> - -<p>The Prefect kindly supplied us mules and an escort. On our way we passed -the church of Los Nazarenes whose superstructure is laid on ancient -walls that are noteworthy because of the many serpents that are carved -in relief on the stones. Among the crude pottery dishes that I bought in -the streets of La Paz was one decorated with these same little wriggling -serpents.</p> - -<p>Beyond Los Nazarenes the street narrowed until presently it became -simply a path in a rocky gorge. As we entered the gorge there was at -first little to be seen. Then in its narrowest and most easily defended -part we came suddenly upon a pile of massive rocks, roughly hewn. Huge -blocks of stone, five or six feet high, slightly rounded off and -accu<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_273" id="page_273"></a>{273}</span>rately fitted together, are here built into a gateway twelve feet -high that opens into a passage defended by a wall of large boulders. -This leads to the hilltop. On the side toward the city, the slope is -nearly precipitous, but the approach was made even more difficult near -the summit by a series of three terraces each twelve or fourteen feet -high. There is nothing remarkable about the summit except the beautiful -view of Cuzco which one gets from here.</p> - -<p>The immediate front of the hill just below the upper terraces is -extremely steep. About half-way down to the city the spur broadens and -flattens out. It was there the first Inca built his palace. On the lower -continuation of this spur, between two rivulets, the palaces and temples -of the later Incas were built.</p> - -<p>It is the north side of Sacsahuaman, the side away from Cuzco, that is -the chief object of interest. Here the slope is very gentle and it was -necessary to fortify the place artificially. Furthermore, it was on this -side that attacks might be expected, not only from the savages of the -Amazonian wilds, but also from the hostile tribes of the Andean plateau, -including the Caras of Ecuador. Accordingly, here the Incas exerted -their utmost skill in the construction of a powerful line of defence.</p> - -<p>The fortifications extend for a third of a mile entirely across the back -of the hill, and are flanked by steep valleys at each end. They consist -of three lines of zigzag terraces, one above another, each faced with -walls of colossal boulders, some of them twelve feet in diameter. The -lower terrace has an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_274" id="page_274"></a>{274}</span> average height of about twenty-five feet; the -middle and upper ones are some six feet less. There are few sights in -the world more impressive than these Cyclopean walls.</p> - -<p>The Incas were accustomed to build great terraces and I have seen them -in many places in Peru. In every other case, however, the terrace walls -are straight, or nearly so. Here, although the walls are parallel, they -are also zigzag and consist for the entire length of salients and -reëntrant angles. The apex of each salient in the lower wall is usually -formed by a conspicuously large block, twenty-five feet high and ten or -twelve feet thick.</p> - -<p>The size and strength of the walls and the employment of salients which -enabled the defenders to cover the entire face of the fortification with -a flanking fire, a device unknown even to the European Crusaders, made -the Inca fortress practically impregnable. It was certainly quite secure -from the assaults of any Indian assailants, armed only with such -primitive weapons as bows and arrows, slings and spears.</p> - -<p>Next to the colossal size of the stones which the builders used for the -lower wall, the most impressive thing is the care they took to fit the -stones together without cement, so that they should stand for ages.</p> - -<p>It is said that most of the smaller stones have been carried off for -building purposes in the city. Be this as it may, what remains is the -most impressive spectacle of man’s handiwork that I have ever seen in -America. Photographs absolutely fail to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_275" id="page_275"></a>{275}</span></p> - -<p><a name="A_SECTION" id="A_SECTION"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_274fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_274fp_sml.jpg" width="411" height="270" alt="Image unavailable: A SECTION OF THE LOWER TERRACE, SACSAHUAMAN" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">A SECTION OF THE LOWER TERRACE, SACSAHUAMAN</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">do it justice, for at best they show only a few boulders, a small part -of one of the walls. If taken far enough away to show the whole fort, -the eye loses all sense of the great size of the stone units owing to -the fact that they are so much larger than any stones to which it is -accustomed.</p> - -<p>The Inca author, Garcilasso de la Vega, wrote, in the sixteenth century, -as follows of Sacsahuaman: “This was the greatest and most superb of the -edifices that the Incas raised to demonstrate their majesty and power. -Its greatness is incredible to those who have not seen it.... It passes -the power of imagination to conceive how so many and so great stones -could be so accurately fitted together as scarcely to admit the -insertion of the point of a knife between them. And all of this is the -more wonderful as they had no squares or levels to place on the stones -and ascertain if they would fit together. How often must they have taken -up and put down the stones to ascertain if the joints were perfect! Nor -had they cranes, or pulleys, or other machinery whatever.... But what is -most marvellous of the edifice is the incredible size of the stones, and -the astonishing labor of bringing them together and placing them.” -Compare this with what a recent writer on the Caroline Islands says, in -describing the colossal stone ruins on the Island of Lele near Kusaie: -“Looking at their solid outlines, seamed and furrowed with the rain and -sun of untold generations, one cannot help marvelling at the ingenuity -and skill of these primitive engineers, in moving, lifting, and poising -such huge and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_276" id="page_276"></a>{276}</span> unwieldy masses of rock into their present position, -where these mighty structures, shadowed by great forest trees, stand -defying Time’s changing seasons and the fury of tropic elements.”</p> - -<p>Also this from Captain Cook’s “Voyages”: “The platforms are faced with -hewn stones of a very large size. They used no sort of cement, yet the -joints are exceedingly close and the stones mortised and tenoned one -into another in a very artful manner and the side walls were not -perpendicular but sloping a little inwards.” This is an accurate -description of Sacsahuaman. Yet Captain Cook never came to the highlands -of Peru and probably never even saw a picture of these walls. In this -paragraph he is describing the stone ruins on Easter Island.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> - -<p>The resemblances between the ruins of upper Peru and those of Easter -Island and the Caroline Islands offer a remarkably interesting field for -ethnological speculation. Unfortunately as yet they have told us but -little of the builders of Sacsahuaman.</p> - -<p>It is generally conceded that the fortress was commenced in the reign of -the Inca Viracocha, two hundred years before the Spanish Conquest. -Whether this tradition is well founded, it is difficult to say. It may -be due to the fact that the name “Viracocha,” as Sir Clements Markham -points out,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_277" id="page_277"></a>{277}</span> was simply the term applied to a powerful character, a term -of admiration, equivalent to the word “gentleman” in English.</p> - -<p>Whoever built it, the task was certainly heroic. Many of the stones were -undoubtedly quarried near by. As for methods of transportation, we know -that the Incas understood the manufacture of strong cables, for they -built suspension bridges across many of the chasms of central Peru. By -the aid of these cables and of wooden rollers, it would have been -entirely possible to have dragged very large stones for a considerable -distance, up inclined planes. Although they had no draft animals, llamas -being only accustomed to carrying, they had thousands of patient -Quichuas at their disposal, whose combined efforts, extended over long -lines of cables, would have been amply sufficient to move even the -largest of these great blocks. Nevertheless, when one considers the -difficulty of fitting together two irregular boulders, both of them -weighing eight or ten tons, one’s admiration for the skill of these old -builders knows no bounds.</p> - -<p>The modern Peruvians are very fond of speculating as to the method which -the Incas employed to make their stones fit so perfectly. One of the -favorite stories is that the Incas knew of a plant whose juices rendered -the surface of a block so soft that the marvellous fitting was -accomplished by rubbing the stones together for a few moments with this -magical plant juice!</p> - -<p>Discussion and speculation will undoubtedly continue indefinitely, yet -one can come to at least two<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_278" id="page_278"></a>{278}</span> conclusions: the Incas had an unlimited -amount of labor at their disposal, and time was no object.</p> - -<p>Furthermore, they were apparently very fond of playing the game of -stone-cutting. From the fortress we rode across the little grassy plain -that separates the terraces from the rocks of Rodadero hill. On its -summit, terraces have been hewn out of the solid rock, and it is said -that the Incas were fond of sitting here to watch their patient workmen -engaged in putting together the magnificent walls of Sacsahuaman. On the -north side of the hill, the rock has been worn into grooves by the water -and polished by the ponchos of generations of pleasure-seekers who have -used this curious formation as a “toboggan slide.” Our guides assured us -that the habit of coasting down this hill on ponchos was started by the -Incas. At all events, it is still a favorite Sunday amusement.</p> - -<p>In the rolling country north of the Rodadero are numbers of rocks and -ledges that have been carved into fantastic seats, nooks, and crannies -by a people who seem to have taken a keen delight in stone-carving for -its own sake. It is difficult to explain in any other way the maze of -niches and shelves, seats and pedestals that are scattered about on -every hand. Writers are accustomed to label as “Inca thrones” every -stone seat they find in the mountains of Peru. But here the ledges are -carved so irregularly as almost to bewilder the imagination.</p> - -<p>A mile away to the northeast we discovered the dim outlines of a large -amphitheatre where the Incas may have gathered on the grassy slopes to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_279" id="page_279"></a>{279}</span></p> - -<p><a name="AN_INCA" id="AN_INCA"></a></p> -<p><a name="ARTICLES_OF" id="ARTICLES_OF"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_278fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_278fp_sml.jpg" width="423" height="277" alt="Image unavailable: AN INCA VASE FROM CUZCO" /></a> - -<br /> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" - class="caption" style="margin:auto auto auto 32%;max-width:45%;"> - -<tr class="c"><td>AN INCA VASE FROM CUZCO</td> -<td> ARTICLES OF DRESS AND A DECORATED MULE HALTER FROM CUZCO</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<p class="nind">watch games and religious festivals. It offers an attractive field for -digging, as it seems to have been entirely overlooked hitherto.</p> - -<p>On our way back to the city we were invited to rest at Sr. Lomellini’s -country house which is built in the gardens of Manco Capac, the first -Inca. The entrance is through a gate in the wall of the ancient outer -terrace. Near the house stands a section of the palace wall, thirty feet -long and ten feet high, containing a recessed door and window. In the -outer terrace the stones are of irregular shapes while in this wall they -are practically rectangular. In his house, Sr. Lomellini has collected a -number of extremely interesting specimens of the ceramic art of the -Incas. The most striking are two very large vases resembling in shape -and marking the small one figured here. This is only six inches high; -those are nearly three feet. There are quite a number of imperfect -specimens in the American Museum of Natural History.</p> - -<p>After the gardener had given us a handful of roses, we left the -precincts of the ancient Inca and clattered down the hill over the rough -cobblestones to the picturesque sights—and distressing smells—of -modern Cuzco.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_280" id="page_280"></a>{280}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI<br /><br /> -<small>THE INCA ROAD TO ABANCAY</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span><span class="smcap">here</span> are several ways of going from Cuzco to Lima. The easiest and most -frequented now is by rail to Mollendo and then by steamer to Callao, the -seaport of Lima. Before the days of railroads the common route was by -mule <i>via</i> Ayacucho, Pisco, and the Coast. Since the building of the -Oroya railroad and more particularly since the extension of the line -south to Huancayo, instead of going west to the coast from Ayacucho the -overland traveller continues north to the Jauja valley until he meets -the railway. It was this road that we proposed to take.</p> - -<p>For centuries the overland trail from Cuzco to Huancayo and the north -was the most celebrated highway in Peru. The Incas used it in their -conquests and improved it. When Atahualpa fell into the clutches of -Pizarro, the largest part of his golden ransom was brought over this -road. After the death of the Inca, Pizarro in his march on Cuzco found -this road most convenient for his little cavalcade. During the civil -wars that followed the conquest this highway was repeatedly the scene of -action. For three hundred years it was replete with historic incident. -Finally, the road that had seen the beginnings of Spain’s conquest, was -destined to see the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_281" id="page_281"></a>{281}</span></p> - -<p><a name="SOUTHERN_BOLIVIA" id="SOUTHERN_BOLIVIA"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_280fp_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_280fp_sml.png" width="268" height="438" alt="Image unavailable: Sketch Map -of -SOUTHERN BOLIVIA -to illustrate the route -of -HIRAM BINGHAM -from -LA QUIACA to CHALLAPATA" /></a> -<br /><span class="nonvis"> -[<a href="images/i_280fp_lg.png">Larger version</a>] -[<a href="images/i_280fp_huge.png">Largest version</a>]</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">bitter end. For, in 1824, it witnessed the last campaign, the final act -in the drama of Spain’s Colonial Empire, when La Serna, last viceroy of -Peru, was defeated by the patriot forces under General Sucre in the -battle of Ayacucho.</p> - -<p>In journeying over the three hundred miles of this historic highway, I -should have preferred to have hired mules for the whole trip, but nobody -was willing to undertake the contract. We were told that “in the good -old times” before the railway came to Cuzco, it was very easy to hire -mules; and <i>arrieros</i> were willing enough to go anywhere, but now there -was so little demand for this sort of thing that the supply had stopped. -The best we could do was to get an <i>arriero</i> to take us to Abancay, the -capital of the next Department.</p> - -<p>Two American civil engineers whom I had met in Arequipa had told me that -the journey from Cuzco to Huancayo would be full of trouble and -countless difficulties, as a large part of the region was uninhabited! -They said that if it were possible to buy a tent in Cuzco, to do so, by -all means, as we should otherwise be obliged to spend many nights in the -open, exposed to rain and snow. They had not been over the road but had -lived for months in Cuzco and had “heard all about it.” I mention this -merely as an instance of the difficulty of finding out the truth about -South America by hearsay.</p> - -<p>We now learned from those who had actually been over the road that while -there were no inns to be encountered anywhere except in Ayacucho, it -would be only owing to extremely bad luck if we failed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_282" id="page_282"></a>{282}</span> reach the -shelter of a village every night. Accordingly we contented ourselves -with a few canned goods and kitchen utensils and found them to be all -that was necessary.</p> - -<p>In the Peruvian highlands the rains commence in November and continue -until the end of March. February is supposed to be the worst of all. -During that month the discomfort of travelling over the bridle-paths of -the Andes is so great that the natives never undertake a journey for -pleasure and stay at home as much as possible. Yet it was February that -we had chosen for our march. It was “Hobson’s choice,” but I was not -sorry. Several travellers have given a picture of the region as it -appears in the dry season when the roads are comparatively good. We were -to have an opportunity of seeing what they could be like in the worst of -the rainy season, and we were further favored by the fact that this -particular February turned out to be “the rainiest month of the rainiest -season that any one remembered to have experienced in Peru for at least -twenty-five years.” In a word, we were to see the mountain trails at -their worst.</p> - -<p>We left Cuzco on the morning of the first of February, 1909. The day -promised ill. Rain fell in torrents. The preceding day we had received -calls from a number of local dignitaries, all of whom assured us that -they would be on hand in the morning to escort us out of town. But the -continuous downpour overcame their conscientious scruples. Even the -Prefect’s polite orderly, who had been unremitting in his attention, was -glad enough to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_283" id="page_283"></a>{283}</span> take our hint that we were sufficiently honored by his -accompanying us for three blocks from the hotel.</p> - -<p>The Prefect had been very solicitous about our welfare and, although we -assured him that we preferred to travel without a military escort, he -insisted that a sergeant and at least one soldier should accompany us as -long as we were in his Department. I never discovered why he was so -insistent. There was no danger, and highway robbery is unheard of in -Peru. Possibly he was afraid that the <i>delegados</i> might otherwise go -hungry at villages where inhospitable, half-starved Quichuas would say -that there was no food to be had; or he may have thought it undignified -for us to travel without an escort. Whatever his reasons, he meant well -and it was not a case of graft, for the soldiers were ordered to -accompany us at the expense of the government.</p> - -<p>We started off in a northwesterly direction, leaving Sacsahuaman on the -right. After climbing out of the Cuzco valley we descended gradually to -the great plain of Anta, famous as the scene of numerous battles in the -wars of the Incas. We crossed it by the ancient Inca road, a stony -pathway five or six feet wide, with ditches and swamps on either side. -The Peruvians have allowed it to fall into decay, and for a good part of -the distance it has disappeared. At noon we reached Puquiura, a village -with a plaza very like that of Tiahuanaco. At half past three, after -making a long detour in order to avoid the swamps and ponds that in the -wet season cover the direct road, we crossed a little stone bridge and -rode into the dismal plaza of the old Indian town of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_284" id="page_284"></a>{284}</span> Huarocondo. This -is only a few miles from Urubamba, and the remarkably interesting ruins -of Ollantaytambo, which have been so graphically described by Squier.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately we had no time to visit them and took instead the road to -the southwest. Skirting the hills north of the plain of Anta, we passed -several great terraces a third of a mile long and fourteen or fifteen -feet high, and towards evening entered Zurita, a small Indian town. Here -we were directed to the house of a hospitable Gobernador where we found -that two Peruvian travellers had preceded us.</p> - -<p>As in other houses of the better class in this vicinity, the entrance -was through a large gate into a courtyard. Opposite the gate was a -two-story building with a balcony running the length of the second -floor. On another side of the court were smaller structures one of which -had a wide stone verandah where the <i>arrieros</i> and the soldiers piled up -the saddles and bags and spread their blankets for the night. Two -unfortunate parrots, cold, sickly, and bedraggled, had their perches -attached to the posts of the verandah.</p> - -<p>An hour after our arrival, four Indian <i>alcaldes</i> and <i>tenientes</i> -carrying silver-tipped canes as symbols of office, presented themselves -in the courtyard in answer to the summons of the Gobernador. When that -official appeared on the balcony, they humbly removed their hats and -stood in silence while he told them how many bundles of fresh barley -straw to bring for our mules. An hour later they returned with other -Indians who, acting under their orders,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_285" id="page_285"></a>{285}</span> brought the <i>cebada</i>. The -conversation was carried on in Quichua, which we were unable to follow, -but the Gobernador said that for the fodder the <i>alcaldes</i> wanted one -<i>sol</i>, a Peruvian silver dollar worth forty-eight cents. This we -cheerfully gave him, whereupon, in a most unabashed manner, he put the -<i>sol</i> in his pocket, took out a few small coins worth about half a <i>sol</i> -and threw them down into the courtyard where they were gratefully picked -up by the <i>alcaldes</i>.</p> - -<p>We left Zurita the next morning, accompanied by the Gobernador and our -fellow lodgers. They were all well-mounted on excellent horses. The -horsemen of this vicinity affect a bit of harness that seems to be a -relic of the trappings of Spanish war horses. The crupper is covered -with a V-shaped piece of solid leather elaborately stamped and marked. -From it hang hip straps supporting very loose breeching that dangles -almost to the points of the hocks and actually rests on the ham strings. -Although it is of no use whatever, and in fact, actually impedes the -horse’s action, the effect is rather picturesque.</p> - -<p>Leaving the <i>arriero</i> and his pack mules to follow in charge of our -military escort, we pushed on at a good pace with our friends and found -ourselves at noon at Challabamba on the divide that separates the waters -of the river Urubamba from those of the Apurimac. In marked distinction -to the grassy, treeless plain of Anta from which we had just ascended, -we saw before us deep green, wooded valleys.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_286" id="page_286"></a>{286}</span></p> - -<p>The trail, a rocky stairway not unlike the bed of a mountain torrent, -led us rapidly into a warm tropical region whose dense foliage and -tangled vines were grateful enough after the bleak mountain plateau. -Beautiful yellow broom flowers were abundant. The air was filled with -the fragrance of heliotrope. Parti-colored lantanas ran riot through a -maze of agaves and hanging creepers. We had entered a new world.</p> - -<p>A steep descent brought us to the town of Limatambo where there are -interesting terraces and other evidences of an Inca fortress. The valley -of the Limatambo River is here extremely narrow and the fortifications -were well placed to defend an enemy coming against Cuzco from the west -and north.</p> - -<p>Rain had been falling most of the day and the river Limatambo had risen -considerably. The ford was quite impassable, and we were obliged to use -a frail improvised bridge over which our mules crept very cautiously -sniffing doubtfully as it bent under their weight. Soon afterwards we -crossed the river Blanco and left the old trail, which goes through the -Indian village of Mollepata, described by Squier as “a collection of -wretched huts on a high shelf of the mountain with a tumbled-down -church, a drunken Governor who was also keeper of a hovel which was -called the post-house, and a priest as dissolute as the Governor ... a -place unsurpassed in evil repute by any in Peru.” Fortunately for us, -since the days of Squier’s visit, an enterprising Peruvian has carved a -sugar plantation out of the luxuriant growth on the mountain side, at -La<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_287" id="page_287"></a>{287}</span> Estrella. Here we were given an extremely cordial welcome although -Sr. Montes, the owner,—the fame of whose hospitality had reached even -to Cuzco,—was not at home. Our military escort did not arrive until -nearly three hours later, with a sad story of wretched animals and -narrow escapes.</p> - -<p>We were considerably surprised to find here at La Estrella an excellent -piano in fairly good tune. It had been brought from Cuzco on the -shoulders of Quichua bearers. This seems extraordinary enough, but -before the days of the railroad, pianos were formerly carried by Indians -all the way from the Pacific Coast to Cuzco. The next time I saw five -stalwart Irish truckmen groaning and shaking under the weight of an -upright piano which they had to carry fifty feet from the truck into a -house in New Haven, I wondered what they would think of half-starved -Indians who could carry it from sea-level over mountains fourteen -thousand feet high.</p> - -<p>The presence of the piano at La Estrella meant that here as everywhere -else we were to be favored with the strains of the “Tonquinoise” and -“Quand L’Amour Meurt.” This is the kind of music that most appeals to -the South Americans. Wherever there was a piano in the heart of Peru or -Bolivia, it mattered not whether the place was Potosí or Arequipa, these -tunes were everlastingly drummed into our ears.</p> - -<p>The next morning we descended from the canefields of La Estrella by an -extremely precipitous winding trail. In places it seemed as though our -heavily-laden mules must surely loose their footing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_288" id="page_288"></a>{288}</span> and roll down the -fifteen hundred feet to the raging Apurimac River below. At length, -however, we came to an excellent modern bridge which we were actually -able to cross without dismounting, something that rarely happens with -the bridges of Peru.</p> - -<p>In the old days a wonderfully lofty suspension bridge made by the -Indians in the Peruvian fashion, was the only means of crossing this -river. Vivid pictures of it, no two alike, are given in Squier’s “Peru,” -Markham’s “Cuzco and Lima,” and Lt. Gibbon’s “Exploration of the Valley -of the Amazon.” Although they all differ as to its height above the -water and its length, all were greatly impressed by the remarkable cañon -that it crossed. Gibbon says “the bridge was ... 150 feet above the dark -green waters”; Sir Clements Markham, who crossed the bridge two years -later says, “the bridge spanned the chasm in a graceful curve at a -height of full 300 feet above the river.” As he crossed it in the middle -of March just at the end of the rainy season when it may be supposed the -waters were high, while Lt. Gibbon crossed it in August, the middle of -the dry season, when the river is very low, the contrast between their -estimates of the height of the bridge above the river is all the more -striking. Unfortunately it has disappeared and travellers can no longer -dispute over its dimensions.</p> - -<p>The scenery to-day was superb; the great green mountains piling up on -one another, their precipitous sides streaked with many lovely -waterfalls. Green parrots overhead and yellow iris underfoot lent -additional color to the scene. To add to our joy<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_289" id="page_289"></a>{289}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_GOBERNADOR" id="THE_GOBERNADOR"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_288fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_288fp_sml.jpg" width="363" height="270" alt="Image unavailable: THE GOBERNADOR OF CURAHUASI AND HIS FAMILY" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE GOBERNADOR OF CURAHUASI AND HIS FAMILY</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">the sun shone all day long. A comparatively easy journey over steep but -well-travelled mountain-trails brought us to the town of Curahuasi where -we were met by Lt. Caceres, who had been directed to act as our escort, -and who proved to be a most genial and exceptionally spirited young -Peruvian, a member of an old and distinguished family.</p> - -<p>Immediately on our arrival at Curahuasi we were taken to the local -telegraph office where Caceres sent off an important message announcing -the approach of the “distinguished visitors”! To recompense us for -waiting while he wrote the messages, bottles of stout were opened and -toasts solemnly proposed. We expected to spend the night in the town, -but found that the Gobernador, who desired us to be his guests, lived a -couple of miles up the valley at Trancapata on the road to Abancay.</p> - -<p>Although his establishment was a primitive one, it was charmingly -situated on the edge of a deep ravine. The dining-room was an old -verandah overlooking the gorge, and we enjoyed the view and the generous -hospitality quite as much as though the villa had had all modern -conveniences. In fact, neither of us had ever before experienced such a -cordial welcome from a total stranger. We were to learn, however, before -we left the Department, that such friendliness was characteristic of -nearly every village and town that enjoyed the over-lordship of the -genial Prefect of Apurimac.</p> - -<p>The next morning when we finally managed to bid our cordial host -good-by, it was not until he had accompanied us for a long distance up -the deep<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_290" id="page_290"></a>{290}</span> valley. As we climbed the ascent under a bright sun, a -wonderful panorama spread itself out behind us, the snowy peaks of Mt. -Sargantay gleaming in the distance. We soon left the region of luxurious -vegetation, lantanas, cacti, and tropical plants, and ran into a chilly -drizzle at an elevation of thirteen thousand feet. Then we descended, -came out of the rain, and had a delightful ride over a trail lined with -masses of blue salvia and pink begonias.</p> - -<p>At last we caught glimpses of the fields of sugarcane that have made -Abancay famous throughout Peru. To one who has seen the broad canefields -of Hawaii or the great plantations of Cuba and Porto Rico, the fame of -this rather small district would be surprising. But after passing over -the bleak highlands of Peru and experiencing the chill of the mountain -climate, one feels more ready to appreciate that a warm, rich valley, -eight thousand feet above the sea, where sugar can be easily raised, is -a matter for profound congratulation.</p> - -<p>A long descent down a very bad road brought us into a charming region. A -mile from Abancay itself we were met by the sub-Prefect and a dozen -sugar planters and <i>caballeros</i> who had taken the trouble to saddle -their horses and come out to give us a fitting welcome. After an -interchange of felicitations, we clattered gayly into town and were -taken at once to the Prefecture. Here Hon. J. J. Nuñes, the genial -Prefect, gave us a cordial reception and apologized for the fact that he -had quite a large family and could not give us suitable sleeping -quarters in the Prefecture. As it was, he placed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_291" id="page_291"></a>{291}</span> the local club -entirely at our disposal. We were only too glad to accept, for the -club’s two pleasant rooms overlooked the little plaza and commanded a -very pretty view of the ancient church and steep hills beyond.</p> - -<p>Hardly had we had time to turn around in our new quarters before the -Prefect came to make a formal call. He at once broached the subject of -the ruins of Choqquequirau and begged us to visit them.</p> - -<p>It seems that in Quichua, the language of the Incas, still spoken by a -majority of the mountaineers of Peru, Choqquequirau means a “Cradle of -Gold.” Attracted by this romantic name and by the lack of all positive -knowledge concerning its last defenders, several attempts had been made -during the past century to explore its ruins and to discover the -treasure which it is supposed the Incas hid here instead of allowing it -to fall into the hands of Pizarro with the ransom of Atahualpa. Owing to -the very great difficulty of reaching the site of the ruins a tradition -had grown up that the Incas built a great city that once contained over -fifteen thousand inhabitants, high up on the mountain-side, six thousand -feet above the river Apurimac. That the tradition had a basis of fact -had been demonstrated occasionally by bold mountain-climbers who -succeeded in reaching a part of the ruins.</p> - -<p>We were told that the first man to reach there went and came alone. All -he saw was a stone wall which he reached late in the afternoon, -exhausted and without food. He slept in its shelter, left his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_292" id="page_292"></a>{292}</span> gun as -proof that he had been there, and came away early the next morning, -anxious only to get home. A generation later a small party of -adventurers succeeded in reaching the ruins with enough food to last -them for two days. They excavated two or three holes in a vain effort to -find buried treasure and returned with a tale of sufferings that kept -any one from following their example for twenty years. They brought back -reports of rocky “palaces, paved squares, temples, prisons, and baths,” -all crumbling away beneath luxuriant tropical vegetation. Then a local -magistrate, dreaming of untold riches, so ran the tale, endeavored to -construct a path by which it might be possible to reach Choqquequirau -and to maintain a transportation service of Indian carriers who could -provide workmen with food while they were engaged in making a systematic -effort to unearth the “Cradle of Gold.” This man had at his disposal the -services of a company of soldiers and a large number of Indians, and it -is said that he expended a large amount of time and money in his quest. -He succeeded in reaching the top of the ridge 12,000 feet above the -river and 6000 feet above Choqquequirau, but was unable to scale the -precipices that surround the ruins, and all his labor came to nought. -Others tried to utilize the path that he had made, but without success, -until the present Prefect of the department of Apurimac, Honorable J. J. -Nuñes, assumed office and became interested in the local traditions. -Under his patronage, a company of treasure-seekers was formed and -several thousand dollars subscribed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_293" id="page_293"></a>{293}</span></p> - -<p>The first difficulty that they encountered was the construction of a -bridge over the frightful rapids of the Apurimac. All efforts failed. -Not a Peruvian could be found willing to venture his life in the -whirlpool rapids. Finally “Don Mariano,” an aged Chinese peddler, who -had braved the terrors of the Peruvian mountains for thirty years, dared -to swim the river with a string tied to his waist. Then after much -patient effort he succeeded in securing six strands of telegraph wire -from which he hung short lengths of fibre rope and wove a mat of reeds -two feet wide to serve as a foot path for a frail suspension bridge. -Once on the other side, the company was able to use a part of the trail -made twenty years ago, but even with that aid it took three months of -hard work to surmount the difficulties that lay between the river and -Choqquequirau. Cheered on by the enthusiastic Prefect and his aide, -Lieut. Caceres, an exceptionally bold officer, the task which had defied -all comers for four hundred years was accomplished. A trail that could -be used by Indian bearers was constructed through twelve miles of -mountain forest, over torrents and precipices, and across ravines from -the river to the ruins.</p> - -<p>With these and similar stories we were regaled by one and another of the -local antiquarians, including the president of the treasure company and -our friend the Prefect.</p> - -<p>We felt at first as though we could not possibly spare the week which -would be necessary for a visit that would be worth while. Furthermore -we<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_294" id="page_294"></a>{294}</span> were not on the lookout for new Inca ruins and had never heard of -Choqquequirau. But the enthusiasm of the Prefect and his friends was too -much for us. The Prefect held it out as an extra inducement that no -foreigners had ever visited Choqquequirau, a statement that I later -found to be incorrect. Finally he said that President Leguia of Peru, -knowing that we were to pass this way, had requested the company to -suspend operations until we had had a chance to see the ruins in their -original condition. In short so urgent were the Prefect’s arguments, and -so ready was he to make it easy for us, that we finally consented to go -and see what his energy had uncovered.</p> - -<p>That night he gave us an elaborate banquet to which he had invited -fifteen of the local notables. After dinner we were shown the objects of -interest that had been found at Choqquequirau, including several ancient -shawl-pins and a few nondescript metallic articles. The most interesting -was a heavy club fifteen inches long and rather more than two inches in -diameter, square, with round corners, much like the wooden clubs with -which the Hawaiians beat <i>tapa</i>. It has a yellowish tinge that gave rise -to a story that it was pure gold. Unfortunately we had no means of -analyzing it, but I presume it was made, like the ancient Inca axes, of -copper hardened with tin.</p> - -<p>The next afternoon, amidst a heterogeneous mess of canned provisions, -saddles, rugs, and clothes, we packed, and received distinguished -guests. Almost everyone who called told us that he was going to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_295" id="page_295"></a>{295}</span> -accompany us on the morrow, and we had visions of a general hegira from -Abancay.</p> - -<p>In the evening we were most hospitably entertained at one of the sugar -estates. To this dinner a genial gathering came from far and near. The -planters of Abancay are a fine class of <i>caballeros</i>, hospitable, -courteous, and intelligent, kind to their working people, interested -both in one another’s affairs and in the news of the outside world. Many -of them spend part of each year or two in Lima, and a few have travelled -abroad.</p> - -<p>One of our hosts had recently made an excursion to Choqquequirau, which -“nearly killed him.” He lost one mule: it slid down a precipice. He -lamed another badly. On the whole, although urged to do so by his -friends, he decided <i>not</i> to offer to go with us on the morrow. At least -one man proposed to stay in Abancay!<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_296" id="page_296"></a>{296}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII<br /><br /> -<small>THE CLIMB TO CHOQQUEQUIRAU</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span><span class="smcap">he</span> next morning, accompanied by a large cavalcade, we started for -Choqquequirau. Most of our escort contented themselves with a mile or -so, and then wishing us good luck, returned to Abancay. We did not blame -them. Owing to unusually heavy rains, the trail was in a frightful -state. Well-nigh impassable bogs, swollen torrents, avalanches of -boulders and trees, besides the usual concomitants of a Peruvian -bridle-path, cheered us on our way.</p> - -<p>Soon after leaving our friends we had to ford a particularly dangerous -torrent where the mules had all they could possibly do to keep their -footing in the foamy waters. After the crossing we rested to watch -Castillo, one of the soldiers who had been assigned to accompany us, -cross the stream on foot. His mule, tired out by the dreadful trail, was -being rested. It had forded the stream with the others and was standing -by us watching the soldier take perilous leaps from boulder to boulder, -where a misstep would have meant certain death. Hardly had Castillo -gained our side of the stream when the mule decided to return to Abancay -and plunged back across the dangerous ford. With a shout of rage, the -soldier repeated his performance, gained<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_297" id="page_297"></a>{297}</span> the other side of the torrent, -and started after the mule, now quite rested, and trotting off briskly -for home. A chase of a mile and a half put Castillo into no very -pleasant frame of mind, and the mule had little respite for the -remainder of the day. At noon we stopped a few moments in the village of -Cachora where the Prefect had instructed the Gobernador to prepare us a -“suitable luncheon.” This intoxicated worthy offered us instead many -apologies, and we had to get along as best we could with three or four -boiled eggs, all the village could provide.</p> - -<p>All day long through rain and heavy mist that broke away occasionally to -give us glimpses of wonderfully deep green valleys and hillsides covered -with rare flowers, we rode along a slippery path that grew every hour -more treacherous and difficult. In order to reach the little camp on the -bank of the Apurimac that night, we hurried forward as fast as possible -although frequently tempted to linger by the sight of acres of -magnificent pink begonias and square miles of blue lupins. By five -o’clock, we began to hear the roar of the great river seven thousand -feet below us in the cañon. The Apurimac, which flows through the -Ucayali to the Amazon, rises in a little lake near Arequipa, so far from -the mouth of the Amazon that it may be said to be the parent stream of -that mighty river. By the time it reaches this region, it is a raging -torrent two hundred and fifty feet wide, and at this time of the year, -over eighty feet deep. Its roaring voice can be heard so many miles away -that it is called by the Quichuas, the Apurimac, or the “Great -Speaker.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_298" id="page_298"></a>{298}</span></p> - -<p>Our guide, the enthusiastic Caceres, declared that we had now gone far -enough. As it was beginning to rain and the road from there on was -“worse than anything we had as yet experienced,” he said it would be -better to camp for the night in an abandoned hut near by. His opinion -was eagerly welcomed by two of the party, young men from Abancay, who -were having their first real adventure, but the two <i>Yankis</i> decided -that it was best to reach the river if possible. Caceres finally -consented, and aided by the dare-devil Castillo, we commenced a descent -that for tortuous turns and narrow escapes beat anything we had yet -seen. Just as darkness came on, we encountered a large tree that had so -fallen across our path as completely to block all progress. It seemed as -though we must return to the hut. Half an hour’s work enabled us to pass -this obstacle only to reach a part of the hillside where an avalanche -had recently occurred. Here even the mules and horses trembled with -fright as we led them across a mass of loose earth and stones which -threatened to give way at any moment. Only two weeks previously, two -mules had been lost here. Their crossing had started a renewal of the -avalanche which had taken the poor animals along with it.</p> - -<p>An hour after dark we came out on a terrace. The roar of the river was -so great that we could scarcely hear Caceres shouting out that our -troubles were now over and “all the rest was level ground.” This turned -out to be only his little joke. We were still a thousand feet above the -river and a path cut in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_299" id="page_299"></a>{299}</span></p> - -<p><a name="A_CHASM" id="A_CHASM"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_298afp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_298afp_sml.jpg" width="269" height="515" alt="Image unavailable: A CHASM DOWN WHICH PLUNGED A SMALL CATARACT" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">A CHASM DOWN WHICH PLUNGED A SMALL CATARACT</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="THE_WONDERFUL" id="THE_WONDERFUL"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_298bfp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_298bfp_sml.jpg" width="261" height="510" alt="Image unavailable: THE WONDERFUL CAÑON OF THE APURIMAC" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE WONDERFUL CAÑON OF THE APURIMAC</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">the face of a precipice had yet to be negotiated. In broad daylight we -should never had dared to ride down the tortuous trail that led from the -terrace to the bank of the river. But as it was quite dark and we were -quite innocent of any danger we readily followed the cheery voice of our -guide. The path is what is known as a corkscrew and descended the wall -of the cañon by means of short turns each twenty feet long. At one end -of each turn was the precipice, while at the other was a chasm down -which plunged a small cataract which had a clear fall of seven hundred -feet. Half way down the path my mule stopped, trembling, and I -dismounted to find that in the darkness he had walked off the trail and -had slid down the cliff to a ledge. How to get him back was a problem. -It is not easy to back an animal up a steep hill, and there was no room -in which to turn him around. It was such a narrow escape that when I got -safely back onto the trail, I decided to walk the rest of the way and -let the mule go first, preferring to have him fall over the precipice -alone if that were necessary.</p> - -<p>Two thirds of the way down the descent came the crux of the whole -matter, for here the path crossed the narrow chasm close to and directly -in front of the cataract, and in the midst of its spray. There was no -bridge. To be sure, the waterfall was only three feet wide, but it was -pitch dark. As I could not see the other side of the chasm, I did not -dare to jump alone, but remounted my mule, held my breath, and gave him -both spurs at once. His jump was successful.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_300" id="page_300"></a>{300}</span></p> - -<p>Ten minutes later we saw the welcome light of the master of the camp who -came out to guide us through a thicket of mimosa trees that grew on the -lower terrace just above the river.</p> - -<p>The camp consisted of two huts, six by seven, built of reeds. Here we -passed a most uncomfortable night. Mr. Hay has described the next few -hours so vividly in his diary that, with his permission, I am going to -quote his account of it.</p> - -<p>“Our luggage, including the folding cots, did not arrive that night till -very late, so we slept on benches made of bamboo poles, in our boots, -under an open thatch-roofed shelter. During the night the Prefect’s -secretary, <i>el periodista</i>, either in exuberance over reaching the -bottom of the mountain in safety, or being unstrung on account of his -recent experience, or simply because he was a bounder, fired his -revolver off at three different times, the ball fortunately passing -through the roof each time. I must admit that I was so sound asleep as -to hear only one of the shots, though I was so near the “young idea” -that I could have touched him with my hand. Even he, though, wearied of -that form of amusement after a time, and quiet was restored until 3 <small>A.M.</small> -At that hour a rooster, who had quietly been resting with his women-folk -on a pole over our heads, decided that dawn was coming on, or if it -wasn’t, ought to be, and showed us conclusively what a healthy pair of -feathered lungs, in a rarified atmosphere, was capable of. He was within -reach, but I bided my time. Not half enough notice had been taken of the -alarm to suit him, and I saw the chest of Sr. Chanticlerio<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_301" id="page_301"></a>{301}</span> expand for a -supreme effort. He raised himself to his full height and let loose. With -ever increasing volume the notes poured out, until just as it seemed he -would burst, in the concluding notes of the anthem, I arose, and with -the side of my hand, caught him in the place that needed it most. He -summoned up the courage to give one defiant little crow three hours -later. But his spirit was broken, and his style was cramped by the -<i>periodista</i>, who, awake by this time, was firing at him with his -revolver. There were no casualties.”</p> - -<p>While breakfast was being prepared we went out to take pictures and -measurements of the bridge. This was 273 feet long by 32 inches wide, -and the river 250 feet wide. “Don Mariano,” the builder of the bridge, -told us that when construction commenced, the water was nearly eighty -feet below the bridge although at present the river had risen so that it -was only twenty-five feet below it, an increase in depth of over <i>fifty -feet</i>. An almost incredible bulk of water was roaring between its steep -banks. It was estimated at 100 feet deep, and yet the water piled up on -itself in such a way as to give the appearance of running against huge -boulders in midstream.</p> - -<p>We sent the Indian bearers ahead with our luggage. Pack animals could -not possibly use the trail on the other side of the river and the bridge -was not constructed to carry their weight. The surprising thing was that -the Indians were very much afraid of the frail little bridge which -Chinese courage and ingenuity had built, and crept gingerly across it -on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_302" id="page_302"></a>{302}</span> their hands and knees while they carried our luggage and supplies to -the other side of the river. They had been accustomed for centuries to -using frail suspension bridges much less strong in reality than this -little structure. But they are not acquainted with the tenacity of wire, -and it seemed the height of frivolity to them that we should be willing -to trust our lives to such a small “rope.” Yet the much larger fibre -ropes of which their suspension bridges were constructed would not begin -to stand the strain as well as these six telegraph wires.</p> - -<p>After a breakfast of thin soup and boiled sweet potatoes, we girded -ourselves for the ascent. The river at this point is about 5000 feet -above sea-level. We had had little practice in mountain climbing, except -on mule-back, for many months, and it seemed like a pretty serious -undertaking to attempt to climb six thousand feet more to an elevation -of 11,000 feet. This will sound tame enough to the experienced mountain -climber although it was anything but easy for us. Our patient, -long-suffering Quichua bearers, coming of a race that, at high -altitudes, is in the habit of marching distances which appear incredibly -long to those students of military history that have confined their -attention to the movements of European troops, bore their burdens most -cheerfully. At the same time they gave frequent evidence of great -fatigue which was not at all to be wondered at under the circumstances.</p> - -<p>Of one incident of the ascent Mr. Hay wrote: “Most of the party started -long before the two ‘Yanquis,’ but in half an hour we caught up with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_303" id="page_303"></a>{303}</span></p> - -<p><a name="SUNRISE_AT" id="SUNRISE_AT"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_302fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_302fpa_sml.jpg" width="388" height="162" alt="Image unavailable: SUNRISE AT CHOQQUEQUIRAU" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">SUNRISE AT CHOQQUEQUIRAU</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="THE_FRAIL" id="THE_FRAIL"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_302fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_302fpb_sml.jpg" width="385" height="163" alt="Image unavailable: THE FRAIL LITTLE BRIDGE OVER THE APURIMAC" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE FRAIL LITTLE BRIDGE OVER THE APURIMAC</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">them. They had waylaid an Indian bearer and were having beer and other -refreshments under a tree. Here we noticed an example of the height of -generosity towards an Indian in Peru. This is to let him carry all day, -among other things, the refreshments. Then take the beer, drink it, and -return him the bottle. The bottle, be it noted, should be received with -many expressions of thanks on the part of the Indian. We passed the -revellers and plodded on up together. Unfortunately for history but -fortunately for our nerves, at least, the <i>periodista</i> gave out soon -after this and was forced to turn back. So the chronicle of the events -at Choqquequirau must come only from the pen of an alien? Not for a -minute! <i>El periodista</i> was ever with us in spirit, and the report for -the Lima Journal fared far better at the hands of Imagination than it -ever could have through plain Experience.”</p> - -<p>The enthusiastic Caceres kept shouting “valor” at the top of his lungs -as evidence of his good spirits and in an effort to encourage the -others. The two <i>Yankis</i> had a hard time of it and were obliged to stop -and rest nearly every fifty feet.</p> - -<p>At times the trail was so steep that it was easier to go on all fours -than to attempt to maintain an erect attitude. Occasionally we crossed -streams in front of waterfalls on slippery logs or treacherous little -foot-bridges. At other times we clung to the face of rocky precipices or -ascended by roughly constructed ladders from one elevation to another. -Although the hillside was too precipitous to allow much forest growth, -no small part of the labor of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_304" id="page_304"></a>{304}</span> making the path had been the work of -cutting through dense underbrush.</p> - -<p>As we mounted, the view of the valley became more and more magnificent. -Nowhere have I ever witnessed such beauty and grandeur as was here -displayed. A white torrent raged through the cañon six thousand feet -below us. Where its sides were not too precipitous to admit of -vegetation, the steep slopes were covered with green foliage and -luxuriant flowers. From the hilltops near us other slopes rose six -thousand feet beyond and above to the glaciers and snow-capped summits -of Mts. Sargantay and Soray. In the distance, as far as we could see, a -maze of hills, valleys, tropical jungle, and snow-capped peaks held the -imagination as though by a spell. Such were our rewards as we lay -panting by the side of the little path when we had reached its highest -point.</p> - -<p>After getting our wind, we followed the trail westward, skirting more -precipices and crossing other torrents, until, about two o’clock, we -rounded a promontory and caught our first glimpse of the ruins of -Choqquequirau on the slopes of a bold mountain headland 6000 feet above -the river. Between the outer hilltop and the ridge connecting it with -the snow-capped mountains, a depression or saddle had been terraced and -levelled so as to leave a space for the more important buildings of the -Inca stronghold.</p> - -<p>At three o’clock we reached a glorious waterfall whose icy waters, -coming probably from the glaciers on Soray, cooled our heads and -quenched our thirst.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_305" id="page_305"></a>{305}</span> We had now left our companions far behind, and -were pushing slowly along through the jungle, when shortly before four -o’clock we saw terraces in the near distance. Just as we began to enjoy -the prospect of reaching Choqquequirau alone, Caceres and Castillo -caught up with us. They had stayed behind in a futile attempt to -encourage the Indian bearers, and the other adventurers to have more -“valor.” The others did not arrive until the next morning; not even the -Quichua carriers on whom we depended for food and blankets.</p> - -<p>Soon after our arrival, we clambered up to a little bit of flat ground, -where evidently the Incas once cultivated their crops, to enjoy the -view. Here we were discovered by a huge condor who proceeded to -investigate the invaders of his domain. Apparently without moving a -muscle, he sailed gracefully down in ever narrowing circles until we -could see clearly not only his cruel beak and great talons, but even the -whites of his eyes. We had no guns and not even a club with which to -resist his attack. It was an awe-inspiring moment, for he measured at -least twelve feet from tip to tip of wing. When within forty feet of us -he decided not to disturb us, and seemingly without changing the -position of a feather, soared off into space. We were told afterwards by -Caceres and Castillo that they had been greatly alarmed by condors when -they first commenced operations here.</p> - -<p>Owing to the non-appearance of the carriers we passed an uncomfortable -night in the smallest of the little thatched huts which the workmen had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_306" id="page_306"></a>{306}</span> -erected for their own use. It was scarcely three feet high and about six -feet long by four feet wide. The day had been warm, and in our efforts -to make climbing as easy as possible, we had divested ourselves of all -our warm clothes. Notwithstanding the fact that a shelter tent was -pulled down and wrapped around us for warmth, and stacks of dry grass -piled about us, we were scarcely able to close our eyes for the cold and -chilling dampness all night long.</p> - -<p>The humidity was one hundred or nearly so during the four days which we -spent on the mountain. Consequently we passed the majority of the time -in thick mist or rain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_307" id="page_307"></a>{307}</span></p> - -<p><a name="CHOQQUEQUIRAU" id="CHOQQUEQUIRAU"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_307fp_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_307fp_sml.png" width="451" height="338" alt="Image unavailable: Choqquequirau & Vicinity, Peru. -Drawn by C. W. Drysdale -From -Measurements and Photographs taken Feb. 7, 8, 9, 10, 1909 -by -Dr. Hiram Bingham and Clarence Hay Esq." /></a> -<br /><span class="nonvis"> -[<a href="images/i_307fp_lg.png">Larger version</a>] -[<a href="images/i_307fp_huge.png">Largest version</a>]</span> -</div> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIII<br /><br /> -<small>CHOQQUEQUIRAU</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span><span class="smcap">he</span> next morning we began at once to take measurements and get what -pictures we could. We found that the ruins were clustered in several -groups both on terraces and natural shelves, reached by winding paths or -stairways. Some buildings were long and narrow and of one story; others -of a story and a half with tall gables. The buildings were placed close -together, probably in order to economize all the available space. It is -likely that every square yard that could be given to agriculture was -cultivated.</p> - -<p>Magnificent precipices guard the ruins on every side and render -Choqquequirau virtually inaccessible to an enemy. Every avenue of -ascent, except such as the engineers determined to leave open, was -closed, and every strategic spot was elaborately fortified. Wherever it -might have been possible for a bold mountaineer to gain a foothold, the -Incas had built well-faced walls of stone so as to leave an adventurous -assailant no support. The terraces thus made served the double purpose -of military defence and of keeping the soil from sliding away from the -gardens down the steep hillside.</p> - -<p>As may be seen from the map, the ruins consist of three distinct groups -of buildings.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_308" id="page_308"></a>{308}</span></p> - -<p>All had been more or less completely hidden by trees and vines during -the centuries of solitude. Fortunately for us the treasure-seeking -company had done excellent work in clearing away from the more important -buildings the tangled mass of vegetation that had formerly covered them. -Dynamite had also been used in various likely spots where treasure might -have been buried. But the workmen had found no gold and only a few -objects of interest including, besides those we saw at Abancay, a few -clay pots and two or three grinding stones of a pattern still in use in -this part of the Andes and as far north as Panama.</p> - -<p>At the top of the southern and outer precipice, five thousand eight -hundred feet immediately above the river, stands a parapet and the walls -of two buildings without windows. The view from here, both up and down -the valley of the Apurimac, surpasses the possibilities of language for -adequate description. The photograph gives but the faintest idea of its -beauty and grandeur. Far down the gigantic cañon one catches little -glimpses of the Apurimac, a white stream shut in between guardian -mountains, so narrowed by the distance that it seems like a mere -brooklet. Here and there through the valley are marvellous cataracts, -one of which, two thousand feet high, has a clear fall of over one -thousand feet. The panorama in every direction is wonderful in variety, -contrast, beauty, and grandeur.</p> - -<p>North of this outer group of buildings is an artificially truncated -hill. It is probable that on this flattened hilltop, which commands a -magnificent<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_309" id="page_309"></a>{309}</span></p> - -<p><a name="BUILT_OF" id="BUILT_OF"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_308fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_308fpa_sml.jpg" width="225" height="219" alt="Image unavailable: BUILT OF STONES LAID IN CLAY" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">BUILT OF STONES LAID IN CLAY</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="THE_PARTY" id="THE_PARTY"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_308fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_308fpb_sml.jpg" width="270" height="212" alt="Image unavailable: THE PARTY WALL RISES TO THE PEAK" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE PARTY WALL RISES TO THE PEAK</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">view up and down the valley, signal fires could be built to telegraph to -the heights overlooking Cuzco, intelligence of the approach of an enemy -from the Amazonian wilds.</p> - -<p>We noticed on this hilltop that small stones had been set into the -ground, in straight lines crossing and recrossing at right angles as -though to make a pattern. So much of it was covered by grass, however, -that we did not have a chance to sketch it in the time at our disposal.</p> - -<p>North of the lookout and on the saddle between it and the main ridge is -located the main group of ruins: a rude fortification fifteen feet high, -running across the little ridge from one precipitous slope to the other; -a long one-story building of uncertain use in which curious carved stone -rings are set into the walls in such a manner as to serve possibly for -the detention of prisoners; a long one-story building that might have -been a grand hall or place of meeting, whose walls are surrounded with -numerous niches; and a block of story-and-a-half houses whose gabled -ends are still standing. The use of gables was almost universal in the -central and southern part of the land of the Incas.</p> - -<p>These double buildings stand transversely to the general line of the -edifices and have a middle or party-wall exactly dividing the gable. It -rises to the peak of the structure and once doubtless supported the -upper ends of the rafters. These houses bear a striking resemblance to -one of the Inca buildings at Ollantaytambo described by Squier<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> in -the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_310" id="page_310"></a>{310}</span> following words: “It is a story and a half high, built of rough -stones laid in clay, and originally stuccoed, with a central wall -reaching to the apex of the gables, dividing it into two apartments of -equal size.... There seems to have been no access to the upper story -from the interior, but there are two entrances to it through one of the -gables, where four flat projecting stones seem to have supported a kind -of balcony or platform, reached probably by ladders.” This description -fits these structures almost exactly. There are other resemblances -between Choqquequirau and the Inca fortresses visited and described by -Mr. Squier. In fact, one might use many a sentence from his accounts of -Pisac and Ollantaytambo that would adequately describe Choqquequirau and -its surroundings. Like the buildings of Ollantaytambo, these are nearly -perfect, lacking only the roof.</p> - -<p>The two-story houses had an exterior measurement of 42 by 38 feet. -Similar ones measured by Squier near the temple of Viracocha north of -Lake Titicaca, were also divided into two equal apartments and measured -46 by 38 feet. The fronts of each building have two entrances and the -interior of every apartment is ornamented with irregular niches within -which some of the stucco still remains. The walls are irregular but -usually about three feet thick, and are composed of unhewn fragments of -lava cemented together with a stiff clay.</p> - -<p>In general, all the walls appear to have been built entirely of stone -and clay. The construction, compared with that of the Inca palaces in -Cuzco, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_311" id="page_311"></a>{311}</span></p> - -<p><a name="LOWER_PLAZA" id="LOWER_PLAZA"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_310fp_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_310fp_sml.png" width="322" height="284" alt="Image unavailable: General Plan -OF -Lower Plaza -Chooquequirau" /></a> -<br /><span class="nonvis"> -[<a href="images/i_310fp_lg.png">Larger version</a>] -[<a href="images/i_310fp_huge.png">Largest version</a>]</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">extremely rude and rough and no two niches or doors are exactly alike. -Occasionally the lintels of the doors were made of timber, the builders -not having taken the trouble to provide stones wide enough for the -purpose. One such lintel was still standing, the wood being of a -remarkably hard texture.</p> - -<p>Probably the ruins to-day present a more striking appearance than they -did when they were covered with thatched roofs.</p> - -<p>Ornamental niches which constitute a characteristic and constant feature -in Inca architecture appear on the interior of all the Choqquequirau -buildings and on the exterior of a few. Some of those on the outside are -of the re-entering variety. Those on the inside are of two kinds. The -larger ones about five feet high reach to the floors of the apartments -and are mere closets, as it were, without doors, being slightly wider at -the bottom, about thirty-four inches, than at the top, about -twenty-eight inches, and of varying depth, thirteen to sixteen inches. A -second line, smaller and not reaching to the ground, is also found in -several of the structures. There is good evidence that some of the walls -were faced with stucco and possibly painted in colors. In the case of -one wall that had been partly pushed out of the perpendicular by the -action of time, several of the niches retained almost entirely their -coating of stucco, and so did some of the more protected portions of the -wall.</p> - -<p>Almost the only ornamentation which the houses contained besides the -ever-present niches, were cylindrical blocks of stone about three inches -in diameter<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_312" id="page_312"></a>{312}</span> projecting twelve or fourteen inches from the wall seven -feet above the ground between each niche.</p> - -<p>In one of the niches I found a small stone whirlbob of a spindle-wheel, -in size and shape like those made from wood and used to-day all over the -Andes by Indian women. This simple spinning apparatus consists of a -stick about as large as the little finger and from ten to twelve inches -long. Its lower end is fitted with a whirlbob of wood to give it proper -momentum when it is set in motion by a twirl of the forefinger and thumb -grasping the upper end of the spindle. It is in universal use by Indian -women from the Andes of Colombia to those of Chile, and one rarely sees -a woman tending sheep or walking along the high road who is not busily -engaged in using this old-fashioned spindle. In the tombs of Pachacamac -near Lima have been found spindles still fitted with similar whirlbobs -of stone.</p> - -<p>The third group of buildings is higher up on the spur, a hundred feet or -more above the second group. Near the path from the lower to the upper -plaza are the remains of a little <i>azequia</i> or watercourse, now dry, -lined with flat stones. The southeast corner of the third group is -marked by a huge projecting rock twenty feet high and twelve or fifteen -feet in diameter. Beside it, facing the eastern slope, is a giant -stairway. It consists of fourteen great steps roughly made and of -varying dimensions. They average about fifteen feet wide, with risers -four and a half feet high and treads about six and a half feet deep. It -is possible to ascend these stairs by means of small stone steps erected -on one<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_313" id="page_313"></a>{313}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_INTERIOR" id="THE_INTERIOR"></a></p> - -<p><a name="THE_UPPER" id="THE_UPPER"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_312fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_312fp_sml.jpg" width="457" height="266" alt="Image unavailable: THE BUILDINGS NEAR THE OUTER PRECIPICE" /></a> -<br /> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" - class="caption" style="margin:auto auto;max-width:50%;"> - -<tr class="c" valign="top"><td>THE BUILDINGS NEAR THE OUTER PRECIPICE</td> -<td> </td> -<td>THE UPPER SIX STEPS OF THE GIANT STAIRWAY</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<p class="nind">end or the other of the giant step. Walls on each side, two feet wide, -serve as a balustrade. A peculiarity of the construction is the locating -of a huge flat stone in the centre of the riser of each step. The view -to the eastward from this stairway is particularly fine. Perhaps the -rising sun, chief divinity of the Incas, was worshipped here.</p> - -<p>Beyond the stairway are terraces, alley-ways, walls, and -story-and-a-half houses, filled with niches and windows. The length of -the first terrace is slightly over two hundred feet and its height is -twelve feet. The second terrace above it has a height of ten feet and a -length of one hundred and twenty-nine feet. Above these are two long -alley-ways or halls with niches in their walls and windows looking out -over the terraces. These halls are five feet wide. Back of these are -buildings resembling in their construction those in the lower group. -They also are decorated with irregular niches and cylindrical stone -projections. Under these houses, however, there ran a small passage-way -or drain twelve inches wide and ten inches deep. These two houses, -although roughly built, were as nearly the same size as possible. -Between them ran a narrow passage-way leading to a back alley. This was -curiously paved with slabs of slate half an inch thick. Back of this is -another hall five and a half feet wide with windows in front and niches -on the rear, or hill, side.</p> - -<p>The gables of the upper group are steeper than those of the lower group -and are in fact quite as pointed as those seen in Dutch cities. The two -gable buildings of the upper group stand on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_314" id="page_314"></a>{314}</span> slope of the hill in -such a manner that there is no gable on the side nearest the declivity. -In other words, they are only half the size of the double houses below. -Nearly all of these houses have two or three small, rude windows. A -narrow stone stairway leads from the back alley to a terrace above. This -opens out into the upper plaza on which are several buildings that -overlook the western precipices. Two of the houses have no windows and -one of them contains three cells. The Peruvians said they were used for -the detention of prisoners. They were more likely storehouses. On the -north side of the plaza is a curious little structure built with the -utmost care and containing many niches and nooks. It may possibly have -been for the detention of so-called “virgins of the sun” or have been -the place in which criminals, destined to be thrown over the precipice, -according to the laws of the Incas, awaited their doom. The plan gives a -good idea of its irregular construction.</p> - -<p>Above it the hillside rises steeply, and on the crest of the ridge runs -a little conduit which we followed until it entered the impenetrable -tropical jungle at the foot of a steep hill. The water in this little -<i>azequia</i>, now dry, coming straight down the spur, was conducted over a -terrace into two well-paved tanks on the north side of the plaza. Thence -it ran across the plaza to a little reservoir or bath-house on the south -side. This was ten feet long by five feet wide with low walls not over -five feet high and had on its north side a small stone basin let down -into the floor two feet by three in such a manner as to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_315" id="page_315"></a>{315}</span></p> - -<p><a name="UPPER_PLAZA" id="UPPER_PLAZA"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_314fp_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_314fp_sml.png" width="321" height="327" alt="Image unavailable: General Plan -OF -Upper Plaza and Giant Stairway -Choqquequirau - - -Drawn by C. W. Drysdale from Measurements and Photographs taken Feb. 7, -8, 9, 10, 1909 by Dr. Hiram Bingham and Clarence Hay Esq." /></a> -<br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">General Plan<br /> -Of<br /> -Upper Plaza and Giant Stairway<br /> -Choqquequirau</span> -<br /> -Drawn by C. W. Drysdale from Measurements<br /> and Photographs taken Feb. 7, -8, 9, 10, 1909 by Dr. Hiram Bingham and Clarence Hay Esq.</span> -<br /><span class="nonvis"> -[<a href="images/i_314fp_lg.png">Larger version</a>] -[<a href="images/i_314fp_huge.png">Largest version</a>]</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">catch the water that flowed over the edge of the wall. A small outlet -had been provided at the end of this basin so that the water could flow -underneath the floor of the bathroom or tank house and then proceed on -its way down the ridge to the buildings below.</p> - -<p>As the western slope of the Choqquequirau spur is a sheer precipice, -little attempt at fortification was made on that side. The eastern -slope, however, is not so steep. On this side it was necessary to build -enormous terraces hundreds of feet long faced with perpendicular walls -twelve feet wide. Two narrow paved stairways lead from one terrace to -another.</p> - -<p>Near one of the terraces I picked up either a <i>bola</i> or a hammerstone -nearly as large as my fist.</p> - -<p>In the jungle immediately below the last terrace, under ledges and huge -boulders, were dug little caves in which the bones of the dead were -placed. I found that the bones were heaped in a little pile as though -they had been cleaned before being interred. No earth had been placed on -them, but on top of the little pile in one grave I found a small -earthen-ware jar about one inch in diameter. It had no handles and was -not closed at the top although the opening, a quarter of an inch in -diameter, had been fitted with a specially well-made perforated cap. -There was nothing in the jar, although it had retained its upright -position during all the years of its interment. The natural entrance to -the little tomb had been walled up with wedge-shaped stones from the -inside in such a way as to make<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_316" id="page_316"></a>{316}</span> it extremely difficult to enter the -cave from the front. I found, however, that by digging away a little on -one side of the huge boulder, I could easily remove the stones which had -evidently been placed there by the grave-digger after the bones had been -deposited in the tomb.</p> - -<p>The workmen had excavated under a dozen or more of the projecting ledges -and in each case had found bones and occasionally shreds of pottery. In -no case, however, had they found anything of value to indicate that the -dead were of high degree. Probably they were common soldiers and -servants. If any of the officers of the garrison or Inca nobles were -ever buried in this vicinity, their tombs have not yet been discovered, -or else the graves were rifled years ago. But of this there is no -evidence.</p> - -<p>All the conspicuously large rocks below the terraces have been found to -cover graves. The skulls were not found alone but always near the -remainder of the skeleton. The larger bones were in fairly good -condition but the smallest ones had completely disintegrated. -Nevertheless, ribs were frequently met with. Some of the largest bones -could be crumbled with the fingers and easily broken, while others were -very hard and seemed to be extremely well preserved. Some skulls -likewise were decayed and could be easily crushed with the fingers while -others were white and hard; all that we found were those of adults, -although one or two of them seemed to be of persons not over twenty -years of age. So far as has been observed, no superincumbent soil was -placed on the skeleton.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_317" id="page_317"></a>{317}</span></p> - -<p><a name="SKULLS" id="SKULLS"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_316fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_316fpa_sml.jpg" width="287" height="103" alt="Image unavailable: 1. A Hawaiian. 2-4. Skulls from Choqquequirau. 5. A -Flat-head Indian. - -6. Bola found at Choqquequirau. 7. Whirl-bob. - -8. Jar found in a grave, Choqquequirau." /></a> - - -<br /> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" - class="caption" style="margin:auto auto;max-width:60%;"> - -<tr class="c"><td> -1. A Hawaiian.</td> -<td>2-4. Skulls from Choqquequirau.</td> -<td>5. A Flat-head Indian.</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="3">6. Bola found at Choqquequirau. - -<span style="margin-left: 2em;">7. Whirl-bob.</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="3">8. Jar found in a grave, Choqquequirau.</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<p><a name="INTERIOR_OF" id="INTERIOR_OF"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_316fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_316fpb_sml.jpg" width="274" height="194" alt="Image unavailable: INTERIOR OF A BUILDING AT CHOQQUEQUIRAU" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF A BUILDING AT CHOQQUEQUIRAU</span> -</div> - -<p>The Quichua Indian carriers and workmen watched our operations with -interest, but they became positively frightened when we began the -careful measurement and examination of the bones. They had been in doubt -as to the object of our expedition up to that point, but all doubts then -vanished and they decided we had come there to commune with the spirits -of the departed Incas.</p> - -<p>As a rule, the evidence of deformation of the skull was slight in a -majority of the specimens examined. Nevertheless one had been much -flattened behind and another extremely so in front. There was no -evidence of any having been trephined or of any decorative patterns -having been made on any part of either skulls or bones. Three of the -skulls are now in the Peabody Museum in New Haven, with the other -articles I found here.</p> - -<p>On the steep hillside southeast of the terraces and graves, we found -many less important ruins, completely covered by the forest. Were it -possible to clear away all the rich tropical growth that has been -allowed to accumulate for centuries, one would undoubtedly find that -there is not a point which is not somehow commanded or protected by a -maze of outworks. No clearing or path having been constructed in order -to enable them to be seen, we could not form an adequate idea of their -extent. There seemed to be, however, no limit to the ruins of the huts -where lived the private soldiers and the servants of the garrison. One -hall measured 75 by 25 feet while another was 30 by 10, and it is -entirely possible that there are others<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_318" id="page_318"></a>{318}</span> that have not yet been located, -so dense is the jungle.</p> - -<p>On the opposite side of the valley are the ruins of Incahuasy, near -Tambobamba, which have been described by M. Charles Wiener.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> So far as -I can judge from the drawings he gives of one of the “palaces,” the -construction is very similar to that used at Choqquequirau.</p> - -<p>I believe that Incahuasy and Choqquequirau were originally frontier -fortresses that defended the valley of the Apurimac, one of the natural -approaches to Cuzco, from the Amazonian wilds. A glance at the map will -show that Pisac and Paucartambo, northeast of Cuzco, with Ollantaytambo -to the north and Choqquequirau to the west form a complete line of -defence. Each is located in one of the valleys by which the unconquered -Indians of the great forest could attack the sacred capital of the -Incas. The Incas were never able to extend their empire far into the -forests that covered the eastern slopes of the Andes or the valleys of -the rivers that flow toward the Amazon. They did, however, push their -empire down the valleys until they encountered the savage inhabitants of -these wild forests, savage Chunchas or Antis, who with their poisoned -arrows and their woodcraft were well able to protect themselves. The -Incas were obliged to stop short when they reached the thick forests. -The massive and complicated fortresses of Paucartambo, Pisac, and -Ollantaytambo marked the extent of their sway. There were undoubtedly -several less important outlying<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_319" id="page_319"></a>{319}</span></p> - -<p><a name="CUZCO_AND" id="CUZCO_AND"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_318fp_lg.png"> -<img src="images/i_318fp_sml.png" width="324" height="251" alt="Image unavailable: CUZCO AND NEIGHBORING FORTRESSES" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">CUZCO AND NEIGHBORING FORTRESSES</span> -<br /><span class="nonvis"> -[<a href="images/i_318fp_lg.png">Larger version</a>] -[<a href="images/i_318fp_huge.png">Largest version</a>]</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">fortresses lower down the rivers, situated in such a way as to be able -to prevent the incursions of small parties of wild savages and give -notice of any large expeditions that might attempt to march on Cuzco. -They were so placed as to be practically impregnable. Choqquequirau was -evidently one of these.</p> - -<p>I fear that no amount of dynamite will ever disclose at Choqquequirau a -“Cradle of Gold” or any articles of great value. It was not a temple or -a treasure house, but a fortress where life was strenuous. The officers -of its garrison were not likely to bring with them gold ornaments or -utensils, and the poor Incas had few such baubles left at the end of -their career.</p> - -<p>Why then should it have been called the “Cradle of Gold?” One answer is -that the ridge or spur on which Choqquequirau lies, when seen from a -distance, looks not unlike a hammock. The setting sun often tinges it -with gold and the romantic Incas might easily have named Choqquequirau -from its resemblance to the only cradles with which they were familiar.</p> - -<p>The other answer is that the name, which does not occur in any of the -chronicles, so far as I have been able to discover, is a modern -invention. In one of the buildings we found several slabs of slate on -which visitors have been accustomed to register their names. According -to these inscriptions Choqquequirau was visited in 1834 by a French -explorer M. Eugène de Sartiges, and in July, 1834, by two Peruvians, -José Maria de Tejada and Marcelino Leon, who may have come with de -Sartiges.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_320" id="page_320"></a>{320}</span></p> - -<p>Charles Wiener, in his very unreliable but highly interesting “Perou et -Bolivie” (Paris, 1880), says (footnote, p. 294) that Choqquequirau has -also been visited by another Frenchman, “M. Angrand whose MS. notes, -with plans and drawings, were bequeathed to the Bibliothèque Nationale -in Paris.” I find they are merely hastily-drawn sketches. One, a -route-map, is dated “30 7bre,” [1847]. Angrand’s name does not appear on -any of the slates.</p> - -<p>Besides de Sartiges, and the two Peruvians already mentioned, the slate -records show that in 1861, on the 10th of November, José Benigno Samanez -(“pro Presidente Castilla”) Juan Manuel Rivas Plata, and Mariano -Cisneros reached the ruins. Also that on July 4, 1885, Luis E. Almanza, -J. Antonio Almanza, Emiliano Almanza, Pio Mogrovejo and a party of -workmen did what they could to find the buried treasure. So much for the -existing evidence of former visitors.</p> - -<p>M. de Sartiges, writing under the nom de plume E. de Lavandais, -published an account of his visit in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, in -June, 1850. His route, the only one possible at the time, was -exceedingly circuitous. From Mollepata, a village near the sugar -plantation of La Estrella, he went north across the high pass between -Mts. Sargantay and Soray to the river Urubamba, to a village called -Yuatquinia (Huadquiña [?]). He engaged Indians to cut a trail to -Choqquequirau. After three weeks he found that the difficulties of -making a trail were so great that it would take at least two months to -finish the undertaking, so he and his companions<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_321" id="page_321"></a>{321}</span> made their way through -the jungle and along the precipices as best they could for four days. On -the fifth day they arrived at the ruins. In his projects for -exploration, he had failed to take into account the fact that tropical -vegetation had been at work for centuries covering up the remains of the -Inca civilization, and as he was only able to stay at Choqquequirau for -two or three days, he failed to see some of the most interesting ruins. -The giant stairway and the buildings on the upper plaza seem to have -escaped his attention entirely. He was greatly impressed with the -fortifications on the south side of the lower plaza and speaks of them -as though they formed a triumphal wall (“<i>mur triomphal</i>”). He seems to -have spent most of his time hunting for treasure behind this wall. He -had expected to spend eight days here, but the difficulties of reaching -the place were so great and the food-supply was so limited that he had -to hurry back without seeing more than the buildings of the lower plaza, -the lower terraces, and a grave or two. It was his opinion that fifteen -thousand people lived here once. One wonders what they lived on.</p> - -<p>M. de Sartiges’s description made us realize how much we were indebted -to the labors of the treasure-seeking company for penetrating the jungle -and uncovering buildings whose presence otherwise would never have been -suspected.</p> - -<p>Raimondi says that in 1862, Don Juan Gastelu, a Peruvian traveller, left -Ayacucho in an effort to go up the valley of the Apurimac in a canoe, -hoping in this way to reach the ancient fortress. After seven<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_322" id="page_322"></a>{322}</span> days of -perilous navigation, he gave up the attempt long before reaching its -vicinity.</p> - -<p>The interesting question remains: Was this the ultimate refuge of the -last Inca?</p> - -<p>It is reasonably certain that Manco Ccapac, the last emperor, fleeing -from the wrath of the conquerors, took refuge in a place called -“Vilcabamba.” There is a village of that name, two or three days journey -over the mountains north of Choqquequirau, on the Vilcabamba River, an -affluent of the Urubamba. It has never been explored so far as I know.</p> - -<p>Peruvian writers like Paz Soldan and the great geographer, Raimondi, are -positive that Manco Ccapac’s “Vilcabamba” was really Choqquequirau. They -base their belief on the fact that in 1566 an Augustinian Friar, Marcos -Garcia, undertook to penetrate to “Vilcabamba,” where poor old Manco -Ccapac had found a refuge. In describing his tour, Father Calancha, the -author of the “Chronica moralizada del Orden de San Augustin, Libro III, -Cap. XXIV and XLII,” says that Garcia founded a church in Pucyura, “two -long days’ journey from Vilcabamba.” Raimondi calls attention to the -fact that Pucyura is only two leagues from the present village of -“Vilcabamba,” and while he admits that it is possible that Father -Calancha wrote “<i>days’</i> journey” instead of “<i>leagues</i>” by mistake, he -believes that the reference is to Choqquequirau which is in fact two -long days’ journey from Pucyura. It is at least a very roundabout method -of inference.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_323" id="page_323"></a>{323}</span></p> - -<p>Raimondi may be correct, but until some one shall have explored the -present village of Vilcabamba and its vicinity, I am inclined to the -opinion that Choqquequirau was merely a fortress.</p> - -<p> </p> - -<p>Since writing the above I have received, through the kindness of Prof. -Roland Dixon of Harvard University, a copy of a pamphlet by the -distinguished Peruvian historian, Carlos A. Romero, entitled “Las Ruinas -de Choqquequirau,” which gives the result of his careful researches -through all the works of writers who refer to Choqquequirau. It does not -add to our actual knowledge of the early history of the ruins.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_324" id="page_324"></a>{324}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXIV<br /><br /> -<small>ABANCAY TO CHINCHEROS</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">O</span><span class="smcap">ne</span> of the conditions on which we had based our decision to visit -Choqquequirau was that the Prefect was to see to it that animals should -be ready for our departure as soon as we got back, and that his -officials along the road should facilitate our progress in every -possible manner. To his credit be it said that he kept his promise -faithfully, notwithstanding all the rules in the books to the effect -that a South American rarely remembers his promise.</p> - -<p>The next day after our return to Abancay, we spent in re-arranging our -luggage and making ready for a rapid march to Ayacucho. The Prefect sent -in an official request for a report on the ruins of Choqquequirau. Not -being a Latin-American, I was unable to sit down and dash off a -“thorough satisfactory official report” in an hour and a half and had to -explain that it would take days and even weeks to draw plans from the -data in our field-books and from the ten dozen negatives we had exposed.</p> - -<p>On the following day, much refreshed in body and mind, we succeeded in -getting an early start. We were accompanied out of town by a score of -enthusiastic friends whose interest in our undertaking was perfectly -ingenuous and of whom we had learned to be very fond. They not only -decided to extend<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_325" id="page_325"></a>{325}</span></p> - -<p><a name="OUR_CAVALCADE" id="OUR_CAVALCADE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_324fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_324fp_sml.jpg" width="459" height="234" alt="Image unavailable: OUR CAVALCADE ON THE BRIDGE OF PACHACHACA" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">OUR CAVALCADE ON THE BRIDGE OF PACHACHACA</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">the customary “mile of courtesy” to a dozen or more, but later they -followed us up with congratulatory telegrams speeding us on our way.</p> - -<p>Our cavalcade clattered gayly out of town on a fine brisk morning when -for some reason or other it did not happen to be raining. A short stop -at Yllanya to enable us to pay our respects to the kind Letona family, -who had given us a pleasant banquet the week before, was rewarded by the -young master of the house having his horse saddled at once and insisting -on taking us by a short cut through his own canefields. These looked -prosperous enough, but a swarm of locusts that had just made their -appearance was pointed out to us, and the planter feared greatly for his -crops.</p> - -<p>At ten o’clock we reached the river Pachachaca, the first large affluent -of the Apurimac. We crossed it on a stone bridge whose magnificent -single arch was erected under the direction of a Jesuit architect, two -hundred and fifty years ago. It is said to be one of the longest spans -in the Andes. Here we stopped to have a round of drinks and to enjoy the -scenery.</p> - -<p>It was a beautiful spot: green mountains on both sides of a valley -filled with waving sugar-cane through the midst of which ran a roaring, -rushing torrent. A few miles farther up this valley there are a number -of small Indian towns in which General Sucre had his headquarters a few -weeks before the battle of Ayacucho.</p> - -<p>An hour’s brisk trot brought us to Auquibamba, a sugar mill and -plantation, owned by Don Federico Martinelli who was unfortunately ill -in bed and not<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_326" id="page_326"></a>{326}</span> able to see us, although his engineer and manager did -the honors most hospitably. Quantities of delicious oranges were brought -to appease our appetites while an elaborate lunch was being prepared for -the dozen more people than had been expected.</p> - -<p>After lunch we all mounted at once. The custom of taking a siesta does -not seem to prevail at this altitude, 7000 feet. After all were on -horseback, affectionate good-bys had to be said, and notwithstanding the -nervousness of some of the more high-strung animals, their riders -succeeded in embracing the departing guests with true Spanish fervor.</p> - -<p>Our road from Auquibamba led through a charming country until it -gradually climbed out of the valley and across a pass, at an altitude of -11,700 feet, where there was a small lake but no signs of tropical -vegetation.</p> - -<p>We saw no llamas at all. Mules, horses, and burros were the pack animals -that we met carrying out kegs of aguardiente and loads of sugar and -bringing in foreign merchandise. Thanks to the rainy season, the fields -were covered with flowers, many varieties of which have been imported -for our own gardens at home. Wonderfully large begonias, excelling in -size anything I had ever seen before, lupins, cosmos, and many others -added great charm to the scene and partly made up for the frightful -condition of the roads.</p> - -<p>Every one with whom we talked expressed surprise that we should attempt -a journey at this season of the year when all good Peruvians stay at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_327" id="page_327"></a>{327}</span> -home. Not only are the roads positively dangerous in places, but the -heavy rainfall insures a thorough daily drenching unless one is so -fortunate as to be protected by a very heavy rubber poncho. As the -natives depend almost entirely on woolen ponchos for protection against -the rain, it may be imagined that they get well soaked after two or -three hours’ riding, notwithstanding the fact that the best and most -expensive vicuña ponchos are beautifully and closely woven and will shed -an ordinary shower.</p> - -<p>At half past four we began the descent into the pretty cultivated valley -of Huancarama. The descent was steep and the path extremely slippery, -and we were paying so much attention to the manner of our going that we -barely noticed the cavalcade of eight horsemen riding at full gallop up -the valley. The Gobernador had been informed of our approach by the -kind-hearted Prefect, and had brought with him half a dozen of his -friends to do us honor. We were taken at once to his house, a small -adobe hut, and treated most courteously. The priest of the village and -two of the leading citizens were urged to remain and dine with us, which -they readily consented to do. After dinner we were piloted through the -muddy streets to the plaza where a room, evidently used for various -governmental purposes, was placed at our disposal. All went well until -the next morning when we were told that one of the animals which the -Prefect had furnished us belonged to the Gobernador, who had lent it to -the Secretary of the Department for the expedition to Choqquequirau, and -he was unwilling<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_328" id="page_328"></a>{328}</span> to have it go any farther. He said that “one of his -friends” had an excellent horse which he would rent us for that day. The -Gobernador was firm, and as he had sent the animal to pasture, he had -more than “nine points of the law” on his side. Anyhow we had no desire -to impose on him, and requested him to have his “friend’s horse” brought -around. There seemed, however, to be some sort of an understanding -between the Gobernador and his “friend,” as the horse, a fairly -good-looking beast, was brought out from the Gobernador’s own backyard. -We suspicioned that the “friend” was probably a confederate in graft, if -not actually a servant. The price asked for the use of the horse for one -day was five dollars. Evidently we were considered to be “easy.” We -appealed the matter to the soldier who had been sent as our escort, but -he would only shake his head sadly and shrug his shoulders. So we told -the Gobernador the price was outrageous and that rather than pay it, we -would settle down in Huancarama and live at his expense. With this -terrible alternative staring him in the face he sent his servant to -another “friend” with orders to bring up another animal. This time the -price asked was only $1, and although the soldier said that was twice as -much as the regular charge, we preferred to pay it rather than be -delayed any longer.</p> - -<p>The day was very rainy. It may have been for this reason, or it may have -been because he was disappointed at his unsuccessful attempt at -“legitimate graft,” that the Gobernador did not assemble his friends and -escort us out of town. In either case<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_329" id="page_329"></a>{329}</span> we did not blame him. It was -rather a relief to escape the oft-repeated expressions of sincere sorrow -at departure which one can make two or three times, but which somehow -lack spontaneity and sincerity when they must be repeated to a cavalcade -of sixteen.</p> - -<p>The road was no improvement on that of the day before. A long climb -through the rain and sleet, a long descent through the clouds into the -valley of the river Pincos, whose tantalizing roar helped us to realize -what magnificent scenery we were missing; a little glimpse of green -fields, a dilapidated village, an old bridge, and another long steep -ascent led us finally to a bleak <i>paramo</i> where we were as uncomfortable -as cold winds and drenching rain could make us.</p> - -<p>Just before four o’clock we were gladdened by the sight of a good-sized -town and hoped that it was Andahuaylas, our destination, but our escort -said it was only San Geronimo, a suburb of Andahuaylas. We found it to -be a densely populated Indian town of the usual type. Before we had much -of an opportunity to take in its points of interest, however, we were -surrounded by twenty horsemen, including the sub-Prefect of Andahuaylas, -the secretary of the province, and their friends who had ridden to meet -us. Much as we appreciated their courtesy and the liquid refreshments -they brought with them, we were still more gratified by being asked to -dismount and allow the soldiers to put our saddles on two fresh horses. -It may have been because the rain had stopped its torrential downpour, -or because our<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_330" id="page_330"></a>{330}</span> tired, jaded animals had made us lose all sense of -proportion, or it may possibly have been that those two horses really -were the finest animals in Peru; whatever the cause, we both of us -agreed that we had never enjoyed any ride so much as that last mile to -Andahuaylas, and that we had never ridden such magnificent, fiery steeds -that so closely resembled the high mettled war-horse that one usually -sees surmounted by General Bolivar either in bronze or in historical -paintings.</p> - -<p>The good people of Andahuaylas had heard by telegraph of the banquet -which had been “tendered us” in Abancay and of the enthusiasm with which -the Prefect had welcomed us back from Choqquequirau. They determined not -to be outdone. If an additional reason was needed to spur them on to do -their utmost, it came in the press despatches that day which stated that -Chile was about to throw down the gauntlet to Peru by definitively -announcing her permanent occupancy of the provinces of Tacna and Arica. -To the minds of the older Peruvian generation who had felt the cruel -lash of the Chilean conqueror in 1883 and had witnessed the burning of -the Lima Library and the stabling of Chilean horses in Peruvian -churches, there seemed little hope of a satisfactory settlement of the -dispute and no desire to engage in another war. Their one idea seemed to -be that the United States, with its love of fair play, would see to it -that Chile did not take advantage of the weakness of Peru to rob her of -her southernmost province. As we were the only Americans in sight, and -as there was about<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_331" id="page_331"></a>{331}</span> us a certain reflected glamour of officialdom, we -were treated as though we were diplomats, instead of being, as they knew -perfectly well, merely a delegate to a Scientific Congress, and his -“secretary.” Anyhow, they had done their best to provide a banquet that -should eclipse the glories of Abancay; the table was set for forty-five -and it may safely be assumed that most of the leading citizens of -Andahuaylas were present. Little American flags, made for the occasion, -were crossed with Peruvian flags on the walls of the room. Portraits of -President Roosevelt and President Leguia, suitably framed, decorated the -wall immediately behind us. “Ice cream,” made of snow brought from the -Nevada of Chillihua on the backs of llamas, was on the menu. There was -enough food and drink to last until 2.30 <small>A.M.</small> Unfortunately I had to -leave early for I was simply used up with the amount of “entertainment” -that I had had to undergo during the preceding week.</p> - -<p>Our hosts came to call rather late the next morning and looked pretty -mournful. It was not due entirely to the fact of the pouring rain. -Nevertheless the sub-Prefect was most kind, and had us take all our -meals at his house, a picturesque old compound whose large patio was -surrounded by one and two-storied buildings. The roofs, with their heavy -old-fashioned mission tiles, had long ago lost any straight line they -ever possessed. To add to their beauty, rain and sun and mosses had -given them every variety of color. In a corner of the patio, an Indian -man-servant and a little girl were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_332" id="page_332"></a>{332}</span> busy grinding meal by rocking one -stone upon another in the same fashion as did the builders of -Choqquequirau and with stones almost the exact counterparts of those we -found there.</p> - -<p>In the afternoon, our friends felt a little better, and the rain held up -enough for us to be shown the sights of the town. A well-proportioned -stone church, designed by the same architect who had built the bridge -near Abancay, testified again to the excellent crafts that the Jesuits -taught in this country two hundred and fifty years ago. Some of the -booths on the plaza were extremely picturesque, the various colored -wares offered for sale being protected from the sun by umbrella-shaped -shelters rudely made from old sticks covered with faded ponchos or with -the dried skins of animals, cured with the hair on.</p> - -<p>Some one with a great fondness for Lombardy poplars had lived here years -ago and the view of the town which we got from the heights across the -river was most attractive. On the side of a mountain to the north were -many farms. The fields of corn divided from each other by hedges gave a -very pleasing background; the roaring rapids of the little river formed -the foreground; while in the middle distance the red-tiled roofs, white -walls, poplar trees, and fine old stone church made a charming picture.</p> - -<p>The sub-Prefect and his secretary, who had most generously placed his -own very comfortable quarters at our disposal, took great pleasure in -showing us two new <i>alamedas</i> or avenues which had been laid out -recently under his direction. It is pleasant to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_333" id="page_333"></a>{333}</span> remember these signs of -progress even though we also remember a little old street through which -we had to pass after leaving the <i>alameda</i>. The old street, scarcely as -wide as the sidewalks of the new, had no conveniences whatsoever for -foot-passengers. Owing to the recent downpour, part of it had been -converted into a pond, and we had an amusing and not altogether -successful time getting across dry-shod.</p> - -<p>All our friends promised to be on hand the next morning to accompany us -out of town although we assured them that it was quite unnecessary. When -they woke up and saw the rain coming down in sheets, they decided we -were right. The sub-Prefect came through the downpour to bid us good-by, -but was still suffering from dyspepsia and excused himself for not -mounting his horse. By his orders, the Gobernador of the neighboring -town of Talavera, through which we passed half an hour after leaving -Andahuaylas, accompanied us on our way.</p> - -<p>Talavera is noted for the manufacture of the finest grade of Vicuña -ponchos. Mr. Squier gave it a bad name and was impressed by the evil -looks of its inhabitants, but we saw nothing to differentiate it from -the other crowded little towns of the interior. Wherever possible, the -land is occupied. There is, in fact, very little evidence that there was -a much larger population in Peru before the arrival of the Spanish -conquerors. Although it is true that some of the irrigating ditches have -been destroyed, it does not seem likely that this region could ever have -supported a much more numerous population<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_334" id="page_334"></a>{334}</span> than lives here to-day. Those -writers who believe that the Peruvian Indians were reduced “from upwards -of thirty millions to three millions within the space of two centuries,” -must have forgotten to make allowances for the fondness for exaggeration -in the Spanish chronicles. The country is actually as crowded to-day as -its resources will allow. In fact, most of the Indians are half starved -all the time. It is difficult to believe that twice as many, to say -nothing of ten times as many Indians, could find support on these bleak -highlands, even when they were forced to practice an extensive -cultivation of the soil by Inca laws and usages, which provided for -almost every action of their lives.</p> - -<p>Since writing the above I have been reading Prof. Bandelier’s remarkable -book, “The Islands of Titicaca and Koati,” and am glad to notice that he -says, p. 27: “The conclusion is reached that the Indian population, of -that district (Chucuito) at least, has not at all diminished since the -early times of Spanish colonization, but has rather increased. It shows -how unjustified is the hue and cry about extermination of the natives of -Peru by the Spaniards. I could easily furnish more examples of the kind -from all over Peru and Bolivia.”</p> - -<p>It is pleasant to have my amateurish opinions substantiated so -unexpectedly and from such a high authority.</p> - -<p>In the valleys above Talavera there was abundant pasturage and we saw -many flocks of sheep and herds of cattle. Some of the sheep had very -long curly horns, reminding one of the Rocky Mountain<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_335" id="page_335"></a>{335}</span></p> - -<p><a name="SOME_OF" id="SOME_OF"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_334fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_334fp_sml.jpg" width="382" height="266" alt="Image unavailable: SOME OF THE SHEEP HAD VERY LONG CURLY HORNS" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">SOME OF THE SHEEP HAD VERY LONG CURLY HORNS</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">goats, while others were distinguished by having four horns instead of -two. From Talavera the road turned northward and followed for some -distance the valley of the Andahuaylas River, then crossed it and -climbed out of the valley, passed the ruins of a <i>tambo</i> at a place -called Monobamba, and surmounted an exceedingly bleak plateau, a -veritable <i>paramo bravo</i> where the barometer showed an elevation of -14,500 feet. The neighboring hills, the summits of the Andes, were -covered with snow. More snow began to fall before we left the <i>paramo</i>.</p> - -<p>The descent to Chincheros was particularly difficult owing to the fact -that a little mountain torrent, usually easy to ford, had become very -much swollen. Furthermore, the mud was so deep in places that we should -have found it impossible to proceed had it not been for our excellent -guide, the Gobernador of Talavera, who knew how to avoid the worst -places and was able to pilot us across stretches of treacherous -pasture-land where the soggy soil barely sustained the weight of our -animals.</p> - -<p>It was a long forty-mile ride. The Gobernador of Chincheros, who had -come out, with a dozen of his friends, to meet us two miles from his -town, had been waiting in the shelter of a hut for more than an hour -before we appeared. Nevertheless our tardy arrival in no wise interfered -with their welcome, and the long wait had not even induced them to make -any lighter the load of the Indian servant who had brought on foot a -basket-load of bottled beer and coñac. We had learned by this time, from -sad experience, that our stomachs, well emptied<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_336" id="page_336"></a>{336}</span> by a long day in the -saddle, would rebel at being treated to fire-water even though it was -“the custom of the country.” Although a refusal would have been -misunderstood, no objection was offered to the fact that we merely -touched the fiery draft and did not drain the glass. With the kindly -escort was an officer who had been sent all the way from Ayacucho -bearing a letter of welcome from the Prefect of that department, with -orders to attend to our comforts on the way. We felt as though we were -in the hands of our friends, but at the same time we were not prepared -for what was to follow.</p> - -<p>After paddling painfully along for a mile or so through awful mud and -slush, we came to a roadside inn whose proprietor had stretched a line -of flags across the road and erected a primitive framework for them. As -it was late in the afternoon, we did not tarry long to return his -courteous greetings but trotted on down the valley. A sudden turn in the -road brought us into view of a charmingly situated town. Deep green -valleys, high mountains, and pleasant trees gave a fine setting to -picturesque Chincheros with its little old church and its red-tiled -roofed houses. We had to cross a stone bridge just before entering the -town, and here we were met by an Indian bearing on a pole an enormous -flag. Although it had less than twenty stars and only eight stripes, it -was unmistakably intended to be “Old Glory.” Welcoming us with a loud -shout, the bearer turned about and marched at the head of our cavalcade. -Flags fluttered from every house. The streets were thronged with people, -many of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_337" id="page_337"></a>{337}</span> whom showered us with rose-leaves! As we entered the plaza, the -church bells, which had been ringing ever since we rounded the turn in -the road, redoubled their noise; the shouts increased, and we were -almost carried from our horses on the shoulders of the crowd. We -realized perfectly the spirit with which our arrival was celebrated, and -knew that it was merely an expression of cordial goodwill toward the -United States, arising from a mistaken idea that we were the official -personification of that great country; but it was all we could do to -keep our faces straight.</p> - -<p>After we were finally lodged in a comfortable room belonging to the -little local club, we thought the crowd would disperse. Not at all. -Nothing would satisfy them but that one of us should make a speech -which, however feebly delivered, was received with great enthusiasm. -More rose-petals were thrown, the bells were rung again, the flags -waved, the people cheered, and we were made to know what it must be like -to be a returning military chief and to hear the band play “Lo the -Conquering Hero Comes!”</p> - -<p>The little group of Chinchereños, whose public spirit had established -the club, tendered us a banquet that evening. They had determined to -outdo the celebrations which they had heard of as taking place in -Abancay and Andahuaylas, but they insisted that the outside celebration -was quite spontaneous, and that the Indians had taken it into their own -heads to improve on that which the club had planned. After the banquet -that evening, there was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_338" id="page_338"></a>{338}</span> a display of fireworks consisting of a set -piece fixed to a pole which was held by a poor Indian who did not seem -to mind in the least the shower of sparks that fell on every side. To -prolong his danger, the rain kept putting out the fuse so that it had to -be lighted six or seven times. If he felt any pain, however, he failed -to show it, and seemed only too delighted to be the centre of -attraction.</p> - -<p>The celebration had a strange witness. In the crowd that welcomed us -near the bridge there was a haggard man with German features who called -out in English, “Hurrah for the United States!” He soon came to call on -us and told quite a tragic story.</p> - -<p>He said his name was Emilio Smith (or Schmidt) and that his home was in -Düsseldorf on the Rhine. With three companions, he had made a wager in -New York that they could walk from Buenos Aires across both continents -to New York City without funds and without begging. He said that the New -York “Herald” and the Buenos Aires “La Prensa” had offered a prize of -five thousand dollars, if they would accomplish the feat. They had had -no particular difficulty in crossing Argentina, but one of them -succumbed at Tupiza soon after they reached Bolivia. Nothing daunted, -the other three pressed on over much the same road that we had followed -from Tupiza to Potosí and thence direct to the Antofagasta railway. At -each place they had secured the signature of official witnesses to the -effect that they were not riding and were not begging but were -conducting their overland tramp fairly. They raised money by giving -lectures and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_339" id="page_339"></a>{339}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_CLUB" id="THE_CLUB"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_338fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_338fp_sml.jpg" width="369" height="278" alt="Image unavailable: THE CLUB AT CHINCHEROS" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE CLUB AT CHINCHEROS</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">entertainments in the towns through which they passed, and had -frequently been given food and lodging by kindly disposed Indians, -although often they had been very rudely received. They had walked -around Lake Titicaca, and had reached Cuzco, followed the old trail to -Lima, walked up the coast, and penetrated the equatorial rain-belt in -Ecuador before disaster overtook them. Weakened by months of exposure, -they were in no condition to encounter tropical fevers, and all were -soon flat on their backs. Two of them never recovered and were buried in -Ecuador. Smith, now alone, cabled to the New York “Herald” for -instructions, stating that he was too weak to continue the journey -alone, and had no funds. The answer came back: “Return to Buenos Aires.” -Although he had been dismayed by the difficulties that lay ahead of him -in Ecuador and Colombia, he knew enough of the road over which he had -come to believe that he could safely get back to Buenos Aires and that -then the “Herald” and the “Prensa” would probably reward him for his -foolhardy excursion. Accordingly, he was retracing his steps, and had -reached Chincheros that noon. He had intended to go along further in the -afternoon, but hearing of the expected arrival of two Americans, and -being invited to the banquet, he had stayed over.</p> - -<p>It was a dismal story that he told, but he took great pride in it, and -his eyes flashed as he recounted his exploits. The only bitter in the -sweet was that he had lost his friends, and that we had not heard of -him.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_340" id="page_340"></a>{340}</span></p> - -<p>“What, you don’t know about me? Why, I am the foot-walker. I go from -Buenos Aires to New York. I don’t get there. I go back to Buenos Aires. -You haven’t heard of me? You haven’t heard of me, Emilio Smith, the -foot-walker? That is very strange. And the Prefect of Abancay? He is a -good fellow. Didn’t he tell you about me? Didn’t he show you my picture? -My picture of me and my two friends?”</p> - -<p>I think he felt that we really hadn’t been to Abancay after all. Poor -fellow, living for months on the narration of his exploits, it was a -hard pill for him to swallow that the only Americans he had seen who had -come over the road where he had passed several months before, had never -heard any mention made of his overland journey. The reason was not far -to seek. He travelled on foot. No one but an Indian travels on foot. It -is perfectly inconceivable to the Spanish mind that any one should do -any feat of pedestrianism unless compelled to, either by poverty or the -instincts of a vagabond. Poor people and vagabonds are too common to -attract much attention. We never heard of him again. He left early the -next morning.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_341" id="page_341"></a>{341}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV"></a>CHAPTER XXV<br /><br /> -<small>BOMBON TO THE BATTLEFIELD OF AYACUCHO</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">T</span><span class="smcap">he</span> next morning we were furnished fresh horses by our kind hosts, and -accompanied by five or six of them, climbed out of the beautiful valley -of Chincheros up to the heights of Bombon overlooking the river Pampas. -Here in 1824, the patriot forces under General Sucre, marching along -this road to Lima, encountered the Royalists under La Serna, trying to -cut off their retreat. The advance guard of each army met on the 20th of -November on the heights of Bombon. The Royalists were driven down into -the valley and across the river Pampas.</p> - -<p>After reaching the level of the river, our path followed the Pampas, -down stream, in a northerly direction, for some distance among groves of -mimosa trees and cacti. This is a famous place for mosquitoes, and there -is said to be a great deal of malaria in the vicinity. The altitude is -slightly over six thousand feet.</p> - -<p>My interest in the Pampas valley was considerably increased by finding -the trees and cacti covered with white land shells, some of them -reminding me of those tree shells that I had gathered as a boy in the -beautiful valleys of the Island of Oahu. I filled my pockets, and later -spent the evening clean<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_342" id="page_342"></a>{342}</span>ing the shells, much to the amusement of my -hosts. My labor was amply rewarded by finding, after reaching home, that -among the shells were three new species which Dr. Dall, the Curator of -the Division of Mollusks in the United States National Museum, has named -and described.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<p>The bridge over the Pampas has long attracted the notice of travellers. -The approach to it is at the foot of perpendicular cliffs. The -surrounding scenery although not so imposing as that of the Apurimac is -nevertheless magnificent. The bridge is about 150 feet long, and at the -time of my visit, February, 1909, was 50 feet above the river. There are -two pictures of the old bridge in Mr. Squier’s book, and although wire -rope has replaced the old cables that the Incas made from maguey fibre, -it is still the most unwelcome feature of the road from the point of -view of the mules.</p> - -<p>One of our mules simply would not cross the bridge. No amount of pushing -and pulling, beating and shouting, would make him budge an inch. Finally -he was blindfolded and a rope tied to each front leg. His hind legs were -tied securely together, to prevent him from kicking, and by alternately -pulling the ropes attached to his front feet, he was forced in a most -ignominious manner to come onto the bridge and go a third of the way -across. Then the ropes were loosened and the blind taken off.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_343" id="page_343"></a>{343}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_LARGE" id="THE_LARGE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_342fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_342fpa_sml.jpg" width="416" height="98" alt="Image unavailable: THE LARGE PLAZA OF AYACUCHO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE LARGE PLAZA OF AYACUCHO</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="THE_BRIDGE" id="THE_BRIDGE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_342fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_342fpb_sml.jpg" width="417" height="230" alt="Image unavailable: THE BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER PAMPAS" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER PAMPAS</span> -</div> - -<p>We expected to see him turn and bolt for the nearest side but he was too -frightened to do anything of the sort, and became at once most docile, -and finished the trip in peace.</p> - -<p>He was not the only one who did not like the bridge. The priest of -Chincheros, who had been delayed from accompanying us by the arrival of -a visiting cleric that morning, overtook us here. Although a sturdy -native Indian, he was rather portly and preferred not only to leave to -some one else the leading across of his mule, but even to have a poor -Indian bearer give him his shoulder to steady him on the swaying -structure.</p> - -<p>From the other end of the bridge we ascended the precipitous cliff by a -narrow winding path and found ourselves on a lofty terrace where the -enterprising Parodi Brothers have planted waving fields of sugarcane. -Here we were met by the Gobernador of Tambillo and the Parodis who -escorted us to their sugar factory at Pajonal, a most attractive -hacienda nestled in a valley at the foot of beetling crags. Our hosts -had inherited from their father an unusual stock of energy and skill. -Owing to his efforts, a good irrigation ditch had been constructed that -furnished the canefields with an abundant supply of water. The houses -were in good repair and everything bore the marks of prosperity. It was -a pleasure to see such evidence of enterprise and energy in this wild -region. One brother, who ordinarily practices medicine in Lima, was here -on a visit. Another brother is being educated in the States.</p> - -<p>We left Pajonal the next morning, accompanied<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_344" id="page_344"></a>{344}</span> by the Gobernador of -Tambillo, a very agreeable person of German-Peruvian descent. From -Pajonal the road ascends a little valley and then climbs a mountainside -to the village of Ocros, a most forlorn and wretched place, with an -elevation of nearly ten thousand feet.</p> - -<p>The adobe church, like that at Chincheros, was set back from the plaza, -and had a new adobe wall around it. Earth for this seemed to have been -taken right out of the plaza. No attempt had been made to fill up the -huge holes that remained. The only building at Ocros that seemed to be -in any kind of repair was the local telegraph office where the officer -from Ayacucho who accompanied us, went to send a despatch to the -Prefect.</p> - -<p>On the way we had been struck by the extraordinary method of hanging -telegraph wires that prevails in this country. The linesmen had thought -nothing of planting three poles together on the top of one hill and the -next three not less than a quarter of a mile away on the top of another, -stretching their wire across the intervening distance in midair. This -occurred not once or twice but whenever they could save poles by so -doing. The strain on the wire must have been tremendous. We learned that -the service was “frequently interrupted.”</p> - -<p>The road up from Ocros was the worst that we encountered anywhere. It -was really the bed of a mountain stream and our animals had the greatest -difficulty in picking their way among the rocks and boulders. It was -hard to imagine that this was really the highway between Cuzco and Lima. -The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_345" id="page_345"></a>{345}</span> “road” grew worse and worse until it reached a bleak <i>paramo</i> at an -elevation of thirteen thousand feet, where snow, hail, and sleet, driven -in our faces by a high wind, added to our discomforts. A steep descent -on the other side of the range greatly tried the patience of our -animals. The ground seemed to be a hard clay that offered no support to -their feet and they slid and slipped, sometimes eight or ten feet at a -time, without being able to stop. Night was falling as we reached the -little collection of wretched huts called Matara. No one seemed to have -any desire to receive us. In fact, the Indian who had charge of the only -dry hut in the place, locked the front door and disappeared into the -night. Unlike vigorous Caceres, who would sooner have died than allow an -inhospitable Indian to refuse admission to the foreigner in his charge, -the officer from Ayacucho was a timid soul who had gone through the -world bemoaning his ill fortune and doing nothing to make it better. He -could think of no solution of the problem except that we make ourselves -as comfortable as possible in the shelter of a kind of a porch in front -of this thatched hut. So we passed an exceedingly uncomfortable night -and experienced some of the hardships that the British soldiers, who -aided the patriot army in that last campaign against the Spanish -viceroy, must have suffered in this very locality.</p> - -<p>The next morning our road led across half a dozen deep gulches whose -streams feed the river Colpahuayo. In one of these I was so fortunate as -to find in a gravel-bank at the side of the road, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_346" id="page_346"></a>{346}</span> had been -heavily washed by recent rains, a portion of an ancient Inca stone -war-club shaped like a huge doughnut.</p> - -<p>The road continued to be extremely slippery and was not improved by the -almost continuous rain. At half past two we reached Tambillo. Here we -were welcomed by the pleasant wife of the Gobernador who had ridden -ahead to have a good breakfast prepared while we had waited in vain on a -hilltop hoping the rain would hold up sufficiently to let us photograph -a magnificent panorama that included the distant city of Ayacucho and -the heights of Condorkanqui and the famous battlefield.</p> - -<p>After lunch we crossed another gulch whose treacherous sides more than -once caused our mules to fall heavily. In the village of Los Neques, we -were met by a very courteous emissary of the Prefect of Ayacucho who -turned out to be proprietor of the hotel. He had been sent out in the -rain to apologize for the fact that there was no committee to meet us -and to explain that the notables had mounted and ridden out to await us -until driven back by the inclemency of the weather, for all of which we -were duly thankful, as it meant that we had escaped the necessity of -hurting anybody’s feelings by declining to drink more <i>copitas</i> of -brandy on an empty stomach.</p> - -<p>Here at Los Neques the Indians were getting ready to celebrate the days -of Carnival which were soon to be upon us. A hundred men and women had -gathered in the courtyard of an old house. In one corner a red cloth -shelter had been erected<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_347" id="page_347"></a>{347}</span></p> - -<p><a name="AYACUCHO" id="AYACUCHO"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_346fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_346fpa_sml.jpg" width="393" height="155" alt="Image unavailable: AYACUCHO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">AYACUCHO</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="THE_COURTYARD" id="THE_COURTYARD"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_346fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_346fpb_sml.jpg" width="397" height="177" alt="Image unavailable: THE COURTYARD OF THE HOTEL" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE COURTYARD OF THE HOTEL</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">under which sat the old men around a table on which was scattered -popcorn, roast maize, and dishes of succotash. The other men and women -squatted on the ground with dishes of succotash and bowls of <i>chicha</i> in -front of them. As long as we looked on, all was orderly and quiet except -that two musicians with a violin and a primitive old harp were -endeavoring to cheer them up.</p> - -<p>Soon after dark, in a pouring rain, we passed the high walls of the -Ayacucho cemetery, clattered over the cobble-stones of the narrow -streets, entered the plaza, and were ushered with a flourish through a -stone arch into the courtyard of the hotel. Acting on the orders of the -Prefect, the proprietor had reserved for our use an enormous parlor or -reception room where at least forty people could be comfortably seated, -and a great bedroom of nearly the same dimensions in which were four -large bedsteads. Notwithstanding the attractiveness of the hotel -bedsteads, such is the perversity of human nature that I decided to use -my own little “Gold Medal” folding cot that had served me faithfully for -many weeks, and my own blankets which, as they were folded up every -morning as soon as I arose and not unfolded until I was ready to sleep, -could be relied upon to be free from fleas, etc.</p> - -<p>The plaza of Ayacucho is surrounded on three sides with private houses -that have arcades supported by stone pillars. The ground floors are -taken up with shops, while over the arcades are balconies that lead to -the principal rooms of the dwelling houses. Our hotel had been once -occupied by one of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_348" id="page_348"></a>{348}</span> the principal families of the town and was a good -specimen of the old Spanish method of building. It had a large courtyard -from which a flight of stone steps led up to the galleries, and was -ornamented by potted plants and caged birds.</p> - -<p>Hardly had we examined our rooms when we received a call from the -Prefect, Don Gaspar Mauro Cacho, a tall, finely proportioned Peruvian -with a remarkable sense of humor and an unfailing store of courtesy. On -the following day he took upon himself to show us the sights of the -town, including the fine old cathedral, the large public market, clean -and well kept, the picturesque old churches, and the Prefecture, a large -double quadrangle where were located the offices of the Department, the -barracks of the few troops stationed here, and the rooms allotted for -the use of himself and his family.</p> - -<p>His wife and children had arrived from Lima not many months previous, -and the terrors of the overland journey were vividly in their minds. His -señora assured me that she had feared she would never reach Ayacucho -alive, notwithstanding the fact that the government had made every -possible provision for their comfort on the journey. One of the “guides” -lost his way, and they were quartered at an abandoned <i>tambo</i> where -there was nothing to eat or drink and no firewood. Having lived in Lima -all their lives, they felt the discomforts keenly. It was an interesting -commentary on the state of the roads that even a Prefect could not be -sure that his family would travel with a moderate degree of comfort.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_349" id="page_349"></a>{349}</span></p> - -<p>I had sometimes felt that the life of an official in Peru was as easy as -the life of the poor Indians was hard, but I had to reverse that opinion -before leaving the country. While the Prefects are appointed directly by -the President and are responsible only to him, they are likely to be -considered troublesome by the local magistrates who, although elected by -the citizens, exercise very limited prerogatives. Were it not for the -dozen or more soldiers that take their orders directly from the Prefect, -he would often be in a precarious position. He must govern as well as he -can, and yet if he does not make himself popular with the people of the -city in which he lives, his lot is not at all an easy one. With such men -as the Prefects whom we met in Arequipa, Abancay, and Ayacucho, the -central government is fortunate in being able to be sure that the power -which it delegates to them will be used firmly and wisely and without -causing friction.</p> - -<p>This city, one of the largest in Peru, occupies an excellent central -situation and from it diverge roads in every direction. Yet so great is -the difficulty of bringing foreign merchandise over these mountain -roads, that we found few shops here of any importance, and almost all -seemed to be owned by natives of the country. The streets were all of -the same pattern, paved with rough stones, sloping, not away from the -centre as with us, but towards the centre, where in the middle there is -invariably a ditch, practically an open sewer. For those walking on the -sidewalk, it is certainly much pleasanter to have this ditch in the -middle of the street.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_350" id="page_350"></a>{350}</span></p> - -<p>In anticipation of the joys of eating and drinking connected with -Carnival, Indian women with huge cauldrons of <i>chupe</i> and immense jars -of <i>chicha</i> were preparing to take up all-night stands, sometimes in the -centre of the street or else on a busy corner where they would be sure -to attract trade. The effect of the women’s head-gear was most curious. -It was exactly as though the lady had found her shawl a bit too warm and -had taken it off, folded it into a square, and proceeded to carry it on -her head for convenience. We went through one old crumbling archway, -attracted by some beautiful clay jars, and found ourselves in a backyard -that would have delighted a painter. Not all painters, but the kind that -loves a natural combination of picturesque ruins, fine old jars tumbled -about helter-skelter, dirty little Indian children in dirtier hats and -ponchos, very much too big for them, a cat, and a long-legged pig who -nosed about among the jars trying to see which one contained <i>chicha</i> -fit to gratify his thirst.</p> - -<p>From the tower of one of the oldest churches we secured a splendid view -of the city and the surrounding country including nearly the entire -region occupied by the forces of Sucre and La Serna in the week -preceding the final battle of Ayacucho.</p> - -<p>The old name of Ayacucho was Guamanga, which is said to have been a -Spanish adaptation of the Inca Huaman-ca (Take it, Falcon), a name that -was given to the district by an incident that followed a fierce battle -in which a warlike tribe of this vicinity was defeated and almost -annihilated by the armies<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_351" id="page_351"></a>{351}</span></p> - -<p><a name="A_PICTURESQUE" id="A_PICTURESQUE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_350fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_350fpa_sml.jpg" width="388" height="135" alt="Image unavailable: A PICTURESQUE CORNER IN AYACUCHO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">A PICTURESQUE CORNER IN AYACUCHO</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="CROSSING_THE" id="CROSSING_THE"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_350fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_350fpb_sml.jpg" width="444" height="125" alt="Image unavailable: CROSSING THE PONGORA RIVER ON THE SHAKY SUSPENSION -BRIDGE" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">CROSSING THE PONGORA RIVER ON THE SHAKY SUSPENSION -BRIDGE</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">of the Inca Viracocha. It is said that when serving out rations of flesh -to his troops after the battle, the Inca threw a piece to a falcon that -was soaring over his head, saying “Huaman-ca.” However this may be, the -town of Guamanga was one of the earliest to be founded by Pizarro and -was later the site of a bloody encounter between Vaca de Castro, the -legitimate Viceroy, and young Almagro and his followers, who had -assassinated Pizarro.</p> - -<p>The name Ayacucho was given to the town after the famous battle of -December 9, 1824, which was fought near the village of Quinua, thirteen -miles north. “Ayacucho” means “corner (or heap) of dead men” and refers -to the bloody character of this conflict and of those that had preceded -it in the Inca Conquest and in the Spanish Conquest of Peru.</p> - -<p>On February 21, the three days of Carnival began. Although I had often -read of the impossibility of doing anything in Peru during that period -of jollification, I succeeded in persuading the kind-hearted Prefect to -procure us animals that we might ride to Quinua, thirteen miles away, -and spend a day or so investigating the battlefield. He tried to -dissuade us, but as he knew that it was for this purpose that we had -come to Ayacucho, everything was soon ready. The Gobernador of Quinua -had been given orders to be on hand, to act as our guide. Accompanied by -him and the Secretary of the Department and a small military escort, we -left the hotel and took the road to the northwest.</p> - -<p>Our little cavalcade was strung out over a block or more by the time we -reached the suburbs as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_352" id="page_352"></a>{352}</span> streets were narrow and not in particularly -good repair. Suddenly the horses of our guides wheeled and bolted and -were with difficulty kept in the road. The cause was a characteristic -piece of carelessness on the part of somebody. A horse had recently died -and his thrifty owner had at once skinned him to save his hide, leaving -the hideous carcass in the very centre of the narrow road. It was -necessary to make a considerable detour through the neighboring fields, -for none of our animals would go within fifty feet of the disgusting -spectacle.</p> - -<p>For the first two leagues we followed the regular road to Lima and the -north, branching off when we reached the ford over the Pongora River, -then passing through several small plantations and near two vineyards, -we crossed the river Yucaes on a new suspension bridge and climbed the -face of a steep cliff by a zigzag trail. We had good animals and kept -them going at a comfortable trot so that we arrived at the little -village of Quinua in three and a half hours after leaving Ayacucho.</p> - -<p>The plaza of Quinua is surrounded on three sides by houses and ruins, -the fourth side being taken up by the church. Like the other houses in -the vicinity, these were built of stone and earth and roofed with red -tiles. Many of the roofs had been allowed to fall into decay, and the -house which was pointed out as the place where the truce was signed -after the battle, and where the Spanish General surrendered to General -Sucre, had entirely lost its covering.</p> - -<p>A hasty lunch was prepared for us at a little mud hut called a tavern, -and as soon after as possible we<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_353" id="page_353"></a>{353}</span> re-mounted and rode north for half a -mile up the face of a little hill and found ourselves on the plain where -was fought the last great battle of the South American Wars of -Independence. A monument, apparently made of some kind of plaster, and -naturally in a very bad state of repair, marked the centre of the plain. -Near by was a kind of shed or shelter for the horses, and a little to -the westward the walls of a memorial chapel that had not yet been -completed. North of the plain the heights of Condorkanqui rise abruptly. -A new road had recently been constructed over them to the warm valleys -beyond, but it was still perfectly possible to see the old trail down -which the Spanish troops marched in their attack on the patriots.</p> - -<p>The altitude of the field is nearly eleven thousand feet, and -romantically inclined writers have sometimes spoken of this as the -“battle above the clouds.” As a matter of fact, we had considerable -difficulty in taking photographs owing to the low hanging clouds that -continually swept down from the summits of Condorkanqui. Fortunately it -did not rain <i>all</i> the time.</p> - -<p>Few battles have ever been fought on a height that offered such a -magnificent view. From all parts of the battlefield, a superb panorama -is spread out to the east, south, and west, embracing the entire valley -of Ayacucho.</p> - -<p>After spending the afternoon on the field, we returned to the little -tavern where the evening passed very pleasantly and we were entertained -by the Indian villagers who were celebrating the Carnival.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_354" id="page_354"></a>{354}</span> They came in -throngs bringing us parched corn, popcorn, and <i>chicha</i>, swearing -eternal friendship, and expressing their appreciation that we should -come such a long distance to see their famous battlefield. The village -appeared to be divided into three wards, and the alcalde of each ward -was anxious that we should eat and drink just as much of his offering as -we had of the others.</p> - -<p>They were easily satisfied, however, and appeared to be having a very -good time. I never saw Indians enjoy themselves more. As a conclusion to -the entertainment, two Indian women were instructed to sing for us. -Their performance consisted in a wailing duet, beginning loud and high, -ascending with a powerful crescendo to screeching falsetto notes and -then gradually descending and diminishing into a wheeze like a very old -parlor organ with leaky bellows.</p> - -<p>We spent the next morning photographing different parts of the -battlefield and trying to get a better idea of the reasons for Sucre’s -victory. I was very forcibly impressed by the skill with which he had -chosen his position.</p> - -<p>The little plain, really a plateau, is literally surrounded by ravines. -It was just large enough to allow Sucre to use his seven or eight -thousand men to the best advantage. An enemy attacking him must perforce -come up hill on every side, even though it would seem as though the -Spanish troops descending from Condorkanqui would have had some -advantage. But they were under fire all the time they were descending to -the plain, and just<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_355" id="page_355"></a>{355}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_BATTLEFIELDAYACUCHO" id="THE_BATTLEFIELDAYACUCHO"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_354fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_354fpa_sml.jpg" width="457" height="128" alt="Image unavailable: THE BATTLEFIELD OF AYACUCHO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE BATTLEFIELD OF AYACUCHO</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="THE_BATTLEFIELD" id="THE_BATTLEFIELD"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_354fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_354fpb_sml.jpg" width="455" height="131" alt="Image unavailable: THE BATTLEFIELD AS IT APPEARED TO THE SPANIARDS" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE BATTLEFIELD AS IT APPEARED TO THE SPANIARDS</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">before they reached it, they found themselves in a little gully up the -sides of which they had to scramble at a disadvantage before they could -actually be on a level with the defenders. La Serna was too good a -general not to have appreciated the strength of Sucre’s position. In -fact, as General Miller points out, the mistake of the Viceroy in -attacking originated in allowing himself to be over-persuaded by the -eagerness of his troops. Their patience had been exhausted by terrible -marches which seemed to them to be endless. Only a few days before the -battle, the tents of the Viceroy and his chief general had had lampoons -pasted on them, accusing them of cowardice. It may fairly be said that -he was goaded into action contrary to his own judgment.</p> - -<p>The battle of Ayacucho, besides being the final combat, was one of the -most brilliant in the history of the Wars of Independence. The troops on -both sides were well-seasoned veterans. The generals in command were -among the ablest that the long wars had developed. Every man fought with -bravery. Although the Patriots were outnumbered, they made up for it by -enthusiasm and by a knowledge that there was no opportunity for them to -retreat. They were aided by the lay of the land, but the result was due -to a most determined valor and a heroic daring that must always gratify -lovers of Peruvian history.</p> - -<p>We returned to the city in the middle of the afternoon in time to take a -little walk in the streets and be bombarded by little Carnival balloons -filled with scented water, egg-shells filled with colored powder,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_356" id="page_356"></a>{356}</span> and -the other missiles that are commonly employed to bear witness to the -fact that Lent is approaching. The ladies and children, who occupied -points of vantage in the second-story windows, kept up a brisk fire on -everyone who ventured along the streets, and we had to do some very -rapid dodging to avoid being entirely soaked and colored with all the -hues of the rainbow.</p> - -<p>In the evening, notwithstanding a terrific downpour of rain, the -“society of Ayacucho,” including the Archbishop, the Prefect, and fifty -or sixty of their friends, “tendered us” an elaborate banquet which -quite took the palm for variety of food and drink. There were no less -than fourteen courses besides seven kinds of wine including champagne. -The after-dinner speeches were also quite remarkable. Hitherto, the -chief interest in us had been the fact that we had “visited the lost -city of Choqquequirau,” but here Choqquequirau meant little or nothing. -The battlefield of Ayacucho meant everything, and the fact that we were -<i>delegados</i> from a country whose aid Peru hoped to receive in case Chile -became troublesome meant a great deal more. Whether it was at this -banquet or at one of those that preceded it in the past three weeks, I -do not remember, but the opinion was expressed more than once that, -rather than have another war with Chile, they would surrender to the -United States and become a protectorate. I mention this not as an -indication of national sentiment, but merely to show the state of -feeling that prevailed in the interior of Peru at the time, and the -attitude with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_357" id="page_357"></a>{357}</span> which they regarded the possibility of another war with -Chile.</p> - -<p>A large part of the hatred that exists between Chilean and Peruvian is -due to their native ancestry. In the Chilean there is a large percentage -of Araucanian blood. In the Peruvian there is as much of the blood of -the Quichuas. The Araucanians are the hereditary foes of the Quichuas. -For centuries there was no peace between them. The Incas pushed their -army of Quichuas as far south as possible, but they never could conquer -the lands where the Araucanians roved. Even the all-conquering Spanish -soldiers were blocked in southern Chile. It is not necessary to repeat -here the long story of the Araucanian wars and the heroic deeds of -Lautaro and his kinsmen. Instead of being easily conquered by the -handful of Spanish adventurers as were the Incas and Quichuas, the -Araucanians kept the Spaniards at bay for centuries, and were in fact -never subdued.</p> - -<p>The Araucanians and the Quichuas had as different racial characteristics -as can be imagined. Although the Araucanians did not constitute a nation -in the proper sense of the word but were divided into a large number of -clans, each independent and recognizing no master, they never allowed -any outside people to interfere with their national life. They were -intensely independent. Even the chiefs lacked authority in time of -peace. There were no serfs or slaves. More important still, there were -no laws; private wrongs had to be settled privately. All of these -elements must be taken into considera<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_358" id="page_358"></a>{358}</span>tion when contemplating the -character of the Chilean of to-day. His Spanish ancestors brooked no -interference and recognized no central government, but his Araucanian -forebears were still more intensely fond of individual liberty. His -Spanish ancestors were brave and fearless. No better soldiers existed in -Europe in the sixteenth century. The Araucanians were even more warlike, -and after their first few defeats by the invaders, they successfully -assumed the offensive, storming Spanish towns and carrying off cattle -and horses. They organized troops of cavalry, learning to excel on an -animal that their fathers had never heard of, and which the Quichuas -even now rarely dare to mount. The entire Araucanian nation was less -numerous than the army of Quichuas that surrounded Atahualpa when he was -successfully attacked by Pizarro, yet they killed more Spanish soldiers -than fell in the conquest of the entire remainder of the continent. With -such an ancestry, it is not remarkable that the Chileans are notoriously -the best fighters on the continent to-day. Contrast their inheritance -with that of the Peruvians.</p> - -<p>The Quichuas were and are a timid, peaceful folk lacking in dignity, -defending themselves rather with cunning and falsehood than by deeds of -arms. The servile sentiment is deeply rooted in the Quichua nature. He -maintains a sense of loyalty for his former masters, but he has -absolutely no idea of liberty or independence. The Quichuas had reached -a higher state of culture than the Araucanians but their manly -characteristics were far less developed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_359" id="page_359"></a>{359}</span> In fact, at the time of the -Spanish conquest, they seem to have been already in a decadent -condition. With such blood in their veins, it is not surprising that the -Peruvians were easily defeated by the Chileans, their country overrun -and humiliated, their valuable nitrate fields seized, and the seeds of -intense national hatred planted that will take generations to -eradicate.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_360" id="page_360"></a>{360}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI"></a>CHAPTER XXVI<br /><br /> -<small>AYACUCHO TO LIMA</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">E</span><span class="smcap">very</span> one had told us that it would be “absolutely impossible” to leave -Ayacucho until two or three days had elapsed after the end of the -Carnival. Possibly because we were a trifle homesick, and possibly -because we had been assured so positively that it could not be done, we -determined to try to leave Ayacucho on the last day of the three devoted -to Carnival. I must confess that it was rather cruel, not only to the -two soldiers who were ordered to accompany us, but also the <i>arriero</i> -who was informed that he must provide us with mules and go when we were -ready to start. The morning was spent in a great row over the mules and -the question as to how far they were to go with us, in which many tears -were shed by drunken Indian women who declared that they were sure they -would never see their husbands or animals back again. If it had not been -for the Prefect’s willingness to help us, we could never have persuaded -any one to go, but he did his part splendidly. We at length got off just -at noon. The Prefect and his friends, to the number of fourteen, -escorted us for the first league out of the city. Then we bade them an -affectionate farewell and started off on the last stage of our journey, -determined, if possible, to travel henceforth as much<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_361" id="page_361"></a>{361}</span> like private -citizens as we could. To be sure, we had our little military escort. -Without them we should have found it almost impossible to proceed at all -for the next few days. Our first two leagues were over the same road -which we had used in going to Quinua, then, instead of fording the -river, we kept on its left bank until we reached a shaky suspension -bridge. Its floor was made of loose planks that were so easily misplaced -by the mules that Hay declared he had to set them all over again after I -had passed in order to avoid falling into the river.</p> - -<p>We met on the road many Indians, celebrating Carnival, marching along -gayly, beating primitive little drums and blowing on bamboo-fifes. They -stopped at almost every house they passed, shouting and hullabalooing -and getting a few drinks of <i>chicha</i>.</p> - -<p>As we were crossing the rocky bed of a little stream we met an itinerant -musician, a blind harpist, who was being helped across by a friend. His -harp was very curious, being a wooden box shaped like half a cone with -two wooden legs tacked into its base, and two eye-holes on the flat side -which made it look very much like some dwarfish animal. With great -difficulty we tried to persuade him to set up his harp in the dry bed of -the stream and play us a tune while we took his picture. Not having the -slightest conception of what we were trying to do, the poor blind -musician was rather frightened, and as he understood no Spanish -whatever, we should not have succeeded had it not been for the kind -offices of a pleasant-faced mestizo family party who<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_362" id="page_362"></a>{362}</span> were picnicking on -the bank of the stream and who translated our poor Spanish into Quichua. -In the evening we reached Huanta, an historic little town where savage -Indian tribes from the Amazonian forests have frequently come into -collision with armed Peruvian forces. Although we hoped to be able to -slip into town unnoticed, we were met, a mile out, by the usual dozen of -hospitably inclined <i>caballeros</i> who, with the Gobernador at their head, -had been “celebrating” for the past two or three days. We were by this -time so fatigued by the labors of crossing Peru in the wet season, that -we found it very difficult to be as polite as we were expected to be to -the reception committees that had been our lot hitherto. However, in -this case, to put it bluntly, the Gobernador was very drunk, which made -him only the more friendly, and he insisted that we were two “princes of -America,” and that his house would be everlastingly famous in history as -having been the place where we stayed!</p> - -<p>His wife and daughters behaved splendidly. They seemed to realize that -we knew it was customary for all the men to get drunk at this season of -the year. At the same time they did their best to make us comfortable -and to see that the male members of the family did not annoy us any more -than they could help.</p> - -<p>Naturally, the “morning after” was a sad occasion, and had it not been -for our excellent soldiers, who had gone to bed sober, it would have -been very difficult to have persuaded our hosts to let us go. The -Gobernador was extremely cross. He had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_363" id="page_363"></a>{363}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_BRIDGEHUARPA" id="THE_BRIDGEHUARPA"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_362fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_362fp_sml.jpg" width="457" height="158" alt="Image unavailable: THE BRIDGE OVER THE HUARPA" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE BRIDGE OVER THE HUARPA</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">forgotten all about our princely lineage, and only remembered to charge -us treble for everything he could think of. Although we had gotten up at -five o’clock, no Indians sober enough to act as guides could be found -for several hours, and it was after ten before we finally left Huanta.</p> - -<p>The son of the Gobernador was the only person who had energy enough, or -had sufficiently recovered from the debauch of the night before, to do -us the honor of escorting us out of town. This had come to be such a -regular feature of our travels since leaving Cuzco that we always looked -forward with curiosity to see what would happen. This young fellow was -very polite and went with us as far as the entrance of the local -cemetery, a bizarre white-washed adobe gate, protected from the weather -by a little covering of red tiles. There must have been something -prophetic about his bidding us good-by at the gates of a cemetery, for -he was the last honorary escort that we had in Peru.</p> - -<p>Our road led us through a thickly populated region. Here and there on -the roadside, unfortunate individuals, both men and women, who had been -too far gone to reach home the night before, were sleeping off the -effects of the Carnival. Ordinarily one does not see much drunkenness in -Peru, but this certainly was an exception.</p> - -<p>Small towns and villages followed in quick succession. Then we descended -into the valley of the Huarpa River and across a well-built toll-bridge. -The bridge was so long and so high above the stream that my mule -concluded he would stay on the east<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_364" id="page_364"></a>{364}</span> bank. He yielded to our combined -efforts, but only after much beating. We now passed through a semi-arid -region of cactus and mimosa trees like the basin of the Pampas River, -until we began to climb an extremely steep ravine. Several times we lost -our way, and in places the path had been completely washed out by the -rains. The crux came at a little waterfall only five feet high. So -smooth was the face of the rock over which the little stream of water -trickled that our sure-footed animals found it impossible to reach the -upper level until we had built a rude stone stairway which they -cheerfully essayed to climb. Their energetic scrambles were finally -rewarded by success. For three hours the trail wound upwards as steeply -as it was possible to go, until we reached the bleak <i>paramo</i> near -Marcas.</p> - -<p>A magnificent panorama lay spread out before us. In the foreground were -hillsides dotted with thatched huts and fields where sheep and cattle -grazed; in the middle distance, deep valleys whose rivers had cut their -way down into gorges out of our sight; and far beyond, a magnificent -range of mountains, some capped with snow and others with clouds. It was -a little after five o’clock when we entered the picturesque little -village of Marcas with its two dozen huts scattered about under the lee -of the rocks or clustered near the road. We recognized it as just the -sort of village where we would have been refused both food and shelter -had we been alone. But as we were accompanied by an energetic sergeant -who did not propose to allow any poor Indians to stand in the way of our -progress, a hut no<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_365" id="page_365"></a>{365}</span> dirtier or more comfortless than the rest was soon -put at our disposal, and the sergeant did his best to get us all a good -supper out of our own provisions.</p> - -<p>Our baggage animals had had a frightfully hard day of it and our -soldiers assured us that if we intended to catch the weekly train out of -Huancayo, it would be necessary to have at least one more beast of -burden, for although our luggage could be conveniently carried by two -mules going at a walk, if we expected to make forty miles a day, as we -hoped to do, one animal must be rested every other day. Accordingly the -Indian alcalde of Marcas was instructed to get us a mule. “But there are -no mules here” he replied. A horse then. “Very well, there is one old -one which I will have ready for you in the morning.” Soon after -breakfast an old white horse appeared, accompanied by a weeping Indian -woman who had no desire to take our money and who was thoroughly -convinced that she would never see her horse again. It was finally -agreed that the horse should go only to the next town where we could get -another beast and send this one back by one of the Indian alcaldes that -now accompanied us from village to village, returning as their task of -acting as guides was taken up by the alcaldes of the next place.</p> - -<p>With the aid of the fresh horse, we made good time and skirted the -slopes of a high range of hills leaving the trim little town of Acobamba -far off on our left. It lies in the valley of the Lircay which is quite -densely populated and seemed to be very fertile. In the middle of the -afternoon we reached<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_366" id="page_366"></a>{366}</span> Urumyosi where there are curious great rocks -shaped like sugar loaves. They are of soft sandstone which is easily -worked, and a number of caves have been made by poor people at the base -of the rocks. After a long cold ride and ten hours in the saddle, we -came in sight of a mud-colored town called Paucara which has long had a -very evil reputation. Whether this is deserved or not we did not -endeavor to discover. The sergeant persuaded the owner of a rude little -hut, half a mile from the town and on the direct road, to let us spend -the night there. One of our neighbors brought freshly cut barley-straw -for the mules, another brought a dozen eggs, and with the aid of our own -supplies and cooking utensils, we fared splendidly.</p> - -<p>The night was excessively damp and as bitterly cold as it can be only in -a genuinely tropical country when the temperature drops forty degrees -after the sun goes down and an icy wind penetrates your very bones, even -though you have hurriedly put on two or three sweaters and a couple of -ponchos as it grew dark. There is no cold like the cold of the tropics. -Furthermore the carcass of a recently killed sheep hung dripping in the -hut. The floor was wet and muddy, there were no windows and only a small -door. We wished we had a tent.</p> - -<p>There being no incentive to linger at this charming country-house, our -Indians were actually up and away before six o’clock. We had saved four -eggs the evening before to be cooked for our breakfast, and after -loading our pack animals and seeing them safely off with all our -supplies, we handed our<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_367" id="page_367"></a>{367}</span></p> - -<p><a name="URUMYOSI" id="URUMYOSI"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_366fpa_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_366fpa_sml.jpg" width="272" height="163" alt="Image unavailable: URUMYOSI" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">URUMYOSI</span> -</div> - -<p><a name="THE_HUT" id="THE_HUT"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_366fpb_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_366fpb_sml.jpg" width="276" height="170" alt="Image unavailable: THE HUT NEAR PAUCARA" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE HUT NEAR PAUCARA</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">eggs and some tea to the housewife and asked her to prepare us a frugal -meal. Alas! it was quite impossible. The cooking activities of the -evening before had used up every stick of firewood within a radius of a -mile, and there was no way in which water could be boiled. The only -provisions for our breakfast were the raw eggs. We had before us a ride -of forty miles over an exceedingly rough country, part of which lay at -an elevation of fourteen thousand feet above the sea, so we hastily -swallowed our eggs as best as we could and started off with the prospect -of twelve hours in the saddle.</p> - -<p>At first the road wound slowly up the valley of Lircay, until finally it -climbed over the edge of the hills to a great bleak plateau where -hundreds of llamas were feeding. When you come to a llama range you may -be fairly certain that the altitude is not far from that of the top of -Pike’s Peak. Add to this a blinding snow-storm that keeps you from -seeing more than six feet ahead of you, a wearied mule, a very hungry -rider, and the uncertainty as to whether you are on the right road or -not, and you will have a picture of our predicament during part of that -never-to-be-forgotten day. At length, to our great delight, the trail -began slowly to descend from cheerless <i>paramos</i> and little mountain -lakes into a great valley where, thousands of feet below, we could see -huts and cultivated fields.</p> - -<p>Skirting the hills half-way up the valley and avoiding the attractive -little trails that led down to Indian villages, we kept turning more and -more to the westward until we rounded a spur and came on a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_368" id="page_368"></a>{368}</span> magnificent -view of the great river Mantaro that on its way to join the Apurimac has -cut a wonderfully deep cañon through this part of Peru. A tortuous -descent of two thousand feet brought us to the new toll-bridge of -Tablachaca and onto an excellent road. Of course, this does not mean -that it could be used for wheeled vehicles, for of carts there are none -in this part of the world. It simply means that a trail four or five -feet wide and reasonably free from rocks and holes allowed the mules to -jog along at a gait of nearly five miles an hour. So slow had been our -progress over the <i>paramo</i> that it was considerably after dark before we -reached the picturesque old stone bridge of Yscuchaca, re-crossed the -Mantaro, and clattered over the cobble-tones of this well-built little -town.</p> - -<p>We had rather flattered ourselves that no one here knew we were coming -and so we had avoided an official reception and all possible attacks on -our digestive faculties. But we had to pay for it by finding that it -took nearly two hours longer than usual before we were able to secure -any accommodations whatsoever for the night. The Gobernador of Yscuchaca -lived a mile or more out of town on his country estate, and learning -finally that there were two “distinguished foreigners” in town, sent his -head servant to welcome us, gave us the use of a room in his town house, -provided our mules with pasturage, and the next morning charged us three -times the regular tariff. I regret to say that we took advantage of the -absence of the Gobernador to pay his major-domo what our sergeant told -us was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_369" id="page_369"></a>{369}</span></p> - -<p><a name="THE_TOLL" id="THE_TOLL"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_368fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_368fp_sml.jpg" width="401" height="275" alt="Image unavailable: THE TOLL BRIDGE OF TABLACHACA" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">THE TOLL BRIDGE OF TABLACHACA</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">legitimate price and left him wondering why he had not been able to -overcharge us as he had certain American civil engineers who had been -here not long before, surveying for the extension of the central railway -of Peru.</p> - -<p>At present, that railway, begun many years ago, goes from Lima to Oroya -and thence south to Huancayo which is nearly fifty miles from Yscuchaca. -It is proposed now to continue it from Huancayo to Yscuchaca and thence -due south to Huancavelica where there are mines of quicksilver and -copper. Eventually it will form one of the links in the chain of the -Pan-American Railway.</p> - -<p>Our mules were pretty tired and so were we, but when one is on the home -stretch it is easy to travel from early to late. We rose before five -o’clock. Our road first crossed the Mantaro, ascended the left bank of -the stream for several miles, passed several mineral springs, and then -climbed out of the narrowing cañon up toward the village of Acostambo. -At one place where the road had been cut through what looked like a -fossil bed, I was so fortunate as to find, <i>in situ</i>, a fossil bivalve. -Professor Charles Schuchert of Yale University has been so good as to -identify it for me as <i>allorisma subcuneata</i>. It has been found also in -Brazil. Its geological horizon, the upper carboniferous, is widely -distributed in South America and is well known about Lake Titicaca. The -location of this fossil here may indicate the presence in this vicinity -of coal-beds. If any could be found, it would be the greatest benefit, -not only to the railway that hopes some day to pass through this -valley,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_370" id="page_370"></a>{370}</span> but also to the copper-smelters in the vicinity. As a matter of -fact, Peru does not need the coal for power; these great and rapidly -flowing rivers like the Mantaro, the Pampas, and the Apurimac offer an -abundant water-power that, transformed into electricity, would run all -the railroads and factories that could possibly be crowded into Peru.</p> - -<p>Personally, I do not believe in the construction of steam railroads in -this country. The difficulties of overcoming steep grades are serious, -and the cost of building is necessarily all out of proportion to the -traffic that is likely to be developed. I do believe, however, that the -future of Peru depends upon the development of her water-power and the -building of light electric railways that would be sufficient to handle -economically the product of the mines and to accommodate passengers. If -the region were one where extensive crops could be cultivated and a -large amount of heavy freight developed, this argument would not hold. -Under the circumstances, however, I believe that it is a much safer -investment for capital and a much more practical work for the government -to develop electric traction.</p> - -<p>At Acostambo, a town of perhaps two thousand inhabitants, we tried to -buy something to eat for lunch, but there was nothing to be had except -some dough cakes that had been “cooked” in cold ashes. After passing -through two or three small villages where most of the Indians seemed to -be in a state of intoxication, we crossed the Cordillera Marcavalle and -found ourselves on the well-travelled road to Pampas. Before us, spread -out in a magnificent<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_371" id="page_371"></a>{371}</span> panorama, the fertile, densely populated valley of -Jauja. Watered by the Upper Mantaro River and its affluents, there are -over fifty villages, towns, and cities, clustered together in this rich -plain. Immediately ahead lay four towns almost exactly in a straight -line and less than ten miles apart: Pucará, where we stopped long enough -to buy some parched corn and freshly roasted pork for supper, -Sapallauga, Punta, and Huancayo. Instead of the desolate region in which -we had passed most of yesterday, we were now in one of the most thickly -populated parts of Peru, and felt as though we were back again in -civilization. This sensation was increased when we began to clatter down -the long street of Huancayo. It seemed like an age before we finally -reached the business centre of the city at 9 <small>P.M.</small> and surrendered -ourselves into the hands of a courteous Austrian hotel proprietor.</p> - -<p>We had spent nearly fourteen hours in the saddle. This was quite -forgotten when we learned to our delight that there was to be a train -for Oroya the next day, for the first time in two weeks.</p> - -<p>We had heard that the train from Huancayo left usually on Sundays, so we -had promised our soldiers a sovereign apiece if they would see to it -that we reached Huancayo by Saturday night. As they had to accompany the -slow-moving pack animals, they did not arrive themselves until the next -morning, somewhat in fear lest they had lost their promised reward. When -they were assured, however, that we had caught our train, and when they -had received their gold and what was left of our kitchen utensils<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_372" id="page_372"></a>{372}</span> and -supplies, their delight knew no bounds, and they were constrained to -embrace us in truly oriental fashion.</p> - -<p>Sunday morning is a great event in Huancayo. Before sunrise, thousands -of Indians come in from the surrounding towns and villages for the -weekly Fair. Two large plazas are crowded with vendors of every -conceivable kind of merchandise: oxen and mules raised nearby, toys -“made in Germany,” pottery and ponchos made in Huancayo, and beer made -in Milwaukee. Overflowing from the crowded plazas the Fair extends for -nearly a mile through the main street of the city. The picturesque -Indians in their brilliantly colored ponchos, thronging the streets and -alternately buying and selling their wares, offer a field for diversion -that no one should miss who reaches Lima.</p> - -<p>Like the Mexican Indians, so vividly depicted by Mr. Kirkham in his -artistic “Mexican Trails,” there are many among the throng who will -“sell a hen, later to bargain for a sombrero, presently to go upon their -knees within the church yonder, candle in hand; lastly to lie by the -roadside, overfull of <i>pulque</i> and oblivious of this world, or the -next.”</p> - -<p>The type is the same whether it be seen on a Sunday in the Andes of -Mexico, Peru, or Colombia. Only here it is <i>chicha</i> that is the favorite -beverage instead of <i>pulque</i>.</p> - -<p>The long expected train was due to arrive at noon and “to leave soon -afterwards.” The platform and the newly constructed booths near the -little corrugated-iron station were crowded for hours by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_373" id="page_373"></a>{373}</span></p> - -<p><a name="SUNDAY_MORNING" id="SUNDAY_MORNING"></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/i_372fp_lg.jpg"> -<img src="images/i_372fp_sml.jpg" width="391" height="292" alt="Image unavailable: SUNDAY MORNING IN HUANCAYO" /></a> -<br /> -<span class="caption">SUNDAY MORNING IN HUANCAYO</span> -</div> - -<p class="nind">intending passengers and friends of expected arrivals. But it was late -in the afternoon, almost dark in fact, before the belated little train -pulled into the station and the runners from the three Huancayo hotels -had the satisfaction of greeting their “friends.” We were informed that -the train would not leave before six o’clock the next morning so we -tried to possess ourselves in patience at our comfortable little hotel.</p> - -<p>We were on hand, bright and early, just in time to see the train pull -out of the station. Happily it was only a false alarm, and the train -soon backed down to the platform again and waited for three quarters of -an hour for intending passengers to arrive. At length the conductor -decided he could wait no longer, and at 6:40 we pulled out, just before -the sub-Prefect and his friends arrived on the scene. A young politician -on the train, who thought that the sub-Prefect wanted to go to Lima, -pulled violently at the bell-rope. The engineer, accustomed to that form -of stopping the train, had detached the ropes from the locomotive so -that all that the friends of the sub-Prefect were able to do was to pull -several yards of it into the rear coach. Rather characteristically, the -only four people who were on hand at six o’clock ready for the train to -start on time, were all Americans. The two besides ourselves were -artisans from the great copper mines of Cerro de Pasco who were enjoying -a week’s vacation.</p> - -<p>At Jauja there is a spur track which runs from the main line a mile or -more back to the historic old city, celebrated in the annals of the -Spanish Conquest and the Wars of Independence. The good people of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_374" id="page_374"></a>{374}</span> -Jauja, not yet accustomed to the necessary rules of a railroad train -service, flocked on board the train to say “good-by” to their departing -friends and chat as long as possible. Taking no heed of the screams of -the engine and the cries of the conductor, more than twenty ladies, who -had no intention of leaving town, were still on board when the train -pulled out of the station. The conductor took them a mile and a half -down the track to the main line; then, fearing that the mere fact that -they would have to walk home would not sufficiently impress them, he -made each one pay for riding! Twenty more sheepish-looking individuals -than the garrulous ladies, whom the conductor lined up in the field a -short distance from the tracks and charged for their short ride, would -be hard to find.</p> - -<p>At eleven o’clock we came to a wash-out and had to cross the Oroya River -on planks hastily thrown over the unfinished new railroad bridge. A -train was waiting for us on the other side, and with very little delay, -all the passengers and luggage were safely carried across and we reached -Oroya before four o’clock that evening.</p> - -<p>Although there are rich mines in the vicinity and it is the terminus of -the new line, built by American capital, to the great Cerro de Pasco -smelters, Oroya is chiefly famous as the terminus of “the highest -railroad in the world,” and we looked forward with interest to our -journey on the morrow.</p> - -<p>The magnificent great viaduct which has frequently been pictured as -formerly one of the highest railroad bridges in existence, had come to -grief only<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_375" id="page_375"></a>{375}</span> a short time before, in a rather tragic manner. A car, -loaded with bridge-construction material and occupied by several -American engineers, was standing on the bridge to which repairs were -being made. A run-away engine came flying down the grade, struck the -car, jumped into the air, crashed back on the frail viaduct, which gave -way and allowed a tangled mass of men and metal to fall into the cañon -two hundred and twenty feet below.</p> - -<p>This accident necessitated many delays, as all the passengers and -freight had to be transferred by mules or on foot down into the cañon -and up the other side to the train for Lima.</p> - -<p>The ride from Oroya to Lima has been so frequently described by many -travellers and the excitement of coasting down from the summit tunnel -where the altitude is 15,666 feet to the Lima station, which is only a -little above sea level, is so well known, that I will not attempt to -give my own impressions here. Suffice it to say that the excitement was -increased if anything by the fact that besides the bridge accident -another had occurred only a few days previously in which a locomotive -had left the tracks and rolled down an embankment.</p> - -<p>Owing to these accidents our train was provided with a very old engine -whose boilers were so leaky that we had a hard time climbing up from -Oroya to the divide. Several times we stopped; once for three quarters -of an hour to allow enough steam to accumulate to pull us around a -curve. We did not object, however, for the scenery was wonderful. The -great craggy cliffs, their slopes covered with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_376" id="page_376"></a>{376}</span> snow and ice, made us -realize that this was really the roof tree of the continent. Just before -entering the summit tunnel, the train stopped again, and we had a chance -to enjoy a magnificent panorama of snow-capped mountains.</p> - -<p>A hand-car with two workmen was sent down the road just ahead of our -train so as to give us some sense of assurance. It is well known that -most people coming up this road from Lima suffer greatly from <i>soroche</i> -before they reach the summit. On our way down, however, most of the -passengers were so well accustomed to high elevations that not more than -three or four, and they Peruvian ladies from Jauja and Oroya, seemed to -be affected. So far as I could judge, their trouble was due more to -car-sickness and the lack of ventilation than to the elevation.</p> - -<p>We reached Lima about half past eight on the evening of March 2d. Who -can describe the comfort and luxury of those first few hours in the -excellent Hotel Maury?</p> - -<p>My first duty the next day was to call on President Leguia, report on -what I had seen at Choqquequirau and tell him how very hospitably we had -been received in the interior towns and cities. After talking with him -for a few moments, we were no longer at a loss to understand why the -Prefects and sub-Prefects of Peru had been so courteous to us, for their -chief is himself the soul of courtesy. Well-travelled, well-educated, -speaking English fluently, a trained business man, not in the slightest -degree the type of South American President with which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_377" id="page_377"></a>{377}</span> novel-readers -and playgoers are familiar, he impressed us as a man who would do his -best to advance the welfare of Peru without caring in the least how his -own affairs might prosper in the meantime.</p> - -<p>The door-keeper was a fine, tall, gray-haired soldier who had the -manners of a general, was rather suspicious of us at first, but returned -almost immediately after taking in our cards and, with a magnificent bow -and a courtly gesture, ushered us at once into the inner reception room, -greatly to the disgust of several pompous, perspiring politicians who -had been warming their heels in the gilded salon for some time before we -arrived. We did not stay long, and on our way out were again given a -demonstration of interest by the courteous old brigadier. To our sorrow -we read a few months afterward that in the unsuccessful revolution -already referred to in the chapter on Arequipa, which began by seizing -the presidential offices and in securing the President himself and his -Minister of Foreign Affairs, the revolutionists had ruthlessly killed -the old door-keeper.</p> - -<p>Like every visitor to Lima, we too went into the cathedral to see the -mummified remains of Francisco Pizarro, the Conqueror of Peru, and then -we took a little victoria, drawn by a pair of speedy little trotters, -and explored the parks and boulevards. We saw the monuments and the new -public buildings, called on the American Minister, whom we found to be a -charming southern gentleman, exceedingly well suited to his diplomatic -profession; admired the many substantial foreign banks and business<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_378" id="page_378"></a>{378}</span> -houses, and regretted that so much of the flavor of the old colonial -Lima had been lost in the Chilean war and in the recent era of business -prosperity. With electric lights and electric cars and abundant foreign -capital, it is not easy to preserve those picturesque features which are -so charming in the interior cities.</p> - -<p>At last my journey overland from Buenos Aires had been completed. I -cannot claim to know it as well or as intimately as the poor -“foot-walker” who, if he has been successful, must by this time have -reached Buenos Aires and walked on foot twice over this long dreary -road. Nevertheless, I can appreciate keenly some of the difficulties of -travel in Spanish-America during the colonial period when Lima was the -gay capital and Buenos Aires was merely a frontier post. It is small -wonder that there was little sympathy between Lima and Buenos Aires in -those days.</p> - -<p>Like my journey across Venezuela and Colombia, this taught me to feel -anew the stupendous difficulties that lie in the way of advancing South -American civilization. It made me admire tremendously the courage and -determination of those heroes of the Wars of Independence who marched up -and down this road for fourteen years until they had driven from it the -last vestige of a foreign army.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_379" id="page_379"></a>{379}</span></p> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII"></a>CHAPTER XXVII<br /><br /> -<small>CERTAIN SOUTH AMERICAN TRAITS</small></h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="letra">A</span><span class="smcap">s</span> one travels through the various South American republics, becomes -acquainted with their political and social conditions, reads their -literature, and talks with other American travellers, there are a number -of adverse criticisms that frequently arise. I shall attempt here to -enumerate some of them, to account for a few, and to compare others with -criticisms that were made of the people of the United States, half a -century ago, by a distinguished English visitor.</p> - -<p>Although it is true that the historical and geographical background of -the South Americans is radically different from ours, it is also true -that they have many social and superficial characteristics very like -those which European travellers found in the United States fifty years -ago. The period of time is not accidental. The South American Republics -secured their independence nearly fifty years later than we did. -Moreover, they have been hampered in their advancement by natural -difficulties and racial antipathies much more than we have. Although the -conditions of life in the United States, as depicted by foreign critics -seventy-five years after the battle of Yorktown, were decidedly worse -than the conditions of life in South America seventy-five<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_380" id="page_380"></a>{380}</span> years after -the battle of Ayacucho, the resemblances between the faults that were -found with us fifty years ago and those that are noticeable among the -South Americans of to-day, are too striking to be merely coincidences. -It is surely not for us to say that there is anything inherently wrong -with our Southern neighbors if their shortcomings are such as we -ourselves had not long ago, and possibly have to-day.</p> - -<p>The first criticism that one hears, and the first one is likely to make -after getting beyond the pale of official good breeding in South -America, is that the manners of the ordinary South American are very -bad. Lest the traveller be inclined to take such a state of affairs too -seriously, let him read what Dickens wrote about us and our ways in -1855. It was a faithful picture of a certain phase of American life. It -should be confessed that it paints a condition of affairs worse than -anything I have seen in South America.</p> - -<p>Travellers who are prone to find fault with the service at South -American hotels and restaurants will enjoy Dickens’ description of the -dining-room of a New York boarding-house. “In the further region of this -banqueting-hall was a stove, garnished on either side with a great brass -spittoon.... Before it, swinging himself in a rocking-chair, lounged a -large gentleman with his hat on, who amused himself by spitting -alternately into the spittoon on the right hand of the stove, and the -spittoon on the left, and then working his way back again in the same -order. A negro lad in a soiled white jacket was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_381" id="page_381"></a>{381}</span> busily engaged in -placing on the table two long rows of knives and forks, relieved at -intervals by jugs of water; and as he travelled down one side of this -festive board, he straightened with his dirty hands, the dirtier cloth, -which was all askew, and had not been removed since breakfast.”</p> - -<p>It is indeed hard for us to overlook the table manners of the average -South American. But how many years is it since North Americans were all -reading and conning “Don’t! A Guide to Good Manners”? It is less than a -quarter of a century since our self-conscious use of the fork on all -possible (and impossible) viands showed that we felt the need of -improvement.</p> - -<p>To one inclined to criticise the speed with which a company of South -Americans will dispose of their food, let me recommend Dickens’ American -boarding-house table where a “very few words were spoken; and everybody -seemed to eat his utmost in self-defence, as if a famine were expected -to set in before breakfast-time to-morrow morning, and it had become -high time to assert the first law of nature. The oysters, stewed and -pickled, leaped from their capacious reservoirs, and slid by scores into -the mouths of the assembly. The sharpest pickles vanished; whole -cucumbers at once, like sugar-plums; and no man winked his eye. Great -heaps of indigestible matter melted away as ice before the sun. It was a -solemn and awful thing to see. Dyspeptic individuals bolted their food -in wedges; feeding, not themselves, but broods of nightmares, who were -continually standing at livery<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_382" id="page_382"></a>{382}</span> within them. Spare men, with lank and -rigid cheeks, came out unsatisfied from the destruction of heavy dishes, -and glared with watchful eyes upon the pastry.”</p> - -<p>The conversation of a group of young South Americans is not such as -appeals to our taste. There is usually too much running criticism on the -personal qualities and attractions of their women acquaintances. To them -it seems doubtless most gallant. At all events, it is not sordid, as was -that conversation which Dickens describes as “summed up in one -word—dollars.”</p> - -<p>When Dickens visited America, he remarked the frequency of the -expression “Yes, sir” and made a great deal of fun of us for our use of -it. Singularly enough, the Spanish “Yes sir”—<i>si señor</i>—is so -extremely common throughout South America as to attract one’s attention -continually.</p> - -<p>Another thing that Dickens noticed was our tendency to postpone and put -off from day to day things that did not have to be done. Yet there is no -more common criticism of Spanish-Americans than that known as the -“Mañana” habit. You will hear almost any one who pretends to know -anything at all about Spanish-America say that the great difficulty is -the ease with which the Spanish-American says “Mañana.” Personally, I do -not agree with this criticism for I have heard the expression very -seldom in South America. It is true that it is hard to get things done -as quickly as one would wish, but I believe that the criticism has been -much overworked. Undoubtedly Dickens was honest in re<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_383" id="page_383"></a>{383}</span>porting that the -habit of postponing one’s work was characteristic of the middle west as -he saw it, but it would be greatly resented to-day and would not be -true.</p> - -<p>In many South American cities one is annoyed by the continual -handshaking. No matter how many times a day you meet a man, he expects -you solemnly to shake hands with him just as did those western Americans -who annoyed “Martin Chuzzlewit.”</p> - -<p>So also with “spitting.” I have been repeatedly annoyed, not only in the -provinces, but also in the very highest circles of the most advanced -Republics, by the carelessness of South Americans in this particular, -even at dinner parties. But how many years is it since “The Last -American” was prophetically depicted by J. A. Mitchell as sitting amid -the ruins of the national Capitol with his feet on the marble rail, -spitting tobacco juice? One can hardly ride in our street cars to-day -without being reminded that only recently have the majority of Americans -put the ban on spitting. The fact that there are already printed notices -in some of the principal South American cathedrals begging people, in -the name of the local “Anti-Tuberculosis Association,” not to spit on -the floor, shows that this unpleasant habit will undoubtedly be -eradicated in considerably less than fifty years after we have ceased to -offend.</p> - -<p>We also dislike intensely the South American habit of staring at -strangers and of making audible comments on ladies who happen to be -passing. Unfortunately, this is a Latin habit which will be hard<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_384" id="page_384"></a>{384}</span> to -change. The South American has a racial right to look at such customs -differently. But if some of his personal habits are unpleasant, and even -disgusting from our point of view, there is no question that we irritate -him just as much as he does us. Our curt forms of address; our impatient -disregard of the amenities of social intercourse; our unwillingness to -pass the time of day at considerable length and inquire, each time we -see a friend, after his health and that of his family; our habit of -elevating our feet and often sitting in a slouchy attitude when -conversing with strangers, are to him extremely distasteful and -annoying. Our unwillingness to take the trouble to speak his language -grammatically, and our general point of view in regard to the “innate -superiority” of our race, our language, and our manufactures, are all -evidences, to his mind, of our barbarity. We care far too little for -appearances. This seems to him boorish. We criticise him because he does -not bathe as frequently as we do. He criticises us because we do not -show him proper respect by removing our hats when we meet him on the -street.</p> - -<p>Furthermore, he regards us as lacking in business integrity. We are too -shrewd. Our standard of honor seems low to him. In fact, a practical -obstacle with which one accustomed to American business methods has to -contend in South America, is the extreme difficulty of securing accurate -information as to a man’s credit. Inquiries into the financial standing -of an individual, which are regarded as a matter of course with us, are -resented by the sensi<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_385" id="page_385"></a>{385}</span>tive Latin temperament as a personal reflection on -his honesty. It seems to be true that the South American regards the -payment of his debts as a matter more closely touching his honor than we -do. He is accustomed to receiving long credits; he always really intends -to pay sometime, and he generally manages to raise installments without -much difficulty. Yet when pressed hard in the courts, he is likely to -turn and resent as an intentional insult the judgment which has been -secured against him. I have known personally of a case where a debtor -informed his creditor that it would be necessary for him to come well -armed if he accompanied the sheriff in an effort to satisfy the judgment -of the court, for the first man, and as many more as possible, that -crossed the door of his shop on such an errand would be shot. This we -criticise as defiance of the law. To the South American, the law has -committed an unpardonable fault in venturing to convict him of -neglecting his honorable debts.</p> - -<p>It is unfortunate that the South Americans themselves are generally -quite unaware of their failings—a species of blindness that has -frequently been laid at our own doors. It is due to a similar cause.</p> - -<p>South American writers who have travelled abroad and seen enough to -enable them to point out the defects of their countrymen rarely venture -to do so. The South American loves praise but cannot endure criticism. -It makes him fairly froth at the mouth, as it did the Americans in the -days of Charles Dickens’ first visit. So the pleasant-faced gentleman -from Massachusetts, Mr. Bevan, told young Martin<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_386" id="page_386"></a>{386}</span> Chuzzlewit. “If you -have any knowledge of our literature, and can give me the name of any -man, American born and bred, who has anatomized our follies as a people, -and not as this or that party; and has escaped the foulest and most -brutal slander, the most inveterate hatred and intolerant pursuit, it -will be a strange name in my ears, believe me. In some cases, I could -name to you, where a native writer has ventured on the most harmless and -good-humoured illustrations of our vices or defects, it has been found -necessary to announce, that in a second edition the passage has been -expunged, or altered, or explained away, or patched into praise.”</p> - -<p>There is a story in Santiago de Chile of a young American scholar who -spent some time there studying localisms. When he returned to New York -he ventured to publish honest but rather severe criticisms of society, -as he saw it, in that most aristocratic of South American republics. As -a result, the university from which he came received a bad name in Chile -and his visit is held in such unpleasant memory that his welcome, were -he to return there, would be far from friendly. This seems narrow-minded -and perverse but is exactly the way we felt not long ago towards -foreigners who spent a few months in the States and wrote, for the -benefit of the European public, sincere but caustic criticisms. American -sensitiveness became a byword in Europe. Possibly it is growing less -with us. However that may be, South American sensitiveness is no keener -to-day than ours was fifty years since.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_387" id="page_387"></a>{387}</span></p> - -<p>I am willing to admit that it ill becomes an American to offer serious -adverse criticisms of the people of any country. Our own defects have -been so repeatedly pointed out by foreigners, many of them with -distressing unanimity, that we cannot afford to set ourselves up as -judges of what South Americans should or should not do. It is true that -the South Americans have certain graces of manner which we lack. They -are more formal in their social intercourse, and use more of the oil of -polite speech in the mechanism of their daily life than we do.</p> - -<p>Climatic conditions and difficulties of rapid transportation have had -much to do with the backwardness of the South American republics. With -the progress of science, the great increase in transportation facilities -and the war that is being successfully waged against tropical diseases, -a change is coming about which we must be ready to meet.</p> - -<p>It is particularly important that we should realize that the political -conditions of the larger republics are very much more stable than our -newspaper and novel-reading public are aware of. Lynchings are unheard -of. Serious riots, such as some of our largest American cities have seen -within the past generation, are no more common with them than with us. -It is true that the Latin temperament finds it much more difficult to -bow to the majesty of the law and to yield gracefully to governmental -decrees than the more phlegmatic Teuton or Anglo-Saxon. But the -revolutions and riots that Paris has witnessed during the past century -have not kept us from a serious effort to increase our business with -France. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_388" id="page_388"></a>{388}</span> occasional political riot that takes place, of no more -significance than the riots caused by strikers with which we are all too -familiar at home, is no reason why we should be afraid to endeavor to -capture the South American market.</p> - -<p>There is not the slightest question that there is a great opportunity -awaiting the American manufacturer and exporter when he is willing to -grasp it with intelligent persistence and determination. South America -is ready to take American goods in very large quantities as soon as we -are ready to take time to give attention to her needs. As Mr. Lincoln -Hutchinson aptly says: “There is no quick and easy remedy; money must be -spent, thoroughly equipped export managers must be employed, export -houses specializing on South American trade must be established, -efficient travellers must be sent out, technical experts employed, -agencies established, credits be given, minutiæ of orders attended to, -and, above all, trade connections adhered to in spite of allurements of -the home market, if we would succeed in the face of our competitors. -Half-way measures can accomplish but little, and that only temporary.”</p> - -<p>Germany teaches her young business men Spanish or Portuguese and sends -them out to learn conditions in the field. American Universities long -ago learned the advantage of adopting Germany’s thorough-going methods -of scientific research. American business men have hitherto failed to -realize the importance of adopting Germany’s thorough-going methods of -developing foreign commerce. It is high<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_389" id="page_389"></a>{389}</span> time that they took a leaf out -of the experience of the “unpractical” universities.</p> - -<p>Finally, a word of caution to those in search of information regarding -the history, politics, or geography of South America. The most -unfortunate result of the seven centuries during which Arab, Moorish, or -Mohammedan rule dominated a part or the whole of the Spanish peninsula, -is the truly Oriental attitude which the Spanish and the -Spanish-American maintains towards reliable information, or what we call -“facts.”</p> - -<p>The student of the East realizes that Orientals, including Turks and -Celestials, have no sense of the importance of agreeing with fact. They -have furthermore a great abhorrence of a vacuum. If they do not know the -reply to a question they answer at random, preferring anything to the -admission of ignorance. If they do know, and have no interest in -substituting something else for what they know, they give the facts. -When they have no facts they give something else. They not only deceive -the questioner, they actually deceive themselves.</p> - -<p>The same thing is true to a certain degree in South Americans. Sometimes -I have thought they were actually too polite to say “I don’t know.”</p> - -<p>In South America as in the East it is of primitive importance to reach -the men who know and to pay no attention to any one else. No one really -knows, who is not actually on the spot in contact with the facts. The -prudent observer must avoid all evidence that is not first hand and -derived from a trustworthy source.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_390" id="page_390"></a>{390}</span></p> - -<p>I do not bring this as a charge against the South Americans. I state it -as a condition which I have found to be nearly universally true. So far -as the South Americans are concerned, it is an inherited trait and one -which they are endeavoring to overcome. They are not to be blamed for -having it, any more than we are to be blamed for having inherited traits -from our Anglo-Saxon ancestors which are unpleasant to our Latin -neighbors and for which they have to make allowance in dealing with us.</p> - -<p>In offering these adverse criticisms of the South American as he appears -to me to-day, I must beg not to be misunderstood. There are naturally -many exceptions to the rule. I know personally many individuals that do -not have any of the characteristics here attributed to South Americans -in general. I have in mind one South American, a resident of a much -despised republic, whose ancestors fought in one of the great battles of -the Wars of Independence, who has as much push and energy as a veritable -New York captain of industry. He has promoted a number of successful -industrial enterprises. He keeps up with the times; he meddles not in -politics; he enjoys such sports as hunting with hounds and riding across -country. The difference between him and the New Yorker is that he speaks -three or four languages where the New Yorker only speaks one and he has -sense enough to take many holidays in the year where the New Yorker -takes but few. I know another, a distinguished young lawyer who gives -dinner parties where the food is as good, the manners as refined, the -conversation as brilliant, and the intel<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_391" id="page_391"></a>{391}</span>lectual enjoyment as keen as -any given anywhere. He, too, speaks four languages fluently and could -put to shame the average New York lawyer of his own age in the variety -of topics upon which he is able to converse, not only at his ease but -brilliantly and with flashes of keen wit. I know another, a -distinguished historian, who has been described by a well-known American -librarian, himself a member of half a dozen learned societies, as the -“most scholarly and most productive” bibliographer in either North or -South America. But these are exceptions to the general rule.</p> - -<p>When we look at South Americans at close range we may dislike some of -their manners and customs, but not any more so than European critics -disliked ours half a century ago. And not any more so, be it remembered, -than the South American dislikes ours at the present day.</p> - -<p>In this chapter and, in fact, throughout the book, I must confess to -having spoken more frankly and critically than will please some of my -kind friends in South America. Although they placed me under many -obligations by their generous hospitality, I feel that it is better for -all concerned that the truth should be told, even when it is unpleasant. -We cannot have confidence unless we have facts. I cannot pretend to have -succeeded in always finding the facts, but it has not been for lack of -endeavor. I have had no interest in concealing anything favorable or -unfavorable which I thought would make the picture clearer or more -distinct. Were we not already deluged with so much official propaganda, -it would<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_392" id="page_392"></a>{392}</span> have been my privilege to tell more of the wonderful natural -resources which all the South American republics possess. But just -because it has not been the business of “boosters” or promoters to -advertise difficulties or obstacles to progress, it becomes the more -necessary for the unprejudiced traveller to lay more stress on the -existing human handicaps, than on the wonderful natural resources. It is -an unpleasant task, but I believe it is worth doing. I have no patience -with those writers who paint everything in glowing colors and leave -others to discover the truth at their own expense. Nor have I any -sympathy with those who distort or emphasize disagreeable truths for the -sake of creating a sensation. I will, however, plead guilty to being a -prejudiced observer in so far as I am an ardent advocate of closer and -more intelligent relations between the United States and the South -American republics, and a firm believer in the truth that international -friendships, in order to be lasting, must be built on an honest -understanding of prevailing conditions and racial tendencies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_394" id="page_394"></a>{394}</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_395" id="page_395"></a>{395}</span><a name="page_393" id="page_393"></a></p> - -<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> - -<p class="c"><a href="#A">A</a>, -<a href="#B">B</a>, -<a href="#C">C</a>, -<a href="#D">D</a>, -<a href="#E">E</a>, -<a href="#F">F</a>, -<a href="#G">G</a>, -<a href="#H">H</a>, -<a href="#I-i">I</a>, -<a href="#J">J</a>, -<a href="#K">K</a>, -<a href="#M">M</a>, -<a href="#N">N</a>, -<a href="#O">O</a>, -<a href="#P">P</a>, -<a href="#Q">Q</a>, -<a href="#R">R</a>, -<a href="#S">S</a>, -<a href="#T">T</a>, -<a href="#U">U</a>, -<a href="#V-i">V</a>, -<a href="#W">W</a>, -<a href="#Y">Y</a>, -<a href="#Z">Z</a></p> - -<p class="nind"> -<a name="A" id="A"></a>Abancay, <a href="#page_289">289</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_324">324</a>.<br /> - -Acobamba, <a href="#page_365">365</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.<br /> - -Aconcagua, <a href="#page_218">218</a>.<br /> - -Aconcawa, <a href="#page_159">159</a>.<br /> - -Acostambo, <a href="#page_369">369</a>.<br /> - -Agave plant, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.<br /> - -Aguardiente, <a href="#page_326">326</a>.<br /> - -Alcaldes, Indian, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_365">365</a>.<br /> - -Alfa. <i>See</i> Alfalfa.<br /> - -Alfalfa, <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a>.<br /> - -Allorisma subcuneata, <a href="#page_369">369</a>.<br /> - -Almagro, <a href="#page_263">263</a>, <a href="#page_351">351</a>.<br /> - -Almanza, Emiliano, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -——, J. Antonio, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -——, Luis E., <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Alpacas, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>.<br /> - -Alto de La Paz, <a href="#page_228">228</a>.<br /> - -Amazon, <a href="#page_139">139</a>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a>.<br /> - -Americans in La Paz, <a href="#page_239">239</a>.<br /> - -Americans in South America, <a href="#page_010">10</a>, <a href="#page_013">13-15</a>, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_026">26-28</a>, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_032">32</a>, <a href="#page_039">39-40</a>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_182">182</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_388">388</a>.<br /> - -Amphitheatre, Inca, <a href="#page_278">278</a>.<br /> - -Ancacato, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br /> - -Ancon, Treaty of, <a href="#page_206">206</a>.<br /> - -Andahuaylas, <a href="#page_329">329-335</a>.<br /> - -Anderson, Geo. E., <a href="#page_028">28</a>.<br /> - -Andines. <i>See</i> Terraces.<br /> - -Angosta de Tupiza, <a href="#page_087">87</a>.<br /> - -Angrand, M., <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Anta, plain of, <a href="#page_283">283-285</a>.<br /> - -Antis, <a href="#page_318">318</a>.<br /> - -Antofagasta, <a href="#page_170">170-175</a>, <a href="#page_201">201-2</a>.<br /> - -Antofagasta Railway, <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_170">170</a>.<br /> - -Aniline dyes, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<br /> - -Animal Industries, <a href="#page_037">37-39</a>.<br /> - -Apurimac, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a href="#page_368">368</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.<br /> - -——, bridge over, <a href="#page_288">288</a>.<br /> - -Apurimac, rapids of, <a href="#page_293">293</a>.<br /> - -——, valley of the, <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_321">321</a>.<br /> - -Aramayo, Señor, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.<br /> - -Araucanians, <a href="#page_192">192</a>, <a href="#page_357">357</a>, <a href="#page_358">358</a>.<br /> - -Architect, Jesuit, <a href="#page_325">325</a>.<br /> - -Architecture, Inca, <a href="#page_260">260</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> - -Arequipa, <a href="#page_215">215-224</a>.<br /> - -Argentina, <a href="#page_030">30-82</a> and passim.<br /> - -Arica, <a href="#page_187">187</a>, <a href="#page_205">205-209</a>.<br /> - -Armadillo, <a href="#page_234">234</a>.<br /> - -Art School of Chile, <a href="#page_192">192</a>.<br /> - -Ascarrunz, Dr. Moises, <a href="#page_166">166</a>.<br /> - -Ascotan, <a href="#page_173">173</a>.<br /> - -Atacama, <a href="#page_078">78</a>.<br /> - -Atahualpa, <a href="#page_280">280</a>, <a href="#page_358">358</a>.<br /> - -Auquibamba, <a href="#page_325">325-26</a>.<br /> - -Automobiles, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_036">36</a>.<br /> - -Ayacucho, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_321">321</a>, <a href="#page_324">324</a>, <a href="#page_346">346-351</a>, <a href="#page_360">360</a>.<br /> - -——, battle of, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a href="#page_350">350-355</a>.<br /> - -Ayalá, Alejandro, ix.<br /> - -Ayamarás, <a href="#page_145">145</a>, <a href="#page_152">152-154</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>.<br /> - -Ayavari, <a href="#page_255">255</a>.<br /> - -Ayoayo, <a href="#page_246">246</a>.<br /> - -Ayoma, battle of, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br /> - -Azequia, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_314">314</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="B" id="B"></a>Bahia, <a href="#page_010">10-15</a>.<br /> - -Bahia Blanca, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_063">63</a>.<br /> - -Ballivian, Sr. Don Manuel Vicente, <a href="#page_252">252</a>.<br /> - -Balmaceda, Pres., <a href="#page_173">173</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a>.<br /> - -Balsas, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a href="#page_235">235</a>.<br /> - -“Baltimore” episode, <a href="#page_209">209</a>.<br /> - -Bamboo pipes, <a href="#page_361">361</a>.<br /> - -Banco Nacional de Bolivia, <a href="#page_145">145</a>.<br /> - -Bandelier, Professor Ad. F.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_396" id="page_396"></a>{396}</span> <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a href="#page_227">227</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>.<br /> - -Banks and Banking, <a href="#page_145">145</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Arequipa, <a href="#page_217">217</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Argentina, <a href="#page_039">39-40</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#page_031">31-32</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Paz, <a href="#page_237">237</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tupiza, <a href="#page_088">88</a>.</span><br /> - -Banquets, Peruvian, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>, <a href="#page_356">356</a>.<br /> - -Barbour, Thos., <a href="#page_252">252</a>.<br /> - -Barley straw, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a>.<br /> - -Barros Arana, Diego, <a href="#page_191">191</a>.<br /> - -Bartolo, <a href="#page_135">135</a>, <a href="#page_252">252</a>.<br /> - -Beazley, J. B., ix.<br /> - -Beer, <a href="#page_335">335</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>.<br /> - -Beggars’ Fair in Cuzco, <a href="#page_264">264</a>.<br /> - -Begonias, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, <a href="#page_326">326</a>.<br /> - -Belgrano, <a href="#page_048">48</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a>.<br /> - -Beni, valley of the, <a href="#page_239">239</a>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>.<br /> - -Bibliographer, <a href="#page_391">391</a>.<br /> - -Billiards, <a href="#page_119">119</a>, <a href="#page_166">166</a>.<br /> - -Birds, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>.<br /> - -Biscachas, <a href="#page_246">246</a>.<br /> - -Blanco River, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.<br /> - -“Blind Man’s Guide.” <i>See</i> El Lazarillo.<br /> - -Bogotá, <a href="#page_035">35</a>, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a>.<br /> - -Bola, <a href="#page_315">315</a>.<br /> - -Bolivar, General Simon, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>.<br /> - -Bolivia, <a href="#page_049">49</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_079">79</a>. <a href="#page_083">83</a>, and passim.<br /> - -Bolivia Railway, ix.<br /> - -Bolivian Andes, climbing and exploration in the, <a href="#page_249">249</a>.<br /> - -Bolivian army, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.<br /> - -—— customs service, <a href="#page_085">85</a>.<br /> - -—— Government, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>.<br /> - -—— National Museum, <a href="#page_252">252</a>.<br /> - -—— paper currency, <a href="#page_114">114</a>.<br /> - -—— physician, <a href="#page_116">116</a>.<br /> - -Bombon, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> - -de Bonelli, Hugh, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br /> - -Book shops, <a href="#page_168">168</a>, <a href="#page_178">178-79</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>.<br /> - -Brazil, chapters I and II, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, and passim.<br /> - -Brazil, trade of, <a href="#page_010">10</a>, <a href="#page_014">14</a>, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_024">24-28</a>.<br /> - -British enterprises in Bolivia, <a href="#page_165">165</a>.<br /> - -Broom flower, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.<br /> - -Bryce, Rt. Hon. James, <a href="#page_233">233</a>.<br /> - -Bubonic plague, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_214">214</a>.<br /> - -Buenos Aires, <a href="#page_030">30-45</a>, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a>, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, and passim;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foreign trade of, <a href="#page_068">68</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href="#page_046">46-51</a>.</span><br /> - -Buenos Aires and Rosario R. R., ix, <a href="#page_061">61</a>, <a href="#page_069">69</a>.<br /> - -Bulimulus, <a href="#page_342">342</a>.<br /> - -Business methods, <a href="#page_384">384</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="C" id="C"></a>Caceres, Lieutenant, vii, <a href="#page_289">289</a>, <a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_298">298</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_345">345</a>.<br /> - -Cachimayo, <a href="#page_140">140</a>.<br /> - -Cachipascana, <a href="#page_224">224</a>.<br /> - -Cacho, Don Gaspar Mauro, <a href="#page_348">348</a>.<br /> - -Cachora, <a href="#page_297">297</a>.<br /> - -Cactus, <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_086">86</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>, <a href="#page_341">341</a>, <a href="#page_364">364</a>.<br /> - -Caisa, <a href="#page_112">112</a>.<br /> - -Calamá, <a href="#page_173">173</a>.<br /> - -Calancha, Father, <a href="#page_322">322</a>.<br /> - -Caldera, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>.<br /> - -Calera, <a href="#page_140">140</a>.<br /> - -Callao, <a href="#page_109">109</a>.<br /> - -Camacho, General, <a href="#page_138">138</a>.<br /> - -Camargo, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.<br /> - -Caracara, <a href="#page_151">151</a>.<br /> - -Caracas, <a href="#page_035">35</a>.<br /> - -Caras of Ecuador, <a href="#page_273">273</a>.<br /> - -Carnival balloons, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.<br /> - -Carnival season, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_350">350-353</a>, <a href="#page_360">360-363</a>.<br /> - -Caroline Islands, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>.<br /> - -Casa Nacional de Moneda, <a href="#page_129">129</a>.<br /> - -Castelnau, <a href="#page_143">143</a>.<br /> - -Castilla, President, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Castillo, <a href="#page_296">296</a>, <a href="#page_298">298</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>.<br /> - -Cattle, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_038">38</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>, <a href="#page_364">364</a>.<br /> - -Ccapac, Manco, <a href="#page_322">322</a>.<br /> - -Cebada. <i>See</i> barley straw.<br /> - -Central America, <a href="#page_042">42</a>.<br /> - -Cerro de Pasco, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.<br /> - -Chachani, Mt., <a href="#page_217">217</a>.<br /> - -Chaco, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>.<br /> - -Chaile, Fermin, <a href="#page_109">109</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, and passim.<br /> - -Challabama,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_397" id="page_397"></a>{397}</span> <a href="#page_285">285</a>.<br /> - -Challapata, <a href="#page_145">145</a>, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>.<br /> - -Challoma, <a href="#page_150">150</a>.<br /> - -Chavez, Lopez, ix.<br /> - -Checcacupe, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_256">256</a>.<br /> - -Chibchas of Bogotá, <a href="#page_232">232</a>.<br /> - -Chicha, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_246">246</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a>, <a href="#page_350">350</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>.<br /> - -Chicherias, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href="#page_256">256</a>.<br /> - -Children’s Sunday in La Paz, <a href="#page_233">233</a>.<br /> - -Chile, <a href="#page_040">40</a>, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_181">181</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a>, and passim.<br /> - -Chile and Brazil, <a href="#page_185">185</a>.<br /> - -Chile and Peru, <a href="#page_357">357</a>.<br /> - -Chilean and Peruvian engineers, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.<br /> - -Chilean character, <a href="#page_204">204</a>.<br /> - -—— hospitality, <a href="#page_187">187</a>.<br /> - -—— navy, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br /> - -Chileans, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> - -—— of to-day, <a href="#page_358">358</a>.<br /> - -Chincha Islands, <a href="#page_204">204</a>.<br /> - -Chincheros, <a href="#page_335">335-341</a>.<br /> - -Chincona plants, <a href="#page_146">146</a>.<br /> - -Chocolate, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a>.<br /> - -Chola, <a href="#page_235">235</a>.<br /> - -Choqquequirau, <a href="#page_291">291-323</a>.<br /> - -Chorolque, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.<br /> - -Chucuito, <a href="#page_334">334</a>.<br /> - -Chulpas, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.<br /> - -Chunchas, <a href="#page_318">318</a>.<br /> - -Chuno, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.<br /> - -Chupe, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href="#page_128">128</a>, <a href="#page_350">350</a>.<br /> - -Chuquisaca, <a href="#page_143">143</a>.<br /> - -Cinti, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.<br /> - -Cisneros, Mariano, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Civil Engineers, <a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href="#page_270">270-71</a>, <a href="#page_369">369</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> - -Clausilia, <a href="#page_342">342</a>.<br /> - -Coal-beds, <a href="#page_369">369</a>.<br /> - -Coca, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_235">235</a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a>.<br /> - -Cochabamba, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a>.<br /> - -Cochran, Thos. Earl of Dundonald, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br /> - -Cock fight, <a href="#page_213">213</a>.<br /> - -Cocoa, <a href="#page_014">14</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>.<br /> - -Coffee, <a href="#page_021">21</a>, <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_024">24</a>.<br /> - -Coins and coinage of Bolivia, <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_128">128</a>, <a href="#page_238">238</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#page_025">25</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peru, <a href="#page_145">145</a>, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uruguay, <a href="#page_030">30</a>.</span><br /> - -Colombia, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>.<br /> - -Colpahuayo, <a href="#page_345">345</a>.<br /> - -Colquechaca, <a href="#page_157">157</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>.<br /> - -Commerce. <i>See</i> Trade.<br /> - -Commercial houses, British, in Valparaiso, <a href="#page_199">199</a>.<br /> - -Commercial prosperity in Chile, <a href="#page_199">199</a>.<br /> - -Commercial travellers, <a href="#page_009">9</a>.<br /> - -Condor, <a href="#page_305">305</a>.<br /> - -Condorkanqui, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_353">353</a>.<br /> - -“Conquest of Peru”—Prescott, <a href="#page_205">205</a>.<br /> - -Convents in Potosí, <a href="#page_129">129</a>.<br /> - -Conway, Sir Martin, <a href="#page_249">249</a>.<br /> - -Coñac, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.<br /> - -Cook, Capt. James, <a href="#page_276">276</a>.<br /> - -Copacavana, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a href="#page_227">227</a>.<br /> - -Copper-ore, <a href="#page_205">205</a>.<br /> - -Copper smelters, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.<br /> - -Coquimbo, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_201">201-02</a>.<br /> - -Coracora, <a href="#page_235">235</a>.<br /> - -Corapuna. <i>See</i> Koropuna.<br /> - -Corcovado, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br /> - -Cordillera de los Frailes, <a href="#page_163">163-64</a>.<br /> - -Cordillera Real, <a href="#page_248">248</a>.<br /> - -Corn, in Potosí, <a href="#page_128">128</a>.<br /> - -—— parched, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.<br /> - -Corrugated iron, <a href="#page_070">70</a>.<br /> - -Cosmos, <a href="#page_326">326</a>.<br /> - -Costume, Quichua, <a href="#page_262">262</a>.<br /> - -Cotagaita, <a href="#page_100">100-2</a>.<br /> - -Cotton, <a href="#page_014">14</a>.<br /> - -Covadonga, <a href="#page_053">53</a>.<br /> - -“Cradle of Gold,” <a href="#page_319">319</a>.<br /> - -Creveaux, <a href="#page_139">139</a>.<br /> - -Criticisms of Americans, <a href="#page_379">379</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> - -Crucero Alto, <a href="#page_224">224</a>.<br /> - -Cuchu Ingenio, <a href="#page_112">112</a>.<br /> - -Curahuasi, <a href="#page_289">289</a>.<br /> - -Currency of Chile, <a href="#page_199">199</a>.<br /> - -—— of Peru,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_398" id="page_398"></a>{398}</span> <a href="#page_213">213</a>.<br /> - -Custom Houses, in Argentina, <a href="#page_031">31</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivia, <a href="#page_088">88</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#page_007">7</a>, <a href="#page_009">9</a>, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_021">21</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peru, <a href="#page_212">212</a>.</span><br /> - -Cuzco, <a href="#page_205">205</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, <a href="#page_258">258-282</a>, <a href="#page_309">309</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">elevation of, <a href="#page_272">272</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">university of, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>.</span><br /> - -Cuzco and Lima, <a href="#page_288">288</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="D" id="D"></a>Dall, Dr., <a href="#page_342">342</a>.<br /> - -Dasypus vellurosus, <a href="#page_234">234</a>.<br /> - -Dentists in South America, <a href="#page_270">270</a>.<br /> - -Desaguadero River, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_246">246</a>.<br /> - -Desert of Arequipa, <a href="#page_215">215</a>.<br /> - -Dickens, Charles, <a href="#page_380">380</a>, <a href="#page_385">385</a>.<br /> - -Discovery of silver at Potosí, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.<br /> - -Diseases, tropical, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> - -Dishes, silver, <a href="#page_147">147</a>.<br /> - -Dixon, Prof. Roland B., <a href="#page_323">323</a>.<br /> - -Dolls of Sucre, <a href="#page_147">147</a>.<br /> - -“Don Mariano,” <a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_301">301</a>.<br /> - -Doorways, monolithic, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a>.<br /> - -Drug store in Potosí, <a href="#page_127">127</a>.<br /> - -Drums at Carnival, <a href="#page_361">361</a>.<br /> - -Dry season, the, <a href="#page_084">84</a>; cf. Rainy season.<br /> - -Duck, <a href="#page_227">227</a>.<br /> - -Durand, Dr., <a href="#page_220">220</a>.<br /> - -Dutch in Brazil, <a href="#page_005">5-6</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="E" id="E"></a>Earthquakes in Arequipa, <a href="#page_216">216</a>.<br /> - -Easter Island, <a href="#page_276">276</a>.<br /> - -Ecuador, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_339">339</a>.<br /> - -Education of South American youth, <a href="#page_269">269</a>.<br /> - -Electric car, <a href="#page_182">182</a>.<br /> - -—— Railways, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.<br /> - -—— R. R. of La Paz, <a href="#page_230">230</a>.<br /> - -“El Lazarillo,” <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_170">170</a>.<br /> - -“Elzevir” Press of Santiago, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.<br /> - -English in Argentina, <a href="#page_031">31-33</a>, <a href="#page_043">43-44</a>, <a href="#page_047">47-48</a>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_064">64</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivia, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_008">8</a>, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_023">23-26</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chile, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>, <a href="#page_199">199-200</a>.</span><br /> - -Escara, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.<br /> - -Estarca, <a href="#page_086">86</a>.<br /> - -Estero Patino, <a href="#page_139">139</a>.<br /> - -Estrella, La, <a href="#page_287">287</a>.<br /> - -Eucalyptus trees, <a href="#page_061">61</a>.<br /> - -Exhibition, fine arts, <a href="#page_192">192</a>.<br /> - -“Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon,”—Gibbon, <a href="#page_288">288</a>.<br /> - -Exposition, National, of Brazil, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_019">19-20</a>.<br /> - -Eyre, W. S., viii.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="F" id="F"></a>Ferdinand and Isabella, <a href="#page_054">54</a>.<br /> - -Ferdinand VII. of Spain, <a href="#page_048">48</a>.<br /> - -Fermin. <i>See</i> Chaile.<br /> - -Fern, <a href="#page_151">151</a>.<br /> - -Fincas, <a href="#page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Firemen, volunteer, of Santiago, <a href="#page_188">188</a>.<br /> - -Fireworks, <a href="#page_338">338</a>.<br /> - -Fish, <a href="#page_175">175</a>.<br /> - -Flute, Ayamará, <a href="#page_234">234</a>.<br /> - -Folding-cots, <a href="#page_218">218</a>.<br /> - -Fortifications, Inca, <a href="#page_273">273</a>.<br /> - -Fortress, Inca, <a href="#page_274">274</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_310">310</a>.<br /> - -Fossils, <a href="#page_369">369</a>.<br /> - -Franco, Sr. A., ix.<br /> - -French, in Argentina, <a href="#page_061">61</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivia, <a href="#page_124">124</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_061">61</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">South America, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.</span><br /> - -Fruit, in Argentina, <a href="#page_073">73</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivia, <a href="#page_246">246</a>.</span><br /> - -Furs, <a href="#page_199">199</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="G" id="G"></a>Gables in Inca houses, <a href="#page_309">309</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>.<br /> - -Games of chance, <a href="#page_235">235-36</a>.<br /> - -Garcia, Marcos, <a href="#page_322">322</a>.<br /> - -Garcilasso de la Vega, <a href="#page_259">259</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>.<br /> - -Gastelu, Don Juan, <a href="#page_321">321</a>.<br /> - -Gauchos, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a>.<br /> - -Geranium, <a href="#page_151">151</a>.<br /> - -German-Americans, <a href="#page_167">167</a>.<br /> - -German business methods, <a href="#page_096">96</a>, <a href="#page_388">388</a>.<br /> - -—— Club of Oruro, <a href="#page_166">166</a>.<br /> - -Germans, in Argentina, <a href="#page_043">43-62</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_007">7</a>, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chile, <a href="#page_193">193</a>.</span><br /> - -Goats,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_399" id="page_399"></a>{399}</span> <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_075">75</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.<br /> - -Gobernador of Chincheros, <a href="#page_335">335</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Huancarama, <a href="#page_328">328</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quinua, <a href="#page_351">351</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Talavera, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tambillo, <a href="#page_343">343</a>, <a href="#page_344">344</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yscuchaca, <a href="#page_368">368</a>.</span><br /> - -Grace & Co., W. R., viii, ix, <a href="#page_231">231</a>.<br /> - -Gran Chaco. <i>See</i> Chaco.<br /> - -Grapes, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.<br /> - -Grinding stones, <a href="#page_308">308</a>.<br /> - -Guamanga, <a href="#page_350">350-51</a>.<br /> - -Guanay, <a href="#page_239">239</a>.<br /> - -Guano, <a href="#page_203">203-4</a>.<br /> - -Guaqui, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>.<br /> - -Guemes Gral., <a href="#page_072">72</a>.<br /> - -Guinea pig, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br /> - -Guitars, <a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>.<br /> - -Gulls, <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="H" id="H"></a>Hail, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_345">345</a>.<br /> - -Hand loom, <a href="#page_134">134</a>.<br /> - -Hanna, Rea, ix, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.<br /> - -Harness, <a href="#page_285">285</a>.<br /> - -Harp, <a href="#page_347">347</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>.<br /> - -Harvard Observatory at Arequipa, <a href="#page_216">216</a>.<br /> - -Hats, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a>.<br /> - -Hay, Clarence, ix, <a href="#page_257">257</a>, <a href="#page_300">300</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a>.<br /> - -Head-gear, women’s, <a href="#page_350">350</a>.<br /> - -Heliotrope, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.<br /> - -Herford, Oliver, <a href="#page_127">127</a>.<br /> - -Hispanic Race, <a href="#page_053">53-56</a>.<br /> - -Historian, South American, <a href="#page_391">391</a>.<br /> - -Hope, John Pierce, ix, <a href="#page_251">251</a>.<br /> - -Horse racing, <a href="#page_036">36</a>.<br /> - -Horses, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_326">326</a>.<br /> - -Hospitality, Bolivian, <a href="#page_231">231</a>.<br /> - -Hotels, in Arequipa, <a href="#page_217">217</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ayacucho, <a href="#page_347">347</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buenos Aires, <a href="#page_034">34</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Challapata, <a href="#page_217">217</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuzco, <a href="#page_261">261</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Huancayo, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jujuy, <a href="#page_072">72-74</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Paz, <a href="#page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Quiaca, <a href="#page_078">78</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lima, <a href="#page_376">376</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mollendo, <a href="#page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montevideo, <a href="#page_029">29</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oruro, <a href="#page_166">166</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pernambuco, <a href="#page_008">8</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Potosí, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rio de Janeiro, <a href="#page_018">18</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santiago, <a href="#page_182">182</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">South America, <a href="#page_380">380</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sucre, <a href="#page_142">142</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tupiza, <a href="#page_089">89-90</a>.</span><br /> - -Huadquiña, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Huancarama, <a href="#page_327">327</a>.<br /> - -Huancavelica, <a href="#page_369">369</a>.<br /> - -Huancayo, <a href="#page_369">369-372</a>.<br /> - -Huanchaca, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.<br /> - -Huanta, <a href="#page_362">362-63</a>.<br /> - -Huarocondo, <a href="#page_284">284</a>.<br /> - -Huarpa River, <a href="#page_363">363</a>.<br /> - -Huatanay River, <a href="#page_257">257-58</a>.<br /> - -Humahuaca, <a href="#page_077">77</a>.<br /> - -Humidity, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_306">306</a>.<br /> - -Hutcheon, Don Santiago, ix, <a href="#page_080">80</a>.<br /> - -Hutchinson, Lincoln, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_388">388</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="I-i" id="I-i"></a>Ice cream, <a href="#page_331">331</a>.<br /> - -Iglehart, D. S., ix.<br /> - -Ilo, <a href="#page_210">210</a>.<br /> - -Images, monolithic, <a href="#page_249">249</a>.<br /> - -Inca Empire, <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a>.<br /> - -—— palaces, <a href="#page_261">261</a>.<br /> - -—— roads, <a href="#page_283">283</a>.<br /> - -—— Rocca, <a href="#page_259">259</a>.<br /> - -—— stairway, <a href="#page_312">312</a>.<br /> - -—— stonework, <a href="#page_259">259</a>.<br /> - -—— stucco, <a href="#page_310">310</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> - -—— Tambos, <a href="#page_149">149</a>.<br /> - -“Inca Thrones,” <a href="#page_278">278</a>.<br /> - -—— vases, <a href="#page_279">279</a>.<br /> - -—— Viracocha, <a href="#page_276">276</a>.<br /> - -Incas, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_130">130</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href="#page_307">307-323</a>, <a href="#page_357">357</a>, and passim.<br /> - -Incahuasy, near Tambobamba, <a href="#page_318">318</a>.<br /> - -Ingenios in Potosí, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> - -Iquique, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_205">205</a>.<br /> - -Iris, yellow, <a href="#page_288">288</a>.<br /> - -Irrigation, <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.<br /> - -“Islands of Titicaca and Koati,” the, <a href="#page_334">334</a>.<br /> - -Islay, <a href="#page_211">211</a>.<br /> - -Italians in Argentina, <a href="#page_031">31-34</a>, <a href="#page_045">45</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Brazil, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_020">20</a>.</span><br /> - -Itaparica, <a href="#page_011">11</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="J" id="J"></a>Jail in Cuzco, <a href="#page_267">267</a>.<br /> - -—— in La Paz,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_400" id="page_400"></a>{400}</span> <a href="#page_238">238</a>.<br /> - -Jar, earthen-ware, <a href="#page_315">315</a>.<br /> - -Jauja, <a href="#page_373">373</a>; valley of, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.<br /> - -Jesuit church, <a href="#page_265">265</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Arequipa, <a href="#page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Potosí, <a href="#page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> - -Jesuits, <a href="#page_332">332</a>.<br /> - -Jockey Club of Buenos Aires, <a href="#page_035">35</a>.<br /> - -Johnson, Rankin, ix, <a href="#page_249">249</a>.<br /> - -“Jornal do Comercio,” <a href="#page_022">22</a>.<br /> - -Jujuy, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_072">72-74</a>.<br /> - -Juliaca, <a href="#page_225">225</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>.<br /> - -Juramento, <a href="#page_072">72</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="K" id="K"></a>Kari Kari, battlefield of, <a href="#page_132">132</a>.<br /> - -Kirkham, Mr., <a href="#page_372">372</a>.<br /> - -Koati, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> - -Koropuna, Mt., <a href="#page_218">218</a>.<br /> - -Kusaie, Island of, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -“La Corona,” incident of, <a href="#page_187">187</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a>.<br /> - -“La Estrella,” <a href="#page_287">287</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -“La Glorieta,” <a href="#page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Laja Tambo, <a href="#page_113">113</a>.<br /> - -“La Nacion,” <a href="#page_034">34</a>.<br /> - -Lantanas, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.<br /> - -La Paz, <a href="#page_145">145</a>, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_228">228-240</a>.<br /> - -La Plata, <a href="#page_143">143</a>.<br /> - -La Plata, National University of, <a href="#page_038">38</a>.<br /> - -“La Prensa,” <a href="#page_034">34</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a>.<br /> - -La Quiaca, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>.<br /> - -La Raya, <a href="#page_255">255</a>.<br /> - -La Serena, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, <a href="#page_341">341</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.<br /> - -Latin-American Scientific Congress, <a href="#page_183">183</a>.<br /> - -Lautaro, <a href="#page_357">357</a>.<br /> - -Lavandais, E. de, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Lawyers in South America, <a href="#page_270">270</a>, <a href="#page_390">390</a>.<br /> - -Leguia, A. B., Pres. of Peru, viii, <a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.<br /> - -Lele, <a href="#page_275">275</a>.<br /> - -Leon, <a href="#page_075">75</a>.<br /> - -Leon, Marcelino, <a href="#page_319">319</a>.<br /> - -Letona family, <a href="#page_325">325</a>.<br /> - -Liberal party in Peru, <a href="#page_221">221</a>.<br /> - -Lima, <a href="#page_035">35</a>, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_049">49</a>, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_369">369</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>.<br /> - -Limarí, str., <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_210">210</a>.<br /> - -Limatambo, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.<br /> - -Liniers, <a href="#page_047">47</a>.<br /> - -Lircay, valley of, <a href="#page_365">365</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a>.<br /> - -Lisbon, <a href="#page_014">14</a>.<br /> - -Livichuco, <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br /> - -Lizards, <a href="#page_157">157</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>.<br /> - -Llama drivers, <a href="#page_156">156</a>.<br /> - -Llamas, <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_155">155-161</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, <a href="#page_326">326</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a>.<br /> - -—— in Potosí, <a href="#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>.<br /> - -Locusts, <a href="#page_061">61</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>.<br /> - -Lombardy poplars, <a href="#page_332">332</a>.<br /> - -Lomellini, Sr. C., <a href="#page_263">263</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>.<br /> - -Los Neques, <a href="#page_346">346</a>.<br /> - -Lotto, <a href="#page_236">236</a>.<br /> - -Lupins, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, <a href="#page_326">326</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="M" id="M"></a>Mac, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>.<br /> - -Macha, <a href="#page_158">158</a>.<br /> - -Mackenna Vicuña, B., <a href="#page_191">191</a>.<br /> - -Madre de Dios, river, <a href="#page_240">240</a>.<br /> - -Magellan, straits of, <a href="#page_179">179</a>.<br /> - -Maimará, <a href="#page_076">76</a>.<br /> - -Maipo, <a href="#page_051">51</a>.<br /> - -Maize, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.<br /> - -Malaria, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> - -Mamoré, river, <a href="#page_139">139</a>.<br /> - -Manaos, <a href="#page_240">240</a>.<br /> - -Manco Capac, <a href="#page_263">263</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>.<br /> - -Mantaro River, <a href="#page_368">368-371</a>.<br /> -na” habit, <a href="#page_382">382</a>.<br /> -s, <a href="#page_364">364</a>.<br /> -valle, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.<br /> -am, Sir Clements, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_267">267</a>, <a href="#page_276">276</a>.<br /> -in Chuzzlewit,” <a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a>.<br /> -nelli, Don Federico, <a href="#page_325">325</a>.<br /> - -Matan, <a href="#page_071">71</a>.<br /> - -Matara, <a href="#page_345">345</a>.<br /> - -May, the 25th of, <a href="#page_046">46-48</a>.<br /> - -Medanos, <a href="#page_215">215</a>.<br /> - -Medical School in Santiago,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_401" id="page_401"></a>{401}</span> <a href="#page_168">168</a>.<br /> - -Medicines, <a href="#page_127">127</a>.<br /> - -Medina, José Toribio, <a href="#page_189">189-190</a>.<br /> - -Mejia, <a href="#page_215">215</a>.<br /> - -Mendoza, <a href="#page_051">51</a>.<br /> - -Merchandise, foreign, <a href="#page_326">326</a>.<br /> - -Merino, Capt. Louis, ix.<br /> - -“Mexican Trails,” <a href="#page_372">372</a>.<br /> - -Mexico, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_042">42</a>.<br /> - -Mexico steamer, <a href="#page_174">174</a>.<br /> - -Military Academy, Chilean, <a href="#page_194">194</a>.<br /> - -Milk, condensed, <a href="#page_153">153</a>.<br /> - -Miller, General Wm., <a href="#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.<br /> - -Mimosa trees, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>, <a href="#page_300">300</a>, <a href="#page_341">341</a>, <a href="#page_364">364</a>.<br /> - -Miners at Potosí, <a href="#page_122">122</a>.<br /> - -Mines, copper, <a href="#page_173">173</a>.<br /> - -—— —— of Cerro de Pasco, <a href="#page_373">373</a>.<br /> - -Mines, gold, <a href="#page_173">173</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">silver, <a href="#page_157">157</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tin, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>.</span><br /> - -Mint in Potosí, <a href="#page_129">129</a>.<br /> - -Misti, <a href="#page_217">217</a>.<br /> - -Mitchell, J. A., <a href="#page_383">383</a>.<br /> - -Mitre Bartolome, <a href="#page_191">191</a>.<br /> - -Mogrovejo Pio, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Mojo, <a href="#page_084">84</a>.<br /> - -Mollendo, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_210">210-214</a>.<br /> - -Mollepata, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Monasteries, <a href="#page_129">129</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dominican, <a href="#page_259">259</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Franciscan, <a href="#page_219">219</a>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_265">265</a>.</span><br /> - -Monobamba, <a href="#page_335">335</a>.<br /> - -Monroe Doctrine, <a href="#page_042">42-43</a>.<br /> - -“Monroe Palace,” <a href="#page_019">19</a>.<br /> - -Montes, Pres. of Bolivia, <a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a>.<br /> - -Montevideo, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_030">30</a>.<br /> - -Montt, Pres. Pedro of Chile, viii, <a href="#page_194">194</a>.<br /> - -Moromoro, <a href="#page_150">150</a>.<br /> - -Moses, Professor Bernard, <a href="#page_183">183</a>.<br /> - -Mosquitoes, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> - -Mountain sickness, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>.<br /> - -Mules, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, <a href="#page_326">326</a>, <a href="#page_342">342</a>, <a href="#page_360">360</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>, and passim.<br /> - -“Mur triomphal,” <a href="#page_321">321</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="N" id="N"></a>Napoleon, <a href="#page_048">48</a>.<br /> - -National Bank of Bolivia, <a href="#page_088">88</a>.<br /> - -National Bank of Francisco Argondaño, <a href="#page_088">88</a>.<br /> - -National City Bank of New York, <a href="#page_242">242</a>.<br /> - -Negroes in South America, <a href="#page_013">13</a>.<br /> - -Nevada of Chillihua, <a href="#page_331">331</a>.<br /> - -Newspapers in Rio, <a href="#page_022">22</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buenos Aires, <a href="#page_034">34</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tupiza, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.</span><br /> - -New York Herald, <a href="#page_338">338-340</a>.<br /> - -Niches, Inca, <a href="#page_310">310</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> - -Nictheroy, <a href="#page_016">16</a>.<br /> - -Nitrate Association, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.<br /> - -Nitrates, Chilean, <a href="#page_173">173</a>, <a href="#page_202">202-205</a>.<br /> - -“North Americans,” <a href="#page_040">40-43</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>.<br /> - -North Central Railway of Argentina, <a href="#page_069">69</a>.<br /> - -Notre Dame University, <a href="#page_130">130</a>.<br /> - -Novoa, C. A., ix.<br /> - -Nuñez, J. J., vii, <a href="#page_290">290</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="O" id="O"></a>Oahu, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> - -Ocros, <a href="#page_344">344</a>.<br /> - -Ocurí, <a href="#page_152">152</a>.<br /> - -Oddo, the hotel, <a href="#page_182">182</a>.<br /> - -O’Driscoll, Mr., <a href="#page_075">75</a>.<br /> - -Olinda, <a href="#page_005">5</a>.<br /> - -Ollaneta, General, <a href="#page_108">108</a>.<br /> - -Ollantaytambo, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_309">309</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a>.<br /> - -Ollawe, volcano of, <a href="#page_172">172</a>.<br /> - -“O Paiz,” <a href="#page_022">22</a>.<br /> - -Oranges, <a href="#page_326">326</a>.<br /> - -Oropeza, <a href="#page_258">258</a>.<br /> - -Oroya, <a href="#page_369">369</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.<br /> - -Oruro, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_164">164-172</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a>.<br /> - -—— climate of, <a href="#page_166">166</a>.<br /> - -—— population of, <a href="#page_170">170</a>.<br /> - -Oruro-Antofagasta Line, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_173">173</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="P" id="P"></a>Pachacamac, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>.<br /> - -Pachachaca, <a href="#page_325">325</a>.<br /> - -Pacific Steam Navigation Co., <a href="#page_174">174</a>.<br /> - -Paintings, religious, <a href="#page_252">252</a>.<br /> - -Pajonal, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.<br /> - -Pampa de Islay,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_402" id="page_402"></a>{402}</span> <a href="#page_215">215</a>.<br /> - -Pampa Tambo, <a href="#page_138">138</a>.<br /> - -Pampas, the Argentine, <a href="#page_062">62-66</a>.<br /> - -Pampas River, <a href="#page_341">341</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.<br /> - -Pan-American, railway, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_369">369</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scientific Congress, <a href="#page_183">183</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Union, viii.</span><br /> - -Pan de Sucre, <a href="#page_248">248</a>.<br /> - -Paraguay, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>.<br /> - -Paraguay River, <a href="#page_139">139</a>.<br /> - -Paramo, <a href="#page_329">329</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>, <a href="#page_345">345</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a>.<br /> - -Paraná River, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>.<br /> - -Parodi Brothers, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.<br /> - -Parrots, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>.<br /> - -Patagonia, <a href="#page_063">63</a>.<br /> - -Paucara, <a href="#page_366">366</a>.<br /> - -Paucartambo, <a href="#page_318">318</a>.<br /> - -Paz Soldan, <a href="#page_322">322</a>.<br /> - -Peaches, <a href="#page_219">219</a>.<br /> - -Pears, <a href="#page_246">246</a>.<br /> - -Peas, <a href="#page_219">219</a>.<br /> - -Pederneiras, Col. A. de, ix.<br /> - -Pernambuco, <a href="#page_003">3-10</a>, <a href="#page_014">14</a>.<br /> - -Peru, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_049">49-52</a>, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_211">211-224</a>, <a href="#page_254">254-378</a>, and passim.<br /> - -Peru, Upper, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_086">86</a>, <a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>.<br /> - -Peruvian Corporation, ix.<br /> - -Peruvian engineers, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.<br /> - -Petticoats of Quichuas, <a href="#page_147">147</a>.<br /> - -Physicians in Bolivia, <a href="#page_168">168</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">South America, <a href="#page_270">270</a>.</span><br /> - -Pianos, <a href="#page_287">287</a>.<br /> - -Pigs, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>.<br /> - -Pilcomayo, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>, <a href="#page_140">140</a>.<br /> - -Pilsbry, Dr. H. A., <a href="#page_342">342</a>.<br /> - -Pincos River, <a href="#page_329">329</a>.<br /> - -Pine, Oregon, <a href="#page_242">242</a>.<br /> - -Pino Toranzo, Arturo, ix.<br /> - -Pisac, <a href="#page_310">310</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a>.<br /> - -Pisagua, <a href="#page_205">205</a>.<br /> - -Pisculco, <a href="#page_150">150</a>.<br /> - -Pizarro, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_259">259</a>, <a href="#page_280">280</a>, <a href="#page_351">351</a>, <a href="#page_358">358</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">followers of, viii, <a href="#page_260">260</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">remains of, <a href="#page_377">377</a>.</span><br /> - -Plata, Juan Manuel Rivas, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Plums, <a href="#page_219">219</a>.<br /> - -Pneumonia, <a href="#page_167">167</a>.<br /> - -Polo, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.<br /> - -Ponchos, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>.<br /> - -Ponchos, vicuña, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a>.<br /> - -Pongora River, <a href="#page_352">352</a>.<br /> - -Poopo, lake, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.<br /> - -Popcorn, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.<br /> - -Poplar trees, <a href="#page_332">332</a>.<br /> - -Pork, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.<br /> - -Porteños, <a href="#page_034">34</a>, and passim.<br /> - -Portuguese in Brazil, <a href="#page_005">5</a>, <a href="#page_007">7</a>, <a href="#page_008">8</a>, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_046">46</a>.<br /> - -Postes, <a href="#page_099">99</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, and passim.<br /> - -Postilions, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_136">136</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a>.<br /> - -Potatoes, <a href="#page_110">110</a>; in Potosí, <a href="#page_128">128</a>.<br /> - -Potosí, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_115">115-133</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cerro of, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Paz and Peruvian Mining Association, <a href="#page_061">61</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stage, <a href="#page_109">109</a>.</span><br /> - -Pottery, <a href="#page_308">308</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_316">316</a>.<br /> - -Prescott’s “Conquest of Peru,” <a href="#page_205">205</a>.<br /> - -Prices, in Santos, <a href="#page_023">23</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buenos Aires, <a href="#page_033">33</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montevideo, <a href="#page_030">30</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tupiza, <a href="#page_089">89</a>.</span><br /> - -Prince and Princess of Glorieta, <a href="#page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Prison. <i>See</i> Jail.<br /> - -Projection, cylindrical stone, <a href="#page_313">313</a>.<br /> - -Pucará River, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.<br /> - -Pucyura, <a href="#page_322">322</a>.<br /> - -Pulque, <a href="#page_372">372</a>.<br /> - -Punilla, <a href="#page_149">149</a>.<br /> - -Puno, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_225">225</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>.<br /> - -Punta, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.<br /> - -Puquiura, <a href="#page_283">283</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -“<a name="Q" id="Q"></a>Quand L’Amour Meurt,” <a href="#page_287">287</a>.<br /> - -Quebracho, <a href="#page_070">70-71</a>.<br /> - -Quebrada Honda, <a href="#page_138">138</a>.<br /> - -Quichua garments, <a href="#page_128">128</a>.<br /> - -Quichua tongue, <a href="#page_266">266</a>.<br /> - -Quichuas, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_086">86</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>, <a href="#page_098">98</a>, <a href="#page_104">104-108</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_130">130</a>, <a href="#page_153">153-54</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, <a href="#page_267">267</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_277">277</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>, <a href="#page_348">348</a>, <a href="#page_357">357</a>.<br /> - -Quinoa,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_403" id="page_403"></a>{403}</span> <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.<br /> - -Quinta Normal, <a href="#page_192">192</a>.<br /> - -Quinua, <a href="#page_351">351</a>, <a href="#page_352">352</a>.<br /> - -Quirve, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="R" id="R"></a>Railroads, in Argentina, <a href="#page_032">32</a>, <a href="#page_061">61-79</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivia, <a href="#page_079">79-80</a>, <a href="#page_164">164-65</a>, <a href="#page_170">170-74</a>, <a href="#page_225">225</a>, <a href="#page_227">227</a>, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_252">252</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#page_008">8</a>, <a href="#page_009">9</a>, <a href="#page_021">21</a>, <a href="#page_023">23</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chile, <a href="#page_170">170-74</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_205">205</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peru, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_211">211</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a>, <a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href="#page_224">224-25</a>, <a href="#page_254">254-58</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>, <a href="#page_372">372-76</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uruguay, <a href="#page_030">30</a>.</span><br /> - -Raimondi, <a href="#page_321">321</a>, <a href="#page_322">322</a>.<br /> - -Rainy season, in Bolivia, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_087">87</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peru, <a href="#page_282">282</a>.</span><br /> - -Recife (Pernambuco), <a href="#page_004">4-10</a>.<br /> - -Redwood, California, <a href="#page_242">242</a>.<br /> - -Restaurants in South America, <a href="#page_380">380</a>.<br /> - -Revolutions, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>.<br /> - -Rio Bebribe, <a href="#page_007">7</a>.<br /> - -Rio de Janeiro, <a href="#page_016">16-22</a>.<br /> - -Rio de la Plata, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_046">46</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br /> - -Rio Piedras, <a href="#page_071">71</a>.<br /> - -Riots, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> - -Rivas, Rafael, <a href="#page_109">109</a>.<br /> - -River Alto, <a href="#page_240">240</a>.<br /> - -Rodadero, <a href="#page_278">278</a>.<br /> - -Rodriguez, Dr. J. C., <a href="#page_022">22</a>.<br /> - -Romero, Carlos A., <a href="#page_323">323</a>.<br /> - -Roosevelt, President, <a href="#page_331">331</a>.<br /> - -Root, Elihu, viii, <a href="#page_183">183</a>.<br /> - -Rosario, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_063">63</a>.<br /> - -Roses, <a href="#page_151">151</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>.<br /> - -Rowe, Leo S., viii, <a href="#page_183">183</a>.<br /> - -Rua Ouvidor, <a href="#page_019">19</a>.<br /> - -Rubber, <a href="#page_024">24</a>.<br /> - -Ruins, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_250">250</a>, <a href="#page_272">272</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href="#page_307">307</a>, and passim.<br /> - -Ruis de los Llanos, <a href="#page_070">70</a>.<br /> - -Rurrenabaque, <a href="#page_239">239</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="S" id="S"></a>Sacsahuaman, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a>, <a href="#page_272">272-279</a>.<br /> - -Salta, <a href="#page_072">72</a>.<br /> - -Salvia, <a href="#page_290">290</a>.<br /> - -Samanez, José Benigno, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -San Antonio, Port, <a href="#page_240">240</a>.<br /> - -Sand-dunes, crescent shaped, <a href="#page_215">215</a>.<br /> - -Sandstone, <a href="#page_366">366</a>.<br /> - -San Geronimo, <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href="#page_329">329</a>.<br /> - -San Martin, José de, <a href="#page_050">50-52</a>, <a href="#page_155">155</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.<br /> - -San Pedro, <a href="#page_227">227</a>.<br /> - -San Sebastian, <a href="#page_258">258</a>.<br /> - -Santa Fé, <a href="#page_066">66</a>.<br /> - -Santa Lucia, <a href="#page_181">181</a>.<br /> - -Santiago, Chile, <a href="#page_035">35</a>, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_180">180-196</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a>.<br /> - -Santiago del Estero, <a href="#page_066">66</a>.<br /> - -Santo Domingo, Convent of, <a href="#page_258">258</a>.<br /> - -Santos, <a href="#page_022">22-23</a>.<br /> - -Saõ Paulo, <a href="#page_021">21</a>, <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_025">25</a>.<br /> - -Sapallauga, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.<br /> - -Saracocha, <a href="#page_224">224</a>.<br /> - -Sargantay, Mt., <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Sarmiento, <a href="#page_066">66</a>.<br /> - -Saropalca, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.<br /> - -Sartiges, Eugène de, <a href="#page_319">319</a>.<br /> - -Schaefer, J. Louis, viii.<br /> - -Schmidt, Emilio, <a href="#page_338">338-340</a>.<br /> - -School, Manual Training, <a href="#page_192">192</a>.<br /> - -School of Mines in Potosí, <a href="#page_130">130</a>.<br /> - -Schools, Public, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>.<br /> - -Schuchert, Prof. Chas., <a href="#page_369">369</a>.<br /> - -Scots in South America, <a href="#page_004">4</a>.<br /> - -Sea-lions, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>.<br /> - -Shawl-pins, <a href="#page_294">294</a>.<br /> - -Sheep, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_075">75</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>, <a href="#page_364">364</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a>.<br /> - -Shells, land, <a href="#page_341">341</a>.<br /> - -Shepherd, Wm. R., <a href="#page_183">183</a>.<br /> - -Sicuani, <a href="#page_255">255</a>.<br /> - -Siesta, <a href="#page_326">326</a>.<br /> - -Silver. <i>See</i> Mines.<br /> - -Silversmiths, <a href="#page_147">147</a>.<br /> - -Singing of Quichua women, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.<br /> - -Skulls, <a href="#page_316">316</a>.<br /> - -Skulls, Deformation of, <a href="#page_246">246</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>.<br /> - -Slate, <a href="#page_313">313</a>.<br /> - -Sleet, <a href="#page_345">345</a>.<br /> - -Sling of llama wool, <a href="#page_156">156</a>.<br /> - -Smallpox, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_214">214</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Rio,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_404" id="page_404"></a>{404}</span> <a href="#page_018">18</a>.</span><br /> - -Smelters in Bolivia, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.<br /> - -Smith, Emilio, <a href="#page_338">338-340</a>.<br /> - -Smith, Huntington, Jr., ix, <a href="#page_061">61</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a>.<br /> - -Smith, U. S. Grant, ix.<br /> - -Snow, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>, <a href="#page_345">345</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a>.<br /> - -Snyder, A. G., ix.<br /> - -Sorata, <a href="#page_239">239</a>.<br /> - -Soray, Mt., <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Soroche, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.<br /> - -Sotomayor, <a href="#page_192">192</a>.<br /> - -South Americans, characteristics of, <a href="#page_052">52</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manners of, <a href="#page_379">379</a>, <a href="#page_391">391</a>.</span><br /> - -Spain, <a href="#page_053">53-55</a>.<br /> - -Spanish Armies, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.<br /> - -Spanish in South America, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_045">45-52</a>, <a href="#page_061">61</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a>.<br /> - -Speyer & Co., <a href="#page_242">242</a>.<br /> - -Spindle wheel, <a href="#page_312">312</a>.<br /> - -“Spitting,” <a href="#page_383">383</a>.<br /> - -Sport, <a href="#page_214">214</a>.<br /> - -Squier, E. G., <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_259">259</a>, <a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_342">342</a>.<br /> - -Stage coach, <a href="#page_083">83</a>.<br /> - -Steamers, Atlantic, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_006">6</a>, <a href="#page_010">10</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_029">29-31</a>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chilean, <a href="#page_200">200-203</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lake Titicaca, <a href="#page_227">227</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">West Coast, <a href="#page_175">175-177</a>.</span><br /> - -Stewards, Chilean, <a href="#page_176">176</a>.<br /> - -Stone, cylindrical blocks of, <a href="#page_311">311</a>.<br /> - -Stone-cutting, game of, <a href="#page_278">278</a>.<br /> - -Succotash, <a href="#page_347">347</a>.<br /> - -Sucre, city of, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_142">142-148</a>, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a>.<br /> - -Sucre, General A. J., <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a href="#page_341">341</a>, <a href="#page_352">352</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.<br /> - -Sugar, <a href="#page_005">5</a>, <a href="#page_009">9</a>, <a href="#page_014">14</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>.<br /> - -Sugar-cane, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.<br /> - -Suipacha, <a href="#page_085">85</a>.<br /> - -Sulphur springs, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>.<br /> - -Sweet potatoes, <a href="#page_302">302</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="T" id="T"></a>Tablachaca, <a href="#page_368">368</a>.<br /> - -Tacna, <a href="#page_187">187</a>, <a href="#page_206">206-209</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a>.<br /> - -Talavera, <a href="#page_330">330</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>.<br /> - -Talcahuano, <a href="#page_178">178</a>.<br /> - -Tambillo, <a href="#page_346">346</a>.<br /> - -Tambo River, <a href="#page_215">215</a>.<br /> - -Tambobamba, <a href="#page_318">318</a>.<br /> - -Tambos, <a href="#page_099">99</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>.<br /> - -Taraco, peninsula of, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> - -Tarija, <a href="#page_086">86</a>.<br /> - -Tea, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.<br /> - -Tejada, José Maria de, <a href="#page_319">319</a>.<br /> - -Temperature, <a href="#page_098">98</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a>.<br /> - -Temple, Edmund, <a href="#page_061">61</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_228">228</a>.<br /> - -Temple of the Sun, <a href="#page_258">258</a>.<br /> - -Tenientes, Indian, <a href="#page_284">284</a>.<br /> - -Tennis, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.<br /> - -Terraces, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_307">307</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_315">315</a>.<br /> - -Textiles, <a href="#page_252">252</a>.<br /> - -Theatres, <a href="#page_034">34-35</a>.<br /> - -Thompson, paymaster, <a href="#page_276">276</a>.<br /> - -Tiahuanaco, <a href="#page_228">228</a>, <a href="#page_249">249-253</a>.<br /> - -Ties from Oregon, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.<br /> - -Tigre River, <a href="#page_062">62</a>.<br /> - -Tin. <i>See</i> Mines.<br /> - -Tiquina, straits of, <a href="#page_227">227</a>.<br /> - -Titicaca, island of, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>.<br /> - -Titicaca, Lake, <a href="#page_086">86</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_224">224-227</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_310">310</a>.<br /> - -Tobacco, <a href="#page_014">14</a>.<br /> - -Tombs, ancient, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_246">246</a>, <a href="#page_315">315</a>.<br /> - -“Tonquinoise,” <a href="#page_287">287</a>.<br /> - -Toropalca, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.<br /> - -Totora, <a href="#page_099">99</a>.<br /> - -Toys, Ayamará, <a href="#page_234">234</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German, <a href="#page_372">372</a>.</span><br /> - -Trade and commerce, <a href="#page_010">10</a>, <a href="#page_014">14</a>, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_024">24-28</a>, <a href="#page_038">38-39</a>, <a href="#page_046">46</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a>, and passim.<br /> - -Trade Routes, <a href="#page_049">49</a>, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_239">239-240</a>, <a href="#page_280">280</a>.<br /> - -Trancapata River, <a href="#page_289">289</a>.<br /> - -Transportation, difficulties of, <a href="#page_387">387</a>.<br /> - -Treasure-seekers, <a href="#page_250">250</a>, <a href="#page_292">292</a>, <a href="#page_308">308</a>, <a href="#page_321">321</a>.<br /> - -Tres Cruces,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_405" id="page_405"></a>{405}</span> <a href="#page_077">77</a>.<br /> - -Tucuman, <a href="#page_066">66-69</a>, <a href="#page_073">73</a>.<br /> - -Tucuman Express, <a href="#page_064">64</a>.<br /> - -Tumusla River, <a href="#page_108">108</a>.<br /> - -Tunja, <a href="#page_148">148</a>.<br /> - -Tupac Amaru, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_266">266</a>.<br /> - -Tupiza, <a href="#page_079">79-80</a>, <a href="#page_087">87-92</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="U" id="U"></a>Ucayali, <a href="#page_297">297</a>.<br /> - -United States and Peru, <a href="#page_209">209</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>.<br /> - -Uquia, <a href="#page_077">77</a>.<br /> - -Uribe, General Uribe, <a href="#page_195">195</a>.<br /> - -Urubamba, <a href="#page_284">284-85</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Uruguay, <a href="#page_029">29-30</a>.<br /> - -Urumyosi, <a href="#page_366">366</a>.<br /> - -Uspallata Pass, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_057">57</a>.<br /> - -Uyuni, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="V-i" id="V-i"></a>Vaca de Castro, <a href="#page_351">351</a>.<br /> - -Valparaiso, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_198">198-201</a>.<br /> - -Vargas, Moises, ix.<br /> - -Velarde, Don Lino, <a href="#page_218">218</a>.<br /> - -Venezuela, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>.<br /> - -Ventilla, <a href="#page_228">228</a>.<br /> - -Viachi, <a href="#page_241">241-42</a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a>.<br /> - -Vicuña Ponchos, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_327">327</a>.<br /> - -Vicuñas, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_246">246</a>.<br /> - -Vilcabamba, <a href="#page_322">322</a>.<br /> - -Vilcanota Mts., <a href="#page_255">255</a>.<br /> - -Vilcanota River, <a href="#page_256">256</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a>.<br /> - -Vilcapujio, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br /> - -Villazon, Pres. of Bolivia, viii.<br /> - -Vineyards, <a href="#page_181">181</a>.<br /> - -Viracocha, <a href="#page_276">276</a>, <a href="#page_310">310</a>, <a href="#page_351">351</a>.<br /> - -“Virgins of the Sun,” <a href="#page_314">314</a>.<br /> - -Viscachani, <a href="#page_246">246</a>.<br /> - -Volcan, <a href="#page_075">75-76</a>.<br /> - -Von Tschudi, <a href="#page_250">250</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="W" id="W"></a>Wages, <a href="#page_243">243</a>.<br /> - -War between Chile, Bolivia, and Peru, <a href="#page_173">173</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>.<br /> - -War-Club, stone, <a href="#page_346">346</a>.<br /> - -Wars of Emancipation. <i>See</i> Wars of Independence.<br /> - -Wars of Independence, viii, <a href="#page_046">46-58</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_086">86</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_353">353</a>.<br /> - -Wateree, U. S. S., <a href="#page_206">206</a>.<br /> - -Waterfalls, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_299">299</a>.<br /> - -Water power, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.<br /> - -Whirl-bob, <a href="#page_312">312</a>.<br /> - -Whirlwinds, <a href="#page_070">70</a>.<br /> - -Wiener, Chas., <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Wilson, Chas. L., ix.<br /> - -Wind, the prevailing, <a href="#page_077">77</a>.<br /> - -Wine, <a href="#page_181">181</a>.<br /> - -Wool, <a href="#page_030">30</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="Y" id="Y"></a>Yavarí, <a href="#page_225">225</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>.<br /> - -Yellow fever, <a href="#page_214">214</a>.<br /> - -“Yes, sir,” <a href="#page_382">382</a>.<br /> - -Yllanya, <a href="#page_325">325</a>.<br /> - -Yotala, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_140">140</a>.<br /> - -Yscuchaca, <a href="#page_367">367-68</a>.<br /> - -Yuatquinia, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Yucaes River, <a href="#page_352">352</a>.<br /> - -<br /> -<a name="Z" id="Z"></a>Zurita, <a href="#page_284">284-85</a>.<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_406" id="page_406"></a>{406}</span></p> - -<p class="c"> -<span class="ceng">The Riverside Press</span><br /> -<br /> -CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS<br /> -<br /> -U . S . A<br /> -</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="c">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> His sudden death in August, 1910, is a very great loss to -Chile.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Mr. Thomas Barbour, of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy, -Harvard University, tells me these are generally <i>Dasypus vellurosus</i>. -Colored plates of many of the interesting Aymará toys and textiles can -be found in Stubel’s <i>Kultur und Industrie Süd Amerikanischer Völker</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> In Paymaster Thompson’s report of his visit to Easter -Island, he gives drawings and photographs of walls that bear a striking -resemblance to Sacsahuaman. There is the same peculiar close fitting of -one stone to another, the same striking size of the stones and lack of -cement in the joints. See also Cook’s <i>Voyage Around the World in -1772-1775</i>, London, 1777.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> E. G. Squier, <i>Peru</i>, p. 503.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Perou et Bolivie</i>, pp. 293-5.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Raimondi, <i>Peru</i>, vol. ii, p. 161.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> “On some Land Shells Collected by Dr. Hiram Bingham, in -Peru”; Proceedings of the U. S. Nat. Mus., xxxviii. 177-182. The shells -“comprised various species and varieties of Bulimulus and a single -species of Clausilia.” The latter was described by Dr. H. A. Pilsbry.</p></div> - -</div> - -<p><a name="transcrib" id="transcrib"></a></p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" -style="padding:2%;border:3px dotted gray;"> -<tr><th align="center">Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber:</th></tr> -<tr><td class="c">It it to be hoped=> It is to be hoped {pg 76}</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">the sevententh century=> the seventeenth century {pg 121}</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">When the Antogafasta=> When the Antofagasta {pg 171}</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">late Bartolome Mitré=> late Bartolome Mitre {pg 191}</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">port been devasted by earthquakes=> port been devastated by earthquakes {pg 206}</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">More deaths occuring=> More deaths occurring {pg 214}</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">Futhermore, they were=> Furthermore, they were {pg 278}</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">surmouted an exceedingly bleak plateau=> surmounted an exceedingly bleak plateau {pg 335}</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">in this vicintiy=> in this vicinity {pg 369}</td></tr> -</table> - -<hr class="full" /> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Across South America, by Hiram Bingham - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA *** - -***** This file should be named 52248-h.htm or 52248-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/2/4/52248/ - -Produced by Rachael Schultz, Chuck Greif and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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