diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/52663-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52663-0.txt | 20190 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 20190 deletions
diff --git a/old/52663-0.txt b/old/52663-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 004cd3d..0000000 --- a/old/52663-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,20190 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's American Journal of Science, Vol. 1., by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: American Journal of Science, Vol. 1. - -Author: Various - -Editor: Benjamin Silliman - -Release Date: July 28, 2016 [EBook #52663] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL 1 *** - - - - -Produced by Eric Hutton, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Superscript letters and exponentials are denoted by ^x. For example, - D^r and (a + b)^2. - - Basic fractions are displayed in the text and tables as ½ ⅓ ¼ etc; - other fraction are shown in the form a/b as 5/12 or 2-5/7 for - example. Fractions in algabraic expressions have been left in - the a/b form. - - Vinculums have been replaced by parentheses (). - - Musical sharp, flat, natural are represented by the Unicode - characters ♯, ♭, ♮. - - For readability the underscores (italic) have been removed from - algebraic expressions and equations. Variables and simple expressions - embedded in the text still have the underscores. - - This book contains the first four issues of the Journal, each with - its own Table of Contents: - Vol. 1 No. 1 Pages 1 through 104 - Vol. 1 No. 2 105 through 208 - Vol. 1 No. 3 209 through 316 - Vol. 1 No. 4 317 through 442 - - In issue No. 2, the incorrect numbering of Articles in the text has - been left unchanged. The Table of Contents for this issue is correct. - This error is noted in an Addendum, Footnote [16], by the publisher. - - Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been - corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within - the text and consultation of external sources. - - More detail can be found at the end of the book. - - - - - THE - AMERICAN - JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, - - MORE ESPECIALLY OF - - _MINERALOGY_, _GEOLOGY_, - - AND THE - - OTHER BRANCHES OF NATURAL HISTORY; - - INCLUDING ALSO - - AGRICULTURE - - AND THE - - ORNAMENTAL AS WELL AS USEFUL - - ARTS. - - - CONDUCTED BY - - _BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M. D._ - - Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, &c. in Yale College; Author of - Travels in England, Scotland, and Holland, &c.; and Member of various - Literary and Scientific Societies. - - - VOL. I. - - _SECOND EDITION._ - - - New-York: - - PUBLISHED BY J. EASTBURN AND CO. LITERARY ROOMS, BROADWAY, - AND BY HOWE AND SPALDING, NEW-HAVEN. - - Sold by Ezekiel Goodall, Hallowell, Maine; Daniel Stone, Brunswick, - Maine; Cummings & Hilliard, and Wells & Lilly, Boston; Simeon - Butler, Northampton; Samuel G. Goodrich, Hartford; Clark & Lyman, - Middletown; Russell Hubbard, Norwich; O. &. L. Goodwin, Litchfield; - W. E. Norman, Hudson; William Williams, Utica; E. F. Backus, - Albany; S. Potter, Philadelphia; E. J. Coale, Baltimore; W. H. - Fitzwhylsonn, Richmond; W. F. Gray, Fredericksburgh; Caleb Atwater, - Circleville; William Poundsford, and James Collord, Cincinnati; - John Guirey, Columbia, S. C.; W. T. Williams, Savannah; Henry - Wills, Edenton; John Mill, Charleston; Samuel S. Spencer, and John - Menefee, Natchez; Benjamin Hanna, New-Orleans. - - - PRINTED BY ABRAHAM PAUL. - - 1819. - - - - -ADVERTISEMENT. - -In the following plan of this Work, we trust it will be -understood, that we do not pledge ourselves that all the subjects -mentioned shall be touched upon _in every Number_. This is -plainly impossible, unless every article should be very short and -imperfect. All that the Public are entitled to expect is, that in -the progress of the Journal, the various subjects mentioned may -occupy such an extent as our communications and resources shall -permit. - -We have been honoured by such a list of names of gentlemen who are -willing to be considered as contributors to this Journal, that the -publication of it would afford us no ordinary gratification, did we -not feel that it is more decorous to allow their names to appear -with their communications, without laying them under a previous -pledge to the Public. - - - - -PLAN OF THE WORK. - -This Journal is intended to embrace the circle of THE PHYSICAL -SCIENCES, with their application to THE ARTS, and to every useful -purpose. - -It is designed as a deposit for _original American communications_; -it will contain also occasional selections from Foreign Journals, -and notices of the progress of Science in other countries. Within -its plan are embraced - -NATURAL HISTORY, in its three great departments of MINERALOGY, -BOTANY, and ZOOLOGY. - -CHEMISTRY and NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, and their various branches: and -MATHEMATICS, pure and mixed. - -It will be a leading object to illustrate AMERICAN NATURAL HISTORY, -and especially our MINERALOGY and GEOLOGY. - -The APPLICATIONS of these sciences are obviously as numerous as -_physical arts_, and _physical wants_; for no one of these arts or -wants can be named which is not connected with them. - -While SCIENCE will be cherished _for its own sake_, and with -a due respect for its own _inherent_ dignity; it will also be -employed as the _hand-maid to the Arts_. Its numerous applications -to AGRICULTURE, the earliest and most important of them: to -MANUFACTURES, both mechanical and chemical; and, to DOMESTIC -ECONOMY, will be carefully sought out, and faithfully made. - -It is within the design of this Journal to receive communications -likewise on MUSIC, SCULPTURE, ENGRAVING, PAINTING, and generally on -the fine and liberal, as well as useful arts; - -On Military and Civil Engineering, and the art of Navigation; - -Notices, Reviews, and Analyses of new scientific works; accounts of -Inventions, and Specifications of Patents; - -Biographical and Obituary Notices of scientific men; essays on -COMPARATIVE ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY, and generally on such other -branches of medicine as depend on scientific principles; - -Meteorological Registers, and Reports of Agricultural Experiments: -and interesting Miscellaneous Articles, not perhaps exactly -included under either of the above heads. - -Communications are respectfully solicited from men of science, and -_from men versed in the practical arts_. - -Learned Societies are invited to make this Journal, occasionally, -the vehicle of their communications to the Public. - -The Editor will not hold himself responsible for the sentiments and -opinions advanced by his correspondents: he will consider it as an -allowed liberty to make slight _verbal alterations_, where errors -may be presumed to have arisen from inadvertency. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - Page - - INTRODUCTORY Remarks 1 - - Art. I. Essay on Musical Temperament, by Professor - Alex. M. Fisher 9 - - - MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. - - Art. II. Review of Cleaveland's Mineralogy 35 - - Art. III. New Locality of Fluor Spar, &c. 52 - - Art. IV. Carbonat of Magnesia, &c. discovered by J. - Pierce, Esq. 54 - - Art. V. Native Copper, near New-Haven 55 - - Art. VI. Petrified Wood from Antigua 56 - - Art. VII. American Porcelain Clays, &c. 57 - - Art. VIII. Native Sulphur from Java 58 - - Art. IX. Productions of Wier's Cave, in Virginia 59 - - Art. X. Mineralogy and Geology of part of Virginia and - Tennessee, by Mr. J. H. Kain 60 - - Art. XI. Notice of Professor Mitchill's edition of Cuvier's - Geology 68 - - Art. XII. Notice of Eaton's Index to the Geology of the - Northern States, &c. 69 - - Art. XIII. Notice of M. Brongniart on Organized Remains 71 - - - BOTANY. - - Art. XIV. Observations on a species of Limosella, by - Professor E. Ives 74 - - Art. XV. Notice of Professor Bigelow's Memoir on the - Floral Calendar of the United States, &c. 76 - - Art. XVI. Journal of the Progress of Vegetation, &c. - by C. S. Rafinesque, Esq. 77 - - - ZOOLOGY. - - Art. XVII. Description of a new Species of Marten, by - C. S. Rafinesque, Esq. 82 - - Art. XVIII. Natural History of the Copper-Head Snake, - by the same 84 - - - PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. - - Art. XIX. On a Method of augmenting the Force of - Gunpowder, by Colonel G. Gibbs 87 - - Art. XX. On the connexion between Magnetism and - Light, by the same 89 - - Art. XXI. On a new means of Producing Heat and - Light, by J. L. Sullivan, Esq. 91 - - Art. XXII. On the Effects of the Earthquakes of 1811, - 1812, on the Wells in Columbia, South - Carolina, by Professor Edward D. Smith 93 - - Art. XXIII. On the Respiration of Oxygen Gas in an - Affection of the Thorax 95 - - - MISCELLANEOUS. - - Art. XXIV. On the Priority of Discovery of the Compound - Blowpipe, and its Effects 97 - - Art. XXV. On the Northwest Passage, the North Pole, - and the Greenland Ice 101 - - - - -THE - -_AMERICAN_ - -JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. - - - - -_INTRODUCTORY REMARKS._ - - -The age in which we live is not less distinguished by a vigorous -and successful cultivation of physical science, than by its -numerous and important applications to the practical arts, and to -the common purposes of life. - -In every enlightened country, men illustrious for talent, worth, -and knowledge, are ardently engaged in enlarging the boundaries of -natural science; and the history of their labours and discoveries -is communicated to the world chiefly through the medium of -Scientific Journals. The utility of such Journals has thus become -generally evident; they are the heralds of science; they proclaim -its toils and its achievements; they demonstrate its intimate -connexion as well with the comfort, as with the intellectual and -moral improvement of our species; and they often procure for it -enviable honours and substantial rewards. - -In England the interests of science have been, for a series of -years, greatly promoted by the excellent Journals of Tilloch and -Nicholson; and for the loss of the latter, the scientific world has -been fully compensated by Dr. Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, and -by the Journal of Science and the Arts, both published in London. - -In France, the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, the Journal des -Mines, the Journal de Physique, &c. have long enjoyed a high and -deserved reputation. Indeed, there are few countries in Europe -which do not produce some similar publication; not to mention the -transactions of learned societies and numerous medical Journals. - -From these sources _our_ country reaps, and will long continue -to reap, an abundant harvest of information: and if the light of -science, as well as of day, springs from the east, we will welcome -the rays of both; nor should national pride induce us to reject so -rich an offering. - -But can we do nothing in return? In a general diffusion of -useful information through the various classes of society, in -activity of intellect, and fertility of resource and invention, -characterizing a highly intelligent population, we have no reason -to shrink from a comparison with any country. But the devoted -cultivators of _science_, in the United States, are comparatively -few; they are, however, rapidly increasing in number. Among them -are persons distinguished for their capacity and attainments, -and notwithstanding the local feelings nourished by our state -sovereignties, and the rival claims of several of our larger -cities, there is evidently a predisposition towards a concentration -of effort, from which we may hope for the happiest results, with -regard to the advancement of both the science and the reputation of -our country. - -Is it not, therefore, desirable to furnish some rallying point, -some object sufficiently interesting to be compassed by common -efforts, and thus to become the basis of an enduring, common -interest? To produce these efforts, and to excite this interest, -nothing, perhaps, bids fairer than a SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL. Hitherto -nearly all our exertions, of this kind, have been made by medical -gentlemen, and directed primarily to medical objects. We are -neither ignorant nor forgetful of the merits of our various MEDICAL -JOURNALS, nor of the zeal with which, as far as consistent with -their main object, they have fostered the physical sciences. We are -aware, also, that Journals have been established, _professedly_ -deriving their materials principally from foreign sources; that our -various literary Magazines and Reviews have given, and continue to -give, some notices of physical and mathematical subjects, and that -some of them seem even partial to these branches of knowledge: that -various limited efforts have been made, and are still making, to -publish occasional or periodical papers, devoted to mathematical or -physical subjects, and that even our newspapers sometimes contain -scientific intelligence. We are aware, also, that some of our -academies and societies of natural history, either in Journals of -their own, or through the medium of existing magazines, communicate -to the public the efforts of their members in various branches of -natural science. - -But all these facts go only to prove the strong tendency which -exists in this country towards the cultivation of physical science, -and the inadequacy of the existing means for its effectual -promulgation. - -Although our limits do not permit us, however much inclined, to be -more particular in commemorating the labours and in honouring the -performances (often marked by much ability) of our predecessors and -cotemporaries, there is one effort which we are not willing to pass -by without a more particular notice; and we are persuaded that no -apology is necessary for naming the Journal of the late Dr. Bruce, -of New-York, devoted principally to mineralogy and geology. - -No future historian of American science will fail to commemorate -this work as our earliest _purely scientific_ Journal, supported by -_original American communications_. - -Both in this country and in Europe, it was received in a very -flattering manner; it excited, _at home_, great zeal and effort -in support of the sciences which it fostered, and, _abroad_, it -was hailed as the harbinger of our future exertions. The editor -was honoured with letters on the subject of his Journal, and with -applications for it from most of the countries in Europe; but -its friends had to regret that, although conducted in a manner -perfectly to their satisfaction, it appeared only at distant -intervals, and, after the lapse of several years, never proceeded -beyond the fourth number. - -The hopes of its revival have now, unhappily, become completely -extinct, by the lamented death of Dr. Bruce.[1] - -This gentleman, with an accomplished education, with extensive -acquirements in science, and great zeal for promoting it in his -own country; advantageously and extensively known in Europe, and -furnished with a correct and discriminating mind, and a chaste, -scientific taste, was so well qualified for the task which he had -undertaken, that no one can attempt to resume those scientific -labours which he has now _for ever_ relinquished, without realizing -that he undertakes an arduous enterprise, and lays himself under a -heavy responsibility. American science has much to lament in the -death of Dr. Bruce. - -No one, it is presumed, will doubt that a Journal devoted to -science, and embracing a sphere sufficiently extensive to allure -to its support the principal scientific men of our country, is -greatly needed; if cordially supported, it will be successful, and -if successful, it will be a great public benefit. - -Even a failure, in so good a cause, (unless it should arise from -incapacity or unfaithfulness,) cannot be regarded as dishonourable. -It may prove only that the attempt was _premature_, and that our -country is not yet ripe for such an undertaking; for _without the -efficient support of talent, knowledge_, and _money, it cannot -long proceed_. No editor can hope to carry forward such a work -without the active aid of scientific and practical men; but, at -the same time, the public have a right to expect that he will not -be sparing of his own labour, and that his work shall be generally -marked by the impress of his own hand. To this extent the editor -cheerfully acknowledges his obligations to the public; and it will -be his endeavour faithfully to redeem his pledge. - -Most of the periodical works of our country have been short-lived. -_This_, also, _may_ perish in its infancy; and if any degree -of confidence is cherished, that it will attain a maturer age, -it is derived from the obvious and intrinsic importance of the -undertaking; from its being built upon permanent and momentous -national interests; from the evidence of a decided approbation of -the design, on the part of men of the first eminence, obtained in -the progress of an extensive correspondence; from assurances of -support, in the way of contributions, from men of ability in many -parts of the union; and from the existence of _such a crisis_ in -the affairs of this country and of the world, as appears peculiarly -auspicious to the success of every wise and good undertaking. - -As regards the subjects of this work, it is in our power to do -much in the department of the natural history of this country. Our -Zoology has been more fully investigated than our mineralogy and -botany; but neither department is in danger of being exhausted. The -interesting travels of Lewis and Clark have recently brought to -our knowledge several plants and animals before unknown. Foreign -naturalists frequently explore our territory; and, for the most -part, convey to Europe the fruits of their researches, while but -a small part of our own productions is examined and described by -Americans: certainly, this is little to our credit, and still less -to our advantage. Honourable exceptions to the truth of this remark -are furnished by the exertions of some gentlemen in our principal -cities, and in various other parts of the Union.[2] - -Our botany, it is true, has been extensively and successfully -investigated; but this field is still _rich_, and rewards every -new research with some interesting discovery. Our mineralogy, -however, is a treasure but just opened. That both science and -art may expect much advantage from this source, is sufficiently -evinced by the success which has crowned the active efforts of a -few ardent cultivators of this science: several new species of -minerals have been added to it in this country; great numbers of -American localities discovered, and interesting additions made to -our materials, for the useful and ornamental arts. The science -of mineralogy is now illustrated by courses of lectures, and by -several good cabinets in the different states. Among the cabinets, -the splendid collection of Colonel Gibbs, now in Yale College, -(a munificent DEPOSIT for the benefit of his country,) _stands -pre-eminent_: it would be considered as a very noble cabinet in -any part of Europe: and its introduction into the United States, -and its _gratuitous_ dedication to the promotion of science, are -equally advantageous to the community, and honourable to its -patriotic and enlightened proprietor. Mineralogy is most intimately -connected with our arts, and especially with our agriculture. - -Such are the disguises worn by many most useful mineral substances, -that an unskilful observer is liable to pass a thing by, as -worthless, which, if better informed, he would seize with avidity; -and, still more frequently, a worthless substance, clothed -perhaps in a brilliant and attractive exterior, excites hopes -altogether delusive, and induces expense, without a possibility of -remuneration. A diffusion of correct knowledge on this subject is -the only adequate remedy for either evil. - -Our geology, also, presents a most interesting field of inquiry. -A grand outline has recently been drawn by Mr. Maclure, with a -masterly hand, and with a vast extent of personal observation and -labour: but to fill up the detail, both observation and labour -still more extensive are demanded; nor can the object be effected, -till more good geologists are formed, and distributed over our -extensive territory. - -To account for the formation and changes of our globe, by -excursions of the imagination, often splendid and imposing, but -usually visionary, and almost always baseless, was, till within -half a century, the business of geological speculations; but this -research has now assumed a more sober character; the science of -geology has been reared upon numerous and accurate observations -of _facts_; and standing thus upon the basis of induction, it -is entitled to a rank among those sciences which Lord Bacon's -Philosophy has contributed to create. Geological researches are now -prosecuted, by actually exploring the structure and arrangement of -districts, countries, and continents. The obliquity of the strata -of most rocks, causing their edges to project in many places above -the surface; their exposure in other instances, on the sides or -tops of hills and mountains; or, in consequence of the intersection -of their strata, by roads, canals, and river-courses, or by the -wearing of the ocean; or their direct perforation, by the shafts -of mines; all these causes, and others, afford extensive means of -reading the interior structure of the globe. - -The outlines of American geology appear to be particularly grand, -simple, and instructive; and a knowledge of the important facts, -and general principles of this science, is of vast practical use, -as regards the interests of agriculture, and the research for -useful minerals. Geological and mineralogical descriptions, and -maps of particular states and districts, are very much needed in -the United States; and to excite a spirit to furnish them will form -one leading object of this journal. - -The science of natural philosophy, with its powerful auxiliary, -mathematics, and the science of chemistry, the twin sister of -natural philosophy, are of incalculable importance to this country. -A volume would not suffice to trace their applications, and to -enumerate the instances of their utility. - -As one which may be allowed to stand, _instar omnium_, we may -mention the steam engine; that legitimate child of physical and -chemical science--at once more powerful than the united force -of the strongest and largest animals, and more manageable than -the smallest and gentlest; raising from the bowels of the earth -the massy treasures of its mines, drawing up rivers from their -channels, and pouring them, in streams of life, into the bosom of -cities; and, above all, propelling against the currents, the winds, -and the waves of the ocean, those stupendous vessels, which combine -speed with certainty, and establish upon the bosom of the deep the -luxuries and accommodations of the land. - -The successful execution of this magnificent design was first -witnessed upon the waters of the Hudson, but is now imitated in -almost every civilized country; and it remains to be seen whether -they will emulate us by transporting, by the same means, and -against the same obstacles, the most formidable trains of artillery. - -The mechanical inventions of this country are numerous; many of -them are ingenious, and some are highly important. In no way can -a knowledge of them be so readily and extensively diffused as in -a scientific journal. To this object, therefore, a part of our -labours (should there be a call for it,) will be devoted, and every -necessary aid will be given by plates and descriptions. - -Science and art mutually assist each other; the arts furnish facts -and materials to science, and science illuminates the path of the -arts. - -The science of mathematics, both pure and mixed, can never cease -to be interesting and important to man, as long as the relations -of quantity shall exist, as long as ships shall traverse the -ocean, as long as man shall measure the surface or heights of the -earth on which he lives, or calculate the distances and examine -the relations of the planets and stars; and as long as the _iron -reign of war_ shall demand the discharge of projectiles, or the -construction of complicated defences. - -In a word, the whole circle of physical science is directly -applicable to human wants, and constantly holds out a light to the -practical arts; it thus polishes and benefits society, and every -where demonstrates both supreme intelligence, and harmony and -beneficence of design in THE CREATOR. - - - - -ART. I. _Essay on Musical Temperament._[3] - -By Professor FISHER, of Yale College. - - -It is well known to those who have attended to the subject of -musical ratios, that a fixed scale of eight degrees to the octave, -which shall render all its concords perfect, is impossible. It -has been demonstrated by Dr. Smith, from an investigation of all -the positions which the major, the minor, and the half-tone can -assume, that the most perfect scales possible, of which there are -two equally so, differing only in the position of the major and the -minor tone above the key note, must have one Vth and one 3d too -flat, and consequently the supplementary 4th and VIth too sharp, -by a comma. In vocal music, and in that of perfect instruments, -this defect in the scale is not perceived, because a small change -may be made in the key, whenever the occurrence of either of those -naturally imperfect intervals renders such a change necessary -to perfect harmony. But in instruments with fixed scales, such -as the guitar, the piano-forte, and the organ, if we begin with -tuning as many concords as possible perfect, the resulting chords -above-mentioned will be necessarily false in an offensive degree. -Hence it is an important problem in practical harmonics, to -distribute these imperfections in the scale among the different -chords, in such a manner as to occasion the least possible injury -to harmony. - -But this is not the only nor the principal difficulty which -the tuner of imperfect instruments has to encounter. In order -that these instruments may form a proper accompaniment for the -voice, and be used in conjunction with perfect instruments, it is -necessary that music should be capable of being executed on them, -in all the different keys in common use; and especially that they -should be capable of those occasional modulations which often occur -in the course of the same piece. Now only five additional sounds -to the octave are usually inserted for this purpose, between those -of the natural scale, which, of course, furnish it with only three -sharps and two flats. Hence, when a greater number of flats or -sharps is introduced, the music can be executed only by striking, -in the former case, the sharp of the note next below; and, in -the latter, the flat of the note next above. But as the diatonic -semitone is more than half the major, and much more than half the -minor tone, if the additional sounds in the common artificial -scale be made perfect for one of the above employments, they must -be extremely harsh for the other. Hence arises the necessity of -adjusting the position of these five inserted sounds so that they -may make tolerable harmony, whichever way employed. A change in -these will require corresponding changes in the position of the -several degrees of the natural scale; so that it is highly probable -that the best scheme of temperament will leave no concord, either -of the natural or artificial scale, absolutely perfect. - -In adjusting the imperfections of the scale, the three following -considerations have been usually taken into view. - -I. One object to be aimed at is, to make the sum of the -temperaments of all the concords the least possible. Since -experience teaches us that the harshness of a given concord -increases with its temperament, it is obvious that of two systems -which agree in other respects, the best is that in which the sum of -the temperaments is least. - -II. When other things are equal, the best adjustment of the -imperfections of the scale is that which diminishes the -harmoniousness of all the different concords proportionally. The -succession of a worse to a better harmony, is justly regarded -by several of the best writers on this subject, as one of the -principal causes of offence to the ear, in instruments imperfectly -tuned. - -III. When different chords of the same kind are of unequally -frequent occurrence, there is an advantage, _cæteris paribus_, in -giving the greatest temperament to that which occurs most seldom. -This important consideration has indeed been neglected by Dr. -Smith, in the systems which he recommends, both for his changeable -and the common fixed scale; as it is, also, by the numerous -advocates of the system of equal semitones. But many authors on -temperament, and most instrument-makers, pay a vague regard to it. -Their aim has been, although in a loose and conjectural manner, -to make the prominent chords of the simplest keys the nearest to -perfection, whilst a greater temperament is thrown upon those -which occur only in the more complex keys. Thus Dr. Young, in -the Philos. Trans. for 1800, recommends a scheme which increases -the temperament of the IIIds, on the key note of the successive -keys, as we modulate by fifths from C, nearly in arithmetical -progression. Earl Stanhope assigns as a reason for the small -temperament which is given to several of the IIIds in his system, -that they are on the tonic of the simpler keys. The irregularities -in Mr. Hawkes's scheme may be traced to the same cause. And, with -the instrument-makers, it is a favourite maxim to lay the wolf, as -they term it, where it will be most seldom heard. - -But if the above consideration deserves any weight at all, it -deserves to be accurately investigated. Not only ought the relative -frequency of different chords to be ascertained with the greatest -accuracy, of which the nature of the subject is susceptible, but -the degree of weight which this consideration ought to have, when -compared with the two others above-mentioned, should be determined: -for it is plain that neither of them ought to be ever left out of -view. - -Accordingly, the principal design of the following propositions -will be to investigate the actual frequency of occurrence of -different chords in practice; and from this and the two other -above-mentioned considerations united, to deduce the best system of -temperament for a scale, containing any given number of sounds to -the octave, and particularly for the common Douzeave, or scale of -twelve degrees. - - -PROPOSITION I. - - All consonances may be regarded, without any sensible error in - practice, as equally harmonious in their kinds, when equally - tempered; and when unequally tempered, within certain limits, as - having their harmoniousness diminished in the direct ratio of - their temperaments. - -As different consonances, when perfect, are not pleasing to the -ear in an equal degree, some approaching nearer to the nature of -discords than others, so a set of tempered consonances, _cæteris -paribus_, will be best constituted when their harmoniousness -is diminished _proportionally_. Suppose, for example, that the -agreeable effects of the Vth, IIId, and 3d, when perfect, are as -any unequal numbers, _a_, _b_, and _c_; the best arrangement of a -tempered scale, other things being equal, would be, not that in -which the agreeable effect of the Vth was reduced to an absolute -level with that of the IIId, or 3d, but when they were so tempered -that their agreeable effects on the ear might be expressed by -(_m_/_n_)_a_, (_m_/_n_)_b_, and (_m_/_n_)_c_. - -That different consonances, in this sense, are equally harmonious -in their kinds, when equally tempered, or, at least, sufficiently -so for every practical purpose, may be illustrated in the following -manner: - -[Illustration] - -Let the lines AB, _ab_, represent the times of vibration of two -tempered unisons. Whatever be the ratio of AB to _ab_, whether -rational or irrational, it is obvious that the successive -vibrations will alternately recede from and approach each other, -till they very nearly coincide; and, that during one of these -periods, the longer vibration, AB, has gained _one_ of the shorter. -Let the points, A, B, &c. represent the middle of the successive -times of vibration of the lower; and _a_, _b_, &c. those of the -higher of the tempered unisons. Let the arc AGN..VA be a part of a -circle, representing one period of their pulses, and let the points -A, _a_, be the middle points of the times of those vibrations which -approach the nearest to a coincidence. It is obvious that the -dislocations _b_B, _c_C, &c. of the successive pulses, increase -in a ratio which is very nearly that of their distances from A, -or _a_. Now if the pulses exactly coincided, the unisons would be -perfect; and the same would be equally true, if the pulses of the -one bisected, or divided in any other constant ratio, those of -the other; as clearly appears from observation. It is, therefore, -not the absolute magnitude, as asserted by Dr. Smith, but the -_variableness_ of the successive dislocations, B_b_, C_c_, &c. -which renders the imperfect unisons discordant; and the magnitude -of the successive increments of these dislocations is the measure -of the degree of discordance heard in the unisons. - -If now the time of vibration in each is doubled, AC, _ac_, &c. will -represent the times of vibration of imperfect unisons an octave -below, and the successive dislocations will be C_c_, E_e_, &c. -only half as frequent as before. But the unisons AE, _ae_, will be -equally harmonious with AB, _ab_; because, although the successive -dislocations are less frequent than before, yet the coincidences -C′_c′_, E′_e′_ of the corresponding perfect unisons are less -frequent in the same ratio. - -Suppose, in the second place, that the time of vibration is -doubled, in only one of the unisons, _ab_; and that the times -become AB and _ac_, or those of imperfect octaves. These will also -be equally harmonious in their kind with the unisons AB, _ab_. For, -although the dislocations C_c_, E_e_, &c. are but half as numerous -as before, the coincidences of the corresponding perfect octaves -will be but half as numerous. The dislocations which remain are -the same as those of the imperfect unisons; and if some of the -dislocations are struck out, and the increments of successive ones -thus increased, no greater change is made in the nature of the -imperfect than of the perfect consonance. - -If, thirdly, we omit two-thirds of the pulses of the lower unison, -retaining the octave _ac_ of the last case, we shall have AD, -_ac_, the times of vibration of imperfect Vths, to which, and to -all other concords, the same reasoning may be applied as above. -It may be briefly exhibited thus; since the intermission of the -coincidences C′_c′_, E′_e′_ of the perfect unisons, an octave -below A′B′, does not render the Vth A′D′G′ _a′c′e′g′_ less perfect -than the unison A′_c′_ _a′c′_, each being perfect in its kind; so -neither does the intermission of the corresponding dislocations -C_c_, E_e_, of the tempered unisons, in the imperfect Vth, ADG, -_aceg_, render it less harmonious in its kind than the tempered -unison AB, _ab_, from which it is derived in exactly the same -manner that the perfect Vth is derived from the perfect unison. - -The consonances thus derived, as has been shown by Dr. Smith, -will have the same periods, and consequently the same beats, with -the imperfect unisons. It is obvious, likewise, that they will -all be equally tempered. Let _m_ AB, and _n_ _ab_, be a general -expression for the times of vibration of any such consonance. The -tempering ratio of an imperfect consonance is always found by -dividing the ratio of the vibrations of the imperfect by that of -the corresponding perfect consonance. But - -(mAB)/(nab) ÷ m/n = AB/ab; - -which is evidently the tempering ratio of the imperfect unisons. - -Hence, so far as any reasoning, founded on the abstract nature -of coexisting pulses can be relied on, (for, in a case of this -kind, rigid demonstration can scarcely be expected,) we are led -to conclude that the harmoniousness of different consonances is -proportionally diminished when they are equally tempered. - -The remaining part of the proposition, viz. that consonances -differently tempered have their harmoniousness diminished, or their -harshness increased, in the direct ratio of their temperaments, -will be evident, when we consider that the temperament of any -consonance is the sole cause of its harshness, and that the effect -ought to be proportioned to its adequate cause. We may add, that -the rapidity of the beats, in a given consonance, increases very -nearly in the ratio of the temperament; and universal experience -shows, that increasing the rapidity of the beats of the same -consonance, increases its harshness. This is on the supposition -that the consonance is not varied so much as to interfere with any -other whose ratio is equally simple. - -_Cor._ We may hence infer, that in every system of temperament -which preserves the octaves perfect, each consonance is equally -harmonious, in its kind, with its complement to the octave, and its -compounds with octaves. For the tempering ratio of the complement -of any concord to the octave, is the same with that of the concord -itself, differing only in its sign, which does not sensibly affect -the harmony or the rate of beating; while the tempering ratio of -the compounds with octaves is not only the same, but with the same -sign. - - -_Scholium 1._ - -There is no point in harmonics, concerning which theorists have -been more divided in opinion than in regard to the true measure of -equal harmony, in consonances of different kinds. Euler maintains, -that the more simple a consonance is, the less temperament it -will bear; and this seems to have ever been the general opinion -of practical musicians.[4] Dr. Smith, on the contrary, asserts, -and has attempted to demonstrate, that the simpler will bear a -much greater temperament than the more complex consonances. The -foregoing proposition has, at least, the merit of taking the middle -ground between these discordant opinions. If admitted, it will -greatly simplify the whole subject, and will reduce the labour of -rendering all the concords in three octaves as equally harmonious -as possible, which occupies so large a portion of Dr. Smith's -volume, to a single short proposition. Dr. Smith's measure of -equal harmony, viz. equal numbers of short cycles in the intervals -between the successive beats, seems designed, not to render the -different consonances proportionally harmonious, but to reduce -the simpler to an absolute level, in point of agreeableness, with -the more complex; which, as has been shown, is not the object to -be aimed at in adjusting their comparative temperaments. But, -in truth, his measure is far more favourable to the complex -consonances than equal harmony, even in this sense, would require; -and, in a great number of instances, leads to the grossest -absurdities. Two consonances, according to him, are equally -harmonious, when their temperaments are inversely as the products -of the least numbers expressing their perfect ratio. If so, the -VIII + 3d, whose ratio is 5/12, when tempered 1/20 of a comma, and -the unison, whose ratio is 1/1, when tempered 3 commas, are equally -harmonious. But all who have the least experience in tempered -consonances will pronounce, at once, that the former could scarcely -be distinguished by the nicest ear from the corresponding perfect -concord, while the latter would be a most offensive discord. One -instance more shall suffice. The temperaments to render the VIII + -Vth, and the VIII + 6th equally harmonious, are laid down in his -tables to be as 80 : 3. We will now suppose an instrument perfectly -tuned in Dr. Smith's manner, and furnished with all the additional -sounds which constitute his changeable scale. In this system, -the IIIds, and consequently the VIII + 6ths, are tempered 1/9 of -a comma; which, so far from being offensive, will be positively -agreeable to the ear. This cannot be doubted by those who admit -that the VIII + 6ths in the common imperfect scales, when tempered -at a medium nearly seven times as much, make tolerable harmony. -Yet, according to the theory which we are opposing, the VIII + Vth -will be equally harmonious when tempered nearly a minor semitone. -Now let any one, even with the common instruments, whenever an VIII -+ Vth occurs, strike the semitone next above or below: for example, -instead of playing C, _g_, let him play C, _g_♯; instead of A, _e_, -let him play A, _e_♭, &c. and compare the harmony of these with -that of the VIII + 6ths, if he wants any farther evidence that Dr. -Smith's measure of equal harmony is without foundation. - -It may be thought, that even the measure of equal harmony laid -down in the proposition, is more favourable to the complex -consonances than the conclusions of experience will warrant. But -when it is asserted by practical musicians, that the octave will -bear less tempering than the Vth, the Vth less than the IIId, &c., -they doubtless intend to estimate the temperament by the rate of -beating, and to imply, that when different consonances to the same -base are made to beat equally fast, the simpler are more offensive -than the more complex consonances. This is entirely consistent -with the proposition; for when equally tempered, the more complex -consonances will beat more rapidly than the more simple; if on the -same base, very nearly in the ratio of their major terms. (Smith's -Har. Prop. XI. Cor. 4.) If, for example, an octave, a Vth, and a -IIId on the same base were made to beat with a rapidity which is -as the numbers 2, 3, and 5, no unprejudiced ear would probably -pronounce the octave less harmonious in its kind than the IIId. - -To those, on the other hand, who may incline to a measure of equal -harmony between that laid down in the proposition and that of -Dr. Smith, on account of the rapidity of the beats of the more -complex consonances, it maybe sufficient to reply, that if the -beats of a more complex consonance are more rapid than those of a -simpler one, when both are equally tempered, those of the latter, -cæteris paribus, are more _distinct_. It is the distinctness of the -undulations, in tempered consonances, which is one of the principal -causes of offence to the ear. - - -_Scholium 2._ - -It will be proper to explain, in this place, the notation of -musical intervals, which will be adopted in the following pages. -It is well known that musical intervals are as the logarithms -of their corresponding ratios. If, therefore, the octave be -represented by .30103, the log. of 2, the value of the Vth will be -expressed by .17509; that of the major tone by .05115; that of the -comma by .00540, &c. But in order to avoid the prefixed ciphers, -in calculations where so small intervals as the temperaments of -different concords are concerned, we will multiply each of these -values by 100,000, which will give a set of integral values having -the same ratio. The octave will now become 30103, the comma 540, -&c.; and, in general, when temperaments are hereafter expressed by -numbers, they are to be considered as so many 540ths of a comma. -Had more logarithmic places been taken, the intervals would have -been expressed with greater accuracy; but it was supposed that the -additional accuracy would not compensate for the increased labour -of computation which it would occasion. This notation has been -adopted by Dr. Robinson, in the article Temperament, (Encyc. Brit. -Supplement;) and for every practical purpose, is as much superior -to that proposed by Mr. Farey, in parts of the Schisma, lesser -fraction and minute,[5] as all decimal measures necessarily are, to -those which consist of different denominations. - - -PROPOSITION II. - - In adjusting the imperfections of the scale, so as to render - all the consonances as equally harmonious as possible, only the - simple consonances, such as the Vth, IIId, and 3d, with their - complements to and compounds with the octave, can be regarded. - -It has been generally assigned as the reason for neglecting the -consonances, usually termed discords, in ascertaining the best -scheme of temperament, that they are of less frequent occurrence -than the concords. This, however, if it were the only reason, would -lead us, not to neglect them entirely, but merely to give them a -less degree of influence than the concords, in proportion as they -are less used. - -A consideration which seems not to have been often noticed, renders -it impossible to pay them any regard in harmonical computations. -All such computations must proceed on the supposition that within -the limits to which the temperaments of the different consonances -extend, they become harsher as their temperaments are increased. -It is evident that any consonance may be tempered so much as to -become better by having its temperament increased, in consequence -of its approaching as near to some other perfect ratio, the terms -of which are equally small; or perhaps much nearer some perfect -ratio whose terms are not proportionally larger. For example, -after we have sharpened the Vth more than 3 commas, it becomes -more harmonious, as approaching much nearer to the perfect ratio -5/6. In this, however, and the other concords, the value of the -nearest perfect ratios in small numbers, varies so much from the -ratios of these concords, and the consequent limits within which -the last part of Prop. I. holds true, are so wide that there is no -hazard in making it a basis of calculation. And if there be a few -exceptions to this, in some systems, in which the temperaments of a -few of the concords become so large as to approach nearer to some -other perfect ratio, whose terms are nearly as small as those of -the perfect concord, although they might become more harmonious, by -having their temperament increased, yet their effect in _melody_ -would be still more impaired; so that the concords may all be -considered as subjected to the same rule of calculation. - -But the limits within which the second part of Prop. I. holds -true, with regard to the more complex consonances, are much more -limited. We cannot, for instance, sharpen the 7th, whose ratio is -9 : 16 more than ½ a comma, without rendering it more harmonious, -as approaching nearer another perfect ratio which is simpler; that -of 5 : 9. Yet the difference between these two 7ths is so trifling -that they have never received distinct names; and, indeed, their -effect on the ear in melody would not be sensibly different. - -Again, the 5th, whose perfect ratio has been generally laid down as -45 : 64, but which is in reality 25 : 36,[6] cannot be sharpened -more than ⅓ of a comma, before it becomes more harmonious by -having its temperament increased, as approaching nearer the simpler -ratio 7 : 10. At the same time, the effect of this interval in -melody would not be sensibly varied. The limits, within which the -harmoniousness of the IVth is inversely as its temperament, are -still narrower. - -Hence it appears that no inference can be drawn from the -temperaments of such consonances as the 7th, 5th, IVth, &c. -respecting their real harmoniousness. The other perfect ratios -which have nearly the same value with those of these chords, -and which are in equally simple terms, are so numerous that by -increasing their temperament they alternately become more and -less harmonious; and in a manner so irregular, that to attempt to -subject them to calculation, with the concords, would be in vain. -Even when unaltered, they may be considered either as greater -temperaments of more simple, or less temperaments of more complex -ratios. Suppose the 5th, for example, to be flattened ⅕ of a comma: -shall it be considered as deriving its character from the perfect -ratio 25 : 36, and be regarded as flattened 108; or shall it be -referred to the perfect ratio 7 : 10, and considered as sharpened -239? No one can tell.--On the whole, it is manifest that no -consonances more complex than those included in the proposition, -can be regarded in adjusting the temperaments of the scale. - - -PROPOSITION III. - - The best scale of sounds, which renders the harmony of all the - concords as nearly equal as possible, is that in which the Vths - are flattened 2/7, and the IIIds and 3ds, each 1/7 of a comma. - -The octave must be kept perfect, for reasons which have satisfied -all theoretical and practical harmonists, how widely soever -their opinions have differed in other respects. Admitting equal -temperament to be the measure of equal harmony, the complements -of the Vth, IIId, and 3d, to the octave, and their compounds with -octaves will be equally harmonious in their kinds with these -concords respectively; according to the corollary of Prop I. - -Hence we have only to find those temperaments of the Vths, IIIds, -and 3ds, in the compass of one octave, which will render them all, -as nearly as possible, equally harmonious. The temperaments of the -different concords of the same name ought evidently to be rendered -equal; since, otherwise, their harmony cannot be equal. This can -be effected only by rendering the major and minor tones equal, and -preserving the equality of the two semitones. If this is done, the -temperament of all the IIIds will be equal, since they will each -be the sum of two equal tones. For a similar reason the 3ds, and -consequently the Vths, formed by the addition of IIIds, and 3ds, -will be equally tempered. - -[Illustration: - - x - c x (3c - 5x)/2 x - c x x - c (3c - 5x)/2 - |--------|-----|-------------|--------|-----|--------|-------------| - C D E F G A B c -] - -In order to reduce the octave to five equal and variable tones, and -two equal and variable semitones, we will suppose the intervals of -the untempered octave to be represented by the parts CD, DE, &c. -of the line C_c_. Denoting the comma by _c_, we will suppose the -tone DE, which is naturally minor, to be increased by any variable -quantity, _x_; then, by the foregoing observations, the other minor -tone, GA, must be increased by the same quantity. As the major -tones must be rendered equal to the minor, their increment will be -_x_ - _c_. As the octave is to be perfect, the variation of the two -semitones must be the same with that of the five tones, with the -contrary sign; and as they are to be equally varied, the decrement -of each will be (5_x_ - 3_c_)/2; or what amounts to the same thing, -the increment of each will be (3_c_ - 5_x_)/2. - -The several concords of the same name in this octave are now -affected with equal and variable temperaments. The common increment -of the IIIds will be 2_x_ - _c_; that of the 3ds ½ · (_c_ - -3_x_); and consequently that of the Vths ½ · (_x_ - _c_). - -In adjusting these variable temperaments, so as to render the -harmony of the concords of _different_ kinds, as nearly equal as -possible, we immediately discover that, as the Vth is composed -of the IIId and 3d, the temperaments of the three cannot all be -equal. When the temperaments of the IIId and 3d have the same -sign, that of the Vths must be equal to their sum; and, when they -have contrary signs, to their difference. Hence the temperament -of one of these three concords is necessarily equal to the sum -of that of the other two. This being fixed, the temperaments, -and consequently, (by Prop. I.) the discordance of the different -consonances is the most equably divided possible, when the two -smaller temperaments, whose sum is equal to the greater, are made -equal to each other. The problem contains three cases. - -1. When the temperaments of the IIId and 3d have the same sign, -they ought to be equal to each other. Making - -2x - c = ½ · (c - 3x), we obtain x = 3/7 c, - -which, substituted in the general expressions for the temperaments -of the Vth, IIId, and 3d, makes their increments equal to -2/7 _c_, --1/7 _c_, -1/7 _c_, respectively. - -2. Let the temperaments of the IIId and 3d have contrary signs: and -first, let that of the IIIds be the greater. Then the former ought -to be double of the latter, in order that the temperament of the -Vths and and 3ds may be equal. Hence we have - -2x - c = - 2 · ½ · (c - 3x); whence x is found = 0; - -and by substitution as before, the required temperament of the IIId -= - _c_; of the Vth - ½_c_, and of the 3d ½_c_. - -3. Let the temperaments of the IIId and 3d have contrary signs, as -before; and let that of the 3d be the greater. - -Making ½ · (c - 3x) = -2 · (2x - c), we obtain x = 3/5 c; - -which gives, by substitution, the temperaments of the 3d, Vth, and -IIId - 2/5 _c_, - 1/5 _c_, and 1/5 _c_, respectively. - -Each of these results makes the harmony of all the consonances as -nearly equal as possible; but as the sum of the temperaments in -the first case is much the least, it follows that the temperaments -stated in the proposition constitute the best scheme of intervals -for the natural scale, in which the harmony of all the different -consonances is rendered as nearly equal as possible. - -_Cor. 1._ In the same manner it may be shown that these -temperaments are the best, among those which approach as nearly as -possible to equal harmony, for the _artificial_ scale; provided -that it is furnished with distinct sounds for all the sharps and -flats in common use. By inserting a sound between F and G, making -the interval F♯G equal to either of the semitones found above, -the intervals, reckoned from G as a key note, will be exactly the -same in respect to their temperaments, as the corresponding ones -reckoned from C. The same thing holds, whatever be the number of -flats and sharps. It is supposed, however, that the flat of a note -is never used for the sharp of that next below, or the contrary; -and hence this scheme of temperament would only be adapted to an -instrument, furnished with all the degrees of the enharmonic scale; -or, at least, with as many as are in common use. - -_Cor. 2._ This scale will differ but little in practice from the -one deduced, with so much labour, by Dr. Smith, from his criterion -of equal harmony; which flattens the Vths 5/18, the IIIds 1/9, and -the 3ds 1/6 of a comma. The several differences are only 1/126, -2/63, and 1/42 of a comma. Hence, as his measure of equal harmony -differs so widely from that of Proposition I. we may infer that -the consideration of equalizing the harmony of the concords of -different names can have very little practical influence on the -temperaments of the scale. Should it, therefore, be maintained that -the criterion laid down in Prop. I. is not mathematically accurate; -yet, as it must be allowed, in the most unfavourable view, to -correspond far better with the decisions of experience than that -of Doctor Smith, the chance is, that, at the lowest estimate, -the temperaments deduced from it approach much more nearly to -correctness. Hence it is manifest that equal temperament may be -made, _without any sensible error in practice_, the criterion of -equal harmony. - - -_Scholium 3._ - -Although the foregoing would be the best division of the -musical scale, if our sole object were to render the harmony -of its concords as nearly equal as possible, yet the two other -considerations, stated at the beginning of the essay, must by no -means be neglected, as has been done by Dr. Smith. It seems to -be universally admitted, that the sum of the temperaments may be -increased to a certain extent, in order to equalize the harmony -of the concords; otherwise the natural scale of major and minor -tones, which makes the sum of the temperaments of the Vths, IIIds, -and 3ds but 2 commas, ought to be left unaltered. Yet how far -this principle ought to be carried, may be a matter of doubt. If -we make the IIIds perfect, and flatten the Vths and 3ds each ¼ -_c_, according to the old system of mean tones, we shall have the -smallest aggregate of temperaments which admits of the different -concords of the same name being rendered equally imperfect; but -this amounts to 2½ commas. Thus far, however, it seems evidently -proper to proceed. If we go still farther, and endeavour to -equalize the harmony of the concords of _different_ names, it may -be questioned whether nearly as much is not lost as gained; for -the aggregate temperaments are increased, in Dr. Smith's scale, -to 2⅔ _c_, and in that of the above proposition to 2-5/7 _c_. The -system of mean tones, although more unequal in its harmony when -but two notes are struck at once, yet when the chords are played -full, as they generally are on the organ, never offends the ear by -a transition from a better to a worse harmony. For every _triad_ is -equally harmonious; being composed of a perfect IIId, and a Vth and -3d, tempered each ¼ _c_, or of their complements to, or compounds -with octaves, which, in their kinds, are equally harmonious. - -Again, if different chords, in practice, vary in the frequency of -their occurrence, this will be a sufficient reason for deviating -from the system of equal temperament. Suppose, for example, that -a given sum of temperament is to be divided between two Vths, one -of which occurs in playing ten times as often as the other: there -can be no doubt that the greater part of the temperament ought to -be thrown upon the latter. Hence it becomes an important problem to -ascertain, with some degree of precision, the relative frequency -with which different consonances occur in practice. Before -proceeding to a direct investigation of this problem, it may be -observed, in general, that such a difference manifestly exists. In -a given key, it cannot have escaped the most superficial observer, -that the most frequent combination of sounds is the common chord -on the tonic; that the next after this is that on the dominant, -and the third, that on the subdominant. Perhaps scarcely a piece -of music can be found, in which this order of frequency does not -hold true. It is equally true that some signatures occur oftener -than others. That of one sharp will be found to be more used, in -the major mode, than any other; and, in general, the more simple -keys will be found of more frequent occurrence than those which -have more flats or sharps. These differences are not the result -of accident. The tonic, dominant, and subdominant, are obviously -the most prominent notes in the scale, and must always be the -fundamental bases of more chords than either of the others; while -the greater ease of playing on the simpler keys will always be a -reason with composers for setting a larger part of their music on -these, than on the more difficult keys. It is observable, that the -greater part of musical compositions, whether of the major or minor -mode, is reducible to two kinds: that in which the base chiefly -moves between the tonic and its octave, and that in which the base -moves between the dominant and subdominant of the key. The former -class, in the major mode, are almost universally set on the key of -one sharp; the latter, generally on the natural key, or that of -two sharps. In the minor mode, the former class have usually the -signature of two flats, or the natural key; the latter, that of one -flat. Hence the three former keys will comprise the greater part -of the music in the major mode, and the three latter, of that in -the minor mode, in every promiscuous collection. But if we were -even to suppose each of the chords in the same key, and each of -the signatures, of equally frequent occurrence, some chords would -occur much oftener, as forming an essential part of the harmony of -_more keys_ than others. The Vth DA, for example, forms one of the -essential chords of six different keys; while the Vth G♯D♯ forms a -part only of the single key of four sharps. - - -PROPOSITION IV. - - To find a set of numbers, expressing the ratio of the probable - number of times that each of the different consonances in the - scale will occur, in any set of musical compositions. - -This can be done only by investigating their actual frequency -of occurrence in a collection of pieces for the instrument to -be tuned, sufficiently extensive and diversified to serve as a -specimen of music for the same instrument in general. This may -appear, at first view, an endless task; and it would be really -such, were we to take music promiscuously, and count all the -consonances which the base makes with the higher parts, and the -higher parts with each other. But it appears, from Prop. I. Cor. -that all the positions and inversions of a chord, when the octaves -are kept perfect, are equally harmonious with the chord itself. The -Vth, for example, which makes one of the consonances in a common -harmonic triad, is equally harmonious in its kind, with the V + -VIII, which takes its place in the 3d position of this triad, and -with the 4th in its second inversion. Hence, instead of counting -single consonances, we have only to count chords; and this is done -with the greatest ease, by means of the figures of the thorough -base. The labour will be still farther abridged by reducing the -derivative chords, such as the 6, the 6/4, &c. to their proper -roots, as they are taken down. But even after these reductions, -the labour of numbering the different chords in a sufficiently -extensive set of compositions, to establish, with any degree of -certainty, the relative frequency of the different signatures, -would be very irksome. A method, however, presents itself, which -renders it sufficient to examine the chords in such a set of pieces -only as will give their chance of occurrence in _two_ keys--a -major, and its relative minor. - -It will be evident to all who are much conversant with musical -compositions, that the _internal structure_ of all pieces in the -same mode, whatever be their signature, is much the same. There is -scarcely more difference, for example, in the relative frequency -of different chords in the natural key, and in that of two sharps, -or two flats, than there is in different pieces on the same key. -If the Vth CG on the tonic has to the Vth EB on the mediant in -the natural key, any given ratio of frequency _m_ : _n_, the -relative frequency of the Vth DA on the tonic, and the Vth F♯ C♯ -on the mediant in the key of two sharps, will not sensibly differ -from that of _m_ : _n_. Hence, if we examine a sufficient number -of pieces to establish the relative frequency of the different -consonances in one major and its relative minor key, and, by a much -more extensive investigation, ascertain the relative frequency -of occurrence of the different signatures, it is evident, that -by multiplying this last series of numbers into the first, and -adding those products which belong to chords terminated by the same -letters, we shall have a series of numbers expressing the chance of -occurrence in favour of each of the consonances of the scale, when -_all_ the keys are taken into view. - -It was judged that 200 scores, taken promiscuously from all the -varieties of music for the organ,[7] would afford a set of numbers -expressing, with sufficient accuracy, the chance that a given -consonance will occur in a single major, and its relative minor -key. Accordingly 200 scores were examined, 150 in the major, and -50 in the minor mode, (as it will appear hereafter that this is -nearly the ratio of their frequency) of the various species of -music for the organ, comprising a proper share both of the simpler -and of the more rapid and chromatic movements. As the selecting and -reducing to their proper keys all the occasional modulations which -occur in the same piece would render the labour of ascertaining -the relative frequency of different signatures very tedious, it -was thought best to consider all those modulations which are too -transient to be indicated by a new signature, as belonging to the -same key. This will account for the occurrence of the chords in the -following table, which are affected by flats and sharps. - -The minim, or the crotchet, was taken for unity, according to the -rapidity of the movement. Bases of greater or less length had their -proper values assigned them; although mere notes of passage, which -bore no proper harmony, were generally disregarded. The scores were -taken promiscuously from all the different keys; and were reduced, -when taken down, to the same tonic; the propriety of which will -evidently appear from the foregoing remarks. The following table -contains the result of the investigation. - - -TABLE I. - - +-------+---------------++---------------+---------------++-------------+ - | | Common Chords.|| Flat Fifths. | 7ths. || 9-sevenths. | - | +-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+-------++------+------+ - |Bases. | Major | Minor || Major.| Minor.| Major.| Minor.||Major.|Minor.| - | | mode. | mode. || | | | || | | - +-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+-------++------+------+ - |B III | 5 | 8 || -- | -- | 7 | -- || -- | -- | - |B | 3 | -- || 163 | 55 | 11 | 17 || 2 | -- | - |B♭ | 4 | 4 || -- | -- | -- | -- || -- | -- | - |A VII | -- | -- || -- | -- | -- | -- || 3 | -- | - |A III | 19 | 8 || -- | -- | 7 | 2 || -- | -- | - |A | 166 | 588 || 2 | 1 | 26 | 5 || 2 | -- | - |G♯ | -- | -- || 3 | 38 | -- | -- || -- | -- | - |G 3 | 18 | 15 || -- | -- | -- | -- || -- | -- | - |G | 965 | 93 || -- | -- | 178 | 15 || 3 | -- | - |F♯ | -- | -- || 46 | 4 | 11 | 2 || -- | -- | - |F | 352 | 60 || -- | -- | 11 | 12 || 7 | 3 | - |E III | 26 | 271 || -- | -- | 1 | 25 || -- | -- | - |E | 32 | 25 || 5 | 1 | 8 | -- || 1 | 4 | - |D♯ III | -- | -- || 2 | 1 | -- | -- || -- | -- | - |D♯ | -- | -- || -- | 4 | -- | -- || -- | -- | - |D III | 29 | 4 || -- | -- | 49 | 7 || -- | -- | - |D | 120 | 129 || -- | -- | 55 | 18 || 6 | 1 | - |C♯ | -- | -- || 2 | 4 | 1 | -- || -- | -- | - |C 3 | 2 | -- || -- | -- | -- | -- || -- | -- | - |C | 1769 | 275 || -- | -- | 5 | 1 || 4 | 1 | - +-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+-------+-------++------+------+ - -The following anomalous chords were found in the major mode, and -are subjoined, to make the list complete: - - 8 ♯5ths on C, and 1 on D. - 5 5/4ths on D, 2 on E, and 1 on G. - -The left hand column of the foregoing table contains the -fundamental bases of the several chords. When any number is annexed -to the letter denoting the fundamental, it denotes the quality of -some other note belonging to the chord. E III, for example, denotes -that the various chords on E, which stand against it, have their -third sharped; G 3, that the third, which is naturally major, is -to be taken minor, &c. Of the two columns in each of the four -remaining pairs, the left contains the number of chords belonging -to each root, of the kind specified at the top, which were found -in 150 scores in the major mode; and the right, the corresponding -results of the examination of 50 scores in the minor mode. The -diminished triad, which is used in harmonical progression like the -other triads, has its lowest note considered as its fundamental. -The diminished 7th, in the few instances in which it occurred, was -considered as the first inversion of the 9/7th, agreeably to the -French classification, and was accordingly reduced to that head. - -From this table, the number of times that each consonance of two -notes would actually occur, were the 200 scores played, is easily -computed. We will suppose three notes, besides octaves, to be -played to each chord. The octaves played it is unnecessary to -take into the computation, as it would only multiply the number -of consonances whose temperament is the same, in the same ratio, -and would have no effect on the _ratio_ of the numbers expressing -the frequency of the different consonances. In the chord of the -7th, which naturally consists of four notes, we will suppose, for -the sake of uniformity, that one is omitted; and as the 7th ought -always to be struck, we will suppose the Vth and IIId of the base -to be omitted, each half the number of times in which this chord -occurs. Considered as composed of three distinct notes, neither -of which is an octave of either of the others, each chord will -contain three distinct consonances. The common chord on C, for -example, will contain the Vth CG, the IIId CE, and the 3d EG. The -9/7 on C will contain the VII CB, the IX, or (which must have the -same temperament) the IId CD, and the 3d BD. Reducing all these -consonances to their proper places, and adding those of the same -name which have the same degree for their base, we obtain the -following results: - - -TABLE II. - - +--------++------------------++------------------++------------------+ - | || Vths, 4ths, and || IIIds, 6ths, and || 3ds, VIths, and | - | Bases. || Octaves. || Octaves. || Octaves. | - | |+------------------++------------------++------------------+ - | || Major. | Minor. || Major. | Minor. || Major. | Minor. | - +--------++--------+---------++---------+--------++--------+---------+ - |B || 8 | 8 || 10 | 8 || 1141 | 214 | - |B♭ || 3 | 6 || 22 | 19 || ---- | ---- | - |A || 195 | 607 || 22 | 10 || 626 | 663 | - |G♯ || ---- | ---- || ---- | ---- || 32 | 310 | - |G || 1088 | 116 || 1090 | 125 || 22 | 23 | - |F♯ || ---- | ---- || ---- | ---- || 78 | 10 | - |F || 395 | 78 || 486 | 301 || ---- | ---- | - |E || 59 | 308 || 40 | 284 || 1828 | 308 | - |E♭ || ---- | ---- || 2 | ---- || ---- | ---- | - |D♯ || ---- | ---- || ---- | ---- || 7 | 9 | - |D || 197 | 156 || 60 | 7 || 403 | 213 | - |C♯ || ---- | ---- || ---- | ---- || 26 | 12 | - |C || 1807 | 278 || 1959 | 870 || 4 | 1 | - +========++========+=========++=========+========++========+=========+ - | || 5ths, IVths, and || 7ths, IIds, and || VIIths, 2ds, and | - | Bases. || Octaves. || Octaves. || Octaves. | - | |+--------+---------++---------+--------++--------+---------+ - | || Major. | Minor. || Major. | Minor. || Major. | Minor. | - +--------++--------+---------++---------+--------++--------+---------+ - |B || 256 | 265 || 25 | 17 || ---- | ---- | - |B♭ || ---- | ---- || ---- | ---- || ---- | ---- | - |A || 2 | 1 || 34 | 7 || 3 | ---- | - |G♯ || 10 | 53 || ---- | ---- || ---- | ---- | - |G || ---- | ---- || 188 | 20 || ---- | ---- | - |F♯ || 74 | 7 || 1 | 2 || ---- | ---- | - |F || ---- | ---- || ---- | ---- || 17 | 16 | - |E || 10 | 1 || 20 | 27 || ---- | ---- | - |E♭ || ---- | ---- || ---- | ---- || ---- | ---- | - |D♯ || 7 | 5 || ---- | ---- || ---- | ---- | - |D || ---- | ---- || 123 | 27 || ---- | ---- | - |C♯ || 9 | 10 || 1 | ---- || ---- | ---- | - |C || ---- | ---- || 5 | 1 || 10 | 1 | - +--------++--------+---------++---------+--------++--------+---------+ - -Besides the following chromatic intervals: - - { 8 extreme sharp 5ths on C - Major mode. { 1 --------------------- D - { 1 extreme flat 7th ---- G♯ - - { 4 extreme sharp 6ths on F - Minor mode. { 4 extreme flat 7ths on C♯ - { 3 --------------------- G♯ - -It was thought best to exhibit a complete table of all the -consonances which occurred in the 200 scores examined; although -(Prop. II.) only the concords in the upper half of the table can -be regarded in forming a system of temperament. For the more -frequent consonances, this table may be regarded as founded on a -sufficiently extensive induction to be tolerably accurate. For the -more unfrequent chords, and especially for those which arise from -unusual modulations, it expresses the chance of occurrence with -very little accuracy; and it is doubtless the fact that a more -extensive investigation would include some chords not found at all -in this list. But it must be recollected, on the other hand, that -the influence of these unusual chords on the resulting system of -temperament would be insensible, could their chance of occurrence -be determined with the greatest accuracy. - -But none of the numbers in the foregoing table by any means -expresses the chance that a given interval will occur, considering -_all_ the keys in which it is found. For example, the Vth CG on the -tonic of the natural key, in music written on this key, is the one -of most frequent occurrence, its chance being expressed by 1807; -but in the key of two flats, it becomes the Vth on the supertonic, -and its chance of occurrence is only as 197. Hence the problem can -be completed only by finding a set of numbers which shall express, -with some degree of accuracy, the relative frequency of different -signatures. - -An examination of 1600 scores, comprising four entire collections -of music for the organ and voice, by the best European composers, -besides many miscellaneous pieces, afforded the results in the -following table: - - -TABLE III. - - +-------------+-------------+-------------+ - | Signatures. | Major Mode. | Minor Mode. | - +-------------+-------------+-------------+ - |4♯_s_ | 42 | 2 | - |3♯_s_ | 95 | 6 | - |2♯_s_ | 200 | 13 | - |1♯ | 322 | 72 | - |♮ | 176 | 121 | - |1♭ | 180 | 97 | - |2♭_s_ | 70 | 77 | - |3♭_s_ | 116 | 8 | - |4♭_s_ | 0 | 3 | - +-------------+-------------+-------------+ - |Ratio of their sums 1201 : 399 | - +-----------------------------------------+ - -The chance of occurrence for any chord varies as the frequency -of the key to which it belongs, and as the number belonging to -the place which it holds, as referred to the tonic, in Table II., -jointly. Hence the chance of its occurrence in all the keys in -which it is found, is as the sum of the products of the numbers in -Table III., each into such a number of Table II. as corresponds to -its place in that key. To give a specimen of the manner in which -this calculation is to be conducted, the numbers belonging to the -major mode in the three first divisions of Table II. are first -to be multiplied throughout by 176, which expresses the relative -frequency of the major mode of the natural key. They are then to -be multiplied throughout by 322, which expresses the frequency -of the key of one sharp. But the first product, which expresses -the frequency of the Vth on the tonic, now becomes GD, and must -be added, not to the first, but to the fifth, in the last row of -products. The product into 59, expressing the frequency of the -Vth on the mediant, becomes BF♯, an interval not found among the -essential chords of the natural key. In general, the products -of the numbers in Table III. into those in Table II. are to be -considered as belonging, not to the letters against which these -multipliers stand, but to those which have the same position _with -regard to their successive tonics_, as these have with regard to -C. Whenever an interval occurs, affected with a new flat or sharp, -it is to be considered as the commencement of a new succession of -products. The IIId C♯E♯, for example, does not occur at all till -we come to the key of two sharps, and even then only in occasional -modulations, corresponding to the IIId on B in the natural key, -whose multiplier is 10. In the key of 3 sharps it becomes another -accidental chord, answering to the IIId on E in the key of C, and -consequently has 40 for its multiplier. It is only in the key of -6 sharps, that it becomes a constituent chord of the key; when if -that key were ever used, it would correspond to the IIId GB on the -dominant of the natural key. - -After all the products have been taken and reduced to their proper -places, in the manner exemplified above, a similar operation must -be repeated with the numbers in the second column of Table III. and -those in the second columns in the three first divisions of Table -II. - -The necessity of keeping the major, and its relative minor key, -distinct, will be evident, when we consider that the several keys -in the minor mode do not follow the same law of frequency as in the -major; as is manifest from the observations in Schol. Prop. III. -and as clearly appears from an inspection of Table III. - -But in order to discover the relative frequency of the different -chords on _every_ account, the results of the two foregoing -operations must be united. Now, as the numbers in the two columns -of Table II. at a medium, are as 3 : 1, and those in Table III. -are in the same ratio, although the factors are to each other -in only the simple ratio of the relative frequency of the two -modes, yet their products will, at a medium, be in the _duplicate_ -ratio of that frequency. Hence, to render the two sets of results -homologous, so that those which correspond to the same interval may -be properly added, to express the general chance of occurrence for -that interval in all the major and minor keys in which it is found, -this duplicate ratio must be reduced to a simple one, either by -dividing the first, or by multiplying the last series of results, -by 3. We will do the latter, as it will give the ratios in the -largest, and, of course, the most accurate terms. Then adding those -results in each which belong to the same interval, and cutting off -the three right hand figures, (expressing in the nearest small -fractions those results which are under 1000) which will leave a -set of ratios abundantly accurate for every purpose; the numbers -constituting the final solution of the problem will stand as -follows: - - -TABLE IV. - - +--------+----------+-----------+---------+ - | | Vths and | IIIds and | 3ds and | - | Bases. | 4ths. | 6ths. | VIths. | - +--------+----------+-----------+---------+ - |F♯ | 67 | 29 | 1072 | - |F | 639 | 924 | 66 | - |E♯ | ---- | ---- | 12 | - |E | 548 | 323 | 1151 | - |E♭ | 265 | 363 | ½ | - |D♯ | ⅓ | ½ | 144 | - |D | 1166 | 943 | 569 | - |D♭ | 1 | 6 | ---- | - |C♯ | 25 | 12 | 581 | - |C | 816 | 1131 | 180 | - |B♯ | ---- | ---- | 4 | - |B | 221 | 135 | 1161 | - |B♭ | 418 | 654 | 5 | - |A♯ | ---- | ---- | 29 | - |A | 870 | 568 | 1085 | - |A♭ | 52 | 78 | ⅕ | - |G♯ | 5 | 4 | 365 | - |G | 1207 | 1197 | 567 | - |F♯♯ | ---- | ---- | ¼ | - |G♭ | ---- | ½ | ---- | - +--------+----------+-----------+---------+ - -NOTE. In this table, as well as the last, the Vths, IIIds, and -3ds are to be taken _above_, and the 4ths, 6ths, and VIths, their -complements to the octave, _below_ the corresponding degrees in -the first column. And, in general, whenever the Vths, IIIds, and -3ds are hereafter treated as different classes of concords, each -will be understood to include its complement to the octave and its -compounds with octaves. - - -_Scholium._ - -The foregoing table exhibits, with sufficient accuracy, the ratio -of the whole number of times which the different chords would -occur, were the 1600 scores, whose signatures were examined, -actually played in succession, on the keys to which they are set, -and with an instrument having distinct sounds for all the flats -and sharps. Had the examination been more extensive, the results -might be relied on with greater assurance as accurate; but the -general similarity, not only in the structure of different musical -compositions, but in the comparative frequency of the different -keys in different authors; is so great, that a more extensive -examination was thought to be of little practical importance. - - -(_To be continued._) - - - - -ART. II. _Review of an elementary Treatise on Mineralogy and -Geology, being an introduction to the study of these sciences, and -designed for the use of pupils; for persons attending lectures -on these subjects; and as a companion for travellers in the -United States of America--Illustrated by six plates. By_ PARKER -CLEAVELAND, _Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, and -Lecturer on Chemistry and Mineralogy in Bowdoin College, Member -of the American Academy, and Corresponding Member of the Linnæan -Society of New England_. - - ----itum est in viscera terræ: - Quasque recondiderat, Stygiisque admoverat umbris, - Effodiuntur opes---- - OVID. - - -_Boston, published by Cummings and Hilliard, No. 1, Cornhill. -Printed by Hilliard & Metcalf, at the University Press, Cambridge, -New England. 1816._ - - -This work has been for some time before the public, and it has -been more or less the subject of remark in our various journals. -It is, however, so appropriate to the leading objects of _this_ -Journal, that we cannot consider ourselves as performing labours of -supererogation while we consider the necessity, plan, and execution -of the treatise of Professor Cleaveland. - -An extensive cultivation of the physical sciences is peculiar to -an advanced state of society, and evinces, in the country where -they flourish, a highly improved state of the arts, and a great -degree of intelligence in the community. To this state of things -we are now fast approximating. The ardent curiosity regarding -these subjects, already enkindled in the public mind, the very -respectable attainments in science which we have already made, and -our rapidly augmenting means of information in books, instruments, -collections, and teachers, afford ground for the happiest -anticipations. - -Those sciences which require no means for their investigation -beyond books, teachers, and study--those which demand no physical -demonstrations, no instruments of research, no material specimens: -we mean those sciences which relate only to the intellectual -and moral character of man, were early fostered, and, in a good -degree, matured in this country. Hence, in theology, in ethics, -in jurisprudence, and in civil policy, our advances were much -earlier, and more worthy of respect, than in the sciences relating -to material things. In some of these, it is true, we have made -very considerable advances, especially in natural philosophy and -the mathematics, and their applications to the arts; and this -has been true, in some good degree, for very nearly a century. -Natural history has been the most tardy in its growth, and no -branch of it was, till within a few years, involved in such -darkness as mineralogy. Notwithstanding the laudable efforts of a -few gentlemen to excite some taste for these subjects, so little -had been effected in forming collections, in kindling curiosity, -and diffusing information, that only fifteen years since, it was -a matter of extreme difficulty to obtain, _among ourselves_, -even _the names_ of the most common stones and minerals; and one -might inquire earnestly, and long, before he could find any one -to identify even _quartz_, _feldspar_, or _hornblende_, among the -simple minerals; or _granite_, _porphyry_, or _trap_, among the -rocks. _We speak from experience_, and well remember with what -impatient, but almost despairing curiosity, we eyed the bleak, -naked ridges, which impended over the valleys and plains that were -the scenes of our youthful excursions. In vain did we doubt whether -the glittering spangles of mica, and the still more alluring -brilliancy of pyrites, gave assurance of the existence of the -precious metals in those substances; or whether the cutting of -glass by the garnet, and by quartz, proved that these minerals were -the diamond; but if they were not precious metals, and if they were -not diamonds, we in vain inquired of our companions, and even of -our teachers, what they were. - -We do not forget that Dr. Adam Seybert, in Philadelphia; Dr. -Samuel L. Mitchill, in New-York; and Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse, in -Harvard University, began at an earlier period to enlighten the -public on this subject; they began to form collections; Harvard -received a select cabinet from France and England; and Mr. Smith, -of Philadelphia, (although, returning from Europe fraught with -scientific acquisitions, he perished tragically near his native -shores,) left his collection to enrich the Museum of the American -Philosophical Society. - -Still, however, although individuals were enlightened, no serious -impression was produced on the public mind; a few lights were -indeed held out, but they were lights twinkling in an almost -impervious gloom. - -The return of the late Benjamin D. Perkins, and of the late Dr. -A. Bruce, from Europe, in 1802 and 3, with their collections, -then the most complete and beautiful that this country had ever -seen; the return of Colonel Gibbs, in 1805, with his extensive -and magnificent cabinet; his consequent excursions and researches -into our mineralogy; the commencement, about this time, of -courses of lectures on mineralogy, in several of our colleges, -and of collections by them and by many individuals; the return -of Mr. Maclure, in 1807; his Herculean labour in surveying the -United States geologically, by personal examination; and the -institution of the American Journal of Mineralogy, by Dr. Bruce, -in 1810;--these are among the most prominent events, which, in -the course of a few years, have totally changed the face of this -science in the United States. - -During the last ten years, it has been cultivated with great -ardour, and with great success: many interesting discoveries in -American mineralogy have been made; and this science, with its -sister science, Geology, is fast arresting the public attention. -In such a state of things, books relating to mineralogy would of -course be eagerly sought for. - -No work, anterior to Kirwan, could be consulted by the student with -much advantage, on account of the wonderful progress, which, within -forty or fifty years, has been made in mineralogy. Even Kirwan, -who performed a most important service to the science, was become, -in some considerable degree, imperfect and obsolete; the German -treatises, the fruitful fountains from which the science had flowed -over Europe, were not translated; neither were those of the French; -and this was the more to be regretted, because they had mellowed -down the harshness and enriched the sterility of the German method -of description, besides adding many interesting discoveries of -their own. It is true we possessed the truly valuable treatise -of Professor Jameson, the most complete in our language. But the -expense of the work made it unattainable by most of our students, -and the undeviating strictness with which the highly respectable -author has adhered to the German mode of description, gave it an -aspect somewhat repulsive to the minds of novices, who consulted no -other book. We are, however, well aware of the value of this work, -especially in the improved edition. It must, without doubt, be in -the hands of every one who would be master of the science; but -it is much better adapted to the purposes of proficients than of -beginners. - -The mineralogical articles dispersed through Aikin's Dictionary are -exceedingly valuable; but, from the high price of the work, they -are inaccessible to most persons. - -The most recent of the French systems, that by Brongniart, seemed -to combine nearly all the requisites that could be desired in an -elementary treatise; and a translation of it would probably, ere -this, have been given to the American public, had we not been -led to expect the work of Professor Cleaveland, which, it was -anticipated, would at least possess one important advantage over -the work of Brongniart, and every other; it would exhibit, more -or less extensively, _American localities_, and give the leading -features of our natural mineral associations. - -Thus it appears[8] that the work of Professor Cleaveland was -eminently needed; the science, at large, needed it; and to American -mineralogists it was nearly indispensable. It appeared too at a -very opportune moment. Had it come a few years sooner, it might -not have found many readers. Now it is sustained by the prevailing -curiosity, and diffused state of information regarding mineralogy; -and, in turn, no cause could operate more effectually to cherish -this curiosity, and to diffuse this information still more widely, -than this book. Professor Cleaveland is therefore entitled to our -thanks for undertaking this task; and, in this age of book-making, -it is no small negative praise if an author be acquitted of -_unnecessarily_ adding to the already onerous mass of books. - -With respect to the PLAN of this work, Professor Cleaveland has, -with good judgment, availed himself of the excellencies of both the -German and French schools. - -Mr. Werner, of Fribourg, in some sense not only the founder of -the modern German school of mineralogy, but almost of the science -itself, is entitled to our lasting gratitude for his system of -external characters, first published in 1774. In this admirable -treatise he has combined precision and copiousness, so that exact -ideas are attached to every part of the descriptive language, and -every character is meant to be defined. - -It is intended that a full description of a mineral upon this -plan shall entirely exhaust the subject, and that although many -properties may be found in common among different minerals, still -every picture shall contain _peculiar_ features, not to be found -in any other. It would certainly appear, at first view, that this -method must be perfect, and leave nothing farther to be desired. It -has, however, been found in practice, that the full descriptions of -the Wernerian writers are heavy and dry; they are redundant also, -from the frequent repetition of similar properties; and from not -giving due prominence to those which are peculiar, and therefore -distinctive, they frequently fail to leave a distinct impression -of any thing on the mind, and thus, in the midst of what is called -by the writers of this school a full _oryctognostic picture_, a -student is sometimes absolutely bewildered. - -Some of the modern French writers, availing themselves of Mr. -Werner's very able delineation of the external characters of -minerals, have selected such as are most important, most striking, -distinctive, and interesting; and drawing a spirited and bold -sketch, have left the minuter parts untouched: such a picture, -although less perfect, often presents a stronger likeness, and more -effectually arrests the attention. - -This is the method of description which has been, as we think, -_happily_ adopted, to a great extent by Mr. Cleaveland. - -Mr. Werner, availing himself of the similarities in the external -appearance of minerals, has (excepting the metals) _arranged_ -them also upon this plan, without regard to their constitution; -that is, _to their real nature_, or, at least, making this wholly -subservient to the other: this has caused him, in some instances, -to bring together things which are totally unlike in their -nature, and, in other instances, to separate those which were -entirely similar. Whatever may be said in favour of such a course, -considered as a provisional one, while chemical analysis was in its -infancy, the mind can never rest satisfied with any arrangement -which contradicts the real nature of things; in a word, the -composition of minerals is the only correct foundation for their -classification. This classification has been adopted by several of -the ablest modern French writers. - -"It is believed," (says Professor Cleaveland, Preface, p. 7.) "that -the more valuable parts of the two systems may be incorporated, or, -in other words, that the peculiar descriptive language of the one -may, in a certain degree, be united to the accurate and scientific -arrangement of the other. - -"This union of descriptive language and scientific arrangement has -been effected with good success, by BRONGNIART, in his System of -Mineralogy--an elementary work, which seems better adapted both to -interest and instruct, than any which has hitherto appeared. The -author of this volume has, therefore, adopted the _general_ plan of -Brongniart, the more important parts of whose work are, of course, -incorporated with this." - -A happier model could not, in our opinion, be chosen; and we -conceive that Professor Cleaveland is perfectly consistent, and -perfectly perspicuous, when, adopting the chemical composition of -minerals as the only proper foundation of arrangement, and, of -course, rejecting the principle of Mr. Werner, which arranges them -upon their external properties, he still adopts his _descriptive_ -language as far as it answers his purpose. For to elect a principle -of arrangement, and to classify all the members of a system so as -to give each its appropriate place, is obviously quite a different -thing from describing each member, after its place in a system is -ascertained. In doing the latter, characters may be drawn from any -source which affords them. - -In his "Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy," the author -has given a view at once copious, condensed, and perspicuous, -of all that is necessary to be learned previously to the study -of particular minerals. He begins with definitions and general -principles, which are laid down with clearness. - -By way of engaging the attention to the study of this department of -nature, he remarks: - -"From a superficial view of minerals in their natural depositories, -at or near the surface of the earth, it would hardly be expected -that they could constitute the object of a distinct branch of -science. Nothing appears farther removed from the influence of -established principles and regular arrangement, than the mineral -kingdom when observed in a cursory manner. But a closer inspection -and more comprehensive view of the subject will convince us, that -this portion of the works of nature is by no means destitute of the -impress of the Deity. Indications of the same wisdom, power, and -benevolence, which appear in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, are -also clearly discernible in the mineral." - -"It may also be remarked," continues the author, "that several -arts and manufactures depend on mineralogy for their existence; -and that improvements and discoveries in the latter cannot fail -of extending their beneficial effects to the aforementioned -employments. In fine, the study of mineralogy, whether it be viewed -as tending to increase individual wealth, to improve and multiply -arts and manufactures, and thus promote the public good; or as -affording a pleasant subject for scientific research, recommends -itself to the attention of the citizen and scholar." - -This introductory view of the importance and interest of the -science cannot be charged with the fault of exaggeration, since it -is most evident that neither civilization, refinement in arts, nor -comfort, can exist where the properties of mineral substances are -but imperfectly understood. - -As regards this country, the argument admits of much amplification. -The more our mineral treasures are explored, the more abundantly -do they repay the research; and we trust that the period is not -far distant, when we shall no longer ignorantly tread under our -feet minerals of great curiosity and value, and import from other -countries, at a great expense, what we, in many instances, possess -abundantly at home.[9] - -But to return to the plan of the author's work. Few persons, -unacquainted with the science of mineralogy, would suspect that -mere brute matter could exhibit many strong marks, capable of -discrimination. - -It may, however, be confidently affirmed, that there is no mineral -which, if carefully studied, may not be distinguished by characters -sufficiently decisive from every other mineral; an account of these -characters ought, therefore, to precede every system of mineralogy. -Professor Cleaveland has, with entire propriety, included them -under the heads of crystallography, physical and external -characters, and chemical characters. - -He has given a clear view of the Abbé Haüy's curious discoveries -regarding the six primitive figures or solids which form the bases -of all crystals--the three integrant particles or molecules which -constitute the primitive forms, and of the theory by which it is -shown how the immensely numerous and diversified secondary or -actual forms arise out of these few elementary figures. - -This is certainly one of the most singular and acute discoveries -of our age. It is true, there is a difference of opinion among -mineralogists as to the practical use of crystallography in the -discrimination of minerals. Some dwell upon it with excessive -minuteness, and others seem restless and impatient of its details. -The truth seems to be, that those who understand it, derive from -it (wherever it is applicable) the most satisfactory aid; and it -requires only a moderate knowledge of geometry to understand its -principal outlines. On the other hand, it is no doubt possible, -in most instances, to dispense with its aid, and to discriminate -minerals by their other properties. - -Of the external and physical characters of Mr. Werner, Mr. -Cleaveland has given a clear account, combining into the same -view the fine discriminations of the French authors, particularly -regarding refraction, phosphorescence, specific gravity, -electricity, chatoyement, and magnetism. The same may be said of -the chemical characters. We do not know a more satisfactory and -able view of the characters of minerals than Professor Cleaveland -has exhibited. - -We would however ask, whether, in enumerating the kinds of lustre, -the term _adamantine_ should not be explained, as it is not -understood by people in general, while the terms denoting the other -kinds are _generally_ intelligible; whether in the enumeration of -imitative forms, _lenticular_ and _acicular_ should not rather be -referred to the laws of crystallization; whether _reniform_ and -_mamillary_ are synonymous; whether _sandstone_, as being a mere -aggregate of _fragments_, is a good instance of the _granular_ -fracture; whether in its natural state (at least the common ore of -nickel) is _ever_ magnetic, till _purified_, and whether cobalt is -_ever_ magnetic unless _impure_. - -Professor Cleaveland's remarks on _fracture_ are uncommonly -discriminating and instructive, and would lead a learner to a just -comprehension of this important point in the characters of minerals. - -The section relating to the _chemical characters_ is concise, -and professedly proceeds upon the principle of selection. It -might perhaps have been, to some extent, advantageously enlarged; -although, it is true, the author refers us to the particular -minerals for individual instances; still it might have been well -to have illustrated the general principles by a few well-chosen -instances, _e. g._ how, by the blowpipe, _galena_ is distinguished -from _sulphuret of antimony_; _carbonat of lead_ from _sulphat -of barytes_, or _carbonat of lime_; _garnet_ from _titanium_; -_plaster of Paris_ from _soapstone_, &c.; and, among trials in -the moist way, how by nitric acid and ammonia, _iron pyrites_ is -distinguished from _copper pyrites_; and how, by acids, _sulphat -of lime_ is known from _carbonat of lime_. As the acids are used -principally for trials on the effervescence of carbonats, most of -which form with sulphuric acid, insoluble compounds, we should -doubt whether sulphuric acid is so advantageously employed as the -nitric or muriatic, in such cases, on account of the clogging of -the effervescence by the thick magena, produced by a recently -precipitated and insoluble sulphat. - -According to our experience, the nitric or muriatic acid, diluted -with two or three parts of water, is most eligible. - -With respect to the blowpipe: it is _a convenience_ to have a -mouth-piece of wood, or ivory, joined to a tube of metal, as -Mr. Cleaveland recommends; and some authors direct to have the -tube attached to a hollow ball, for the sake of condensing the -moisture of the breath; but every thing which adds to the expense -and complication of the instrument will tend to discourage its -use; we have never found any difficulty in performing every -important experiment with the common goldsmith's brass blowpipe; -and are confident, that, after the learner has acquired the art, -or _knack_, of propelling a continued stream of air from his -mouth, by means of the muscles of the lips and cheeks, while his -respiration proceeds without embarrassment through the nostrils, -he will need no other instrument than the common blowpipe. Indeed -it is a truly admirable instrument, instantly giving us the effect -of very powerful furnaces, the heat being entirely under command, -the subject of operation and all the changes in full view, and the -expense and bulk of the instrument being such that every one may -possess it, and carry it about his person. - -The chapter on the principles of arrangement is worthy of all -praise. This difficult subject is here discussed with such -clearness, comprehensiveness, and candour, as prove the author to -be completely master of his subject; and we are persuaded, that, -on this topic, no author can be studied with more advantage. -We forbear to extract, because the whole should be attentively -perused in connexion, and scarcely admits of abridgement. We -entirely agree with Professor Cleaveland, as we have already -said, that the chemical composition of minerals is the only just -foundation of their arrangement; that next in importance is the -crystalline structure, including a knowledge of the primitive -form, and integrant molecule; and last and least important, _in -fixing the arrangement_, are the external characters: these -last should be only provisionally employed, where the two first -are not ascertained, or the second is not applicable. When the -arrangement is once made, we _may_, however, and we commonly -_shall_, in _describing_ minerals, pursue precisely the reverse -order; the external characters will usually be mentioned first, -the crystalline characters next, and the chemical last of all. In -description, the external characters are often the most valuable; -if judiciously selected and arranged, they will always prove of the -most essential service, and can rarely be entirely dispensed with. - -With regard to the NOMENCLATURE of minerals, we feelingly unite -with Professor Cleaveland in deploring the oppressive redundancy -of synonymes. Few minerals have only one name, and usually they -have several. With Count Bournon we agree, that the discoverer of -a mineral has the exclusive right of naming it, and that the name -once given should not be changed without the most cogent reasons. -What then shall we say of the ABBÉ HAÜY, of whom, whether we -speak of his genius, his learning, his acuteness, his discoveries, -his candour, and love of truth, or his universally amiable and -venerable character, we can never think without sentiments of the -highest respect and admiration? More than any modern writer he has -added to the list of synonymes, often exchanging a very good name, -derived perhaps from the locality or discoverer of a mineral, for -one professedly significant, but connected with its subject by a -chain of thought so slight, that considerable knowledge of Greek -etymology, and still more explanation, is necessary to comprehend -the connexion; and thus, after all, it amounts, with respect to -most readers, only to the exchange of one arbitrary name for -another. What advantage, for instance, has _grammatite_, alluding -to a line often obscure, and still oftener wholly invisible, -over the good old name _tremolite_, which always reminds us of -an interesting locality; how is _pyroxene_ better than _augite_, -_amphibole_ than _hornblende_, _amphigene_ than _leucite_, or -_disthene_ than _sappar_. Some of the Abbé Haüy's names are, -however, very happily chosen, especially where new discriminations -were to be established, or errors corrected, or even a redundant -crop of synonymes to be superseded by a better name. _Epidote_ -is an instance of the latter, and the new divisions of the old -_zeolite family_ into four species, _mesotype_, _stilbite_, -_analcime_, and _chabasie_, afford a happy instance of the -former. It were much to be wished, that by the common consent of -mineralogists, one nomenclature should be universally adopted: for -its uniformity is of much more importance than its nature. - -In expressing our approbation of the principles of arrangement -adopted by Professor Cleaveland, we have of course espoused those -of his TABULAR VIEW, which is perhaps as nearly as the state of -science will admit, erected upon a chemical basis, like that of -Brongniart, to which it bears a close resemblance. Some of the -subordinate parts, we could have wished had been arranged in a -manner somewhat different. In the genus lime, it appears to us -better to describe the species carbonat first; because, being very -abundant, and its characters clear, it forms a convenient point -of departure and standard of comparison, in describing the other -species which have lime for their basis, and some of which are -comparatively rare. The same remark we would make upon quartz, and -its concomitant, pure silicious stones. There appears to us a high -advantage in making these minerals clearly known first, before we -proceed to those which are much more rare, and especially which -are much harder, and possess the characters of gems. For example, -if a learner has become acquainted with quartz, chalcedony, flint, -opal, chrysoprase, and jasper, he will much more easily comprehend -the superior hardness, &c. and different composition of topaz, -sapphire, spinelleruby, chrysoberyl, and zircon, which we should -much prefer to see occupying a later, than the first place in a -tabular arrangement; and, although topaz, by containing fluoric -acid, appears to be in some measure assimilated to saline minerals, -it is in its characters so very diverse from the earthy salts, -that we have fair reason to conclude that the fluoric acid does -not stamp the character; and, as it bears so close a resemblance -to the ruby and sapphire, which evidently derive their principal -characters from the argillaceous earth, we perhaps ought to infer -that this (the topaz,) does so too. Indeed Professor Cleaveland has -sufficiently implied his own opinion, by giving these minerals a -juxtaposition in his table, although the same reasons which induced -the placing of the topaz next to the earthy salts, could not have -justified the placing of the sapphire there. On these points we are -not, however, strenuous; they are of more importance if the work -be used as a text-book for lectures, than as a private companion. -With respect to the _completeness_ of Professor Cleaveland's -tabular view, we have carefully compared it with the third edition -of Jameson's mineralogy; and although a few new species, or -sub-species, and varieties have been added in this last edition, -they are in general of so little importance, that Professor -Cleaveland's work cannot be considered as materially deficient; and -the few cases in which it is so, are much more than made up by his -entirely new and instructive views of American mineralogy, to which -no parallel is to be found in any other book, and which give it -peculiar interest to the American, and even to the European, reader. - -In another edition, (which we cannot doubt will speedily be called -for,) he will of course add whatever is omitted in this, and we -should be gratified to see a good article on the subject of the -ærolites or stones which have fallen from the atmosphere. This -subject is one, in our view, of high interest; and although _in -strictness_ it may not claim a place in a tabular view of minerals, -(we must confess, however, that we see no important obstacle to its -being treated of under the head of native iron,) there can be no -objection to its being placed in an appendix. The fall of stones -from the atmosphere is the most curious and mysterious fact in -natural history. - -It may seem perhaps too trivial to remark, that the annexation of -numbers, referring to the pages, would be a serious addition to -the utility of the tabular view. Very few inadvertencies have been -observed--the following may be mentioned: _Amenia_, in the State of -New-York, is printed (by a typographical error we presume) Armenia; -and _Menechan_, where the menechanite is found, is mentioned as -occurring in Scotland, but it is in Cornwall. - -Authors seem agreed that the black-lead ore is an altered carbonat, -but they seem not to have been so well agreed as to the nature -of the blue-lead ore. In the cabinet of Colonel Gibbs, there are -specimens which appear satisfactorily to illustrate both these -subjects. The black-lead is by the blowpipe alone reducible to -metallic lead; there is one specimen in the cabinet referred -to, which is blackened on what appears to have been the under -side, and seemingly by the contact of sulphuretted hydrogen gas; -that which was probably the upper part remains unaltered, and is -beautiful white carbonat of lead; this appearance is the more -striking, because the piece is large and full of interstices, by -which the gas appears to have passed through. The blue ore is in -large six-sided prisms of a dark blue or almost black colour; where -the prisms are broken across, they present an unequal appearance; -sometimes they are _invested_; and sometimes slightly, and at -other times deeply, _penetrated_ by sulphuret of lead, having -the usual brilliant foliated fracture. The part which looks like -sulphuret of lead is easily reducible by the blowpipe, but not the -whole crystal, as authors appear to imply; for if that part of the -crystal which does not present the appearance of galena is heated -by the blowpipe flame, it is not reduced, but congeals into the -garnet dodecahedron, with its colour unaltered: these crystals -are therefore phosphat of lead, and they appear to be either an -original mixture of phosphat and sulphuret of lead, or the phosphat -has somehow in part given up its phosphoric acid, and assumed in -its stead sulphur, perhaps from the decomposition of sulphuretted -hydrogen. - -Professor Cleaveland will, of course, add new localities, even -foreign ones, where they are interesting, and domestic ones, where -they are well authenticated. Among the former, we trust he will -mention the lake of sulphuric acid contained in the crater of -Mount Idienne, in the Province of Bagnia Vangni, in the eastern -part of Java, and also the river of sulphuric acid which flows -from it and kills animals, scorches vegetation, and corrodes the -stones.[10] Among American localities, we beg leave to mention -violet fluor spar, abundant and very handsome, near Shawnee Town, -on the Ohio, in the Illinois Territory, and galena, of which this -fluor is the gangue;--sulphat of magnesia, perfectly crystallized, -in masses composed of delicate white prisms, in a cave in the -Indiana Territory, not very remote from Louisville, in Kentucky; -it is said to be so abundant that the inhabitants carry it away by -the wagon load;--pulverulent carbonat of magnesia, apparently pure, -found by Mr. Pierce at Hoboken, in serpentine, where the hydrate of -magnesia was found;--chabasie, agates, chalcedony, amethyst, and -analcime, at Deerfield, by Mr. E. Hitchcock;--agates in abundance -at East-Haven, near New-Haven, in secondary greenstone, like -the above-named minerals at Deerfield;--saline springs, covered -with petroleum, and emitting large volumes of inflammable gases, -numerous in New-Connecticut, south of Lake Erie;--magnetical -pyrites, abundant in the bismuth vein, at Trumbull, -Connecticut:--very brilliant fine-grained micaceous iron, in large -masses near Bellows' Falls; yellow foliated blende, in Berlin, -Connecticut, and near Hamilton College--the latter discovered by -Professor Noyes; it is in veins in compact limestone;--red oxid -of titanium, often geniculated, at Leyden, in Massachusetts, -discovered by Mr. E. Hitchcock;--red oxid of titanium, in very -large crystals and geniculated, imbedded in micaceous schistus, at -Oxford, 20 miles north from New-Haven;--silicious petrifactions of -wood, abundant in the island of Antigua, recently brought by Mr. -Pelatiah Perit, of New-York;--sulphuret of molybdena, at Pettipaug, -and at East-Haddam, Connecticut;--prehnite abundant and beautiful, -in secondary greenstone, at Woodbury, 24 miles north of New-Haven, -discovered by Mr. Elijah Baldwin;--black oxid of manganese, in -great abundance, and of an excellent quality, near Bennington, -Vermont, and plumose mica, in a very fine graphic granite, in a -hill two miles north of Watertown, Connecticut. - -The introduction to the STUDY OF GEOLOGY, deserves a more extended -series of remarks than it would now be proper to make, after so -full a consideration of the previous parts of the work. - -Professor Jameson's elaborate exposition of the Wernerian system, -is too full, and too much devoted to a particular system, for -beginners: the sketches of geology contained in the systems of -Chemistry by Murray and Thomson, and in Phillips's mineralogy, -are too limited, although useful: the excellent account of -the Wernerian system, contained in an Appendix to Brochant's -Mineralogy, has, we believe, never been translated; and we need -not say that Professor Playfair's illustrations of the Huttonian -Theory, De Luc's Geology, and Cuvier's Geology, are not well -adapted to the purposes of a beginner; neither is Delametherie's, -nor has it been translated. An introduction to geology was, -therefore, hardly less needed than one to mineralogy. Professor -Cleaveland has performed this difficult duty with great ability, -and has brought this interesting branch of science fairly within -the reach of our students. - -Although adhering substantially to the Wernerian arrangement of -rocks, he has, so to speak, blended Werner's three classes of -primitive, transition, and secondary rocks, into one class; and -where the same rock occurs in all the three classes, or in two of -them, he mentions it in giving the history of the particular rock. -This method simplifies the subject very much to the apprehensions -of a learner. A rigid Wernerian would probably revolt at it, but -the distinctions of Mr. Werner may still be pointed out, and, we -should think, ought to be, at least by all teachers. - -In Mr. Cleaveland's account of the trap rocks, we should almost -imagine that some typographical error had crept into the following -paragraph: - -"But in modern geological inquiries, the word trap is usually -employed to designate a _simple mineral_, composed of hornblende -nearly or quite pure, and also those aggregates in which -_hornblende_ predominates. Hence, the _presence_ of hornblende, as -a predominating ingredient, characterizes those MINERALS to which -most geologists apply the name _trap_." - -Now, it is not accordant with our apprehensions that trap is ever -at the present time employed to designate a _simple mineral_, nor -has Professor Cleaveland himself used it in his tabular view, or -in his description of simple minerals. In our view, it is the -_classical_ word of modern geology, to designate that description -of rocks in which hornblende predominates, and perhaps a few others -of minor importance usually associated with them. It is true, a -rock composed of pure hornblende may be called trap, but it is not -true, _vice versa_, that this rock, considered in its character of -a simple mineral, is called trap. If our views are correct, the -section which is headed _trap_ or _hornblende_, should be _trap_ or -_hornblende rocks_, and greenstone should come in as a subdivision, -and not form a distinct section. With these alterations, and with -the substitution of rock in the _first_, and rocks in the _second_ -instance, in the paragraph above quoted, instead of _mineral_ and -_minerals_, we apprehend the view of this family of rocks would -be much more clear, and a degree of confusion, which learners now -experience from the paragraph, would be prevented. If we are wrong, -we are sure Professor Cleaveland will pardon us; if right, his -candour will readily admit the correction. - -As to the manner in which the work of Professor Cleaveland is -executed, the remarks which we already made, have in a good degree -anticipated this head. - -We cannot, however, dismiss the subject without adding that, in our -opinion, this work does honour to our country, and will greatly -promote the knowledge of mineralogy and geology, besides aiding -in the great work of disseminating a taste for science generally. -Our views of the plan we have already detailed. The manner of -execution is masterly. Discrimination, perspicuity, judicious -selection of characters and facts, and a style chaste, manly, -and comprehensive, are among the characteristics of Professor -Cleaveland's performance. It has brought within the reach of -the American student the excellencies of Kirwan, Jameson, Haüy, -Brochant, Brongniart, and Werner; and we are not ashamed to have -this work compared with their productions. In our opinion Professor -Cleaveland's work ought to be introduced into all our schools of -mineralogy, and to be the travelling companion of every American -mineralogist. - -We trust that all cultivators of mineralogy and geology in this -country, will willingly aid Professor Cleaveland in enlarging his -list of American localities for a second edition; and we hope -that he will repay them, at a future day, by giving us a distinct -treatise on geology, with as particular a delineation as possible -of the geological relations of the great North American formations. -Mr. Maclure has, with great ability, sketched the outline; but much -labour is still needed in filling up the detail. - - - - -ART. III. _New Locality of Fluor Spar, or Fluat of Lime and of -Galena, or Sulphuret of Lead._ - - -Mr. Joseph Baldwin, formerly of Connecticut, now residing near -Shawnee Town, in the Illinois Territory, has given us some -interesting specimens of fluor spar. They are found not far from -Shawnee Town, on the banks of the Ohio; and a few miles below -where the Wabash joins the Ohio. The fluor forms the gangue of -a lead vein, and we have pieces in which the lead and fluor -are intimately blended. The lead ore is the common galena, or -sulphuret, with a broad, foliated, or laminated fracture, and a -high degree of metallic splendour. We reduced it to the metallic -state, and it yielded a large product of very soft lead. On -dissolving it in nitric acid, and applying the muriatic acid till -precipitation ceased, the precipitate formed was _all redissolved_ -by boiling water; nor, when submitted to cupellation did the lead -leave any thing upon the cupel. We, therefore, conclude that it -contained no appreciable quantity of silver. It is said to be very -abundant at Shawnee Town. - -The fluor spar is very beautiful. Its colours, chiefly, very deep -purple and violet; but still highly translucent; one specimen was -entirely limpid. Both kinds, when thrown in coarse powder, on a -red-hot shovel, in a dark place, phosphoresced, and the violet -specimens in a very striking manner. Of the violet kind, we have a -specimen nearly as large as a man's fist, which is perfectly pure -and sound, and appears to have been a single crystal; the natural -faces and angles were unfortunately obliterated by grinding on a -common grindstone. We have others which are decidedly crystals -of perfect regularity; cubes, and passages between the cube and -octahedron. In some of the specimens, the disposition of colours, -and the transmission of light is such as to show very clearly that -the octahedron lies in the centre, as the nucleus or primitive form. - -The size and beauty of the specimens, and the abundance of this -mineral near Shawnee Town, (provided there is no mistake in the -case) clearly entitle this to be considered as the most interesting -American locality of this beautiful mineral. Measures have been -taken to investigate the subject more fully, and to obtain a supply -of specimens. - -Quartz crystals appear to abound at the same place, besides various -other minerals. - - - - -ART. IV. _Carbonate of Magnesia, and very uncommon Amianthus, -discovered near New-York.--Extract of a Letter from Mr. James -Pierce to the Editor._ - - - _New-York, May 18, 1818._ - - DEAR SIR, - -I forward you specimens of straw and rose-coloured amianthus I -recently met with on Staten-Island, which I detached, in strips, -from a rock; it not appearing, as is usual, in veins. It breaks up -like flax, and may be spun and wove without the aid of moisture; -and in respect to tenacity, flexibility, and length of fibre, it -may be considered the best found in this country, and perhaps equal -to any hitherto discovered. Staten-Island exhibits many minerals -worthy of examination. I subjoin, as requested, the following -geological description, &c. - -Hoboken, where I discovered native carbonate of magnesia, is -situated opposite the city of New-York, on the western or -New-Jersey bank of the Hudson. It is a primitive, insulated -elevation, with a nucleus of serpentine; the ground gradually -descends in every direction except on the river side, where mural -precipices of serpentine rock are observed, extending about 100 -rods parallel with the water, and elevated from 60 to 100 feet -above its level. The carbonate of magnesia I found in horizontal -veins of nearly two inches in breadth, and of unknown depth, in a -midway region of this serpentine ledge; I extracted a considerable -quantity with a spoon. When first taken out it was soft, white, and -very slightly adhesive, from a little moisture; but, when dry, fell -to powder without friction. The nature of the mineral I immediately -conjectured, and treated it with diluted sulphuric acid, in which -it entirely dissolved with effervescence, forming a bitter fluid, -and leaving no sediment. Upon evaporation, well-defined crystals of -Epsom salts were formed. It differs little from the manufactured -carbonate of magnesia of the shops; but is rather a super than -a sub-carbonate. It has been analyzed by Professor Mitchill, -who found it exclusively composed of magnesia and carbonic acid. -Carbonates of magnesia, hitherto discovered, have been, I believe, -found impure, and in a state of rock, requiring chemical process to -render them serviceable; this is, perhaps, fit for immediate use. -When I first mentioned the discovery to mineralogists, they were -incredulous, supposing it did not natively exist in this state, but -I convinced them by uniting it with sulphuric acid. - - -REMARKS. - -The specimen of amianthus, referred to in Mr. Pierce's -communication, is uncommon. The fibres measure from 12 to 15 inches -in length, and are as soft and flexible as fine human hair. - -It will be remembered, that in the rocks at Hoboken, Dr. Bruce -discovered the hydrate of magnesia, or magnesia combined with -nothing but water, in the proportion of about 70 per cent. of -magnesia. This discovery gave a new and interesting species to -mineralogy; it is now admitted in the systematical works on -mineralogy. - -Mr. Pierce's discovery is not less interesting; and we presume he -will be deemed correct in the opinion, that pure native carbonate -of magnesia has not been discovered before. The serpentine of -Hoboken, then, is memorable for affording these two new species. - - - - -ART. V. _Native Copper._ - - -In Bruce's Journal, (Vol. I. p. 149.) mention is made of a -remarkable piece of native copper, found near New-Haven many years -ago, and weighing about 90lbs. - -We have now to add, (and the fact is, indeed, mentioned in -Cleaveland's Mineralogy,) that another piece has been recently -found half a mile west of the Hartford turnpike road, opposite the -town of Wallingford, and twelve miles from New-Haven. It was turned -up in ploughing to repair a road. The country is of the secondary -trap formation, and the rocks, at the particular place, are the -old red sandstone of Werner, which here occupies the plains, and -runs under the trap. The piece weighs almost six pounds; it is -fine virgin copper, with rudiments of large octahedral crystals of -native copper upon its surface, which is more or less incrusted -with green carbonate of copper and ruby oxid, very much resembling -that of Cornwall: the ruby oxid is particularly remarkable in the -cavities of the piece. - -As it was found within three or four miles of the place where the -large piece of ninety pounds weight was discovered, and as copper -is known to exist in many places in these hills, the facts should -be kept in view, and may lead to something of importance. - - - - -ART. VI. _Petrified Wood from Antigua._ - - -The mineralogy and geology of the West-India islands has been, -as yet, but little explored. The scientific world has, however, -been favoured with some interesting articles from the pen of Dr. -Nugent; and we are informed that he has described also the geology -of the island of Antigua. We have recently become acquainted with -one interesting production of this island, and without waiting for -Dr. Nugent's account, (which we believe has not yet reached this -country) we shall lay it before our readers. - -We are under obligations to Mr. Pelatiah Perit, of New-York, for -a collection of specimens of silicious petrifactions of wood from -Antigua. Their characters are indubitable; the distinct ligneous -layers corresponding with the annual growth, the medullary -prolongations, the knots formed by branches, the cracks and the -bark, are all distinctly visible. Some of the pieces are ponderous -portions of large trees. - -As to the mineralizing matter, it is evidently silicious, and the -specimens are principally the holzstein of Werner; crystals of -quartz are apparent in the cavities; some parts are agatized, and -veins of chalcedony occasionally pervade the fissures: they are -not impressible by steel, and give fire with it. According to the -information of Mr. Perit, they are scattered over the surface of -the Island of Antigua, with a profusion hardly less than that which -Horneman observed of the same mineral during his travels over the -eastern part of the great African desert. - -It is much to be wished that our numerous intelligent navigators -and travelling merchants would, in imitation of this and of a -similar example, mentioned below, bestow some share of their -attention on the natural productions of the countries which they -visit. In this way they might, on their return, render very -essential services to the science of their own country. - - - - -ART. VII. _Porcelain and Porcelain Clays._ - - -Through the kind offices of a friend, we have been furnished, -from one of the great porcelain manufactories in the vicinity of -Paris, with a series of specimens, to illustrate the elegant art of -fabricating porcelain. The specimens begin with the raw materials, -and exhibit them in all their principal stages of advancement up -to the perfect vessel, including the materials for the glazing, -and the colours for the painting, and the application of both. -At the request of the manufacturer, through whose liberality we -were indulged with this gratification, we transmitted to Paris -various specimens of American porcelain clays. This gentleman has -caused them to be subjected to trials in the porcelain furnaces, -and he finds that some of them are equal to the French porcelain -clays, and some superior. As our specimens were all labelled with -the names of the places, in this country, from which they were -obtained, we hope soon to learn where to look for porcelain clays, -equal or superior to those celebrated ones from which the superb -French porcelain is manufactured. - -As this subject is one of much practical importance to the rising -arts of this country, and as much interest has been excited in -Paris concerning our porcelain clays, we should feel greatly -obliged by the transmission to us of any specimens of American -porcelain clays, with memoranda of the place, the quantity, -the depth at which obtained, the difficulty of obtaining, and, -generally, all the peculiar circumstances. We will take care that -their value shall be ascertained, if they appear promising, and a -proper return shall be made to the proprietor. - -To those of our readers who may not be familiar with this subject, -we would however take the liberty to remark, that porcelain clays -generally arise from the decomposition of granite, and particularly -of that kind which is denominated graphic granite, and which -abounds with feldspar. It is, therefore, in the primitive countries -that we are chiefly to expect them--such as New-England, and part -of the high country of the middle and southern states. - -It should be observed, that if a clay, otherwise apparently good, -burns red, it contains iron, and is unfit for porcelain; although -it may serve well enough for more common and coarse earthen ware. - - - - -ART. VIII. _Native Sulphur from Java._ - - -Through the kindness of Mr. I. Huntington, recently returned from -Java, we have received from that Island some fine specimens of -native sulphur. They are very pure, of an orange yellow, slightly -shaded with white, and occasionally with red; some of the cavities -are lined with delicate crystals. What gives them particular -interest is, that they are believed to be from that "large, and -now nearly extinct, volcano, about sixty miles from the town -of Batavia, at the bottom of which (of the crater) lie large -quantities of native sulphur, even many hundred tons." It is in -the crater of this volcano that the famous lake of sulphuric acid -exists, and from which it flows down the mountain, and through the -country below, a river of the same acid. (See Tilloch's Phil. -Mag. Vol. XLII. p. 182.) It is a most curious phenomenon, and we -believe entirely without a parallel. Another river, called the -White River, unites with this some miles below its origin: this -river, which is so called from the turbidness of its waters, its -salutary to men and animals; fishes live in it, and vegetation is -nourished by its waters; but after the junction it becomes clear; -the acid dissolving the earthy particles which discoloured it, and -it now becomes fatal to living beings: kills the fish, destroys the -vegetation, and corrodes the stones in its channel. This remarkable -river flows from Mount Idienne, in the province of Bagnia Vangni, -in the eastern part of Java. - - - - -ART. IX. _Productions of Wier's Cave, in Virginia._ - - -We are indebted to the Reverend Elias Cornelius, and to Mr. John H. -Kain, for a collection of the calcareous incrustations of Wier's -Cave, in Virginia. - -The stalactites, and stalagmites, and various incrustations, are of -uncommon size and beauty. Some of the stalactites have a delicate -whiteness, and a brilliancy arising from their crystallized -structure, which, with the regularity of their forms, give them a -fair title to rank with those of the famous caverns in the Peak of -Derbyshire, in the island of Antiparos, &c. - -In these stalactites, the structure is most remarkably distinct, -both in the fibrous and concentric lamellar form. In this -collection were observed many forms of the crystallized hard -carbonates of lime, of Count Bournon. - -For a description of the cavern from which these specimens came, we -refer to the succeeding memoir, by Mr. Kain. - - - - -ART. X. _Remarks on the Mineralogy and Geology of the Northwestern -part of the State of Virginia, and the Eastern part of the State of -Tennessee._ By Mr. JOHN H. KAIN, of Tennessee. - - -The most prominent as well as the most beautiful feature of this -country, is that succession of mountain and valley, ridge and vale, -which we meet with in traversing its surface. The grand range of -Alleghany mountains enters Virginia about the 39th degree of north -latitude; and, pursuing a southwestern course, spreads out upon the -east end of Tennessee, and terminates near the southern boundary -line of that state, in the Alabama territory; and about the 34th -parallel of north latitude. In this view are included the Blue -Mountains, the North Mountains, the Allegheny, (properly so called) -the Cumberland, Clinch, Iron, and Smoky mountains, together with -a variety of smaller mountains, spurs, and ridges, all running -parallel to each other, from the northeast to the southwest; and -all, I believe I may say, covered with forests, and presenting to -the eye of the naturalist a most interesting field for speculation -and improvement. - -With a few exceptions, the geologist meets with none of those -remarkable appearances which indicate the changes and convulsions -which have been wrought by time, the great enemy of nature. -Occasionally we are presented with a view of a sublime precipice, -formed by a section which a river appears to have made for itself -through an opposing mountain; and the large masses of ruins, which -lie scattered around such a place, seem, to the imagination of the -solitary traveller, the historical records of commotions, awful -even in retrospect. Most commonly, however, the mountains seem to -have lain for ages in undisturbed repose; and the streams of water, -when they have crossed them, have sought an easy passage through -the ravines, which do not so often divide a mountain, or ridge, at -right angles, as wind between the ends of two opposing spurs, which -pass each other, gradually declining into the champaign country at -their mutual base. Through this whole extent of country we rarely -meet with any remarkable falls of water; the obvious reason of -which is, that the rocks are so soft that they are easily worn down -to the level of the beds of rivers. But shoals, or shallows, are -frequent, and are formed by beds of rounded sandstone, spread out -into a broad base, over which the water often rushes with no small -violence and noise. - -The mountains are generally, though not always, sterile, and -produce nothing but forest trees; but the valleys are, with hardly -an exception, rich, and productive of every variety of "grass and -herb yielding seed, and fruit-tree yielding fruit." Nor are they -less favoured in the mineral kingdom; possessing the greatest -abundance of all the most useful and necessary minerals, of which -we shall now proceed to speak in order. - -All the country included under the boundaries mentioned above, -with the exception of some primitive ranges of mountains on the -southeastern side, is apparently _transition_. This, it will be -seen by a reference to Mr. Maclure's excellent map, will extend the -boundary of his transition class considerably farther northwest, -and make it include Cumberland Mountain and all East Tennessee. -This would be evident from comparing the northwestern part of -Virginia, which Mr. Maclure has included in his transition tract -with all East Tennessee. Every mineralogist must observe the -identity of the minerals of the two countries as well as that of -their stratification and general formation. The limestone in the -valleys, and the sandstone on the mountains, lie in strata which -make an angle of from 25 to 45 degrees with the horizon. The -limestone bears the impressions of shells, but rarely, if ever, of -vegetables, and contains beds of hornstone, but not of flint, or -what can properly be called flint. - -The rock which lies in the lowest valleys, and often rises into -pretty high hills, and is seen forming bluffs on the banks of the -rivers, is _limestone_: it is of a dark blue, approaching to a -gray, as it is exposed to the air, and often appearing quite white. -Its fracture is compact in one direction; in another it is more -or less slaty in its structure. It is interspersed with veins of -the crystallized carbonate of lime, more or less perfect, and of a -pure but opaque white. Another variety of this limestone, not so -abundant, is that which is white and red, having the white and red -spots intimately mingled. Its structure is similar to the other -kind. - -Lying in beds of this limestone, parallel to, and imbedded in, its -strata, is a stone, which, from its globular form, its hardness, -and its colour, has been usually mistaken for flint. On comparing -it with the flint of chalk-beds, we find it much less translucent, -its colour darker, and its hues duller; and its rough and irregular -fracture, compared with the easy, smooth, and conchoidal cleavage -of the true flint, decides it to be hornstone. It is found also -forming considerable distinct beds on the hills; and is seen in -detached pieces, and irregular pebbles, covering many of the ridges. - -Alternating with the beds of limestone, and possessing the same -formation, is a soft _clay slate_. _Soapstone_ is found in it. - -As soon as we ascend the mountains, we meet with a slaty sand-stone -of various compactness, as it possesses more or less iron, often -forming an excellent iron ore. A variety of this iron ore has been -lately turned to a good use, in the manufacture of a red paint, -near Knoxville, Tennessee. Different varieties of this sandstone -possess different qualities. It is converted by the inhabitants -into millstones, grindstones, and whetstones. Interspersed among -the sandstone of the mountains we often find very beautiful and -interesting specimens of hornstones, assuming a resemblance to all -the silicious stones, from the chalcedony to the jasper. In this -extensive range of mountains, many other minerals exist, of which -we shall treat more particularly hereafter. The limestone, slate, -and sandstone, as far as the writer's knowledge extends, so to -speak, _form the country_; the limestone and clay slate dipping -under the sandstone. Gypsum, coal, sulphate of barytes, &c. are -found in these, and we shall now speak of their localities. - -_Gypsum._--This valuable mineral production exists in Washington -County, Virginia, 20 miles north of Abingdon, in the vicinity of -Saltville. It is similar, in every respect, to the plaster of Nova -Scotia, and devoted by the farmers of that part of Virginia, and -Tennessee, to similar purposes. - -_Coal_ is said to exist in immense quantities in the Cumberland -Mountain. A bed of it is wrought near Knoxville, Tennessee. It is -of an excellent quality; but wood is so abundant that it is used -only in forges. - -_Sulphate of Barytes._--This mineral is found in Bottetourt County, -Virginia, near Fincastle; and in Sevier County, Tennessee. - -_Hard Carbonates of Lime._--Stalactitical concretions abound in -all the caves so often described as existing in this country. -Those of Virginia are more perfectly crystallized than those of -Tennessee. Under the head of _hard carbonates_ should be mentioned -an extensive bed or vein in Montgomery County in the State of -Virginia, near the seat of Colonel Hancock. It appears to have -been formed in a chasm, in the common limestone of the country, -by a calcareous deposition which resembles, exactly, in all its -characters, the calcareous concretions which are found forming in -the caves of the country. The whole bed may, in fact, be regarded -as a cave which has been filled up in the progress of time, by this -curious process. Its width is various, from two feet to ten, or -more, extending along the side of a very steep ridge, for at least -50 yards, and it is said to be continued seven miles farther. - -_The silicious carbonate of lime_ may be worth distinguishing from -the common limestone. It is found in a bed near Colonel Hancock's, -and was supposed to be gypsum. It phosphoresces beautifully; it is -white, and confusedly crystalline in its structure, and much harder -than the common limestone. Indeed the limestone generally, on the -east of the Alleghany, is somewhat harder than that on the west. - -_Lead._--There are several localities of this mineral. A mine of it -is wrought near New River, 15 miles from Wythe, Virginia. Another -locality of the ore of lead is said to have been discovered in -Granger County, Tennessee, on land belonging to General Cocke. -It exists also, very near the surface, on the plantation of the -Rev. Mr. Craighead, near Nashville; which, however, is out of our -boundary. - -Other metallic ores are said to have been found among these -mountains, and particularly those of gold and silver; but the -accounts are vague and uncertain, and not to be credited. - -The numerous _Caves_ of this country present attractions to every, -the least curious, traveller; and, in an eminent degree, to the -mineralogist. They are crevices, or large chasms, probably worn -in the rocks by the passage of water. This will, at first view, -perhaps appear a bold assertion; but if it be recollected that they -occur only in limestone, which is a soft rock, and (under certain -circumstances,) soluble in water; that the rocks bear every mark -of having been worn by water; and that streams of water are always -found in them, it will not appear an improbable hypothesis. It is -by no means difficult to believe that a stream, after having worn -such a chasm as a cave presents, in the solid rock, may have found -another channel; and, forsaking the old, have left room for nature -to display some of her most beautiful works. A description of one -of these caves will be a description of all; and we shall select -_Wier's Cave_, in Rockingham County, Virginia, as it is the most -curious of any with which we are acquainted. - -The entrance of the cave is narrow and difficult. When the cave was -first discovered, the passage into it was impeded by stalactites, -which had formed perpendicular columns across it; but these are now -removed. As we advance, our course is at first horizontal, but we -soon descend fifteen or twenty feet by a ladder, and find ourselves -in a large echoing cavern. Stalactites of a silvery whiteness -are suspended from above, and pillars of stalagmites are rising -around us. Ledges of rocks form our floor, and the uneven walls -are incrusted over with a beautiful brown spar, which is sometimes -suspended from the canopy in thin, shining, and translucent sheets. -In passing on over the rugged rock of our pathway, our attention -is divided between a care for our safety, and an admiration of the -surrounding wonders. - -Proceeding on through a narrower crevice in the rocks, we are soon -introduced into other apartments, differing in shape and size -from the first, but resembling it in the irregularity of its -walls, floor, and covering, and in the calcareous incrustations -and concretions, which, assuming a thousand fantastic shapes, and -displaying a sparkling lustre, the more vivid as the light is -stronger, give to this whole grotto the power of charming every -beholder. - -The cave is a mile and a half in extent, and extremely irregular in -its course and shape. Its perpendicular height varies from three -to forty feet, and its breadth from two to thirty. Its dividing -branches are numerous, forming a great variety of apartments. The -blue limestone appears frequently enough to satisfy us that it is -the groundwork of the whole; but it is almost every where covered -with incrustations of the hard carbonates. These hang from the -arched vault above in clusters, and often reach the ground, forming -massive columns. Stalagmites again rise from the floor like so -many statues; the irregular sides of the ledges of rocks are often -incrusted over with white crystals of the carbonate of lime, and -have the appearance of banks of salt: at times we seem to walk on -diamond pavements; again our footway is of rounded pebbles, and -seems the bed of a river which had deserted its channel. Often we -pass small streams of water; and the water is continually dripping -from the ends of the stalactites, the echoing sound of which, when -it drops, forms the only interruption to the profound silence which -reigns throughout the cavern. - -To give an idea of the diversified shapes which these concretions -assume in the progress of their formation, (and they are constantly -forming,) would be impossible. Suffice it to say, that there is -scarcely any thing on earth to which they may not be supposed to -form a resemblance; and yet, in fact, they are unlike any thing but -themselves. - -It is generally known that the earth in these caves contains the -nitrates of lime, and potash, and other salts. The numerous caves -which have been found in the Cumberland mountains and other parts -of Tennessee, have been very productive of the nitrate of potash. -In the investigation of the causes which have given origin to these -salts, it may be recollected, that wild animals burrow in these -caves; that when pursued by the hunter, they make them the places -of their retreat, and probably die there; that the aborigines have -made them a place of burial; and that the streams of water which -flow through them in wet weather, carry with them not only great -quantities of leaves but many other vegetable productions. - -The _natural bridge_ is celebrated as one of the greatest -curiosities of the world. Viewed by a geologist, it would probably -be considered as a cave (so to speak) _unroofed_ in all but one -place. It seems improbable that if the ravine had been made by a -convulsion, which had split and separated the rock to the distance -of fifty or sixty feet, any part of it, and particularly so large -a mass as that which forms the bridge, should have been left, -without exhibiting any marks of violence. The rock is limestone. -It is known that this rock wears away rapidly under the attrition -of water; and the supposition does not appear improbable, that, in -the lapse of ages, so large a creek as that which flows below the -bridge, may have worn as deep a ravine as that which now strikes -us with so much surprise, In short, may not a cave have been -originally formed where the ravine is now, and the pending portion -of it have fallen in at every place except that which now forms -this celebrated natural curiosity? - -_Mineral Springs._--The mineral springs of this region are numerous -and diversified. Chalybeate springs are promiscuously scattered -over the whole of it; and springs impregnated with sulphuretted -hydrogen are quite common. Salt springs and licks are found more -in the western than the eastern range of mountains. That which was -first wrought by William King, is well known. The salt here is -associated with gypsum. In the same range of mountains, farther to -the southwest, there are now several other salt-works, and also -one to the west, on Goose Creek, in Kentucky, which has been very -productive. - -_The Warm Springs._--These springs are situated in a country -which presents many attractions to the travelling geologist; and -much light, it is hoped, will yet be thrown on the geology of our -country, by a more minute and accurate examination of it than has -yet been made. - -The warm springs ooze through the sand on the south bank of the -French Broad river, in the mountains which divide the state -of Tennessee from her parent state, about the 36th parallel of -latitude. The temperature of the water is about 95° of Fahrenheit. - -On the opposite side of the river from the springs is a geological -curiosity. A limestone rock is seen dipping under the sandstone -which forms the country. Limestone is nowhere else to be seen -within six miles of this place. In this limestone rock is a cave -similar to others already described. - -_Paint Rock_, in the vicinity of the Warm Springs, is interesting -on many accounts. It is a bold precipice on the bank of French -Broad river. At this place the river passes with a very rapid -current directly across the course of a mountain, which terminates -abruptly, and forms the precipice on the north bank of the river. -On looking at the rock, the opposite end of the mountain, and -the ruins around it, the mind is insensibly carried back to the -contemplation of some dreadful commotion in nature, which probably -shook these mountains to their bases. - -The rock is composed of a _clay slate_; and it is here again -remarkable, that this stone is not to be seen in any other -place within some miles. It has received its name from some red -paintings, (probably left on it by the Indians,) which have the -appearance of hieroglyphics. - -To conclude. It will be seen from the above observations, that this -country presents a vast field of most interesting research, and -claims the attention of every traveller who is interested at all in -geological inquiries. If what has been said will at all contribute -to the enlargement of the general stock of our knowledge on these -subjects, the writer will be much gratified; and it is his sincere -wish, that the accuracy of his remarks may be tried, and his -mistakes corrected, by the researches of succeeding travellers. - - - - -ART. XI. _Notice of Professor Mitchill's Edition of Cuvier's Essay -on the Theory of the Earth._ - - -The American scientific public are under obligations to Professor -Mitchill for bringing this book within their reach. It is one of -the most eloquent, impressive, and instructive works on this grand -but obscure subject, with which the world has ever been favoured. -The reader is no sooner drawn within the current of Cuvier's -eloquence, than he is borne along almost without the power or wish -to escape. It is believed there are few intelligent and enlightened -persons, whether geologists or not, who would fail to be gratified -by a book which secures the understanding by a strict course of -reasoning from facts, and delights the taste by a style bold, -terse, and lucid, but at the same time rich and flowing. - -The analysis of this work has been ably performed in Europe, and -there is, therefore, the less necessity to attempt it here. While -we take the liberty thus to recommend it, we do not hold ourselves -strictly bound to the admission of _every one_ of Cuvier's -doctrines; and might, perhaps, wish that in a few instances he had -been somewhat more explicit, or somewhat more qualified. - -The additions by Professor Jameson, of Edinburgh, are valuable and -interesting, and are retained in the present edition. - -Those by Professor Mitchill will be perused with pleasure and -advantage. The learned author has assembled, in one view, a -great mass of facts, partly resulting from his own journeys and -observations, and partly deduced from other respectable sources. -We have no doubt that most of these facts will be considered by -the scientific world as very interesting, whatever views they -may entertain of the conclusions built upon them. The author has -occupied himself principally upon those portions of the United -States, which, by the organized remains both of animals and -vegetables, with which they more or less abound, exhibit the most -decisive and interesting evidence of changes and catastrophes, -whose history is to be sought in the memorials entombed in the -strata themselves. - -We give no opinion regarding the theories of Professor Mitchill, -not intending to review the work, but merely to aid, as far as -in our power, in drawing the public attention to the interesting -subjects about which it is occupied. - -If we have any remark to add, it is, that an adherence to the -technical precision with which most rocks are at the present day -described, appears desirable in mineralogical and geological -descriptions. When in the valuable additions before us we read -of schorl rock, we gain only the idea of a rock containing that -mineral; but as it occurs occasionally in several of the primitive -rocks, we are at a loss which is intended; we believe it never -forms a rock by itself. So with the slate rocks: there are several -varieties of them--mica slate, clay slate, greenstone slate, &c. -besides some subdivisions; and the mere word slate does not always -give us the precise idea. But we are aware that, in the present -case, it was less in view to go into all the details of geological -description, than to give a view of our organized remains and of -their supposed origin. - - - - -ART. XII. _Notice of Eaton's Index to the Geology of the Northern -States, together with a Transverse Section of the Catskill Mountain -to the Atlantic._ - - -The extensive collection of facts in this little book of fifty-four -pages, is creditable to the author's industry and discernment: -he informs us that he has travelled 1000 miles on foot, while -investigating the geology of the district concerning which he -has written. This district is certainly interesting, and every -attempt to diffuse correct information concerning it, deserves -encouragement. Mr. Eaton's account of the regions he has explored, -has every mark of verisimilitude; and we commend his efforts to -diffuse geological information, by short courses of lectures, in -different towns. In his arrangement of rocks, he has deviated from -Werner--has adopted some views of Bakewell, and some of his own. -Werner's arrangement of rocks has, undoubtedly, its imperfections -and its redundancies; and yet it may be questioned how far his -system has been really improved by its different emendators. If -Werner, by mentioning argillaceous schistus only in the primitive -class of rocks, left us to dispose of it where we might, when -we find it at one time, covering or sustaining anthracite, with -impressions of ferns, and at another with impressions of fish and -vegetables, and in contact with bituminous coal; still those who, -with Mr. Eaton, throw argillaceous slate into the transition class, -and omit it in the primitive and secondary, embarrass us with -an equal difficulty; for we find argillaceous slate in contact, -and alternating with, mica slate, and without any impressions of -organized bodies, when we must, without a doubt, call it primitive. - -This is the fact with the clay slate of the Woodbridge hills, -near New-Haven, which is primitive; that of Rhode-Island, with -anthracite, is transition; and that at Middlefields, west of -Middletown, with impressions of fish, is secondary. Slate then -appears to belong to all these three great classes of rocks. - -As to the _metalliferous_ limestone, we do not so much object to -the introduction of this term by Bakewell, although it appears -to us quite as well to say that certain limestones, those of the -transition class for example, are metalliferous. But is Eaton -correct in referring such limestone as that of which the New-York -City-Hall is built, to a metalliferous class? Is not that limestone -decidedly primitive? The fact mentioned of its containing pyrites, -hardly proves it to be metalliferous; since most rocks contain more -or less of pyrites. Some other remarks of less importance we might -add, but we prefer concluding by recommending this tract to the -perusal of those who wish for information respecting the geological -structure of New-England; and we think that Mr. Eaton is seriously -aiding the progress of geology in the interior of New-England. - - - - -ART. XIII. _Notice of M. Brongniart on Organized Remains._ - - -This distinguished mineralogist, so advantageously known by his -excellent work on mineralogy--his researches in company with -Cuvier, into the subterranean geography of the environs of Paris, -and his superintendence of the great porcelain manufactory at -Sevres, is attempting to form an extensive collection of organized -remains. - -Through Professor Cleaveland, we have received from him the -following - - -NOTICE - -_Concerning the method of collecting, labelling, and transmitting -specimens of fossil organized bodies, and of the accompanying -rocks, solicited by_ M. BRONGNIART. - -The study of fossil organized bodies appears to be of the utmost -importance in determining the relations of different formations, -one of the principal objects of geology. - -In order more effectually to appreciate the value of this method -of investigation, it is necessary to multiply observations--to -endeavour to render them exact and precise--and especially to make -them upon a general plan. - -M. Brongniart has been long occupied in such researches. The essay -published by M. Cuvier and him, upon the geology of the environs of -Paris, has afforded an example of their use. - -He has laboured since this period to apply this method to other -formations, which contain the relics of organized bodies; but he -stands in need of much assistance, and he presumes to ask it, not -only of naturalists, but even of all persons interested in the -sciences. By means of the following instructions, he endeavours to -avail himself of the kindness of persons the least conversant in -the discrimination of fossils. - -1. To collect all the fossil organized bodies which can be -obtained; especially _the distinguishable impressions and remains -of vegetables_ from coal countries, and beds of wood, coal, and -others. The _shells_, _crustaceæ_, _madrepores_, _fishes_, &c. -It is not necessary that these bodies should be either large or -entire, but they must be sufficiently characterized to be capable -of being recognized. - -It is useless to transmit large unmeaning pieces, which are -recommended only by their size--such as large ammonites--large -madrepores--large pieces of petrified wood--fragments of the one, -or small individuals of the other, are often sufficient. We may -avoid also collecting the inner moulds ("des moules interieurs") -of shells, because they are almost invariably incapable of being -recognized. - -2. Petrifactions, isolated and detached from their rock, are the -most convenient in the determination of species; but when they -cannot be separated from the rock, we need not hesitate to send -them engaged; it is sufficient if a portion large enough for -discrimination is visible. - -Among shells, those are preferable which have the mouth or hinge -in view; among madrepores, those on whose surface the figures (les -étoiles) are distinguishable; among vegetables, those whose leaves -are distinctly expanded, (expalmées.) - -3. Upon the objects transmitted it is desirable to have, at least -in part, the following notices: - -1. The exact place from which the object comes: this is the most -important circumstance, and the easiest to obtain. - -2. The kind of formation in which it is found, and a specimen of -the stratum, or at least of the rock, which contained it. It is -desirable that this rock exhibit remains of petrifactions similar -to those found in the stratum from which it has been drawn. - -3. The nature of the formation of which this stratum or rock -composes a part, and specimens of as many of the superior and -inferior strata as can be obtained, designating the order of -superposition of the strata. - -4. It is important to designate, by the same mark, all the -petrifactions _unquestionably_ found in the same stratum, or at -least in the same formation. The specimens ought to be almost -square--about three inches or more on a side, and one and a half -thick. - -5. It is equally important not to mix petrifactions found in -different formations, or in different strata of the same formation; -or if they are packed together, to distinguish them by numbers, -marks, or labels. - -When the preceding notices cannot be obtained, the first will -suffice. - -In order to collect the petrifactions, and to render them useful, -it is not necessary to know them, nor to be perplexed to find them -out; nor to be afraid of sending objects already known or of little -note. A part of the preceding indications, connected with the most -common petrifactions, will always render them useful. The important -point then is, not to mix those which are found separate, nor to -separate those which are found associated in the same stratum. - -This is easily attained, by designating by a common number, letter, -or any sign whatever, one particular formation or stratum, and -by marking with the same sign all the petrifactions which are -evidently found together. - -The labels designating the place or the geological situation, may -be placed in the papers which envelope the specimens, or a number, -referring to an explanatory catalogue, may be attached to each -specimen. - -As far as possible, it is necessary to stick the labels or numbers -to the pieces, by pasting; and the surest way is, to write upon the -piece itself, 1st, the place where it is found; 2d, the number by -which it is indicated in the historical notes above requested. - -If there is not time to make out as many numbers or labels as there -are pieces, it will be sufficient to unite in one box or packet all -the petrifactions of one particular stratum, and to designate them -by a general label. - -It is necessary to pack the shells and other fragile pieces in -separate boxes, and to wrap each piece in a separate paper. - -M. Brongniart cannot allow himself to prefer such requests, except -under the express condition, that a memorandum of all the expenses -which the transportation and packing of the specimens may create -shall accompany the letter of advice. - -The objects destined for him may be sent by the common modes of -conveyance, with a letter of advice, to the following address: - -Mr. A. BRONGNIART, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, -Engineer of Mines, etc. Rue Saint-Dominique, Faubourg -Saint-Germain, No. 71, Paris. - - - - -ART. XIV. _Observations on a species of Limosella, recently -discovered in the United States, by Dr. Eli Ives, Professor of -Materia Medica and Botany, in the Medical Institution of Yale -College._ - - -This small plant was observed in flower in July, 1816, by Mr. -Horatio N. Fenn (now of Rochester, State of New-York) in company -with Dr. Leavenworth. The plant and the seeds have been preserved -by me, in a flower-pot, from that time to the present. The plant -was taken a few rods south of Mr. Whitney's gun manufactory, on the -margin of the river, where it was covered by every tide. I have -since observed the plant in great abundance on the margin of the -Housatonuck, in Derby, and in those small streams in East Haven, -Branford, and Guilford, which empty into Long-Island Sound. - -A specimen of the limosella (with some specimens of the tillea) -was sent to Z. Collins, Esq. of Philadelphia, who wrote me that -Mr. Nuttall had found the same plant, a few days previous to the -receipt of my letter, and that they had no question on the subject -of the generic character, but that it would probably prove to be a -new species. - -In the transactions of the Medico-Physical Society of New-York, -page 440, it is described under the name of limosella subulata. -A description of the plant was published about the same time, by -Mr. Nuttall, in the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of -Philadelphia. (See Vol. I. No. 6. p. 115.) - -In the paper written by Mr. Nuttall is the following query: "Does -this plant, with a lateral mode of growth and alternate leaves, -germinate with two cotyledons?" The following observations were -made in answer to this question. In the winter of 1816-17 this -plant was kept in a situation exposed to severe frost; yet whenever -the weather became warm for two or three days, it became quite -green, but for the last winter there was no appearance of life in -the plant. In March 1818, the vessel in which the limosella had -been preserved for two summers preceding, and in which were a great -quantity of seeds, was exposed in a warm situation to the sun. -There was no appearance of vegetation until the last of March, when -were observed several cylindrical leaves, some of them evidently -arose from bulbs which had formed the last summer, on account of -the dryness of its situation, which frequently occurs when plants -are removed from a moist to a dry situation. In other instances -single cylindrical leaves arose from the earth, where no bulbs -were to be found; these cylindrical leaves were thought to arise -from seeds, which, if it was a fact, would prove that the plant -vegetated with but one cotyledon. In a short time the vessel was -crowded with the seeds of the limosella raised by the cotyledons. -These were carefully observed, and in every instance, when the coat -of the seed was cast off, two linear cotyledons were observed, soon -a cylindrical leaf arose from the centre of the cotyledons, and -when this leaf had grown to the length of half an inch, a leaf of a -similar kind arose laterally to a line made by the first leaf and -the cotyledons. - -From the facts above stated, it is thought to be proved that the -limosella vegetates with two cotyledons. This was the fact in every -instance where the husk of the seeds was obviously attached to the -cotyledons, and in the few instances where the plants appeared to -vegetate with but one cotyledon, it is probable that it arose from -a bulb or some portion of the old plant, in which life had not been -extinguished, during the past winter, which was made more probable -by the fact that several of the leaves arose obviously from bulbs. -This limosella,[11] with its congeners, hence will take its place -in the natural order of Jussieu lysimachiæ. - - - - -ART. XV. _Professor_ BIGELOW _on the comparative Forwardness of the -Spring in different Parts of the United States, in 1817_. - - -We have been favoured with an ingenious memoir on this subject, by -the author, Professor Bigelow of Boston; it is a part of the fourth -volume of the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. - -Professor Bigelow, availing himself of a hint given him some -years ago by the late venerable Dr. Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, -ascertained, through the medium of correspondence with accurate -observers in different parts of North America, the time of -flowering, for "1817, of the common fruit-trees and a few other -plants"--"found in most parts of the United States." - -The peach-tree was the one most uniformly returned, and the -following table exhibits the time of its flowering, in places -sufficiently numerous and remote, to afford a fair specimen of -these observations: - - _Places._ _Lat._ _Long._ _Peach-tree in blossom._ - Fort Claiborne, Alab. Ter. 31° 50′ 87° 50′ March 4 - Charleston, S. C. 32 44 80 39 6 12 - Richmond, Va. 37 40 77 50 23 Ap. 6 - Lexington, Ky. 38 6 85 8 April 6 15 - Baltimore, Md. 39 21 77 48 9 - Philadelphia, P. 39 56 75 8 15 - New-York, N. Y. 40 42 74 9 21 26 - Boston, Mass. 42 23 70 52 May 9 - Albany, N. Y. 43 39 73 30 12 - Brunswick, Me. 43 53 69 55 15[12] - Montreal, Can. 45 35 73 11 12 - -Professor Bigelow infers, "that the difference of season between -the northern and southern extremities of the country is not less -than two months and a half." "Difference of longitude does not -seem very materially to affect the Floral Calendar within the -United States." It appears, that in the same year peach-trees were -in blossom at Valencia, in Spain, about the 19th of March; the -apple-tree near London, May 8th; the cherry-tree and pear-tree at -Geneva, in Switzerland, April 3d. - -We hope that this research will be prosecuted in the manner it -has thus been happily begun. It evidently affords an excellent -criterion of the actual temperature, on a scale more extensive than -it is practicable to obtain from thermometrical registers. - -Floral Calendars kept in various parts of the United States would -afford very interesting information, as to the changes of climate -in particular places; a common topic of popular remarks but -generally with few and inaccurate data. - - - - -ART. XVI. _A Journal of the Progress of Vegetation near -Philadelphia between the 20th of February and the 20th of May, -1816, with occasional Zoological Remarks._ By C. S. RAFINESQUE. - - -The importance of observations on the annual progress of vegetation -is obvious, and, as connected with agriculture, gardening, &c., -eminently useful. Comparative observations acquire a particular -degree of interest, when made by skilful observers, at the same -time, but at different places. Dr. Bigelow, of Boston, issued a -circular, proposing that such contemporaneous observations should -be made in the spring of 1817; and I wish that his request may -have been attended to, when the collection of those observations -may afford valuable materials for an American Calendar of Flora. -The blossoming of plants is easily watched, but their foliation -and budding ought not to be neglected. Having been prevented, by -various causes, from keeping an exact record of the progress of -vegetation near New-York in 1817, I submit an accurate journal -which I had kept the year before, at Philadelphia, in which I hope -that some interesting facts may be noticed. Dr. Benjamin Barton has -published a sketch of a Calendar of Flora for Philadelphia, in his -Fragments on the Natural History of Pennsylvania; by comparing it -with mine, many material differences may be traced, which evince -a gradual change of temperature, although the spring of 1816 was -remarkably cold and late. The greater quantity of species observed -by me may, besides, render this journal a sort of vernal Flora of -the neighbourhood of Philadelphia; and many species found by me are -not to be met in the _Flora Philadelphica_ of Dr. William Barton. - - -_February_ 20. The _Hyacinthus orientalis_ begins to show its -flowers, and on the - -24. In full blossom, as well as _Convallaria majalis_, in rooms. - -25. The grass begins to look greenish in some parts. - -26. Seen the first larva of insect in a pond. - -27. The _Motacilla sialis_, or bluebird, is heard for the first -time. - -28. The first shad (_Clupea sapidissima_) is taken in the Delaware, -while on the same day, the first smelt (_Salmo eperlanoides_) was -taken in the Raritan, at New-Brunswick. - - -_March_ 1. The _Tulipa gesneriana_, and _Hesperis matronalis_, are -in blossom at the windows: the suckers (_genus Catostomus_) appear -in the fish-market. - -2. The catkins of the _Alnus serrulatus_ begin to swell. - -3. Those of _Salix Caprea_ begin to appear. - -4. The grass looks green by patches in the country. - -5. The leaves of _Veronica officinalis_, _Plantago virginiana_, -_Saxifraga virginica_, &c. are quite unfolded. - -6. The new leaves of _Kalmia latifolia_ begin to appear. - -7. The spathas of _Spathyema fetida_, or _Fothos fetida_, begin to -appear in blossom. - -8. The _Alnus serrulatus_ is in full blossom. - -10. Found several mosses and ferns in blossom; these last were -covered with capsules or old fructification: they were _Asplenium -ebeneum_, _Aspidium marginale_, _Asp. acrostichoides_, _Polypodium -medium_, N. Sp., &c. - -11. Seen the first spider, in the country, brown, oblong, walking. -A fall of snow at night. - -12. Seen in blossom, at the windows, _Narcissus tazzetta_, _N. -janguilla_, and several saffrons, genus _Crocus_, &c. - -14. The grass looks quite green; the _Draba verna?_ is in blossom -in the State-House garden, the _Viburnum tinus_, _Primula -acaulis_, &c. in the rooms, &c. The following fish are at market: -white perch, (_Perca mucronata_, Raf.) yellow perch, (_Polyprion -fasciatum_, Raf.) mamoose sturgeon, (_Accipenser marginatur_, Raf.) -elk-oldwives, (_Sparus crythrops_, Raf.) &c. - -15. The _Populus fastigiata_, Lombardy poplar, begins to show its -catkins. - -17. The big-eye herring (_Clupea megalops_) begin to be seen at the -fish-market. - -18. Many plants begin to grow and show their leaves. - -19. A fall of snow. The first shad (_Clupea sapidissima_) appear in -New-York: they are now common here. - -20. _Crocus aureus_ in blossom in gardens; likewise _Iris persica_, -&c. - -21. _Betula lenta_ begin to show the catkins. - -22. _Galanthus nivalis_, and _Lamium amplexicaule_, are in blossom -in gardens at Cambden. - -24. _Populus fastigiata_, and _Salix caprea_, are in full -bloom.--The gooseberry bushes shoot their leaves. - -25. _Populus angulata_ in blossom at Cambden. - -26. _Salix babylonica_ begins to blossom and shoot the leaves. -_Viburnum prunifolium_ is budding. - -27. _Draba verna?_ is in seed already in Cambden: the _Rhododendron -maximum_ begins to shoot in gardens. - -28. _Juniperus virginiana_ is in bloom. _Saxifraga virginica_ -begins to show its flowers. _Laurus benzoin_, and _Cornus florida_, -are budding. - - -_April_ 1. In the morning, a large flight of wild geese went over -the city northwards, making a great noise. In the afternoon there -was a thunder storm from the southwest. - -2. The frogs begin to croak. Found in blossom near Cambden, _Arabis -rotundifolia_, Raf., _A. lyrata_, _Saxifraga virginica_, _Draba -verna?_ _Betula lenta_, &c. _Pinus inops_ is budding. - -3. Seen the first swallow. Found in blossom on the Schuylkill, -_Fumaria cucullaria_, _Anemone thalictroides_, _Saxifraga -virginica_, many ferns and mosses. - -4. The fresh-water turtle (_Testudo picta_) begins to show itself. - -7. Found in blossom to-day, _Hepatica triloba_, _Laurus benzoin_, -_Sanguinaria canadensis_, _Spathyema fetida_, _Acer rubrum_, &c. -The first bee is seen. - -10. In blossom at the woodlands, _Viola blanda_, _Luzula -filamentosa_, Raf., _Gnaphalium?_ _plantageneum_, &c. - -12. In blossom at Cambden, _Viola lanceolata_, and _Houstonia -cerulea_. - -14. The apricot-trees begin to blossom in gardens. _Acernegundo_ is -in bloom at Gray's Ferry. - -15. Seen the first butterfly--it was small and gray. Found in -blossom, near Cambden, _Phlox subulata_, _Arabis parviflora_, Raf., -and _Vaccinium ligustrinum_. - -18. Seen in blossom, _Epigea repens_, _Carex acuta_, and _Taraxacum -dens-leonis_. In gardens, the peach and cherry trees are in bloom. -Observed many insects. The _Camellia_, the _Magnolia chinensis_, -&c. are seen in the hot-house of the Woodlands. - -20. The first snake is seen, _Coluber trivittata_, Raf. Also a -beautiful large butterfly, red and black. The _Salix vitellina_, -and _Capsella bursa_. (_Thlaspi bursa-pastoris_,) are in blossom. - -21. Found in blossom, near Gray's Ferry, _Narcissus -pseudo-narcissus_, and _Sedum ternatum_, both naturalized. Likewise -the _Populus tremuloides_, and _Mespelus canadensis_. The leaves of -_Podophyllum pettatum_ are fully expanded. - -23. Seen in full bloom in gardens, the pear-tree, plum-tree, _Riber -grossularia_, and _R. rubrum_. - -24. Found in blossom along the Schuylkill, _Aguilegia -canadensis_, _Hyacinthus botryoides_, _Ranunculus fascicularis_, -_Violapapilionacea. V. decumbens_, Raf., _Houstonia cerulea_, -_Cerastium pumilum_, Raf. - -25. Found in blossom near Cambden, _Viola pedata_, _V. lanceolata_, -_V. ovata_, Raf., _V. primulifolia_, _Arabis parviflora_, Raf., -_Cerastium pumilum_, Raf., _Carex acuta_, _Meopilus botryapium_, -_Laurus sassafras_, _Cercis canadensis_, _Potentilla simplex_, -_Andromeda racemoca_. - -28. Seen in blossom in gardens, _Calycanthus floridus_, _Syringa -persica_, _Phlox pilosa_, &c. The leaves of _Liriodendron -tulipifera_, _Æsculus hippocastanum_, _Populus fastigiata_, _P. -angulata_, are unfolded. - -30. In blossom on the Schuylkill, _Obolaria virginiana_, _Anemone -trifolia_, _Hydrastis canadensis_, &c. - - -_May_ 1. In blossom in the Neck, _Cerastium vulgatum_? _Veronica -serpyllifolia_, _V. arvensis_, _Ranunculus bulbosus_, _Viola -cucultata_. - -3. Found above the Falls of the Schuylkill, _Viola striata_, _V. -concolor_, _V. primulifolia_, _V. blanda_, _Fumaria aurea_, _F. -cucullaria_, _Charophyllum procumbens_, _Uvularia sessitifolia_, -_U. perfoliata_, _Cercis canadensis_, _Arabis falcata_, _Stellaria -pubera_, _Erigeron pulchellum_, _Orchis spectabilis_, _Hydrastis -canadensis_, _Dentaria diphylla_, _Azalea nudiflora_, &c. - -4. Found on the Vissahikon, _Arabis bulbosa_, _Panax trifolium_, -_Viola pectata_, _V. rotundifolia_, _Cardamine pennsylvanica_, -_Krigia virginica_, and several grasses. - -7. Found in blossom over the Schuylkill, _Laurus sassafras_, -_Viburnum prunifolium_, _Aronia arbutifolia_, _A. melanocarpa_, -_Fragaria virginica_, _Cerastium nutans_, Raf., _Convallaria -majalis_, naturalized, and several species of the genus _Vaccinium_. - -10. Found below the falls of the Schuylkill, _Floerkea -uliginosa_, _Viburnum acerifolium_, _Oxalis violacea_, _Cerastium -tenuifolium, lechoma hederacea_, &c.: and the following above the -Falls--_Trillium cernuum_, _Viola pubescens_, _V. pennsylvanica_, -_Hydrophyllum virginicum_, _Polemonium reptans_, _Senecio aureus_, -_Saxifraga pennsylvanica_, _Staphylea trifoliata_, _Obolaria -virginica_, _Caltha palustris_, _Ranunculus abortivus_, &c. - -11. Seen the first bat. - -12. Near Haddonfield, _Bartsia coccinea_, _Helonias bullata_, -_Trifolium repens_, &c. - -15. Found between Cambden and Haddonfield, _Trifolium pratense_, -_Silene virginica_, _Antirrhinum canadense_, _Lithospermum -tenellum_, Raf., _Festucatenella_, _Seleranthus annuus_, _Oxalis -biflora_, Raf., _Poa rubra_, _Vaccinium corymbosum_, _Viola -palmata_, _V. parvifolia_, Raf., _Rubus flagellaris_, &c. Also in -blossom, _Quercus rubra_, _Q. obtusiloba_, _Q. alba_, &c. - -20. Found near Burlington, _Plantago virginica_, _Euphorbia -ipecacuanha_, _Comptonia asplenifolia_, _Myosotis lappula_, -_Senecio obovatus_, _Scirpus acicularis_, _Lithospermum trinervum_, -Raf., _L. tenellum_, Raf., &c.; besides several _Carex_. - - - - -ART. XVII. _Description of a New Species of North American Marten_, -(_Mustela vulpina_) by C. S. RAFINESQUE. - - -The regions watered by the Missouri are inhabited by many animals, -as yet unknown to the zoologists, although many have been noticed -by travellers. A species of marten has lately been presented to -the Lyceum of Natural History in New-York, which was brought from -that country, and appears to belong to a peculiar species, very -different from the common martens of Europe, Asia, and America, -although it has, in common with it, the character of the yellow -throat; but the head, feet, and tail, afford so many peculiar -characters, that no doubt can be entertained of its diversity. I -have, therefore, given to it the name of _Mustela vulpina_, or Fox -Marten, owing to its head and tail being somewhat similar to that -of a fox. - -_Mustela Vulpina._ Definition--Brown, three large yellowish spots -underneath on the throat, breast, and belly; cheeks, inside of -the ears, and a spot on the nape, white; tail tipped with white -one-third of total length; feet blackish, toes white. - -_Description._--This animal is of a fine shape: its size is rather -above mediocrity, being about half a foot high, and the total -length being twenty-seven inches, whereof nine form the tail. The -general colour of the fur is of a drab brown, and it is neither -coarse nor very fine. The head is elongated, oblong, about four -inches long, shaped like that of a fox; the snout is narrow; the -nose is black, notched, and granulated, furnished on each side with -black whiskers, two inches long: there are three long black hairs, -or _vibrissa_, above each eye, and a few shorter ones scattered -behind them on the cheeks, chin, and tip of the lower jaw, which -is white: the cheeks are whitish, and there is a white spot on the -nape of the neck: the ears are large, broad, and white inside. -There are three large, oblong spots, on the throat, breast, and -belly; this last is the largest; that on the breast the smallest. -The fore legs are shorter than the hind ones, and have, behind, -three very long hairs or vibrissa: the feet and toes of all the -legs are covered with long fur; the former have a dark brown or -blackish ring, and the latter are of a dirty white: there are five -long toes to all the feet, of which the inner one is the shortest; -the nails are white, retractible, and shorter than the fur. The -teeth are as in the genus _Mustela_, and white; those of the lower -jaw are larger and stronger: the grinders are four on each side; -they are broad, trifid, with the middle lobe sharp and very long: -the tusks, or dogteeth, are very strong, curved, and approximated, -leaving a very small place for the incisores, which are very -small, very short, and flat; the two lateral ones on each side are -situated diagonally, the second behind, and the two middle ones are -only half the size of the others. The tail is bushy, particularly -at the top, where there is a white pencil of long hairs; the brown -of the remainder is darker than on the body. - -From the above accurate description, it will appear evident that -this animal is very different from the common marten of North -America. It must be a ferocious little animal, and very fierce; -which is indicated by the strength of the teeth. - - - - -ART. XVIII. _Natural History of the Scytalus Cupreus, or -Copper-head Snake._ By C. S. RAFINESQUE. - - -After the rattlesnake, the copper-head snake is the most dreaded -in the northern states, being the next largest venomous snake: he -is also more common in the cold parts, where the former is very -rare. Strange as it may seem, this conspicuous and dangerous animal -has escaped the notice of naturalists, and is not found described -in Shaw nor Lacepede. Having seen two of them near Fishkill, in -the summer of 1817, I endeavoured to describe them completely, and -investigate their history. They were both killed in a meadow, and -one of them while sleeping coiled up near a fence; a slight stroke -of a rod was sufficient, as usual with venomous snakes. It appears -that they are killed much easier than the innocent snakes; these -are often seen to revive after an apparent death, and do not really -die until the next sunset; while venomous snakes do not easily -revive, particularly if the head is slightly bruised. - -This snake is known by a variety of names in different parts of -the State of New-York, since he has every where attracted the -attention of the inhabitants: these names are, _copper-head_, -_copper-snake_, _chunk-head_, _copper-adder_, _copper-viper_, -_copper-belly_, _pilot-snake_, _deaf-adder_, _deaf-snake_; and in -New-England, by the names _rattlesnake's mate_ and _red adder_, &c. -They have all been given in reference to his colour, or to some -presumed peculiarities in his manners, &c. _Chunk-head_ is a vulgar -expression, meaning thick-head or blunt-head. He has been called -sometimes _pilot-snake_, on a false supposition that he was the -pilot or guide of the rattlesnake; and he has been considered as -deaf, because he is easily surprised, and does not appear to hear -the noise of your approach. - -It belongs to the genus _scytalus_ of Daudin, &c., which differs -from the _Boa_ of Linnæus, as the genus _Vipera_ does from -_Coluber_, being provided with fangs. I have given to it the name -of _Scytalus Cupreus_, which means coppered scytalus. The following -definition of the species may be considered as comparative and -characteristic. - -_Scytalus Cupreus._ Tail one-eighth of total length, with 45 caudal -plates entirely brown; 150 abdominal plates, the last very broad; -head oval, coppered above, yellow underneath; scales carinated on -the back, which is coppered, with reddish brown rings cross-shaped; -belly variegated of brownish. - -_Description._ Total length about three feet; body thicker than in -the innocent snakes. Head large, broad, oval, obtuse, very distinct -from the neck, nearly two inches long, flattened, coppered brown -above, and covered with large, smooth scales; yellow underneath, -as well as the neck, and with rhomboidal smooth scales. Mouth very -large; fangs yellowish white. Back flattened anteriorly, a little -angular in the middle, covered with small rhomboidal, obtuse, -keeled scales; those of the sides larger and smooth, not keeled; -centre of the back of a brownish copper colour; sides of a bright -copper; broad bands or rings, becoming forked on each side, and -assuming nearly the shape of a St. Andrew's cross; they are of a -reddish brown: there is a round spot opposite to the sinusses, and -the scales of the sides are minutely dotted of brown. The abdominal -plates are 150, beginning under the head; the last, covering the -vent, is very broad, double the other: they are of a shining, pale -copper colour, with two longitudinal and lateral rows of great, -irregular, brown spots, with some light brownish clouds between -them, and each plate is marginated of whitish. The belly is very -flat and broad, about 1¼ inch in diameter; and the skin may be -distended on the sides, when, the animal is not fed. Tail short, -tapering gradually, about four inches long, cylindrical, brown, -without spots, with 45 plates underneath, and having at the end a -small, obtuse, horn claw, of an oblong, compressed, obtuse shape, -and carinated underneath. - -This snake has many of the habits of the rattlesnake; he is very -slow in his motions, rather clumsy, owing to his thick shape and -short tail. He retires in winter into caves, hollow rocks, and -trees, where he lies, in a torpid state, from November to April; -several have been found coiled up together, the head lying over the -back: it is in the same situation he sleeps in the fields. When -found in the torpid state, they may be carried without waking; but -might wake in a warm room. They do not eat during all that time: -their food consists of birds, frogs, mice, and even squirrels, -which they catch by surprise, as they do not climb on trees. They -kill their large prey by breathing a poisonous effluvia, crushing -it in their folds, and they swallow it whole after covering it with -their clammy saliva. They can remain a very long time without a -meal, and one meal is a long time digesting. - -They are generally found in meadows, pastures, and the edge of -woods. They creep slovenly through the grass, and if surprised by -the sight of man, they assume an erect and threatening posture, -darting their tongue and swelling their head; but they do not -attack men, unless alarmed and struck. They are considered more -dangerous than the rattlesnake, because they do not give notice of -their vicinity, and lie concealed in the grass; but they are easily -killed, when assuming the threatening posture, by a slight touch -of a cane, spade, or any other instrument. The effects of their -bite is similar to that of the rattlesnake, and cured in the same -way, by the prompt application of the _Aristolochia serpentaria_, -_Polygala senega_, _Prenanthes serpentaria_, _Macrotry -serpentaria_, &c. and other plants, bearing in consequence the name -of snakeroots. - -This snake is found in New-England, New-York, New-Jersey, -Pennsylvania, &c., and perhaps all over the United States. - - - - -ART. XIX. _On a Method of Augmenting the Force of Gunpowder._ - -Extract of a Letter to the Editor, from Colonel GEORGE GIBBS. - - -I employed, the last year, a man in blowing rocks, and having seen -an account of a method of substituting a portion of quick lime for -a part of the gunpowder usually employed, I was induced to make -a number of experiments upon it. I now send you the results in -the certificate of the person employed, whose statement might be -relied on, even if I had not superintended myself a number of the -experiments. - -"_Sunswick Farms, Oct. 19, 1817._--I certify that, having been -employed by Colonel Gibbs in blasting rocks on his farm, I, by his -orders, made use of a composition of one part quick lime and two -parts gunpowder, and uniformly found the same charge to answer -equally well with a like quantity of gunpowder. I made upwards -of fifty blasts in this manner, as well as several hundreds in -the usual way, and can therefore depend upon the accuracy of this -statement. I found, however, that when the powdered lime was mixed -with the gunpowder the day before, that the effect was diminished. -It should be always used the day it is mixed. - - (Signed) T. POMEROY." - -This preparation was made generally in the morning, put in a -bottle and well corked, to prevent the access of the external air. -The rationale of the process was not explained in the original -recommendation, but it soon occurred to me, that it must be owing -to the desiccation of the gunpowder by the lime. - -The attraction of moisture by gunpowder, is known to be very great: -according to Rees's Cyclopedia, upwards of 16 per cent. has been -absorbed, and that the removal, simply, from near the fire to the -corner of the room, produces a considerable change in its weight. -I presume, therefore, that the lime, which in its caustic state -has also a great affinity to water, attracts a portion of it from -the powder, and leaves it in a state of dryness best fitted for -inflammation. But if the lime should remain too long mixed with -the powder, it would probably attack the water of crystallization -of the saltpetre, and, according to Count Rumford's idea, destroy -a great part of the power. If also left exposed, attractions of -moisture would take place from the atmosphere, the gunpowder would -remain surcharged with humidity as before, and the lime would be -only an inert mass. - -The examination of this subject led me to consider the increase -of the power of gunpowder in various situations, and of its use -in the field. It is well known that after a few discharges a -cannon becomes heated, and the range is much greater, as well as -the recoil. The charge of powder is therefore reduced about one -quarter, to produce the original effect. As I have not heard or -seen any explanation of this fact I shall take this opportunity of -mentioning, that it appears to arise from the same cause as the -first explained, viz. the desiccation of the powder. No person will -dispute the heat acquired by a cannon, or even a musket, after -repeated discharges; and this heat must volatilize or destroy a -great portion of the moisture combined with the powder, assist its -speedy inflammation, and perhaps add to its power, by causing a -more perfect combustion of the inflammable parts of the gunpowder. -This would cause a much greater volume of gas to be produced, and -the high temperature would also greatly augment its elasticity; -and it is well known that the effects of gunpowder depend upon the -rapid production and high degree of elasticity of a great quantity -of aeriform fluids or gases. - - - - -ART. XX. _On The Connexion between Magnetism and Light._ By Col. -GIBBS. - -_Extract from a Letter to the Editor._ - - -I visited, the last year, the mine of magnetic iron at Succassunny, -belonging to Governor Dickerson of New-Jersey. The mine had -not been worked for a year past, and I did not descend it. The -proprietor, a gentleman of distinguished science, informed me of -a singular circumstance attending it, which was too important to -be left unnoticed. The mine is worked at the depth of 100 feet; -direction of the bed, northeast and southwest; inclination nearly -perpendicular. The ore in the upper part of the bed is magnetic, -and has polarity; but that raised from the bottom has no magnetism -at first, but acquires it after it has been some time exposed to -the influence of the atmosphere. This fact, of which there is -no doubt, struck me as most singular. I could not recollect any -similar observation; and it is only lately that I have found that -Werner had observed, that iron sand, raised from the depth of 100 -feet, had no magnetism. See Rees's Cyclopedia, Art. Sand. - -I could only account for this circumstance by supposing that -magnetism existed not in the interior of the earth, as was -supposed, but only on the surface, and in such bodies as received -this principle from atmospheric, or celestial influence. - -The late discovery of the magnetic influence of the violet rays -of light, by M. Morechini, a notice of which has since reached -us in the journals, connected with the above fact, leads me to -believe that light is the great source of magnetism. A learned -foreigner,[13] whose residence in this country has contributed much -to its scientific improvement, has also informed me that other -substances than metallic have been found, by compression, to be -magnetic. - -It is well known that the violet ray is the most refrangible, or -has the most attraction to matter. But there are other rays, which -Herschel, who some years since discovered them, calls invisible -rays, which are still more refrangible, are next beyond the violet, -when refracted, and partake of most of its properties, except -that they are invisible. I have not yet seen any account of the -experiments of M. Morechini, other than the notice in the journal; -but I trust I shall soon be able to determine whether those -invisible rays do not possess the magnetic power as well as the -violet; or, perhaps, possess it exclusively. - -As the refraction of the atmosphere in the polar circles, is at -least ten times greater than in the tropics, a greater quantity -of the magnetic rays will there be separated and combined than -elsewhere; and of course arises excess of magnetism. Hence the -direction of magnetic bodies towards the northern and southern -extreme regions. The great absorption and emission of light in the -polar regions, by the ice and snow, may cause the extraordinary -illumination of that country during the absence of the sun, and the -emission of the magnetic rays with electricity may, perhaps, give -us the aurora borealis. - -The coincidence of the diurnal variation of the compass with -the solar influence, deserves particular notice, and will have -considerable weight on this subject. - -That there are many facts which cannot readily be explained by -the theory of light, I shall not deny; but in the infancy of -this system we may be allowed to hope that future observations -may enable us to remove present difficulties. One thing must be -admitted, that no theory has heretofore been published relating to -magnetism, which has received or seems entitled to much confidence. -In your next number I hope to be able to furnish you with further -remarks on this subject; but, I have no doubt that philosophy -will finally determine that we owe to the solar ray light, heat, -electricity, and magnetism. - - G. GIBBS. - -_Sunswick, January, 1818._ - - - - -ART. XXI. _On a new Means of producing Heat and Light, with an -Engraving, by J. L. Sullivan, Esq. of Boston._ - - - BOSTON, May 7, 1818. - - _To Professor Silliman._ - - SIR, - -If the following account of a method of using tar and steam as -fuel, recently invented by Mr. Samuel Morey, should be found -sufficiently interesting to occupy a place in the Journal of -Science, I am sensible its usefulness will be much extended through -that medium of information. - -The inventor, not unskilled in chemistry, and aware of the -attraction of oxygen for carbon, conceived it practicable to -convert the constituents of water into fuel, by means of this -affinity. - -Whatever may be the fact, chemically considered, the operation, -in various experiments, promises to afford a convenient method of -applying to use several of the most combustible substances, not -hitherto employed as fuel. By the process I shall briefly describe, -_all carbonaceous fluids_ may be conveniently burnt, and derive -great force from their combination with the oxygen and hydrogen -gases of water or steam, before or at the moment of ignition. - -[Illustration: NEW FIRE APPARATUS. - -Fig. 1. - -Fig. 2.] - -A tight vessel, cylindrically shaped, was first employed, -containing rosin, connected with a small boiler by a pipe which -entered near the bottom, and extended nearly its length, having -small apertures, over which were two inverted gutters, inclining -or sloping upwards over each other; the upper one longer than the -other, intended to detain the steam in the rosin, in its way to -the surface. The rosin being heated, _carburetted hydrogen gas_ -would issue from the outlet, or pipe, inserted near the top of the -vessel, and being ignited, afforded a small blaze, about as large -as that of a candle; but, when the steam was allowed to flow, this -blaze would instantly shoot out many hundred times its former bulk, -to the distance of two or three feet. - -It is presumed the steam was decomposed, and carburetted hydrogen -and carbonic oxide, or carbonic acid, produced as the steam passed, -very near the hot bottom of the vessel. - -Another apparatus was constructed, consisting of two vessels, one -within the other, having a cover common to both; the inner one to -contain _tar_, (as a more convenient substance than rosin;) the -outer vessel to contain water, which surrounds the other, and lies -under its bottom; or, in other words, a vessel of tar set into a -vessel of boiling water. The boiler has a lining of sheet copper, -or tin, to promote the ebullition. The tar vessel being riveted to -the cover, holes are made through its sides, near to the cover, -to allow the steam to pass in, and act on its surface. The cover -being secured on, a safety valve is provided for the steam vessel, -and two cocks; one over the tar, the other over the water, are -fixed contiguously; the first has a tube, or is elongated to reach -nearly to the bottom of the tar, which ascends, and is driven out -by the pressure of the steam on its surface. Both cocks conduct -to a pipe, wherein is placed a large wire, or metallic rod, which -about fills the tube, and is perforated obliquely, or zig zag, to -increase the length of the passage, and to mingle the tar and steam -more intimately. The gases, or vapours, issue from a small orifice -at the end of the pipe; and, being ignited by a little fire, into -which it is directed, an intense and voluminous blaze is produced, -and continues as long as the materials remain unexhausted. A hot -brick, instead of the fire, answers the same purpose. - -This apparatus contained but about one quart of tar, (which must -always be nicely strained,) and it lasted one and a half hour, -and the flame was sufficient to fill a common fireplace, if not -allowed to escape, by its violence, up the chimney. Its force will -be according to the elasticity of the steam. I regret being unable, -since, to make more exact and varied experiments, to demonstrate -the economy of this fuel. This point, however, and the chemical -facts, will be the subject of a future communication. And probably -a form of a stove may be devised, wherein it may be used for the -purposes of warmth, light, and cooking; and another apparatus to -light streets. - -But this invention will be of more special use _as fuel for steam -engines applied to navigation_--the purpose principally for which I -have purchased the patent right. - -This may be the subject of another communication. - - - - -ART. XXII. _On the Changes which have taken place in the Wells of -Water situated in Columbia, South-Carolina, since the Earthquakes -of 1811-12._ By EDWARD DARRELL SMITH, M. D., _Professor of Chemical -and Experimental Philosophy and Mineralogy in the South-Carolina -College_. - - - _To Professor Silliman._ - - DEAR SIR, - -In answer to your inquiry respecting the changes in our wells, -since the memorable period of the earthquakes, I would make the -following observations: - -These tremendous convulsions of nature commenced in December, 1811, -and were continued, at intervals, until the latter end of the -succeeding month of March, with different degrees of violence, in -this and some of the adjacent states. In November, 1812, I visited -this town, and then understood that the wells, which are generally -very deep, had an abundance of water in them. This continued to -be the case for about one year after; and in the College well, in -particular, which was a remarkably fine one, there were always -about twelve feet of water, notwithstanding its daily consumption -by more than two hundred persons. Shortly after this time, many -of the wells in the town began to fail in their usual supply of -water, although they were frequently cleaned out and occasionally -deepened. Their state became worse every year, until, at length, -about three years since, some of them proved to be entirely dry, -and most of the others had their water turbid, and diminished -to the depth of only two or three feet. A little anterior to -this period, what were called the dry years had commenced, and -there were, comparatively, very scanty falls of rain until the -last spring; since when there has been a very large quantity. To -elucidate the subject more fully, it may not be amiss to give some -topographical account of the town of Columbia. About a mile from -the eastern bank of the Cogaree the town begins to be thickly built -up, and at this distance the elevation of ground is supposed to -be one hundred feet above the level of the river in its ordinary -state. The hill is then tolerably level for the space of a mile or -more in its western extent, and its soil is principally composed of -a loose, porous sand, with which few, if any, stones are intermixed -at any depth that has yet been penetrated. In attempting to account -for the failure of the well-waters, it was supposed by some that -the earthquakes had produced such changes in the loose texture of -the soils, that the veins of water which used to supply the wells, -had sunk beneath the level of these reservoirs; but on this head it -is to be observed, that there was no remarkable failure of water -for one or two years after these changes were supposed to have -been effected. Others again, connecting the greatest failure of -water with the concurring dearth of rain, conceived that the fact -might be explained by the droughts occasioning a deficiency in the -river-water, and thus cutting off the supply which they supposed -had heretofore percolated from the margin of the river into the -wells. If their hypothesis was correct, it was believed that the -difficulty would be removed, either by deepening the wells, or by -subsequent large supplies of rain. Many wells were immediately -deepened from two to eight or ten feet, but the remedy proved -very inadequate. And since the great falls of rain, within a year -past, although there are somewhat larger supplies of water in some -wells, yet there is not the half as much as existed before the -earthquakes. The College well, although deepened several feet, does -not now contain generally more than four or five feet of water. I -must not omit to remark, that two wells, situated in a longitudinal -line from north to south, with regard to each other, and also -in a lower spot of ground, never failed entirely, although they -diminished considerably, and now yield more copious supplies than -any others. - -Whatever may be the cause of this phenomenon, the effects are so -inconvenient, and it is so generally believed that they are likely -to be permanent, that the inhabitants of the town are beginning to -build cisterns, in order to accumulate artificial reservoirs of -water. - - - - -ART. XXIII. _Respiration of Oxygen Gas._ - - -It is not extraordinary, when oxygen gas was first discovered, and -found to be the principle of life to the whole animal creation, -that extravagant expectations should have been formed as to its -medicinal application. Disappointment followed of course, and -naturally led to a neglect of the subject; and, in fact, for some -years, pneumatic medicine has gone into discredit, and public -opinion has vibrated to the extreme of incredulity. Partaking in -a degree in this feeling, we listened with some reluctance to a -very pressing application on this subject during the last summer. A -young lady, apparently in the last stages of decline, and supposed -to be affected with hydrothorax, was pronounced beyond the reach of -ordinary medical aid. As she was in a remote town in Connecticut, -where no facilities existed towards the attainment of the object, -we felt no confidence that, even if oxygen gas were possessed of -any efficacy in such cases, it would _actually_ be applied in this -case, in such a manner as to do any good. Yielding, however, to -the anxious wishes of friends, we furnished drawings for such an -apparatus as might be presumed attainable, and also written and -minute directions for preparing, trying, and administering the gas. -It was obtained from nitrate of potash, (saltpetre,) not because it -was the best process, but because the substance could be obtained -in the place, and because a common fire would serve for its -extrication. The gas obtained had, of course, a variable mixture of -nitrogen or azot, and probably on an average, might not be purer -than nearly the _reversed_ proportions of the atmosphere--that is, -70 to 80 per cent. of oxygen to 20 or 30 nitrogen; and it is worthy -of observation, whether this circumstance might not have influenced -the result. - -Contrary to our expectations, the gas (as we are since informed -by good authority) was skilfully prepared and perseveringly used. -From the first, the difficulty of breathing and other oppressive -affections were relieved: the young lady grew rapidly better, -and in a few weeks entirely recovered her health. A respectable -physician, conversant with the case, states, in a letter now before -us, "that the inhaling of the oxygen gas relieved the difficulty of -breathing, increased the operation of diuretics, _and has effected -her cure_. Whether her disease was hydrothorax, or an anasarcous -affection of the lungs, is a matter I believe not settled." - -Should the revival of the experiments on the respiration of oxygen -gas appear to be desired, it would not be difficult to simplify the -apparatus and operations so as to bring them within the reach of an -intelligent person, even although ignorant of chemistry: and this -task, should there be occasion, we would cheerfully undertake to -perform. - -This interesting class of experiments ought to be resumed, not with -the spirit of quackery, or of extravagant expectation, but with the -sobriety of philosophical research; and it is more than probable -that the nitrous oxyde which is now little more than a subject of -merriment and wonder, if properly diluted and discreetly applied, -would be productive of valuable effects. - - - - -ART. XXIV. _On the Compound Blowpipe. Extract from the Journal de -Physique, of Paris, for January 1818._[14] - -CONCERNING HEAT. - - -"Heat, considered as one of the most important agents, especially -in relation to chemistry, and even to mineralogy, has also been -the subject of numerous labours, both with regard to the means of -augmenting and of diminishing its effects. - -"To the former belong the numerous experiments made, especially in -England, with the blowpipe, supplied by a mixture of oxygen and -hydrogen gases. Mr. Clarke has evidently been more extensively -engaged in these researches than any other person, as our readers -have perceived in the extracts which we have given from the labours -of this learned chemist; but it is proper also to give publicity to -the protest (réclamation) made to us in favour of Mr. Silliman. - -"We have already stated that Mr. Hare, of Philadelphia, first -conceived the idea of forming a blowpipe with explosive gas; but -as we have not been conversant with the memoirs of the Society of -Arts and Sciences of Connecticut, we have not made mention of Mr. -Silliman. - -"The fact is, that this chemist, Professor at New-Haven, published, -on the 7th of May,[15] 1812, a memoir containing the results of -experiments made upon a very great number of bodies, until that -time reputed to be infusible; and, among others, upon the alkaline -earths, the decomposition of which he effected. - -"The experiments of Mr. Clarke were therefore subsequent; but, -having been made upon a still more extensive list of substances, -they are scarcely less interesting. - -"It results then, from the experiments of Messrs. Hare, Silliman, -Clarke, Murray, and Ridolfi, that there is really no substance -which is infusible in the degree of heat produced by this kind of -blowpipe. - -"In this new department of physics, it is attempted not only to -apply the blowpipe to a very great number of bodies, but so to -modify the instrument or apparatus as to give it the highest degree -of convenience, and especially to obviate the danger of explosion." - - pp. 38 & 39. - - -REMARKS. - -As the results produced by Mr. Hare's Compound Blowpipe, fed by -oxygen and hydrogen gases, continue to be mentioned in Europe, -in many of the Journals, without any reference to the results -long since obtained in this country, we republish the following -statement of facts, which was, in substance, first published in -New-York, more than a year since. It should be observed, that -Mr. Tilloch has since published, in the Philosophical Magazine -in London, the memoir which contained the American results, and -there have been some other allusions to it in different European -Journals, and to Mr. Hare's previous experiments; but still this -interesting class of results continue to be attributed to others -than their original discoverers. - - _Yale College, April 7, 1817._ - -Various notices, more or less complete, chiefly copied from English -newspapers, are now going the round of the public prints in this -country, stating that "_a new kind of fire_" has been discovered -in England, or, at least, new and heretofore unparalleled means -of exciting heat, by which the gems, and all the most refractory -substances in nature, are immediately melted, and even in various -instances dissipated in vapour, or decomposed into their elements. -The first glance at these statements, (which, as regards the -effects, I have no doubt are substantially true,) was sufficient -to satisfy me, that the basis of these discoveries was laid by -an American discovery, made by Mr. Robert Hare of Philadelphia, -in 1801. In December of that year, Mr. Hare communicated to the -Chemical Society of Philadelphia his discovery of a method of -burning oxygen and hydrogen gases in a united stream, so as to -produce a very intense heat. - -In 1802, he published a detailed memoir on the subject, with -an engraving of his apparatus, and he recited the effects of -his instrument; some of which, in the degree of heat produced, -surpassed any thing before known. - -In 1802, and 1803, I was occupied with him, in Philadelphia, in -prosecuting similar experiments on a more extended scale; and a -communication on the subject was made to the Philosophical Society -of Philadelphia. The memoir is printed in their transactions; -and Mr. Hare's original memoir was reprinted in the Annals of -Chemistry, in Paris, and in the Philosophical Magazine, in London. - -Mr. Murray, in his System of Chemistry, has mentioned Mr. Hare's -results in the fusion of several of the earths, &c. and has given -him credit for his discovery. - -In one instance, while in Europe, in 1806, at a public lecture, I -saw some of them exhibited by a celebrated Professor, who mentioned -Mr. Hare as the reputed author of the invention. - -In December, 1811, I instituted an extended course of experiments -with Mr. Hare's blowpipe, in which I melted lime and magnesia, and -a long list of the most refractory minerals, gems, and others, the -greater part of which had never been melted before, and I supposed -that I had decomposed lime, barytes, strontites, and magnesia, -evolving their metallic basis, which burnt in the air as fast as -produced. I communicated a detailed account of my experiments to -the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, who published it in -their Transactions for 1812; with their leave it was communicated -to Dr Bruce's Mineralogical Journal, and it was printed in the 4th -number of that work. Hundreds of my pupils can testify that Mr. -Hare's splendid experiments, and many others performed with his -blowpipe, fed by oxygen and hydrogen gases, have been for years -past annually exhibited, in my public courses of chemistry in Yale -College, and that the fusion and volatilization of platina, and -the combustion of that metal, and of gold and silver, and of many -other metals; that the fusion of the earths, of rock crystal, of -gun flint, of the corundum gems, and many other, very refractory -substances; and the production of light beyond the brightness of -the sun, have been familiar experiments in my laboratory. I have -uniformly given Mr. Hare the full credit of the invention, although -my researches, with his instrument, had been pushed farther than -his own, and a good many new results added. - -It is therefore with no small surprise that, in the Annales de -Chimie et de Physique, for September, 1816, I found a translation -of a very elaborate memoir, from a Scientific Journal, published -at the Royal Institution in London, in which a full account is -given of a very interesting series of experiments performed by -means of Mr. Hare's instrument; or rather one somewhat differently -arranged, but depending on the same principle. Mr. Hare's invention -is slightly mentioned in a note, but no mention is made of his -experiments, or of mine. - -On a comparison of the memoir in question with Mr. Hare's and with -my own, I find that very many of the results are identical, and all -the new ones are derived directly from Mr. Hare's invention, with -the following differences.--In Mr. Hare's, the two gases were in -distinct reservoirs, to prevent explosion; they were propelled by -the pressure of a column of water, and were made to mingle, just -before their exit, at a common orifice. In the English apparatus, -the gases are both in one reservoir, and they are propelled by -their own elasticity, after condensation, by a syringe. - -Professor Clarke, of Cambridge University, the celebrated -traveller, is the author of the memoir in question; and we must -presume that he was ignorant of what had been done by Mr. Hare and -myself, or he would candidly have adverted to the facts. - -It is proper that the public should know that Mr. Hare was the -author of the invention, by means of which, in Europe, they are now -performing the most brilliant and beautiful experiments; and that -there are very few of these results hitherto obtained there, by the -use of it, (and the publication of which has there excited great -interest,) which were not, several years ago, anticipated here, -either by Mr. Hare or by myself. - -As I have cited only printed documents, or the testimony of living -witnesses, I trust the public will not consider this communication -as indelicate, or arrogant, but simply a matter of justice to the -interests of American science, and particularly to Mr. Hare. - - BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, - _Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Yale College._ - - - - -ART. XXV. _The Northwest Passage, the North Pole, and the Greenland -Ice._ - - -In looking over the foreign journals, we find no articles of -intelligence so interesting as those which respect the three -subjects mentioned above. Indeed, as they have found their way into -most of our newspapers, it is now generally known in this country, -that, in consequence of the reported breaking up of the Greenland -ice, an expedition has already left England, in two divisions, -the one for the purpose of exploring a northwest passage to Asia, -around the North American continent, by the way of Davis's Straits; -the other, for effecting the same object _by passing over the north -pole_. - -If Horace thought that man almost impiously daring who first -adventured upon the open sea, what shall we say of the hardihood of -the attempt to visit THE POLE?--the pole, which it is impossible -to contemplate without awe--which, in all probability, has never -been visited by any living being--where the dreary solitude has -never been broken by human voice--where the sound of war has never -been heard, and darkness and cold exert an almost undisputed -dominion! What must be the emotions of that man who first stands -upon the point of the earth's axis! Who, no longer partaking of the -revolution, in circles of latitude, slowly revolves on the axis of -his own body, once in twenty-four hours--to whom the sun does not -rise or set, but, moving in a course very oblique to the horizon, -makes scarcely a perceptible progress in twenty-four hours, and at -the end of three months, when he has attained his noon, is only 23° -28′, on the arc of a vertical circle, above the horizon--to whom -longitude is extinct, and who can move in no possible direction but -south--to whom the stars are a blank, and to whom the polar star, -could he see it, would appear in the zenith. Such are some of the -most obvious results of a position on the pole. The man who first -establishes himself on this sublime point, will have more reason -for self-congratulation than he who led the Persian myriads into -Greece, or he who pushed the Macedonians to the Indus. - -On these interesting subjects, we beg leave to refer our readers to -a very able treatise in the Quarterly Review for February, 1818, -where all the topics at the head of this article are discussed with -much learning and ability.--We extract the following passage: - -"If an open navigation should be discovered across the polar basin, -the passage over the pole or close to it, will be one of the most -interesting events to science that has ever occurred. It will be -the first time that the problem was practically solved with which -the learners of geography are sometimes puzzled--that of going the -shortest way between two places lying east and west, by taking -a direction of north and south. The passage of the pole will -require the undivided attention of the navigator. On approaching -this point, from which the northern coasts of Europe, Asia, and -America, and every part of them, will bear _south_ of him, nothing -can possibly assist him in determining his course, and keeping on -the right meridian of his destined place, but a correct knowledge -of the _time_: and yet no means of ascertaining that time will -be afforded him. The only _time_ he can have, with any degree of -certainty, as long as he remains on or near the pole, must be that -of Greenwich, and this he can know only from good chronometers; -for, from the general hazy state of the atmosphere, and -particularly about the horizon, and the sameness in the altitude of -the sun at every hour in the four-and-twenty, he must not expect to -obtain an approximation even of the apparent time, by observation, -and he will have no stars to assist him. All his ideas respecting -the heavens and the reckonings of his time will be reversed, and -the change not gradual, as in proceeding from the east to the west, -or the contrary, but instantaneous. The magnetic needle will point -to its unknown magnetic pole, or fly around from the point of the -bowl in which it is suspended, and that which indicated north will -now be south; the east will become the west, and the hour of noon -will be that of midnight. - -"These curious circumstances will probably be considered to mark -the passage by the pole, as the most interesting of the two, while -it will perhaps be found equally easy. We have, indeed, very little -doubt, that if the polar basin should prove to be free from land -about the pole, it will also be free of ice. A sea of more than -two thousand miles in diameter, of unfathomable depth, (which -is the case between Greenland and Spitzbergen,) and in constant -motion, is not likely to be frozen over at any time. But if all -endeavours to discover a passage to the Pacific by either route -should prove unavailing, it will still be satisfactory to have -removed every doubt on this subject by ascertaining the fact. In -making the attempt, many objects interesting and important to -science will present themselves to the observation of those who -are engaged in the two expeditions. That which proceeds up Davis's -Straits, will have an opportunity of adjusting the geography of the -northeast coast of America, and the west coast of Greenland; and of -ascertaining whether the latter be not an island or an archipelago -of islands; and much curious information may be expected from both. - -"They will ascertain, what is as yet but very imperfectly known, -the depth, the temperature, the saltness, and the specific gravity -of the sea-water in those high latitudes--the velocity of the -currents, the state of atmospherical electricity in the arctic -regions, and its connexion, at which we have glanced, with the -inclination, declination, and intensity of force of the magnetic -needle; on which subject alone, a collection of facts towards the -upper part of Davis's Straits would be worth a voyage of discovery. -It has, indeed, been long suspected that one of the magnetic -poles will be found in this neighbourhood, as in no part of the -world have such extraordinary phenomena been observed, or such -irregularities in the vibration and the variation of the needle. - -"A comparison of the magnetic influence near the pole, with what -it has been observed to be on the equator, might lead to important -results; and the swinging of a pendulum as near the pole as can -be approached, to compare with the oscillations observed in the -Shetland Islands, and in the southern hemisphere, would be a great -point gained for science." - -We have no room in this Number to consider the probability of -success in this attempt, nor the question, whether the breaking -up of the Greenland ice, and its passage to, and dissolution in, -the south, have been attended with a chilling influence on the -continents. That such a chilling effect might be extensively -exerted, is certainly credible. Approaching some of the icebergs, -in April 1805, on the shoals of Newfoundland, we were rendered very -sensible of the vicinity of such dangerous neighbours, by the great -chill in the air, long before they were visible; and when we had -passed them, the weather again grew milder. - -Perhaps it militates against the probability of finding the -northern polar basin free of ice, that Captain Cook, in his -approximation to the southern pole, in January, 1773, when in -latitude 67° 15′ south, "could proceed no farther; the ice being -entirely closed to the south, in the whole extent from east to -west-southwest, without the least appearance of any opening." -The advanced season of the year did not, however, permit Captain -Cook to ascertain whether he could coast around this ice--whether -it was ultimately attached to land, or was a part of a vast -field extending to the south pole. This last is however highly -improbable, because being found about 23° from the pole, it is -hardly credible that it would occupy so extensive a region as to -embrace the pole, and, perhaps extend as much farther beyond; -especially as in similar latitudes in the opposite hemisphere, -navigation is comparatively free, and has been pushed even to more -than 80° of north latitude. - -The scientific, as well as the commercial world, will wait with -no small impatience for the termination of the two grand arctic -expeditions, which are among the most original and daring, and may -be among the most interesting and momentous hitherto undertaken by -man. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] I trust the public will pardon me for stating, that various -scientific friends, despairing of the revival of the Journal of Dr. -Bruce, had, for some time, pressed me to undertake the editing of a -Journal of Science. Considerations of personal friendship prevented -me from listening to such proposals till the decline of Dr. Bruce's -health, attended by the most alarming symptoms, rendered it very -obvious that his Journal would not be revived. Towards the close of -last November, in a personal interview, I communicated to him the -design of the present work, at the same time offering to waive it, -provided he considered it as probable that his own Journal would -be resumed. Of this, however, he gave no encouragement; but, on -the contrary, expressed his warm approbation of my undertaking, -authorized me to consider him as a contributor, and to make public -use of his name as a patron. It was not till after this that the -annunciation of this work took place; and it is certain that -had not all hope of the resumption of Dr. Bruce's Journal been -completely cut off, _this_ would not have appeared. - -[2] The efforts of Stephen Elliott, Esq. of South Carolina, in -regard to the botany of the Southern States, are particularly -worthy of imitation and praise. - -[3] From the MS. papers of the Connecticut Academy, now published -by permission. - -[4] See Kollmann's Harmony, p. 13, &c. - -[5] Tilloch's Phil. Mag. Vol. XXVIII. p. 140. - -[6] The propriety of making 25 : 36 the true ratio of the 5th will -be manifest, when it is considered that this is the value of that -interval as sounded by voices and perfect instruments; when the -3ds which compose it are made perfect. This interval, as found in -the scale which has the fewest tempered concords possible referred -to at the beginning of this essay, ought to be regarded as the -true 5th, flattened by a comma, in the same manner as one of its -component 3ds will be allowed by all to be flattened. - -[7] The propriety of this limitation will be manifest, when we -consider that in organ music, the chords are generally played -more full, and are more protracted, than in music for other keyed -instruments. It is harmony which constitutes its character, in -a higher degree than in music for other instruments. Hence the -harmony of the organ ought not to be impaired by including in our -computations any music not adapted to it. If a similar examination -of music for the piano-forte would afford a set of results -essentially different from those of this proposition, this is no -proof that it ought to have any concern in a system of temperament -designed primarily for the organ, but merely that the same -temperament cannot be equally adapted to different instruments. If, -as is probable, such an examination would give essentially the same -results, to introduce them would be superfluous. - -[8] The smaller works of Phillips and Aikin were not then -published; had they been, they could not have superseded -Cleaveland; the same may be said of the respectable work of -Professor Kidd, of Oxford University. - -[9] A vast region in the interior of New-York and Pennsylvania is -now fertilized by inexhaustible beds of sulphat of lime, (plaster -of Paris,) which, till a very few years since, were not even known -to exist. - -Near New-Haven immense beds of green marble were discovered in -1811, during a mineralogical excursion: this beautiful material, -closely resembling the _verd antique_, is now, on the spot, -wrought into tables, fireplaces, and many other ornamental forms; -and although the farmers had made fences of it for 150 years, no -one suspected what it was till the study of mineralogy, in Yale -College, brought it to light. - -[10] See Tilloch's Phil. Mag. Vol. XLII. p. 182. - -[11] In the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of -Philadelphia this plant is called limosella tenuifolia. - -[12] No return of this tree was made from Brunswick. The date of -the cherry-tree is therefore substituted, which is usually in -blossom at the same time. - -[13] Mr. Correa de Serra, Minister of the King of Portugal. - -[14] Communicated by a friend at Paris. - -[15] See Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, and Bruce's -Journal, Vol. I. p. 199. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - Page - MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. - - Art. I. Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of a - section of Massachusetts, on Connecticut - river, with a part of New-Hampshire and - Vermont, by Edward Hitchcock, A.M. Principal - of Deerfield Academy 106 - - Art. II. On the Prairies and Barrens of the West, by - Caleb Atwater, Esq. 116 - - Art. III. Account of the Coal Mines in the vicinity of - Richmond, Virginia, by Mr. John Grammer, Jun. 125 - - Art IV. Sketch of the Geology and Mineralogy of a - part of the State of Indiana, by Mr. W. B. Stilson 131 - - Art. V. New localities of Agate, Chalcedony, Chabasie, - Stilbite, Analcime, Titanium, Prehnite, &c. 134 - - Art. VI. Account of the Strata perforated by, and of - the Minerals found in, the great adit to the - Southampton Lead Mine, by Mr. Amos Eaton, - Lecturer on Geology, Botany, &c. 136 - - Art. VII. On the Peat of Dutchess County, by the Rev. - F. C. Schaeffer 139 - - Art. VIII. Notices of Geology in the West-Indies, by - Dr. Nugent 140 - - Art. IX. Discovery of Native Crystallized Carbonate of - Magnesia on Staten-Island, with a Notice of - its Geology, by James Pierce, Esq. 142 - - Art. X. On a curious substance found with the native - Nitre of Kentucky and of Africa, by Samuel - Brown, M.D. 146 - - - BOTANY. - - Art. XI. Description of species of Sponges observed on - the shores of Long-Island, by C. S. Rafinesque, - Esq. 149 - - Art. XII. Memoir on the Xanthium maculatum, by the - same 151 - - - ZOOLOGY. - - Art. XIII. Description of the Phalæna Devastator--the - Insect that produces the Cut-worm, by Mr. - John P. Brace 154 - - Art. XIV. Description of the Exoglossum, a new genus of - Fresh-water Fish, by C. S. Rafinesque, Esq. 155 - - - PHYSICS, MECHANICS, AND CHEMISTRY. - - Art. XV. On the Revolving Steam-Engine of Mr. Samuel - Morey, communicated by John L. Sullivan, Esq. 157 - - Art. XVI. Cautions regarding Fulminating Powders 168 - - - USEFUL ARTS. - - Art. XVII.[16] Account of a Parisian method of obtaining - Gelatine from bones, by Mr. Isaac Doolittle 170 - - Art. XVIII. On the use of Distilled Seawater for domestic - purposes--from the Annales de Chimie, &c. 172 - - - FINE ARTS. - - Art. XIX. Essay on Musical Temperament, by Professor - Fisher 176 - - Art. XX. Notice of Col. Trumbull's Picture of the - Declaration of Independence 200 - - - INTELLIGENCE. - - Art. XXI. An Address to the People of the Western Country 203 - - Art. XXII. Extract of a letter from Col. Gibbs, on the - effect of light on the Magnetical power 207 - - Art. XXIII. On a new Lamp, without flame--from the - Annals of Philosophy _ibid._ - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[16] _ERRATUM._ - -In the text this Article was, by inadvertence, numbered XIX, and -all the succeeding Articles of this Number are marked _two_ higher -than they ought to be. - - - - -THE - -_AMERICAN_ - -JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. - - - - -MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. - - - - -ART. I. _Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of a Section of -Massachusetts on Connecticut River, with a Part of New-Hampshire -and Vermont; by_ EDWARD HITCHCOCK, A. M. _Principal of Deerfield -Academy_. - - -The geology of this tract, from a few miles south of Northampton in -Massachusetts, to the north boundary of Brattleborough in Vermont, -and of Chesterfield in New-Hampshire, is shown on the subjoined -map. The primitive formation, except the argillite, is coloured -vermilion; the secondary, blue; and the alluvial, gamboge yellow, -according to Cleaveland. The alluvial part is elevated above -the bed of Connecticut river from 10 to 100 feet, and, in most -places, reposes on red sandstone. The soil in the northern part is -generally argillaceous; but in the southern more siliceous. The -secondary formation consists chiefly of detached eminences that -rise abruptly from the plain, and are composed of red sandstone and -puddingstone alternating, except the elevations A and B, (Holyoke -and Tom) and a part of the range CD, passing through Deerfield -and Greenfield, which are greenstone. The part coloured rose-red -consists of argillite, sometimes alternating with mica slate, -siliceous slate, or chlorite slate. It is thus coloured to show -the extent of the argillite, and not from a belief that this rock -is of the transition class; for in this region the argillite is -undoubtedly primitive. Some quarries of this rock have been opened -in Massachusetts; and in Vermont are extensively wrought. I have -not learnt how far the argillite extends northward in Vermont and -New-Hampshire. Its strata are almost perpendicular, inclining a few -degrees to the west. - -The primitive region on the west side of Connecticut river, -included by the map, is made up of mica slate, as a prevailing -rock, particularly in the northern part. Hornblende slate sometimes -alternates with this, and sienite appears in various places, though -its strata are generally thin. Limestone also occurs in Deerfield, -Conway, Colrain, &c. of a dull brown colour. It contains so large -a proportion of silex that it is often but little removed from -granular quartz. Lime for building has sometimes been obtained from -it. A range of granite, containing veins of lead ore, appears at -Southampton, and proceeds to Hatfield. North of this, the other -rocks cover it, and it does not again rise within the limits of the -map. - -Sienite is the prevailing rock on the east side of Connecticut -river in the primitive region, more particularly in the southern -part. In some places a narrow stratum of mica slate lies next -to the conglomerate of the secondary formation, and a low range -of graphic and common granite has been observed in Amherst and -Leverett, lying next to the mica slate. Other veins of granite -also traverse the sienite; and gneiss occurs in many places. The -proportion of hornblende in the sienite is generally small, and -mica is often present in considerable proportion. Porphyritic -sienite is common in this quarter, and steatite occurs in its -eastern part. - -Most of the primitive region on the map is broken and mountainous, -being made up of parallel ridges and detached eminences. The -strata run nearly north and south, and dip to the east at angles -between 20° and 60°. It would be easy to extend the map on the -west to the top of Hoosack mountain, since the country is all -primitive; and on the east the primitive continues, with a few -exceptions, to the ocean. The map might also be extended to the -boundary of Connecticut, by prolonging the primitive ranges with -some divergency, and colouring the intermediate space secondary, -except a narrow tract on the east side of Connecticut river, which -is alluvial. These extensions were not thought necessary. - -In the town of Gill, at E, there is a cataract in Connecticut -river, from 30 to 40 feet in height; and it is believed that -the alluvial region, and part of the secondary shown on the map -from this fall to the place where the river passes between mount -Holyoke and Tom, was formerly the bed of a lake: for the logs are -still found undecayed in many places, from 10 to 20 feet below the -surface; the river has evidently worn a passage between Holyoke and -Tom: many of the hills on the northern part, and the sandstone on -the plain, bear the marks of having been washed by water, and the -channels of two rivers are still visible in Deerfield, the one 30, -and the other 100 feet above the present bed of Connecticut river. -Between mount Tom and the mountains west, there is a secondary -plain of sufficient height to throw back the water over the -supposed bed of the lake, before a passage was worn between Holyoke -and Tom. South of these hills commences another alluvial and -secondary tract, extending on both sides of the river to Haddam, in -Connecticut, where the river passes between mountains, and perhaps -this region also was the bed of a lake. - -The plain on which the village of Deerfield stands, with the -adjoining meadows, is sunk 50 or 60 feet below the general alluvial -tract, and was undoubtedly the bed of a pond, or small lake, that -remained after the larger one of which we have spoken had subsided. -When this larger lake decreased, Deerfield river was cut off from -a communication with the Connecticut by the mountain CD, and the -plain extending westward from this mountain. There is a tradition, -derived from the aboriginals of Deerfield, that the passage in -which Deerfield river now runs through the mountain CD, was begun -by a squaw with a clam-shell. - -On the margin of these meadows, at considerable elevation, -numerous small conical excavations appear. On digging below the -surface, stones are found calcined by fire. These are probably the -spots where Indian wigwams formerly stood. Many vestiges of the -aboriginals are frequently found in Deerfield, such as beads, stone -pots, mortars, pipes, axes, and the barbs of arrows and pikes. Near -the village they had a burial-ground, where many skeletons have -been uncovered. A roll of human hair was lately found here, by Mr. -J. C. Hoyt of Deerfield, three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and -three inches long, closely tied by a string made of the hide of -some animal, which string was encircled by brass or copper clasps -greatly oxidized; but the hair and string were in a good state of -preservation, though they must have lain there more than a century. -In the meadows, logs, leaves, butternuts, and walnuts are found -undecayed, 15 feet below the surface; and stumps of trees have been -observed at that depth standing yet firmly where they once grew. -In the same meadows, a few years since, several toads were dug up -from 15 feet below the surface, and three feet in gravel. They soon -recovered from a torpid state, and hopped away. - -The small range of hills beginning at the south line of -Deerfield, and terminating in Gill, deserves description. At its -commencement on the south, a conical hill, called Sugar Loaf, -of red conglomerate, rises abruptly from the plain 500 feet. -The appearance of this hill, as you come from the south, is -picturesque, and it is an interesting feature of the country. -The range becomes higher for three miles, where, at its greatest -elevation, it is 730 feet above the bed of Deerfield river. The -west side of the mountain is precipitous, and in some places naked. -The ascent on the other side is gentle. - -Both sides of this hill are sandstone and puddingstone, frequently -alternating: though these are most extensive on the west side, and -as we rise the puddingstone predominates. The strata dip to the -east about 10 degrees. Near the centre of this range is a ridge of -greenstone, with a mural face on the west, and amorphous masses -lying at the base, half way up to its summit. This ridge does -not rise so high as the puddingstone on the west of it, as may be -seen in the view of strata with the map. It commences on the west -bank of Connecticut river, about a mile north of the hill C, and -increases in elevation nearly to the spot where it disappears at -the fall of the river in Gill. This rock does not appear to rest on -sandstone, but to descend through it, where there is an opportunity -for observation. Deerfield river has worn a passage through the -sandstone and greenstone 150 feet deep, and the greenstone passes -under its bed, and the sandstone, at a few rods distant lies on -each side of the greenstone. A similar fact has been noticed at -the fall in Connecticut river, in Gill. Yet I have coloured this -greenstone secondary on the map; for it is certain that Mount Tom -rests on sandstone, and it is stated by Professor Silliman, that -the same rock does in Connecticut. Could we penetrate deeper below -the surface, it is probable the same would be found to be the case -with this greenstone. - -As stated above, this rock disappears near the cataract in Gill, -and it is succeeded by puddingstone. But four miles farther north, -it again emerges in Bernardstone, though it rises but little above -the surface. Here its character is changed. The hornblende is -more crystalline, and the rock becomes decidedly primitive, as -you approach a mountain of argillite and mica slate, into which -it passes, and no greenstone has been observed north of this. It -terminates not far from the line of Vermont. The red sandstone and -conglomerate also terminate on the opposite side of the river in -Northfield. - -The greenstone in the above described range, is of a finer texture -than the same rock in Connecticut; and the feldspar, in some -specimens, is scarcely discernible with a microscope. Indeed, in -many instances, the eye would decide the rock to be basalt. Much -of it is fissile, the laminæ varying from half an inch to a foot -in thickness. This is most perceptible among the loose masses; -but it exists also in that in place. Whether this circumstance be -accidental, I will not attempt to decide. - -A large proportion of the greenstone of our vicinity constitutes -the base of amygdaloid. The imbedded substances are calcareous -spar, quartz, chalcedony, analcime, prehnite, &c. as will be -more particularly mentioned hereafter. Globular concretions of -greenstone are common in this amygdaloid, several inches in -diameter, and of greater specific gravity than the other parts -of the rock. A great number of columns occur in the same range, -having from three to six sides. Some of them are quite regular, -and are well articulated, exhibiting at their joints considerable -concavities and convexities. They are from one to thirty feet long, -and, in their natural position, incline a few degrees to the east, -as may be seen in the view of strata with the map; A few have been -noticed that make lateral curves. One of these hexagonal columns -measures at one end as follows:--Diagonals, 27, 29, and 29½ inches; -sides, 16½, 13¼, 11½, 17, 11½, and 16½ inches. The convexity of -this column is a little more than an inch. The best instances of -these prisms occur one mile east from the village of Deerfield. - -Masses of greenstone are found at considerable distance from the -range, among the puddingstone. One has been noticed weighing -many tons, a hundred rods from the range of greenstone, and on -much higher ground. Some of these scattered fragments contain -chalcedony. A specimen of petrosiliceous porphyry has been found -among the same puddingstone, and also a mass of singular, though -not well defined, amygdaloid, whose base is similar to wacke, and -imbedded substances are calcareous spar, chlorite, and green earth. - -The elevation in the north part of Sunderland, called Toby, from -800 to 900 feet high, is chiefly conglomerate, red, brown, or -greenish, which, in some parts, alternates with chlorite slate, -secondary argillite, and a sandstone that seems to be passing into -gray wacke slate. Some of the imbedded masses in this puddingstone -are quite large, its cement is frequently calcareous, its aspect -is singular, and it is very different from the puddingstone before -described, On the opposite side of the river. At the foot of this -mountain, in the bottom of Connecticut river, distinct impressions -of fish are found on a schistose rock, like the one above mentioned -as passing into gray wacke slate. This same species of slate occurs -in several other places at the bottom of Connecticut river, as at -the fall in Gill. In this last place bituminous shale has been -noticed. - -In Mount Toby, in Sunderland, is a cave nearly 150 feet above the -bed of Connecticut river. It opens to the north and west, forming -a quarter of a circle, is 130 feet in extent, 60 feet deep, and -from 3 to 20 wide. A little to the south of it, is a fissure in -the puddingstone, formed by a separation of the rock, ten feet -wide, and as deep as the cave. So perfect is this division, that it -appears as if cloven down by the sword of some Titan. Perhaps this -cave and fissure were formed by the washing of the waters of the -lake we have mentioned on the sandstone and conglomerate beneath; -thus causing the superincumbent rock to fall and separate. There -is no appearance of any other convulsion. Imperfect, calcareous -stalactites are found in this cave. - -The falls in Connecticut river, at E, are not unworthy of notice. -The river here is about 40 rods wide, and the height of the main -cataract, raised considerably by an artificial dam, is 30 feet. The -fall continues two miles. On the north bank you view the cataract -from elevated ground, and can see the river nearly a mile above -and below--above, perfectly smooth and calm, below, forming a -quarter of a circle, and tumbling among the broken rocks. On the -opposite side of the river are a few buildings, the commencement -of a canal, and, behind these, moderately elevated hills, covered -with woods. Two rocky islands near the middle of the descending -sheet, and another thirty rods below, add much to the beauty of the -view. Looking from the southeast shore, you have a partial prospect -of the falls, and a view of an amphitheatre of greenstone hills, -through which a small river empties. The pleasure derived from the -view proceeds more from its wildness than its sublimity. - -The position of the hills, boundaries, and rivers, on the -accompanying map, may not, in all cases, be precisely correct. The -general outlines were enlarged by a pentegraph from Carleton's -map of Massachusetts, and the intermediate objects were placed -chiefly by the eye; their relative situations being determined -by travelling over the ground, and viewing them from different -elevations. The boundaries of the several formations have not been -so carefully noticed near the angles of the map as in the central -parts. Of their correctness generally, however, I am confident. The -latitude and longitude of Deerfield, from which those on the map -were marked, were obtained by taking a mean of the observations -given by Gen. E. Hoyt, in the Transactions of the American Academy -of Arts and Sciences, and of twelve lunar observations since made. -The result is, Lat. 42° 32' 32". Long. 72° 39' from Greenwich. - -With the map is given a view of the strata of rocks from Hoosack -mountain to eleven miles east of Connecticut river, on a line -nearly east and west, passing through Deerfield. The horizontal -distances are laid down from a scale: the elevations are assumed. -The principal rocks only are coloured; for it is very difficult -to determine the breadth of many, since they frequently alternate -with one another. I have not examined the country on the east side -of Connecticut river with sufficient care to be able to extend the -section on that side more than a few miles. - -It may not be amiss to mention, that Mount Holyoke, so much -celebrated for the delightful view from its top, has been found, -with a sextant, to be 830 feet above Connecticut river. Its height -has been frequently overrated. - -The mineralogy of this section of the country has been but -imperfectly explored. I shall mention those minerals only of which -I have obtained specimens, and whose localities have not been -noticed by mineralogists. - -_Quartz_--several varieties. - - 1. _Rock Crystal_--abundant. Some good specimens are found - in Conway, on feldspar, with the usual hexagonal, prismatic - crystals, and these crystals cross each other in all directions. - - 2. _Irised Quartz_--found in Leyden. - - 3. _Granular Quartz_--in Deerfield. - - 4. _Radiated Quartz_--in Whately and Shelburne. - - 5. _Blue Quartz_--in rolled masses on the banks of Deerfield - river. - - 6. _Greasy Quartz_--in same place. - - 7. _Pseudomorphous Quartz_--in greenstone, Deerfield. - - 8. _Lamellar Quartz_--in same place. The laminæ sometimes - penetrate crystals of common quartz. - - 9. _Tubular_, or _Pectinated Quartz_--in same place. - - 10. _Quartz Geodes_--in same place. - -_Prase_--in the north part of Sunderland. (Not good specimens.) - -_Amethyst_--in Greenstone, Deerfield: the colour is not deep, but -delicate. - -_Chalcedony_--in same place--considerably abundant, but generally -in small masses. - -_Carnelian_--in same place, not plenty. The chalcedony, in some -specimens, seems to be passing into cacholong, and the carnelian -into sardonyx. - -_Agate_--in same place. It is made up of chalcedony, carnelian, and -quartz. They are generally small, but some are elegant. - -_Jasper_, red, and yellow--found in rolled masses on the banks of -Deerfield river and in Leyden. Some have been found imperfectly -striped. It occurs frequently as it was formed by the aboriginals -into barbs for pikes and arrows. - -_Petrosilex_--on the banks of Deerfield river--not good specimens. - -_Feldspar_--the red variety occurs in puddingstone, Deerfield. It -is not necessary to mention any other locality of a mineral so -common. - -_Hornblende_--very abundant--mostly black in this vicinity. - -_Mica_--this is very abundant on the east side of Connecticut -river. Some crystals of it have been found in Amherst. - -_Talc_--in Shutesbury. - -_Steatite._ The localities of this are seen on the section. The -aboriginals formed many articles from this mineral, as pots, pipes, -&c. - -_Chlorite_--in Shutesbury: also in amygdaloid, Deerfield. In -Deerfield academy there are some Indian pipes of this mineral, well -wrought. - -_Green Earth_--in small quantities, in amygdaloid, Deerfield. - -_Schorl_--the black variety occurs in Pelham, Shutesbury, and -Orange, Mass., and in Brattleborough, Vermont. - -_Epidote_--in Deerfield, Shutesbury, Leyden, and Pelham, and in -Athol, Worcester county. The specimens poor. - -_Tremolite_--in the west part of Leyden, near Green river. The rock -in this region is chiefly mica slate, and the quantity of tremolite -is very great. Tons of it might be easily collected. - -_Cyanite_, or _Sappare_--in Deerfield, in mica slate; discovered by -Dr. S. W. Williams. - -_Actynolite_--rare, found in Shutesbury. - -_Serpentine_--found in Leyden in rolled masses. Some of the -specimens admit a fine polish, and the ground is handsomely -variegated. It has not been noticed _in situ_. - -_Asbestus_--compact, in Pelham. - -_Garnets_--very plenty in Conway, Deerfield, Shelburne, &c. Good -specimens of the melanite occur in Conway. - -_Native Alum_--in Leyden, in small quantities, efflorescing on -argillaceous slate. - -_Sulphur_--in Conway, Shelburne, and Warwick, efflorescing on mica -slate. - -_Prehnite_--in greenstone, Deerfield, encrusting the columns and in -radiated masses, but rarely crystallized. The veins of it, when in -place, are nearly perpendicular. - -_Zeolite_--in same place, not abundant. Some good specimens of the -radiated variety are found. - -_Chabasie_--in same place, considerably abundant. No crystals have -yet been found whose sides exceed a quarter of an inch. It occurs -in the veins of the greenstone, in geodes, on balls of zeolite, on -chalcedony, on lamellar quartz, &c. - -_Stilbite_--in same place, not abundant. It is commonly associated -with chabasie, and the crystals, though small, are well defined. - -_Analcime_--in same place, very abundant, and is associated with -quartz and amethyst, which are sometimes enclosed by analcime. It -generally occurs in cylindrical, reniform, and radiated masses. A -few perfect crystals only have been observed. - -_Laminated Calcareous Spar_--in the same place, not uncommon. - -Chalcedony, carnelian, agate, amethyst, prehnite, zeolite, -chabasie, stilbite, and analcime, have been found nearly in the -same place; and it may not be amiss to observe, that this spot is -distant from Deerfield Academy about one mile, and bears from the -same, by a true meridian, E. 2°, 15′ S. - -_Iron Sand_--found in considerable quantity near the falls in -Connecticut river, on the Montague shore. - -_Sulphate of Iron_--in Conway, in small quantities, efflorescing on -mica slate. - -_Sulphuret of Iron_--in Halifax, Vermont, in abundance; also in -Charlemont, Mass., Deerfield, &c. - -_Magnetic Oxide of Iron_--very common in the region west of -Connecticut river. I have observed it in Athol, Worcester county. - -_Specular Oxide of Iron_--some veins of this ore occur in Hawley, -Bernardstown, and Warwick, and have been wrought to a small extent. - -_Micaceous Oxide of Iron_--in the iron mine in Hawley. - -_Green Carbonate of Copper_--in greenstone, in Greenfield. This -ore constitutes a vein on the bank of Connecticut river, passing -into the hill on one side, and under the river on the other. It has -never been wrought, nor, indeed, is its locality publicly known. - -_Copper Pyrites_--in the same vein, not abundant, at the surface. - -_Sulphate of Barytes_--in the same place, constituting the -immediate walls of the vein. Its breadth on the wall varies from an -inch to a foot, and the breadth of the vein is 6 or 8 feet. - -_Galena_--in Whately. This is probably from a continuation of the -vein of this ore that appears at Montgomery, Southampton, and -Hatfield. A single crystal has been found in the same range, in -Greenfield, twelve miles north of Whately; but it was not in place. - -_Red Oxyde of Titanium_--in Leyden, crystallized on quartz and -tremolite, chiefly on the latter; colour brownish red--specific -gravity 4.232; scratches glass, handsomely geniculated, and -sometimes several geniculations in the same specimen; in one as -many as six could be perceived. - -_Eagle Stone_, or _Nodular argillaceous Oxide of Iron_--one -specimen on the banks of Deerfield river. - -_Rose-red Quartz_--a loose mass in alluvial soil, Deerfield. - -_Red Oxide of Titanium_--in Shelburne. - -I would acknowledge my peculiar obligations to Professor Silliman, -of New-Haven, and to Dr. David Hunt, of Northampton, Mass. for -the very generous assistance they have given me in a commencement -of the study of mineralogy, and for their liberal aid in this -particular communication. Their kindness, it is believed, will -not soon be forgotten. To several others, also, I am indebted for -communicating facts of importance. - -_Deerfield, October, 1817._ - - - - -ART. II. _On the Prairies and Barrens of the West, by_ CALEB -ATWATER, ESQ. _in Letters to the Editor_. - - - CIRCLEVILLE, Ohio, May 28, 1818. - - _Dear Sir_, - -I send you for publication in the Journal of Science, an Essay on -the Prairies and Barrens found in this country. - - -_Description of the Prairies._ - -_Prairie_ is a French word, signifying a meadow, but is here -applied only to natural meadows. They are found in all the states -and territories west of the Allegany mountains, more or less -numerous, of greater or less extent. They are covered with a -coarse kind of grass, which, before the country is settled in -their vicinity, grows to the height of six or seven feet. After -these natural meadows are fed upon by domestic animals, the grass -does not grow to a greater height than it does in common pastures. -Sometimes this grass is intermixed with weeds and plum-bushes. -Some of those prairies are dry, while others are moist. Pickaway -Plains, in Pickaway county, in the State of Ohio, lying a small -distance south of this place, are nearly seven miles in length, and -about three miles in width, on ground considerably elevated above -the Scioto river, almost perfectly level, and, in their native -state, were covered with a great quantity of grass, some weeds and -plum-bushes; and in the most elevated places, there were a few -trees. This was one great prairie. - -Sandusky Plains, lying on the high ground between the head waters -of the Whetstone branch of the Scioto river, and the waters of -streams running into Lake Erie, are still more extensive than -those of Pickaway, covered with a coarse, tall grass, intermixed -with weeds, with here and there a tree, presenting to the eye a -landscape of great extent. - -The moist prairies generally lie along some stream, or at the head -of one, on level land, or on that which gently descends. The moist -prairies are too wet for trees to grow on them; and whether moist -or dry, the soil, for a greater or less depth, is always alluvial, -resting on pebbles and sand, such as are found at the bottom of -rivers, ponds, and lakes. In some instances, the writer is credibly -informed, that the shells of muscles are found imbedded in the -pebbles and sand. That these shells, such as abound in our rivers, -ponds, and lakes, should be found in low prairies along the banks -of waters which frequently overflow them, excites no wonder, nor -even surprise; but that these shells should be found thus imbedded -in pebbles and sand underneath several feet of alluvial soil, in -situations more than one hundred feet above the waters of any -stream now in existence, is calculated to perplex the mind of the -superficial observer. These prairies are found in the western half -of the State of Ohio, and north of the hills adjacent to the river -of that name. They are also found in every state and territory west -of the Alleganies, from the great northern lakes on the north, -to the Mexican Gulf on the south; from the western foot of the -Allegany mountains, to the eastern one of the Rocky mountains, up -the Missouri. In summer, the grass which spontaneously covers them, -feeds immense herds of cattle; in winter, the hay that is cut on -them, with a little Indian corn or maize, feeds and fattens the -same herds. Some of these prairies extend as far as the eye can -reach; others contain only a few perches of ground. - - -_Description of the Barrens._ - -But besides these prairies, there are also extensive tracts of -country in this part of the Union which deserve and shall receive -our notice; they are called "_Barrens_." From their appellation, -"barrens," the person unacquainted with them is not to suppose -them thus called from their sterility, because most of them are -quite the reverse. These barrens are found in a level country, -with here and there a gentle rise, only a few feet higher than the -land around it. On these little rises, for they are not hills, -trees grow, and grass also; but grass and weeds are the only -occupants of the soil where there is no rise of ground. The soil -is alluvial to greater or less depth in these barrens, though on -some of the highest rises there is little or none; the lower the -ground the deeper the alluvion. On these gentle rises, where there -is no alluvion, we find stiff, blue clay, and no pebbles. Under -the alluvial black soil, in the lower grounds, we find pebbles -similar to those in the prairies, owing to similar causes. On the -little ridges, wherever the land is not too moist, the oak or the -hickory has taken possession, and there grows to a moderate height, -in clusters. It would seem, that whenever the land had become -sufficiently dry for an acorn or a hickory-nut to sprout, take -root, and grow, it did so; and from one or more of these trees, -in time, others have grown around them in such clusters as we -now behold. Where the land is lower, the soil deeper, more moist -and more fertile, the grass was too thick, and the soil too wet, -for such kind of trees to grow in as were found in the immediate -vicinity. Imagine, then, natural meadows, of various dimensions, -and of every figure which the imagination can conceive, with here -and there a gentle rise of ground, decked with a few scattering -trees or a thick cluster of them, and bearing a tall, coarse -grass, which is thin on the rises, but on the lower grounds thick -and luxuriant; imagine, also, a rill of a reddish colour scarcely -meandering through ground a little lower than the surrounding -plain, and you will have a very correct idea of the appearance of -these barrens. They are _generally_ (not always) found on what, -in our western dialect, is called _second bottom_, and not on a -level with any streams of magnitude, but rather at their sources. -To mention all the counties of this State where these prairies and -barrens are found, would be too tedious, and illy comport with the -object which we have in view. We shall therefore content ourselves -with describing those found in the north half of Fayette county, -and the adjoining county of Madison, which may be said to be almost -entirely one great barren of more than forty miles extent from -north to south, and generally half as much in breadth from east to -west. The great barren in Fayette, Madison, and, we may add, in -the counties still north of them, is on land elevated from fifty -to one hundred feet above the level of the Scioto river, into -which the streams that have their sources in this tract of country -generally run. This land lies so level that the waters stand on it -too long for grain to thrive equally with grass, unless, indeed, -the farmer should dig a long drain, which is easily effected by the -plough, with a little assistance from the hoe and the spade. But as -nature seems to have intended this tract of country for the raising -of cattle instead of grain, the husbandman has listened to the -suggestion, and in this great barren are found some thousands of -the finest cattle which the State affords. Here the horse, the ox, -and the swine feed, thrive, and fatten with little expense to their -owner; but sheep do not, and never will, thrive on prairie grass, -or wet grounds. Fruit-trees, the peach, the apple, the plum, &c. -do very well when planted on the gently rising grounds, where the -hickory or the oak had once stood. Fruit-trees, such as have been -named, thrive very well also on the dry prairies. On the eastern -side of the Allegany mountains there neither is, nor was there -ever, any thing like these prairies and barrens, if we except those -found in the western part of New-York, in the Genesee country, and -in the vicinity of the lakes in that quarter. These, the writer of -this saw nearly thirty years since, and before that country was -much settled. Those prairies were similar in appearance to ours in -the west, and were, beyond doubt, formed by similar means. - - -_Speculations on the Origin of the Prairies and Barrens._ - -What were the causes which contribute to form these natural -meadows? That water was the principal agent in their formation, we -very little doubt; but this is not the common opinion. According -to that opinion, our prairies and barrens, and especially the -latter, were occasioned entirely by the burning of the woods by the -Indians, in order to take the wild game. Let us try this opinion by -the indubitable appearances exhibited by these prairies and barrens. - -They are invariably found in a level country, or in one which is -nearly so; and the soil is generally, if not always, more moist -than that which is uneven and hilly. Would not the leaves, where -the land is dry, burn over with as great facility, or even with -greater facility, than the grass would where the land is wet? Would -there not be more wild game where they could find their food in -plenty, such as acorns and hickory nuts, on which they feed in -winter, than on land where no food, except dry grass and weeds, -were to be found? It is well known that these prairies and barrens -could not be burnt over when the vegetable productions which cover -them were growing. At the only season when it is possible to burn -them, that is in winter, to what kind of regions do the wild -animals resort? Is it not to the thick woods? Every hunter will -answer in the affirmative. For the space of twenty-five years, -the writer of this lived in the vicinity of Indians, and from -information on which he relies, as well as from his own actual -observation, he confidently avers that the Indians neither are, -nor ever were, in the habit of firing the woods in order to take -game. Erroneous information first propagated such an opinion, -and blind credulity has extended it down to us. Another opinion, -equally groundless, prevails to a considerable extent; and that -is, that these prairies have all been heretofore cultivated by the -aborigines, and that the grass having overspread these plains, -prevented the growth of trees on them. The Indians, it is to be -presumed, never cultivated any other grain than maize, or Indian -corn, and yet we see few or no corn-hills in any part of this -country. In the western part of New-York, before it was settled by -its present inhabitants, thousands and thousands of acres were to -be seen, where the trees were as large as any in the forest, and -yet the rows of corn-hills were plainly discernible. I refer in a -particular manner to what is now called Cayuga county. There the -growth of grass had not prevented the growth of trees, nor did it -here. We know that some of these prairies were cultivated by the -Indians, but never to any very considerable extent. This country -never was thickly settled by Indians, like the shores of the -Atlantic and the banks of the rivers running into it. No, it was -the ancestors of the Peruvians and the Mexicans who lived here in -great numbers, before they migrated to South America. - -The question then recurs, by what powerful means were these -prairies and barrens formed? - -That water was the principal agent, we infer from the fact, that -the soil is always alluvial to greater or less depth; the former we -call prairie, the latter barren. But how could the country from the -southern shore of Lake Erie to Chillicothe, a distance of more than -one hundred and fifty miles from north to south, ever be covered -with water long enough to form alluvial soil, in many places from -four to six feet in depth? I answer, that the Niagara river, the -present outlet of Lake Erie, has worn away several hundred feet, -and in that way the lake is lowered in the same proportion. The -high land, composed entirely of sand, originally extending from the -Ohio northerly upwards of forty miles, to Chillicothe, has been -worn through by the Scioto river; and the waters which once for -ages covered the whole country north of the hills along the Ohio -river have been drained off, and the dry land appears where once -stood the waters of lakes Erie and Michigan, then forming but one -great lake. I am fully impressed with the belief, that were the -bottom of Niagara river as high as it once was, the upper lakes -would now, as formerly, empty themselves into the Ohio by the -Scioto and Miami rivers, and into the Mississippi by the Illinois. -I might proceed to examine every part of the country where prairies -and barrens are found; but they have all been formed by the same -agent, and that is water. An objection to this opinion may be -raised by some, that these prairies and barrens are frequently -found in the counties of Delaware, Champaign, Madison, Fayette, -&c. on ground considerably elevated. Are they higher than the -hills near Chillicothe? From a careful inspection, but without any -instruments, I am convinced that they are none of them as high. - -There is no perpendicular fall of water, but merely a gradual -descent, from Columbus to the Ohio; nay, there is no fall from the -very source of the Scioto to its mouth. Every one acquainted with -hydrostatics, knows that water will run briskly where the descent -is only a few inches in a mile. The writer believes that the -Scioto, from its source to the Ohio river, does not descend more -than one hundred feet, and that the present surface of Lake Erie -is about on a level with the Ohio in a freshet; that before the -channel of Niagara river was deepened, as it evidently has been, by -the attrition of that mighty stream; and before the hills adjacent -to the Ohio were worn down by the waters of the Scioto, the whole -country north of Chillicothe, where these hills commence, to Lake -Erie inclusive, was covered with water, except the very highest -hills in the counties of Greene, &c. which were then islands. What -tends to corroborate this opinion is, that on these high grounds we -find limestone and other rocks, and indications of gypsum; but no -alluvion, and none of those fragments and ruins which are produced -by water acting mechanically upon a country for a long space of -time. We might mention other parts of country where prairies and -barrens abound, and which have been formed by water. Those along -Greene river, in Kentucky, have evidently been covered by the -waters of that river. The bed of that stream has been deepened by -the constant flowing of the water along its channel; the water is -drained off, and the prairies and barrens now occupy the soil which -the water had made and formerly covered. The prairies above the -falls of Hockhocking, along that river, have evidently been formed -in the same way, and owe their origin and appearances to similar -causes. There is near Lancaster, on the last-mentioned river in the -State of Ohio, and near the great road, a gentle rise of ground in -the prairie, which has every appearance of having been an island, -and is so called by the people of the vicinity. - -In fine, wherever prairies and barrens are found, there, for a -long space of time, water once stood, but was gradually drained -off. Else why alluvial soil to such a depth, in low situations, -and growing thinner as we ascend on ground more elevated? Else why -do we find rocks in more elevated tracts of country, and not in -prairies or barrens? Else why do we find no alluvion, no grass, but -a thick growth of ancient forest-trees on the higher lands? Else -why do we find beneath the alluvion of the prairies, pebbles and -shells similar to those at the bottom of lakes and ponds? Else why -do the higher grounds to this moment present the appearances of -so many islands? And all these indications where no stream now in -existence could by possibility have reached them? - -That the waters which once covered so great a part of this State -(Ohio) were drawn off gradually, we infer from the fact, that -there is not a single indication of the effects of an earthquake -or volcano, from the foot of the Allegany to the banks of the -Mississippi: in this region not a stone nor a layer of earth has -been misplaced, nor its position changed. - -But an interesting inquiry here presents itself. Were the hills -along the Ohio, before they were worn away by the streams which -now empty themselves into that river, ever high enough to raise -the water to the north of them to such a degree that it would -overspread the country where the prairies and barrens are now -found? Although the height of these hills has not been ascertained -by the proper instruments, yet from appearances, not to be mistaken -by any person who examines them and the country towards Lake Erie, -these hills are much higher than any land between them and that -lake. And from certain indications, (as already remarked,) had not -the bed of the Niagara been deepened by the running of that mighty -river, Lake Erie, as formerly, would empty itself into the Ohio by -the Scioto and Miami; and the great northern lakes would once more -discharge themselves into the Mississippi by the Illinois. Lake -Ontario, from some cause, (possibly an earthquake, or the wearing -away of its outlet, or both,) is considerably lower than it was -formerly: in that way the land along its banks, once covered by its -waters, is drained, presenting appearances exactly similar to those -seen in many of our prairies. - - -_Miscellaneous Remarks on the Prairies and Barrens relative to -their Picturesque Features, and to Agriculture and Health, as -affected by the peculiarities of these Tracts._ - -To the traveller, who for several days traverses these prairies -and barrens, their appearance is quite uninviting, and even -disagreeable. He may travel from morning until night, and make good -speed, but on looking around him, he fancies himself at the very -spot whence he started. No pleasant variety of hill and dale, no -rapidly running brook delights the eye, and no sound of woodland -music strikes the ear; but, in their stead, a dull uniformity of -prospect "spread out immense." Excepting here and there a tree, -or a slight elevation of ground, it is otherwise a dead level, -covered with tall weeds and coarse grass. The sluggish rivulets, of -a reddish colour, scarcely move perceptibly, and their appearance -is as uninviting to the eye, as their taste is disgusting to the -palate. Such are the prairies and barrens of the west; but, in -order to make ample amends for any deficiency, nature has made them -exuberantly fertile. The farmer who settles upon them, by raising -cattle, becomes rich with little labour. He ditches those which -are too moist for grain; he ploughs and fences them, and raises -from seventy to one hundred bushels of maize or Indian corn to the -acre, without ever hoeing it. The United States own thousands -and thousands of acres of such land in these western States and -territories, which, for prompt payment, may be purchased for one -dollar and sixty-two and a half cents an acre. One objection to -these lands is, the want of timber for fuel and other purposes; -and another is, that they are unhealthy: but in many places there -is an abundance of peat in the wet prairies, and cultivation will -every year render them more and more healthy. Some of them have -been cultivated for fifteen or twenty years past with grain, and -are as fertile as they ever were. As M. Volney says, "They are the -Flanders of America." - - Yours, &c. C. A. - - - - -ART. III. _Account of the Coal Mines in the vicinity of Richmond, -Virginia, communicated to the editor in a letter from Mr._ JOHN -GRAMMER, _Jun._ - - - PETERSBURGH, _Virg. Jan. 28th, 1818_. - - _Dear Sir_, - -In compliance with your request, that I would send you some account -of the Virginia coal pits, I paid a visit to them soon after my -return, in company with Mr. R. W. Withers, and I will now proceed -to give you the account proposed. - -The pits, which we made the particular object of our visit, are -situated in the county of Chesterfield, about 14 miles distant, -in a direction W. S. W. from Richmond, and 3 miles south of -James' River. The country rises gradually from Richmond to the -pits; and, from its sandy appearance, is evidently an alluvial -deposit, although its substratum is the granite mentioned by Mr. -M'Clure, as extending through this state from S. S. W. to N. -N. E. The coal is found on the western or upper surface of the -granite, coincident with it both in direction and inclination; -but whether they come immediately in contact or not, has not yet -been ascertained. The 'bed' of coal is supposed by the miners to -be coextensive with the granite, and I can discover no very good -reason for disagreeing with them in this particular; but, on the -contrary, many circumstances concur to strengthen the opinion that -it is really coextensive with the granite. The coal is now procured -from at least 25 different pits, opened at convenient distances -through an extent of from 50 to 70 miles. It every where commences -at the upper surface or termination of the body of granite. Some -suppose that it is imposed on the granite; and others, that a thin -stratum of slate is interposed between the coal and granite. It is -always found covered by the slate. The granite is inclined to the -horizon at an angle of 45°, and the coal has the same inclination. -And since the coal, as far as it has been discovered, is found to -accompany and correspond with the granite, why may we not suppose -that it continues to accompany the granite, where it has not -yet been discovered? At Heth's pits, the coal is 50 feet thick, -measured on a line perpendicular to the surfaces of the extreme -strata. At some of the pits between Heth's and James' River, it -is 30 feet thick; and at the river, not more than 25 feet. The -thickness of the coal on the north side of James' River, at the -pits in Henrico and Hanover counties, is variable, but at no place -greater than 25 feet; and to the south of Heth's, in the pits -extending to the Appomatox river, it is still less thick. These -facts would induce the supposition, that the coal was deposited -in a bed, near the centre of which Heth's pits were sunk. But, on -the other hand, the coal is distinctly stratified, and the number -of strata increases as the coal proceeds from the surface of the -earth; of course, therefore, the farther you proceed from the outer -extremity of the coal, the thicker the body of it will be found; -and from the inclination of the coal, the farther you are from -its outer extremity the deeper it must be under the surface of -the earth. Heth's pits are 100 feet deeper than any that have yet -been sunk; and all the pits, that I have seen, appear to be nearer -to the outer extremity of the coal. We may conclude, therefore, -that if the others had been sunk as far from the outer extremity, -they would have been as deep, and the coal would have been found -as thick in them as in Heth's. Heth's pits, now so called, were -first opened about 30 years since, and worked to some considerable -extent. Experiencing, however, much inconvenience from the near -approach of the works to a part of the coal which was on fire; and -finding, from their unskilful mode of mining, that the business -was not profitable, they abandoned the works, and filled up their -shaft. Some few years after, Mr. Heth obtained possession of the -land; and, having imported two Scotch miners, commenced working -the coal again. He has now three shafts open, in a line with each -other, in the direction of the vein. They are sunk near the brink -of a steep hill, which rises about 180 feet from the western bank -of a small brook. The depth of one of the shafts is 350 feet. -The other two are about 300 feet deep, each. A steam-engine, -constructed by Bolton & Watt, is erected at the middle and deepest -shaft. It is used exclusively for pumping out water; but I will not -trouble you with an account of the _modus operandi_, as it would -be only a repetition of your own description of the same operation -at the Cornwall mines. The coal is raised in a box, called by the -miners a _cowe_. These cowes contain about two bushels each, and -two of them are alternately rising and descending in each shaft. -They are raised by means of ropes, fastened to a simple wheel and -crank, which is turned by mules. In sinking their shafts, they cut, -in the first place, perpendicularly (i. e. to the surface of the -earth) through the coal, to its lower surface; and then turning -westwardly, they open a horizontal gallery through the inclination -of the vein, to its upper surface; by this means, to use their -own terms, "gaining a double cut on it." Their principal gallery -passes (in the direction of the vein,) by the mouth of each shaft. -Its length is 1350 feet, and it is terminated at each end by a -hitch or dyke of hard sandstone. (The passage was stopped with -rubbish in such a manner as to prevent me from seeing the stone -myself, and the gentleman who escorted me through the mines is my -authority for its being sandstone; he might possibly, however, -have been mistaken, as it is difficult to ascertain what a stone -is, in such a place, until it is broken.) When I was at the pits, -they were preparing to blast through this rock. At right angles to -the principal gallery, they have opened, at convenient distances -apart, shorter galleries, running westwardly, and these are again -connected by passages parallel to the first or principal gallery. -Pickaxes are the only tools used in working the coal, as it breaks -very readily, in the direction of the strata. The roofs of some of -the passages are perfectly smooth; and in such, the light of the -lamps, reflected from the great variety of colours in the coal, -presents a very brilliant sight. The gloomy blackness, however, of -most of the galleries, and the strange dress and appearance of the -black miners, would furnish sufficient data to the conception of -a poet, for a description of Pluto's kingdom. A strong sulphurous -acid ran down the walls of many of the galleries; and I observed -one of the drains was filled with a yellowish gelatinous substance, -which I ascertained, on a subsequent examination, was a yellow, or -rather a reddish, oxide of iron, mechanically suspended in water. - -I mentioned above that a part of the coal was on fire: I could not -ascertain when this fact was first observed to exist; and it is -not impossible that the coal may have been burning a century, or -more. It is highly probable, however, that a comparatively small -quantity of the coal is consumed, as the combustion must be greatly -retarded by the absence of a sufficient portion of atmospheric -air. A strong sulphurous fume issues from an irregular hole in the -side of the hill of about 2 feet diameter. The hole appears to be -only 4 or 5 feet deep, and the smoke rises into it from cracks, -partly filled with loose clay. The earth is very much cracked -around the hole, to the distance of 12 or 15 feet; and these cracks -are from 1 to 4 inches wide. The mouth of the hole is encrusted -with acicular crystals of pure sulphur. Attempts were formerly -made to extinguish the fire, by turning water into this hole; -and, after every attempt, there was a temporary disappearance of -the smoke for several weeks; but never longer than three months. -For several years, however, they have desisted from such vain -attempts, and have taken advantage of the facility afforded, by -the existence of this fire, for ventilating the mines, in the -following manner:--They opened a passage from their present, to -the old deserted, works; this they can open or shut, by means of -a close door. As the old works are very near the fire, the air -in them becomes very much rarified by the heat; and probably a -considerable portion of it is consumed (as the principal pabulum -for the combustion,) and a partial vacuum is produced. When the air -in their present works, therefore, becomes impure, they open the -door, and a strong current rushes into the old works; its place -is again supplied with fresh air through the shafts. Previous to -the adoption of this mode of ventilation, they experienced great -inconvenience from carbonic acid gas; and some of the workmen had -been killed by an explosion of carburetted hydrogen gas. Since -this mode has been adopted, they have experienced no inconvenience -at all from noxious gases. On inquiry, I was told that the -substances passed through, in getting to the coal, varied in the -different pits. As far, however, as I could learn by inquiry, and -an examination of the heaps of rubbish, the following substances, -in the order in which they stand, have been found in Heth's -pits:--mould, clay, gravel, fuller's earth, sandstone, (at first -extremely coarse and friable, but becoming more compact and hard, -and having an appearance somewhat stratified as they descended,) -gray and bluish clay slate, hard bluish sandstone, shale, or, as -they term it, shiver, white micaceous sandstone, extremely hard; -blue slate and shale intermixed, black slate, and then the coal. -The depth of these strata differed so much in different pits, that -their individual thickness could not be ascertained. Vegetable -impressions are very common in the slate next the coal; and they -have found the impression of a fish. Pieces of pure charcoal, in -the form of sticks, or logs, are frequently found in or on the -coal. In sinking one of the pits they met with a perpendicular -column, 8 inches in diameter, extending through the slate into the -coal; in all about 50 feet. Its surface was distinctly serrated, -and at intervals of about 2 inches it appeared jointed, breaking -easily at the joints. For the want of a better name I must call -it a "lusus naturæ;" for it is neither clay-slate nor mica-slate, -nor shale, nor sandstone; but appears to be composed of them all. -Masses of a black oxide of iron are sometimes found in the slate; -and from its weight and hardness the miners very properly call it -ironstone. Iron pyrites are very abundant in the slate, and the -heaps of rubbish are white with the sulphate of alumine; yellow -ochre is found among the rubbish, but I could not ascertain its -relative position with any precision. The side of the hill at -the pits is covered with quartz pebbles; some of which are as -transparent and beautiful as I ever saw. The country, for several -miles around the pits, (i. e. as far as I have seen,) appears to -be entirely destitute of rocks or pebbles, and is covered with -a light sandy soil. I am unable to inform you of the number of -hands employed at, or of the quantity of coal annually furnished -from, these pits, as a part of my notes has, by an accident, been -rendered illegible. - -Thus, sir, I have endeavoured to comply with my promise of giving -you an account of the coal pits.[17] In doing this, I have _only_ -attempted to state facts as they existed; although I have no doubt -that my imperfect acquaintance with geology has occasioned many -omissions which might have been interesting. To the same cause must -be attributed the use of language not always strictly scientific, -and a method less exact than might have been desired. With all -its imperfections, however, if you can, from the mass of facts, -cull any one which may be useful or interesting, I shall be fully -compensated by the pleasure of having furnished it, for any trouble -I may have been at in doing so. And, if at any time I should be -able to furnish you with any information relative to the mineralogy -or geology of this part of the country, I hope you will let me know -it. - - - - -ART. IV. _Sketch of the Geology and Mineralogy of a part of the -State of Indiana, communicated in a letter to the Editor, by Mr._ -W. B. STILSON. - - - LOUISVILLE, (Ken.) August 11, 1818. - - _Dear Sir_, - -I have employed a short period of leisure in passing over a portion -of the state of Indiana. Among other objects, I was not wholly -inattentive to the mineralogical and geological features of the -country. I now, with diffidence, transmit to you the result of my -inquiries. - - -SKETCH, &c. - -The secondary formation of the state of Indiana is abundantly -evident. The surface of the soil is undulating, and marked with -few elevations which deserve the name of mountains. The rocks are -sandstone, limestone, and clay-slate; all of which are disposed in -horizontal strata. The sandstone presents nothing remarkable in -its appearance. Its colours are various shades of gray and brown. -The principal hills are of this formation. The principal colours -of the limestone are blue and gray, and their various mingled and -intermediate shades. Its secondary formation is very manifest -from its almost earthy appearance. In innumerable instances, the -limestone rocks contain immense quantities of imbedded shells, of -great similarity in form and appearance, and having considerable -resemblance, to the common escallop-shell of the ocean. Owing to -the easy decomposition of these rocks, and the horizontal position -of their strata, they afford many subterranean passages for water. -A considerable stream, called Lost River, runs into a cave in the -side of a precipitous hill; and, after a passage of 6 or 7 miles -under the earth, again makes its appearance, with a large accession -to its waters. The traveller's attention is continually excited by -cavities in the earth, where the temporary rivulets, proceeding -from rains, make a sudden exit through perpendicular perforations -in the upper stratum of the rock. There are many such cavities, -which do not receive any water from the surface. Some of them are -many yards in diameter, forming a regular circular concave, of -considerable depth towards the centre. They are vulgarly known -among the inhabitants by the name of "_sink-holes_." The localities -of slate are few, and present nothing uncommon. - -With regard to the particular minerals. On Sand Creek, 60 miles -from White River, is an interesting locality of that variety -of silex, commonly called burrstone. It has been examined by -several practical millers, who do not hesitate to pronounce the -specimens which it affords, equal, if not superior, to the French -burrs. The locality is twenty acres in extent, and appears to be -inexhaustible. The mineral varies very much in its appearance; it -is generally porous, and appears to have been puffed up by the -escape of some gas, while it was in a state of fusion. A mass of -well-raised bread gives no inadequate idea of its configuration. -It produces most vivid sparks with steel. Some labourers are -employed in procuring millstones from this place; and, such is -the size of the siliceous rocks, that they are under no necessity -of constructing them of detached masses. They form, of a single -rock, millstones of five and a half feet in diameter, which are -not defaced by any irregularity, or even earthy cavity. These -millstones may be carried down the White, Wabash, Ohio, and -Mississippi rivers, to New-Orleans, with great facility. And if -they should prove as excellent as it is expected they will, this -discovery will shed new lustre upon the accumulating evidence of -the mineralogical resources of this republic. - -Many other varieties of silex are common: rock crystal, agate, -and chalcedony, are often found in the beds of rivulets. I passed -a considerable distance upon the banks of a small stream, called -Leather-wood creek: the bottom of the creek was covered, the whole -distance, with siliceous masses, shaped like oblate spheroids, -and of every size, from that of a large melon downwards. On being -broken, they presented beautiful geodes of crystallized quartz, -amethyst, &c. The outside was often fine chalcedony, and sometimes -the interior was the same substance, in the form of balls; all -these were sometimes combined, forming agates of great beauty. - -Carbonate of lime, crystallized, is sometimes found; and many of -the caves afford fine stalactites. - -There is a large cave near Corydon, celebrated for the production -of sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salts. It has been explored -for the distance of several miles. When it was first discovered, -the bottom, in many places, was covered to the depth of several -inches, with pure, brilliant, needle-shaped crystals of sulphate of -magnesia. By some mysterious process of nature, or rather of Divine -benevolence, the production of this useful salt is continually -going on. This cave also produces some other salts in small -quantities: nitrate of lime, nitrate of magnesia, sulphate of lime, -&c. - -Where the basis of the country is limestone, the waters always -take up a great quantity of lime, and some of them possess great -petrifying powers. I saw many specimens of petrifactions: a tuft of -moss, the form perfectly preserved; leaves, bark, and branches of -trees; insects, and many others. - -Many of the springs are strongly impregnated with sulphur, and -some of them are saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen. I found -the opinion universally prevalent among the people of this state, -that the first appearance of these sulphur springs was immediately -subsequent to the earthquakes of 1812. They say, that then new -springs, impregnated with sulphur, broke out, and the waters of -some old springs, for the first time, gave indications of this -mineral. A sensible farmer, who has a large sulphur-fountain, -boiling up from the bottom of a river near its bank, assured me, -that there was no trace of this spring until after the period to -which I have alluded. He could have no interest in deceiving me; -and if he did deceive me, his conduct could originate only in that -love of the marvellous which is so characteristic of the human -mind. He moreover assured me that the "water had been growing -weaker, (to use his phrase) ever since its first appearance." I -have room only to mention, among the minerals of Indiana, many -varieties of clay, ochres, gypsum, alabaster, muriat of soda, (very -common,) iron ore, and antimony. - - - - -ART. V. _New localities of Agate, Chalcedony, Chabasie, Stilbite, -Analcime, Titanium, Prehnite, &c._ - - -Deerfield, &c. In the account of the Mineralogy and Geology of -Deerfield, by Mr. Hitchcock, in the present Number, it will be -seen, that these interesting minerals (with the exception of -titanium) exist in the secondary greenstone of that place. We have -specimens, (through the kindness of Mr. Hitchcock,) and observe -that the agates, chalcedony, analcime, and prehnite, are imbedded -in the trap; the agates are in some instances very delicate in the -disposition of their bands, and need nothing but polishing to make -them beautiful; the same is true of the chalcedony. The chabasie -and stilbite occupy cavities, and the chabasie is often distinctly -crystalized in a rhomboid, so nearly approaching a cube, in the -quantity of its angles, that the mistake is easily committed of -supposing them to be cubes; the crystals are sometimes transparent, -and the largest a quarter of an inch in diameter. Titanium is found -in Leyden; it is the red oxide--very well characterized--in reddish -brown crystals as large as a common goose quill,[18] and, in some -instances, perfectly geniculated. It is rare to see finer specimens. - -_East-Haven._ It will be observed, that the great ranges of -secondary greenstone, which cut Connecticut and Massachusetts in -two, terminate at New-Haven, on the one hand, and some way above -Deerfield on the other. By comparing the account of the termination -at New-Haven (Bruce's Journal, v. i. p. 139.) with that now -published, of the termination at or near Deerfield, it will be -seen that the geology and imbedded minerals are very similar. At -East-Haven, (one of the branches of the greenstone of New-Haven, -and within from three to four miles of the latter town,) chalcedony -is often found, sometimes imbedded in the trap, (but perhaps more -frequently loose among the fallen stones,) which, although in -small pieces, is as perfect in its characters as the chalcedony -of the Feroe Islands. It is of a delicate gray, translucent, -mamillary, botryoidal, stalactitical, or impressed by crystals of -quartz, which have usually fallen out; sometimes these crystals -incrust the chalcedony. - -Agates also are found in considerable numbers, both imbedded and -loose. They usually consist of bands of chalcedony and quartz, and -sometimes of the latter only, variously striped or spotted, or -interlaced with jasper, carnelian, and cacholong. - -The form of the imbedded agates at East-Haven is commonly ovoidal, -or egg-shaped, and frequently it is conical. Some portions of pure -chalcedony occur, which are shaped like a long, slender carrot -or parsnip, and the situation of the latter in the ground would -exactly represent that of the chalcedony or agate in the rock. - -The imbedded masses are frequently altogether quartz, and then -they are most commonly geodes or hollow balls lined with crystals, -commonly very perfect and brilliant, although rarely large. These -crystals are commonly transparent and colourless--but they exhibit -also most of the varieties of colour which quartz assumes--the -amethyst--the smoky--yellow, &c., and occasionally they are tipped -and spotted with red jasper. - -The spontaneous decay of these trap rocks causes many specimens to -be found among their ruins, and many more are imbedded in the solid -rock; but the industry of successive classes from the neighbouring -college, issuing from Col. Gibbs's cabinet, has now made specimens -more scarce. - -_Woodbury._ Twenty-four miles from New-Haven, N.W. - -In a geological sketch of parts of the counties of New-Haven -and Litchfield, which may appear in a future Number, it will be -seen that prehnite, stilbite, and agate are found at Woodbury, -in the little basin of secondary greenstone which exists there; -the prehnite is abundant--it is not known whether the agates are -so, although it is asserted to be the fact; the stilbite was not -observed to be abundant, although it was well characterized. - - - - -ART. VI. _Account of the Strata perforated by, and of the Minerals -found in, the great adit to the Southampton Lead Mine. Communicated -to the Editor by Mr._ AMOS EATON, _Lecturer on Geology, Botany, &c._ - - -_To Professor Silliman._ - -After a laborious geological excursion along M'Clure's Springfield -section, for about one hundred miles, I visited Dr. D. Hunt, at -Northampton. He observed that you had expressed an opinion, that -an attentive examination of all the strata constituting the walls -of the artificial avenue or drift at the Southampton mines, would -bring facts to knowledge, which might, in some degree, subserve the -cause of geological science. I am now at the mouth of the drift, -having just completed the labour which you had marked out. - -I employed two miners to commence with me, at the termination of -the drift, which is now extended 800 feet into the hill. We broke -off large specimens, at very short intervals, throughout the -whole extent of the drift. We arrived at its mouth with almost -a boat load of specimens. I kept a memorandum of every thing -which occurred, while under ground; and I have now arranged the -specimens, before the mouth of the drift, in the same order in -which they were situated in the earth. - -Fatigued as I am, I will make my remarks here, in the field, lest -something should hereafter escape me, which is now fresh in my -recollection. Beginning with the greatest distance to which the -miners have penetrated, I will set down my remarks, in fact, in -reversed order. - -800 feet. The rock is fine-grained gray granite, traversed -by veins, lined with quartz crystals, and mostly filled with -calcareous spar, often beautifully crystallized. In the same veins -blue and purple fluate of lime and copper pyrites frequently occur. - -790 feet. The same fine-grained granite is continued, occasionally -traversed by veins lined with crystals of quartz; but containing no -other minerals. - -774 feet. A narrow vein of sulphuret of lead, with walls lined -with crystals of quartz. The fairest cubic crystals are slightly -attached to the points of the quartz crystals. Yellowish crystals -of carbonate of lime are often interspersed among the lead. -Sulphate of barytes occurs here also; sometimes in plates meeting -at various angles, and forming chambers lined with minute crystals -of quartz. Minute crystals of copper pyrites and a little fluate of -lime have been found here; also fine specimens of bitter spar. The -walls are very compact, fine-grained granite. - -760 feet. Coarse, parti-coloured granite. The felspar is -flesh-coloured and white; the quartz often bluish or greenish; the -mica silvery, greenish, or purplish. - -725 feet. A stratum of gray-wacke slate. Texture less firm than -of the same rock at the west of Pittsfield. This stratum is very -distinct, and about two feet thick. - -723 feet. A stratum of serpentine rock, containing very red quartz -imbedded in various directions. It is very compact, and mostly -green. Here it is but about three feet thick. About ten miles south -of this place, on Maclure's Springfield section, near the line -between Westfield and Russel, and four miles west from Westfield -Academy, I found this same stratum of very great breadth. I say the -same stratum, because it is situated in the granitic hill, east of -the highest ridge of granite, which is evidently a continuation of -this range. Perhaps I may, hereafter, give you an account of my -excursion along that section of Maclure, in which I may give you a -more particular description of the Westfield serpentine. - -720 feet. Coarse granite, with white and flesh-coloured felspar, -black and silvery mica. - -700 feet. A stratum of red mica slate, about four feet thick. - -694 feet. Coarse, flesh-coloured granite. This is the handsomest -granite in the whole drift. Here we find the most beautiful -specimens of graphic granite, both flesh-coloured and gray. - -680 feet. A stratum of Kirwan's stell-stein. That is, an aggregate -of fine-grained quartz and mica, without any felspar. The quartz is -mostly greenish, probably coloured by the next stratum. - -670 feet. Beautiful green soapstone. Very compact, but rather -softer than that kind in common use for inkstands. - -666 feet. A green, granular aggregate. It seems to be made up of -fine fragments of quartz, soapstone, and mica, rarely a little -felspar, slightly compacted together. - -_Remark._ All the strata, from the inner termination of the drift -to this place, a distance of one hundred and thirty-four feet, are -nearly vertical, or a very little inclined. Here they begin to -approach a horizontal position. - -The green aggregate continues as far as the air-well, a distance of -66 feet, with some trifling variations in the size and proportions -of the aggregated fragments. - -500 feet. A granulated, schistose aggregate, chiefly of quartz and -mica. Though the constituents and the form of the rock correspond -very nearly with mica slate, it cannot be considered as the -primitive mica slate rock. It is so slightly compacted that it can -scarcely be kept from falling to pieces. Its position is nearly -horizontal. - -480 feet. A stratum of coal, half an inch thick. This stratum may -be traced, at different intervals, one hundred and eighty feet -along the drift towards its mouth. It lies between the strata of -the last described schistose aggregate. - -400 feet. An aggregate appears, alternating with the loose -schistose rock, which resembles the red sandstone, but is of a less -firm texture. - -From this place all the strata, east of the soapstone, occasionally -appear, for the distance of about three hundred feet. This is -probably on account of their undulatory forms and horizontal -position. Most of the way we find the lower part of the walls to -consist of a kind of semi-indurated puddingstone. Sometimes a thin -stratum of fine, loose sand occurs. At 300 feet the coal stratum -disappears, passing below the bottom of the drift. - -The last hundred feet is chiefly gravel, which is now supported by -timbers. - -_Southampton, Aug. 26, 1818._ - - - - -ART. VII. _On the Peat of Dutchess County--read before the Lyceum -of Natural History, in New-York, by the Rev._ F. C. SCHAEFFER, _of -New-York, and by him communicated to the Editor_. - - -In May, 1817, I brought specimens of marl and _peat_ from Dutchess -county, which were taken from a fen or bog occupying an area of -some acres. These fens occur frequently in the towns of Rhinebeck, -Northeast, Clinton, &c. in Dutchess county. During a part of the -year they are covered with water. - -A pit was dug in the bog from which I procured the specimens. The -order and depth of the well-defined strata which were exhibited -by this excavation, I noted in my memorandum book, from which I -extract the following: - -After clearing away the fresh sod and recent vegetable mould, there -appeared, - - 1. A stratum or bed of _peat_ commonly called _turf_, varying in - depth from three to four feet. - - 2. A stratum of peat and marl commingled; depth two feet. - - 3. A stratum of pure marl, from two to three feet. Below these - there was an appearance of sand and blue clay. - -The first, or upper stratum, consists of _compact peat_. This -substance, when first taken up, is of a dark brown colour, soft, -and rather viscid. Some vegetable fibres and vacuous seeds -are distributed throughout the mass. It may be moulded to any -convenient form. When perfectly dry, the texture of this variety, -of which there is a specimen before you, acquires a high degree of -solidity. Its fracture is earthy; the colour is lighter. - -I should not have offered more on this subject than the labelled -specimen, had I not made a most satisfactory experiment with this -kind of fuel, which may be obtained in great abundance in our own -State. It is easily kindled; burns with a bright flame; yields a -bluish smoke, and produces an odour similar to that which attends -the combustion of gramineous substances. But this is momentary. -When thoroughly kindled, it burns with less flame, yields a -small proportion of blackish smoke, and sulphurous acid gas is -evolved, though I cannot discover any pyrites. It burns for a -long time, and emits a great body of heat. It leaves a very small -proportion of light, grayish white ashes; on which I have as yet -made no experiments, having this day, for the first time, paid -particular attention to this substance, attracted by the unusual -hardness which it acquired since it is in my possession: and not -many hours have elapsed since I subjected it to combustion. The -attempt succeeded so well, that I cannot refrain from expressing -my opinion, that this variety of peat will answer as an excellent -substitute for the best Liverpool coal. - - - - -ART. VIII. _Notices of Geology in the West-Indies._ - - -REMARKS. - -In the former Number of this work, a notice was published -respecting siliceous petrifactions of wood, from Antigua. We now -publish a geological sketch of the island, with notices of some -other parts of the West Indies. This communication is made by a -friend, with permission to publish it. It is a production of the -pen of Dr. NUGENT, of St. Johns, Antigua, a gentleman of eminent -scientific acquirements, who, it is hoped, will continue his -laudable and able efforts to illustrate the natural history of the -West-Indies. - - -_Memorandum concerning the Geology of Antigua, &c._ - -The southern and more mountainous part of the island consists of -_trap_ rocks; more particularly of trap breccia and wacké-porphyry. -On these beds rests a series of very peculiar stratified -conglomerate rocks. These strata vary exceedingly in colour and -thickness, but all dip, at a considerable angle, to the northwest. -The more usual character of this rock, is that of a clayey basis, -with minute particles of felspar, and small spots of _grünerde_[19] -(or chlorite Baldogée.) This latter is frequently diffused over the -whole, and gives it a green tinge: the colour has been thought by -some to proceed from the impregnation of copper, but I am rather -of opinion that is owing to manganese and iron. The conglomerate -character of this rock, is derived from its having imbedded in -it, or incorporated with it, numerous fragments, of all sizes, of -petrified wood, chert, with and without coralline impressions, -agate, jasper, amygdaloid, greenstone, hornstone, porphyry, -porphyry slate, and other substances. - -On this singular class of strata, reposes an extensive calcareous -formation, occupying the northern and eastern part of the island, -having _subordinate_ to it, and at its lowest part, where it is in -contact with the conglomerate, large beds and patches of chert, -which contains also a vast variety of petrified woods, several -of which are of the palm tribe, with silicified shells, chiefly -_cerithea_; though at the Church-hill, at St. Johns, formed of -this chert, casts of bivalve and ramose madrepores are likewise -found. The calcareous beds are principally of a friable marl, -with blocks and layers of limestone irregularly included. In this -_formation_[20] are many fossil shells, both in the calcareous and -siliceous state; and there appear to be some beds, wherein is a -mixture of shells of marine, and others of a fresh water, or at -least a terrestrial origin. The coralline agates found in nodules -and patches therein, and which may readily be distinguished from -the coralline chert of the previous beds, are the most beautiful -which have any where been yet noticed; and when well selected and -polished, make very pleasing ornaments. - -The island, as well as Barbuda, thirty miles to the northward, -the Grande Terre part of Guadaloupe, at a similar distance to the -southward and eastward, with several others of the West-India -Islands, give proof of an extensive formation, more recent than -those to which naturalists have heretofore principally confined -their' attention; and which is, perhaps, contemporaneous with, if -not later than, the Paris Basin, so well described by Cuvier and -Brongniart. - - _April 10th, 1818._ N. N. - -N. B. A few specimens are sent. - - -REMARKS. - -If the above paper be read attentively, in connexion with that -in No. 1. on the petrified wood of Antigua, it will afford some -very curious information to the geologist respecting these -petrifactions, and must lead to interesting speculations respecting -their origin, under circumstances so very peculiar, and to which we -do not recollect to have heard of any parallel. - - - - -ART. IX. _Discovery of Native Crystallized Carbonate of Magnesia on -Staten-Island, with a Notice of the Geology and Mineralogy of that -Island, by_ JAMES PIERCE, ESQ. _of New-York, in a Letter to the -Editor_. - - - NEW-YORK, October 19, 1818. - - DEAR SIR, - -I forward you a few mineral specimens characteristic of -Staten-Island, including native carbonate of magnesia, in acicular -crystals. I discovered this new form and locality of magnesia in -examining the strata exhibited in an excavation now making, under -the delusive expectation of finding gold, about three miles from -the Quarantine. In descending the shaft, sunk perpendicularly in -steatite, magnesite, veins of talc, and green translucent asbestus -were observed at depths from six to thirty-five feet. The magnesite -was found to embrace veins and cavities containing native carbonate -of magnesia, in very white acicular crystals, grouped in minute -fibres radiating from the sides, but not always filling the veins -and cavities. The crystals were, in some instances, suspended, -assuming a stalactical form. This carbonate of magnesia dissolves -entirely in diluted sulphuric acid, with considerable effervescence -and chemical action, producing a bitter compound, from which salts -of easy solution are formed by evaporation. The magnesite in which -these crystals are found, appears to be composed of carbonate of -magnesia, steatite, and talc, disintegrating readily upon exposure -to air and moisture: it effervesces considerably in sulphuric acid, -forming a very bitter fluid that soon exhibits crystals, indicating -that magnesia enters in large proportion into its constitution. -Magnesite may perhaps be found at this place in quantity sufficient -for a successful manufacture of Epsom salts. Small regular -hexaedral crystals of mica, were noticed in steatite. Chromate of -iron was sparingly diffused through the different minerals raised -from various depths. - -A few remarks and facts respecting the geology and mineralogy of -Staten-Island, may, perhaps, give some additional interest to the -specimens presented. - -Staten-Island (which constitutes Richmond county) is situated -about seven miles southwest of the city of New-York, extends -from northeast to southwest about fifteen miles, in a straight -line, with an average width of six. It exhibits a considerable -diversity of surface. The eastern part is composed principally of -elevated ground: a mountain chain is observed to take its rise -in the vicinity of a narrow sound called the Kills, and sweep, -in a semicircular form, near the eastern shore; it then ranges -southwest, parallel with, and distant from Amboy Bay, about two -miles, terminating near the centre of the island, and forming, with -the exception of some passages, a continued chain, which, on the -eastern and southern sides, is very steep, but not precipitous; -it gradually declines to the west and north, and, in some places, -it presents on its summit table land of considerable extent. A -prominent ridge crosses the island, connecting the elevated ground -of the south, with the hills of the northern part. A species of -steatite, containing veins of common, indurated, and scaly talc, -amianthus, and most of the varieties of asbestus, and some chromate -of iron, constitutes the nucleus of the whole mountain range and -elevated ground of the eastern division, stamping it as primitive. -This steatite approaches, in most places, within a foot and a half -of the surface, and appears in small angular loose blocks, wherever -the soil has been removed. Its colour is a greenish yellow; it is -brittle, very adhesive to the tongue, but little unctuous, and -probably contains more alumine and less magnesia than steatites in -general. Much of it decomposes when exposed to air and moisture, -and forms a good mould, whenever the descent of ground permits an -accumulation of earth. It is not improbable, that in most places of -the Staten-Island hills, when magnesia constitutes a considerable -ingredient of the rock, it will be found saturated with carbonic -acid, obviating the objection to common magnesian minerals in -agriculture. - -The minerals observed on the surface of the northeast part of this -chain of hills are, secondary greenstone, asbestoid, sandstone, -granite, and gneiss, sparingly scattered in rolled masses. In -addition to these rocks, in the middle and western part of the -chain, a mineral of uncommon appearance is observed. It is composed -principally of quartz, rough, with numerous cells of various -forms, in which small siliceous crystals are generally found: -the veins or plates of quartz that intersect each other, often -embrace talc and oxide of iron, which, decomposing, gives some -specimens the appearance of volcanic origin. Associated with this -cellular ferruginous quartz, brown hæmatite is often observed; -this valuable ore often yields eighty per cent. of iron of best -quality; its fibres assume a variety of shapes; they were observed -at Staten-Island, straight and curved, radiating from a centre, and -exhibiting the stalactical, cylindrical, and botryoidal forms, -often displaying a black polished surface and glistening lustre. -Ferruginous minerals are abundant on the mountain for several -miles. A granular oxide, called by miners shot-ore,[21] from its -being principally composed of spherical grains of various sizes, -was often noticed, and appears in some places in extensive beds: -it is easily fused, and affords a large per centage of good iron -for castings. A heavy ore, with a smooth surface and some lustre, -bearing a considerable resemblance to native iron, is sometimes -seen. Banks of white sand, resembling the siliceous particles of -the seashore, are noticed on the mountain tops, containing masses -of compact, heavy ferruginous sandstone, similar to the rocks of -our alluvial seaboard. Large beds of water-worn siliceous pebbles, -in no way differing from those washed by the ocean, are seen on -the height of the ridge, in which excavations have been made -several feet, leaving the depth of the mass uncertain. On some of -the eminences, for a considerable extent, vegetation is entirely -excluded by an iron-bound soil. Iron ore, imbedded in an earth -coloured by, and partly composed of, oxide of iron, occupies the -surface; and chalcedony and radiated quartz are sometimes observed -on the primitive ridge. Prospects from many of these eminences -are extensive and diversified. On one side, the ocean and a great -extent of coast are in view; on the other, a rich landscape of -hills and plains, the eye resting on the highland-chain and the -mountains bordering Pennsylvania; the harbour, at your feet, -presents a busy, ever-varying scene, and the city of New-York -appears to great advantage from this point of observation. - -The district between the mountain and the narrows, the thickly -settled and well-cultivated plain bordering Amboy bay, and much -of the western division of the island, are decidedly alluvial. -Adjacent to Fort Tompkins, detached pieces of copper ore have been -found. I have observed petrifactions of marine shells in rocks -excavated in that neighbourhood, twenty feet from the surface, and -sixty above the ocean. - -The western part of the island presents moderate elevations; the -soil, a good medium of sand and clay, is in general fertile; but -a tract near the termination is sandy and barren. Some creeks -penetrate to near the centre of the island, and are bordered by -extensive salt meadows. Except at the primitive range, I have -observed in no part of the island large beds of rock that can -be called in place; but rolled masses of greenstone, sandstone, -gneiss, granite, red jasper, and indurated clay, appear in general -sparingly, but sometimes in abundance, on the surface. Lignite has -been found in small quantities in the western part of the island. A -chalybeate spring, of no great strength, is the only mineral water -met with in Richmond county. The ponds, wells, and streams, contain -a soft water, holding no lime in solution. - - -REMARKS. - -We have already published (p. 54.) Mr. Pierce's discovery of -the pulverulent carbonate of magnesia, and have pointed out its -connexion with Dr. Bruce's previous discovery of the hydrate of -magnesia, or pure magnesia combined with water only. Mr. Pierce -has now added another important link to this chain, and future -mineralogists may quote the vicinity of New-York as affording, - - 1. Pure magnesia, crystallized and combined with water only. - - 2. Carbonate of magnesia, pulverulent and white. - - 3. Carbonate of magnesia, in very delicate and perfectly white - acicular crystals. - -We possess specimens of them all. - - - - -ART. X. _On a curious substance which accompanies the native Nitre -of Kentucky and of Africa. Communicated in a letter to the Editor, -from_ SAMUEL BROWN, M. D. _late of Kentucky, now of the Alabama -Territory_. - - -REMARKS. - -The scientific public were several years ago laid under obligations -to Dr. Brown, for a very interesting and instructive account of -the nitre caverns, &c. of Kentucky, published in the Transactions -of the Philosophical Society, in Philadelphia, Vol. VI., and in -Bruce's Journal, Vol. I. p. 100. The following communication arose -from a conversation on that subject between Dr. Brown and the -Editor. - - - _New-Haven, July 27, 1818._ - - DEAR SIR, - -I have just found the passage I referred to the other day, relative -to the existence of native or sandrock nitre in the interior -of Southern Africa. It is in Barrow, and not in Vaillant, as I -thought when I had the pleasure of conversing with you concerning -it. I am much obliged to you for recalling my attention to that -curious subject, as it has brought to my recollection a fact, -which I believe I omitted to mention in my memoir, (viz.) the -existence of a black substance in the clay under the rocks, of a -bituminous appearance and smell. This I remember to have seen in -a rock-house, near the Kentucky river, where very considerable -quantities of sandrock nitre had been obtained. This substance was -found in masses of a few ounces weight, and in the crevices of the -rocks near the basis of the side walls. The smell was not wholly -bituminous, but resembled that of bitumen combined with musk. I -am quite unable to account for the formation of the nitre, or the -production of this black substance which sometimes accompanies it, -both in Africa and America. Had I seen Mr. Barrow's travels, when -I noticed the bitumen, I should certainly have paid more attention -to it. But perceiving no relation between the rock nitre and -the masses of this substance, my examination of it was much too -superficial. I do not very well understand what Mr. Barrow means by -saying, that many wagon loads of animal matter lay on the _roof_ -of the caverns in Africa. I saw no such matter on the _roof_ of -the rock-houses in Kentucky. Certainly the caverns have been the -habitations of wild beasts, and great quantities of leaves, &c. -have been mixed with the debris of the superincumbent rocks, but it -does not seem probable, that much animal matter could be filtrated -through a roof of rock, perhaps forty or fifty feet in thickness. -The subject, however, is very curious, and deserves much more -attention than any of us have bestowed upon it. - - -_Extract from Barrow's Southern Africa, p. 291. New-York edition._ - -"About 12 miles to the eastward of the wells, (Hepatic wells,) in a -kloof of the mountain, we found a considerable quantity of _native -nitre_. It was in a cavern similar to those used by the Bosgesmans -for their winter habitations, and in which they used to make the -drawings above mentioned. The _under surface_ of the projecting -stratum of calcareous stone, and the sides that supported it, were -incrusted with a coating of _clear, white saltpetre_, that came -off in flakes, from a quarter of an inch to an inch or more in -thickness. The fracture resembled that of refined sugar, it burnt -completely away without leaving any residuum; and if dissolved in -water, and thus evaporated, crystals of _pure prismatic nitre_ were -obtained. This salt, in the _same_ state, is to be met with _under_ -the sandstone strata of _many_ of the mountains of Africa; but, -perhaps, not in sufficient quantities to be employed as an article -of export. There was also in the same cave, running down the sides -of the rock, a black substance, that was apparently bituminous. -The peasants called it the urine of the das. The dung of this -gregarious animal was lying upon the roof of the cavern to the -amount of many wagon loads. The putrid animal matter, filtrating -through the rock, contributed, no doubt, to the formation of -the nitre. The Hepatic wells and the native nitre rocks were in -the division of Agster Sneuwberg, which joins the Tacka to the -southwest." - -Should I ever visit Kentucky again, I hope that I shall be able to -give a better account of these caverns, which certainly are highly -deserving of the attention of naturalists. - -In Philadelphia you may have an opportunity of seeing some small -specimens of the sandrock, containing nitre, now in the cabinet of -the Philosophical Society. - - - - -BOTANY. - - - - -ART. XI. _Descriptions of species of Sponges observed on the shores -of Long-Island. By_ C. S. RAFINESQUE, _Esq._ - - -The sponges are one of the most singular productions of nature; -and, even to this time, naturalists are divided in opinion -respecting their real rank in the scale of organized beings. Some -believe that they are animals, belonging to the class of polyps, -next to the genus of _alcyonium_, while many contend that they -are not animals, but plants, of the tribe of _fuci_, or marine -vegetables. I am inclined to adopt this latter opinion, since in -all those which I have seen, in Europe and America, no perceptible -motion nor sensibility was to be discerned in any stage of their -existence; and those who have acknowledged their animality, bring -no stronger proof thereof than an occasional slight shrinking under -the hand, and an animal smell, which are common to some marine -plants. - -Whatever be the truth on the subject, these doubtful opinions -prove that they are of the many connecting links between animals -and plants. This is not a proper place to decide this controversy; -I mean merely to make known new species of this tribe of beings, -which I observed last year, on the shores of Long-Island. Such a -fragment will be, perhaps, the first attempt of the kind; when more -species shall be known, the subject may be investigated with more -certainty and accuracy. - -1. _Spongia albescens_, Raf. (Whitish sponge.) Effuse, compressed, -irregular, perforated, somewhat branched, unequally lobed, whitish, -smooth; lobes truncated; cells porose, very minute, nearly equal; -small unequal cells inside. - -Found near Bath and Gravesend, in sandy bottoms. A large species, -sometimes over a foot broad, of quite an irregular shape, rather -flattened, about one inch thick; partly gibbose; concave now and -then, and with large, irregular openings, as if large branches -were anastomosed; circumference branched or lobed, very jagged, -sinus obtuse, lobes elongated obtuse, truncate or flat, unequally -divided. The substance is entirely of a cinereous white, outside -and inside, of a soft and brittle nature, rather friable; covered -outside with minute pores of an oblong or round shape, and full of -small unequal cells inside. - -2. _Spongia ostracina_, Raf. (Oyster sponge.) Very branched, erect, -red, papillose; branches unequal, often dichotome, obtuse; cells -porose, oblong, nearly equal. - -It is often found on the common oyster. (_Ostrea virginica._) -It rises from four to six inches, the colour is a fine red, it -branches from the base; the branches are unequal, straight, -cylindrical, or compressed. Substance stupose. Surface covered with -small papilla and small oblong unequal pores. - -3. _Spongia cespitosa_, Raf. (Bushy sponge.) Branched, cespitose, -yellowish, rough, papillose; branches fasciculated, upright, -unequal, flexuose, compressed, slightly anastomosed, nearly -dichotome upwards; cells porose, oblong, nearly equal, margin -lacerated. - -Found also on the oyster, but more seldom than the foregoing; -the specimens which I saw was found on the Bluepoint oysters, by -Dr. Eddy. It becomes brown by drying. It rises from four to six -inches, the margin of the cells or pores is torn into papillar, -stiff processes, which produce a rough surface. Substance stripose. -Internal cells oblong, very small. - -4. _Spongia cladonia._ (Cladonian sponge.) Branched effuse, smooth, -pale fulvous, stem procumbent, branches distichal, one-sided, -erect, simple or divided, obtuse; cells porose, minute; some larger -round. - -I have found this species at Bath and at Sandy-Hook, on Sandy -bottoms. Length about six inches. Stem and branches cylindrical -or compressed. Substance fibrose, anastomed, branches divaricate, -ascendent, semi dichotomose or simple, unequal, thicker towards the -top. - -5. _Spongia virgata._ (Slender sponge.) Nearly branched, smooth, -fulvous, stem divided, slender, cylindrical, knobby, branches -erect, slender, nearly heads acute; pores unequal, irregular, small. - -A small species, three inches high, found at Oysterbay, on rocky -bottoms, rare; stem with few branches, and imperfect ones, like -knobs. Substance stupose. Branches round, alternate, small. Pores -without any determinate shape. - - - - -ART. XII. _Memoir on the Xanthium maculatum, a New Species from the -State of New-York, &c. by_ C. S. RAFINESQUE, ESQ. - - -Pursh and Michaux mention only one species of American _Xanthium_, -the _X. strumarium_, while there are three noticed in the catalogue -of Dr. Muhlenberg, the above species, and the _X. orientale_, and -_X. spinosum_. The first and the last are natives of Europe, and -have been naturalized in the United States, with many other plants. -The species called _X. orientale_ by Dr. Muhlenberg, appears -however to be a native; but the _X. orientale_ of Linnæus, is a -native of Siberia, Japan, and the East-Indies; and when plants are -found to grow in such opposite quarters of the globe, a strong -presumption arises that they are not identical species, which -presumption has been confirmed by experience in many instances, -whenever the plants of both countries have been accurately -examined. Decandolle, in the French Flora, (2d edit, of 1815.) vol. -6. p. 356, describes, under the name of _X. macrocarpon_, a species -found in France, and which he takes to be the real _X. orientale_ -of Linnæus. He has changed its name, because, he says, that it is -not certain that the _X. orientale_ grows in Asia; or, if any grows -there, that it is identic with his species; which, however, is -really the _X. orientale_ of Linnæus, Son, Lamark, and Gaertner. He -adds, that he possesses in his herbarium, a species from Canada, -different from his _X. macrocarpon_ which has been figured by -Morison, on whose authority some authors have asserted that the _X. -orientale_ grew in Canada, mistaking his figure for that plant. - -From the above statement, it appears that much obscurity -and difficulty arises in botany, when errors creep into the -distinction of species: to detect those errors, and to ascertain -the synonyme of obscure species, is not one of the least useful -botanical labours. Having found, last year and this year, in the -neighbourhood of New-York, a species of _Xanthium_ different from -any described by the authors, and intermediate between the _X. -strumarium_ and _X. orientale_ of Linnæus, I presume that it may -be the _X. orientale_ of Muhlenberg, Leconte, and Morison, and the -_Xanthium_ of Canada, mentioned by Decandolle, Dumont, &c. I have -given to it the name of _X. maculatum_, since the stem is spotted -like the _Conium maculatum_. None of those authors having described -it, I suppose that its description will be acceptable, and will -serve to fix this new species among the American botanists. - -Therefore it will appear, that the _X. orientale_, which had been -considered as a native of Asia, Europe, and America, is composed of -at least three species; the European species, which has been called -_X. macrocarpon_ by Decandolle, the American species, which I have -called _X. maculatum_, and the Asiatic species, to which the name -of _X. orientale_ ought to remain; but which ought to be better -described, and more fully distinguished from the _X. macrocarpon_ -by those who may chance to meet with it. I even suspect that many -species grow in Asia, since that of Ceylon may be different from -the Chinese and Siberian species. - - -_Xanthium Maculatum._ - -_Definition._ Stem flexuous, round, rough, spotted with black; -leaves long-petiolate, cuneate-reniform, nearly trilobe, -sinuate-toothed, obtuse, rough, and thick; fruits elliptic, obtuse -muricate; thorns rough. - -_Description._ The root is annual, thick, and white. The stem rises -from one to two feet; it is upright, without thorns, very thick, -and with few branches; it is covered with oblong, black, and rough -spots. The leaves are few, but large, with very long petiols; they -are nearly reniform, with an acute base, and have three nerves; -the teeth are unequal, large, and obtuse. The flowers and fruits -are disposed as in _X. strumarium_; but the fruits are generally -solitary; they are half an inch long, nearly cylindrical obtuse, -with the two beaks scarcely perceptible and bent in, covered with -short, thick, and rough thorns, rather soft, and not uncinate. The -whole plant has a peculiar smell, not unpleasant, somewhat between -the camphorate and gravulent odour, but weaker than in _Conysa -camphorata_, &c. - -_History._ This plant grows on Long-Island, near the seashore and -marshes. I have found it common near Bath, on the downs, and in -New-Jersey, near Bergen, and Powles Hook, on the margin of marshy -meadows. According to Dr. Mulenberg, it grows also in Pennsylvania; -Messrs. Torrey and Leconte found it on the island of New-York; and -by Morison and Decandolle's account, it is found as far north as -Canada. It blossoms in August and September, but the fruits remain -on the plant till the severe frosts of December. - -_Observations._ This species differs from the _X. macrocarpon_ of -Decandolle, by having smaller fruits, without horns, and whose -thorns are neither hooked nor hispid; by not having an angular -stem, but a round, spotted one, and by its leaves being broader, -and not serrate, &c. Nearly all those differences exist between it -and the _X. orientale_ of Asia, which has not yet been isolated -from the _X. macrocarpon_. The _X. edrinatum_ differs from this by -having oval fruits, with aggregated, echinate, and hooked thorns; -and the _X. strumarium_, by having cordate hirsute leaves, the -fruits aggregated, with hooked thorns and horned tops. The _X. -spinosum_, and _X. fruticosum_, ate so totally different that they -need not be compared. - - - - -ZOOLOGY. - - - - -ART. XIII. _Description of the Phalaena Devastator, (the Insect -that produces the Cut-worm,) communicated for the American Journal -of Science, &c. by_ Mr. JOHN P. BRACE, _of Litchfield, Conn._ - - -This moth, whose larva is one of our most destructive enemies, -belongs to the Linnæan family noctua, in the genus phalaena. Its -specific characters are as follow: Wings incumbent and horizontal, -when at rest; body long and thin; thorax thick, but not crested; -head small; eyes prominent and black; antennæ setacious, gradually -lessening towards extremities, and slightly ciliated; palpi two, -flat, broad in the middle, and very hairy; tongue rolled up between -them, not very prominent; clypeus small, legs long, small and -hairy; wings long as body; under wings shortest; colour a dark -silvery gray, with transverse dotted bands of black on upper wings. -The insect lays its eggs in the commencement of autumn, at the -roots of trees and near the ground: they are hatched early in May. -The habits of the cut-worm have been often and fully detailed. They -eat almost all kinds of vegetables, preferring beans, cabbages, -and corn. They continue in this state about four weeks; they then -cast their skin and enter the _pupa_ state, under ground. This is a -crustaceous covering, fitted to the parts of the future insect. In -this they continue for four weeks longer, and come out in the fly, -or insect state, about the middle of July. All those chrysalids -that I exposed to the sun, died; and all those that were kept cool -under earth, produced an insect: hence I infer, that the heat of -the sun will kill the chrysalids. If, then, the ground be ploughed -about the first of July, many of those insects might be destroyed, -and the destruction of the productions of the next year prevented; -for the _pupa_ is never more than a few inches under ground. - -The phalaena devastator is never seen during the day; it conceals -itself in the crevices of buildings, and beneath the bark of trees. -About sun-down it leaves its hiding-place, is constantly on the -wing, and very troublesome about the candles in houses. It flies -very rapidly, and is not easily taken. - -Such is the description of this formidable enemy to vegetation. No -efficacious method has yet been taken to prevent its ravages, but -the one who could accomplish it, would do the cause of agriculture -an essential service. - - - - -ART. XIV. _Description of a New Genus of North American Fresh water -Fish, Exoglossum, by_ C. S. RAFINESQUE, ESQ. - - -Mr. Lesueur has published, in the 5th Number of the Journal of -the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia, for September, 1817, the -description of a new fish, which he calls _Cyprinus maxillingua_: -he considers it as a very singular and anomalous species, owing to -the peculiar structure of its lobed lower jaw and tongue, which -is external, and situated as an appendage to the former. It was -discovered in Pipe-creek, Maryland, in June, 1816, by said author, -who confesses that he does not consider it as properly belonging to -the genus _Cyprinus_, and presumes that when other species shall -be discovered, possessing the same character, they will constitute -a separate genus. Although this principle and presumption is -correct, it was wrong to delay the formation of such a distinct -genus, because only a species was then known, since so many genera -are composed of single species. However, Mr. Lesueur's expectation -was verified even before he wrote it, since in May, 1817, I had -discovered in the Fishkill, State of New-York, another, species, -evidently congenerous with the _Cyprinus maxillingua_, having the -same structure of the mouth, &c. I therefore venture to establish -a separate genus for those two species, having no doubt that many -more will hereafter be added to it by accurate observers, and I -give to it the name of _Exoglossum_, meaning _outside tongue_. -It will belong to the same natural order and family of the genera -_Cyprinus_, _Catostomus_, &c. - -EXOGLOSSUM. _Generic Definition._--Body oblong, thick, and scaly; -head without scales, mouth without lips or teeth, upper jaw longer, -entire; the lower trilobed, middle lobe longer, performing the -office of tongue; dorsal fin opposite to the abdominal fins; three -rays to the branchial membrane. - -_Remarks._ Besides the above characters, the two species known at -present have, in common, the lateral line ascending upwards at the -base, the tail forked, &c. - -1. Species. _Exoglossum vittatum_, Raf. _Cyprinus maxillingua_, -Lesueur. _Specific Definition._--Back brownish olive; sides blue, -with a brownish band; a black spot at the base of the caudal fin, -lower parts silvery gray; lateral line ascending upwards at the -base; dorsal and anal fins with nine rays; tail forked. - -_Remarks._ Length four inches; vulgar name _little sucker_. For -further particulars, see Lesueur's description, p. 85. cum. ic. I -have been obliged to change the specific name of _maxillingua_, -since it has the same meaning as the generic name. - -2. Species. _Exoglossum annulatum_, Raf. Head black above, cheeks -and gills olivaceous, back blackish olive, sides olivaceous, lower -parts olive gray; a black ring at the base of the tail; lateral -line ascending upwards at the base, tail forked, dorsal and anal -fins with nine rays. - -_Remarks._ Length from three to six inches; vulgar name, _Black -chub_. Head broad and flat above, iris large and gray; fins -olivaceous, abdominal distant and with nine rays, pectoral with -fifteen, caudal with twenty-four. - - - - -PHYSICS, MECHANICS, AND CHEMISTRY. - - - - -ART. XV. _On the Revolving Steam-Engine, recently invented by_ -SAMUEL MOREY, _and Patented to him on the 14th July, 1815, with -four Engravings_. - - - _To Professor Silliman._ - - SIR, - -The successful employment of the steam-engine, in navigating the -rivers and inland waters of the United States, and the probable -extension of this mode of conveyance of persons and property, makes -those improvements desirable which adapt the steam-engine to this -purpose with less complication and expense, placing it more within -reach of individual enterprise, and rendering it even useful on our -small rivers and canals. - -The steam-engine, though often seen in operation, is not readily -understood by an observer, without an acquaintance with the -facts in natural philosophy on which its power depends: and it -may elucidate the subject of this communication to advert, for -a moment, to the gradations by which this important machine has -attained its present perfection. - -It will be recollected that as early as 1663, the Marquis of -Worcester published some obscure hints of a mechanical power -derived from the elastic force of steam. - -In 1669, Savary, availing himself of the suggestion, and pursuing -the subject more scientifically, invented his engine, consisting -of an apparatus to cause a vacuum by the condensation of steam, so -that the water to be raised would thereupon, by the external weight -of the atmosphere, rise into the chamber of the apparatus, which -the steam had occupied. - -As caloric becomes latent in the steam which it forms at 212° of -Fahrenheit, and the steam thus formed occupies 1800 times the bulk -of the water composing it; and as it returns instantly to a state -of water on losing its heat, by contact with any thing cold, Savary -easily produced his vacuum by the injection of a little cold water. - -He also used (though in a very disadvantageous manner) the -expansive force of steam to drive the water out of the chamber, -through a pipe different from that by which it entered. - -It is doubtful whether this kind of engine was ever erected on -a scale of any magnitude; for, a few years later, Newcomen and -Crawley invented the first engine with a cylinder and piston; and -Savary, abandoning his own, united with them in bringing their -engine into use. - -As steam drives out air, the principle of this engine was to let -steam into the cylinder beneath the piston, where (the piston -having risen to the top of the cylinder) a jet of cold water[22] -condensed the steam, produced a vacuum, and the piston, working air -tight, descended by the pressure of the atmosphere upon it, this -pressure being a weight of nearly fifteen pounds to each square -inch; so that if the cylinder were two feet diameter, it would -amount to a weight of three tons. - -This mode of operation prevailed for about fifty years, and though -much used to pump water from mines, was found to have great -inconveniences and defects; till, in the year 1762, Mr. Watt, being -employed to repair a working-model of an engine at the University -of Glasgow, was led to direct his mind to the improvement of the -machine; and from his experiments sprung the most essential change, -viz. the condensation of the steam in the cylinder, by opening a -communication with a separate vessel, into which the injection of -cold water was made, thus allowing the cylinder to remain hot. - -On opening that communication, the steam instantly rushes to the -cold, or rather is destroyed by the instant loss or reduction of -its heat, and the vacuum thus made allows the piston to descend as -before mentioned. - -[Illustration: _Pl. I._] - -[Illustration: _Pl. II._] - -[Illustration: _Pl. III._] - -[Illustration: _Pl. IV._] - -Mr. Watt soon added the airpump to the condenser, to extract the -air extricated from the water in boiling, together with the water -injected. - -The next step was to close the upper end of the cylinder, the -piston-rod working through a tight packing to exclude the air, -letting the steam in above, as well as below the piston, by an -alternate communication, and then condensing it in both cases -alternately, thus producing a double stroke; at the same time -deriving some aid from the expansive force of the steam on the -side of the piston opposite to the vacuum. This is essentially the -form of all the engines in use at the present day. The minor parts -devised by Mr. Watt, as the working of the valves, &c. were such as -would readily occur to a scientific mechanician. - -While he was bringing the engine to its present perfection, -and furnishing it for the numerous mines, manufactories, and -breweries in Great Britain, variations were devised by Cartwright, -by Hornblower, Woolf, and others in England, and more recently -by Evans and by Ogden in America, evincing much ingenuity, but -(with the exception of Evans's, which is a simple engine of high -pressure) making the machine more complex. - -Watt and Bolton's engine, as most generally used, being properly -an atmospheric engine, or working with steam so low as merely to -produce a vacuum in the cylinder, became of enormous dimensions, -when the power required was that of an hundred horses: a scale -of estimate adapted to the comprehension of those who had before -used the labour of that animal, and preferred to substitute the -steam-engine. - -It had not, however, escaped the notice of Mr. Watt, that -there existed in steam another source of power besides that of -atmospheric pressure. The experiments of his learned friend, Dr. -Black, of Glasgow, as well as those of the French chemists, and -of Papin, in the instance of his digester, had ascertained the -laws of its expansive force, and amongst other interesting facts, -those subservient to our present purpose; viz. That after water has -reached the boiling point, 212° of Fahrenheit, the caloric which -enters it no longer becomes latent, but sensible in the steam, -which thereupon acquires expansive force to an unlimited degree: -that this force increases geometrically; or, that every accession -of about 30° of heat, nearly doubles its power at those stages -of progression; that when the pressure at a high temperature is -taken off, or the steam allowed to flow, there is an instantaneous -and rapid production of steam; a fact which proves there can be -no necessity of a large space for the steam to form in above the -water, provided it be sufficient to prevent water from issuing with -the steam, and, therefore, that boilers of a small cylindrical form -are best. - -It may be a fair question, why Mr. Watt did not further employ this -principle of expansive force? We may readily conceive of several -motives to the contrary. Watt and Bolton's engines were in great -demand; they gave entire satisfaction, and the work they performed -saved so much labour as to afford the purchase at a high price. The -public had gained immensely by this better form of the engine, and -Mr. Watt enjoyed the benefits of the patent he had obtained; and, -at a later period, this preference was increased by an accident -which happened to Trevethick's engine, though caused by gross -mismanagement, that would have been equally fatal to any other. - -From an investigation, by a committee of parliament, into the -causes of the several fatal explosions of steam-engine boilers -within a few years, published in Tillock's Magazine, vol. 1., it -appears that in every instance the accident was fairly attributable -to neglect or mismanagement. Many competent persons were summoned -to give their opinions; and through the contrariety of their -testimony, the prevalent opinion appears to have been, that -cast-iron boilers cannot be safe; that as many engines of high -steam as of low are now used in England, but that the high are much -the most economical in fuel and cost; that they are more safe, if -properly constructed; it being argued by some, that boilers for -steam of 100 pounds to the inch, are easily made of strength to -sustain 500 pounds; this excess being much greater than in those -constructed for low steam, makes them comparatively the safest, as -the safety valves are less liable to be accidentally prevented from -venting the steam. - -In the United States, instances are not wanting of the successful -operation of high steam; of which the engine at the mint is a -conspicuous example. There can, indeed, be no good reason why -this great power should not be employed to an extent within the -limits of safety, if more economical and convenient. If boilers -can bear (as they are usually made of iron) 500 pounds, there can -be no danger in using them with fifty; and this gives an increase -of power, with a condenser, fourfold, or makes a ten horse power -forty. The economy, therefore, of high steam, hardly admits of a -question. It seems unphilosophical to neglect a power so great, -merely because it is so. - -Mr. Watt was desirous of an improvement by which to obtain a direct -rotatory motion. His experiments, resembling those of Curtis, at -New-York, were not found permanently practicable. - -It was probably perceived to be a great object to get rid of -a reciprocating movement of large masses, on the well-known -mechanical principle, that it consumes power to check momentum, as -well as to give it--to drag an inert mass into motion rapidly, in -opposite directions. And in engines for navigation this is more -disadvantageous than for land uses, as the foundation of the engine -cannot be perfectly substantial. - -An engine, therefore, that possesses the cylinder and other -members of Watt's engine, working with or without a condenser, -at pleasure--having a rotatory movement--requiring no ponderous -balance-wheel--adapted to high steam--attended by no inconvenience -from the rapidity of its stroke or movement--having no inert mass -of machinery to move reciprocally--more powerful, proportionately, -from its using steam as strong as that in the boiler--of a simple -and durable construction, and by a combination of two similar -machines attached to the same common intermediate axis, operating -so as to give nearly an equal power at every moment of its -operation, seems to combine every thing desirable in an engine for -the purposes of navigation. Such appears to be the revolving engine -invented by Mr. Morey. - -When those who are acquainted with steam-engines of the atmospheric -kind only, are told that Morels cylinder revolves, their -imaginations may suppose a moving mass as large as the enormous -cylinders they have been accustomed to see: but it is not so; the -elastic force of steam requires machinery but of comparatively -small dimensions. - -The revolving engine makes up in activity what in other engines is -supplied by magnitude. - -We will take for example the engine working at the glass -manufactory, in this vicinity, the cylinder of which has one foot -stroke and nine inches diameter, and is at least a ten horse power, -working with fifty pounds--or, the engine now building for the -Hartford boat. This engine will have two cylinders of seventeen -inches diameter and eighteen inch stroke; they will revolve fifty -times a minute. The area of the piston in each being 227 inches, -steam at fifty pounds will give an hundred horse power. - -This boat is seventy-seven feet long, twenty-one feet wide, and -measures one hundred and thirty-six tons. The engine, with its -boilers, will occupy sixteen feet by twelve, or one-eighth only -of the boat; the cylinders being hung on the timbers of the deck -over the boilers. She is principally intended to tow vessels up the -river to Hartford. - -In towing, it is of importance that the engine admit of any -inferior velocity or power, till some momentum is had. An engine -working by atmospheric pressure does not admit of this. And as the -boat herself, at the moment of commencing the operation, may have -no steerage-way, by placing two blade-rudders at the sides, behind -the water-wheel, where a current is occasioned by them, the boat is -kept in her relative position. - -The application of the steam-engine to the towing of other vessels -was fully appreciated by the late Mr. Fulton, whose conspicuous -labours and enterprise, in the establishment of steam-boats, -the public duly honours. His active mind had conceived of its -utility; and he would have obtained a patent, had not the previous -employment of steam in this way, and the award of arbitrators -on the question been in my favour; which I mention merely in -reference to the supposed utility of this mode of operation, in -connexion with Morey's engine. - -Morey's engine should rather be denominated a revolving engine than -a rotatory one, especially as it is essentially different from one -so called invented by Mr. Curtis. - -Plate I. Fig. 5, represents the arrangement of a double engine -for a boat, with its cylinders in different positions. _a a -a_, boilers; _b b_, tar-vessel; _c_, valve-box; _d_, cylinders -in different positions; _e_, piston-rod; _f_, pitman; _h_, -centre-piece; _i i_, shaft; _k_, valve; _l_, steam-pipe; _m_, -escape-pipe; _n_, condensers; _t_, water-wheel; _v_, face of the -valves; _x_, tar-fire. The frame, holding the cylinder (_d_) is, by -its opposite sides, so hung as to revolve. To the end of the axis -of one side, extended over the cylinder, is fixed the centre-piece -(_h_) resembling a crank, from which the bar or pitman (_f_) -communicates to the cross-piece of the piston-rod. On this same -axis, but outside the frame, is placed two circular pieces, one -of brass, the other of iron, (_k_) which we may call the valves. -One is fixed on the axis, the other moves, and accompanies the -frame and cylinder in its revolution; from it, at opposite sides, -pipes lead the steam to each end of the cylinder. It has a smooth -face, which applies, and is kept by springs close to that of its -counterpart fixed on the said axis. Steam-pipes lead from the -boilers through the counterpart into the moving valve. On the -opposite side of the fixed piece the eduction-pipe (_o o_) leads to -the condensers. - -The condensers (_p_) are upright vessels, two to each cylinder, -connected at top by a sliding valve box, so that the steam enters -them alternately. At bottom are two valves, kept closed by weights. -A stream of water is injected into the condensers, which escapes by -the bottom valves (_p p_) by which also the air is blown out, at -every stroke, in the same manner the engine is cleared of air at -first. - -There are also two cocks and cross-pipes seen, Plate III. Fig. 4, -to change the steam from one side to the other of the valve, to -give a reversed motion of the engine. - -The power is communicated to its object from the opposite side of -the frame by the axis attached thereto, and supported on bearings. -This axis (_i i_) may be of any length; may terminate in a crank -or cog-wheel, or another cylinder (as here represented) may be -attached thereto at right angles to the first, to co-operate and -produce, at every moment, equal power. - -Plate II. Fig. 6. Profile of the above. _a a_, the boiler; _c_, -valve; _d e g_, cylinder and frame; _f_, valve; _h h_, cog-wheels; -_i_, cog-wheels to move the pumps; _k k_, condensers; _m m_, -coverings in; _o o_, gas-fire flue. - -Fig. 1. _a_, steam-pipe; _b_, escape-pipe; _c_, fixed valve; _d_, -moving valve; _e_, axis; _f_, a washer; _g_, section of frame; _h_, -a washer; _i_, centre-piece; _l l_, steam-pipe; _k k_, springs to -keep the valves together. - -The canal-boat has her wheel in the stern. (See Plate IV.) The -motion is given by a cog-wheel upon its axis (_g_) played upon -by another, upon a shaft, at right angles, to which the engine -communicates motion. The wheel being divided by a space of two or -three inches, into two parts, to allow room for this shaft, and for -the support of its end. - -Fig. 3, represents the arrangement of the machinery, occupying -the after-part of the boat. An engine of twenty horse power may -thus occupy half a canal-boat, can tow a number of others at such -rate as may be proper on canals.[23] _b b_, the boilers; _c_, -tar-vessel; _d_, the cylinder; _f_, water-wheel. - -The supply of water to the boilers is either by a pump, in usual -form, or by the _supply-chamber_ of my invention, (Plate III. Fig. -2.) which consists simply of a pipe having two stop-cocks, one end -in a reservoir, the other opening into the boiler at top, sloping -downward for a foot or two. The cocks are in the sloping point. The -operation commences, by opening the cock nearest the boiler, the -steam drives the air out of the pipe through the water into the -reservoir; shut the cock, and the water rises from the reservoir -to fill it; shut the second cock, and open the first, the water -discharges from the chamber into the boiler; repeated by a movement -from the engine, when in motion, the supply continues with more -certainty than by a pump, because it is difficult to pump hot -water, on account of the elasticity of the steam arising from it, -which obstructs the operation of the valves. And it is important -not to have to pump against the pressure of high steam.[24] - -Plate III. Fig. 4. The mode of changing the passage of the steam to -the opposite sides of the valves, in order to get a reversed motion -of the engine. _a a_, the fixed part, or valves; _c d_, the pipes; -_f g_, the cross pipes; _e e_, the cocks, which are represented -open, to pipes _c_ and _d_--turn them half round, they close _c_ -and _d_, and open _f_ and _g_. Fig. 1 shows the side-rudders, _d_, -_e_, &c. - -To this engine is conveniently applied the gas-fire, in the -following manner. - -The boilers being cylindrical, with an inside flue for fuel, two or -three are placed close together, and set in the following manner: -First, cross-bars of iron are laid on the timbers, a platform of -sheet-iron is laid on these bars, coated over with clay mortar, -or cemented, to keep out the air. Upon the sheet-iron, and over -the bars below, are placed cast-iron blocks in shape to fit the -curve of the boiler, so as to raise it three or four inches above -the platform. The sheet-iron is continued up the outsides of the -outer boilers, so as to enclose them; and at one end, between the -boilers, there are small grates for coal or other fuel. - -The tar vessel or vessels, as the case may be, are lodged in the -space between and upon the boilers, and a small fire may be made -under them, if necessary. A pipe leads steam in at one end, two -pipes at the other; one near the bottom, and one near the top, lead -out the tar and steam. These pipes unite below; the steam and tar, -thus mingled in suitable proportions, flow to the main fire, or the -flues of the boilers, as well as to the coal-fire below, where -the gas and tar are ignited. The fireman judges of the proportion -of each, by the effect; the object being to produce a nearly white -flame without appearance of tar. Thus flame is applied to the -greatest possible surface, and the apparatus adds very little to -the cost of the engine. - -There are also two improvements in the boiler, which I deem it -important to mention. First, the lining or covering of the flue -within with sheet-iron or copper, _perforated with small holes_, -reaching down its sides, nearly to the bottom. Plate III. Fig. 2. -_a_ the boiler; _b_ the flue; _d_ the grate; _c c_ the lining. - -This causes the water to circulate rapidly between them to the top -of the flue, and protects it from being run dry, or heated red hot, -when the water gets, by accident, too low. The lining also _causes -the steam to form much faster, in consequence of this circulation_. - -The other is the interior boiler. A vessel occupying the back part -of the flue. Plate II. Fig. 8. (_d_) communicating downwards with -the water, and upwards with the steam of the main boiler. The fire -acts upon it very forcibly, surrounding it on all sides. - -I have said there is no reciprocating movement in Morey's engine. -Should it be objected that the piston moves in the cylinder as -usual, it must be apparent that it also moves circularly; it is -in fact the cylinder that moves, carrying the piston with it, -which gives and keeps up the motion, by drawing and pressing on -the centre-piece, and communicating the resistance thence to the -_guides_ of the cross-piece on the insides of the frame, which thus -receives its motion. - -In fact, this form of the engine seems divested of all the usual -drawbacks on its power, and leaves it to act freely with any -velocity, according to the strength of the steam in the boilers. - -Such it appears in principle, and such thus far in practise. I have -therefore preferred it for the purposes of navigation, and have -purchased the patent right. But, though interested to recommend it, -I cannot expect it to be preferred by the intelligent, if there is -not merit in the invention, and great economy in its use. It may be -considered the most direct application of the power, and the most -unexceptionable mode of using the expansive force of high steam. -And from the nature of its movement the most applicable to boats -and vessels. - -Your Journal being the intended medium of information to promote -the useful arts, I hope it may be consistent with this object -to explain the manner in which these improvements may be made -extensively useful. - -It being necessary to supply the engines at a reasonable rate, -I have established a manufactory for this kind only. The great -expense of steam-boats hitherto, has confined their use too -exclusively to the accommodation of passengers. There is a wide -field opening for their use, in freighting, on all our waters; and -it is often of importance to a community, when great savings can be -made, that large capitalists should be induced to engage that such -savings may be greater. Where companies are formed for an extensive -operation, the legislature may, with propriety, grant an extension -of the time for patents to run, that such persons may be duly -remunerated for their enterprise, by the duration of the service. - -Our laws do not yet make a proper distinction between patents of a -large and expensive kind and those requiring little or no capital -to go into operation. The period of fourteen years remunerates the -inventor of those improvements only that require no capital, and -involve no risk. - -On this ground several of the State legislatures have, with good -policy, given encouragement to this kind of enterprise. They -suspend the free use of the invention a few years, rather than -loose its immediate operation on a large scale of public benefit. - -The constitutionality of the measure plainly appears by its not -interfering with the laws of the United States. It is not an act -exclusive of, or in opposition to, patents, but acknowledging -and confirming them. It is furthering and giving effect to the -intentions of the general government, in the encouragement of -useful inventions. For their own particular section of the union, -a State legislature may thus provide for the protection of capital, -engaged in enterprise of uncommon risk, as well as of uncommon -usefulness, without excluding other and better inventions, should -they arise. - -I shall ask leave to communicate, for some future Number, the -results of experiments, now making, with the gas fire applied to -engines. - - I am your most respectful humble servant, - - JOHN L. SULLIVAN - - - - -ART. XVI. _Cautions regarding Fulminating Powders._ - - -_Fulminating Mercury._ - -During a late lecture in the laboratory of Yale College, a quantity -of fulminating mercury, probably about 100 or 150 grains, lay upon -a paper, the paper lay on a small stool, which was made of pine -plank, _one inch and a half thick_; a glass gas receiver, 5 or 6 -quarts capacity, stood over the powder, as a guard, but without -touching it, and stool and all stood on one of the shelves of the -pneumatic cistern, surrounded by tall tubes and other glasses, -several of which were within 6 or 8 inches. A small quantity of -the fulminating powder, at the distance of a few feet, was merely -flashed, by a coal of fire, but without explosion. In a manner, not -easily understood, the whole quantity of powder under the large -glass instantly exploded with an astounding report; _but the glass -was not exploded_--it was merely thrown up a little; in its fall -it was shattered, and broke a glass which it hit, but no fragment -was _projected_, and none of the other contiguous tubes and glasses -were even overset, nor were any of a large audience, and some of -them very near, even scratched; _but the plank, one and a half inch -thick, on which the powder lay, had a hole blown quite through, -almost as large as the palm of one's hand_. This is a striking -instance to prove that the _initial_ force of this powder, when -exploded, is very great, but that it extends but a very little way. -If it be strewed through a glass tube of three-fourths of an inch -in diameter, and exploded by a coal of fire or hot iron, the tube -may be held in the naked hand, and the powder only flashes without -breaking the tube, and merely coats it over inside, and that very -prettily, with the revived quicksilver. - - -_Fulminating Silver._ - -Chemists are too well acquainted with the tremendous energy of -this preparation, to make any comment upon its powers necessary. -Unhappily, however, it is now made a subject of amusement; it is -prepared for sale by those who know nothing of it, except as a -nostrum, and it is bought by others who have not even this degree -of knowledge. It is true it is put up in small quantities, in the -little toys called torpedoes, and, if exploded one by one, they -will ordinarily do no harm; but as they fall into the hands of -children, we can never be secure that they will be discreetly used. - -A very severe accident, from the unexpected explosion of -this substance, occurred some years since in the laboratory -of Yale College. (See Bruce's Journal, Vol. I. p. 163.) And, -notwithstanding that this occurrence was well known in New-Haven, -the same accident, only under a severer form, has again occurred in -that town. - -A man who had bought the secret of making fulminating silver, had -prepared as much as resulted from the solution of one ounce and -a half. Apparently, in a great measure, unaware of the nature of -the preparation, he had placed it, unmixed with any thing, on an -earthen plate, which stood on a table; his wife and children being -around, he sat down to distribute the powder upon several papers -which he had prepared for the purpose; sand and shot are mixed -with the powder in the papers for the purpose of giving momentum, -and of producing attrition when the torpedo is thrown, in order -to ensure its explosion. Probably also the sand, looking not very -unlike the powder, may be intended to screen it from view, and thus -to preserve the secret, should the papers be opened. The unhappy -man no sooner touched the fulminating silver with a knife, than it -exploded with its usual violence; the table was split in two; blood -issued copiously from every part of his face, not from wounds, for -it does not appear that the fragments hit him, but, according to -the opinion of a competent judge, the blood was actually forced -through the pores of the skin by the power of the explosion, which -very nearly destroyed his eyes. He suffered immensely, but now, at -the end of eight months, sees partially with one eye, but the other -is nearly, if not quite, destroyed. - -Should not the tampering with such dangerous substances by ignorant -people be prevented by law? - -In a late lecture in the laboratory of Yale College, some -fulminating silver, on the point of a knife, was in the act -of being put upon a copper-plate connected with one pole of a -galvanic battery in active operation, the other pole was not -touched by the experimenter; but it seems that the influence which -was communicated through the floor of the room was sufficient -instantly to explode the powder, as soon as the knife touched the -copper-plate; the knifeblade was broken in two, and one half of it -thrown to a distance among the audience. - -Recently also, we are informed, in one of the foreign journals, -that a man in England, who accidentally trod on a quantity of -fulminating silver, had his foot nearly destroyed by the explosion. - - - - -USEFUL ARTS. - - - - -ART. XIX. _Account of an economical method of obtaining Gelatine -from bones, as practised in Paris. Communicated to the Editor by -Mr._ ISAAC DOOLITTLE. - - - _Paris, 16th May, 1818._ - - MY DEAR SIR, - -A few days since I visited the very interesting establishment of M. -Robert, for the extraction of the gelatinous matter from bones. - -The bones used for this purpose are those only which answered -no useful purpose (except for the fabrication of phosphorus or -ammoniac) before this discovery, such as those of the head, the -ribs, &c. &c., the legs of sheep and calves, &c. Those formerly -used by _toysmen_ (_Tabletiers_) are still used for that purpose, -after extracting so much of the gelatine as can be done by -ebullition. - -When the heads of oxen are to be operated upon, they begin by -extracting the teeth, (these are reserved for the fabrication of -ammoniac, as affording a greater proportion of that alkali than any -of the other bones,) they then break the skull, in such manner as -to preserve all the compact parts in as regular forms as possible; -these pieces present a surface of 20 to 30 square inches, and are -put to soak in a mixture of muriatic acid and water. The muriatic -acid used bears about twenty-three degrees o£ the _aeromètre_, -and is diluted by water to about six degrees--four parts of the -liquor is used to one part of bones. They are left in this state, -in open vessels, until a complete solution of the phosphate of -lime has taken place, and the gelatinous part of the bone remains -in its original shape and size, and is perfectly supple. When this -operation is finished, which commonly lasts six or eight days, the -gelatine is put into baskets, being first drained, and immersed -a short time in boiling water, in order to extract any small -remains of grease, which would deteriorate the gelatine, and also -to extract any of the acid which might be lodged in the pores. It -is then carefully wiped with clean linen, and afterward washed in -copious streams of cold water, to whiten it, and render it more -transparent; it is then put to dry in the shade. - -Two ounces of this gelatine are said to be equal to three pounds of -beef in making soup--that is, three pounds of beef and two ounces -of gelatine will make as much soup, and of as good quality, as six -pounds of beef. It is constantly used in some of the hospitals of -the capital, particularly in the lying-in-hospital. - -The ends of the bones, and such parts as from their porosity might -still retain a portion of the acid, are separated, and used for -making glue of a very superior quality. - -The inside of the bones of sheep's legs furnish a sort of -membranous glue, which supplies, with advantage, the place of -isinglass in the fabrication of silk stuffs. - -I give you these particulars, not because I think they contain any -thing new to you, _in principle_, but because I may have hit upon -some _details_ with which you were unacquainted. - - - - -ART. XX. _Experiments made in France upon the Use of Distilled -Seawater for domestic purposes, and its Effects on the -Constitution, when taken as a Beverage._[25] - - -In consequence of the great want of good fresh water in many of -the maritime parts of France, the government some time since -ordered some experiments to be made, upon an extensive scale, in -order to ascertain how far seawater, when distilled, could be used -with success. Little or no use had hitherto been made of water so -prepared, except in long voyages, and chiefly then only as a matter -of necessity. There are above two hundred leagues of seacoast in -France, where, to the breadth of many miles, the inhabitants are -compelled to make use of bad and impure water, which, in many -cases, is injurious to the health of themselves and their animals. -In similar cases, it was the custom of the ancients to construct -cisterns; but these are not only expensive in themselves, but -their utility depends upon the quantity of rain that falls; while -upon the shores of the most barren places, nature has supplied a -variety of vegetable matter, which, when dried, would not only -serve as a fuel for the purposes of distillation, but from the -ashes of which might be obtained a saline substance, sufficient to -repay the expense of collecting, drying, and burning. Thus the fuel -for the distillation of seawater would, in reality, cost nothing, -while its preparation would employ many individuals, particularly -women and children. Before, however, erecting any apparatus for -this purpose, it was necessary to ascertain both the utility and -salubrity of the water thus prepared. - -It is well known that Bougainville, Phipps, Homelin, &c. had -employed this water with much success; but they, like most of the -chemists of the last age, did not endeavour to imitate the process -of nature in all its simplicity, but mixed various substances -with the seawater, in order to take away or lessen the effect of -the empyreuma arising from the distillation, and which was so -unpleasant to the smell and taste. And it is this which in general -renders sailors so averse to it, and excites a prejudice very -unfavourable to the salubrity of distilled seawater. One of the -great objects to be ascertained was, whether this disagreeable -smell and taste was peculiar to seawater or arose from the act of -distillation. - -In the month of July, last year, the king ordered some experiments -to be made, upon a large scale, at the three ports of Brest, -Rochefort, and Toulon. The instructions given were as follows: That -a sufficient quantity of seawater should be distilled to prepare, -for the space of a month, bread and other food for a certain number -of criminals, who were employed on the works of these ports, and -also to supply them with drink, keeping from them during that -period every other liquid. Ten or twelve persons at each part -voluntarily came forward and offered themselves for the experiment. - -The persons employed by government first distilled a sufficient -quantity of seawater, without the admixture of any other substance. -This produce dissolved soap, dressed vegetables, produced the same -appearances, with the aerometer, as that distilled from spring -water. There was no difference between the one and the other. But -the distilled seawater had always that empyreumatic taste and -smell, of which we have before spoken; and it was so strong, that -the commission at Toulon called it _odeur de marine_, and _odeur de -marecage_. But this is not peculiar to seawater, for the result of -a distillation of fresh water had always the same taste and smell. -Neither of these liquids immediately loses this by being filtered -through charcoal; but by being exposed for some time to the air, -the distilled seawater loses this unpleasant quality, and then it -does not differ from fresh water derived from the purest source; -and both have equally stood every chemical test to which they have -been exposed. The chemical properties of this water having thus -been determined, it remains to give an account of the effects -upon the individuals who underwent the experiment. These are the -principal results: - -_Brest._ During the first days, those who drank the water -complained of a weight upon the stomach. This indisposition, which -was the only one they experienced, soon decreased upon taking -exercise, and totally went off by an additional ounce of biscuit -added to their common ration. One of them, on the 29th day, had a -few symptoms, but which he himself attributed to an indigestion, -from some bacon he had eaten. Eight individuals drank twenty-five -pints a day, rather more than three pints each,--(N. B. The French -pint contains very near fifty-seven cubic inches of English -measure, and is the regulation size for the claret or Bordeaux -bottle; but in general the bottles are rather smaller. The French -pint is therefore equal to rather more than nineteen-twentieths of -an English quart, wine measure.) - -_Toulon._ The results obtained at the arsenal of this town, were -not less decisive or satisfactory. The six persons who made -the experiment acquired a greater degree of freshness in their -appearance, and were much fatter. Their daily consumption of -distilled water was nine pounds (_poids de marc_) for drink, -and eleven pounds for cooking. This is nearly the same relative -quantity as those at Brest. - -_Rochefort._ The experiments here have not been made with the same -regularity; because the fifteen persons fixed upon had all agreed -to say that they were very ill. The two principal ones complained -of violent cholics and diarrhœas: but the plot was discovered, -and upon being put upon the sick-list, (_à la diète_,) they -were laughed at by their companions. No one of them was really -indisposed; on the contrary, many thought they experienced some -good effect in regard to some infirmities under which they had long -laboured. - -The above are not, however, the only experiments which have been -made upon this beverage. Several persons wishing to ascertain -its effects by individual experience, have voluntarily confined -themselves to its use; and the members of the commission of inquiry -are almost in the daily practice of taking it. The captain of the -Duclat has taken it every day at his meals for twenty days, and -has experienced not the smallest inconvenience from its use. M. M. -Vasse, and Chatelain, apothecaries to the marine at Brest, have -occasionally kept the water in their mouths for four hours, by -constantly renewing it, and have not found either the sharp taste, -or other caustic qualities, which have been said to be peculiar -to it. And here it may be proper to state, that the mouths of -all the individuals who had taken the water for a length of time -were examined, without the detection of any thing in them either -of a swollen or inflammatory appearance. Such are the reports of -commissioners employed to investigate the effects of distilled -seawater, who, although separated at a great distance from each -other, and having no communication, all agree in the inference, -that it may be employed without any injury to the health, both as -a beverage and in cookery, for the space of at least a month; and -the fair presumption is, that it may be employed for a much longer -time; and that in consequence, it must be considered as a very -happy resource in long voyages of discovery. - - - - -FINE ARTS. - - - - -ART. XXI. _Essay on Musical Temperament. By Professor_ FISHER, _of -Yale College_. - -[_Concluded from page 35._] - - -PROPOSITION V. - - To determine that position of any degree in the scale, which will - render all the concords terminated by it, at a medium, the most - harmonious; supposing their relative frequency given, and all the - other degrees fixed. - -The best scheme of temperament for the changeable scale, on -supposition that all the concords were of equally frequent -occurrence, is investigated in Prop. III. But it is shown, in -the last Proposition, that some chords occur in practice far -more frequently than others. Hence it becomes necessary to -ascertain what changes in the scale above referred to, this -different frequency requires. Any given degree, as C, terminates -six different concords; a Vth, IIId, and 3d above, and the same -intervals below it. Let the numbers denoting the frequency of -these chords below C be denoted by _a_, _b_, and _c_, and their -temperaments, before the position of C is changed, by _m_, _n_, -and _p_: and let the frequency of the chords above C be denoted by -_a′_, _b′_, and _c′_, and their temperaments by _m′_, _n′_, and -_p′_, respectively. If, now, we regard any two of these 6 chords, -whose temperaments would be diminished by moving C opposite ways, -and of which the sum of the temperaments is consequently fixed, it -is manifest that the more frequent the occurrence, the less ought -to be the temperament. Were we guided _only_ by the consideration -of making the aggregate of dissonance heard in them in a given -time, the least possible, we should make the one of most frequent -occurrence perfect, and throw the whole of the temperament upon the -other. Let, for example, _a_ be greater than _a′_, and let _x_ -be any variable distance to which C is moved, so as to diminish -the temperament _m_, of the chord whose frequency is expressed by -_a_. Then the temperament of _a_ will become = _m_ ~ _x_, and that -of _a′_ = _m′_ + _x_. Hence, as the dissonance head in each, in a -given time, is in the compound ratio of its frequency of occurrence -and its temperament, their aggregate dissonance will be as - - a · (m ~ x) + a′ · (m′ + x); - -a quantity which, as _a_ is supposed greater than _a′_, evidently -becomes a minimum when _x_ = _m_, or the chord, whose frequency is -_a_, is made perfect. But in this way we render the harmony of the -chords very unequal, which is, cæteris paribus, a disadvantage. -As these considerations are heterogeneous, it must be a matter -of judgment, rather than of mathematical certainty, what precise -weight is to be given to each. We will give so much weight to the -latter consideration, as to make the temperament of each concord -_inversely as its frequency_. We have then - - a : a′ :: 1/(m - x) : 1/(m′ + x); - -which gives x = (am - a′m′)/(a + a′). - -But there are six concords to be accommodated, instead of two; and -it is evident that all the pairs cannot have their temperament -inversely as their frequency, since the numbers _a_, _b_, &c. -and _m_, _n_, &c. have no constant ratio to each other. This, -however, will be the case, at a medium, if _x_ be made such, that -the _sum_ of the products of the numbers expressing the frequency -of those chords whose temperaments are increased by _x_, into -their respective temperaments, shall be equal to the sum of the -corresponding products belonging to those chords whose temperaments -are diminished by _x_. Applying this principle to the system of -temperament in Prop. III, which flattens all the concords, it -is plain that raising any given degree by _x_ will increase the -temperaments of the concords above that degree, and diminish those -of the concords below it. Hence it ought to be raised till - - (m - x) a + (n - x)b + (p - x)c = (m′ + x)a + (n′ + x)b′ + - (p + x)c′; - -from which _x_ is found - - = (am - a′m′ + bn - b′n′ + cp - c′p′) / - (a + a′ + b + b′ + c + c′) - -Should either of the temperaments be sharp, the sign of that term -of the numerator, in which it occurs, must be changed; and should -the total value of the expression be negative, _x_ must be taken -below C. - - -PROPOSITION VI. - - To determine that system of temperaments for the concords of - the changeable scale, which will render it, including every - consideration, the most harmonious possible. - -We can scarcely expect to find any direct analytical process, which -will furnish us with a solution of this complicated problem, at -a single operation. We shall therefore content ourselves with a -method which gradually approximates towards the desired results. -The best position of any given degree, as C, supposing all the rest -fixed, is determined by the last proposition. In the same manner -it is evident that the constitution of the whole scale will be the -best possible, when no degree in it can be elevated or depressed, -without rendering the sums of the products there referred to, -unequal. We can approximate to this state of the scale, by applying -the theorem in Prop. V. to each of the degrees successively. It -is not essential in what order the application is made; but for -the sake of uniformity, in the successive approximations, we will -begin with that degree which has the greatest sum _a_ + _a′_ + -_b_ + &c. belonging to it, and proceed regularly to that in which -it is least. Making the equal temperament of Prop. III., (in -which the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds are flattened, 154, 77 and 77, -respectively.) the standard from which to commence the alterations -in the scale required by the unequal frequency of different chords, -and beginning with D, the theorem gives _x_ = 5. Hence supposing -the rest of the degrees in the scale unaltered, it will be in the -most harmonious state, when D is raised 5/540 of a comma. For by -the last proposition, the temperament of the six concords affected -by changing the place of D is best distributed, and that of the -other concords is not at all affected. We will now proceed to the -second degree in the scale, viz. A; in which the application of -the theorem gives _x_ = 13. In this application, however, as D was -before raised 5, _m_, the temperament of the Vth below A, must be -taken 154 + 5; and in all the succeeding operations, when the -exterior termination of any concord has been already altered, we -must take its temperament, not what it was at first, but what it -has become, by such previous alteration. In this manner, the scale -is becoming more harmonious at every step, till we have completed -the whole succession of degrees which it contains. - -Let us now revert to D, the place where we began. As each of the -outer extremities of the chords which are terminated by D has -been changed, a new application of the theorem will give a second -correction for the place of D; although, as the numbers _a_, _a'_, -_b_, &c. continue the same, it will be less than before. Continue -the process through the whole scale, and a second approximation to -the most harmonious state will be obtained. In this manner let the -theorem be applied, till the value of _x_ is exhausted, for every -degree; and it will then be in the most harmonious state possible. -Three operations gave the following results: - - -TABLE V. - - +------+-----------+-----+-----+ - | | 1st | 2d. | 3d. | - |Bases.| Operation.| | | - +------+-----------+-----+-----+ - | F♯ | +18 | +5 | +1 | - | F | -20 | -6 | -1 | - | E♯ | +18 | +5 | 0 | - | E | +14 | +5 | 0 | - | E♭ | -69 | -8 | -1 | - | D♯ | +19 | +5 | +1 | - | D | +5 | +2 | +1 | - | D♭ | -45 | -7 | -2 | - | C♯ | +18 | +6 | 0 | - | C | -5 | -5 | -2 | - | B♯ | +18 | +5 | 0 | - | B | +19 | +5 | 0 | - | B♭ | -23 | -10 | -1 | - | A♯ | +18 | +7 | 0 | - | A | +13 | +4 | +1 | - | A♭ | -71 | -7 | -2 | - | G♯ | +17 | +5 | 0 | - | G | -14 | 0 | 0 | - | F♯♯ | +44 | +5 | 0 | - | G♭ | -46 | -5 | 0 | - +------+-----------+-----+-----+ - -The sign _plus_ denotes that the degree to which it belongs is to -be raised, and _minus_, that it is to be depressed. The corrections -in each succeeding operation are to be added to those in the -preceding. The errors, in the 3d approximation, are so trifling, -that a 4th would be wholly useless. - -NOTE. The foregoing calculations will be rendered much more -expeditious and sure, by reducing the theorem, in some sense, to a -diagram, as in the first of the following figures; and by applying -the successive corrections to the circumference of a circle divided -into parts proportioned to the intervals of the enharmonic scale, -as in the second. - -[Illustration] - - -PROPOSITION VII. - - To determine the temperaments and beats of all the concords, - together with the values of the diatonic and chromatic intervals, - and the lengths and vibrations per second of a string producing - all the sounds, of the system resulting from the last proposition. - -The temperaments of all the concords are easily deduced from Table -V. The Vth CG, for example, has its lower extremity lowered 12, and -its upper extremity 14. Hence it is flatter by 2 than at first, -and consequently its temperament=156. The temperaments of all the -concords, thus calculated, will be found in the 2d, 3d, and 4th -columns of Table VII. - -Having ascertained the temperaments, the value of the diatonic and -chromatic intervals may be found. The Vth CG being flattened 156, -and the Vth FC 139, the major tone FG must be diminished 156 + -139, or be = 4820. By thus fixing the extent of one interval after -another, from the temperaments of either of the different kinds of -concords, as is most convenient, the intervals in question will be -found to have the values exhibited in Table VI. - -Let the numbers in this table be added successively, beginning at -the bottom, to the log. of 240, the number of vibrations per second -of the tenor C, (see Rees's Cyc. Art. Concert Pitch,) and the -numbers corresponding to these logarithms will be the vibrations in -a second, of a string sounding the several degrees of the scale. -They are shown in col. 6, Table VII. - -Since the length of a string cæteris paribus is inversely as its -number of vibrations, the lengths in col. 5 may be deduced from -the vibrations in col. 6; or more expeditiously, by subtracting -the numerical distances from C of the several degrees in Table VI. -from O, and taking the corresponding numbers, from the table of -logarithms. These numbers, when used as logarithms, must be brought -back to the decimal form, agreeably to Scholium 2. Prop. I. - -To find the number of beats made in a second by any concord, it -is only necessary to take from col. 5 the numbers belonging to -the degrees which terminate that concord, and to multiply them -crosswise into the terms of its perfect ratio. The difference of -the products will be the number of beats made in a second. The 3 -last columns contain the beats made by each of the concords, in 10 -seconds. - - -TABLE VI. - - C +------+------+------+ C - | 2998 | 2998 +------+ B♯ - | | | 1772 | - B +------+------+------+ B - | 1831 | | 3033 | - B♭|------+ 4813 | | - | | +------+ A♯ - | 2982 | | 1780 | - A +------+------+------+ A - | 1871 | | 3030 | - A♭+------+ 4839 | | - | | +------+ G♯ - | 2968 | | 1809 | - G +------+------+------+ G - | 1814 | +------+ F♯♯ - | | | 1798 | - G♭+------+ 4820 +------+ F♯ - | | | | - | 3006 | | 1824 | - F +------+------+------+ F - | | +------+ E♯ - | 2988 | 2988 | | - | | | 1777 | - E +------+------+------+ E - | 1870 | | 3028 | - | | | | - E♭+------+ 4818 | | - | 2948 | +------+ D♯ - | | | 1790 | - D +------+------+------+ D - | 1835 | | 3018 | - D♭+------+ 4827 | | - | | +------+ C♯ - | 2992 | | 1809 | - C +------+------+------+ C - - -TABLE VII. - - +-----+-------------------++-------+----------++---------------------+ - | |Temperaments of the||Lengths|Vibrations||Beats in 10 S. of the| - |Bases+-------------------+| of | in a |+-------+------+------+ - | |Vths♭|IIIds♭|3ds♭||String.| Second. || Vths. |IIIds.| 3ds. | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | B♯ | | | 77 || 51431 | 466,64 || | | 43,4 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | B | 154 | 76 | 93 || 53574 | 447,98 || 47,4 | 39,0 | 57,8 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | B♭ | 147 | 35 | 97 || 55880 | 429,49 || 43,5 | 17,7 | 57,4 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | A♯ | 156 | | 78 || 57448 | 417,77 || 45,1 | | 46,2 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | A | 153 | 71 | 107 || 59852 | 400,99 || 42,5 | 33,5 | 59,4 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | A♭ | 154 | 9 | || 62487 | 384,08 || 40,4 | 4,0 | | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | G♯ | 151 | 76 | 75 || 64177 | 373,97 || 39,1 | 32,9 | 39,2 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | G | 132 | 39 | 97 || 66907 | 358,71 || 32,9 | 16,3 | 48,1 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | F♯♯ | | | 101 || 68778 | 348,95 || | | 48,5 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | G♭ | | 56 | || 69760 | 344,03 || | 21,9 | | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | F♯ | 154 | 76 | 83 || 71685 | 334,80 || 36,0 | 29,2 | 38,5 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | F | 139 | 32 | 130 || 74760 | 321,03 || 30,9 | 11,9 | 57,8 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | E♯ | 154 | | 78 || 76874 | 312,20 || 33,2 | | 33,5 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | E | 149 | 74 | 110 || 80085 | 299,68 || 30,8 | 25,2 | 45,3 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | E♭ | 110 | 13 | 54 || 83608 | 287,05 || 21,7 | 4,1 | 21,5 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | D♯ | 154 | 53 | 78 || 85868 | 279,50 || 29,6 | 17,0 | 30,0 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | D | 144 | 61 | 112 || 89480 | 268,21 || 26,5 | 18,5 | 41,1 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | D♭ | 180 | 50 | || 93342 | 257,12 || 32,0 | 14,8 | | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | C♯ | 156 | 78 | 82 || 95920 | 250,20 || 26,6 | 22,0 | 28,0 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - | C | 156 | 46 | 143 ||100000 | 240,00 || 25,8 | 12,8 | 47,5 | - +-----+------+------+-----++-------+----------++-------+------+------+ - - -PROPOSITION VIII. - - To compare the harmoniousness of the foregoing system with that - of several others, which have been most known and approved. - -The aggregate of dissonance, heard in any tempered concord, is as -its temperament (Prop. I.) when its frequency of occurrence is -given, and as its frequency of occurrence, when its temperament -is given: hence, universally, it is as the product of both. The -whole amount of dissonance heard in all the concords of the same -name must consequently be as the sum of the products of the numbers -denoting their temperaments, each into the number in Table IV. -denoting its frequency. These products, for the scale of Huygens -which divides the octave into 31 equal parts, of which the tone is -5 and the semi-tone 3; for the system of mean tones, and for Dr. -Smith's system of equal harmony, compared with the scale of the -last proposition, (cutting off the three right-hand figures) stand -as follows: - - -TABLE VIII. - - +--------------------+---------+------------+-----------+----------+ - | Systems. |Huygen's.|Dr. Smith's.|Mean Tones.|New Scale.| - +--------------------+---------+------------+-----------+----------+ - | Dissonance { Vths | 825 | 945 | 850 | 786 | - | of the { IIIds | 121 | 382 | 0 | 240 | - | { 3ds | 1049 | 629 | 944 | 683 | - +--------------------+---------+------------+-----------+----------+ - | Total | 1995 | 1956 | 1794 | 1709 | - +--------------------+---------+------------+-----------+----------+ - -Were we to adhere to Dr. Smith's measure of equal harmony, the rows -of products belonging to the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds, must be divided, -respectively, by ⅓, 1/10, and 1/13 (the reciprocals of half the -products of the terms of their perfect ratios,) before they could -be properly added to express the whole amount of dissonance heard -in all the concords; but, according to Prop. I. the simple products -ought to be added, and the sums at the bottom of the table will -express the true ratio of the aggregate dissonance of the systems -under which they stand. The last has decidedly the advantage -over the first, both in regard to the aggregate dissonance, and -the equality of its distribution among the different classes of -concords. It has nearly an equal advantage over the second in -regard to the first of these considerations; although in regard -to the equality of distribution, the latter has slightly the -advantage. It has, in a small degree, the advantage over the third, -in regard to the aggregate dissonance; while, as it respects the -equality of its distribution, it has the decided preference. It is -true that the temperaments of the concords of the same name, in the -new scale, are not as in the others, absolutely equal; but no one -of them is so large as to give any offence to the nicest ear. The -largest in the whole scale exceeds the uniform temperament of Dr. -Smith's Vths by only 1/18 of a comma. - - -_Scholium_ 1. - -The above system may be put in practice on the organ, by making the -successive Vths CG, GD, DE, &c. beat flat at the rate contained in -Table VII., descending an octave, where necessary, and doubling -the number of beats belonging to any degree in the table, when -the Vth to be tuned has its base in the octave above the treble -C. The tenor C must first be made to vibrate 240 in a second, the -methods of doing which are detailed at length in various authors. -Whenever a IIId results from the Vths tuned, its beats ought to be -compared with those required in the table, and the correctness of -the Vths thus proved. This system is as easy, in practice, as any -other; for no one can be tuned correctly except by counting the -beats, and rendering them conformable to what that system requires. -The intervals of the first octave tuned ought to be adjusted with -the utmost accuracy, by a table of beats. When this is done, the -labour of making perfect the other octaves of the same stop, and -the unisons, octaves, Vths, &c. of the other stops, is the same -in every system. This last, indeed, is so much the most laborious -part of the tuning of the organ, that if even much more labour -were required than actually is, in adjusting the intervals of the -octave first tuned it would occasion little difference in the whole. - - -_Scholium_ 2. - -The harmony of the IIIds and 3ds in any of the foregoing systems -for the changeable scale is so much finer than it can possibly be -in the common Douzeave, that it seems highly desirable that this -scale should be introduced into general use. But the increased bulk -and expense attendant on the introduction of so many new pipes or -strings, together with the trouble occasioned to the performer, in -rectifying the scale for music in the different keys, have hitherto -prevented its becoming generally adopted. To multiply the number -of finger keys would render execution on the instrument extremely -difficult; and the apparatus necessary for transferring the action -of the same key from one string or set of pipes to another, besides -being complicated and expensive, requires such exactness that -it must be continually liable to get out of order. This latter -expedient, however, has been deemed the only practicable one, -and has been carried into effect, under different forms, by Dr. -Smith, Mr. Hawkes, M. Loeschman, and others. But Dr. Smith's plan -(which is confined to stringed instruments) requires only one of -the unisons to be used at once; while those of the two latter -nearly double the whole number of strings or pipes. It deserves an -experiment, among the makers of imperfect instruments, whether a -changeable scale cannot be rendered practicable, at least on the -piano forte,[26] without increasing the number of strings, and at -the same time allowing both the unisons to be used together--either -by an apparatus for slightly increasing the tension of the strings, -or by one which shall intercept the vibrations of such a part of -the string, at its extremity, as shall elevate its tone, by the -diesis of the system of temperament adopted. Were only 4 degrees to -the octave, furnishing the instrument with 5 sharps and 4 flats, -thus rendered changeable, there is little music which could not be -correctly executed upon it. - - -_Scholium_ 3. - -In the same general manner, may be found the best system of -intervals, for a scale confined to a less number of degrees than -that of the complete Enharmonic scale. In such an investigation, -the numbers in Table IV. expressing the frequency of all such -adjacent degrees as have but one sound in the given scale, must be -united; and the temperaments _m_, _n_, &c. of the theorem, when -belonging to concords whose terminating degrees are united to -those adjacent, must be taken, not what they were in the complete -scale, but what they become, considering them as terminated by the -substituted adjacent degree. - -If, for example, the best temperaments were required for a scale of -15 degrees to the octave, such as is that of some European organs, -or in other words, having no Enharmonic intervals except D♯ E♭, -and G♯ A♭,--the numbers in Table IV. belonging to C♯ and D♭, E♯ -and F, F♯ and G♭, &c. must be united, and their sums substituted -when they occur, for _a_, _a′_, _b_, &c. in the theorem; while the -temperament, for example, of the IIId on C♯ must not be reckoned -77 as in the complete scale, but 1261 - 77 sharp, since its upper -termination has become F, instead of E♯. With these variations let -the same theorem be applied as before, till no value of _x_ can -be obtained, and the temperaments for that scale will be the best -adjusted possible. - -But as the scale which contains but 13 degrees, or 12 intervals, to -the octave, is in much more general use than every other, we shall -content ourselves with stating _how_ the problem may be solved for -scales containing any intermediate number of degrees, and proceed -directly to the consideration of that which is so much the most -practically important. - - -LEMMA. - - No arrangement of the intervals in the common scale of 12 - degrees, which renders none of the Vths or 3ds sharp, and none of - the IIIds flat, can make any change in the aggregate temperaments - of all the concords of the same name. - -We will conceive the 12 Vths of the Douzeave scale to be arranged -in succession, as CG, GD, DA, &c. embracing 7 octaves. Let them -at first be all equal: they will each be flattened 49. I say that -no change in these Vths which preserves the two extreme octaves -perfect, and renders none of them sharp, can alter the sum of their -temperaments. Let _a_, _b_, _c_, &c. be any quantities, positive -or negative, by which the points C, G, D, &c. may be conceived to -be raised above the corresponding points, belonging to the scheme -of equal Vths. Then as the mean temperament Vth = V - 49, the -first Vth in the supposed arrangement will be V - 49 + _a_. The -distance from C to D will be, in like manner, 2 · (V - 49) + _b_; -and consequently the Vth GD will be V - 49 + _b_ - _a_. In the same -manner the third Vth DE will be V - 49 + _c_ - _b_, &c. Hence the -temperament of CG = -49 + _a_, of GD = -49 + _b_ - _a_, of DA = -49 -+ _c_ - _b_, &c. Adding the 12 temperaments together, we find their -sum - - = -12 × 49 + a + b + &c. - a - b - &c. - -in which all the terms except the first destroy each other, and -leave their sum = -12 × 49 which is the aggregate temperament of -the twelve equal Vths in the scheme of equal semitones. - -The same reasoning holds good if we bring these Vths within the -compass of an octave; since, if the octave be kept perfect, all -the Vths on the same letter, in whatever octave they are situated, -must have the same temperament. - -The reasoning is precisely the same for the IIIds and 3ds, -considering the former as forming 4 distinct series of an octave -each, beginning with C, C♯, D and E♭; and the latter as forming 3 -distinct series of an octave each, beginning with C, C♯ and D. If -the former be made all equal, each will be sharpened 343; if the -latter be made equal, each will be flattened 392. In every system -which renders none of the former flat, and none of the latter -sharp, the sum of their temperaments will be 12 × 343, and 12 × -392, respectively. - -_Cor._ The demonstration holds equally true, whatever be the -magnitude of _a_, _b_, _c_, &c.: only if they be such that the -difference -_a_ + _b_, -_b_ + _c_, &c. of any two successive ones -be greater than the temperament of the corresponding concord in -the system of equal semitones, the temperament of that chord must -be reckoned negative, and the _sum_, in the enunciation of the -proposition, must be considered as the excess of those temperaments -which have the same sign with those of the same concords in the -system of equal semitones, above those which have the contrary -sign. Hence it is universally true that the excess of the flat -above the sharp temperaments of the Vths is equal to 12 × 49; that -the excess of the sharp above the flat temperaments of the IIIds -is equal to 12 × 343; and that the excess of the flat above the -sharp temperaments of the 3ds is 12 × 392. Hence likewise we have a -very easy method of _proving_ whether the temperaments of any given -system have been correctly calculated. It is only to add those -which have the same sign; and if the differences of the sums be -equal to the products just stated, the work is right. - - -PROPOSITION IX. - - If all the concords of the same name, in a scale of twelve - intervals to the octave, were of equally frequent occurrence, the - best system of temperament would be that of equal semitones. - -It is evidently best, so far as the concords of the same name -are concerned, that if of equal frequency, they should be -equally tempered, unless by rendering them unequal, their medium -temperament could be diminished; but this appears, from the Lemma, -to be impossible. By tempering them unequally, the aggregate -dissonance heard in a given time, by supposition of their equal -frequency, would not be diminished, whilst the disadvantage of a -transition from a better to a worse harmony would be incurred. -Some advocates of irregular systems of temperament have, indeed, -maintained this irregularity to be a positive advantage, as giving -variety of character to the different keys. But this variety -of character is obviously neither more nor less than that of -greater and less degrees of dissonance. Now, what performer on a -perfect instrument ever struck his intervals false, for the sake -of variety? Who was ever gratified by the variety produced in -vocal music by a voice slightly out of tune? If this be absurd, -when applied to instruments capable of perfect harmony, it is -scarcely less so to urge variety of character as being of itself -a sufficient ground for introducing large temperaments into the -scale. For these large temperaments will have nearly the same -effect, compared with the smaller ones, that small temperaments -would have, when compared with the perfect harmony of voices and -perfect instruments. Possibly a discordant interval, or a concord -largely tempered, might, in a few instances, add to the resources -of the composer. But when an instrument is once tuned, the -situation of these intervals is fixed beyond his control, and by -occurring in a passage where his design required the most perfect -harmony, it might as often thwart as favour the intended effect. - -Since, then, the proposition is true in reference to the Vths, -IIIds, and 3ds, when separately considered, it will be equally true -when they are considered jointly, that is, as formed into harmonic -triads, unless, by rendering the concords of the same name unequal -in their temperament, the mean temperament of the Vths could be -increased, and that of the IIIds and 3ds proportionally diminished. -Could this be done, it might be a question whether the more equal -distribution of the temperament among the concords of different -names, might not justify the introduction of some inequality among -those of the same name. But it is demonstrated in the Lemma, that -the sum of the temperaments of each parcel of concords, in the -system of equal semitones, is the least possible. Hence no changes -in the Vths can diminish the average temperaments of the IIIds and -3ds. - -_Cor._ Hence we derive an important practical conclusion: that -whatever irregularities are introduced into the scale, must be -such as are demanded by the different frequency of occurrence of -the several concords. If we make any alterations in the scale of -equal semitones, this must be our sole criterion. A given system -of temperament is eligible, in proportion to the accuracy with -which it is deduced from the different frequency of the different -concords. And those who maintain that the frequency of different -intervals does not sensibly vary, or that it is of such a nature -as not to be susceptible of calculation, must, to be consistent, -adhere to the scale of equal semitones. - - -PROPOSITION X. - - To determine the best distribution of the temperaments of the - concords in the Douzeave Scale. - -As the scale of equal semitones has been demonstrated to be the -best, on supposition that all the concords of the same name -occurred equally often, it ought to be made the standard from -which all the variations, required by their unequal frequency, are -to be reckoned. To find a set of numbers expressing the relative -frequency of the several concords in the common scale, we have only -to unite the numbers in Table IV. standing against those adjacent -degrees which have but one sound in this scale. They will then -stand as in the following table: - - -TABLE IX. - - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - | | Vths, 4ths,| IIIds, 6ths,| 3ds, VIths,| - |Bases.| and | and | and | - | | Octaves. | Octaves. | Octaves. | - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - | B | 221 | 135 | 1161 | - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - | B♭ | 418 | 654 | 34 | - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - | A | 870 | 568 | 1085 | - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - | G♯ | 57 | 82 | 365⅕ | - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - | G | 1207 | 1197 | 567¼ | - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - | F♯ | 67 | 29½ | 1072 | - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - | F | 639 | 924 | 78 | - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - | E | 548 | 323 | 1151 | - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - | E♭ | 265⅓ | 363½ | 144½ | - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - | D | 1166 | 943 | 569 | - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - | C♯ | 26 | 18 | 581 | - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - | C | 816 | 1131 | 184 | - +------+------------+-------------+------------+ - -The general theorem of Prop. V. is equally applicable to the -determination of the approximate place for any degree in this -scale, considering the numbers in the above table as those to be -substituted for _a_, _a′_, _b_, &c.; and _m_, _n_, and _p_, in the -first instance, as 49, -343 and 392, the uniform temperaments of -the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds, in the scale of equal semitones. Since, -however, the temperaments of the IIIds in this scale are sharp, -which would require the signs of the 3d and 4th terms in the -numerator of the general formula to be continually changed, it will -be rendered more convenient for practice, if they are changed at -first, so that it will stand thus: - - - x = (am - a′m′ - bn + b′n′ + cp - c′p′) / - (a + a′ + b + b′ + c + c′) - -Three successive applications of this theorem to each degree in -the scale, in the manner described Prop. VI., will bring them very -near to the required position, as appears by the smallness of -the corrections in the 3d column below, where the results of the -several operations are exhibited at one view. - - -TABLE X. - - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - |Bases.| First | Second | Third | - | |Operation.|Operation.|Operation.| - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - | B | -140 | -35 | -2 | - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - | B♭ | +308 | +33 | -1 | - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - | A | -8 | -23 | +2 | - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - | G♯ | -257 | -22 | -2 | - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - | G | +107 | +24 | -8 | - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - | F♯ | -264 | -7 | 0 | - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - | F | +238 | +40 | +6 | - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - | E | -80 | -34 | -4 | - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - | E♭ | +157 | +2 | -4 | - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - | D | +58 | + 8 | 0 | - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - | C♯ | -352 | -29 | -1 | - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - | C | +176 | +29 | +4 | - +------+----------+----------+----------+ - -_Cor._ Hence we may deduce, in the same manner as in Prop. VII., -the diatonic and chromatic intervals, the lengths of a string and -their vibrations in a second, and the temperaments and beats of -all the concords for the scale which results from the foregoing -computations. They may be seen in the two following tables: - - -TABLE XI. - -_DIATONIC AND CHROMATIC INTERVALS._ - - C +------+------+ C - | 2895 | 2895 | - B +------+------+ B - | | 1991 | - | 4869 +------+ B♭ - | | 2878 | - A +------+------+ A - | | 2761 | - | 4865 +------| G♯ - | | 2104 | - G +------+------+ G - | | 2903 | - | 4856 +------| F♯ - | | 1953 | - F +------+------+ F - | 2911 | 2911 | - E +------+------+ E - | | 2235 | - | 4833 +------+ E♭ - | | 2598 | - D +------+------+ D - | | 2957 | - | 4874 +------+ C♯ - | | 1917 | - C +------+------+ C - - -TABLE XII. - - +------+--------------------++-------+--------++------------------------+ - | |Temperaments of the ||Lengths|Vibrat- ||Beats in 10 Secs. of the| - |Bases.+------+-------+-----+| of |ions per|+------+--------+--------+ - | |Vths♭|IIIds ♯|3ds♭||Strings.|Second || Vths | IIIds | 3ds | - +------+------+-------+-----++-------+--------++------+--------+--------+ - | B | 143 | 675 | 149 || 53446 | 449,04 || 44,0 | 352,8 | 92,4 | - +------+------+-------+-----++-------+--------++------+--------+--------+ - | B♭ | 105 | 69 |1114 || 55954 | 428,92 || 30,8 | 34,0 | 155,2♯ | - +------+------+-------+-----++-------+--------++------+--------+--------+ - | A | 138 | 10.♭| 154 || 59787 | 401,42 || 38,6 | 4,6♭ | 85,2 | - +------+------+-------+-----++-------+--------++------+--------+--------+ - | G♯ | 387♯ | 833 | 288 || 63712 | 376,79 || 98,7♯| 360,5 | 155,4 | - +------+------+-------+-----++-------+--------++------+--------+--------+ - | G | 106 | 43 | 175 || 66874 | 358,88 || 26,4 | 17,6 | 86,8 | - +------+------+-------+-----++-------+--------++------+--------+--------+ - | F♯ | 160 | 954 | 150 || 71496 | 335,68 || 37,2 | 372,8 | 69,8 | - +------+------+-------+-----++-------+--------++------+--------+--------+ - | F | 124 | 30 | 957 || 74786 | 320,92 || 27,6 | 10,8 | 143,0♯ | - +------+------+-------+-----++-------+--------++------+--------+--------+ - | E | 108 | 180 | 151 || 79970 | 300,10 || 22,2 | 66,6 | 62,0 | - +------+------+-------+-----++-------+--------++------+--------+--------+ - | E♭ | 136♯ | 311 | 818 || 84194 | 285,06 || 26,6♯| 102,2 | 186,6♯ | - +------+------+-------+-----++-------+--------++------+--------+--------+ - | D | 144 | 6 | 174 || 89384 | 268,50 || 26,6 | 2,2 | 64,0 | - +------+------+-------+-----++-------+--------++------+--------+--------+ - | C♯ | 52♯ | 1009 | 128 || 95682 | 250,83 || 10,9♯| 295,3 | 44,8 | - +------+------+-------+-----++-------+--------++------+--------+--------+ - | C | 135 | 16 | 446 ||100000 | 240,00 || 22,4 | 4,0 | 147,0 | - +------+------+-------+-----++-------+--------++------+--------+--------+ - -Nothing in the above tables will need explanation, except the -anomalous sharp beats of the 3ds, in the last column. These are -derived from the perfect ratio 6 : 7, because these 3ds are, in -reality, much nearer to the ratio of 6 : 7 than to that of 5 : 6; -and hence could their beats be counted, they would be those of -the table, and not those which would be derived from considering -these 3ds as having flat temperaments of the ratio 5 : 6. But -although the beats are slower, the nearer they approach the ratio -6 : 7, this ought not to be regarded as any sufficient reason -for admitting so large temperaments into the scale, were it not -absolutely necessary, in order to accommodate those 3ds which are -of far more frequent occurrence. Although the beats of these 3ds -grow slower as their temperaments are increased, yet they are -losing their character in melody; and become, in this respect, more -and more offensive, the more they are tempered. Hence the harmony -and melody of the several intervals, jointly considered, are to -be judged of rather from their temperaments, in the three first -columns, than from their beats, in the three last. - - -_Scholium_ 1. - -It will be perceived, from a comparison of the temperaments in -Table XII. with the corresponding numbers in Table IX., that the -harshness of the several concords, especially of the IIIds and 3ds, -is, in general, nearly in the inverse ratio of their frequency. The -contending claims of the different concords render it impossible -that this ratio should hold exactly. Including the Vths, the -harmony of the concords is much more nearly _equal_, than the -principle of rendering the temperament of each inversely as its -frequency, could it be carried into complete effect, would require. - - -_Scholium_ 2. - -The foregoing system may be put in practice, on the organ, by -making the Vths beat flat, with the exception of those on C♯, -E♭, and G♯, which must beat sharp, at the rate required in the -table; proving the correctness of the temperaments of the Vths, by -comparing the beats of the IIIds, as they rise, with those required -by column two. Should less accuracy be required, the IIIds on C, -D, and A, might be made perfect, without producing any essential -change in the system. This would reduce the labour of counting the -beats to eight degrees only. - - -_Scholium_ 3. - -To show that the computations of the different frequency of -occurrence of the different concords, on which this system of -temperament is founded, may be relied on as practically correct, -for music in general, it may be proper to state, that a similar -series of calculations had been before made, from an enumeration -of the concords in fifty scores of music entirely different from -that made use of in Prop. IV. They were not, indeed, made with the -same accuracy, for the music of which the chords were counted, was -too generally of the simpler kind, and the numbers corresponding to -those in the two columns under each concord in Table II., and those -belonging to the major and to the minor signatures, corresponding -to the numbers in Table III., were added, before the products were -taken, instead of keeping the modes distinct, which is necessary -to perfect accuracy. Yet the resulting scheme of temperament was -essentially the same throughout, with the one which has been just -described. It had the same anomalous temperaments, viz. the Vths on -C♯, E♭, and G♯; and the IIId on A; and these anomalies were similar -in degree. The greatest difference between any two corresponding -temperaments, was between those of the 3d on E♭; the first -computation making it only 702, while the last has it 818. - - -PROPOSITION XI. - - The aggregate of dissonance, heard in a given time, in the system - of temperament unfolded in the last Proposition, will be less - than in either of the systems generally practised. - -In order to compare the foregoing system with those which have been -most generally approved, the temperaments of all the concords have -been calculated, in the system of equal semitones; in that of Earl -Stanhope, which has had considerable celebrity; in that of Dr. T. -Young; in that of Mr. Hawkes; in that of Kirnberger, which has been -extensively adopted in Germany; and in that which is described by -Rousseau and D'Alembert as generally practised in France. If these -temperaments be multiplied into the corresponding numbers of Table -IX., agreeably to what was shown under Prop. VIII., and those -products which belong to the several concords of the same name be -added, the sums, after the three right-hand figures are cut off, -will be as follows: - - -TABLE XIII. - - +-------------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+ - | Systems. | Mean |Young's.|Kirnber-|French.| Stan- |Hawkes'.| New | - | | Temp.| | ger's. | |hope's.| |Scale.| - +-------------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+ - |Dissonance of| | | | | | | | - | the { Vths | 309 | 494 | 681 | 561 | 595 | 665 | 810 | - | { IIIds| 2184 | 1541 | 1397 | 1346 | 1175 | 925 | 530 | - | { 3ds | 2740 | 2448 | 2019 | 2121 | 1992 | 1676 | 1363 | - +-------------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+ - | Total | 5233 | 4483 | 4097 | 4028 | 3762 | 3266 | 2703 | - +-------------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+ - -From an inspection of the sums at the foot of the table, it will -be seen that the amount of dissonance heard in a given time is -decidedly less in the new scale than in either of the others; -and that it is scarcely more than half as great as in the scale -of equal semitones. On the other hand, the temperament is very -unequally distributed, which must be admitted, cæteris paribus, -to be a disadvantage. It is even somewhat greater than in the -scheme of Mr. Hawkes, although by no means in the same ratio, as -the aggregate dissonance is less. It contains one Vth, which will -be somewhat harsh, and four IIIds and three 3ds, which will be -quite harsh. But these, as will appear from an inspection of Table -IX., are, of all others, of by far the most unfrequent occurrence; -so that the unpleasant effect of a transition from a better to a -much worse harmony will be very seldom felt. In the six simplest -keys of the major, and in the three of most frequent occurrence -in the minor mode, they are _never_ heard, except in occasional -modulations; and even then, generally no one, and rarely more than -one is heard. Now these nine keys, as will appear from Table III., -comprise more than five times as much of the music examined as all -the rest. The same remarks might be extended to three other minor -keys, were it not that the sharp seventh is so generally used, that -it deserves to be considered as an essential note of the key. - -But there are two important considerations, more than -counterbalancing the objection to this system, derived from the -greater inequality in the distribution of its temperaments, -which have not been hitherto noticed, as not being susceptible of -mathematical computation. - -1st. We have gone on the supposition that tunes on the more -difficult keys are as often performed, according to their number, -as those on the simpler keys; and have taken for the measure of -dissonance, in different systems, what would be actually heard, if -the 1600 scores, whose signatures were examined, were all played -in succession, and on the keys to which they are set. But the fact -is, that those pieces which are set to the simpler keys are oftener -played, and with fuller harmony, on account of the greater ease of -execution, than those in which many of the short finger keys must -be used. - -2d. Pieces on the more difficult keys are often played on the -adjacent easier keys, but the contrary is seldom or never done. - -Giving to these two considerations no more than a reasonable -weight, they will counterbalance the objection, and will render it -evident that the sums under the several systems in the table may be -taken as a true exhibition of their respective merits, without any -injustice to the more equal systems at the left-hand of the table. - -_Cor._ We may hence draw a comparison between the systems in common -use. Their merits, when every consideration is taken into view, are -nearly in the inverse ratio of the sums denoting their aggregate -dissonance. That of Mr. Hawkes is the best, and, in many respects, -has a remarkable analogy to the one derived from the preceding -investigations. - -_Cor._ 2. As the aggregate dissonance of the changeable scale is -calculated on the same principles, in Prop. VIII., as that of the -Douzeave in this, a comparison of the results in Table VIII. with -those in Table XIII., will furnish us with the relative dissonance -of different systems for these different scales. The relative -dissonance of the two systems which form the object of this essay, -is nearly as 17 : 27. Hence it appears, that by inserting eight -new sounds between those of the common octave, the harshness of -the music executed, at a medium of all the keys, may be diminished -by more than one third of the whole, while the transition from a -better to a worse harmony will never be perceived. - - - - -ART. XXII. _Notice of Colonel Trumbull's Picture of the Declaration -of Independence._ - - -It is proper that some mention of this great national work should -be made, in publications less transient than newspapers; and as the -fine arts are included within the design of this Journal, it may -with propriety be noticed here. This is the greatest work which the -art of painting has ever produced in the United States. The picture -is magnificent both in size and in execution. The dimensions of the -canvass are eighteen feet by twelve. - -"This picture forms one of a series long since meditated by Mr. -Trumbull, in which it was intended to represent the most important -events, civil and military, of the American revolution, with -portraits of the most distinguished actors in the various scenes. -The materials for this purpose were collected many years ago, and -two plates have been engraved from paintings of the deaths of Gen. -Warren and Gen. Montgomery;[27] but the work was suspended, in -consequence of the political convulsions, which, during twenty-five -years, were so fatal to the arts of peace. - -"The government of the United States have ordered four of the -subjects originally proposed by Mr. Trumbull, to be painted by him, -and to be deposited in the capitol. - -"No event in human history ever shed a more salutary influence -over the destinies of so great a mass of mankind: the wisdom of no -political act was ever so soon and so powerfully demonstrated, by -such magnificent consequences. And justly may the nation be proud -of the act itself; and of those eminent men, its authors, whose -patriotism (rising above enthusiasm, and the passions which have -so often bewildered mankind) was calm, dignified, persevering, and -always under the guidance of reason and virtue. - -"The painting represents the congress at the moment when the -committee advance to the table of the president to make their -report. - -"It contains faithful portraits of all those members who were -living when the picture was begun, and of all others of whom any -authentic representation could be obtained. Of a small number, no -trace could be discovered; and nothing was admitted which was not -authentic." - -This picture is now, by permission of government, exhibited in the -Academy of Arts in New-York, and will probably be shown in some of -our other principal cities, before it receives its final location -at Washington. - -It exhibits the interior of the then Congress Hall at Philadelphia. -Most of the members are represented as sitting in their respective -chairs, or, in various instances, as standing in different parts of -the room. Almost all the portraits were taken by Colonel Trumbull -_from the living men_, and their accuracy may therefore be relied -on. - -The president, John Hancock, sitting at a table, and elevated -somewhat by a low platform, is receiving the report of the -committee declaring the independence of the colonies; that -committee, individually illustrious, and in this august transaction -collectively memorable, was composed of Franklin, Adams, Sherman, -Jefferson, and Livingston. Mr. Jefferson, in the prime of life, is -in the act of laying upon the table the great charter of a nation's -liberties; while his companions support him by their silent but -dignified presence, and the venerable Franklin, in particular, -imposes new obligations on his country's gratitude. - -The figures are as large as the life; and it may safely be said, -that the world never beheld, on a similar occasion, a more noble -assemblage. It was the native and unchartered nobility of great -talent, cultivated intelligence, superior manners, high moral aim, -and devoted patriotism. The crisis demanded the utmost firmness of -which the human mind is capable--a firmness not produced, for the -moment, by passion and enthusiasm, but resting on the most able -comprehension of both duties and dangers, and on a _principled_ -determination to combat the one and to fulfil the other. - -This moral effect has been produced in the fullest and finest -manner by this great painter; and no true American can contemplate -this picture without gratitude to the men who, under God, asserted -his liberties, and to the artist who has commemorated the event, -and transmitted the very features and persons of the actors to -posterity. Such efforts of the pencil tend powerfully also to -invigorate patriotism, and to prompt the rising generation to -emulate such glorious examples. - -The composition and execution in this picture are in a masterly -style. The grouping of so many full length portraits, in a scene -in which there could scarcely be any action, and in such a manner -as to dispose of them without monotony, was an attainment of no -small difficulty. The painter could not even avail himself of -the adventitious relief of splendid costume and furniture, and -of magnificence or rich decorations in architecture; for on this -occasion both were characterized by an elegant simplicity only, -such however as became the actors and the crisis. - -The composition has all the variety of which it is susceptible; and -there is also enough of it in the style of dress and of features to -relieve the eye from any danger of satiety. - -It is believed, that in this picture, the United States possess -a treasure to which there is no parallel in the world. In no -instance, within our knowledge, is there an exhibition to an -equal extent, of the actual portraits of an illustrious assembly, -concerned in so momentous a transaction. - -It was a great thing to assert, _in principle_, the liberties of -this country; but it was also a great thing to vindicate them by -arms; and we rejoice that Colonel Trumbull is still to proceed, -under the sanction of government, to delineate other scenes, in -which Washington and his illustrious American coadjutors, and the -flower of French chivalry, were the actors. In the maturity of his -experience, skill, and fame--possessed, as he is, of the portraits -of most of the great men of that period, taken principally from the -life, and having been himself largely and personally conversant -with them in their great deeds, we trust that the government will -promptly second what we doubt not the united voice of the nation -will demand--that the illustrious artist should dedicate the -evening of his life to his country's honour and glory. - - - - -INTELLIGENCE. - - - - -ART. XXIII. _An Address to the People of the Western Country._ - - -A number of the citizens of Cincinnati have recently instituted -a society for the collection, preservation, exhibition, and -illustration of natural and artificial curiosities, particularly -those of the _western country_. The first efforts of the managers -will be directed to the establishment of a permanent museum, on -a scale so comprehensive as to receive specimens of every thing -curious which they may be able to procure. In attempting to form -this repository, they must of course solicit the aid of their -fellow-citizens in all quarters of the extensive region, whose -ancient works and natural history they propose to illustrate. The -following are the classes of objects that will especially attract -their attention, and to which they are desirous, at an early -period, of directing the views of the community: - -1. Our metals and minerals generally, including petrifactions. - -2. Our indigenous animals, embracing the remains of those which are -now extinct. - -3. The relics of the unknown people who constructed the ancient -works of the western country. - -4. The various articles manufactured, for ornament or use, by the -present savage tribes. - -The subjects of the first class are considered by the Society -as extremely interesting. Every citizen of the western country -must _feel_ the necessity of a speedy developement of its mineral -resources. To find beneath our own soil an adequate supply of the -various minerals which are now imported at an enormous expense, -must be regarded by all as a matter of the first and greatest -importance. The managers are anxious to be instrumental in the -advancement of this useful work, and earnestly solicit the -co-operation of the public. They will be thankful for specimens of -all the rare or curious minerals that may be discovered in this -country. To every specimen that may be transmitted, a label should -be attached, stating either the kind of rock or stratum to which -it belonged, or its precise locality. Whenever it is required, the -managers will have a part of any specimen which is sent to them, -analyzed, and a correct report made of its nature, thus affording -to the discoverer a full opportunity of availing himself of all the -pecuniary advantages that may attend the discovery. - -As objects of scientific interest, the managers intend, as early as -possible, to commence the formation of a cabinet of petrifactions. -The rocks of few other countries contain a greater number and -variety of these animal remains of the ancient ocean, than the -limestone districts of the Ohio and Mississippi. They both astonish -and confound most of the travellers through this region; and -although objects of familiar examination to ourselves, they have -not been collected or described by our citizens. An extensive and -well arranged cabinet of these extraneous fossils would afford, -both to the zoologist and geologist, an exquisite feast. It is -hoped that every specimen sent to the Society will be accompanied -by a label, stating the place where it was found. - -It is the wish of the Society to obtain and preserve specimens -of all the native animals of this country. Most of the larger -quadrupeds having receded before the unceasing extension of our -settlements, are now so rare as to be unknown to all but our -oldest emigrants. Measures will be taken by the managers to procure -from the general retreat in the northwest, and exhibit to the -people in the Ohio countries, a specimen of every quadruped which -lately inhabited them; and while engaged in this enterprise, they -hope to import from the same distant wilderness, a variety of the -animals which are peculiar to it. - -Our native birds have not retreated, like our quadrupeds, and are, -therefore, within our reach. The managers hope to see the Society, -in due time, in possession of a large collection of these beautiful -animals. In the accomplishment of this undertaking, it is easy to -perceive that the Society may be powerfully aided by the community: -and a sanguine hope is entertained, that no backwardness or -indifference will be manifested by those who may fortunately have -it in their power to forward specimens. - -In collecting the fishes and reptiles of the Ohio, the Mississippi, -and the Lakes, the managers will likewise need all the aid which -their fellow-citizens may feel disposed to give them. Although not -a very interesting department of zoology, no object of the Society -offers so great a prospect of novelty as that which embraces these -animals. The managers, therefore, flatter themselves that they will -not be suffered to proceed unaided in this portion of their labours. - -The obscure and neglected race of insects will not be overlooked, -and any specimens sufficiently perfect to be introduced into a -cabinet of entomology, will be thankfully received. - -The western country, from having afforded some of the most gigantic -and curious remains of land animals which have yet been discovered, -seems entitled to a museum of such relics. A collection of this -kind will be one of the earliest objects of the Society. Its funds -will be liberally expended for the purpose; and if aided by those -who may be so fortunate as to discover any of the great bones which -lie buried in our alluvial or bottom lands, the managers hope, at -no distant period, to repair, in some degree, the losses which -have been repeatedly sustained by exportation of these interesting -fossils. - -The third class comprises objects of very little utility, but -of extraordinary interest. Nothing, indeed, presented by the -western country seems to excite in a higher degree the curiosity -of strangers, than the relics and vestiges of the extinct and -comparatively civilized population with which it abounds. - -The managers will make every possible effort to form an extensive -collection of these remains. - -It is extremely unfortunate for those engaged in researches -concerning the objects of this class, that so many of them have -been disseminated abroad. To study them successfully, it is -necessary that they should be compared, and for this purpose they -must be brought together. The managers hope, therefore, that -such persons as now hold, or may hereafter possess any of these -antiquities, will dispose of them to the Society, instead of -sending them out of the country. In this way, and in this only, can -a valuable collection of these unique curiosities be formed. - -The remaining class comprehends the weapons, utensils, trinkets, -and other manufactures of our neighbouring Indians, of which the -managers hope, in a short time, to be able to exhibit a great -variety. - -The curiosities of this country are the primary, but not the -exclusive objects of the Society. It proposes in due time to open a -gallery of paintings, and thus offer to the lovers and cultivators -of the fine arts, a few of those models which are absolutely -necessary to the gratification and improvement of their taste. - -The managers will be happy, moreover, to receive from such of -their eastern brethren as are desirous of contributing to the -amelioration and advancement of a new and remote community, any -of the productions of foreign countries that may be calculated to -promote this object; and will, in return, cheerfully exchange any -specimens of the curiosities of this country which they can spare -without injury to their collection. - -They will, if required, pay a reasonable price for every article -which may be deemed worthy of introduction into the museum. They -intend to publish, annually, a catalogue of all the more valuable -donations which may be made to the museum, with the names of the -donors. - - ELIJAH SLACK, } - JAMES FINDLAY, } - WILLIAM STEELE, } _Managers_. - JESSE EMBREE, } - DANIEL DRAKE, } - -_Cincinnati, Sept. 15, 1818._ - -Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circleville, Ohio, is engaged in writing -Notes on the State of Ohio, a work which is intended to embrace the -most important features and interests of this new and rising State. - - -To this laudable effort, and to that of the Western Museum Society, -whose address is published above, we cordially wish success. From -the zeal, talent, and industry of the gentlemen concerned, we have -every reason to expect a happy result. - -We view, with much satisfaction, the efforts which have been -already made, and are rapidly increasing, to bring to light the -resources, and to develope the history, of the western States; and -it will always give us pleasure, if through the medium of this -Journal, or in any other manner, we can contribute to promote them. - - - - -ART. XXIV. _Extract of a Letter from Colonel Gibbs to the Editor._ - - - SUNSWICK, June, 1818. - - DEAR SIR, - -Since I saw you, I have made only one experiment on magnetism. I -determined the power of my magnet, as it had been shut up in the -dark for a long time, and lying down. I then exposed it to the rays -of the sun, also lying down, and remote from the iron support, and -I found that it had gained 12 oz. power in 40 minutes, and 14 oz. -power only in five hours. - - - - -ART. XXV. _A New Lamp, without Flame._ - -From the Annals of Philosophy for March, 1818. Communicated by Mr. -THOMAS GILL. - - -This lamp is one of the results of the new discoveries in -chemistry. It has been found, by Sir H. Davy, that a fine platina -wire, heated red hot, and held in the vapour of ether, would -continue ignited for some time; but, I believe, no practical use -has been made of this fact. - -If a cylindrical coil of thin platina wire be placed, part of it -round the cotton wick of a spirit lamp, and part of it above the -wick, and the lamp be lighted, so as to heat the wire to redness; -on the flame being blown out, the vapour of the alcohol will keep -the upper part of the wire _red hot_, for any length of time, -according to the supply of alcohol, and with little expenditure -thereof; so as to be in constant readiness to kindle German -fungus, or paper prepared with nitre, and, by this means, to light -a sulphur match at pleasure. This lamp affords sufficient light -to show the hour of the night by a watch, and to perform many -other useful services; but does not hinder the repose of persons -unaccustomed to keep a light burning in their bed-room, nor does it -require to be snuffed. - -The proper size of the platina wire is the 1/100th part of an inch: -a larger one will only yield a dull, red light, and a smaller one -is difficult to use. About 12 turns of the wire will be sufficient, -coiled around any cylindrical body suited to the size of the wick -of the lamp; and four or five coils should be placed on the wick, -and the remainder of the wire above it; and which will be the part -ignited. A wick, composed of twelve threads of the ordinary sized -lamp cotton yarn, with the platina wire coiled around it, will -require about half an ounce of alcohol to keep it alight for eight -hours. - -An agreeable and slightly acid smell arises from this lamp during -its ignition. It is perfectly safe, as nothing can fall from it; -and its novel appearance, in a wick's keeping red hot for such a -length of time, is very surprising to persons unacquainted with its -nature. - -P.S.--When the wire has become oxided, it will be necessary to -uncoil it, and rub it bright again with fine glass-paper; which -will cause it to act again with increased effect. - - -REMARK. - -Such wire as is here described may, probably, be obtained in -Philadelphia. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[17] In using the word "pit," instead of "mine," I have -accommodated my language to the custom of the country. - -[18] Since the above article was written we have received some as -large as a finger. - -[19] The green earth of most mineralogists. EDITOR. - -[20] _Formation_--a geological phrase, of German origin. - -[21] Doubtless the pea ore of the Wernerians. EDITOR. - -[22] This jet of cold water being let into the cylinder itself, -necessarily cooled it at every stroke; and then it was necessary -to heat it again to the boiling point, before the piston would -reascend, and thus a vast loss of heat occurred. EDITOR. - -[23] But it is not necessary (as in the plate) to crowd the engine -into the after-part of the boat, the boilers maybe placed forward, -and near them, or over them, _the cylinder_, &c. The power is -then communicated to the stern-wheel by a long shaft, supported -on, or immediately under, the deck. This arrangement gives room -for loading both behind and before the boilers and engine, and -equalizes the burden. This is the actual arrangement of the -Merrimack boat. - -[24] It is found with very high steam that the source of supply -must be above the _chamber_, or a small quantity of cold water -introduced to condense the steam therein. - -[25] Taken from the Philosophical Magazine, and by that work from -the Annales de Chimie and de Physique, for January, 1818. - -[26] A method of rendering changeable the sound of the same -pipes in the organ, which had occurred to the writer, but which -was not inserted above on account of the supposed difficulty of -making the change sufficient in degree, he has since found to -have been executed by the Rev. H. Liston, who has succeeded, by -means of shaders capable of being brought before the mouths of -his pipes by the action of pedals, in giving them three distinct -sounds each, varying by two commas. (See the description of his -Enharmonic organ, in Rees' Cyc. or Tilloch's Phil. Mag.) His scale -embraces 59 intervals to the octave, and is intended to produce -perfect harmony in all the keys. But as it will require the use of -pedals perpetually, even on the same key, and a ready and perfect -knowledge of small musical intervals, which practical musicians -can seldom possess, there is no probability that it will ever be -extensively adopted. Perhaps, however, four or five sounds, such as -D♯, E♯, A♭, D♭, might be added to the common scale of 12 intervals -by means of his mechanism, with advantage. An instrument thus -furnished would require the use of pedals but seldom, and would -contain chromatic degrees sufficient for the accurate performance -of the great mass of organ music. - -[27] These picture, as is well known, represent the assault on -Quebec, and the battle of Bunker's Hill. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &C. - Page - - Art. I. Hints on some of the Outlines of Geological - Arrangement, with particular Reference to - the System of Werner, in a letter to the Editor, - from William Maclure, Esq. dated Paris, - 22d August, 1818 209 - - Art. II. On the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, and - Curiosities of Parts of Virginia, Tennessee, and - the Alabama and Mississippi Territories, &c. - with Miscellaneous Remarks, in a letter to the - Editor. By the Rev. Elias Cornelius 214 - - Art. III. Notice of the Scenery, Geology, Mineralogy, - Botany, &c. of Belmont County, Ohio, by - Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circleville 226 - - Art. IV. Remarks on the Structure of the Calton Hill, - near Edinburgh, Scotland; and on the Aqueous - Origin of Wacke; by J. W. Webster, M.D. of Boston 230 - - Art. V. Localities of Minerals 236 - - 1. Localities by the Rev. F. C. Schaeffer _ibid._ - - 2. Minerals of Guadaloupe and Porto Rico 237 - - 3. Molybdena in Shutesbury, Mass. 238 - - ---- Pettipaug, Con. 242 - - 4. Rose Quartz in Southbury, Con. 238 - - Limpid Quartz in West Canada Creek, N. Y. 241 - - 5. Plumbago in Cornwall, Con. 239 - - 6. Coal at Zanesville, Ohio _ibid._ - - ---- in Muskingum, Ohio _ibid._ - - ---- in Suffield, Southington, &c. Con. 239 & 240 - - 7. Mammoth's Tooth, from St. Francis River 239 - - 8. Shells south of Lake Erie _ibid._ - - 9. Minerals of the Blue Ridge, &c. _ibid._ - - 10. Sulphat of Barytes, Southington, Con. 240 - - 11. Scintillating Limestone, from Vermont 241 - - 12. Beryl, in Haddam, &c. 242 - - 13. Limpid Gypsum, near Cayuga Lake 243 - - 14. Amianthus in the anthracite of Rhode Island _ibid._ - - 15. Red Pyroxene Augite, near Baltimore 244 - - - BOTANY. - - Art. VI. A List of Plants found in the neighbourhood - of Connasarga River, (Cherokee Country) where - Springplace is situated; made by Mrs. Gambold, at the - request of the Rev. Elias Cornelius 245 - - Art. VII. Description of a new species of Asclepias. - By Dr. Eli Ives, Professor, &c. in the Medical - Institution of Yale College 252 - - Art. VIII. Description of a New Genus of American - Grass. Diplocea Barbata, by C. S. Rafinesque, Esq. _ibid._ - - Art. IX. Floral Calendar, &c. 254 - - - ZOOLOGY. - - Art. X. Notes on Herpetology, by Thomas Say, of - Philadelphia 256 - - - PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. - - Art. XI. Outline of a Theory of Meteors. By Wm. G. - Reynolds, M.D. Middletown Point, New-Jersey 266 - - Art. XII. Observations upon the prevailing Currents of - Air in the State of Ohio and the Regions of - the West, by Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circleville, - Ohio; in Letters addressed to His Excellency - De Witt Clinton, LL.D. Governor - of the State of New-York, and President of - the Literary and Philosophical Society 276 - - Art. XIII. On a singular Disruption of the Ground, - apparently by Frost, in Letters from Edward - Hitchcock, A. M. late Principal of Deerfield Academy 286 - - Art. XIV. On a New Form of the Electrical Battery, - by J. F. Dana, M. D. Chemical Assistant in - Harvard University, and Lecturer on Chemistry - and Pharmacy in Dartmouth College 292 - - Art. XV. Chemical Examination of the Berries of the - Myrica Cerifera, or Wax Myrtle, by J. F. - Dana, M. D. Chemical Assistant in Harvard - University, and Lecturer on Chemistry and - Pharmacy in Dartmouth College 294 - - Art. XVI. Analysis of Wacke, by Dr. J. W. Webster, of - Boston 296 - - - AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMICS. - - Art. XVII. On the Comparative Quantity of Nutritious - Matter which may be obtained from an Acre - of Land when cultivated with Potatoes or - Wheat, by Dr. Eli Ives, Professor of Materia - Medica and Botany in Yale College 297 - - - MISCELLANEOUS. - - Art. XVIII. Biographical Notice of the late Archibald - Bruce, M. D. Professor of Materia Medica - and Mineralogy in the Medical Institution of - the State of New-York, and Queen's College, - New-Jersey; and Member of various Learned - Societies in America and Europe 299 - - - INTELLIGENCE. - - Art. XIX. 1. Dr. J. W. Webster's Lectures 304 - - 2. Dr. Webster's Cabinet 305 - - 3. Supposed identity of Copal and Amber 306 - - 4. The Necronite.--(A supposed new mineral.) _ibid._ - - 5. Preservation of dead Bodies 307 - - 6. Matches kindling without fire 308 - - 7. Cleaveland's Mineralogy _ibid._ - - 8. A new Alkali 309 - - 9. Ignited Platinum Wire _ibid._ - - 10. Red Rain _ibid._ - - 11. Gnephalium 310 - - 12. Augite _ibid._ - - 13. A New Vegetable Alkali _ibid._ - - 14. New Minerals _ibid._ - - 15. New Metal _ibid._ - - 16. Pure Alumine _ibid._ - - 17. Collections of American Minerals _ibid._ - - 18. C. S. Rafinesque, Esq. 311 - - 19. Medical College of Ohio _ibid._ - - 20. Notes on Ohio _ibid._ - - 21. Discovery of American Tungsten and Tellurium 312 - - 22. Mr. Sheldon's application of Chesnut Wood - to the arts of Tanning and dying _ibid._ - - 23. Additional note concerning the Tungsten and - Tellurium 316 - - - - -THE - -_AMERICAN_ - -JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. - - - - -_GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c._ - - - - -ART. I. _Hints on some of the Outlines of Geological Arrangement, -with particular Reference to the System of Werner, in a letter to -the Editor, from_ WILLIAM MACLURE, _Esq. dated Paris, 22d August, -1818_. - - -INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. - -Some years since, during Mr. Maclure's geological survey of the -United States, the editor had the pleasure of passing a few days, -in company with that gentleman, in exploring the geology of the -vicinity of New-Haven. Near that town, junctions, on an extensive -scale, between widely different formations, are to be observed. A -radius of ten miles, with New-Haven for a centre, will describe -a circle within which the geological student may find (with the -exception of formations, unquestionably volcanic) most of the -important rocks of the globe, and a radius of even six or seven -miles will include the greater number of these. At, and near the -terminations of the primitive ranges, there are rocks which appear -to have, in a high degree, the characters of the transition class. -Among them is the beautiful green marble of the Milford Hills, -seven miles from New-Haven. Mr. Maclure visited that district, and -even suggested the first hint which afterward led to the discovery -of the marble. Doubts being entertained concerning some of the -geological relations of those rocks, a letter was addressed to -Mr. Maclure (then in Philadelphia) on the subject. His answer is -subjoined. - -In giving it to the public, the editor takes a liberty which he -hopes the respectable author will pardon, because his production, -although evidently never intended for the public eye, contains -statements and opinions of no small importance to the young -geologist, especially of this country. - -Geology, at the present day, means not a merely theoretical and -usually a visionary and baseless speculation, concerning the -origin of the globe; but, on the contrary, the _result of actual -examination into the nature, structure, and arrangement of the -materials of which it is composed_. It is therefore obvious, -that the opinions of those men, who, with competent talent and -science, have, with a direct reference to this subject, explored -many countries, and visited different continents, are entitled to -pre-eminent respect. SAUSSURE, by his scientific journeys among the -Alps, (although a limited district) has given deserved celebrity to -his own name, and, if it were possible, has thrown an additional -charm of attraction over those romantic and sublime regions. -Dolomieu has made us familiar with the productions and phenomena of -volcanoes, those awful and mysterious laboratories of subterranean -fire. Humboldt has surveyed the sublimest peaks of both continents, -and examined the structure of the globe amidst the valleys of -Mexico and the snows of Chimborazo and Pinchinca; and Werner, with -opportunities much more limited, (confined indeed to his native -country, Saxony) but with astonishing sagacity and perseverance, -deduced from what he saw, a classification of the rocks of our -globe, which, although not perfect, has done immense service to the -science of Geology. In this distinguished group (to which other -important names might be added) Mr. Maclure has unquestionably a -right to be placed. Few men have seen so much of the structure of -our globe, and few have done so much with such small pretensions. -His work on American Geology is noticed with becoming respect even -in Edinburgh,[28] that focus of geological science. His opinions -on some of the more obscure and doubtful parts of the Wernerian -geology are worthy of peculiar consideration; for they are founded -on a course of observations vastly more extensive than Werner ever -had it in his power to make. The name of Werner will always be -venerated as long as geological science shall be cultivated, for -geology owes more to him than to any other man; but his pupils -should not now demand that implicit and unqualified adoption of ALL -his opinions, which will allow no other question to be raised, than -what Werner taught or believed. - -With these explanatory remarks, the following extract of Mr. -Maclure's letter is now subjoined: - - - DEAR SIR, - -Your letter of the 26th June came just as I was embarking for -Europe. The information it requires concerning the primitive trap -and flint slate, the transition and secondary rocks, &c. &c. is -difficult to give without the aid of specimens, and frequently -requires the examination of the relative position of the strata -before any correct idea can be formed. I will, however, endeavour -to give you the little my experience has brought me acquainted with. - -Following the nomenclature of Werner, I have given a list of his -rocks; but in describing them there are many of his names which I -do not use; because I never met with them. Primitive trap is one -instance--I do not use trap as a substantive, except in describing -that kind of trap which Werner calls the newest flætz trap, the -nearest to which is your trap,[29] which covers the oldest red -sandstone. - -The primitive flint slate is in the same predicament. I have always -found it on the borders of the transition, between it and the -secondary. - -Primitive gypsum I have not found. - -What Werner calls primitive trap may perhaps be compact -hornblende, or perhaps the newest flætz trap, when it happens to -cover the primitive; for, this species of trap, like the currents -of lava, covers indiscriminately all classes of rocks, and is one -reason why I consider it as the remains of ancient lava. - -Transition trap is a rock that I have not met with, and may -perhaps be a part of the flætz trap that happened to cover the -transition, without any immediate connexion, but like a current -of lava, overlying all the classes of rocks it meets with. This -misapplication of names naturally arises from the system of -neptunian origin, on which the nomenclature of Werner is founded. - -Greywake and greywake slate are aggregates of rounded particles -of rocks, evidently the detritus of more ancient formations, -and differ from the aggregates of pudding and sandstone of the -secondary class, in the following properties, viz. - -The aggregates of transition are harder and much more compact, than -the secondary; they are also cemented by argil, taking a slaty form. - -This cement is in much greater quantity, in proportion to the -particles cemented, and has the appearance as if the cement at the -time of formation, had a consistence sufficient to prevent the -particles from touching each other. - -They have, in common with all the transition rocks, a regular and -uniform dip from the horizon, from 10 to 40 degrees; and sometimes -more. This is perhaps the strongest mark of distinction which -separates them from the secondary, which are horizontal, or follow -the inequalities of the surface on which they were deposited. - -The transition are distinguished from the primitive in -being aggregates of rounded particles, having little or no -crystallization, and containing, or alternating with strata, which -contain organic matter. - -The oldest red sandstone, with all its accompanying strata, I -should incline to put into the transition, as having many of -the properties of that class, and occupying the same relative -situation in the stratification of the globe. It is at a constant -dip (although small) from the horizon; the cement is in greater -quantities in proportion to the particles cemented than in any of -the secondary aggregates, &c. &c. - -The character of the secondary is a horizontal position, that -perhaps does not admit of the same facility of examining the -relative situation of its stratification. The compact limestone -is, probably, with reason, considered as the lowest of the -secondary formation, and always under the coal formation, but it -appears to me that the secondary is deposited in basins alongside -of one another, and that each basin has a different order of -superposition, according to the nature of the agents employed in -the deposition; that it is a partial, and by no means a general -deposition. The secondary aggregates of sandstone and puddings -have been evidently beds of sand or gravel, and of course, in that -state would be called alluvial, but when cemented together by the -infiltration of water, carrying along with it lime, iron, or any -other body capable of agglutinating the particles together, become -rocks, and may alternate in all proportions. - -I am therefore inclined to think, that in geology the best mode for -the greatest part of the secondary would be to give the relative -position of the strata of each valley or basin; and I am rather of -opinion that they would all differ from one another. - -The French and English basin having chalk for the lowest stratum, -which has occupied the geologists of both countries for these 10 -or 15 years, is perhaps the best known; yet they do not know the -relative position of the chalk and coals, because coals have not -been found in the same basin with chalk: coals occupy basins filled -with different kinds of rocks, and have no resemblance to the rocks -found covering the chalk. - - - - -ART. II. _On the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, and Curiosities -of Parts of Virginia, Tennessee, and the Alabama and Mississippi -Territories, &c. with Miscellaneous Remarks, in a letter to the -Editor._ By the REV. ELIAS CORNELIUS. - - - _To Benjamin Silliman, Professor, &c._ - - SIR, - -Having recently returned from a tour of considerable extent in the -United States, I avail myself with pleasure of the first leisure -moment, to communicate, agreeably to your request, some facts, -relative to the Mineralogy and Geology of that part of the country -through which I passed. - - -INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. - -Before doing this, you will permit me to premise, that in -consequence of my limited acquaintance with these branches of -Natural Science, and the still more limited time, which other and -important concerns allowed me to devote to the subject, I can do -little more than give a general description. What my eye could -catch, as I travelled from one country and wilderness to another, -preserving occasionally a few of the most interesting specimens, -was all I could do. The specimens you have received. The narrative -I am about to give, is drawn principally from the notes which were -taken on the journey, and will be confined to a simple _statement -of such facts_ as were either observed by myself, or derived from -good authority. Their application to preconceived theories, I leave -to those who have more leisure and disposition for speculation than -myself. - -A description of a few natural and artificial curiosities which -came under particular notice, will not, I trust, be thought an -improper digression. The whole is committed to your disposal; and -if it shall add but one mite to the treasury of American Natural -History, I shall be gratified, and rejoice to have made even this -small remuneration for your unwearied efforts, to impart to one, -formerly your pupil, a love for Natural Science. - - -_The Author's Route._ - -My route was in a line nearly direct from Boston to New-Orleans; -passing through the principal cities to Washington; thence, -diagonally, through Virginia, East Tennessee, and the northwestern -angle of Georgia; in a western course through the north division -of the Territory of Alabama, to the northeastern boundary of the -State of Mississippi; and thence in a line nearly southwest to -Natchez. From this last place I descended the river Mississippi to -New-Orleans. On my return I frequently varied from this course, -and had increased opportunities for surveying the country. In both -instances I passed through the countries belonging to the Cherokee, -Chickesaw, and Choctaw tribes of Indians, and travelled among them, -in all, about one thousand miles. - - -_Geology of Virginia._ - -As others have described more minutely and accurately than I can, -the country north of Virginia, I shall begin with a few remarks -on the geological character of that State. It is there that the -traveller, in passing from the Atlantic to the interior, crosses -successively the most important formations of the earth, from the -most recent alluvial to the oldest primitive. For a considerable -distance from the coast, the country is alluvial. It then assumes -an older secondary formation[30]--and sandstone and puddingstone -are frequent. This is the character of the District of Columbia, -and indeed of a great part of the valley of the Potomac. - - -_Sandstone of the Capitol, &c._ - -In this valley, and adjacent to the river, is found the _sandstone_ -of which the President's house, and the Capitol are constructed. -It is composed of fine silicious grains, is easily wrought, and -from its colour, has the appearance at a small distance of white -marble. - - -_Beautiful Breccia._ - -It is also in the valley of this river, and not far from its -famous passage through the Blue Ridge, that immense quarries of -beautiful Breccia have been opened. This rock was first brought -into use by Mr. Latrobe, for some years employed by the government -as principal architect. It is composed of pebbles, and fragments -of silicious and calcareous stones of almost every size, from -a grain, to several inches in diameter, strongly and perfectly -cemented. Some are angular, others rounded. Their colours are very -various, and often bright. Red, white, brown, gray, and green, -are alternately conspicuous, with every intermediate shade. Owing -to the silicious stones which are frequently imbedded through the -mass, it is wrought with much difficulty; but when finished, shows -a fine polish, and is unquestionably one of the most beautifully -variegated marbles, that ever ornamented any place. It would be -difficult to conceive of any thing more grand than the hall of -the Representatives, in the Capitol, supported as it is by twenty -or thirty pillars formed of the solid rock, and placed in an -amphitheatrical range; each pillar about three feet in diameter, -and twenty in height. Some idea of the labour which is employed in -working the marble may be formed from the fact, that the expense of -each pillar is estimated at five thousand dollars. The specimens in -your possession, are good examples of its general structure, but -convey no adequate idea of its beauty. - - -_Petrifaction of Wood._ - -It will be proper to notice in this place, a petrifaction of wood -which is found on the road from Washington to Fredericksburgh, 16 -miles from the latter, and four miles north of the court-house in -Stafford county. It is remarkable for its size, rather than for -any singularity in the composition. It was found by digging away -the earth on the side of the road, and appears to have been the -trunk of a considerable tree. It is firmly fixed in the ground, -and penetrates it obliquely; how far has not yet been ascertained. -At the time I saw it about two feet had been exposed. The diameter -is about eight inches. Its colour is white, sometimes resembling -that of wood. The fibres are well preserved, and so is the general -structure. It is much to be desired, that some one would clear -it from its bed, and give it entire to one of our mineralogical -cabinets. - - -_Geological Features._ - -Next to the alluvial and secondary formations, as you pass to the -west and northwest, are to be found ranges of granite and shistose, -and other primitive rocks; interspersed with these may be seen -sandstone, clay, slate, quartz, and limestone. Granite ranges -were particularly seen in the neighbourhood of Fredericksburgh, -crossing the Rappahannock; and in Orange and Albemarle counties, -extending nearly to the Blue Ridge. Great quantities of quartz and -quartz rock, sometimes covering with their fragments the sides of -hills, are frequent. Another, and more interesting rock in the same -connexion, is found in Albemarle county. For some time I doubted -to what class to refer it. But from its resemblance to the rocks -of the east and west mountains near New-Haven, I ventured to call -it trap or whinstone. It becomes more abundant as you approach the -Blue Ridge, and the granite disappears. On the sides and summit of -the mountain, its appearance is more decidedly that of greenstone. -In crossing the southwest mountain, the range to which Monticello -belongs, and distant from the Blue Ridge about 25 miles, I observed -the same rock. Whether this opinion is just, you will be able to -decide from the specimens which have been forwarded. - - -_Blue Ridge._ - -I have repeatedly named the Blue Ridge. It is the first of those -long and parallel ranges of mountains, called the Alleghany; and -constitutes one of the most prominent features in the geology of -the United States. Its height I cannot determine with accuracy. -Probably it would not average more than one thousand feet. Its base -may extend in diameter from one to two miles; and yet such is the -influence it has on the climate, that vegetation on the eastern, -is usually two weeks earlier than on the western side. And what -is remarkable, this difference obtains, on the former side at -least, until you arrive within a few hundred yards of the summit. -I crossed the mountain in two places, distant from each other one -hundred miles, but observed nothing essentially different in their -mineralogy. At one of them called the _Rockfish-Gap_, on the road -from Charlotteville to Staunton, I spent a few hours, and brought -away specimens of all the varieties of minerals which I could find. -These have been submitted to your inspection. Among them, you will, -I think, see greenstone, epidote, and slate more or less allied -to the first. These are the most common rocks, and excepting the -second, are usually stratified. The epidote is generally associated -with quartz, and sometimes is imbedded in it. In some instances -it has a porphyritic appearance, and is very beautiful. In -others, it is coated with small filaments of a greenish asbestos. -Other minerals were found, whose nature I could not so easily -determine. I regret exceedingly, that I cannot furnish you with a -more complete description of this interesting mountain. That its -character is peculiar, or different from the country on either -side of it, must be obvious to the most superficial observer. -Its principal rock does indeed bear a resemblance to the trap or -whinstone of Albemarle county, and yet I think you will say it -is not the same. One fact of importance cannot be mistaken; this -mountain constitutes the great dividing line between the granite -and limestone countries. For you no sooner reach its western base, -than the greenstone and epidote disappear; and _limestone_ pervades -the country for hundreds of miles in every direction. In all the -distance from this mountain to New-Orleans, I did not find a single -specimen of granite, or greenstone. This may appear singular, since -Mr. Maclure and Professor Cleaveland have a granite range on their -maps, immediately west of the Blue Ridge; and even that mountain -is on those maps, in some parts of it, covered with the granitic -tinge. This may be true. I can answer for only two points of it, -and for that part of the country beyond, lying near the main road -to Tennessee. In this route I descended almost the whole length -of the great valley included between the Blue Ridge on the east, -and the north mountain on the west. But in no instance did I meet -with specimens of granite; nor west of the Blue Ridge with any -prevailing rock but limestone. I know of no reason why the Blue -Ridge should not be regarded as the first great dividing line -between the granite and limestone countries. The change in the -geological formation is so sudden and striking, that it would be -difficult for the most careless traveller with his eyes open, not -to observe it. The face of nature, he cannot but perceive, wears a -different aspect; the air is more cool and lively; even the water -which he drinks possesses new properties perceptible to his taste. -The inhabitants no longer speak of their "sandstone water;" but -every where he hears of "limestone water." Indeed for 800 miles in -the direction which I travelled, he tastes no other water. Every -spring and every rivulet, is strongly impregnated with carbonate of -lime. The vessels in which it is prepared for culinary use, soon -become lined with a white calcareous crust. Nor is its taste the -only inconvenience experienced by the traveller unaccustomed to it. -It often injures the health of a stranger, and covers the surface -of the body with cutaneous eruptions. - - -_Limestone country in inclined Strata._ - -The geological observer has now entered upon a very interesting -field. Its great extent, and its wonderful uniformity, give new -facilities to investigation. Two divisions of it seem to have been -made in nature. - -The _first_ is that which includes the limestone lying in INCLINED -STRATA. This division extends from the Blue Ridge, to the -Cumberland mountain in East Tennessee, a distance in the direction -of my route of 500 miles. Of course it includes all the ranges, -five in number, of the Alleghany mountains. The strata lie in a -course northeast and southwest, the same as the general course of -the mountains. The angle which they make with the horizon is very -variable, from 25° to 45°. The colour of the rock varies from blue, -and pale blue, to gray, or grayish white, frequently it presents a -dull earthy appearance. The fracture is more or less conchoidal. -Sometimes the rock assumes a different character, and the fracture -is _uneven_, and the texture firm. This last is distinguished from -the former, not only by the fracture, but by the colour. It is -usually spoken of by the inhabitants as the _gray limestone_, the -colour of the other being usually of a bluish cast. It differs -from that also by being less brittle, and possessing the quality -denominated by stonecutters, "_tough_." In consequence of this, and -its enduring heat better, it is more frequently used in building -than the other. This variety of limestone is not uncommon. Its -colour is not always _gray_, sometimes it is a reddish brown, -and sometimes white. Immense quantities of it, possessing either -a grayish or reddish brown colour, are found in the vicinity of -Knoxville, East Tennessee. One range of it is crossed by every -road, passing to the south and east of Knoxville. Its appearance is -that of some variegated marbles; white veins penetrate it, and wind -through it in every direction. Whether any part of it has a texture -sufficiently fine and firm to be wrought to advantage, is yet to be -determined. To the eye of a superficial observer, there are many -indications that it has. A specimen of very fine white marble, -resembling the Italian white, was shown me in Augusta county, -Virginia, which was found 15 miles from Staunton, where there is -said to be a considerable quantity of it. - - -_Limestone country in Horizontal Strata._ - -The _second_ great division of the limestone country extends, on -the route which I took, two hundred miles from the Cumberland -mountain, and others associated with it southwest, as far as -the Dividing Ridge, which separates the waters flowing into the -Tennessee from those which proceed direct to the gulf of Mexico. -The grand circumstance which distinguishes the limestone of -this division from that already described, is this, ITS STRATA -ARE HORIZONTAL. Frequently immense piles may be seen forming -bold precipices, but _always_ in horizontal layers, differing in -thickness, from a few inches to many feet. How far this arrangement -extends to the west and north, I have not yet been able to learn. -Travellers always speak of the limestone rocks in West Tennessee -and Kentucky as _flat_, from which circumstance I conclude that the -Cumberland mountain forms for a considerable distance at least, -the eastern boundary. I have observed but three other particulars -in which the strata of the _horizontal_ differ from those of the -_inclined_ limestone. - -1. Its colour is not so strongly marked with the bluish tinge. - -2. It is not so commonly penetrated with white veins of a -semicrystallized carbonate of lime; nor is it so frequently -associated with the _uneven_ fractured species. - -3. Petrifactions are oftener found in it. - -I will here take the liberty to suggest, whether in our maps of -geology, some notice should not be taken of this very important -division in the limestone country. Such a division exists _in -fact_; nature has made it; and if geology depends on nature for its -only legitimate inductions, there can be no reason why a feature -so prominent as this, should be overlooked. I shall not undertake -to account for their difference: but would not every geological -theorist consider them as distinct formations?[31] - - -_Cumberland Mountain._ - -The Cumberland mountain, which forms a part of this dividing line, -is itself a singular formation. It belongs to the class called -"Table mountains." Its width varies from a few miles, to more -than fifty. Its height is not perceptibly different from that of -the Blue Ridge. It forms a circuit, in a shape somewhat resembling -a half moon. Winding to the southwest, it keeps a course north -of the Tennessee river, in some places nearly parallel with it; -passes a few miles to the southeast of Huntsville in the Alabama -Territory, and not long after terminates. At one part, over which -I crossed, the mountain is eighteen miles wide. This is about 150 -miles southwest of Knoxville, a little north of the 35th degree of -N. Lat. I had not ascended the mountain more than halfway, before -I found sandstone begin to intermingle with limestone strata. As -I drew near the summit, the limestone disappeared entirely, and -sandstone prevailed in abundance, with no other mineral associated -until I reached the western descent, where I met bold precipices -of horizontal limestone, reaching from the base to the summit. I -examined several sandstone rocks while crossing the mountain, found -them usually imbedded in the earth, generally with flat surfaces, -of a fine grain, and strong texture. The colour is usually a -reddish brown, or grayish red. The specimen which you have received -is a good example. I crossed this mountain in the vicinity of -Huntsville, not less than one hundred miles southwest of the place -above-mentioned, and found it not wider than mountains commonly -are. Its height had also become less, and horizontal limestone in -regular strata prevailed in every part. - -Although this mountain forms a part of the dividing line which -has been mentioned, it does not exclusively so: for the Rackoon -mountain, which crosses the Tennessee river, at the place so well -known by the name of "the Suck," and the Look-Out mountain, which -terminates abruptly about 6 miles to the left of "the Suck," form -an acute angle with the Cumberland, and are composed of horizontal -strata of limestone. Thus it would appear the line which divides -the two kingdoms of this rock, is nearly north and south, inclining -perhaps a few points to the east and west. - - -_Scenery_. - -And here I cannot forbear pausing a moment to call your attention -to the grand and picturesque scenery which opens to the view of -the admiring spectator. The country is still possessed by the -aborigines, and the hand of civilization has done but little to -soften the wild aspect of nature. The Tennessee River, having -concentrated into one mass, the numerous streams it has received -in its course of three or four hundred miles, glides through an -extended valley with a rapid and overwhelming current, half a -mile in width. At this place, a group of mountains stand ready to -dispute its progress. First, the "Look-Out," an independent range, -commencing thirty miles below, presents, opposite the River's -course, its bold and rocky termination of two thousand feet. Around -its brow is a pallisade of naked rocks, from seventy to one hundred -feet. The River flows upon its base, and instantly twines to the -right. Passing on for six miles further it turns again, and is met -by the side of the Rackoon mountain. Collecting its strength into -a channel of seventy yards, it severs the mountain, and rushes -tumultuously through the rocky defile, wafting the trembling -navigator at the rate of a mile in two or three minutes. This -passage is called "The Suck." The summit of the Look-Out mountain -overlooks the whole country. And to those who can be delighted with -the view of an interminable forest, penetrated by the windings of -a bold river, interspersed with hundreds of verdant prairies, and -broken by many ridges and mountains, furnishes in the month of -May, a landscape, which yields to few others in extent, variety or -beauty. Even the aborigines have not been insensible to its charms; -for in the name which they have given to the Look-Out mountain we -have a laconic, but very striking description of the scenery. This -name in the Cherokee language, without the aspirated sounds, is -"O-tullēē-ton-tannâ-tâ-kunnâ-ēē;" literally, "mountains looking at -each other." - -I have already remarked that the limestone of this mountain lies -in horizontal strata: one mile east from its base it is inclined. -Like the Cumberland, it contains immense rocks of sandstone, but -of a coarser grain, verging occasionally into pudding stone. -I was told by a white man, a professed millwright, that among -these sandstone rocks, he knew of many which were suitable for -millstones. At the missionary establishment, called "Brainerd," -eight miles east of the mountain, I saw one of them which was used -for this purpose to much advantage. It is composed of fine and -large grains of silicious stones, nearly white, and resembling -pebbles of white quartz: the texture is firm. - - -_Silicious Minerals, &c._ - -I will now notice an important fact, applicable to the whole extent -of limestone country, which has come under my observation. It is -its association with a description of minerals, all of which appear -to be _silicious_. To describe them minutely, would require several -pages. From the time I entered the limestone country till I left it -this association was observed. The minerals included in it differ -much in their external character. Their size varies from that of -rocks to the smallest fragments. Usually they lie loose upon the -earth, in angular forms, having the appearance of a stone that has -been broken in pieces by the hammer. Sometimes they cover the sides -of hills and mountains in such abundance as to prevent or impede -vegetation. When the disintegration is minute, they are serviceable -rather than otherwise; and the farmer talks of his "good black," -or "white gravel land." It renders this service, I presume, not -by decomposition, but by preventing the soil and its manure from -being washed away. Indeed the different varieties of it are -generally scattered over the surface, in pieces so small, that for -convenience sake, the whole may be denominated a _silicious gravel_. - -Sometimes the mineral is imbedded in limestone, in the form of -nodules, thus indicating their original connexion with it. - -The varieties, so far as I have observed, are quartz, hornstone, -flint, jasper, and semi-opal; and several, which to me are -non-descripts. _Quartz_ is the most abundant. It is found of -different colours; compact, and porous or cellular; of every size; -simple and associated with other silicious stones; massive and -crystallized. In Augusta and Rockbridge counties in Virginia, -beautiful crystals of quartz, of a singular form, are found. They -are six-sided prisms, with double acuminations, that is, with -six-sided pyramids, mounted on the opposite ends of the prism. A -specimen of two such crystals united, you have received. It was -found near Lexington. A curious variety of the quartz gravel-stone -occurs on both sides of Elk River, a few miles above its junction -with the Tennessee, in the Alabama territory. As you travel to the -west from Huntsville, it appears first in the neighbourhood of -Fort Hampton, two miles east of Elk River, and may be seen for ten -miles west of that river. The mineral is remarkable for containing -a curious petrifaction. Its first appearance is that of a solid -screw. On examination, however, you find it is not spiral; but -consists of parallel concentric layers. Their diameter varies in -different specimens, from that of a pin to half an inch. They stand -in the centre of a hollow cylinder, extending its whole length, and -occupying about one-third of its dimensions. The stone is sometimes -perfectly filled with these forms. The petrifaction I could not -have named, had you not pronounced it the "Entrochite." - -_Hornstone_, next to quartz, is the most abundant of the silicious -minerals associated with limestone. It is very often seen imbedded -in rounded masses, both in the inclined and horizontal strata. - -_Flint_ is more rare. Several fine specimens were observed on the -western declivity of the Look-Out Mountain, but in no instances in -large masses or quantities. - -_Semi-Opal_ was found in one instance on the dividing ridge, which -constitutes the southwestern boundary of the limestone strata. - -Of the non-descripts you have several specimens. One variety -strikes fire with steel, is a milk-white colour, adheres slightly -to the tongue, and has no degree of translucency on its edges. As -Mr. Kain has furnished you with an interesting detail of particular -minerals found in East Tennessee and Western Virginia, I need not -recapitulate what he has so well said. - -(_To be continued._) - - - - -ART. III. _Notice of the Scenery, Geology, Mineralogy, Botany, &c. -of Belmont County, Ohio, by_ CALEB ATWATER, _Esq. of Circleville_. - - -Belmont county is bounded on the north by Jefferson and Harrison, -on the west by Guernsey, and south by Monroe county, and on the -east by the Ohio river. It is 27 miles in length, and 21 in -breadth, containing 535 square miles. Its name, _Belmont_, or -beautiful mountain, indicates its situation, for it contains within -its boundaries a fine body of land, rising gradually as you are -travelling from the Ohio to the west, until you arrive at about the -middle of it, where, from the elevation on which you stand, the eye -in an eastern direction, beholds one of the most charming prospects -in the state. Looking towards the east, in a pleasant morning, you -behold a beautiful country of hill and dale spread out before you, -divided into convenient and well-cultivated farms, intersected by -glittering streams, meandering through them towards the Ohio. You -hear the lowing of numerous herds around you, the shrill matin of -the songsters of the forest, and the busy hum of the industrious -husbandman; you see here and there a clump of trees interspersed -among the cultivated parts of the country; you see the comfortable -dwelling-house, the substantial barn, and hear the rumbling noise -of the mill; and when you reflect that those who dwell here are -industrious and enterprising, virtuous, free, and happy, you behold -with pleasure, and listen with delight, while reflecting on the -objects around you. - - -_Geology and Mineralogy._ - -On the surface is seen a rich vegetable mould, made by the decay -and putrefaction of vegetable substances. Along the Ohio, a wide -intervale of the richest alluvion is found, which produces as -luxuriant a growth of vegetation as any in the world. On the banks -of the creeks which pass through this country the alluvial soil is -not so wide as that on the river, but equally rich and productive. -On the hills (and there are many of them) there are two kinds of -soil, the silicious and the argillaceous, the first is formed from -the decomposition of the rocks which once covered the surface, the -latter from the slate which lay under them. Where these rocks are -decomposed, and the country is hilly, it will readily be believed -that the two kinds of soil are frequently blended together. In some -places we see the best of clay for bricks; whilst in other places, -and those in the vicinity of the former, we find the best of sand -to mould them in when manufactured. Hard limestone of the very best -quality is found in detached fragments in the sides of hills, and -in strata, in abundance, along the beds of streams. - -The ruins of the sandstone formation are here seen scattered about -in fragments, or decomposed and intimately blended with those of -other formations. - -Fossil coal is every where found under the hills, of the very best -quality, and in sufficient quantity not only for the fuel of the -present, but many future generations, and is so easily obtained -that the expense of fuel is a mere trifle. The oxide of iron, or -iron ore variously combined, is recognized in many places, and -water combined with muriate of soda, or common salt, is as common. -Salines or licks are found in many places, where animals also, both -wild and domesticated, resort in great numbers to drink the waters. -These are frequently near some little water-course. Several sulphur -and chalybeate springs are known to exist in this county, and some -which throw out considerable quantities of petroleum. - -In a country where iron and fossil coal exist, it is no wonder -that copperas should be found. There are places where copperas -exudes in a state sufficiently pure in quality, and in quantities -sufficient for several families, who collect and use it in dying. -The same may be said of alum, which is collected in the same way -for similar purposes. - - -_Botany._ - -Though this county is very rich in the mineral, yet it is not less -so in the vegetable kingdom, as may be seen by a reference to the -subjoined catalogue, although numbers of trees, shrubs, and plants, -are purposely omitted, which are known to exist here. - - _Family._ _Species._ _Classical name._ _Remarks._ - - Oak, White, Quercus Alba, Abundant. - ---- Black, ---- Nigra, Do. - ---- Meadow, ---- Aquatica, Along the - streams. - ---- Chesnut, ---- Prunus, Scarce. - Maple, Sugar, Acer Saccharinum, Abundant. - ---- White, ---- Alba. - Poplar or White, Liriodendron, Abundant. - Tulip, - ---- Yellow. - Walnut, Black, Juglans Nigra. - ---- White, ---- Alba. - ---- Shellbark Hickory, ---- Albaovata. - ---- Pignut, ---- Minima. - ---- Bitternut, and - probably several - other species. - Beach, Two species, Fagus. - ---- Chesnut, ---- Americana. - Ash, White, Fraxinus Alba. - ---- Blue, ---- Purpurea. - ---- Black, ---- Nigra. - ---- Swamp, ---- Aquatica. - Elm, Two or three Ulmus. - species, - Buckeye, Common, Æsculusflava Lutea? - ---- Sweet, ---- Maxima? - Locust, Four species, Robinia Pseud - Acacia, &c. - Persimmon, Diospyros Virginica. - Linn or Bass Tilia Europea. - Wood, - - Cucumber, Cucuminis - Sylvestris. - Dog Wood, or Two species. - American - Box, - Sycamore, Two species, Platanus - Occidentalis, &c. - Plum, Several species. - Thorn, do. do. - -The red bud; the pawpaw; grape-vines of several species, and -growing to a great size; sassafras; the black willow, confined -to the streams; the box elder, the common elder, of two species; -the sumach, of two species; several species of gooseberries; -and a great many others too numerous to be mentioned here. -Among the herbaceous plants we must not omit the ginseng, the -Virginia snakeroot, the columbo, and the puccoon, two or three -thousand pounds of the roots of which are annually carried by -the inhabitants to our Atlantic cities. Among the trees, those -belonging to the oak family are the most numerous, if not the most -valuable. Split into rails, the farmer builds fences with them, and -sawed into plank, boards, and scantling, they furnish materials -for houses and barns. The sugar maple is sufficiently abundant, so -that brown sugar enough is manufactured for domestic purposes. The -sycamore is the largest tree along the river, and the poplar is the -largest on the hills. The latter grows by the side of the maple and -the beach, and is a most valuable wood for the house-builder and -the cabinetmaker. This tree is frequently four and five feet in -diameter, and continues of nearly the same size as it ascends, 40, -50, and sometimes even 60 feet. - - -_Streams._ - -The Ohio is the eastern boundary of this county, forming wide -intervales along its banks. Indian Wheeling is a fine mill stream -rising in Harrison county, and after crossing this, empties into -the Ohio, opposite the town of Wheeling, which stands on the -Virginia side. - -Captina is another excellent mill stream, which after running about -17 or 18 miles in this county, puts into the Ohio 23 miles by water -below Wheeling. These streams visit and fertilize a considerable -part of Belmont. - -From the view we have taken of this county, its geology, -mineralogy, and botany, the reader will probably be prepared -with us to conclude, that no part of the union, of equal extent, -contains within it greater natural resources, or can support a more -dense population. - -The seat of justice is St. Clairsville, situated ten miles from -the Ohio river, at Wheeling. It contains three houses for public -worship, 15 stores, a printing-office, a bank, and 700 inhabitants. - -Many of the inhabitants of this county are Quakers or Friends, who -are charitable, humane, frugal, enterprising, industrious, and -strongly opposed to slavery. From such a population, possessing -such advantages, what may we not hope and expect from their -exertions? Their fertile valleys will be turned into meadows, and -their hills into pastures; the ox will fatten in the former, whilst -the flocks of Andalusia will whiten the latter. - - - - -ART. IV. _Remarks on the Structure of the Calton Hill, near -Edinburgh, Scotland; and on the Aqueous origin of Wacke; by_ J. W. -WEBSTER, M.D. of Boston. - - -The country around Edinburgh is extremely interesting to the -geologist, and presents numerous instances of the junction of rocks -to which the advocates of the Neptunian system have referred in -support of their opinion as to the aqueous origin of greenstone, -basalt, and wacke; while the same examples have been cited by the -Volcanists, and by those who hold an intermediate opinion. The -structure of a portion of Calton hill, where the most distinct -alternations of substances (whose aqueous origin none can dispute,) -with pure and well characterized wacke are displayed, has not, as -yet, I believe been particularly described. - -Edinburgh is situated nearly in the centre of an extensive coal -formation, where the usual sandstones and other coal measures -are connected with the newer rocks of transition. From the coal -field rise in many places beds of greenstone, in general forming -small conical and round-backed hills. Other eminences are composed -of amygdaloid, claystone, and other porphyries; and basalt and -trap tuff occur in an overlying position. Of these, it is not my -intention to speak otherwise than as conveying a general idea of -the geological relation of the wacke above referred to. - -The structure of Calton hill has been exposed by the recent -improvements, and in particular by a section made in the -construction of the new road to London. The rock occurring in -greatest abundance, and which is probably the fundamental bed, -is a porphyry, the basis of which in general is claystone, which -in many places passes into felspar, in others becomes a distinct -greenstone. Numerous veins of calcareous spar traverse it in -different directions, and I am lately informed, that very beautiful -examples of veins of greenstone of contemporaneous formation with -the rock itself, have been discovered _in_ the greenstone. Upon the -porphyry rests a bed of trap tuff, upon this other beds of the two -rocks repose, that at the summit being porphyry. The back of the -hill (as we pass from the city) is a spot of peculiar interest, -consisting of alternate thin beds of bituminous shale, sandstone, -wacke, and clay ironstone, disposed in a manner which will be best -understood by a rough outline taken on the spot. - -[Illustration: - -Monument to NELSON. - - A Porphyry. - B Trap tuff. - C Porphyry. - D Trap tuff. - E Porphyry. - F Beds of wacke, &c. upper part concealed by vegetation. - - 1 Bituminous shale. - 2 Wacke. - 3 Sandstone. - 4 Bituminous shale, with clay ironstone. - 5 Wacke. - 6 Bituminous shale. - 7 Wacke, _with calc. spar._ - 8 Bituminous shale. - 9 Wacke. - 10 Bituminous shale passing on both sides into - 11 Wacke--and _calc. spar._ - 12 Bituminous shale. - 13 Wacke. - 14 Bituminous shale. - 15 Wacke. - 16 Bituminous shale. - 17 Sandstone. -] - -The wacke has a greenish gray colour, which is pretty uniform. The -fracture is nearly even and earthy, it is soft, yielding readily to -the nail, and has a feebly shining streak. A slight stroke with the -hammer causes the mass to separate in fragments of various size, -the surfaces of which are often smooth and shining, each bed being -composed of large distinct concretions, having a tendency to the -prismatic form. This wacke fuses with difficulty before Brooke's -blow-pipe. Specific gravity not determined, as it falls to pieces -on being moistened. - -The sandstone is for the most part gray, in some parts spotted red -and brown, forming, as the section represents, the last stratum -seen; the beds of sandstone are but a few inches in thickness, and -the last (17) becomes less than an inch; it is probable, however, -from the relative situation, from the dip and direction, that these -strata are a continuation of others seen on the other side of the -hill, where they are of sufficient thickness to have been quarried -for the purposes of architecture. The _beds_ of all rocks we know -vary greatly in different parts, and it is not unusual for them -to be some feet at one extremity, gradually decreasing till less -than an inch in thickness at the other, or they may even be lost -entirely, and gradually regain their former size; and it is not -improbable that these beds of sandstone will be found to continue -on towards the adjoining hills of Salisbury Craig and Arthur's -Seat, passing under the greenstone and trap tuff. - -The bituminous shale presents the usual characters; intermixed -with it are numerous nodules of the common clay ironstone, the -colour of which is a yellowish brown, these also frequently present -characters common to the three substances, and throughout the beds, -the passage from the one to the other is distinct. Whatever may be -the opinions in regard to the origin of bituminous shale, there -can be but one in regard to that of sandstone; and this has lately -received no feeble support from the account given us by Dr. Paris, -of a formation of this rock on the coast of Cornwall, where, says -he, "we actually detect nature at work, and she does not refuse -admittance into her manufactory, nor conceal, with her accustomed -reserve, the details of the operations in which she is engaged." - -From the appearances which have been thus briefly noticed, no -impartial geologist, we should imagine, would infer the _volcanic_ -origin of any portion of this formation; and if the aqueous origin -of sandstone can be established, that of the wacke must be the same. - - * * * * * - -From its intimate connexion with the preceding subject, Dr. Webster -subjoins the following: - - _Extract from a Paper on a recent formation of Sandstone, - occurring in various parts of the Northern coast of Cornwall_; - by JOHN AYSTON PARIS, M.D. F.L.S., &c. &c. Published in the - Transactions of the Geological Society of Cornwall, 1818. - -"A very considerable portion of the northern coast of Cornwall, -is covered with a calcareous sand, consisting of minute particles -of comminuted shells. That part which lies between St. Ives and -Padstow is more immediately the subject of the present inquiry; -a tract which, with a few exceptions, is entirely covered with -this species of sand; and which in some places, has accumulated -in quantities so great as to have formed hills of from forty to -sixty feet in elevation. A considerable area, for instance, in -the parishes of Gwythian and Phillack has been thus desolated, -and several churches have been inundated. In digging into these -sand hills, or upon the occasional removal of some part of them -by the winds, the remains of houses may be seen; and in some -places, where the churchyards have been overwhelmed, a great number -of human bones may be found. The sand is supposed to have been -originally brought from the sea by hurricanes, probably at a remote -period."----"The sand first appears in a slight but increasing -state of aggregation on several parts of the shore in the bay of -St. Ives; but on approaching the Gwythian river, it becomes more -extensive and indurated. On the shore opposite to Godrevy Island, -an immense mass of it occurs, of more than a hundred feet in -length, and from twelve to twenty feet in depth, containing entire -shells and fragments of clay slate; it is singular that the whole -mass assumes a striking appearance of stratification. In some -places it appears that attempts have been made to separate it, -probably for the purpose of building; for several old houses in -Gwythian are built of it."----"It is around the promontory of New -Kaye that the most extensive formation of sandstone takes place. -Here it may be seen in different stages of induration; from a -state in which it is too friable to be detached from the rock upon -which it reposes, to a hardness so considerable, that it requires -a very violent blow from a sledge to break it."----"But it is on -the western side of the promontory of New Kaye, in Fistril Bay, -that the geologist will be most struck with the formation; for here -no other rock is in sight. The cliffs, which are high, and extend -for several miles, are entirely composed of it."----"The beach is -covered with disjointed fragments, which have been detached from -the cliff above, many of which weigh two or three tons." - -There are three modes by which Dr. Paris conceives the -lapidification of calcareous sand may be effected. 1st. "By the -percolation of water through a hill of calcareous sand, by which it -becomes impregnated with carbonate of lime." 2d. "The percolation -of water through strata containing pyritical substances, by which -it becomes impregnated with sulphuric salts." 3d. "The percolation -of water through decomposing slate, or any ferruginous strata, by -which it becomes impregnated with iron alumina, and other mineral -matter." - - - - -ART. V. _Localities of Minerals._ - - -_To the Editor of the American Journal of Science, &c._ - - NEW-YORK, Dec. 21, 1818. - - DEAR SIR, - -It is desirable that some mode should be adopted by which the -public may become acquainted with all the _New American Localities -of Minerals_, as they are discovered from time to time. With -deference I would suggest, that in each number of your Scientific -Journal, new localities might be recorded in alphabetical order, -for present information and future reference. - -The following localities, which have come under my observation, and -which are probably not noticed in any work, are at your service. - - 1. _Agate._ Rolled mass: occurred near Powles Hook, New-Jersey. - - 2. _Apatite._ Truncated crystals of one inch, and amorphous; - occurs in granite, chiefly in the felspar. Corlaer's Hook, - vicinity of New-York. - - 3. _Brown Mammillary Hematite_, covering quartz crystals. - Perkiomen lead-mine. Montgomery county, Pennsylvania. - - 4. _Carbonate of Magnesia._ Structure earthy. Apparently a _pure_ - carbonate of magnesia. In mica slate, and granite; chiefly in the - quartz. Roxborough, Philadelphia county. - - 5. _Common Jasper._ Traversed by veins of semi-opal. Small - detached masses, frequently waterworn. Rhinebeck, Dutchess - county, New-York. - - 6. _Compact Malachite._ Perkiomen lead-mine. - - 7. _Fetid Carbonate of Lime._ In ridges; and strata nearly - vertical, sometimes containing petrifactions. Very frequent in - Dutchess county, particularly in the neighbourhood of Rhinebeck - Flats, and near Hyde Park. - - 8. _Fibrous Talc._ In granite. Roxborough. - - 9. _Graphic Granite._ North River, near the city of New-York. - - 10. _Graphite._ In a calcareo-siliceous gangue. Corlear's Hook. - - 11. _Native pulverulent_ (or rather granular) _Sulphur_. In - pyritical quartz. Barren Hill, Montgomery county, Pennsylvania. - - 12. _Plumose Asbestus._ Corlaer's Hook. - - 13. _Semi-opal._ In common Jasper--(which see.) - - 14. _Scaly Talc._ In granite. Roxborough. - - 15. _Stellated Quartz._ Perkiomen lead-mine. - - 16. _Sulphate of Barytes._ In sulphuret of lead and silver. - Livingston's lead-mine, Columbia county, New-York. - - 17. _Sulphuret of Silver._ With sulphuret of lead. Same locality. - - 18. _Tourmalin._ In masses of crystalline quartz. Rhinebeck. - - Very respectfully, - - F. C. SCHAEFFER. - - * * * * * - -The following notices were prepared before the receipt of the above -letter. - - -_Other Localities of Minerals and of_ ANIMAL REMAINS, _and -acknowledgments of Specimens received_. - -_Guadeloupe._--Native sulphur, obsidian, pitchstone, native alum, -basaltic hornblende, alum covered with sulphur. - -_Porto Rico._--Hexagonal crystals of mica. - -Specimens of the above minerals are in the cabinet of Mr. John P. -Brace, at Litchfield, Connecticut. - -_Molybdena_ is found in Shutesbury, Massachusetts, near -Northampton, east of Connecticut River, on the land of William -Eaton. It is the common sulphuret, but remarkably beautiful and -well characterized. Its colour is nearly that of bright lead, very -brilliant, smooth, and almost unctuous; soft, flexible, distinctly -foliated, and the folia are very thin, and easily separable, almost -like mica. It gives the usual greenish trace on white pottery, -while a line drawn parallel on the same basis, by a piece of -plumbago or black-lead, is black; this being (as pointed out by -Brongniart) the easiest criterion, by which to distinguish between -molybdena and plumbago, or black-lead. We have many times applied -it with entire success. - -This molybdena, from Shutesbury, is chiefly crystallized, and the -crystals are, in some instances, very distinct; their form is that -of a flat six-sided prism, or what is commonly called a table. -The rock, from which they were obtained, is a granitic aggregate, -(judging from the specimen sent, it may be a true granite) and the -forms of the crystals are very distinctly impressed in the stone, -so that when removed they leave an exact copy or crystal mould. -In a letter from the proprietor of the land, it is said that the -molybdena is found in a ledge of rocks, six or seven feet above the -surface of the earth, and about ten or twelve feet above the level -of the water; the direction of the rocks is from S. to N. E. by N.; -the metal is in a vein, running E., and was discovered in small -pieces in the top of the ledge. After putting in two blasts, some -large pieces were obtained. - -From this account, and from the specimens, (some of the crystals -being an inch or more in length) this must be one of the most -interesting localities of molybdena hitherto observed in this -country; and it is hoped Mr. Eaton will take some pains to procure -and furnish specimens. - -_Rose Quartz._--From Southbury, Connecticut, not far from Woodbury, -and from the Housatonick River, two young men, of the name of -Stiles, have brought us specimens of _rose quartz_, of delicate and -beautiful colour. It is said to be abundant in a ledge of the same -substance. - -_Plumbago._--In Cornwall, Litchfield county, Connecticut, plumbago -is found, of a good quality, and in considerable masses, in a vein -contained in a rock of gneiss, or mica-slate. It has been known -a good while, and is said to have been exported anterior to the -American revolutionary war. - -_Coal, &c._ in Zanesville, Ohio. Through the kindness of the Rev. -Dr. Bronson, Principal of the Cheshire Academy, we have received -the following information.--In cutting a canal in the above town, -in the spring of 1817, through freestone, trees, and fish, and -other substances, both animal and vegetable, were taken out, alike -petrified to a freestone, excepting the bark of a beach tree, which -was very perfect and beautiful coal--(as we have had an opportunity -of ascertaining, from an examination of the specimens.) - -_Coal_, in the county of Muskingum, Ohio. Common stone-coal, -highly bituminous, (the slaty or black coal of Werner,) is found -abundantly. - -_South of Lake Erie_, about 25 miles, in the bed of Rocky -River, are found shells, and other animal remains, imbedded in -argillaceous iron; the specimens were collected in 1817, by the -Rev. R. Searle. - -_Mammoth's Tooth_, from the River St. Francis, west of Mississippi. -Return J. Meigs, Esq. has transmitted, through the Rev. E. -Cornelius, a mammoth's tooth, apparently not mineralized. It -appears to have belonged to a very old animal, as the processes, -(which, it is well known, are commonly very prominent) are worn -down smooth, and some of them almost obliterated. - -_Blue Ridge, Tennessee, and Mississippi Territory._--Through the -kindness of the Rev. E. Cornelius, and of Mr. John H. Kain, we -have received a considerable collection of specimens, illustrative -of the mineralogy and geology, and Indian antiquities of these -regions; they may be, on a future occasion, the subject of more -particular remarks. - -_Coal_, in Suffield, Connecticut, on the river of the same name. -From Mr. Nathan Stedman, we have received specimens of coal, found -in thin veins, in rocks of slate, and argillaceous sandstone, on -the banks of the river. The veins are thin, but considerably -numerous; the coal is very glossy and black; breaks with a smooth -and almost conchoidal fracture, and very much resembles jet. -It is very much intersected by thin veins--(not thicker than a -knife-blade)--of white crystallized calcareous spar. This coal is -bituminous, and burns pretty freely. It has not been explored, -except superficially. - -_Coal_, in Southington, Connecticut. Beds of slate are found more -or less bituminous; and, at the bottom of some of the wells, the -slate begins to exhibit thin veins of coal, distributed in great -numbers through the substance of the slate, which is the shale of -the miners. The coal is from the thickness of a knife-blade to that -of a finger; it is highly bituminous, and burns with great freedom. -Even the entire masses of the stone burn brilliantly, when ignited -on a common fire; and, after exhaustion of the coally matter, leave -the slate of a grayish colour. - -The locality from which the specimens were taken, is on the land of -Roswell Moore, Esq. about midway between Hartford and New Haven. -The spot was lately examined by Col. Gibbs, Eli Whitney, Esq. -Professor Olmstead, and others; and arrangements are making to bore -the strata, to the depth of several hundred feet, if necessary. -These localities are in what may, with propriety, be called the -coal formation of Connecticut. Coal has been found in several other -places in that state; and the peculiar geological features of the -region in which it is contained, are very interesting, and may -hereafter be described in form. - -_Sulphat of Barytes, with Coal, &c._--Sulphat of barytes exists -abundantly in Southington, on what is called the Clark Farm. With -quartz, carbonate of lime, &c. it forms the gangue of a metallic -vein, containing galena, or sulphuret of lead, copper pyrites, -&c. The sulphat of barytes is more or less crystallized, and -principally in the form that is called the coxcomb spar. The same -vein, although it is in the side of a mountain, several hundred -feet above the flat country adjacent, and two or three miles from -the coal strata above mentioned, contains numerous spots and -patches of coal, very much resembling that at Suffield. It is of -a most brilliant black, and contrasted with the white, stony -matrix, (principally quartz and sulphat of barytes) in which it is -enveloped, it forms elegant specimens. - -_Scintillating Limestone._--In Vermont, a singular scintillating -limestone is found, of which an account is given in the following -extract of a letter from Mr. George Chase, dated Randolph, February -19, 1818. - - -"The object of the present letter is to acquaint you with a -circumstance relating to the limestone that abounds in this -primitive country, which to me is inexplicable. This carbonate of -lime is of a pale sky-blue colour; effervesces strongly with nitric -acid; and, by burning, produces lime, so that there is no question -as to the identity of the mineral. But it likewise gives forth -sparks with steel:--this I concluded, at first, to be an accidental -circumstance; but every specimen that I have tried, from various -quarters of the country, uniformly gives fire with steel. The -limestone is found in layers, in blocks, and masses, disseminated -among the clay-slate that covers the greatest part of the townships -in this vicinity. When first taken from the earth, and exposed to -the air, it is covered with an incrustation of a dark reddish-brown -colour, that crumbles easily between the fingers, and is generally -from one inch to a foot in thickness. This incrustation, however, -hardens on a long exposure to the air. This led me to think -that the incrustation was owing to the decomposition of the -limestone, which was produced by the sulphuret of iron, intimately -disseminated through the rock, which would also explain the -singular circumstance of its striking fire. But on dissolving a -small quantity of the mineral in nitric acid, and adding a drop or -two of the decoction of gallnut, no discolouring of the liquor was -produced." - - -_Limpid Quartz._--West Canada Creek, a northern branch of the -Mohawk, affords, in its sands, small crystals of quartz, limpid, -and terminated at both ends by pyramids of six sides; we are -indebted for specimens to Professor Fisher. - -_Fetid Primitive Limestone, &c._--From the vicinity of Williamstown -College, through the kindness of Professor Dewey, we have received -specimens illustrative of the geology of that region. Among them -is limestone from Stockbridge, crystallized in large plates and -rhomboids, almost white, and still fetid on being rubbed, which is -very different from most fetid limestones, which are dark coloured, -and even black, and do not belong to primitive formation. - -_Molybdena._--In Pettipaug, Saybrook, Connecticut, molybdena -occurs. It is mentioned in the Review of Cleaveland's Mineralogy, -and is here cited again for the purpose of pointing out its -locality more exactly. It is found about half a mile to the E. of -the Turnpike leading from Saybrook to Middletown, on the first -road on the right hand above the turnpike gate, near the house of -the widow Pratt. It is not far from Pettipaug meeting-house, in a -northern direction. - -_Beryl._--In Haddam, Connecticut, are found many beryls, and -some of uncommon size; an account of one of the most remarkable -localities is contained in the following memorandum from the Rev. -Mr. Mather, to whom we are indebted for specimens. - - -"The place in which the beryls are found is in the town of Chatham, -about one mile and a half north from Middle-Haddam landing; about -half of a mile S. W. of a large hill, on which is the cobalt mine. -The rock in which the beryls are contained is granite; the parts of -which are very large, especially the felspar and the mica. Large -masses of shorl are also found in these rocks. Beryls have also -been found in other parts of Middle-Haddam, amongst rocks of the -same description. The _greatest_ diameter of the largest beryl is -four inches; the _least_ three inches. The beryls are numerous, and -of different sizes; though few are less than an inch, or two inches -in diameter. The length of the longest beryl is five inches." - - -_Clay._--Near Delhi, New-York, a few rods from the Delaware river, -are found beds of clay, of which specimens have been transmitted by -Mr. John P. Foote, of New-York. We are of opinion that they are not -porcelain clay. - -_Gypsum._--Cayuga Lake. We are informed by Dr. L. Foot, that the -workmen who have excavated about 20 feet on the border of the -lake, in gypsum, which is generally of a dark brown, or black -colour, when they come to a transparent crystallized piece, call -it isinglass, and reject it as worthless: the hint should be -remembered by mineralogists, that the specimens may be saved for -their cabinets. - - -ASBESTOS IN ANTHRACITE. - -_Extract of a letter from Dr. I. W. Webster._ - - BOSTON, 27th Nov. 1818. - - DEAR SIR, - -In examining some masses of the anthracite from Rhode Island, -one piece attracted my attention, from the waved structure of -the lamellæ into which it separated. The fragments of this were -wedge-shaped, and I found the space between some of the laminæ -filled up by a fibrous, silky substance, which induced me to break -up other masses, in one of which I discovered an abundance of -amianthus; the filaments are of a light-green colour in some parts -of the mass--in others presenting different shades of brown. With -a microscope, I found the fibres intermixed with the anthracite; -or forming thin layers, and these sometimes parallel to, at others -crossing, in different directions, the course of the laminæ. How -far the presence of this mineral may influence the ignition or -combustion of the coal, is a question, perhaps, worth determining. -Should my engagements permit, I shall make further examination, and -inform you. In the mean time, the notice of this fact may call the -attention of some of your readers to the subject. At any rate, this -substance has, I believe, never before been noticed in connexion -with anthracite, and is highly interesting in a geological point of -view. - - -REMARKS. - -We have been familiar with the Rhode Island anthracite, and with -the formation of rocks in which it is found; and, long since, -observed the fact mentioned by Dr. Webster. The asbestos often is -in the form of the most delicate amianthus, frequently blended also -with the slate rocks, which form the roof and pavement of this -coal. A specimen now lies before us, in which a complete vein of -this amianthus, with fibres nearly two inches _in length, connects -and pervades_ a mass of slate, supposed to be of the transition -class. - -Similar facts are mentioned also by Dr. Meade, in his account of -the Rhode Island coal. - - -RED PYROXENE AUGITE. - -_Extract of a letter to the Editor, from Dr. H. H. Hayden of -Baltimore._ - -I have very lately discovered a couple of small specimens of the -transparent _red_ pyroxene, resembling fine crystals of titanium, -which I, at first, mistook it for. One of them is contained in -the middle of a large crystal, like the rubellite in the green -tourmalins of Massachusetts, but it is not the same substance. The -pyroxene, which I have reference to, is the olive-coloured epidote -of some, pistazite of others, but resembles, in this instance, the -sahlite; the crystals being divisible longitudinally. Some of them -are five inches long, and half an inch diameter, hexaedral and -double; that is, two joined together, as described by Brochant in -particular. - - -Some other localities, of which we have received notices, may be -mentioned in a future number. - - - - -BOTANY. - - - - -ART. VI. _A List of Plants found in the neighbourhood of Connasarga -River, (Cherokee Country) where Springplace is situated; made by_ -MRS. GAMBOLD, _at the request of the Rev. Elias Cornelius_.[32] - - -A. - - Acer rubrum and Sacharium - Acanitum uncinatum - Actæa racemosa - Adianthum Capillus Veneris - Aesculus Pavia - Agave - Agrimonium Eupatorium - Aira pallens - Aletris farinosa - Alisma Plantago - Allium, 2 sp. - Amasonia latifolia - Anchusa - Andromeda arborea and other sp. - Andropogon alopecuides and ambiguum - Anemone hepatica, Thalictroides, virginiana, and pennsylvania - Angelica lucida and other sp. - Annona - Antirrhinum elatine - Apocynum cannabinum - Aquilegia canadensis - Arabis - Aralia spinosa - Arctatis caroliniana - Arethusa parviflora - Aristoloichia serpentaria, 3 sp. - Arum sagittæfolium and triphyllum - Arundo tecto - Asarum virginicum - Aselepias purpurascens, variegata, verticillata and others, tuberosa - Ascyrum - Asplenium - Aster concolor, linarifolius, and many others - Avena palustrio and spicata - Azalea viscosa, and others. - - -B. - - Berberis canadensis - Betula alnus - Bidens pusilla N. S. Muhlenb. - Bignonia crucigera and radicans - Bucknera americana. - - -C. - - Cacalia - Calycanthus floridus - Campanula perfoliata and divaricata - Clematis ochraleuca and virginiana - Clitoria mariana and virginiana - Collinsonia virginica - Cardumine virginica - Carduus, several sp. - Carex, N. S. - Cassia chamæcrista, marilandica, nictitans, and Tora - Ceanothus americanus - Cephalanthus occidentalis - Cerastium arvense - Cercis canadensis - Chelone glabra and Penstemon - Chenopodium ambrosioides and anthelminticum - Chionanthus virginicus - Chironia campanulata and other sp. - Chrysogonum virginicum - Cimicifuga pulmata - Circea lutetiana - Cissampelos smilacine - Claytonia virginica - Commelina erecta, longifolia virginica - Convallaria multiflora and racemosa - Conyza linifolia - Coreopsis auriculata, bidens, senifolia, tripteris, alternifolia and - verticillata - Cornus florida - Corylus americana - Crætægus apiifolia - Crotallaria sagittalis - Cucubalus behen - Cuscuta americana - Cynanchum - Cynoglossum officinale and virginicum - Cynosurus indicus and sparsus - ---- filiformis (Muhlenb.) - Cypripedium acaule, alba and calceolus - - -D. - - Delphinium exaltatum - Dentaria multifida - Diodia N. S. and virginica - Dioscorea - Diospyros virginiana - Dodecatheon media - Dracocephalon virginianum - - -E. - - Echium vulgare - Elephantopus caroliniensis - Eleusine filiformis - Epilobium coloratum - Erigeron pulchellum, and other sp. - Eryngium aquaticum ovalifolium and yuccæfolium - Erythronium dens canis - Eupatorium cœlestinum, perfoliatum, and urticæfolium - Euphorbia colorata, ipecacuanha, and other sp. - Evonymus virginicus - - -F. - - Fagus castanea dentata sylvatica atropunicea - Festuca nutans, palustris and sylvatica - Fragaria vesca - Fumaria N. S. - - -G. - - Galactia mollis - Galax aphylla - Galega hispidula and virginica - Galium, several sp. - Gerardia asgelia, hydrophylla, lancifolia and purpurea - Geum rivale - Gleditsia spinosa - Gaura sp. - Gentiana saponaria, and others - Geranium, 2 sp. - Glycine apios and tomentosa parabolica (Muhlenb.) - Gnaphalium germanicum, and others - - -H. - - Hedyotis sp. - Hedysarum prostratum, and others - Helianthus angustifolius. sp. nova. - Heuchera - Hibiscus - Houstonia cœrulea, purpurea, and varians - Hydrangea glauca - Hypericum fasciculatum, nudiflorum, prolificum, and others - Hypnum sp. - Hypoxis erecta. - - -I. - - Ilex aquifolium sp. - Impatiens noli tangere - Inula graminifolia and mariana - Ipomœa, sky blue, and other sp. - Iris, low, sweet-smelling blossoms in spring, and other sp. - - -J. - - Jutropha stimulosa - Juglans alba acuminata - ---- ---- ovata - Juglans nigra - ---- oblonga alba - Juncus bicornis and tenuis - - -K. - - Kalmia latifolia - Kyllingia triceps - - -L. - - Laurus benzoin and sassafras - Lechea minor - Lepidium sp. - Liatris graminifolia, spicata and squarrosa - Lilium martagen - Limodorum tuberosum - Linum virginicum - Liquidamber styraciflua - Liriodendrum tulipifera - Lobelia cardinalis, inflata, kalmii, puberula and siphylitica - Lonicera erecta and symphoricarpos - Ludugia alternifolia jussiæoides - Lupinus sp. - Lycopodium apodum and rupestre - Lycopsis - Lycopus virginicus - Lysimachia quadrifolia and punctata - ---- sp. - Lythrum lineare and strictum. - - -M. - - Malaxis unifolia - Marchantia polymorpha - Mimosa horridula - Mimulus ringens - Melanthium latum - ---- sp. - Melica speciosa - Melissa nepeta - Menispermum carolinianum - Mespilus several sp. - Mitchella repens - Momordica sp. - Monarda punctata - Monotropa several sp. - Morus. - - -O. - - Oenothera biennis, lineanis, and others - Ophioriza mitreola - Ophrys cernua - ---- sp. - Orchis ciliaris unifolia - Orobanche uniflora - Oxalis, 2 sp. - - -P. - - Panax ginseng - Panctratium carolinianum - Pancium nitidum - Parietaria pennsylvanica - Parnassia caroliniana - Parthenium integrifolium - Passiflora incarnata and lutea - Paspalium ciliatifolium - Pedicularis canadensis - Penstemon lævis - Penthorum sedoides - Phlox ovata, paniculata and pilosa - Phryma liptostachia - Physalis pubescens, several sp. - Phytolacca decandra - Pinus, several sp. - Plantago major and virginica - Poa nervata - Podophyllum peltatum - Polygala cruciata, incarnata and lutea - Polygonum hydropiper, and other sp. - Potentilla reptans - Prenenthes trifida - Prunella vulgaris - Prunus cerasus virginiana, and others - Psoralea melilotoides - Pyrola, 2 sp. - Pyrus malus coronarius - - -Q. - - Quercus alba, 2 sp. - ---- nigra, various sp. - ---- rubra - Quercus prinus - ---- Phellos - Queria canadensis - - -R. - - Ranunculus bulbosus, and other sp. - Rhexia mariana - Rhus toxicodendron, and others - Ribes sp. - Rosa, several sp. - Rubus fruticosus, hispidus and occidentalis - Rudbeckia fulgida, hirta and purpurea - Ruellia - - -S. - - Sagittaria sagittifolia - Salix tristis and others - Sisyrinchium Bermudiana - Sisymbrium nasturtium - Salvia lyrata and urticæfolia - Sambucus nigra - Sanicula marilandica - Sanguinaria canadensis - Saururus cernuus - Scabiosa sp. - Schisandra - Schoenus sparsus - Scirpus retrofractus - Sentellaria hyssoppifolia, parviflora, and others - Sedum, a low plant, fl. white - Senecio sp. - Serratula præalta, scariosa and spicata - Sida rhombifolia and spinosa - Silene antirrhina, and another sp. - Sium sp. - Smilax sarsaparilla and other sp. - Smyrnium aureum - Solanum nigrum - Solidago nova boracensis, rigida, virga aurea and others. - Sonchus sp. - Sophora fl. purple - Spigelia marilandica - Spiræa aruncus, apulifolia, stipulaica, tomentosa and trifoliata - Staphylæa trifoliata - Stellaria sp. - Styrax sp. - Sylphium N. S. - ---- compositum. - - -T. - - Tabernamontana latifolia - Teverium canadense - Thalictrum, various sp. - Thlaspi bursæ pastoris - Thymus virginicus - Tradescantia virginica - Tragopogon dandelion - Trichodium laxiflorum and procumbens - Trichostema dichotoma - Trifolium (Buffalo) - Trillium cernuum, luteum, sessile, and another sp. - Triosteum angustifolium - - -U. - - Ulmus, 2 sp. - Uniola latifolia - Uvularia sessilifolia. - - -V. - - Vaccinium, several sp. - Verbascum lychnitis - Verbena officinalis - Verbesina sp. - Veronica virginica - Viburnum, several sp. - Viola, several sp. - Viscum - Vitis, several sp. - - -X. - - Xanthium strumarium - Xantoxylon tricarpon - - -Y. - - Yucca filamentosa. - - -_Acer rubrum._--The inner bark boiled to a sirup, made into pills, -and these dissolved in water, is used in cases of sore eyes; the -eyes washed therewith. - -_Actæa racemosa._--The root in spirits, these made use of in -rheumatic pains. - -_Adianthum Capillus Verenis._--A decoction of the whole plant, used -as an emetic in cases of ague and fever. A very strong medicine. - -_Aesculus Pavia._--The nuts pounded, are used in poultices. - -_Agave._--The root is chewed in obstinate cases of diarrhœa with -wonderful success. It is, however, a very strong medicine. - -_Allium._--The Indians are fond of, for culinary purposes. - -_Angelica._--The same. - -_Annona._--Of the bark they make very strong ropes. - -_Aralia spinosa._--A decoction of the roots roasted and pounded, -(green, they are poisonous) is given as an emetic. A very strong -one. - -_Asarum virginicum._--The leaves dried and pounded, are used for -snuff; fresh, they are applied to wounds. - -_Bignonia crucigera._--Tea made of the leaves cleanses the blood. - -_Calycanthus floridus._--The _roots_ are used as (though very -strong) emetics. The _seeds_ to poison wolves. - -_Carduus._--various species. The roots used in poultices. - -_Cercis canadensis._--Children are fond of eating the blossom. - -_Coreopsis auriculata._--The whole plant is much used in colouring. -It affords a _red_ colour. - -_Cornus florida._--The bark of the root is used to heal wounds, and -in poultices. - -_Ilex._--Of the wood, spoons are made. The berries of service in -colics. - -_Juglans oblonga alba._--A kind of pills are prepared from the -inner bark, and used as a cathartic. - -_Liquidamber styraciflua._--The gum is used for a drawing plaster. -Of the _inner_ bark a tea is made for nervous patients. - -_Liriodendrum tulipifera._--Of the bark of the root a tea is made, -and given in fevers. It is also used in poultices. - -_Melanthium._--The root is a crow poison; and a sure, but severe -cure for the itch. - -_Pinus._--Boil the root, skim off the turpentine, spread it on -Deer's skin (tanned,) for a drawing plaster. - -_Podophyllum peltatum._--A sirup is boiled of the root, and given -for a purgative, two pills at a time. A drop of the juice of the -fresh root in the ear, is a cure for _deafness_. (So I have been -told, I never witnessed it.) - -_Potentilla reptans._--A tea of it is given in fevers. - -_Prunus cerasus virginiana._--Of the bark a tea is made, and drunk -in fevers. - -_Quercus alba._--The bark is used for an emetic. - -_Quercus nigra_ and _rubra_.--A die for leather. - -_Rosa._--The roots boiled, and drunk in cases of dysentery. - -_Rubus fruticosus._--The root good to chew in coughs. - -_Sanguinaria canadensis._--The root is used for the _red_ die in -basket making. - -_Saururus cernuus._--The roots roasted and mashed, used for -poultices. - -_Solanum nigrum._--When young, made use of as the best relished -potherb. - -_Solidaga virga aurea._--A tea much made use of in fevers. - -_Sophora._--A blue die. - -_Spigelia marilandica._--In cases of worms. - -_Spiræa stipulaica_ and _trifoliata_.--The whole plant a very good -emetic. Of a strong tea or decoction thereof, a pint is drunk at a -time. - -_Tradescantia virginica._--The leaves much relished greens for the -table. - -_Yucca filamentosa._--The roots pounded and boiled, are used -instead of soap to wash blankets; likewise to intoxicate fishes, -by strewing them pounded on the water. The same is done with -_Æsculus_. - - - - -ART. VII. _Description of a new species of Asclepias. By Dr._ ELI -IVES, _Professor, &c. in the Medical Institution of Yale College_. -(_With a Plate._) - - -The plant, which is the subject of the following observations, is -found growing abundantly on the sandy plains east of Cedar Hill, in -New-Haven. It is locally associated with the asclepias viridiflora -and verticillata. When this species of asclepias was first noticed -by me, it was supposed to be a variety of viridiflora of Rafinesque -and Pursh; but after examining a great number of specimens, it was -found that the varieties did not blend themselves. The leaves of -the viridiflora being uniformly oblong and obtuse, the leaves of -the other uniformly lanceolate and acute. To this new species I -purpose to give the name Lanceolata. - -_Specific character of the asclepias lanceolata_:--Stem decumbent, -hirsute; leaves opposite, lanceolate, acute, sub sessile, -hirsuit umbels lateral, solitary, sessile, nodding, subglobose, -dense-flowered; appendage none. See the plate. - -The asclepias lanceolata is allied to the asclepias longifolia and -viridiflora by the absence of appendage or horn of the nectary. It -is distinguished from the longifolia, which is characterized by -alternate linear leaves, and umbels erect. - -[Illustration: _Asclepias lanceolata._] - -The asclepias lanceolata and asclepias viridiflora belong to Mr. -Elliott's genus acerates. In both, the nectary or stamineous crown -is short concave, and oppressed to the angles of the filaments. - - - - -ART. VIII. _Description of a New Genus of American Grass._ DIPLOCEA -BARBATA, by C. S. RAFINESQUE, Esq. - - -Diplocea. _Generic definition._ Flowers paniculated monoical or -polygamous. Exterior glumes membranaceous bivalve one to three -flowered, valves subequal emarginated mutic. Anterior glumes -bivalve unequal, the largest notched, notch aristated, the -smallest mutic entire bearded. _Additional characters._ Flowers -when single sepile with a lateral jutting peduncle, when double, -one sepile and one pedunculated, when three two are pedunculated -and alternate. The hermaphrodite and male flowers are similar: the -female are nearly clandestine, inferior. Stamens 3, styles 2. Seeds -ovate oblong. - -_Observations._ This genus is intermediate between _amphicarpon_, -Raf. (_Milium amphicarpon_, _Pursh_) and _aira_, L. It differs from -this last by its polygamy, variable number of flowers, notched -valves, &c. The generic name means _double notch_. Its type is -the following species, which had been ranged with the _aira_, by -Walter, and considered doubtful by Pursh. - - -_Diplocea Barbata._ - -_Specific definition._ Stems cespitose, articulations bearded; -leaves rough glaucous, neck ciliated; panicles, few flowered, -female axillary; largest valvet rinervate, and ciliated as well as -the awl. - -_Latin definition._ Caulibus cespetosis, geniculis barbatis, collo -ciliato, foliis scabris glaucis, paniculis paucifloris, femineis -axillaribus; valva majore trinerva, aristaque ciliata. - -_Description._ Roots, annual fibrous: stems many, unequal, rather -procumbent at the base, next assurgent, rising one foot at utmost; -they are geniculated, slender, brittle, weak, and smooth. The knees -or joints are bearded, the sheaths are split, the neck ciliated, -the leaves short, stiff, rough glaucous, linear acute, obscurely -striated. The panicles have few flowers, particularly the female -ones, which are axillary coarctated almost hidden, while the -male are terminal and divaricate: some hermaphrodite flowers are -occasionally, but seldom found among both panicles; they are all -similar, differing only in the want of stamina or pistils. The -valves of the exterior glumes are nearly equal oblong notched -obtuse, mutic and oneneroed. The valvules or valves of the glumule -(corolla or interior glume) are unequal, the largest is ciliated -trinerve bifid, with a soft ciliated awl in the notch, as long as -the valve: the small valve is ovate acute concave, very hairy on -the back. The colour of the flower is reddish or pale red; but -variable. - -_Observations._ This plant is probably the _aira purpurea_ of -Walter, Pursh, Elliott, &c. but does not belong to that genus. -It was found in Carolina, but I have found it on Long-Island, -near Gravesend, Bath, Oyster-Bay, &c. on the sandy and gravelly -sea-shore: it grows probably in the intermediate states. It -blossoms in August and September, has no particular beauty, but -a very singular appearance. The specific name of _purpurea_ was -improper, since the colour of the flowers is variable from whitish -to red. - - - - -ART. IX. _Floral Calendar, &c._ - - - _To the Editor of the American Journal of Science, &c._ - - PLAINFIELD, October 17, 1818. - - SIR, - -Should the following calendar be thought worthy of a place in -your Journal, you will please to insert it. Though very brief, it -will show that vegetation is considerably later on the range of -mountains, on which this place is situated, than in the level parts -of our country. - - Yours truly, - - J. PORTER. - - -_Floral Calendar for Plainfield, Massachusetts_, 1818. By JACOB -PORTER. - -_March 13._ Robins and bluebirds appear. - -_April 25._ Claytonia in flower. A considerable part of the ground -is covered with snow, which, in many places, is 2 or 3 feet deep. - -_April 27._ Observed the claytonia, blue violet, strawberry, and a -species of sedge, in blossom, at Worthington. - -_May 1._ Hepatica, roundleaved violet, and erythronium in flower. - -_May 10._ Chrysosplenium, or golden saxifrage, in flower. - -_May 15._ The large trillium, or purple wakerobin, in flower. - -_May 18._ Uvularia, or cellwort, and white violet, in flower. - -_May 19._ A fall of snow, so that the ground at night was almost -covered with it. - -_May 22._ The beautiful coptis, or goldthread, in flower. - -_May 25._ Ash and beech in flower. - -_May 26._ Sugar-maple, viburnum, threeleaved arum, blue violet, -small panax, prostrate mitella, fly honeysuckle, white berried -gaultheria, and umbelled Solomon's seal, in flower. - -_June 17._ Absent, since my last date, on a tour to New-York. Four -other specimens of Solomon's seal, trientalis, azalea, 2 species of -crowfoot, blue-eyed grass, medeola, moose-bush, and several species -of vaccinium, in flower. The small trillium, or smiling wakerobin, -sarsaparilla, and dentaria, blossomed during my absence. - -_June 22._ Small enothera, 2 species of veronica, and the golden -senecio, in flower. - -_June 23._ Mountain ash, Norway potentilla, sanicle, and the lovely -linnea in flower. - -_June 28._ Prunella, and red and white clover, in flower. - -_June 29._ Mitchella, in flower. - -_June 30._ Yellow diervilla, in flower. - -_July 1._ Climbing corydalis, in flower. - -_July 4._ The fimbriate archis, and roundleaved pyrola, in flower. - -_July 5._ Spiked epilobium, and roundleaved mallows, in flower. - -_July 6._ Mullen, in flower. - -_July 7._ Small geranium in flower. - -_July 8._ Another species of epilobium, in flower. - -_August 18._ Frost this morning. - - - - -ZOOLOGY. - - - - -ART. X. _Notes on Herpetology, by_ THOMAS SAY, _of Philadelphia_. - -(Communicated by the Author.) - - -Although I have not devoted a particular study to this department -of the science of nature, yet I have been amused and instructed by -casually observing many of the subjects of it, when I have been -rambling in their native haunts, pursuing objects more particularly -interesting to me. - -But when perusing, the other day, the account of the copper-head -of our country, by Mr. Rafinesque, I was impelled to ask for -information on the subject, through your useful publication, in -which that account appeared, and to make, at the same time, a few -miscellaneous remarks or notes. These are in part included in -the present essay, and if they should have a tendency to incite -attention to the reptilia of the United States, at present in a -state of confusion and incertitude, some portion of benefit will be -rendered to the great cause of science. - -I think that a moderate degree of labour and observation bestowed -upon the investigation of the species already described, would -prove the unity in nature of some species which have been -considered as distinct by all the authors, would detect many errors -in observation, expose some deceptions practised on credulity by -the designing, and would enable us to fix, with some degree of -accuracy, our knowledge of truth and of the species. - -A work devoted particularly to this class, by some one adequate -to the task, who could have in his view all the known species, is -indeed a desideratum. - -_Scytale cupreus_, Copper-head, &c. of Mr. Rafinesque. I have -always considered the Copper-head to be no other than the -_Cenchris mockeson_ of authors, and _Boa contortrix of Linn._ -v. Latr. Lacep. Shaw, Daudin, &c. _Agkistrodon mokasen_ of -Beauvois; which opinion is not a little corroborated by an actual -comparison of one of these animals in Peale's Museum, with the -descriptions of the authors above mentioned. It may be objected -to me, that the _mockeson_ of those naturalists is a _Cenchris_, -and not a _Scytale_, therefore generically distinguished from -the Copper-head; but on the other hand, we know that the genus -_Cenchris_ does not exist in nature, that the individual upon -which it was founded, was either a fortuitous variety, or that -the illustrious naturalist was deceived by the desiccation of his -specimen, giving to the basal caudal plates a bifid aspect. That -the former was the case I analogically infer, from having seen, -in the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences, a _Coluber -heterodon_, of which the fifth and sixth pairs of caudal scales -were entire, and not as usual bifid. An additional corroboration of -the truth of this inference is derived from the circumstance of the -_Scytale_ of Peale's Museum, having the ten or eleven apical caudal -plates bifid, precisely as in the genus _Acanthophis_, to which -it seems closely affianced, and to which it would be referred if -this character was a permanent one. In every other character this -specimen coincides with the _S. mockeson_ of authors, and in every -necessary respect with the _S. cupreus_ of Mr. R. with the sole -exception of the calcarate termination of the tail. This caudal -horn seems to approximate Mr. R's. animal to the _S. piscivorus_ -or true horn-snake, about which the credulous have so absurdly -alarmed themselves, and which was arranged with the _Crotali_ by -Lacepede, in consequence of having a horn on the tail an inch long. -We find sometimes a small indurated tip to the tail of _Coluber -melanoleucus_,[33] at least upon some full grown specimens, -formed by the elongation and appression of the terminal scales; a -larger one on that of the European viper, and of the _Acanthophis -cerastes_, and _Brownii_. Mr. Peale's specimen certainly has not -the horn, but it has at the termination of the tail a scale -somewhat longer and more indurated than the others, the individual -had not attained his full growth. If then this species (and some -others) is subject to vary in the form of its caudal plates, from -which the generic characters are in part estimated, may it not -also vary in the armature of the tail, which at most can only -be considered as specific. The Copper-belly is a very distinct -species. If the _S. cupreus_ is, notwithstanding the above -observations, considered a distinct species, it would gratify those -who cultivate natural history, to have some good discriminative -characters of it. - -Much has been said and written about antidotes to the venomous -bites of snakes, and Mr. Rafinesque enumerates over again several -plants which have been said to be, and which he appears to believe -to be specifics. If the case was my own, I would be very unwilling -to rely upon either of the 20 or 30 medicinal plants, dubiously -mentioned by the late Professor Barton, as reputed antidotes for -this poison. It would be more prudent to resort unhesitatingly to a -more certain remedy, in the ligature, and immediate excision of the -part, where such an operation was practicable, or to cauterization, -if the part could not be removed by the knife. - -In conversation with Professor Cooper upon this subject, he -informed me that in his domestic medical practice he applied common -chalk to the wounds occasioned by the stings of hymenopterous -insects. That in consequence of this mode of treatment, the pain -was immediately allayed, and the consequent inflammation and -intumescence were prevented. The experiment which led to this -result was induced by the supposition that the venomous liquid -might be an acid, which opinion was, in some degree, justified by -the event.[34] Upon the same neutralizing principle it must be -supposed that any alkali would be beneficial. The learned Professor -supposed, that the venom of the poisonous reptilia may, in like -manner, be an acid secretion, and recommends this to be ascertained -by experiments upon the liquid itself. - -If this inference proves correct, the same alkaline remedy may be -employed to neutralize, or so modified as to stimulate, in case, -as is supposed by some, the poison produces upon the system a -typhoid action. - -An instance however is related in the Trans. Royal Soc. of Lond. -of the unsuccessful administration of the vol. alkali in case of -the bite of a Rattle-snake; and an intelligent physician of Georgia -informed me, that he had applied the same stimulant in vain for the -cure of the bites of poisonous snakes, but that being once stung by -a Scorpion, he was instantaneously relieved by the topical use of -this liquid. He further related to me a cure performed under his -observation, by means of the singular antidote, which has often -been resorted to in case of snake bites, that of the application -of a living domestic fowl or other bird directly to the wound; -three fowls were applied in this instance, of which two died in -a few minutes, it was supposed, by the poison extracted from the -wound. This account, from an observant medical professor, (who -may nevertheless have been deceived) acquires some additional -title to consideration by a similar event which lately occurred at -Schooley's Mountain, New-Jersey. We are informed from a respectable -source, that a boy was there bitten by a Copper-head, (Scytale -mockeson.)[35] The part was immediately painful, became swollen and -inflamed, and the sufferer had every appearance of having received -a dangerous wound. A portion of the breast of a fowl was denudated -of feathers, and applied to the wound; in a few minutes the fowl -died, without having experienced any apparent violence or injurious -pressure, from the hand of the applicant, the breast exhibiting a -livid appearance. Another living fowl was then laid open by the -knife, and the interior of the body placed upon the wound. The -wound was subsequently scarified, and variously administered to. -The boy however recovered, and his cure was generally attributed, -at least in part, to the application of the birds. I am as far -as any one from relying implicitly upon this mode of treatment, -and would only resort to it when the part bitten could not be -extirpated, and when a cautery was not at hand. Yet it must be -confessed, that from the numerous attestations to its efficacy we -should be almost led to suppose a very strong affinity to exist -between the venom and the animal thus applied. - -That so numerous a catalogue of plants have gained credit with the -uninformed as specifics, will not be surprising, when we know that -the reservoir of the venom is very readily exhausted and slowly -replenished. When this reservoir is vacated, the reptile is of -course innoxious, and the most inert plant would then stand a good -chance of gaining reputation with the credulous as a specific. - -For a similar reason we have so many cures for the bite of a rabid -animal; and it may be for a similar reason that the body of an -animal has acquired repute as an antidote, against the venom of a -serpent. - -_Coluber trivittata_ of Mr. R. p. 80, of this work. Judging from -the descriptive name and the locality, is the _C. sirtalis_ of -authors, or possibly the _C. saurita_ or _C. ordinatus_. These -serpents have each the three vittæ, though in the two former this -trait is much more striking. I know of no other serpent in our -vicinity to which the name can be characteristically applied. The -_ordinatus_ has been called _bipunctatus_ and _ibibe_ by the French -school. What is the difference between _sirtalis_ and _saurita_? -they must be very closely allied, if not synonymous. - -_Coluber getulus_, Lin. This species attains to a more considerable -magnitude than authors have stated. I saw a specimen on Cumberland -Island, Georgia, at least five feet long. The ground colour, by -the direction of light in which I viewed him, was deep glaucous -or livid, he was much more robust than _C. Constrictor_.[36] He -permitted my near approach, without agitating his tail in the -menacing manner of the serpent just mentioned, and of the crotali, -or manifesting any signs of fear. In my anxiety to secure -him, he eluded my grasp, and by a sudden and rapid exertion, -disappeared, with all the rapidity of movement so remarkable in -the _constrictor_. This last, from his celerity, is known in many -districts by the name of _Racer_. - -_Coluber heterodon._ This viperine species, of which Latreille has -formed a genus under the name of _Heterodon_, varies considerably -in its markings, and like most of our serpents, is not constant -in the number of its plates and scales, (126, 48-138, 42-141, 42, -&c.) perhaps too much reliance has been placed upon colour, and -upon the number of the plates and scales beneath the body, of the -Ophidiæ generally. In the form of the anterior termination of the -head, the _heterodon_ is remarkable, and a good specific character -may be obtained from the orbital scales, which are eleven or twelve -in number; the parabolic curve which passes through the eyes, and -terminates at the maxillary angles, is also generally present. -This same serpent was figured in Deterville's ed. of Buffon, under -the name of _Coleuvre cannelee_. The _heterodon_ abounds in many -sandy situations, and near the sea-shore. Several persons pursuing -a pathway, passed within a few inches of one of them without his -betraying any emotion, but the moment he perceived me advancing -with my eye fixed upon him, he with a sudden exertion assumed a -defensive attitude, by elevating the anterior portion of his body, -flattening his head, and 3 or 4 inches length of his neck; these he -waved with a steady and oblique motion from side to side, uttering -at the same time an audible sibilation, he made no attempt to -escape, and seemed absolutely fearless until taken. They have the -habit of the vipera, but not the fangs. It seems to be synonymous -with _Coluber simus_. This species is often called _mockeson_. -Dr. Shaw's description of _Boa contortrix_ seems to indicate this -species. Was he deceived by an erroneous reference to Catesby's -figure of this Hog-nose? or by Forster's catalogue? - -_Coluber punctatus._ A good diagnostic character of this species, -in addition to the cervical cestus, rests in the triple series of -abdominal dots; but these are often wanting or obsolete in the -young specimen, in which state it is probably the _torquatus_ of -Shaw. Sometimes the dots are wanting on the neck and near the -cloaca; and in one aged individual, the intermediate line occurred -double, and confluent on the throat. - -_Coluber fulvius_, this species is said by Daudin to be closely -allied to his _C. coccineus_, notwithstanding the difference in -plates and scales. But it is certainly very distinct by other -characters, and strikingly so in its perfectly annular black and -red bands; the latter are margined with yellowish and spotted with -black. A specimen has 224 plates and 32 scales, total length 21 -inches, length of the tail 1-9/10 inch. The _coccineus_ has the -under part of the body whitish, immaculate. The _fulvius_ seems to -belong to the genus _vipera_; it has the fangs, but not the orifice -behind the nostril, which communicates with the reservoir of venom, -so conspicuous in the _crotali_, &c. - -_Ophisaurus ventralis._ The tail of this snake not only breaks in -pieces when struck with a weapon, but portions of it are thrown -off at the will of the serpent. This singular fact I witnessed in -Georgia. This is one of the many which are called horn-snakes. A -tip of the tail of one of them was once brought to me as having -been taken from a recently withered tree, which the bearer assured -me was destroyed by the insertion of this formidable instrument, -and it was not without considerable difficulty he was convinced of -the innocence of the tail, and of having been the dupe of a knave. -There seems to be a peculiar character in the mode of imbrication -of the scales of this species, each one of these at the lateral -edges, passes beneath the lateral scale on one side, and over -the edge of the opposite one. It has been described under five -different generic names, and four different specific ones. - -The _Crotali_ do not gain a single joint only to the rattle -annually, as is generally supposed. They gain more than one -each year, the exact number being probably regulated in a great -measure by the quantity of nourishment the animal has received. -Rattle-snakes in Peale's Museum have been observed to produce 3 -or 4 in a year, and to lose as many from the extremity during the -same time. Hence it is obvious, that the growth of these curious -appendages is irregular, and that the age of an individual cannot -be determined from their number. Mr. Rubens Peale informed me, that -a female of _Crotalus horridus_, Beauv. _durissus_, Daud. which -lived in his Museum more than fourteen years, had eleven joints to -her rattle when first in his possession; that several joints were -acquired and lost annually, and that at her death, which occurred -last year, she had the same number as when brought to the Museum; -she had, however, during that time received an accession of four -inches to her length. Her death was occasioned by an abortion. - -The _C. adamanteus_, Beauvois. _Rhombifer_, Daud. is by much the -largest of our North American serpents, and doubtless is the -species which Catesby saw a specimen of, eight feet long. - -_Crotalus miliarius_ varies in some characters from those laid -down by authors. A specimen within my view has five dorsal series, -of alternate, irregularly orbicular black spots, those of the -intermediate series are obsolete, and slightly connected across -the back, those of the vertebral series have not red centres, -and are edged with a white line; the ventral spots are disposed -adventitiously, so as not to be traced into longitudinal series; -they are large, black, irregularly orbicular, and occupy about one -half of the surface, which is white. Ventral plates 140; subcaudal, -33, of which the six terminal ones are bifid. Joints of the rattle -with but one transverse contraction on the middle of each, besides -the terminal contraction. Total length 1 foot 4¼ inches, tail two -inches. It appears to be more vindictive than the two species -before mentioned. The individual here noticed we encountered in -East Florida; he struck at Mr. W. Maclure and myself successively -as we passed by him, without any previous intimation of his -presence, owing to the inaudible smallness of his rattle, and its -having but three joints; he was killed by Mr. T. Peale, (whom we -preceded) while preparing for another assault. This incident is -noted as a contrast to the anecdote of the _Coluber heterodon_. - -_Salamandra alleganiensis_, Daud. appears to be synonymous with _S. -gigantea_ of Dr. Barton. It was first described by Mr. Latreille -in Deterv. Ed. of Buffon, tom. 11. The name _alleganiensis_, -although defective, as it indicates no character, has however the -unalienable right of priority. - -_Salamandra subviolacea_, Barton. This name has been rejected by -Mr. Daudin, and substituted by that of _venenosa_, I do not know -for what reason, as none is assigned. - -_Salamandra punctata_, Gmel. This appellation was originally given -and restricted to the _stelio_ of Catesby. tab. 10. (represented -in the bill of Ardea Herodias) and was adopted by many subsequent -authors, but was finally rejected by Daudin, who considered -the species the same as Barton's _subviolacea_. He concurred -with Mr. Latreille in appropriating the name thus rejected to -_var. β_ of _Lacerta_, _aquatica_ of Gmel. Notwithstanding this -high authority I cannot but coincide with Professor Barton in -this instance, in believing it altogether distinct. The single -character of the subocellate spots, though not remarked by this -author, is a sufficiently discriminative one; these ocellæ are -always present, and in no one of the varieties I have seen has -the approximation to the _subviolacea_ been so considerable as to -render a specific discrepance equivocal. Catesby's variety with -the ocellæ on the tail seems to be the least common; in general -these spots, or epupillate ocellæ, are exclusively confined to a -line on each side of the back, about six in each, extending from -the base of the head to the origin of the tail, though there are -sometimes scattered smaller ones on each side of the body, and upon -the vertex of the head, they are of a beautiful reddish colour, -enclosed by a definite black areola; the upper part of the body -is brownish, with numerous, distant black points, and a slight -vertebral, obtuse carina, the inferior surface of the body of a -fine yellow or orange, with distant black points, the tail[37] is -compressed, ancipital, attenuated to an obtuse tip, longer than -the body, and punctured with black in like manner. The younger -specimens vary considerably, in being, on many parts of the body, -destitute of black punctures, and in having the dorsal and ventral -colour, of the same pale orange. It is decidedly aquatic. Several -specimens are preserved in the collection of the Academy of Natural -Sciences, and from these it is evident that the reddish colour of -the subocellate spots is destroyed by the action of the antiseptic -liquid; to this circumstance it is probably owing that these spots -have been hitherto described as white. - -After stating these differential traits, it may be proper to -observe, that the _S. maculata_ of Shaw is synonymous with the -above. But I think it most proper to restore Gmelin's name -_punctata_, which will afford an opportunity to do justice to the -memory of Laurenti, by reviving the original name by which he -distinguished the _Var. β. of Lacerta_, _aquatica_, Gmel., that of -_parisinus_. - -_Bufo cornuta._ This animal, which has been stigmatized as -the most prodigiously deformed _creature_ known to exist!! is -generally supposed to inhabit North America as well as Surinam. -I do not think it has ever been found in North America. Shaw, in -Nodder's Nat. Misc. says it is principally found in Virginia, but -in his General Zoology, I think he says that Seba was in error -when he represented its native country to be North America. Two -other species of _Bufo_ have been correctly stated to inhabit -this country, viz. _B. musicus_, and _Crapaud rougeâtre_, Daud. -(B. rubidus) first noticed as distinct by Mr. William Bartram. I -discovered a third species on the banks of St. John's river, East -Florida, which, as I am not at present prepared to describe, I -shall not surreptitiously name. - -It is, I conceive, an incumbent duty on the describer of a natural -object, to deposit his specimen, or a duplicate, when practicable, -in some cabinet or museum, to which he should refer, in order -that subsequent writers may be satisfied with the accuracy of his -observations, by examining for themselves. By such reference, and -by the re-examination of the same objects by others, the plethoric -redundance of synonyma, that prolific source of accumulating error, -will be banished or elucidated, and naturalists will most readily -arrive at the knowledge of truth, which is, or ought to be, the -grand leading object of their labours. - - - - -PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. - - - - -ART. XI. _Outline of a Theory of Meteors._ - -_By_ WM. G. REYNOLDS, M.D. _Middletown Point, New-Jersey_. - - -Should the progress of science, for a century to come, keep -pace with its rapid advancement for the last fifty years, many -appearances in the physical world, now enveloped in obscurity, will -then admit of as easy solution as the combustion of inflammable -substances, or any familiar process in chemistry does at this -day. Among the many subjects from which the veil of mystery would -thus be raised, we may include those luminous appearances, in the -aerial regions, called meteors, which I am about to consider in the -following essay; and which seem to constitute a distinct class of -bodies of considerable variety. - -Meteors were regarded by the ancients as the sure prognostics -of great and awful events in the moral and physical world; and -were divided by them into several species, receiving names -characteristic of the various forms and appearances they assumed; -but of their opinions, as to the physical cause of these phenomena, -the ancients have left us nothing solid or instructive. The -moderns, more enlightened, have ceased to regard these bodies with -the superstitious awe of former ages; but in respect to the cause -thereof, are perhaps but little in advance of their predecessors, -having, I believe, produced nothing yet that will bear the test of -philosophical investigation. - -Doctor Blagden (Philosophical Transactions, 1784,) considers -electricity as the general cause of these phenomena; Doctor -Gregory, and others, think they depend upon collections of highly -inflammable matter, as phosphorus, phosphorated hydrogen, &c. being -volatilized and congregated in the upper regions of the air. -Doctor Halley ascribes them to a fortuitous concourse of atoms, -which the earth meets in her annual track through the ecliptic; -and Sir John Pringle seems to regard them as bodies of a celestial -character, revolving round centres, and intended by the Creator -for wise and beneficent purposes, perhaps to our atmosphere, to -free it of noxious qualities, or supply such as are salutary. Many -other theories, as ingenious as fanciful, might be enumerated; but -without commenting on their comparative merit, I must acknowledge -that none of them have yet impressed my mind with a conviction of -their truth. A series of observations, however, have enabled the -moderns to ascertain, with apparent accuracy, several particulars -relative to these stupendous bodies, which add much to our -knowledge of their general character:--their velocity, equal to -30, and even 40 miles in a second of time; their altitude, from 20 -to 100 miles; and their diameter, in some instances, more than a -mile, are facts we derive from respectable authority, and may aid -us, essentially, in forming just conceptions of their nature and -properties. - -I believe meteoric stones to result from all meteoric explosions; -limiting, however, the term meteor to those phenomena, in the -higher regions of the air, denominated fire-balls, shooting-stars, -&c. That these bodies move in a resisting medium, must be -evident to every attentive observer; and that this medium is our -atmosphere, is pretty certain, 1st. Because we know of no other -resisting medium round the earth; 2dly. Because the same kind of -resistance is apparent at every intermediate altitude, from their -greatest to their least, which last we know to be far within our -atmospheric bounds; and, 3dly. Calculation has, in no instance, -assigned them an elevation beyond the probable height of the -atmosphere. - -That meteors proceed from the earth, that they arise from certain -combinations of its elements with heat, and that meteoric -stones are the necessary result of the decompositions of these -combinations, are opinions I will endeavour to support, by the -following considerations. - -1st. The properties and habitudes of matter, under certain -conditions and combinations. - -2dly. The situation of the earth's surface in respect to the sun, -the influence of his rays thereon, and the nature of the elements -or compounds on which these rays act: - -And 3dly. The identity that exists between the component parts of -meteoric stones, and the elements that enter abundantly into the -composition of our globe; and, by several other facts and arguments. - -Under my first general specification, I will select such principles -from the established doctrines of philosophy, as have an immediate -bearing on the subject; without engaging in any of those subtle -speculations in which certain recondite properties of matter, or -the identities of quality and body are affirmed or denied. - -Thus, 1st. Heat is the universal cause of fluidity and volatility -in bodies; hence no solid can assume the state of gas, until it -absorbs, or unites with, a certain portion of caloric; and the -subtilty and volatility of compounds thus formed, will be in a due -ratio to the quantity of caloric they employ. - -2dly. The heat employed to maintain a body in the gaseous state, -is said to be latent or fixed, and may be regarded as an ocean or -atmosphere of fire, holding the ultimate particles of the body in a -state of extreme division, and wide separation, from which they can -be driven only by some change in the affinities or condition of the -compound. - -3dly. If the latent heat in a gaseous compound be suddenly -abstracted, as in explosion, its escape is attended with the -emission of light and sensible heat, when the volatilized particles -held in solution being no longer able to maintain the state of gas, -suffer approximation in a due proportion to the quantity of caloric -they have lost. - -4thly. Caloric, in reducing solids to the state of gas, lessens, -but cannot in any case, as far as we know, totally destroy their -gravitating force; the diminution of this force, however, being -in a direct proportion to the quantity of heat employed.--Hence -the following inferences may be fairly drawn, as they seem to -be in unison with the relative dependence and harmony existing -between the material elements of this globe, and, I believe, are -contradicted by no direct experiments; viz. that the expansion of -volume, specific levity, and subtilty of artificial gases, are in a -direct proportion to the absolute quantity of caloric they employ; -and the caloric is in the same proportion to the insolubility of -the substance with which it unites. - -5thly. When the specific gravity of bodies on the surface of the -earth, is reduced below that of the superincumbent atmosphere, they -ascend to media of their own density, in obedience to the laws of -Aerostatics; thus we raise balloons by filling them with light air, -and the carbon of pit coal and common wood exposed to combustion, -and water to the sun's rays, will rise until they reach a medium of -like specific gravity with themselves. - -6thly. Mechanical agitation and division assist the solution of -solids, by bringing fresh portions of the menstruum into successive -contact with their fragments, and thus exposing a larger surface. - -Under the second head I proceed to notice the situation of the -earth's surface in respect to the sun, &c. The atmosphere is -a thin, elastic, gravitating fluid, that completely envelopes -the earth, to which it may be considered a kind of appendage or -external covering; its base resting on the earth's surface, is of -an uniform density, growing rare as it recedes therefrom, in a due -ratio to the diminution of its gravitating force, until it is lost -in empty space. The atmosphere is estimated on certain data to be -about 44 or 45 miles high, but we have good reasons to believe it -fills a much wider circle, though too thin to reflect the rays of -light above its reputed height. - -The earth presents one whole hemisphere to the sun in unerring -daily succession; and those parts of it which have the least -protection against his rays, will, cæteris paribus, suffer the -greatest intensity of their action. Within the tropics, the -atmosphere opposes less resistance to the sun's rays than in the -temperate zones; and in both large tracts of cultivated land, -the summits and sides of great ranges of mountains, margin of -oceans, rivers, &c. present an almost naked surface to their -influence.[38] The exterior strata of the earth, and especially the -more exposed parts thereof, envelope in their compounds, elements -of an identity of character with those composing meteoric stones. - -The atmosphere is the great recipient of all volatilized bodies; -it possesses but feebly the powers of a solvent, unaided by heat -or moisture, but when these are adjuvants, no body in nature can -totally resist their action for a long time. - -Now if the above principles are admitted, we have in their -application a reasonable solution of most meteoric phenomena. -Thus, the rays of the sun darting through the atmosphere reach -the surface of the earth, where, by accumulation, they produce -sensible heat, which though not intense, is steady and uniform, for -many hours every day; minute portions of the earthy and metallic -compounds exposed to the sun's influence, will be volatilized by -the absorption of heat, and thereby assuming the state of elastic -fluids, will ascend until they arrive at media of their own -density. The atmosphere in contact, will have some of its particles -blended in these compounds, will ascend with them, and to supply -the vacuum, new portions of air will rush in and ascend, and the -process will continue until the sun's rays are withdrawn, or -interrupted by some of the common occurrences of nature. - -The utmost height to which these elastic fluids ascend, may be -estimated at something more than one hundred miles; and they float -at every intermediate distance between their greatest elevation -and the clouds, but rarely below the latter, except their course -is directed towards the earth in their explosions. They probably -ascend at first in small daily detached portions of gaseous -clouds, and are diffused over wide regions; but having no sensible -resistance opposed to their mutual attraction, they will by the -laws of their affinities congregate into immense volumes of highly -concentrated elastic fluids, which on exploding will exhibit all -the phenomena of bursting meteors in the following manner, viz. -the latent heat on escaping will manifest itself in the form of -fire and light, the force with which it strikes the atmosphere, -or the rebound of the latter to fill the vacuum, or both, will -occasion sound more or less detonating or hissing, as the escape is -more sudden, or the atmosphere more dense; the earthy and metallic -particles on the escape of caloric, will obey the laws of cohesive -attraction, clash together, recover their gravity, and descend to -the earth in masses, or shattered fragments. - -Meteoric stones frequently bear the marks of violence, which -is doubtless owing to the conflict sustained at the moment of -explosion; their difference in size depends on the difference -of magnitude in the disploding volumes; something like regular -arrangement is frequently perceived in the structure of these -stones, because in all productions of solid from fluid matter, the -consolidating particles possess a tendency to arrange themselves in -the order of their affinities. It is thus the various arrangements -in saline crystallization, the freezing of water, and cooling of -melted metals, may be accounted for. There is a real, as well as an -apparent difference in the velocity of meteoric bodies; the first -arising from their difference of magnitude and the violence of the -explosion, as well as from the resistance they meet; the latter, -from the different distances at which they are seen. The gradation -of colour, from a bright silvery hue to a dusky red, is owing, -in a certain degree, to the state of the atmosphere refracting -different coloured rays, and also to the materials in the compound, -similar to the different hues in artificial fireworks. Reddish and -white nebicula are sometimes left in the tracks of meteors, which -are nothing but ignited vapours, or the particles brushed off the -burning body by the resisting atmosphere. The velocity or motion -and direction of meteors, depend upon principles well known and -daily practised by engineers, and the constructors of fireworks. - -The immediate cause of these explosions is a little obscure, and -merits a fuller detail than is compatible with my present limits; -their analogy to the electric phenomena in the clouds, leaves -room to suppose they are effected by certain modifications of -electricity. Clouds of opposite electricities will approach each -other and explode, by the positive imparting as much electrical -fire to the negative cloud as will make them equal, when just as -much water as the imparted fire held in solution, will be set at -liberty and descend to the earth. If, however, this solution be -deemed inapplicable, perhaps the following may be admitted. Thus, -when heat is urged upon incombustible[39] bodies with a force -that overcomes the cohesive property by which their particles -are tied together, it unites with them in large quantities, and -becomes latent, by which union they are reduced to the state of -elastic fluids; and as it is a universal property of heat to -counteract the gravitating force of bodies, these compounds must -necessarily become volant, and ascend as above stated. It is only -thermometrical or sensible heat, that destroys the attraction of -cohesion existing between the particles of bodies, the repulsive -power of latent heat being barely able to counteract this property, -when the elements under its dominion are removed beyond a certain -distance from each other; now the very reduced temperature in the -high regions to which these gaseous clouds will ascend, may admit -their earthy and metallic particles within the sphere of cohesive -or aggregative attraction, when the caloric will be expelled like -water from a sponge, accompanied by all the phenomena above stated. - -The third general head of my subject leads me to inquire into the -constituent principles of meteoric stones: sundry papers on the -analysis of these productions, have been furnished us by chemists -of acknowledged reputation and ability, and in none of these that -I have seen, was there any element described that had not been -previously known. But should it hereafter be found that air stones -contain matters not found on our globe, the fact will afford no -absolute proof of the foreign origin of these stones, as we are -successively discovering earthy and metallic principles of distinct -characters from those already known. - -A portion of one of these stones that fell in the town of Weston, -(Connecticut) examined by the late Dr. Woodhouse, gave the -following results in a hundred parts, viz. - - Silex 50 - Iron 27 - Sulphur 7 - Magnesia 10 - Nickel 1 inferred from chemical tests. - Loss 5 - ---- - 100 - -"The sulphur was seen by the naked eye distributed through the -silex in round globules the size of a pin's head, after dissolving -the powdered stone in diluted nitric acid." - -All specimens of these stones do not afford precisely similar -results, but differ in their constituent elements and relative -proportions; their component parts, however, are to be found -abundantly in schist, schorl, pyrites, pebble, granite, &c. on -which the sun must daily act. - -The following facts go to strengthen the above theory, viz. -Meteors are most frequent and stupendous in tropical countries, -where the heat of the sun is most intense; and less frequent in -our climate in the winter and spring, while, and after the earth -has been covered with snow for many weeks in succession; and they -are most frequent in the higher latitudes towards autumn, after -a continuation of hot dry weather: out of the whole number (179) -of shooting stars I have noted during the last twelve years, 149 -appeared between June and December, inclusive. - -If it be said that the specific gravity of meteoric stones being -several times that of water, it is absurd to suppose they can rise, -(if even reduced to the state of gas) to the elevated stations here -assigned them, seeing the vapours of water can ascend only one or -two miles above the earth. To this I reply, that the doctrine of -heat is not yet so thoroughly understood, as to acquaint us with -all its habitudes with natural bodies, but we infer from analogy, -that the more refractory a body is in the fire, the greater in -a due ratio is the absolute quantity of heat required to reduce -it to, and retain it in, the state of gas, and the greater, in -a corresponding degree, will be the dilatation of its particles -and decrease of its specific gravity. Hence, if water reduced to -vapour by heat, be capable of assuming an altitude of two miles, it -follows that more refractory substances reduced to a similar state, -will suffer expansion and fugacity in a due proportion to the -quantity of caloric they employ, and will assume a corresponding -elevation, as already inferred under my first head. - -Another objection may be, that though high degrees of heat affect -certain solids as above stated, yet these cannot be sensibly acted -on by such feeble agents as atmospheric air and the rays of the -sun. I answer, if it be admitted that sensible heat acts on solids -in an increasing ratio to its intensity, it follows that lower -degrees, though acting in an inverse ratio to higher, must affect -the same bodies in a conceivable degree at any temperature above -their natural zero:[40] and though the heat of the sun beating on -a plane surface for several hours is feeble, compared with that -produced by a burning lens, or air furnace, yet if it be sufficient -to detach from one square foot of the earth's surface the 104023 -part of a grain in twenty-four hours, the quantity taken from 100 -square miles, in the same time and proportion, would amount to ten -pounds, which is abundantly sufficient for all meteoric phenomena; -and the loss to each square foot, supposing the process to be -uninterrupted, would be no more than one grain in 284 years. When -we advert to the intense heat produced by concentrating a few of -the sun's rays in a burning lens, the whole quantity daily sent -to the earth must strike us forcibly. If collected in a lens of -sufficient magnitude, they might volatilize a space equal to the -state of New-York in a moment of time! As all bodies possess a -limited capacity for heat, does it not follow that there must be -some outlet to its perpetual accession to our globe, or the earth -would soon become so highly ignited as to glow with the fulgour of -a meteor? And may not this outlet be found in the above described -compounds? which serve as conductors of the surplus of heat from -the earth to the higher regions of the air, where on being freed -by displosion, from the grosser matters incumbering it, it finds -a rapid passage to its great archetype and parent, the SUN. Thus -his daily waste may be restored, and an equilibrium, by the return -of his own emanated particles, preserved, between the sun and the -earth, and probably all the planets of our system. - -The last consideration I shall offer in favour of the domestic or -earthly origin of meteoric phenomena, is the difficulties that -present to our granting them a foreign one. Though I am well aware -of the respectability of the names which the theory of moonstones -can summon to its support, yet I have always regarded it as -unfounded and unphilosophical for the following reasons, viz. 1st. -Whether the moon has an atmosphere or not, we will all admit that -she has attraction, which must extend to many thousands of miles -from her surface. No projectile force that we are acquainted with -can throw a heavy body 100 miles, even though no atmospheric, -or other resistance than its own gravity, were present; hence -the idea of that force extending to thousands of miles from the -moon's surface, is gratuitous and nugatory. 2dly. The products of -volcanoes bear no similarity of origin, or kindred resemblance to -meteoric stones; those are lavas of different kinds, pumicestone, -scoria, ashes, &c. these solid masses of matter, with some degree -of regularity in the arrangement of their constituent particles. -3dly. The descent of these stones has no coincidence in point of -time with the position of the moon. She is as often in their nadir -as their zenith. We also witness in all cases, explosion and light -in our own atmosphere, at the time of the descent of these stones. -This could not be the case if they proceeded from the moon, for -obvious reasons. 4thly. The heat adequate to such projectile force -as would carry a body from the moon's surface beyond the sphere of -her attraction, would volatilize the matter of meteoric stones in a -moment; hence they would not be projected from the Lunarian crater -in solid masses, but in elastic vapour. - -In conclusion, although the theory which I have endeavoured to -elucidate and establish, be subject to some difficulties and -objections which science may hereafter remove, it appears to me -perfectly consonant with the relative dependence and harmony of our -system, and by no means at variance with the infinite wisdom and -power by which it was originated. - - - - -ART. XII. _Observations upon the prevailing Currents of Air in -the State of Ohio and the Regions of the West, by_ CALEB ATWATER, -_Esq. of Circleville, Ohio; in Letters addressed to His Excellency -De Witt Clinton, LL. D. Governor of the State of New-York, and -President of the Literary and Philosophical Society_. - -(Communicated for the American Journal of Science, &c.) - - - _Circleville, Ohio, July 23, 1818._ - - DEAR SIR, - -With pleasure, I acknowledge the receipt of the circular letter -bearing date the 5th instant, which you addressed to me, for which -you will be pleased to accept my warmest acknowledgments for -yourself personally, and the Philosophical Society of which you are -the president. To answer all the questions which are put to me in -that letter, is not at present within my limited means, either as -it respects the leisure or the ability. I shall therefore, at this -time, confine myself to "observations upon the prevailing currents -of air in the state of Ohio."[41] These observations will be wholly -founded on personal experience, during the four years in which I -have traversed this state, from Lake Erie to the Ohio river, whilst -attending on the several courts, in all seasons and in all the -changes of weather. - -The prevailing currents of air, one of which generally obtains in -Ohio, are three. - -The first comes from the Mexican Gulf, ascending the Mississippi -and its larger tributary branches quite to their very sources. - -The second proceeds from the back of mountains to the west, -descends the Missouri to its mouth, and then spreads over a vast -extent of country. - -The third comes down the great northern and northwestern lakes to -the south end of Lake Michigan and the southern shore of Lake Erie, -where it spreads over the region of country lying to the south of -them. - -That current of air which comes from the Mexican Gulf, is warmer, -and perhaps more moist, than any other which prevails here. After a -few days prevalence, it uniformly brings rain along with it. That -this current of air should be very warm may be readily conceived, -when we reflect that it comes from a hot tropical region; and -that it should be very moist, excites no surprise, when it is -considered, that in its passage upwards it passes wholly over -water, and through the warm mists and fogs constantly ascending -from the Mississippi and its tributaries. This current prevails -much more along the Ohio river than it does at any considerable -distance from it. One consequence is, that the climate in the -immediate vicinity of the Ohio river is warmer, than it is either -north or south of it, unless you go to the southward a considerable -distance. Other causes may, and probably do, in a greater or less -degree, contribute to produce this result, and I will here state -them: - -First, The Ohio runs on a surface less elevated above the sea than -the country, either north or south of it, but this difference -is trifling through the whole of the sandstone formation. This -formation prevails from the head of the Ohio to Aberdeen, which -is opposite to Marysville in Kentucky, at least two-thirds of the -distance which that river washes the southern shore of this state. -The reason is obvious, because there are no falls in a sandstone -formation. - -Another cause which contributes to produce a warmer climate, -especially in the winter season, in the valley of the Ohio, is, -that several considerable streams which empty themselves into the -Ohio, have their sources on the highlands, a great distance to the -south of it; for instance, the Great and Little Sandy, and the -Great and Little Kenhawa, which descending from a warm region of -country, their waters contribute to keep the Ohio open in winter. - -But these causes are by no means sufficient to produce the one half -of the comparative warmth of climate observable in the immediate -vicinity of this invaluable river. To prove that the climate is -much milder in the southern than in the northern part of this -state, I will proceed to mention several facts, which have fallen -under my own observation. - -In the latter part of last February I was at the town of Delaware, -on the Whetstone Branch of the Scioto river, between eighty and -ninety miles south of Lake Erie, and twenty-five miles north of -Columbus, the seat of government, which is near the centre of the -state, where I saw a number of gentlemen direct from Detroit, -by the way of Lower Sandusky, who informed me that the snow at -that time was eighteen inches in depth and upwards all along the -lake shore, but gradually decreased as they came south until -they arrived at Delaware. At that place it was then about twelve -inches deep in the open fields, and somewhat deeper in the woods. -I descended the road along the Whetstone to Columbus, the snow -decreasing in depth all the way as I proceeded. At Columbus it -wholly disappeared in the fields, and only ice was found in the -road, which also decreased until I came to the Big Walnut Creek, -thirteen miles south of Columbus, where it disappeared, and the -road began to be muddy. As I still proceeded south, the mud -increased in depth until I came to Chillicothe, about thirty-two -miles south of Big Walnut, where the frost was entirely out of -the ground, and the roads were almost impassable. As I still -descended southward, along the Scioto, I found that at Piketon, -on the Scioto, nineteen miles south of Chillicothe, the road had -considerably improved. I proceeded onwards to Portsmouth on the -Ohio river, at the mouth of the Scioto, about twenty-six miles -south of Piketon, where the ground was entirely settled, and the -innkeeper, where I lodged, was making his garden, sowing his -sallad seed, and planting his peas. This journey was performed in -three days, and in travelling only one hundred and fifteen miles -from north to south, this extraordinary difference of climate was -observed. - -A traveller may leave Portsmouth when the farmer is beginning -to hoe his corn the first time, and travel with good speed to -Delaware, and find the husbandman just beginning to plant. - -Instances which have fallen within my own personal observation -might be multiplied to a great extent, but a few may suffice. - -Generally speaking, there is a difference in the beginning and -ending of the warm season of about two weeks between Portsmouth -and Delaware, or of three weeks between the former place and Lower -Sandusky. - -In relation to the warmth of the climate, I will state two other -facts, originating, as I believe, in the prevalence of the southern -current of air from the Mexican Gulf along the Ohio river. - -First, In the summer months the paroquet ascends the Scioto more -than one hundred miles from its mouth, and until within a few -years past, wintered at Miller's Bottom, and at other places along -the banks of the Ohio, near its great southern bend in latitude -38° north, in Gallia and Lawrence counties, in the state of Ohio. -I have seen them there in all the winter months in considerable -numbers, but few however now winter there; and probably if the -cold northwestern current of air from the great lakes becomes more -and more prevalent in the winter months, these birds will migrate -altogether to a more southern clime. - -Are these birds found as far to the north on the east side of -the Alleghany by at least three degrees? Monsieur Volney, Mr. -Jefferson, and others, say not. It has been denied that this fact -proves any thing more than that this bird frequented these parts -in quest of its favourite food. This food is grass and other -vegetable matter in summer, and the cockle bur, and the balls of -button-wood, or, as by a perversion of language, it is called in -this country sycamore.[42] But this bird may find its favourite -food as well east as west of the Alleghanies. The grasses and trees -alluded to, flourish as I have observed in forty-five degrees of -north latitude, and I am credibly informed that they are abundant -as far north as Quebec, and even around Hudson's Bay. Wherever -waters run and trees grow on their banks, (if low and wet,) on -the American continent, even as high as eighty degrees of north -latitude, there the paroquet may find its food in abundance. - -Another fact tending to establish the same point is, that the -reed cane, before this country was much settled, grew in a higher -latitude by several degrees on this than it did on the other side -of the Alleghany mountains. It has indeed been said, that this -cane was never found north of the Ohio, nor above the mouth of -the Big Sandy River, which empties into the Ohio, on the line -which separates Virginia and Kentucky. This however is incorrect; -for within a few years it was growing in abundance at Miller's -Bottom, twenty-six miles above the mouth of Big Sandy. It grew at -Lancaster, on the Hockhocking, northward of the mouth of the Big -Sandy, in a direct line, at least one hundred and fifty miles, and -it now grows on the Whetstone branch of the Scioto, more than two -degrees of latitude above the lowest bend of the Ohio, which is at -the mouth of the Big Sandy. Before the white people settled there, -I have every reason to believe, that the cane grew in great plenty -at Delaware, where there are more signs of buffaloes than at any -other place within my knowledge. It has been conjectured, that the -seed of the cane was brought down and scattered by the Big Sandy; -but granting this, in what way could that stream carry this seed -up the Hockhocking and Scioto to their sources? to places several -hundred feet above the highest freshes ever known in this country? -With a knowledge of these facts, cast your eye at the map of Ohio. -Proofs within my reach might be multiplied to a much greater -extent, but they are probably unnecessary. - -But another current of air prevails here, especially in the cold -months, coming from the mouth of the Missouri, which is a little -to the south of west of this place. This current is colder than -the preceding one, and though moist, yet not as much so as the one -already described. It prevails generally in October and November, -before our warm weather is over, and produces frosts and a chilly -dampness, and what I have observed nowhere else, especially on the -east side of the Alleghanies, it produces a kind of faintness at -the breast. - -People of delicate habits, coming here from the northern and -eastern states, uniformly complain of this faintness. It is not -perhaps extraordinary that this current of air should be cold, -proceeding as it does from a high northern latitude, along the -great chain of rocky mountains in the northwest; that it should be -moist, and perhaps also that it should affect the animal economy -unpleasantly, may possibly be attributed to its passing such a -length of way over the waters of the Missouri, and the wet prairies -and barrens lying so extensively between us and the head waters of -that stream. The luxuriant vegetation which covers these prairies -and barrens at that season of the year, begins to putrefy, and -fills with unhealthy exhalations every gale of wind which passes -over them. - -At the mouth of this river (Missouri,) which is in about latitude -38° north, this current of air is extremely cold in the winter -months. It diverges from this point, and produces extreme cold -at a considerable distance to the south of it on the Mississippi -river. General Rector, the present surveyor general of the United -States, who keeps his office at St. Louis, informs, that he has -known the Mississippi at St. Genevieve, in latitude about 37°, -so firmly covered with ice in one night, as to be able to bear -horses and cattle the ensuing day. This circumstance must have been -owing to the sudden change of the current of air from south to the -northwest, descending the Missouri river from the cold regions at -its sources. - -From several gentlemen, residents for many years in Illinois and -Missouri Territories, I have been informed, that changes of weather -in that region of country are, especially in winter, very frequent -and great; that one day the moist south wind from the Mexican gulf -will prevail, and produce quite warm and mild weather for the -season; on the very next, or frequently in the latter part of the -same, the current of air from the sources of the Missouri will -prevail, and block up the streams with ice. - -There is a third current of air which prevails during our winter -months, more and more, annually, as the country becomes cleared of -its forests in the direction alluded to; it proceeds from the great -lakes to the northwest of us, and even beyond them. Proceeding as -it does from the north and northwest of lake Superior, and crossing -the great expanse of water in this direction, it rushes down these -great lakes to the south end of lake Michigan in latitude about -41° north, diverges from that point, and spreads over the immense -regions lying to the south, where the air is more rarefied by -reason of its warmer climate. This current of air brings along with -it intense cold, and extended last winter even to New-Orleans, -where the snow fell to such a depth, that sleighs were seen passing -in every part of the city. The more the forests are cleared away -between any place in this country and the northern lakes, the more -this cold current of air will prevail. This current also diverges -from the southern shore of Lake Erie, but is not so strong as -that part of it which diverges from the south end of Michigan, -and of course does not extend as far to the south. When this part -of this state was first settled, this current of air was hardly -felt at this place, and then only for a short time in the winter -months, and hardly ever reached the Ohio river; but last winter it -continued three weeks at one time, and produced good sleighing; -and also caused rheumatisms, pleurisies, peripneumonies, &c. which -proved mortal to some. In this place, which is in latitude about -39° 20′ north, the thermometer of Fahrenheit, hanging in an entry -of a dwelling-house with closed doors, sunk to 24 degrees below -zero. This extreme cold may be attributed to general, rather than -to local causes, and it may be said that the winters all over the -world have been colder of late years than formerly. But on the very -day, when it was thus cold, (if newspapers can be believed) a great -number of vessels put to sea from Reedy Island in the Delaware -below Philadelphia, and about thirty sail of vessels went to sea -from New-York harbour. - -All our streams were at the same time bridged with ice of great -firmness as well as thickness, and continued to be so for a -considerable time afterward, until the warmer current of air from -the south prevailed over the current from the lakes. It will be -proper, and may be necessary, here to state, that the latitudes of -several places in this country are very different from what you -would be led to believe from examining any map or chart now or ever -in existence. For instance, Lake Michigan extends farther south -than Fort Wayne, which place by actual survey is in this state; St. -Louis is not 38°, and the most southern point or bend of the Ohio -river, is not more than latitude 38° north. I state merely what I -am informed of by those who have ascertained these facts by actual -observation and survey. The place opposite the mouth of the Big -Sandy, is nearly as for south as Lexington in Kentucky. The south -end of Michigan lake ought to be laid down on the map 41° north. -Prevailing currents of air (not every breath of air which moves -over the surface) I have attempted to describe. It may be well -enough, however, to mention some other currents which sometimes -prevail for a few days. And here I will mention what our oldest -settlers along the Ohio have observed, that is, that whenever in -a dry time, there is a current of air proceeding down the river -for three or four days in succession, the current from the Gulf of -Mexico is sure to drive it back with redoubled force, and after -blowing a day or two, it is equally sure to bring rain with it. It -is easy to assign a cause for it; for meeting the trade winds in -the Gulf, it is driven back with redoubled violence to the sources -of the larger streams which empty themselves into the Gulf. - -When a thunder storm, proceeding in either a western or eastern -direction, as the case may be, happens to strike a large -water-course running either north or south, and when also there -happens to be a large branch emptying into the stream, within a few -miles either above or below the point where the storm approaches -it, I have uniformly observed the storm to cross the large stream -at the point where the large branch unites with it, and ascend the -branch. Where there are two large tributaries about equi-distant -from the point of approach, the storm frequently divides and -follows each of them. The reason why it should be so, this is not -the place to discuss; but the Wisdom and Goodness which so ordered -it, are too apparent to every rational mind to be overlooked. It -may be asked if the difference in latitude and elevation between -the Ohio and lake regions of country, does not produce a great -difference in the climates of those respective regions? These -causes certainly produce some difference, but not all. It is my -object to establish facts, rather than any favourite theory. The -difference of latitude between the Ohio river at the mouth of the -Scioto, and lake Erie at the mouth of the Maume or Sandusky, is -nearly three degrees, and the difference of elevation above the -sea is trifling, if any. From the mouth of the Scioto to Columbus, -about 90 miles in a direct line, the water, where there is what is -commonly called a _ripple_, runs briskly, and these ripples happen, -perhaps, one to a mile; but they are in a sandstone region, and the -fall of course is trifling. - -Let us suppose then, that the river Scioto descends one hundred -feet from the mouth of the Whetstone, which empties into that river -at Columbus, to the Ohio, and that the Whetstone which runs through -a limestone formation, descends another hundred feet, which would -make Upper Sandusky two hundred feet higher than the Ohio river. -From this highest ground between the Ohio and the lake, it is a -well-known fact, that the land descends towards the north much -more in a given distance, than it does towards the south, and the -distance is not half as far. The Maume and other streams putting -into the lake, are full of rapids. Admitting for argument's sake, -that the Sandusky or Maume descend only 100 feet, then the surface -of the lake is 100 feet higher than the Ohio river. Would three -degrees of latitude, and 100 feet greater elevation produce three -weeks difference in the seasons? Is there that difference between -Baltimore in Maryland, and Wilkesbarre in Pennsylvania? Is there -that difference between New-York and Fort Edward on the Hudson? It -is believed that there is not one half that difference. - -I have referred but little to thermometers, because they are kept -in so many different situations by their owners, that I have known -no less than 8 degrees of difference between several of them kept -in one town, within almost a stone's throw of each other, at one -and the same moment of time. - -Every allowance being made for other causes, I am still of the -opinion that the difference in the climates of the Ohio and lake -regions of country, is to be attributed chiefly to the prevalence -of different currents of air. The southern current rarely, if ever, -reaches the northern lakes, and the northern, until lately, never -reached the Gulf of Mexico. But as the country is cleared of its -native forests, we may reasonably conclude this cold current of -air will prevail more and more, until we shall have snow enough -for sleighs, at least two months in every winter; the summers will -be shorter, the extremes of heat and cold will be greater than at -present, and those clouds which formerly obscured the sun almost -continually during the summer months, will be chased away, and -with them the pale cheek, the sallow hue, the oppression at the -breast, and the difficulty of respiration, the headache, and the -thousand ills which many of the first emigrants have experienced in -our climate. We shall probably then have fewer diseases, and more -acute ones. The storms will probably be fewer, more severe, and not -continue as long as at present. There are still further views which -might be taken of this subject, but they are left to abler pens and -future observations. - -Thus I have endeavoured to give my opinion on a subject of some -interest to the present, as well as future generations; in doing -which, I have not sought for flowers which might have been gathered -by stepping out of my path, but the _fruit_ rather of my own -observation and experience: I have not wandered through the fields -of imagination, invoking the poetic muse, but addressed myself -chiefly - - "To him who soars on golden wing, - Guiding his fiery-wheeled throne, - The cherub contemplation." - - - - -ART. XIII. _On a singular Disruption of the Ground, apparently -by Frost, in Letters from_ EDWARD HITCHCOCK, A.M. _Principal of -Deerfield Academy_. - -(With a Plate.) - - - _To the Editor of the American Journal of Science, &c._ - - SIR, - -I have lately examined a singular disruption in the earth, -discovered a few days since in the northerly part of an extensive -meadow in this town, about ten rods from Deerfield river. - -The soil on the spot is alluvial, consisting of a dry, rich, -vegetable mould, with a large intermixture of sand; and the field, -elevated 14 feet above the bed of the river, is annually mowed. A -valley encircles the ruptured spot on the east, south, and west, -only five feet lower, yet so marshy and soft, as to render draining -necessary to make it passable; and immediately back of this valley, -on the south, rises a hill 100 feet high, at whose foot are several -springs. North of the rupture, also, between it and the river, is a -gradual descent of three feet: indeed, the ground slopes from it on -every side except the northwest. - -A fissure one inch wide and fourteen deep, forming an almost -perfect ellipsis, whose diameters are 9 and 5½ rods, marks the -exterior limit of the convulsion. Within this curve are several -others nearly concentric to it, some forming a quarter, and some -half an ellipsis, and near the longer axis are others, running in -various directions. On this transverse diameter, which lies near -the highest part of the swell above described, and in its longest -direction, or parallel to the river, the greatest effect of the -convulsion appears. The earth, to the depth it has frozen the past -winter, 14 inches, is broken on a straight line above 6 rods, and -the south edge of the fissure, having been forced up, overlaps -the other, three feet. Where one edge does not thus overreach, -the tables of earth, which at a small distance resemble masses of -ice, are raised up so that their faces form an isosceles triangle, -leaving a cavity beneath. About the extremities of the transverse -axis, is also an overlapping of two feet, which continues nearly -two rods on the curve each way from the axis, and in most places -is double, overreaching internally and externally, exhibiting -likewise, some irregularity where the compressing forces acted at -right angles to each other. The edges of these elevated masses -of earth, which are yet frozen, are quite smooth, and the angles -but little fractured. I have dug into the earth about four feet -underneath the longer axis of the ellipsis, and thrust down a bar -in other places, but cannot perceive that the soil has been moved -below where it was frozen. It is, however, not the most favourable -season for ascertaining this fact. - -Every appearance on the spot will justify this conclusion, that the -frozen surface of the earth around, has pressed with great force -_from every direction_ to this ellipsis as a centre; for, were -every fissure in the ellipsis to be filled by replacing the earth, -there must remain on its longer axis and at the extremities of -this, an overplus of surface two feet wide. - -The month of February last has been unusually cold. Its mean -temperature in Deerfield, by Fahrenheit's scales, is as follows. - - 7_h._ A. M. 1½_h._ P. M. 10_h._ P. M. - 6° 24° 11° - -The extremes were 25° below, and 49° above zero. On the last day -but one of the month, the cold suddenly relaxed; and on the 1st -and 2d of March, a heavy and warm rain succeeded. This produced -an uncommon rise in Deerfield river, and on the 3d of March, it -had overflowed the ground where the above described phenomenon -occurred, and did not recede from it for 24 hours. Its greatest -depth there, was five feet. The snow was nearly one foot deep -when the flood happened, and being a nonconductor of heat, the -temperature of the surface of the ground was not probably much -changed from its state in February, until the water came in contact -with it. It may not be amiss to give the state of the thermometer -on the last of February and beginning of March. - - 7_h._ A. M. 1½_h._ P. M. 10_h._ P. M. Wind, weather, &c. - Feb. 27th, 15° below 0. 28° above 0. 32° above 0. South, clear. - 28th, 31 above 45 ----- 31 ----- do. do. - March 1st, 29 ----- 46 ----- 37 ----- N. E. rain. - 2d, 46 ----- 49 ----- 37 ----- do. do. - 3d, 30 ----- 35 ----- 29 ----- do. rain & clear. - -On the third of March, about sunset, some lads were sailing near -the spot where the disruption appears, and saw the water in -considerable agitation, with much bubbling, and at short intervals -it was thrown up in several places to the height of 3 or 4 feet. -They saw no rupture in the earth, although they came within two -or three rods of the spot, and state the water to have been two -feet deep. About one o'clock on the morning of March 4th, Mr. Seth -Sheldon and family, living one mile south from this spot, and being -awake, were alarmed by a loud report from the north, by which their -house and furniture were much shaken. They compared the sound, -though louder by far than they had ever heard from this cause, to -that of a cracking in the earth by frost in severe weather. Some -others living rather nearer the spot, were awakened by the same -report. That the rupture in the earth was made at that time is -probable, though not certain. - -It may be proper to state, that during the flood, no ice, except -a few loose masses, was carried over, or near the spot where the -disruption appears. This, therefore, could not have produced it. - -[Illustration: Disruption of the Ground by Frost. - -_N. & S. S. Jocelyn Sc. N.H._] - -Fig. 1. is a transverse section, taken with a theodolite, from -Deerfield river 28 rods south, crossing the longer axis of the -disruption at right angles. The scale is 4 rods to an inch, -although in laying off the heights and levels, the exact proportion -was a little varied, to render the irregularities of surface more -distinct. The letters of reference correspond to those on fig. 2, -and need no explanation. - -Fig. 2. is a bird's-eye view of the disruption and the adjoining -region, very obligingly sketched by Mr. Derick Barnard of Troy, -New-York. The surrounding country is somewhat contracted to bring -more of it into view. - -These are all the facts I am able at present to collect concerning -this phenomenon. I have been particular as to the temperature -of the air, and the situation of the adjacent country, from an -idea that frost was a principal agent in producing it; and that, -therefore, these circumstances would be important in fixing a -theory. I will not, however, hazard any hypothesis on the subject; -but if you deem the fact of sufficient importance, your opinion, -Sir, is respectfully solicited. - - Your humble Servant, - - EDWARD HITCHCOCK. - - _Deerfield, Mass. March 26th, 1818._ - - * * * * * - - _Deerfield, June 3d, 1818._ - - SIR, - -Since I sent you a description of a singular disruption in the -earth in this town, another has been observed in the same meadows, -about one mile from the former. This is less than the one of which -I sent you an account, but its situation is almost exactly similar; -it being on a small elevation, on the sides of which, at a few rods -distant, is low wet ground. Indeed, the _general_ description which -I sent you will answer for this smaller disruption. The diameters -of this last, are only 7 and 8 paces, and the curve is not perfect. -There appears to have been an expansion of the earth's surface -around both these spots, or disruptions, by which it was forced to -give way at the point where there was the least resistance, which, -of course, would be on the highest ground. The more I observe of -this phenomenon, the more I am inclined to impute it to the agency -of frost. - -It may be proper to observe, that in neither of these disruptions -has the general mass of the hills sunk in the least. Had this -been the case, it might perhaps have accounted for them. It is -also certain, that the soil below where it was frozen the past -winter, has not been moved. I mentioned this fact in my first -communication, though with some suggested doubt. - - -REMARKS. - -An opinion having been requested by Mr. Hitchcock on the above -facts, it may be observed, that there appears in the statement -sufficient evidence that the phenomenon (as the author has -suggested) is attributable to frost. - -It is a fact, established equally by common experience and by -numerous experiments, that water, in freezing, expands. It is -generally estimated that 8 cubic inches of water, become 9 by the -act of congealing. The expansion is attributed, with sufficient -evidence, to a crystalline arrangement arising from a kind of -polarity in the particles of water exerted when they are near -congealing, by which they attract one another in certain points, -and not in others. Dr. Black, with his usual felicity, has -illustrated this tendency, by supposing a great number of small -magnetized needles, thrust through corks, so that they will float -parallel to the surface of water, to be thrown promiscuously into -a vessel of that fluid. They will not remain in the situation in -which they are thrown in, but, in consequence of their polarity, -attractions and repulsions will be immediately exerted; they will -rush together, with a force equal to the overcoming of a certain -resistance; they will arrange themselves in pairs and groups, and -finally, in a connected assemblage. - -The particles of water attract each other with a prodigious force, -when resistance is opposed; for it is well known that domestic -utensils, trees, rocks, and even cannon, and bomb-shells, are burst -with explosion, when water confined within them is frozen. - -There is force enough then exerted by the expansion of freezing -water, to produce all the mechanical violence, whose effects were -so striking in the instance at Deerfield. - -In the common cracking of the ground by frost, so extensively -observed in cold climates, the effect appears to result in the -following manner. The water contained in the ground, (that is, in -that part which is within the reach of a freezing temperature) -by congealing, expands and demands more space; a movement must -necessarily take place in the direction where there is the least -resistance; this will evidently be upward, because the atmosphere, -the only counteracting power in this direction, cannot resist -the expansion of the freezing water as much as it is resisted by -the earth below the freezing stratum. Consequently, the freezing -earth is forced upward, but being of unequal strength in different -places, it cracks at the weakest spot; and the earth, for some -distance on the sides of the fissure, is thrown into the position -of two planes gently inclined, their relative position resembling -that of a very flat roof, and the more they are lifted by frost, -the more they will decline from one another, and the wider will be -the fissure. - -But why, in the instance which Mr. Hitchcock has related, did they -overlap? The explanation appears to result from the circumstances -of the case, as far as they can be understood without ocular -inspection of the ground. - -The elevated spot which cracked in so remarkable a manner, being -nearly surrounded by a _belt_ of low wet ground, the congelation -of the water in this ground by the intense cold, would of course -produce a very great expansive effort towards the elevated ground. -This, not only on account of its elevation, but from its containing -less water, would not be able to exert an equal counteracting -effort. The surface of the ground, therefore, (without at all -disturbing the unfrozen earth below,) was, by the expansive -effort of the freezing water, _pushed along_ towards the elevated -spot. This spot being possessed of a certain power of resistance -derived from its gravity, and from the freezing of the water in -it, would not immediately give way; but the whole surface, it is -probable, gradually rose for some time, while the expansion was -going on and increasing. A cavity would thus be produced between -that superficial layer of frozen ground which was rising, and the -unfrozen ground below. This cavity would of course be filled with -air derived from the atmosphere, and from the porousness of the -ground below. When the place came to be overflowed, water would -immediately rush in through any fissure, and this hydraulic and -hydrostatic effort would force the air out at any orifice, and -thus blow the water up with it. This was probably the cause of the -agitation of the water, and of the bubbling of air, and of the -throwing up of the water at intervals, observed by the boys on the -3d of March. - -The effect of the water covering the ground, would be to weaken its -cohesion derived from frost, and as there were probably hundreds of -tons of pressure, the vaulted ground, when sufficiently weakened, -gave way with a loud explosion and a violent concussion, as heard -by Mr. Sheldon's family, a few hours after the facts observed -by the boys. The parts of the arch now fallen in, (so to speak) -necessarily either overlapped, or rose in ridges, piece being -pressed against piece, as described and figured by Mr. Hitchcock. - -We are indebted to this gentleman for his delineation of this -singular case. - -The freezing of water, and its attendant expansion, are productive -of multiplied and very diversified phenomena upon our globe, -whether we contemplate them in the delicate spiculæ of hoarfrost, -the six-rayed stars of snow, or in the stupendous glaciers of the -Alps, and the awful icebergs of Greenland. - - - - - _Cambridge, January 25, 1819._ - - PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. - - _Dear Sir_, - -If the following observations are worthy of a place in your -valuable Journal, please to insert them, and oblige yours, with -real esteem, - - J. F. DANA. - - -ART. XIV. _On a New Form of the Electrical Battery, by_ J. F. DANA, -M. D. _Chemical Assistant in Harvard University, and Lecturer on -Chemistry and Pharmacy in Dartmouth College_. - - -The Electrical Battery in its common form is an unmanageable and -inconvenient apparatus. When the coated surface is comparatively -small, the instrument occupies a large space, and it cannot be -readily removed from place to place without much trouble and risk; -the apparatus is, moreover, very expensive, and when one of the -jars is broken, another of the same dimensions cannot readily be -found to supply its place. - -It occurred to me, that a Battery might be constructed of plates -of glass and sheets of tinfoil, in which the same extent of coated -surface should occupy a much smaller space, and consequently -that the apparatus would be more convenient and more portable. I -selected several panes of glass, the surfaces of which coincided -closely with each other, and then arranged them with sheets of -tinfoil in this order, viz. pane of glass, sheet of tinfoil, then -another pane of glass, then a second sheet of tinfoil, and so on; -the sheets of foil being smaller than the plates of glass by two -inches all around; the glass being 10 by 12, and the foil 6 by 8. -This apparatus contained six plates of tinfoil, and the lowest -plate being numbered _one_, was connected with the ground, and by -slips of tinfoil passing over the edges, with the _third_ plate, -and this, in like manner with the _fifth_. The _second_ plate was -connected with the _fourth_, and this with the _sixth_, which -communicated with the conductor of the machine; in this manner each -plate positively electrified will be opposed by one negatively -electrified, and vice versa; the 6th, 4th, and 2d plates positive, -and the 5th, 3d, and 1st, negative. Into this apparatus I could -introduce a powerful charge, but not possessing a battery of the -common form, could not make comparative experiments. The annexed -figures will explain the construction of this apparatus. - -(See Plate.) - -[Illustration: D^r. J. F. Dana's Electrical Battery.] - -Fig. 1. - - _a_ 1, _a_ 2, &c. the tinfoil. - - _b b b_, plates of glass. - - _c_, the intermediate slips connecting the plates 6, 4, and 2. - - _d_, the slips connecting 5, 3, 1, and the ground. - -Fig. 2. - - _a_, the intermediate slips passing over the edges of the glass - and connecting plates, 1, 3, and 5. - - _b_, the slip which connects the upper sheet of foil with the - 4th, &c. - -In a battery of the ordinary form, it is evident that a much less -surface is coated than in one of the above construction; in a -battery of the common form, two feet long, one foot wide, and ten -inches high, and containing 18 coated jars, there will be no more -than 3500 square inches of coated surface, while in a battery of -the same dimensions on the proposed construction, there will be no -less than 8000 square inches covered with tinfoil, allowing the -sheet of glass and of foil to be ¼ inch thick. - -When plate glass is employed for making this battery, the ring of -glass exterior to the tinfoil may be covered with varnish, and then -the next plate laid over it; the tinfoil will then be shut out for -ever from the access of moisture, and the insulation will remain -perfect. This form of the Electrical Battery is very portable, may -be packed in a case with the machine, and indeed a powerful battery -occupies no greater space than a quarto volume. It is cheap and -easily constructed. - - - - -ART. XV. _Chemical Examination of the Berries of the Myrica -Cerifera, or Wax Myrtle, by_ J. F. DANA, M. D. _Chemical Assistant -in Harvard University, and Lecturer on Chemistry and Pharmacy in -Dartmouth College_. - -(Communicated for this Journal.) - - -The myrtle wax of commerce has been examined by Dr. Bostock and -by M. Cadet; the entire berry not having been made the subject -of analysis, I have been induced to examine it, with a view to -ascertain the proportion of wax. - -I. Fifty grains of the most perfect berries were digested in -repeated portions of warm alcohol, until the fluid appeared to -exert no further action. The first portions of alcohol were tinged -of a green colour, but the last portions remained colourless. - -II. The alcoholic solutions were poured into a small retort of -known weight; the alcohol was carefully distilled off, and the -residuum dried; deducting the weight of the retort, there remained -18.5 grs. for the weight of the matter dissolved by the alcohol. - -III. The substances which had been dissolved by the alcohol -consisted of two portions, viz. the wax, which was of an -apple-green colour, and a reddish brown substance; this substance -was supposed to be resinous, and the contents of the retort were -therefore digested in acetic acid; the acid soon became of a -reddish brown colour, and dissolved nearly the whole of the matter -in the retort, leaving the wax. The acid solution, together with a -small portion of insoluble reddish matter, were carefully separated -from the wax. The wax being dried and melted, weighed 16 grains. - -IV. The acetic acid solution was evaporated to dryness, and a dark -brown matter was obtained; it was almost totally soluble in warm -alcohol, from which it was precipitated by water; it was supposed -therefore to consist chiefly of resin, with a small portion of -extractive matter, and may be called resino-extractive; it weighed -2.5 grains. - -V. The matter insoluble in alcohol consisted of two parts, viz. -the kernels and a fine-grained black powder, having very much the -appearance of fine gunpowder; the powder was carefully separated -from the kernels by a wire sieve, and weighed 7.5 grains. The -kernels were found to weigh 23.75 grains. - -From this analysis it appears that the entire berries consist of - - Wax 32.00 - Resino-extractive 5.00 - Black powder 15.00 - Kernels 47.00 - ------ - 99.50 - Loss .50 - ------ - 100.00 - -The chemical properties of the wax and of the black powder may be -made the subject of another communication. - - -_Earthy phosphate of iron_ has recently been found at Hopkinton, -Mass. It exists there in large quantities, and is employed as -a pigment. The gentleman on whose grounds it was found sent me -several pounds of it. - - J. F. D. - - - - -ART. XVI. _Analysis of Wacke, by Dr._ J. W. WEBSTER, _of Boston_. - - -One hundred parts exposed to a red heat in a platina crucible lost -18.5, acquired an umber brown colour, and a degree of hardness -sufficient to scratch glass. - -One hundred parts reduced to fine powder were mixed with four -times the weight of soda, and exposed to heat, gradually increased -for three quarters of an hour; at the expiration of which time, -the whole had acquired a pasty consistence. The crucible was now -removed from the fire, its outer surface carefully wiped. Muriatic -acid was poured on till all effervescence ceased. The solution -obtained was evaporated to dryness, gradually assuming an orange -red colour. Water was now poured upon the mass, after which it was -filtered, and the powder remaining carefully dried; after ignition, -and while warm, it weighed 28 parts. This powder was insoluble in -muriatic acid, and of a white colour. - -To the filtered solution, reduced by evaporation, carbonate of -potash was added, the precipitate was collected on a filter, washed -and dried; it weighed 23 parts. This powder was redissolved in -sulphuric acid, sulphate of potash added, and crystals of alum -finally obtained; hence this powder was alumine. To the liquor from -which the silex and alumine had thus been separated, acetic acid -was added; the whole evaporated to dryness; the excess of acid -being removed, a small quantity of water was poured on, and after -strong ignition, the precipitate weighed 4.5. - -Into a very small tubulated retort I introduced a portion from the -same mass, whence the piece submitted to analysis was broken, and -obtained over mercury the carbonic acid in the usual manner. This -was equal to 2.32; by deducting this from 18.5 the loss during -exposure to red heat, we shall have 16.18, the proportion of water. -The oxide of iron was separated from the solutions after the -addition of acetic acid, by ammonia, and weighed 26 parts. - - Silex 28. - Alumine 23. - Lime 4.5 - Carbonic acid 2.32 - Water 16.18 - Oxide of iron 26. - ------ - 100 - - - - -AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMICS. - - - - -ART. XVII. _On the Comparative Quantity of Nutritious Matter which -may be obtained from an Acre of Land when cultivated with Potatoes -or Wheat, by Dr._ ELI IVES, _Professor of Materia Medica and Botany -in Yale College_. - - -In a good season an acre of suitable land well cultivated will -produce 400 bushels of potatoes. In Woodbridge, a town adjoining -New-Haven, a crop of 600 bushels of potatoes has been obtained from -a single acre. A bushel of potatoes weighs 56 pounds. Multiply 400, -the number of bushels, by 56, the weight of a single bushel, gives -22400, the number of pounds of potatoes produced upon one acre. - -Thirty bushels of wheat are considered a good crop as the product -of one acre of land. About ⅚ of wheat may be considered as -nutritious matter. - -According to the experiments of Dr. Pearson and Einhoff, about -one-third of the potato is nutritious matter. From the analysis -of Einhoff, 7680 parts of potatoes afforded 1153 parts of -starch--fibrous matter analogous to starch 540 parts--albumen 107 -parts--mucilage 312 parts. The sum of these products amounts to -about one-third of the potatoes subject to the experiment. - -Sir Humphry Davy observes, that one-fourth of the weight of -potatoes at least may be considered nutritious matter. - -One-fourth of 22400, the product of an acre of ground, cultivated -with potatoes, is 5600. The whole weight of a crop of wheat -calculated at 30 bushels to the acre, and at 60 pounds to the -bushel, gives 1800. Deducting one-sixth from the wheat as matter -not nutritious, and the weight is reduced to 1500. - -The nutritious matter of the crop of potatoes to that of wheat is -as 5600 to 1500, or as 56 to 15. - -The starch might be obtained by a very simple machine, recommended -by Parmentier; and in seasons when potatoes are abundant, the -potatoes might be converted to starch, and the starch preserved for -any length of time, and used as a substitute for wheaten flour. - -The machine alluded to is a cylinder of wood about three feet long -and six inches in diameter, covered with sheet tin, punched outward -so as to form a coarse grater, and turned by a crank. This cylinder -is placed in a box of boards whose sides slope a little inward upon -the principle of a hopper, and a tub of water is placed beneath: -The potatoes are thrown into this box, and as the crank is turned -they are crushed, and the starch or fecula subsides to the bottom -of the water. It is well known, that potatoes are largely used in -England mixed with flour to form a very good bread; the _starch_ of -the potato would of course answer much better. - - - - -MISCELLANEOUS - - - - -ART. XVIII. _Biographical Notice of the late_ ARCHIBALD BRUCE, M. -D. _Professor of Materia Medica, and Mineralogy in the Medical -Institution of the State of New-York, and Queen's College, -New-Jersey; and Member of various Learned Societies in America and -Europe._ With a Portrait. - -(Communicated.) - - -Doctor Archibald Bruce, (the subject of this Memoir) was a native -of the city of New-York, in North America. He was born in the month -of February, in the year seventeen hundred and seventy-seven. His -father was, at that time, at the head of the medical department of -the British army, (then stationed at New-York) to which he had been -attached from his youth, having been many years previously resident -at New-York, as surgeon to the artillery department; where he was -married, in or about the year seventeen hundred and sixty-seven, to -Judith, a daughter of Nicholas Bayard, formerly of the same city, -at that time the widow of Jeremiah Van Rensselaer of Greenbush; by -whom he had another son, (who died an officer in the British army -in Ireland) and a daughter, who died while a child. - -William Bruce, (the father above-mentioned,) and his brother -Archibald, together with a sister, were natives of the town of -Dumfries in Scotland, where their father was many years resident as -the parochial clergyman; and so continued until his decease, much -respected. - -Both sons applied themselves to the science of medicine and -surgery. William, as above stated, became a physician in the -British army, and died, in that station, of the yellow fever, -in the island of Barbadoes. And Archibald received a commission -of surgeon in the British navy, in which he continued until -disqualified by old age, when he retired from business, and died -a few years since in London. For many years he acted as surgeon -to the several ships commanded by Sir Peter Parker, captain, and -afterward admiral. - -Doctor William Bruce, before his final separation from his family, -on the occasion of his being ordered to the West-India station, had -always declared that his son Archibald should never be educated for -the medical profession; and finally enjoined such instruction upon -his wife and friends, to whom the charge of the boy was committed. -After his decease, the same injunction was repeated by the uncle, -then in Europe, who was ever averse to his nephew's making choice -of this profession: much pains were therefore early exerted to -divert him from such inclination. - -The momentous state of political affairs, induced his mother to -send him to Halifax, under the care of William Almon, M. D. a -particular friend of her husband, with whom, however, remaining -but a short time, he returned to New-York; and was placed at a -boarding-school at Flatbush, Long Island, under the direction of -Peter Wilson, LL.D. who was in high standing as a teacher of the -languages. - -[Illustration: ARCHIBALD BRUCE M. D.] - -In 1791, he was admitted a student of the arts in Columbia college. -Nicholas Romayne, M.D. was at this time among the physicians of -highest consideration in New-York, and was engaged in delivering -lectures on different subjects of medical science in Columbia -College. Having pursued the early part of his medical studies with -Dr. William Bruce, he felt a generous gratitude for the instruction -and attention which he had received from him, and endeavoured to -requite them by advising with his son, and promoting his views, -as far as lay in his power. Here commenced a friendship which -increased with advancing years, and terminated but with life. At -this period, young Bruce began to evince a desire to oppose the -inclination of his father and friends by studying medicine; this -study, without their knowledge, and while a student of the arts in -the senior class, he commenced by attending Dr. Romayne's lectures. -Such was the strong bent of his mind towards the study of medicine, -and its collateral physical pursuits, that the persuasion and -remonstrances of his friends proved alike ineffectual, and he soon -gave free scope to the prevailing inclination. - -The collection and examination of minerals, a pursuit not then at -all attended to in this country, was his particular relief from -other studies; for even during his recreation, he was ever on the -look-out for something new or instructing in mineralogy. - -Dr. Romayne being about visiting Europe, young Bruce pursued his -studies with Samuel Bard, M.D.; and having attended the usual -courses in Columbia College, he left the United States for Europe -in 1798, and in 1800 he obtained the degree of doctor in medicine -from the University of Edinburgh, after defending a Thesis, De -Variola Vaccina. - -Having now finished his medical studies, he was prepared to visit -the continent of Europe with peculiar advantage; for his continued -attachment to mineralogy, a liberal distribution of American -specimens then comparatively new in Europe, and his social habits -and dispositions, which were very conciliating, secured him the -best introductions from Edinburgh, and laid the foundation of -permanent friendships. - -During a tour of two years, he visited France, Switzerland, and -Italy; and collected a mineralogical cabinet of great value and -extent. After his return to England, he married in London, and -came out to New-York in the autumn of 1803, to enter on the active -duties of a practitioner of medicine. - -Previous to the year 1805, the practice of physic in the state of -New-York was regulated by no public authority, and of course was -not in the happiest condition to promote the respectability and -usefulness of the profession. To remove, as far as possible, the -existing inconveniences, Dr. Bruce became an active agent, and -in conjunction with Dr. Romayne and other medical gentlemen of -New-York, succeeded in establishing the state and county medical -societies, under the sanction of the state legislature. This act -"may be considered among the first efforts made in this country to -reduce medicine to a regular science, by investing the privileges -of medical men in the body of the members of the profession." - -In the organization of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of -the state of New-York, Dr. Bruce and Dr. Romayne were eminently -active, and by their united exertion and perseverance, (opposed by -much professional talent) they obtained a charter from the regents. -In this new institution, as professor of the materia medica, and -of his favourite pursuit, mineralogy, he exhibited the fruits of -arduous study, with a dignity of character, and urbanity of manner, -which commanded the respect of the profession, and the regard of -the students. - -The ruling passion in Dr. Bruce's mind, was a love of natural -science, and especially of mineralogy. Towards the study of this -science, he produced in his own country a strong impulse, and he -gave it no small degree of eclat. His cabinet, composed of very -select and well characterized specimens; purchased by himself, or -collected in his own pedestrian and other tours in Europe, or, in -many instances, presented to him by distinguished mineralogists -abroad; and both in its extent, and in relation to the then state -of this country, very valuable, soon became an object of much -attention. That of the late B. D. Perkins, which, at about the same -time, had been formed by Mr. Perkins in Europe, and imported by him -into this country, was also placed in New-York, and both cabinets -(for both were freely shown to the curious, by their liberal and -courteous proprietors) contributed more than any causes had ever -done before, to excite in the public mind an active interest in the -science of mineralogy.[43] - -Dr. Bruce, while abroad, had been personally and intimately -conversant with the Hon. Mr. Greville, of Paddington Green, near -London, a descendant of the noble house of Warwick, the possessor -of one of the finest private cabinets in Europe, and a zealous -cultivator of mineralogy. Count Bournon, one of those loyal French -exiles, who found a home in England, during the storm of the French -revolution, was almost domesticated at Mr. Greville's, and was -hardly second to any man in mineralogical, and particularly in -crystallographical knowledge. His connexions with men of science -on the continent, were of the first order, and to be familiar at -Mr. Greville's, and with Count Bournon, was to have access to -every thing connected with science in England and France. Dr. -Bruce was also at home at Sir Joseph Banks's, the common resort of -learned and illustrious men. Thus he enjoyed every advantage in -England, and when he went to the continent, the abundant means of -introduction which he possessed, brought him into contact with the -distinguished men of Paris, and of other cities which he visited. -The learned and estimable Abbé Haüy was among his personal friends -and correspondents; and many others might be mentioned in the same -character, whose names are among the first in the ranks of science, -in various countries of Europe. - -Returned to his own country, after being so long familiar with the -fine collections in natural history, and especially in mineralogy, -in various countries in Europe, Dr. Bruce manifested a strong -desire to aid in bringing to light the neglected mineral treasures -of the United States. He soon became a focus of information on -these subjects. Specimens were sent to him from many and distant -parts of the country, both as donations and for his opinion -respecting their nature. In relation to mineralogy he conversed, -he corresponded extensively, both with Europe and America; he -performed mineralogical tours; he kindly sought out and encouraged -the young mineralogists of his own country, and often expressed a -wish to see a journal of American mineralogy upon the plan of that -of the School of Mines at Paris. This object, it is well known, he -accomplished, and in 1810, published the first number of this work. -Owing to extraneous causes, it was never carried beyond one volume; -but it demonstrated the possibility of sustaining such a work in -the United States, and will always be mentioned in the history -of American science, as the earliest original purely scientific -journal of America. - -Dr. Bruce had, in a high degree, the feelings of a man of science. -He was ever forward to promote its interests, and both at home and -abroad, was considered as one of its most distinguished American -friends. - -Many strangers of distinction came introduced to him, and his -urbanity and hospitality rarely left him without guests at his -board. During the latter part of his life, he seems to have been -less interested in science. His journal had been so long suspended, -that it was considered as virtually relinquished; his health was -undermined by repeated attacks of illness, and science and society -had to lament his sudden departure, when he had scarcely attained -the meridian of life. - -He died in his native place on the 22d of February, 1818, of an -apoplexy, in the 41st year of his age. - - - - -INTELLIGENCE. - - - - -ART. XIX. 1. _Dr._ J. W. WEBSTER'S _Lectures_. - - -Dr. J. W. Webster, some months since, commenced a course of -Lectures in the town of Boston, on Geology and Mineralogy. Having -finished his first course, he is now occupied with a second on the -same subjects, and we understand receives the patronage of some of -the most respectable citizens of Boston and its vicinity. He makes -Geology the groundwork of his plan, and fills up by describing the -metals and minerals met with in each class of rocks, after the -rock has been noticed. A pretty full account is given of the coal -formations, (several of which Dr. W. has visited) and of the modes -of searching and boring. A view is given of the formations of Paris -and the Isle of Wight, with specimens from those districts. - -In the volcanic part, a description (from personal observation) is -given of St. Michael's. The structure of veins; the forming and -destroying effects of water; the physiognomy of the dry land and -submarine; the origin of islands and coral reefs, and a view of the -principal mountain ranges throughout the world conclude the course. - - -2. _Dr. Webster's Cabinet._ - -Dr. Webster, having spent two or three years in Europe, in -professional studies, during which time he devoted much attention -to mineralogy and geology, with the ample aids afforded by the -cabinets and distinguished teachers in Scotland, France, and -England, has recently returned to his own country, and has brought -with him a very select and considerably extensive cabinet of -minerals, with which, and with American specimens, he illustrates -his lectures. We understand that the collection contains some -thousand specimens, and is good in the English and Scotch minerals; -also in the Siberian coppers; it contains a suite of three hundred -geological specimens from Freyberg, from granite to gravel. The -geological part is extensive, and was increased by numerous -pedestrian tours in England and Scotland; most of the geological -specimens have been examined, in company with Professor Jameson. -The volcanic part is good, from the extensive opportunities which -Dr. Webster enjoyed in the Azores, in which, on his return to this -country, he spent some time, and found much to interest him. His -observations will soon be given to the public, in a work entitled -_Remarks on the Azores or Western Islands_. - -It is well known that they are volcanic, and of course afford -the usual volcanic substances. The most interesting part is that -occupied by the boiling fountains, in many respects similar to the -Geysers of Iceland, excepting that the water is not ejected to -any considerable height; but the incrustations, the sinter, and -sulphur, are every way equal to any specimens which Dr. Webster saw -in Sir G. Mackenzie's collection. - -We are much gratified in noticing both what Dr. Webster has done -and is still doing. We are persuaded that he will do much towards -promoting the cultivation of American mineralogy and geology, and -especially in the enlightened community in which he resides. - -We cordially wish him success, and trust that it will be ensured by -the patronage of the citizens of Boston. - - -3. _Supposed identity of Copal and Amber._ - -A correspondent, whose paper is withheld from publication till some -additional experiments can be made, conceives that copal and amber -are originally the same substance, and the product of the same tree. - - -4. THE NECRONITE.--(_A supposed new mineral._) - -_Extract of a letter from Dr. H. H. Hayden of Baltimore, to the -Editor, dated January 5, 1819._ - -"It (the necronite) occurs in a primitive marble, or limestone, -which is obtained 21 miles from Baltimore, and a small distance -from the York and Lancaster road. It was first noticed by myself at -Washington's monument, in which this marble is principally employed. - -"It occurs, for the most part, in isolated masses in the blocks, -or slabs, both in an amorphous and crystallized state. It is -most commonly associated with a beautiful brown mica, of the -colour of titanium; small but regular crystals of sulphuret of -iron, tremolite, and small prismatic crystals of titanium, which -are rare. The form of the crystals is a rhomboid, approximating -very much to that of the felspar, and which has inclined some to -consider it as such. Also, the hexaedral prism, resembling that of -the beryl. This form is rare, and has not, as yet, I believe, been -found complete. Its colour is a bluish white, and clear white. Its -structure much resembles felspar, being lamellar; sometimes opaque, -semi-transparent and transparent, at least in moderately thin -pieces. It scratches glass, carbonat of lime, and even felspar, in -a _slight_ degree. In all our efforts, it has been found infusible, -per se, or with borate of soda, and even from all the force of heat -that could be excited in a smith's furnace, it came out unchanged -in any degree. The acids seem to have no sensible effect upon it, -either cold or hot. This is all that I can say of it at present, -except that it possesses a most _horrid_ smell.[44] I have since -found in a marble of the same kind, but from a different quarry, -and a few miles distant from the first, a quartz almost as fetid -as the necronite, and likewise associated with _small_ prisms of -titanium. - -"These substances carry with them a degree of interest in another -point of view. They seem to invalidate the opinion that the fetid -smell of secondary limestone, slate, &c. is derived from the -decomposition of animal matter. As their gangue is _decidedly_ a -rock of primitive formation." - - -_Another new mineral observed by Dr. Hayden._ - -"Exclusive of the interest which the necronite has excited with me -and several others, I have besides stumbled upon another substance, -if possible still more interesting. I discovered it in an imperfect -state, about 4 years since, but not until recently have I been able -to find it perfect, in beautiful garnet coloured cubic crystals -¼ of an inch square or nearly. These crystals are very liable or -subject to decomposition, in which state they present a perfect but -spongy cube. Although they resemble the cubic zeolite, yet they -have nothing of its character with them besides." - - -_Remark._ - -Dr. Hayden without doubt alludes to the _chabasie_ of the Abbé -Haüy, formerly but inaccurately called the cubic zeolite; for it is -really a rhomboid very nearly approaching a cube--its angles being -93° 48′, and 86° 12′. - - -5. PRESERVATION OF DEAD BODIES. - -_From Thenard's Chemistry_, vol. iii. _Paris ed. p._ 713. - -The author declines describing the methods of embalming commonly -employed, and proceeds to describe the mode which was for the first -time employed by Dr. Chaussier. - -"This process consists in placing the dead body thoroughly emptied -and washed, in water kept constantly saturated with corrosive -sublimate. This salt gradually combines with the flesh, gives it -firmness, renders it imputrescible, and incapable of being attacked -by insects and worms. - -"I have seen, (adds the author) a head thus prepared, which had -been exposed alternately to the sun and rain during several years, -without having suffered the slightest change. It was very little -deformed, and easily recognized, although the flesh had become as -hard as wood." - - -6. MATCHES KINDLING WITHOUT FIRE. - -(_From Thenard's Chemistry, Vol._ ii. _p._ 525.) - -This match is prepared by mingling two parts of the oxymuriate -of potash and one of sulphur, which by means of a little gum is -attached to a common sulphur match. This match on being dipped -into, or rather slightly wet with, strong sulphuric acid, (oil of -vitriol) immediately catches fire. - -The author has not added the caution that the sulphur and salt -should be pulverized separately; if rubbed together in a mortar, -they will explode with some danger to the operator, provided the -quantity be over a few grains. - -Matches made upon this principle, have been for some time made and -sold in this country. They are sometimes put up in little japanned -cases with a small phial, from which when inverted with the mouth -open, nothing will drop, and yet the match kindles on being thrust -in quite to the bottom. The truth is, these bottles contain a -little amianthus moistened with sulphuric acid, which thus kindles -the match, but as the acid soon weakens by attracting water from -the air, it is better to use a phial of the acid in the liquid -state. A few drops answer the purpose, and when this is weakened, -it is easily renewed. - - -7. _Cleaveland's Mineralogy._ - -Our opinion of this work was fully expressed in the review of it in -our first number. In the Edinburgh Review for September, 1818, this -work is again reviewed, and in a manner which must gratify every -friend to American science. It will be necessary to cite only a -single sentence. After commending the condensed and _honest_ manner -in which the work is printed, (for they say, that the same matter -which here fills one volume would in England have been spread over -three,) the reviewer adds, "We should be glad to see it reprinted -exactly upon the plan of the original; and we have no doubt that -it would be found _the most useful work on mineralogy in our -language_." More need not be--more scarcely could be said. - - -8. _A new Alkali._ - -A new alkali has recently been discovered in Sweden, by M. -Arfwedson. It is found in the petalite, a mineral from Utoen, in -Sweden, in a proportion not over 5 pr. ct.; also in the triphane -or spodumene, in the proportion of 8 per cent. and in what is -called crystallized lepidolite, in the proportion of 4 per cent. -In its general properties it very nearly resembles the other -alkalies. When heated in contact with platinum it acts on it. In -the galvanic circuit it was decomposed "with bright scintillations, -and the reduced metal being separated, afterward burnt." This metal -resembles sodium. The new alkali has been called lithia. (_Jour. of -Science of the Roy. Inst._) - - -9. _Ignited Platinum Wire._ - -In our last we mentioned the lamp without flame, the ignition of -platinum wire being sustained by means of the vapour of alcohol. - -Sir H. Davy has discovered that the vapour of camphor answers the -same purpose: "If a piece of camphor, or a few small fragments in a -heap, be placed in any convenient situation, as on a shilling, the -bottom of a glass, &c. and a piece of platinum wire, either coiled -or pressed up together, be heated and laid upon it, the platinum -will glow as long as any camphor remains, and will frequently light -it up into a flame." - - _Jour. Roy. Inst._ - - -10. _Red Rain._ - -A red rain fell in Naples, (March 14, 1818,) the common people were -much alarmed, and called it _blood_ or _fire_. - -An earthy powder was collected, which when dry was yellow, -unctuous, and of an earthy taste; its specific gravity 2.07. - -Its analysis presented silex 33--alumine 15.5--chrome 1.-- -iron 14.5--carbonic acid 9., and a combustible substance of a -carbonaceous nature. - -It is thought that this powder had not a volcanic origin, and that -the presence of chrome assimilates it with meteoric stones. _Ibid._ - - -11. _Gnephalium._ - -Professor Ives has discovered a new species of gnephalium with -decurrent leaves, of which a plate and description will appear in -our next number. - - -12. _Augite._ - -M. Haüy has united the fassalite and the bakalite with the sahlite, -a sub-species of augite. (See Mem. of the Museum of Nat. Hist. vol. -3.) - - -13. _A New Vegetable Alkali_, - -Has been found by Messrs. Pelletier and Caventon in the Feve St. -Ignace and the Nux Vomica. It has been named the vaucquelin, in -honour of M. Vaucquelin. (Journal de Physique, for Aug. 1818.) - - -14. _New Minerals._ - -Two new mineral species have been discovered, the scorrodite from -Schnuburg in Saxony, and the tungstate of lead from Zinnwald in -Bohemia. _Ibid._ - - -15. _New Metal._ - -A new metal has been discovered by Berzilius, in the mines of -Fahlun in Sweden, to which he has given the name of Selenium. -_Ibid._ - - -16. _Pure Alumine._ - -A large bed of this substance, perfectly pure, has been found at -Argenton, Department de L'Endre. _Ibid._ - - -17. _Collections of American Minerals._ - -We are informed that under the auspices of Col. Gibbs, a collection -of American minerals by states, according to the arrangement of -the minerals of the departments of France, in the cabinet of the -school of mines at Paris, was begun some time since, at the rooms -of the Hist. Society in New-York; and recently in the University of -Cambridge. In the arrangement of the latter, he has been assisted -by Dr. J. W. Webster, lecturer on mineralogy and geology in Boston. - - -18. _C. S. Rafinesque, Esq._ - -We are requested to announce that a Journal of this gentleman's -"Travels and Discoveries in the West, will be published this -year by Cramer and Spear of Pittsburg, and that the results of -his zoological and botanical labours consist in the discovery of -about 15 new genera, and 180 new species of plants; about 75 new -genera, and 600 new species of animals, whereof nearly 70 are new -fishes, 20 new quadrupeds, 30 new reptiles, 112 new shells, 250 -new fossils, &c." "He has inquired how the deep valleys have been -excavated, where lakes existed, where the old falls of the Ohio -were, the extent and origin of the coal region, &c." - - -19. _Medical College of Ohio._ - -_Extract of a letter from Cincinnati, Jan. 10th, 1819._ - -The legislature of the state of Ohio have just established a -medical college in this city, and have by an unanimous vote passed -a law incorporating the Faculty. In the act, Dr. Samuel Brown of -Alabama is named as Professor of Anatomy, Dr. Daniel Drake of -Cincinnati, Professor of the Institutes and Practice of Medicine, -Dr. Coleman Rogers, Professor of Surgery, and Dr. Slack, Professor -of Chemistry. The other Professors are to be appointed by the -Faculty, and it is believed that Dr. Richardson of Lexington, -Kentucky, will be called to the Obstetrical chair. Very high -expectations are entertained of the importance of this institution -in the west. - - -20. _Notes on Ohio._ - -Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circleville, Ohio, has issued proposals for -publishing the above work, (mentioned in our last number) with -a prospectus exhibiting its principal features. We doubt not it -will contain valuable information concerning a very interesting -portion of the United States, and every effort on the part of -men of intelligence and enlarged views, to make the western and -southwestern states better known, deserves, and it is believed will -receive, adequate support. - - -21. _Discovery of American Tungsten and Tellurium._ - -Neither of these metals, so far as we are informed, has been -announced as existing in either of the Americas. It is well known -to mineralogists, that tungsten is very rare, and that tellurium is -found only in Transylvania. - -We have now the pleasure to state that both these metals exist -in the Bismuth mine, in the town of Huntington, parish of New -Stratford, in Connecticut, 20 miles west of New-Haven. - -During the examination of some ores, brought to us by Mr. Ephraim -Lane, the proprietor of this mine, we obtained the tungsten in the -state of yellow oxid, and the tellurium in the metallic state. - -The tungsten is stated to be abundant in the mine; it is the -ferruginous species, known to mineralogists by the name of wolfram. - -We cannot yet say whether the tellurium is abundant, having -obtained it from only two pieces; from these we extracted also -tungsten, so that it may possibly constitute a new mineral species. -Further particulars will be given in our next Number. - - -22. _Mr. Sheldon's Application of Chesnut Wood to the Arts of -Tanning and Dying._ - -REMARKS. - -A considerable time since, we were confidentially made acquainted -with the discovery detailed in the following letter. We have -repeated the most important of Mr. Sheldon's experiments, both in -relation to tanning and dying, and are well satisfied that the -discoverer has not overrated, or erroneously estimated, the value -of his own results. We are persuaded that the highly _useful_ arts -alluded to, will derive important aid from the use of a material so -abundant and cheap as chesnut wood. - - -_To Professor Silliman._ - - _Springfield, Mass. Feb. 27, 1819._ - - DEAR SIR, - -I send you a more particular account of the newly discovered -properties of the chesnut. - -This tree, _Fagus Castanea_, Linn. is very abundant in New-England -and the middle states; and occurs in the mountainous districts, as -far southward as South-Carolina, or perhaps even Georgia. It is one -of the stateliest trees of the forest; scarcely less distinguished -by the beauty of its foliage, than by the durability of its wood. - -By repeated analyses, conducted with the minutest attention to -every circumstance which could ensure accuracy, it appears, -incredible as it may seem, that the chesnut _wood_ contains twice -as much tannin as ross'd[45] _oak bark_, and six-sevenths as much -colouring matter (which gives a black with iron,) as logwood. I am -aware that nothing could be farther from the common apprehension -than such results; but the uniform success of a great variety of -experiments in tanning and dying, in addition to the other kind of -evidence, should satisfy the most incredulous. - -The leather tanned with it, has, in every instance, been superior -to that tanned in a comparative experiment, with oak bark; being -firmer, less porous, and at the same time more pliable. The reason -for this difference, will probably be found in the _high state -of oxygenizement_ of the bark, particularly of the epidermis, by -which it is rendered to a certain degree acrid and corrosive. Dr. -Bancroft was perhaps the first who noticed the oxygenizement of -barks. He attributes the dark brown colour of the epidermis of -_his_ quercitron, to this cause; and as a confirmation of the idea, -I have observed that ink made of the epidermis of another kind of -bark, though at first not to be distinguished by the colour from -that made of the cellular and cortical parts, is incomparably less -permanent. - -As a material for making ink, the wood of the chesnut is probably -unrivalled. Combined with iron in any proportion, it gives, as it -is dilute or concentrated, a pure blue or blue-black; while galls, -sumach, &c. &c. unless combined with a greater proportion than is -consistent with the highest degree of permanency, afford a _black_ -more or less inclining to a reddish brown. The lake of the chesnut -is indeed a blue, and not to be distinguished by the eye from -indigo; but when diffused on paper, this same substance becomes an -intense shining black. In dying, little difference is observable -between the chesnut and galls, and sumach, except that the former -has a rather greater affinity for wool, &c. than the latter, and of -course requires less boiling. Its permanency has been completely -tested by long exposure to the sun and the weather; but no doubt -can exist on this head, if the position of Berthollet be true, that -permanent blacks are formed only by the combination of iron and -tannin. - -To prepare the chesnut wood for the purposes of tanning, a mode -has been devised for reducing it to a suitable degree of fineness. -This method consists in the application of knives, either in the -direction of, or transversely to the grain, by a rotatory motion. -This mode obviously involves the greatest possible economy of -moving power. Messrs. B. and M. Stebbins, of West-Springfield, who -are making arrangements for going largely into the exportation of -the article, have in construction a machine upon this plan. - -As might be expected, the inspissated aqueous extract of the -chesnut, bears a near resemblance in many particulars, to catechu. -Professor Dewey, of William's College, who at my request, has gone -through an extensive and elaborate course of experiments, informed -me that he obtained a quarter more of the gelatinous precipitate -from the former, than from the latter. By the taste, the two -substances are not to be distinguished, except that the former is -more pungent. It leaves upon the tongue, the same permanent and -refreshing sweetness, for which the other is so much prized in the -east; where it is used as an article of luxury, with betel nut. -Might not the extract be advantageously substituted for catechu, -in the celebrated life preserving composition of Dr. Pearson; the -object being to concentrate the greatest possible quantity of -nutritious and tonic substances in the smallest weight. - -The colouring properties of the two substances, are entirely -different. After the discovery, twelve or fifteen years since, -of the composition of the _terra japonica_, attempts were made -in England to introduce it into the materia tingentia, as a -substitute for galls; but unfortunately, like the extract of -quercitron, it affords with iron nothing but a meagre olive; and -Dr. Bancroft states, that in a great number of trials, he was -unable, by the greatest accumulation, to produce any thing like a -black, even upon wool, much less upon cotton and silk. - -A singular fact, which I observed in the course of my experiments, -is worthy of notice. I had prepared for a certain purpose, -solutions from the wood of the trunk of a tree, about three feet, -and from that of a limb about three inches in diameter. The same -quantity of wood and of the solvent was employed in both cases. -On adding to each the same quantity of the solution of gelatine, -abundant precipitates immediately appeared, as usual, apparently -much the same in quantity; but to my astonishment, the size of -the several congeries in each, bore a near proportion to that of -the sticks from which they were obtained, not differing much from -that of middling and of very small flakes of snow. Is not this an -extraordinary fact, evincive of a complication in the arrangement -of these bodies hitherto unsuspected. May it not at some future -period, lead to a _nomenclature of precipitates_; affording, like -the crystallography of Haüy, a new and accurate mode of determining -the compositions of substances; and perhaps throwing light upon the -obscure subject of chemical, or if you please, electro-chemical -affinities. The _size_ of a stick might probably be ascertained -with almost as much precision, as by actual admeasurement. The -solutions in this experiment, were formed by maceration in cold -water. When hot water was employed, and the process was completed -in two or three hours, the appearance of the precipitate was very -different, the congeries being smaller, irregular, and not well -defined. - -I have only to add, that having taken measures to secure the -discovery, both in this country and Europe, it is my wish to bring -it into general use as speedily as possible. - - I am, Sir, very respectfully, - - Your obedient servant, - - WILLIAM SHELDON. - -P. S. In a short article for some future number, I may send you -an account of the operation of the machine, and of some other -particulars. - - -23. _Additional note concerning the Tungsten and Tellurium._ - -We have not room to insert in the present number, a description -and a chemical examination of the ores of tungsten and tellurium -recently discovered in Connecticut; they will appear in our next. - -In the mean time it may be stated, that the tungsten and tellurium -are found blended in the same pieces, but whether in mere mixture, -or in chemical combination, is not yet quite determined. Many -specimens of the tungsten exist without the tellurium, but every -piece which has afforded tellurium has also afforded tungsten, -and in greater abundance. Even in well defined crystals, both -metals have been found in the same crystal, and where the external -appearance was homogeneous. In other specimens a difference seems -to be apparent, and a proper ore of tellurium appears to be blended -with a proper ore of tungsten. This latter ore is the wolfram, -composed of oxid of tungsten, or as some choose to say, tungstic -oxid combined with iron and manganese. The crystals, however, -are octahedral, a fact which we believe is not mentioned of this -species by authors, although this form is found in the calcareous -tungsten. - - * * * * * - -The Bismuth mine in which these ores are found is the property -of Mr. Ephraim Lane. Letters addressed, post paid, to him at New -Stratford, town of Huntington, Connecticut, will find him through -the Post Office; and he will, for a reasonable compensation, pack -boxes more or less extensive, for mineralogists and others. As Mr. -Lane is by occupation a farmer, and is obliged to blast a quartz -gangue in order to obtain his specimens, he cannot be expected to -transmit them gratis. His mine, which has been sunk only ten feet, -affords native bismuth, native silver, magnetical and common iron -pyrites, and copper pyrites, (the two latter crystallized) galena, -blende, tungsten, tellurium, &c. - -It is expected that the shaft will soon be sunk deeper, when -probably a more abundant supply of good specimens will be obtained. - -N. B. The silver and galena are the least abundant. - - _March 8th, 1819._ - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[28] Vide Edin. Review for Sept. 1818. p. 374. - -[29] Referring to the ridges of Greenstone near New-Haven. - -[30] Or, according to the Wernerian Geologists, Transition? -_Editor._ - -[31] The modesty of the writer has prevented him from applying to -the formations which he has well described, the terms _transition_ -and _secondary_, which there can be little doubt do in fact belong -to them. His strata of highly inclined limestone, appear to belong -to the transition class of Werner, and his flat strata, to the -secondary. It may be observed in this place, that the specimens -alluded to in the text (passim,) appear to be correctly described -by Mr. Cornelius, and to justify his geological inferences as far -as hand-specimens seen at a distance from their native beds, can -form a safe basis for general geological inductions. _Editor._ - -[32] Copied partly from Manuscripts of the late Dr. Muhlenberg, of -Lancaster, Pennsylvania. - -[33] This large species I understand has been mistaken by a writer -on Natural History for _Boa constrictor_: this is mentioned to -show how remotely it is possible to diverge from accuracy in this -science. - -[34] I have been since informed by Mr. Lesueur, that to his taste -the poison was bitter. - -[35] The terminal caudal plates of this individual were bifid, as -in the one of Peale's Museum. - -[36] This last is the animal, beyond a doubt, judging -from the detailed description and plate, which has -lately been erected into a new genus, under the name of -Scoliophus..............................the identity is immediately -obvious, to any one acquainted with the specific characters of the -above-mentioned coluber. And I presume it can be made apparent, to -any one tolerably versed in the science, should proof be thought -necessary. - -[37] Dr. Barton remarked that this part is rounded, (cauda teres,) -this observation was not autoptical, but dictated most probably by -the appearance of Catesby's figure. In the young animal the tail is -less compressed than in the old one. - -[38] Here we might properly enough notice the high-ways, streets, -and pavements of cities, &c. on which the materials being minutely -divided by attrition, are in a better state for the sun to act -freely on, and will consequently yield greater products than equal -areas of undisturbed surface, under like circumstances of heat. - -[39] Perhaps there is no body in nature absolutely incombustible, -but I use the term here in common acceptation. - -[40] It may be easily proved that water evaporates (though slowly) -at a temperature many degrees below its freezing point; and these -vapours are more subtle and elastic than those formed at the -boiling point of that fluid. - -REMARK. - -It is indeed proved that vapour is formed from water at the lowest -temperatures, but is _less elastic_, the lower the temperature, -as appears from its sustaining a continually decreasing column of -mercury, the lower the temperature at which the vapour is formed. -Vide Dalton's and Gay Lussac's experiments. _Editor._ - -[41] We have taken the liberty to give Mr. Atwater's Memoir a more -extensive Title, for reasons that will be obvious on a perusal of -the piece. - -[42] Genus, _platanus_--species, _occidentalis_, popular name, -sycamore, or button-wood. - -[43] The collection of Mr. Perkins became, in 1807, (partly by the -liberality of its possessor, and partly by purchase,) the property -of Yale College, and is now in the cabinet of that institution. It -is believed that few cabinets of equal extent, ever contained more -instructive and beautiful specimens, with less that is unmeaning or -superfluous. The cabinet of Dr. Bruce has, since his death, been -purchased by a gentleman in New-York, for 5000 dollars. _Editor._ - -[44] On account of its peculiar cadaverous odour Dr. Hayden -proposes to call this mineral (should it prove to be a new one) -Necronite, from the Greek Νεκρος. - -[45] That is, the inner bark deprived of the epidermis or outer -bark, by the shaving knife. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - GEOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND MINERALOGY. - Page - - Art. I. On the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, and - Curiosities of Parts of Virginia, Tennessee, and - of the Alabama and Mississippi Territories, - &c. with Miscellaneous Remarks, &c. In a Letter to - the Editor. By the Rev. Elias Cornelius 317 - - Art. II. On the Origin of Prairies. By Mr. R. W. Wells 331 - - Art. III. Sketch of the Mineralogy and Geology of the - Vicinity of Williams' College, Williamstown, - Mass. By Professor Dewey, of Williams' - College, in a letter to the Editor 337 - - Art. IV. On the Tourmalines and other Minerals found - at Chesterfield and Goshen, Massachusetts, by - Col. George Gibbs 346 - - Art. V. Observations on the Minerals connected with - the Gneiss range of Litchfield county, by Mr. - John P. Brace, of Litchfield, Conn. 351 - - - BOTANY. - - Art. VI. An Account of two North American Species of - Rottböllia, discovered on the Sea-coast in the - State of Georgia, by Dr. William Baldwin, of - Philadelphia 355 - - Art. VII. Floral Calendar kept at Deerfield, Massachusetts, - with Miscellaneous Remarks, by Dr. - Stephen W. Williams, of Deerfield 359 - - Art. VIII. Description and Natural Classification of the - Genus Floerkea, by C. S. Rafinesque, Professor - of Botany and Natural History in the - Transylvania University, Lexington, Ken. 373 - - Art. IX. Descriptions of Three New Genera of Plants, - from the State of New-York. Cylactis, Nemopanthus, - and Polanisia, by Professor C. S. Rafinesque 377 - - Art. X. Notice on the Myosurus Shortii, by the same 379 - - Art. XI. Description of a New Species of Gnaphalium, - by Professor E. Ives 380 - - - FOSSIL ZOOLOGY, &C. - - Art. XII. Observations on some Species of Zoophytes, - Shells, &c. principally Fossil, by Thomas Say 381 - - - PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, &C. - - Art. XIII. Observations on Salt Storms, and the Influence - of Salt and Saline Air upon Animal and - Vegetable Life. Read before the Lyceum of - Natural History of New-York, March 7, - 1819, by John B. Beck, M. D. 388 - - Art. XIV. Thoughts on Atmospheric Dust. By Professor - C. S. Rafinesque 397 - - Art. XV. On the Effect of Vapour on Flame. By J. F. - Dana, Chemical Assistant in Harvard University, - and Lecturer on Chemistry and Pharmacy - in Dartmouth College 401 - - Art. XVI. Analysis of the Harrodsburg Salts, by Edward - D. Smith, M. D. Professor of Chemistry - and Mineralogy in the South-Carolina College 403 - - Art. XVII. Additional Notice of the Tungsten and - Tellurium, mentioned in our last Number 405 - - Art. XVIII. A Substitute for Woulfe's or Nooth's Apparatus, - by Robert Hare, M. D. Professor of - Chemistry in the Medical Department of the - University of Pennsylvania, and Member of - various Learned and Scientific Societies 410 - - Art. XIX. A New Theory of Galvanism, supported by - some Experiments and Observations made by - means of the Calorimotor, a new Galvanic - Instrument. Read before the Academy of - Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, by Robert - Hare, M. D. Professor of Chemistry in the - Medical Department of the University of - Pennsylvania, and Member of various Learned - Societies 413 - - - MATHEMATICS. - - Art. XX. An improved Method of obtaining the Formulæ - for the Sines and Cosines of the Sum and Difference - of two Arcs, by Professor Strong, of Hamilton College, &c. 424 - - - MISCELLANEOUS. - - Art. XXI. An Account of several Ancient Mounds, and of - two Caves, in East Tennessee, by Mr. John - Henry Kain, of Knoxville 428 - - Art. XXII. Facts illustrative of the Powers and Operations - of the Human Mind in a Diseased State 431 - - - INTELLIGENCE. - - Art. XXIII. 1. Discovery of American Cinnabar and - Native Lead 433 - - 2. Theoretical Views of Professor Hare of - Philadelphia 434 - - 3. New Work on Chemistry _ibid._ - - 4. Botanical 435 - - 5. Staurotide _ibid._ - - 6. Supplement to the "Remarks on the Geology and - Mineralogy of a Section of Massachusetts, on - Connecticut River, &c." contained in No. 2, - Art. I, of this Journal, by E. Hitchcock, A. M. 436 - - 7. New Process for Tanning 439 - - 8. Connexion between Chemistry and Medicine _ibid._ - - 9. Brucite _ibid._ - - 10. Lithography _ibid._ - - - Conclusion 440 - - _Postscript._--American Geological Society 442 - - Index 443 - - - - -THE - -_AMERICAN_ - -JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. - - - - -_GEOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND MINERALOGY._ - - - - -ART. I. _On the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, and Curiosities of -Parts of Virginia, Tennessee, and of the Alabama and Mississippi -Territories, &c. with Miscellaneous Remarks, &c. In a Letter to the -Editor._ By the REV. ELIAS CORNELIUS. - -(Concluded from page 226.) - - -I will conclude this part of the narrative with a brief notice of a -few curiosities occurring in the region which has been described. - - -_Caves._ - -1. It is well known that it furnishes a great number of interesting -_caves_. They are found alike in the inclined and horizontal -strata. Some of them are several miles in extent, and afford fine -specimens of earthy and alkaline salts. - -Wier's cave in Virginia has been described by Mr. Kain. I have in -my possession a map of its most important apartments, including -its whole length, copied from a survey made by Mr. J. Pack in Oct. -1806; also the notes of another survey made in May 1816, by the -Rev. Conrad Speece of Augusta county, and Mr. Robert Grattan; -which, with an explanation, and particular description, I hope to -be able to transmit to you at a future time. - -From these surveys, it appears that the whole extent of the cave, -hitherto discovered, does not exceed eight hundred yards. This was -the length stated to me by the guide, when I visited it in August, -1817. I cannot but think there is some mistake in Mr. Kain's -remark, that "it is a mile and a half in extent." I spent four -hours in examining every accessible part, and by permission of Mr. -Henry Bingham, the owner, made a large collection of specimens, -which were transmitted for the Cabinet of Yale College.[46] - - -_The Natural Bridge._ - -2. My object m naming this celebrated curiosity, is not to give a -new description of it, but merely to furnish a correct account of -its dimensions. I visited it in company with the Rev. Mr. Huson, -who had previously found its height by a cord, to be two hundred -and ten feet. We now found it by the quadrant, to be two hundred -and eleven feet, and the arch through the centre about forty feet. - -Some have attempted to account for this great curiosity, by -supposing that a convulsion in nature may have rent the hill, -in which it stands, asunder; thus forming the deep and narrow -defile, over which the rocky strata were left, which constitute its -magnificent arch. If so; the sides should have corresponding parts. -At a distance from the base, no such correspondence is perceptible. -At the base, the rocks are more or less craggy and irregular. -This led me to take the courses and distances of each side. The -following was the result. - - Eastern side presents 4 angular points. - - 1. N. 55° W. 1 chain. 09 links. - 2. N. 72 W. 1 ------ 05½ ------ - 3. N. 57 W. 1 ------ 12½ ------ - 4. N. 50 W. 0 ------ 33 ------ - - Western side presents 3 angular points. - - 1. N. 50° W. 0 chain. 45 links. - 2. N. 67 W. 1 ------ 12½ ------ - 3. N. 77 W. 1 ------ 44 ------ - -The chain used contained 50 links, equal to 33 feet and ⅓. The -distance between the abutments at the north end of their bases, is -80 feet; at the south end, 66 feet. As they ascend, the distance is -greater. These data give the following diagram. - -[Illustration] - -Although considerable resemblance appears at the base, yet as no -such correspondence is visible 40 feet above it, and the sides -for the whole remaining distance to the arch, one hundred and -thirty feet, lose their craggy appearance entirely, and present -the smooth, irregular surface of the oldest rocks. I am led to -think that the natural bridge is coeval with a very remote period -of time. Nor is there any difficulty even in supposing it to have -proceeded from the hand of the Almighty, as it is; for great and -marvellous are all his works! - -The following anecdote will evince the effect which the sight of -the natural bridge produced on a servant, who, without having -received any definite or adequate ideas of what he was to see, -attended his master to this spot. - -On the summit of the hill, or from the top of the Bridge, the -view is not more awful than that which is seen from the brink of -a hundred other precipices. The grand prospect is from below. To -reach it you must descend the hill by a blind path, which winds -through a thicket of trees, and terminates at the instant when the -whole bridge with its broad sides and lofty arch, all of solid -rock, appears perfectly in sight. Not one in a thousand can forbear -to make an involuntary pause: but the servant, who had hitherto -followed his master, without meeting with any thing particularly -to arrest his attention, had no sooner arrived at this point, and -caught a glance of the object which burst upon his vision, than he -fell upon his knees, fixed in wonder and admiration. - - -_A River flowing from a Cave._ - -3. I will next mention _a singular cave_, which I do not remember -ever to have seen described. It is situated in the Cherokee -country, at Nicojack, the north-western angle in the map of -Georgia, and is known by the name of the Nicojack cave. It is 20 -miles S. W. of the Look-Out mountain, and half a mile from the -south bank of the Tennessee River. The Rackoon mountain in which -it is situated, here fronts to the northeast. Immense layers of -horizontal limestone form a precipice of considerable height. In -this precipice the cave commences; not however with an opening -of a few feet, as is common; but with a mouth fifty feet high, -and one hundred and sixty wide. Its roof is formed by a solid and -regular layer of limestone, having no support but the sides of -the cave, and as level as the floor of a house. The entrance is -partly obstructed by piles of fallen rocks, which appear to have -been dislodged by some great convulsion. From its entrance, the -cave consists chiefly of one grand excavation through the rocks, -preserving for a great distance the same dimensions as at its mouth. - -What is more remarkable than all, it forms for the whole distance -it has yet been explored, a walled and vaulted passage, for a -stream of cool and limpid water, which, where it leaves the cave, -is six feet deep and sixty feet wide. A few years since, Col. James -Ore of Tennessee, commencing early in the morning, followed the -course of this creek in a canoe, for three miles. He then came to -a fall of water, and was obliged to return, without making any -further discovery. Whether he penetrated three miles up the cave -or not, it is a fact he did not return till the evening, having -been busily engaged in his subterranean voyage for twelve hours. -He stated that the course of the cave after proceeding some way to -the southwest became south; and southeast by south, the remaining -distance. - - -_Natural Nitre._ - -The sides of the principal excavation present a few apartments -which are interesting, principally because they furnish large -quantities of the earth from which the nitrate of potash is -obtained. This is a circumstance very common to the caves of the -western country. In that at Nicojack, it abounds, and is found -covering the surfaces of fallen rocks, but in more abundance -beneath them. There are two kinds, one is called the "clay dirt," -the other the "black dirt;" the last is much more strongly -impregnated than the first. For several years there has been a -considerable manufacture of saltpetre from this earth. The process -is by lixiviation and crystallization, and is very simple. The -earth is thrown into a hopper, and the fluid obtained, passed -through another of ashes, the alkali of which decomposes the earthy -nitrate, and uniting with its acid, which contains chiefly nitrate -of lime, turns it into nitrate of potash. The precipitated lime -gives the mass a whitish colour, and the consistence of curdled -milk. By allowing it to stand in a large trough, the precipitate, -which is principally lime, subsides, and the superincumbent fluid, -now an alkaline, instead of an earthy nitrate, is carefully removed -and boiled for some time in iron kettles, till it is ready to -crystallize. It is then removed again to a large trough, in which -it shoots into crystals. It is now called "rough shot-petre." In -this state it is sent to market, and sells usually for sixteen -dollars per hundred weight. Sometimes it is dissolved in water, -reboiled, and recrystallized, when it is called refined, and sells -for twenty dollars per hundred. One bushel of the clay dirt yields -from 3 to 5lbs. and the black dirt from 7 to 10lbs. of the rough -shot-petre. The same dirt, if returned to the cave, and scattered -on the rocks, or mingled with the new earth, becomes impregnated -with the nitrate again, and in a few months may be thrown into the -hopper, and be subjected to a new process. - -The causes which have produced the nitric salts of these caves, may -not yet have been fully developed. But it is highly probable, they -are to be ascribed to the decomposition of animal substances. - -It is reasonable to suppose, that in an uncultivated country -they would become the abodes of wild animals, and even of savage -men. That they have been used by the natives as burial places, -is certain. In one which I entered, I counted a hundred human -skulls, in the space of twenty feet square. All the lesser and -more corruptible parts of each skeleton had mouldered to dust, and -the whole lay in the greatest confusion. I have heard of many such -caves, and to this day some of the Indians are known to deposit -their dead in them. From the decomposition of such substances, it -is well known the acid of the nitric salts arises, and it would of -course unite with the lime every where present, and form nitrate of -lime. - - -_Mounds._ - -4. I have but one more article of curiosity to mention under this -division. It is one of those artificial _mounds_ which occur so -frequently in the western country. I have seen many of them, and -read of more. But never of one of such dimensions as that which I -am now to describe. - -It is situated in the interior of the Cherokee nation, on the north -side of the Etowee, vulgarly called Hightower River, one of the -branches of the Koosee. It stands upon a strip of alluvial land, -called _River Bottom_. I visited it in company with eight Indian -chiefs. The first object which excited attention was an excavation -about twenty feet wide, and in some parts ten feet deep. Its course -is nearly that of a semicircle; the extremities extending towards -the river, which forms a small elbow. I had not time to examine it -minutely. An Indian said it extended each way to the river, and -had several unexcavated parts, which served for passages to the -area which it encloses. To my surprise, I found no embankment on -either side of it. But I did not long doubt to what place the earth -had been removed; for I had scarcely proceeded two hundred yards, -when, through the thick forest trees, a stupendous pile met the -eye, whose dimensions were in full proportion to the intrenchment. -I had at the time no means of taking an accurate admeasurement. -To supply my deficiency, I cut a long vine, which was preserved -until I had an opportunity of ascertaining its exact length. In -this manner I found the distance from the margin of the summit to -the base, to be one hundred and eleven feet. And judging from the -degree of its declivity, the _perpendicular height_ cannot be less -than seventy-five feet. The circumference of the base, including -the feet of three parapets, measured one thousand one hundred and -fourteen feet. One of these parapets extends from the base to the -summit, and can be ascended, though with difficulty, on horseback. -The other two, after rising thirty or forty feet, terminate in a -kind of triangular platform. Its top is level, and at the time -I visited it, was so completely covered with weeds, bushes, and -trees of most luxuriant growth, that I could not examine it as -well as I wished. Its diameter, I judged, must be one hundred and -fifty feet. On its sides and summit, are many large trees of the -same description, and of equal dimensions with those around it. -One beach-tree, near the top, measured ten feet nine inches in -circumference. The earth on one side of the tree, was three and a -half feet lower than on the opposite side. This fact will give a -good idea of the degree of the mound's declivity. An oak, which -was lying down on one of the parapets, measured at the distance of -six feet from the butt, without the bark, twelve feet four inches -in circumference. At a short distance to the southeast is another -mound, in ascending which I took thirty steps. Its top is encircled -by a breastwork three feet high, intersected through the middle -with another elevation of a similar kind. A little farther is -another mound, which I had not time to examine. - -On these great works of art, the Indians gazed with as much -curiosity as any white man. I inquired of the oldest chief, if the -natives had any tradition respecting them; to which he answered in -the negative. I then requested each to say what he supposed was -their origin. Neither could tell: though all agreed in saying; -"they were never put up by our people." It seems probable they -were erected by another race, who once inhabited the country. -That such a race existed, is now generally admitted. Who they -were, and what were the causes of their degeneracy, or of their -extermination, no circumstances have yet explained. But this is no -reason why we should not, as in a hundred other instances, infer -the existence of the cause from its effects, without any previous -knowledge of its history. - -In regard to the objects which these mounds were designed to -answer, it is obvious they were not always the same. Some were -intended as receptacles for the dead. These are small, and are -distinguished by containing human bones. Some may have been -designed as sites for public buildings, whether of a civil or -religious kind; and others no doubt were constructed for the -purposes of war. Of this last description, is the Etowee mound. In -proof of its suitableness for such a purpose, I need only mention -that the Cherokees in their late war with the Creeks, secured its -summit by pickets, and occupied it as a place of protection for -hundreds of their women and children. Gladly would I have spent -a day in examining it more minutely; but my companions, unable -to appreciate my motives, grew impatient, and I was obliged to -withdraw, and leave a more perfect observation and description to -some one else. - - -_Alluvial Formation._ - -I will now call your attention to the last geological division -which came under my observation. It is the alluvial tract, -extending from the Dividing Ridge already mentioned, to the Gulf of -Mexico. This Ridge is the last range of high land which I crossed -on the journey to New Orleans, and lies about six hundred miles -north of the Gulf of Mexico. Its course at the place I crossed -it, is a little south of west. It divides the waters of the -Tennessee from those which proceed directly to the gulf. Travellers -always observe it. They often mentioned it to me as the southern -boundary of the _stony country_. After crossing it, you see no -more limestone; and, which excites more joy in the traveller, no -more of the silicious gravel, with which it is associated, and -which is so troublesome to the feet of horses. The soil consists -of a soft clay, or light sand, on which you seldom meet with a -stone of any kind. The surface of the earth is undulating and -hilly, but not mountainous. The water-courses do not move rapidly -and tumultuously, as in the limestone country; but form in the -soft earth, deep trenches, through which they glide smoothly and -silently along. The smallest rivulet often has a trench ten feet -deep; and the earth over which it passes, is continually yielding -to its gentle attrition. - -The only minerals which I observed, are sandstone, common and -ferruginous; silicious pebbles in beds of creeks, and occasionally -on the uplands; earthy ores of iron, particularly red oxides, and -petrifactions of shells, wood, &c. In addition to these, it may -here be mentioned that galena has been found in small quantities at -Gibson's Port, and at Ellis's Cliffs, in the State of Mississippi: -a crystal of amethyst, in the same state, by Mr. Blannerhassett; -and a great variety of useful ochres, in many places on the banks -of the Mississippi. - -In the geological map attached to Professor Cleaveland's -Mineralogy, the alluvial country bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, -is represented as terminating at Natchez. But why its termination -is placed here, I am unable to understand. The country above and -below Natchez, so far as it has come under my observation, presents -no difference of appearance in its geology, or mineralogy. I -am aware that at Natchez, when the water of the Mississippi is -lowest, a soft rock is seen, from which lime has been obtained. -But this rock is two hundred feet below the surface of the -adjoining country; and admitting that it is a limestone rock, -there is no difficulty in supposing it may constitute the basis -of the alluvial deposit which rests upon it. That the incumbent -earth is _alluvial_, can be doubted, I think, by no one who has -had an opportunity of examining it. By means of a road, which has -been cut obliquely down the side of the bluff, distinct layers of -clay, sand, and pebbles, have been exposed for the whole distance -from the summit to the base. The same character is observed at a -distance from the river, where the earth has been excavated by -washing, or digging. In the vicinity of the town, there is a -curious exhibition of the fact. A stream of water has worn away the -earth to the depth of fifteen or twenty feet, and is continually -lengthening the chasm, in the direction opposite to its own course. -Thus, as the water flows from the town, the chasm approaches it. In -examining the cause of this fact, I perceived it was owing chiefly -to the difference of cohesion in the alluvial deposits, of which -the earth is formed. That at the surface, being a thick loam, -wears away with more difficulty than the deposit below it, which -consists of a loose sand. The consequence is, that the water, which -has once obtained a perpendicular passage of a few inches through -the first, washes away the second with such rapidity, that it is -constantly undermining it. This occasions a perpetual caving in of -the surface, in a direction opposite to the course of the stream. -The same fact is observed in many parts of the country for a great -distance above Natchez. If there be wanting any other fact to prove -that the earth on which the town of Natchez stands, is alluvial, it -is found in the effect which the Mississippi has upon the base of -the Natchez bluff. In consequence of a bend in the river, the whole -force of its current is thrown against this base. If it consisted -of solid rock, the river would probably have no effect upon it; but -of such loose and friable materials is it composed, that the river -is continually undermining it, and producing effects not less to -be dreaded than those of an earthquake. Several years ago, a great -number of acres sunk fifty feet or more below the general surface -of the hill; and in 1805, there was another caving of that part -directly over the small village at the landing. Several houses -were buried in consequence of it, and strong fears are entertained -by the inhabitants, that the same cause will yet submerge in the -Mississippi, the whole of the present landing-place. - -These facts, I think you will say, furnish satisfactory evidence -of the alluvial character of the country at Natchez. The same -character belongs to the whole extent south of the Dividing Ridge. -This may be safely inferred from the general features of the -country. But I have two facts, of a geological kind, to mention, -both of which go to confirm the opinion. - -1. A well was dug in the Choctaw nation, at the agency of the -United States, in the year 1812 or 1813, under the direction of -Silas Dinsmore, Esq. the agent. The excavation was continued -to the depth of one hundred and seventy-two feet. No water was -found. At no great distance from the surface, marine exuviæ were -found in abundance. The shells were small, and imbedded in a soft -clay, similar to marine earth. This formation continued till the -excavation ceased. Dispersed through it, were found lumps of -selenite, or foliated gypsum, some of which were half as large as a -man's fist. Specimens of the earth, the exuviæ, and the selenite, -have been transmitted for your examination. This excavation was -made one hundred and twenty miles north northeast of Natchez. The -Pearl River is four miles to the east of the place, and is the only -considerable stream in this part of the country. - -2. In the Chickasaw nation, one hundred and seventy miles north of -the Choctaw agency, commence beds of oyster-shells, which continue -to be seen at intervals for twelve miles. Four miles from the -first bed, you come to what is called "Chickasaw Old Town," where -they are observed in great abundance. They are imbedded in low -ridges of a white marl. They appear to be of two kinds. Specimens -of each, and also of the marl, you have received. "Chickasaw Old -Town," is a name now appropriated to a prairie, on a part of which -there formerly stood a small village of Chickasaws. The prairie is -twenty miles long, and four wide. The shells occur in three places -as you cross it, and again, on two contiguous hills to the east of -it, at the distance of four miles. They do not cover the surface -merely. They form a constituent part of the hills or plains in -which they are found. Wherever the earth has been washed so as to -produce deep gutters, they are seen in greatest abundance. Nor are -they petrifactions, such as are found in rocks. They have the same -appearance as common oyster-shells, they lie loose in the earth, -and thus indicate a comparatively recent origin. They occur _three -hundred miles_ northeast of Natchez, and but _sixty_ miles south of -the Dividing Ridge. - -If the country north of Natchez is alluvial, no one will doubt -it is so from this place to the Gulf of Mexico. At Baton Rouge, -one hundred and forty miles north of New Orleans, you meet the -first elevated land in ascending from the gulf. The banks of the -Mississippi are higher than the interior, and would be annually -overflowed by the river, but for a narrow embankment of earth about -six feet high, called the Levee. By means of this, a narrow strip -of land, from half a mile to a mile in width, is redeemed, and -cultivated with cotton and the sugar cane, to the great advantage -of the planter. Generally, within one mile from the river, there is -an impenetrable morass. The country has every where the appearance -of an origin comparatively recent. Not a rock on which you can -stand, and no mountain to gladden the eye; you seem to have left -the older parts of creation to witness the encroachments which -the earth is continually making upon the empire of the sea; and -on arriving at the mouth of the Mississippi, you find the grand -instruments of nature in active operation, producing with slow, but -certain gradations, the same results. - - -_A destructive Insect._ - -But I will not enlarge on a fact already familiar. I will ask your -further indulgence only, while I communicate an authentic and -curious fact for the information of the zoologist. - -In the Choctaw country, one hundred and thirty miles northeast of -Natchez, a part of the public road is rendered famous on account of -the periodical return of a poisonous and destructive fly. Contrary -to the custom of other insects, it always _appears_ when the _cold -weather_ commences in December, and as invariably _disappears_ -on the approach of _warm weather_, which is about the first of -April. It is said to have been remarked first in the winter of -1807, _during a snowstorm_; when its effects upon cattle and horses -were observed to be similar to those of the gnat and musqueto, in -summer, except that they were more severe. It continued to return -at the same season of the year, without producing extensive -mischief, until the winter of 1816, when it began to be generally -fatal to the horses of travellers. So far as I recollect, it -was stated, that from thirty to forty travelling horses were -destroyed during this winter. The consequences were alarming. In -the wilderness, where a man's horse is his chief dependence, the -traveller was surprised and distressed to see the beast sicken and -die in convulsions, sometimes within three hours after encountering -this little insect. Or if the animal were fortunate enough to live, -a sickness followed, commonly attended with the sudden and entire -shedding of the hair, which rendered the brute unfit for use. -Unwilling to believe that effects so dreadful could be produced by -a cause apparently trifling, travellers began to suspect that the -Indians, or others, of whom they obtained food for their horses, -had, for some base and selfish end, mingled poison with it. The -greatest precaution was observed. They refused to stop at any house -on the way, and carried, for the distance of forty or fifty miles, -their own provision; but after all suffered the same calamities. -This excited a serious inquiry into the true cause of their -distress. The fly, which has been mentioned, was known to be a most -singular insect, and peculiarly troublesome to horses. At length -it was admitted by all, that the cause of the evils complained of -could be no other than this insect. Other precautions have since -been observed, particularly that of riding over the road infested -with it _in the night_; and now it happens that comparatively -few horses are destroyed. I am unable to describe it from my own -observation. I passed over the same road in April last, only two -weeks after it disappeared, and was obliged to take the description -from others. Its colour is a dark brown; it has an elongated head, -with a small and sharp proboscis; and is in size between the gnat -and musqueto. When it alights upon a horse, it darts through the -hair, much like a gnat, and never quits its hold until removed by -force. When a horse stops to drink, swarms fly about the head, and -crowd into the mouth, nostrils, and ears; hence it is supposed the -poison is communicated inwardly. Whether this be true or not, the -most fatal consequences result. It is singular, that from the -time of its first appearance, it has never extended for a greater -distance than forty miles, in one direction, and usually, it is -confined to fifteen miles. In no other part of the country has it -ever been seen. From this fact, it would seem probable that the -cause of its existence is local. But what it is, none can tell. -After the warm weather commences, it disappears as effectually from -human observation, as if it were annihilated. Towards the close of -December it springs up all at once into being again, and resumes -the work of destruction. A fact, so singular, I could not have -ventured to state, without the best evidence of its reality. All -the circumstances here related, are familiar to hundreds, and were -in almost every man's mouth, when I passed through the country. -In addition to this, they were confirmed by the account which I -received from Col. John M'Kee, a gentleman of much intelligence and -respectability, who is the present agent of the general government -for the Choctaw nation. He has consented to obtain specimens of -the insect for your examination, when it returns again; and will, -I hope, accompany the transmission with a more perfect description -than it has been possible for me to communicate. - -In concluding this narrative of facts, I should be glad to take a -comprehensive view of the whole. The bold features in the geology -of the United States, as they are drawn by the Blue Ridge, the -Cumberland with its associated mountains, and the Dividing Ridge, -deserve to be distinctly and strongly impressed upon the mind. Such -is the order and regularity of their arrangement, that they can -hardly fail to conduct the attentive observer to important results. -What has now been said of them, is but an epitome of the whole. I -trust the public will soon read, in the pages of your Journal, a -detail more perfect and more interesting. And allow me to suggest, -whether, under the auspices of our learned societies, some men -of science might not be employed and supported in exploring the -country, with the prospect of greatly enlarging the science of our -country, and of enriching our Journals and Cabinets of Natural -History. Tours of discovery have often been made for other objects, -and with success. Our country yields to no other in the variety, -or the value of its natural productions. We owe it to ourselves and -to the world, to search them out with diligence and without delay. - -_Somers, (N. Y.) Oct. 1818._ - - - - -ART. II. _On the Origin of Prairies._ - - - _St. Louis, (Missouri Ter.) March 3, 1819._ - - SIR, - -The probable cause of the origin and continuance of _prairies_ -has been the subject of much speculation among the learned and -curious. The inquiry is interesting; and many theories have arisen; -but although plausible and ingenious, they are, in my opinion, -unfounded in fact. - -I should be glad to see the following remarks, which were called -forth more particularly by the speculations of Caleb Atwater, Esq. -(See No. 2. p. 116. of this work) appear in your valuable Journal -of Science; and they are, for that purpose, at your service. - - With high respect, I am, Sir, your's, - R. W. WELLS. - - _Benjamin Silliman, Esq._ - -Mr. Atwater, after describing the prairies and barrens, says, that -according to the common opinion, they "were occasioned entirely -by the burning of the woods," but, "erroneous information first -propagated such an opinion, and blind credulity has extended it -down to us." Mr. A. goes on to affirm that, "wherever prairies and -barrens are found, there, for a long space of time, water once -stood, but was gradually drained off." The writer of this having -often visited and observed with attention the nature and appearance -of the prairies on the Alleghany mountains, in the states of Ohio, -Indiana, and Illinois, and having long been employed by the United -States as a surveyor in the prairie country of the Missouri and -Missisippi, thinks he may venture to oppose these speculations -without being thought presumptuous. He is of opinion, that the -vast prairies and barrens, extending over the greater part of the -western states, and over nearly all Louisiana, were primitively -occasioned, and have been since continued, by the _combustion of -vegetables_, and that _water_ had no agency in their formation. - -In order to prove the high prairies of the state of Ohio to have -been once covered by the waters of Lake Erie, Mr. A. maintains, -that the channel of the Niagara river has been worn down "_several -hundred feet_" by the attrition of its waters. Mr. A. should have -shown, that the banks of the Niagara are, at this time, several -hundred feet high, or, like the Potomac, at Harper's Ferry, has -broken through a mountain "several hundred feet" high; but neither -the one nor the other is the fact; the face of the country, on -either side of the river, is comparatively low and champaign; and -were it possible for the waters of the lake to rise considerably -above their present level, they would meet with no obstruction or -impediment, for many miles on either side the river, but would be -precipitated over the cataract, into Ontario, and down the St. -Lawrence to the Atlantic. But supposing there had been a mountain -running between Lakes Erie and Ontario of sufficient height to -prevent the water of the former from passing into the latter, it -must evidently have found other places through which to escape, and -before it would rise high enough to overflow the elevated region of -Madison and Fayette counties, in Ohio, it would have passed over -into the heads of the Alleghany. But it is impossible to imagine -this, unless we suppose the Atlantic to have been six or seven -hundred feet higher than at present, which, according to Mr. A. -would have made prairie of all the Atlantic states. - -The fact of shells and other marine substances having been found -in a few places, by digging in the prairies, proves nothing, or -proves too much, for they are found in equal or greater quantities -all over America, in the sides and near the summit of the Alleghany -mountains; on the Andes, in South America, and the Alps, in -Europe. The resemblance which the soil, in the low prairies, and -not in the high, bears to the _alluvial_, can justly be attributed, -it is presumed, to the leaves and other vegetables and light -materials of which they are composed, having been washed by heavy -rains, for ages past, from the higher to the lower places. This -will also account for the circumstance of trees growing upon the -summits of the hills of steep ascent: being thin and poor, the -grass neither grows sufficiently long or thick to kill the timber -when fired. They _could not_ have been islands in this fairy -lake; because their summits are frequently much _lower_ than high -prairie flats a few miles distant. These are facts which will be -recollected by those who have ever travelled through a prairie -country of any extent. - -But suppose it to have been proved, that the waters of Lake Erie -once overspread the state of Ohio, from its present shore to -Chillicothe, (a supposition which I trust has however been shown to -be visionary) does it follow that the prairies were occasioned by -such overflowing? If the water, by covering the country, prevented -the timber from growing, should we not naturally look for the -largest timber on the higher grounds which would be first forsaken -by the waters, and for small timber on the low grounds, where the -water remained longest? If this be true, (and it is unquestionable) -we should then look for prairies on the low grounds bordering on -Lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan; and the thickly timbered country -would be on the high land, near the sources of the rivers. But the -contrary is absolutely the fact: we find heavy timbered land, and -no _prairies_, in the low countries north of the lakes, and none -south, either in Michigan territory or elsewhere, until we arrive -near the sources of the rivers. It is true, that the water standing -in ponds will prevent the timber from growing; but the difference -is readily observed between prairies, properly so called, and those -bogs. - -But to prove farther that water had no agency in bringing the -prairies into existence, we may mention those on and near the -summit of the Alleghany mountains, (principally in Alleghany -County.[47]) Many of those prairies are ten or twelve miles in -length, and three or four in width. Will it be pretended that -the sides of those mountains were also lakes? Farther--the most -extensive prairies known, are the very high plains immediately west -of the Rocky Mountains, and east of the mountains near the sources -of the Arkansaw and Missouri rivers, extending even on the spurs of -those mountains; a country the highest perhaps in North America, -with a great and continued descent to the Pacific on the one side, -and to the Gulf of Mexico on the other. - -The barrens, also, found in Kentucky, are another evidence that -water had no agency in their formation--they are situate, it is -believed, in the elevated parts of the country exclusively. - -The writer of this, deeming it unnecessary to say more, or to -produce more facts, (although much more may be said, and many more -facts produced) to prove that prairies were not lakes, will now -endeavour to prove that they were occasioned by the _combustion of -vegetables_. - -Prairies are found in those countries only that are congenial to -the growth of grass, and only where the soil is sufficiently rich -to produce it luxuriantly--they are found commonly on high plains, -sufficiently drained to prevent water from remaining on them the -whole year; for it is by no means necessary that they should be -always dry; on the contrary, if they are sufficiently level to -prevent the rains from running off immediately, the grass will grow -thicker and higher--but they must be sufficiently dry to burn, at -least once in two or three years, during the long, dry season, -called _Indian summer_. It has been universally remarked, that -these seasons are much longer as we proceed westerly--commencing -usually in October, and continuing a month and a half or two -months, during which the vegetation is killed by the frosts, and -dried by the sun; the wet prairies are also dried, and before the -season has expired, the grass is perfectly combustible. - -The Indians, it is presumed, (and the writer, from a residence in -their country and with them, is well acquainted with their customs) -burn the woods, not _ordinarily_ for the purpose of taking or -catching game, as suggested by Mr. A. but for many other advantages -attending that practice. If the woods be not burned as usual, the -hunter finds it impossible to kill the game, which, alarmed at the -great noise made in walking through the dry grass and leaves, flee -in all directions at his approach. Also the Indians travel much -during the winter, from one village to another, and to and from -the various hunting grounds, which becomes extremely painful and -laborious, from the quantity of briers, vines, grass, &c. To remedy -these and many other inconveniences, even the woods were originally -burned so as to cause prairies, and for the same and like reasons -they continue to be burned towards the close of the Indian summer. - -Woodland is not commonly changed to prairie by one burning, but -by several successive conflagrations; the first will kill the -undergrowth, which causing a greater opening, and admitting the sun -and air more freely, increases the quantity of grass the ensuing -season: the conflagration consequently increases, and is now -sufficiently powerful to destroy the smaller timber; and on the -third year you behold an open prairie. - -Ordinarily, all the country, of a nature to become prairie, is -already in that state; yet the writer of this has seen, in the -country between the Missouri and Mississippi, after unusual dry -seasons, more than one hundred acres of woodland together converted -into prairie. And again, where the grass has been prevented from -burning by accidental causes, or the prairie has been depastured -by large herds of domestic cattle, it will assume, in a few years, -the appearance of a young forest. Numerous proofs of this fact can -be adduced, but a few shall suffice. The vicinity of St. Louis and -St. Charles affords instances. Both these beautiful places are -situated on what are termed first and second bottoms, or flats--the -former on the Missisippi, the latter on the Missouri; the second -or upper bottoms, in both, are high plains, that commence within -a few hundred yards of the rivers, and extend back many miles; -all the old French inhabitants will tell you, that the prairies -formerly came immediately up to those places. Now the surrounding -country for several miles is covered with a growth of trees of four -or five inches diameter, near the towns where the burning first -ceased, and gradually diminishing in size as you recede, until you -at length gain the open prairies. So the barrens in Kentucky; many -of the first settlers of that state distinctly recollect when many -of those barrens were clear prairies, now partially covered with -small trees. It is deemed unnecessary to offer more proofs, or -additional arguments, in support of the opinion that the prairies -were occasioned by _fire_, and not by _water_. Indeed one glance at -the maps of those extensive prairie countries, surveyed by order -of government, where the prairies and woodland are distinguished -and correctly delineated, should carry conviction. The timber will -be there observed to skirt the rivers; in the country near their -sources a few solitary trees are seen, close on the banks, secure -from the fires, and increasing in numbers as the rivers increase in -size, and the low grounds become more extensive. - -The view given of the prairies by Mr. A. is correct; but was -certainly painted in the _winter_ season--they are, at that -season, bleak and uncomfortable both to the feelings and sight; -but a full return is made to both when the spring opens. The -prairies (particularly to the west) are then covered with the -richest verdure, interspersed with an immense variety of wild -flowers, that send forth the most grateful odours. Ascend one -of the small hills, and you have a prospect as delightful as it -is possible for the imagination to conceive. Far as the eye can -carry you, a delightful country extends, through which numerous -streams wind their serpentine courses, with groves and clumps of -trees at intervals upon their banks. On one hand, at an immense -distance, the small hills and groves are seen rising above the blue -horizon; on the other, the view is pleasantly terminated by the -wood on the low grounds skirting the river to which the smaller -streams are tributary--while herds of buffalo, elk, deer, and other -animals, are frequently seen slowly travelling to and from the -watering-places, or grazing on the plains. The inhabited parts of -the country present a prospect still more pleasing; around the -margin of those extensive rich prairies, numerous habitations are -seen, withdrawn a short distance in the wood, from the winter's -cold and summer's heat--their finely cultivated fields lie in the -prairies, which yield at once to the plough, without the previous -Herculean labour of demolishing the forest. The area between the -farms is a common of pasture to the numerous herds during the -spring, summer, and autumn, and a small part mowed affords hay -for the winter. The farmer who takes up his habitation in the -neighbourhood of the prairies, has _many_ of the advantages of an -_old_ inhabited country, and _all_ the advantages of the _new_. - - - - -ART. III. _Sketch of the Mineralogy and Geology of the Vicinity of -Williams' College, Williamstown, Mass. By_ PROFESSOR DEWEY, _of -Williams' College, in a letter to the Editor_. - - -The following sketch includes a space extending from Hoosack -mountain on the east, to the State of New-York on the west, and -a small distance into Vermont on the north. The accompanying map -shows the relative situation of the streams, and the principal -hills and mountains. The map is an enlarged copy of Carleton's map -of this part of the state, with one or two corrections, which truth -required. The latitude and longitude are probably not perfectly -accurate. - -[Illustration: A Geological MAP _of a part of Massachusetts on_ -Connecticut River 1817.] - -[Illustration: _Transverse Section of Rock Strata from Hoosack -Mountain to Eleven Miles East of Connecticut River._] - -Williams' College is situated in a valley, having on the west the -hills of the _Taconick_[48] range; on the east, _Saddle Mountain_, -which separates it for the most part from Adams; and on the north, -and northeast, two hills which belong to the southwestern part of -the range of the _Green Mountains_. _Hoosack River_, rising several -miles at the southeast, and passing through the northeastern part -of Williamstown, winds its course northwest, to the Hudson. It is -an inconsiderable stream, about six rods in width, and its current -is rapid. From the south, runs _Green River_, a smaller stream, and -enters the Hoosack one mile northeast of the college. The _green_ -colour of this stream, appears to be caused by a _magnesian_ clay, -which is washed from its banks at the south part of the town. At -the west is _Westbrook_, rising in Williamstown, and entering the -Hoosack one mile and a half northwest of the college. The _soil_ -in this whole tract is generally _clayey_, rather light for such -a soil, and very rich. A gravelly soil appears in a few places, -especially at the northern part. The _interval_ on the Hoosack -extends only a small distance from its banks, rarely exceeding, -and often much less, than half a mile, and presents the common -appearances of _alluvial_ land. Rising from ten to twenty feet -above this interval, the soil is in various places filled with -rolled stones of quartz and limestone, as if the Hoosack had once -been much above the banks which confine it at present. It is not -improbable that its waters were formerly intercepted by the hills -in Pownal, five miles at the northwest, forming a small lake in -this valley. - -The hills of the _Taconick_ range, (A[49]) on which passes the line -between Massachusetts and New-York, have generally an elevation -from twelve hundred to fourteen hundred feet; _Pownal Mountain_ (B) -on the north, about fourteen hundred; and _Oak hill_ (D) on the -northeast, twelve hundred feet above the east college (C.) _Saddle -Mountain_ (EF) is an insulated mass, separated from the Taconick -range by the valley of Williamstown, and from Hoosack Mountain, by -the valley in Adams. It lies about south southwest, and is nearly -eight miles in length, and two in breadth. It is composed of two -ranges, the eastern and highest (FG) being in Adams. The mountain -has its name from two of its peaks, which present at a distance the -appearance of the two elevations of a _saddle_. The west range (E) -is divided into _two parts_ quite to its base, which with the slope -of the east range encloses, on three sides, an irregular hollow, -called the _Hopper_.(H) The northern part (E) of the west range -is nearly two miles in length, and rises to the height of eighteen -hundred feet; the southern (I) rises abruptly into a peak of the -elevation of seventeen hundred feet. The height of the valley -between the two ranges is about fourteen hundred feet. You enter -the _Hopper_ from the west, passing along a branch of Green River, -and a romantic, wild, and sublime prospect opens before you. Nearly -east of the entrance into the Hopper, lies the highest point of the -Saddle, familiarly called _Gray Lock_, (F) being about twenty-eight -hundred feet above the college, and probably four thousand feet -above the _tide-water_ of the Hudson at Troy. This is the highest -land in Massachusetts. About two miles north northeast, is the -northern peak (G) elevated twenty-three hundred feet. The valley in -Adams is bounded on the east by Hoosack mountain, (K) elevated from -fourteen hundred to eighteen hundred feet, and extending several -miles west of south: it forms a part of the range which commences -at _West Rock_ in Connecticut. - -The country included in this sketch is principally _primitive_; -lying on the west of the summit of the primitive range, which -passes southerly into Connecticut. The rocks and minerals will be -mentioned in the following order. - -1. _Granite._ A few pieces have been found at the foot of Oak -hill, one mile northeast of the college. It consists principally -of feldspar. Four miles east, are large masses of granite on both -sides of the Hoosack, and on ascending Hoosack mountain they become -more numerous. The principal part of this is quartz, often of a -purple colour; the mica black, and the rocks exceedingly hard. -I have never noticed any minerals imbedded in it. The vortex of -Pownal mountain is also granitic. - -2. _Gneiss_ and _Mica Slate_. I connect these two, because they are -not often distinct, and appear to pass into each other. They are -found in large strata on Hoosack Mountain, on a hill (L) connected -with Saddle Mountain, and on the east side of Saddle Mountain. The -highest and the west ridge of Saddle Mountain are mica slate. The -_Hopper_ shows the inclination of the strata quite to the base of -the mountain. The inclination is to the east and northeast, from -ten to forty degrees. On the southwest mountain of _Saddle_, the -strata are bare to the summit for a considerable distance, and are -very fine grained mica slate, having somewhat the appearance of -a _soapstone slate_. By this name they are called in Mr. Eaton's -Index to Geology. Some of the rocks appear to be _talcose_. I -have been able, however, to detect but a very minute quantity -of magnesia in any specimens I have tried, though I obtained -a considerable proportion of alumine. The higher hills of the -Taconick range are composed principally of a similar slate, lying -in the same direction, and with similar inclination; but it appears -to have passed still farther from mica slate. At the northwest -corner of the state, which is near the foot of the ridge in this -place, the rock is very similar to some of that on the southwest -mountain mentioned above. About a mile northwest of this _corner_, -the rocks are cleft in several places, and in one, to such a depth, -that the snow and ice remain here through the year. The _Snow Hole_ -(M) is about thirty feet long, and nearly as deep at the east -end, ascends to the west, or towards the summit of the ridge, and -is from ten to twenty feet wide. When I visited it in June, the -snow was six feet deep on ice of unknown depth. The rock is here -passing into _argillaceous slate_; and in many places it becomes -_argillaceous_ and _chlorite slate_. For the other rock, you have, -I believe, proposed the name _talcose slate_. - -3. _Quartz._ Though quartz is scattered through all the preceding -rock in masses of different sizes, it is found in great quantity on -the northeast part of Saddle Mountain, 300 or 400 feet above the -college, and thence to the Hoosack along the side of the hill (L.) -It is granular, often white and translucent, and often coloured -with oxyd of iron. It forms _Stone Hill_, (N) a mile southwest of -the college, on the vertex of which is argillaceous slate. This -hill slopes to West Brook, where quartz often forms perpendicular -banks from 50 to 100 feet high. Here also argillaceous slate rests -on the quartz, as well as on the vertex, and on the east side of -Stone Hill. Quartz appears again on the opposite side of West -Brook, but further north, on a hill connected with the Taconick -range. On these two hills, it lies in large strata, inclining, -like the mica slate, to the east and northeast, often divided by -veins into rhomboidal masses. On the east side of Stone Hill, it -is more granular, and may perhaps be called _arenaceous quartz_, -containing a larger proportion of iron. Near the base of Hoosack -Mountain, similar quartz is found, which extends round the north -side of the Hoosack to Oak Hill, (D) which is wholly composed of -it. It lies in rounded fragments, called _hardheads_, through -the northern part of the valley, and on the sides of Oak Hill in -huge rocks, presenting nearly perpendicular fronts from 20 to 50 -feet in height, and many rods in length. The strata are in some -places horizontal, and in others nearly perpendicular. In one -place it forms plates, from 2 to 5 feet on a side, and from half -an inch to several inches in thickness, which are nearly perfect -rhomboids, the edges never being perpendicular to the sides. Most -of the quartz, except the white, yields a small portion of lime, -and has been called _calcareous quartz_. _Greasy quartz_, _rose -quartz_, hornstone, and _rock crystal_, are occasionally found; the -last in considerable quantity south of Stone Hill. On the stream -which issues from the _Hopper_, is arenaceous quartz of a slaty -structure, which is an excellent stone for sharpening the _chisels_ -used by _stonecutters_. - -4. _Granular Limestone_ is abundant at the _Cave_ or _Falls_, in -Adams, and on both sides of the Hoosack. The _Cave_ or _Falls_, -(O) is a singular chasm between limestone rocks. A small stream, -which appears once to have run on the surface of the hollow between -two small elevations, has now worn a passage many feet in depth -through the limestone. The chasm is narrow, winding in its course -several rods long, and its opposite sides were connected, till -four years ago, by a natural bridge of limestone. From the bridge -to the water is 70 feet. There is a dark cavern of several feet -diameter, and some passages into the rocks. The white marble walls, -the foaming of the water below, the piles and irregularity of the -rocks, and the thick overhanging trees, make the scene very wild -and interesting. The limestone rests on mica slate. On the west -bank of the Hoosack, and east base of the hill, (L) the same -coarse-grained and white limestone is found, resting on the mica -slate at the west of it. - -At the north and west base of Saddle Mountain, (E) and at a less -elevation than the quartz, are extensive strata of limestone, -inclining the same way as the mica slate of the mountain. It is -less distinctly granular, and less white than the other, but -belongs to the same rock. It forms tolerably good marble. Between -the strata are crystals of carbonate of lime, rhomboidal, and -tending to the _lenticular_ form. Some of these strata appear to be -composed of blended crystals of this kind. In one place are strata -of several rods in length and breadth, which are inclined to the -southwest, and thus lie against the mica slate of the mountain. -The inclination is about forty-five degrees. Unless this limestone -be connected with that on the east of Saddle Mountain, (and no -connexion has yet been traced,) it must be considered as lying on -both sides of the mica slate, or alternating with it. - -5. _Argillaceous Slate_ rests on quartz on Stone Hill, and is -also found low down in the valley connected with limestone. It -constitutes the hill (P) connected with the Taconick range, and -also Northwest hill, (Q) whose base is compact limestone. A -few miles north, this slate is distinctly marked, and in about -12 miles, forms hills of _roof slate_ in Hosack, New-York. -It is annually carried in large quantities to Albany. On the -first-mentioned hill, it contains some _talc_. - -6. _Aluminous slate._ This is found in argillaceous slate, in -Pownal, 5 miles north, at the base of a hill east of the Hoosack. -It is used to _set_ colours. - -7. _Chlorite._ In rounded masses, generally with quartz, scattered -through the valley in Williamstown, and found at an elevation of -some hundred feet on the hills of the Taconick range. Chlorite -slate has already been mentioned as occurring on the same range. - -8. _Rubble Stone._ In rounded masses through the valley. - -9. _Compact Limestone._ In several places low in the valley. Near -the college it is white and deep gray. In the veins of the latter, -_talc_ is diffused in all directions. It contains silex, often from -3 to 15 per cent., and sometimes gives fire with steel. In some -cases it is earthy. On Green River, one and a half mile south of -the college, it lies in thin strata, which are divided by seams -into very regular rhomboidal plates of various sizes. On some -scattered fragments on this river, are found carbonate of lime in -crystals, with pieces of white feldspar. On West Brook, this gray -limestone is traversed by a vein of quartz, containing sulphuret -of iron. The strata of this rock are almost invariably inclined -to the east. A coarse _soapstone_ is found in the limestone near -the college, and a vein made up of brown argillaceous slate, -soapstone, quartz, and sulphuret of iron, passes through it. This -limestone appears to be very different from that at the base of -Saddle Mountain, and from that which yields the marble of Berkshire -county. It may still be _primitive_, but _primitive compact -limestone_. - -10. _Granitell_ of Kirwan, _Quartz_, and _Feldspar_. This aggregate -forms extensive strata at the east base of Stone Hill. The -feldspar is diffused in grains through the quartz, and sometimes -crystalline, forming _porphyritic quartz_. This aggregate is often -compact and very hard, but frequently it is porous and hard, -forming good millstones. Sometimes the quartz appears in such -fragments, that the stone resembles _breccia_. - -11. _Black Tourmaline._ In beautiful small six-sided prisms, in -scattered pieces of mica slate at the base of Stone Hill. - -12. _Amianthus._ Only a small specimen, attached to _argillaceous -slate_. - -13. _Bitter Spar._ On compact limestone at West Brook. Some of the -crystals are rhomboids, and some appear to be the half of rhomboids -split through their longer diagonal. - -14. _Jasper._ The common brown or red, and black, in small rounded -masses, and also a piece of variegated or striped jasper. - -15. _Galena._ Only a specimen in the limestone on West Brook. - -16. _Iron Ore._ _Bog ore_ on the Hoosack, a mile northeast of the -college. _Yellow earth_, from which _yellow ochre_ is obtained in -great quantity, in a hill (R) on the bank of Green River, 2 miles -south of the college. - -At the north end of Saddle Mountain, but low down, yellow earth -is connected with _reddle_, or a substance much resembling it. It -is less hard than the common reddle, but is composed of the same -ingredients. - -_Magnetic Oxyd of Iron_, regular octahedrons, in mica slate at the -base of Stone Hill. - -_Supersulphuret of Iron_, massive and crystallized, in argillaceous -slate, mica slate, compact limestone, and quartz. - -17. _Prase._ Beautiful, and containing sulphuret of iron; lately -found by Mr. Eaton, a little east of the summit of Hoosack -Mountain, in Florida. - -18. _Puddingstone._ Where Pownal Mountain reaches the Hoosack, (T) -3 miles north of the college, are some hills of this aggregate. It -is composed of rounded masses of quartz, chlorite, and limestone, -of various sizes, connected by an argillaceous cement. - -19. _Potters' Clay._ Excellent for vessels of common pottery. - -The minerals of this section, it is obvious, are not very -important; but as connected with a transverse section of the -country, they possess considerable interest. For this reason they -have been particularly mentioned. - -In the north part of Williamstown is a _mineral spring_, familiarly -called the _Sand Spring_ (S.) The water rises from several places -in a reservoir of about a rod in diameter, and from one to three -feet deep. It is very soft and warm, but contains very little -saline or earthy matter. Gas continually rises in it. It appears -much to resemble the spring at New Lebanon, New-York, and has -proved useful in the cure particularly of some _cutaneous_ diseases. - -The _transverse section_, connected with the map, passes over -Stone Hill, and the north part of Saddle Mountain. The different -rocks are shown in the section, directly below their places on -the map, by drawing lines from the several strata parallel to the -sides of the map. This section is connected with that given by Mr. -Hitchcock, in the 2d number of this Journal. It ought perhaps to -be mentioned, that according to Mr. Eaton's account, the granite -of this section sinks under gneiss to the east, and rises again -in Hampshire County, "supporting the same rock of gneiss;" but -where it reappears, the granite contains "many imbedded minerals." -This section corresponds generally to the place and character of -the minerals in any section across Berkshire county. There are, -however, some peculiarities which may be mentioned at a future -day. The colouring corresponds to that on the geological map in -Cleaveland's Mineralogy. - - C. DEWEY. - -_Williams' College, Jan. 27, 1819._ - -P.S. I have a part of a _rock crystal_, which contains, in a -hollow, a _liquid_ and a _little air_, and some _black_ or _brown -particles_, which just sink in the liquid. It was found several -years since at Diamond Hill in Catskill. This hill is only a -small eminence on the bank of the creek at that place, composed -of limestone, (if I have been correctly informed,) between the -strata of which, and on the side next the creek, this and other -rock crystals were found. I believe, Sir, you have one like the -above, obtained from the same place. The crystal, which was -generously given me by Mr. Van Loon, who found it, is only a part -of two crystals connected at their bases. Partly under one of the -solid angles formed by the united pyramids, is the hollow, about -⅝ inch long, about ⅜ filled with the air, and about ¼ inch wide. -The principal curiosity about it is the liquid. It has never been -known to _freeze_. It was exposed yesterday morning an hour to -an atmosphere 4 and 5 degrees below zero. It became less fluid, -for the bubble of air moved with less ease and rapidity. Still -the liquid was fluid. Its colour, which is naturally white, had a -slight tinge of yellow. The Rev. Mr. Schaeffer of New-York supposes -the black particles are bitumen. Is it possible the liquid is -_naptha_? This oil is sometimes colourless, and does not congeal -at zero, and that which I distilled from the Seneca oil, does -congeal at some degrees below zero. It can hardly be _salt water_, -unless it be _very salt_, and even then, it would have congealed at -the temperature of the air yesterday. What way can be devised to -ascertain what it is? - -_Jan. 30, 1819._ - -After seeing the notice of the crystals found at Hudson by Mr. -Schaeffer, I wrote to a member of the Lyceum of Natural History, -New-York, rather more full an account than the above, of my -crystal, &c. I hope to ascertain, whether the liquid will congeal -at 10 or 20° below 0, but have some fear lest the crystal should be -injured. - - C. D. - - - - -ART. IV. _On the Tourmalines and other Minerals found at -Chesterfield and Goshen, Massachusetts, by Col._ GEORGE GIBBS. - -(For the American Journal of Science.) - - -The schorl of the mineralogists of the last century united a -variety of substances which subsequent observations have separated -into several species. The green schorl is now the epidote, or the -Vesuvian, or the actynolite. The violet schorl, and the lenticular -schorl, are the axinite. The black volcanic schorl is the augite. -The white Vesuvian schorl is the sommite. The white grenatiform -is the leucite. The white prismatic is the pycnite, a species -of the topaz, and another is a variety of feldspar. Of the blue -schorl, one variety is the oxyd of titanium, another the sappare, -and another the phosphate of iron. The schorl cruciform is the -granatite. The octahedral schorl is the octahedrite, or anatase. -The red schorl of Hungary, and the purple of Madagascar, are -varieties of the oxyd of titanium. The spathique schorl is the -spodumen. - -The black schorl, and the electric schorl, only remained, and to -avoid the confusion created by the use of the term schorl, the -name of tourmaline was given to this species by that celebrated -mineralogist, the Abbé Haüy.[50] - -The tourmaline is found of almost every colour, and this variety -of colour caused at first a number to be formed into new species; -which are now considered only as varieties of the tourmaline: such -as the rubellite, the tourmaline apyre, and indicolite. - -The different analyses of the tourmaline, however, affords a -greater variety of results than is known in almost any other -mineral. - - The specific gravity of the black varies from 3.08 to 3.36 - Green from 3.15 to 3.36 - Red from 2.87 to 3.10 - - Analysis gives Silex from 35 to 58 - Alumine 20 to 48 - Magnesia 0 to 10 - Iron 0 to 23 - Manganese 0 to 13 - Alkali 0 to 10 - Water 0 to 4 - -These differences must be in some measure ascribed to a defect in -the accuracy of some of the analyses. But it appears that iron has -not been discovered in the red tourmaline. It is not unworthy of -notice, that the red tourmaline is considered as infusible, but the -others fusible. - -The red tourmaline has been the most valued, from its scarcity, -its employment in jewelry, and the beauty of its crystals. It has -been discovered in Siberia, in Moravia, in the East-Indies, and -in Massachusetts. In Siberia it is found in a vein of decomposed -feldspar in a fine-grained granite, with black tourmaline. In -Moravia with quartz and lepidolite (or rose-coloured mica) in -gneiss. In the East-Indies, at Ava and Ceylon, but its geological -situation is not known, though it is probably in gneiss or granite. - -The red or rose tourmaline of Massachusetts, is found chiefly at -Chesterfield, in a subordinate bed of granite, contained in mica -slate. The mica slate is the predominant rock of the country. -It is fine grained, and contains an abundance of small garnets. -Direction of the strata north and south, varying a little easterly; -inclination perpendicular. The bed of granite is about three -hundred feet long, and from five to twenty feet broad. It is -contained in a narrow ridge of mica slate, which descends into, -and is lost in, a valley. The sides are precipitous; the highest -part is about forty feet high. On the east side a considerable part -of the granite has been destroyed by natural causes, leaving the -granite bare. The granite consists chiefly of granular feldspar, -with grains of white quartz, and a little light coloured mica, is -moderately fine grained, and of a grayish white colour. In addition -to tourmaline, it contains also emerald, some of the crystals of -which are from three to five inches in diameter. I succeeded in -getting one out of its matrix, which is three and a half inches in -diameter, and its summit (which is a plane without any additional -facettes) is perfect. - -The tourmalines are contained chiefly in a false vein of silicious -feldspar and quartz, which begins in the centre of the upper edge -of the bed of granite, and passes obliquely, descending to the -northeast, about twenty feet, where it is intercepted from sight by -the mica slate. The vein is about one and a half foot thick in the -upper part, and not more than six or eight inches where it is lost. -This vein of silicious feldspar contains also a vein of bluish -white transparent quartz, which is from three to eight inches -thick, and passes through the centre of the vein of feldspar. - -When I first examined this rock, soon after its discovery by -Dr. Hunt, of Northampton, I determined the feldspar to be a new -variety, which has been since confirmed by Professor Hauffman, -and now ranks as a new sub-species, under the name of silicious -feldspar. (P. 41, of the Mineralogical Table.) - -The analysis of Professor Stromeyer, of Gottingen, gives, - - Silex 70.68 - Alumine 19.80 - Soda 9.05 - Iron, Mag. and Lime .38 - ----- - 99.91 - -The chief difference between this and the adularia is, that one -contains fourteen potash and the other nine soda. Between this and -the saussurite, or tenacious feldspar, the one contains eleven of -lime, and the other only a trace. - -The silicious feldspar, which I suspect to be the basis of the -granite, crystallizes in thin rhomboidal tables. They are very -frangible, and have one clivage perpendicular to the faces of -the tables. Sometimes the tables have one lateral edge or more -truncated. In one fragment of a crystal I observed a very obtuse -acumination on the table, which appeared to be diedral, the sides -being placed on the obtuse lateral edges of the tables. On account -of the extreme frangibility of the crystals, it is certainly -extremely difficult to seize their characters. Specific gravity -only 2.333, probably owing to interstices between the tables. The -colour is white, translucid, passing to semi-transparent; lustre -sometimes dull, at others shining. The tables are sometimes so -aggregated that their edges being exposed, offer wedge-shaped and -stelliform figures. The tourmalines are chiefly contained in this -vein. They are red, or green, rarely blue or black. - -The green tourmalines vary from one-eighth of an inch to one inch -in diameter; they are sometimes four inches in length, and are -entirely confined to the inner vein of quartz. They are triedral -prisms, with convex faces, striated longitudinally, and generally -traversed perpendicularly to the axis, with very small fissures -filled by some silicious substance, probably feldspar. These green -crystals are opaque. The red tourmaline is frequently enclosed -in the green. In certain parts of the vein almost every green -crystal encloses a red one, which always corresponds by its sides -and angles with the exterior crystal. Sometimes a thin layer -of talc intervenes between the outer and inner crystal. In one -specimen I found three crystals of the red aggregated together, -and enclosed in one of the green. In another crystal I found -pyrites in the place of the red tourmaline. The largest crystal -of the red was one quarter of an inch in diameter, and four -inches long. The red tourmalines vary in intensity of colour, and -frequently (particularly in the interior) pass into violet. They -pass from translucid to semi-transparent. I have found some that -were terminated by triedral pyramids. The crystals are generally -perpendicular to the sides of the vein. Small crystals of the red -often run from the vein of quartz into the adjoining feldspar. -The granite also contains minute crystals of dark and light blue -tourmaline, and pale green emerald, with a very few garnets and -pyrites. In the lower part of the vein, five to six feet from -its interruption by the mica slate, the red tourmaline scarcely -appears, and the vein contains chiefly bluish amorphous quartz and -green tourmaline. It is therefore probable that this vein will not -afford henceforward a great supply of this beautiful mineral. - -About six miles from Chesterfield, in Goshen, is found the rose -mica, with tourmalines and emeralds interspersed in the granite. -Unfortunately the bed of granite has not been discovered, and -the specimens we possess are taken from loose rocks, scattered -over a small extent of ground in a valley, in the neighbourhood -of mica slate. The rose mica is found in a large grained granite -with amorphous quartz and silicious feldspar, crystallized and -amorphous. The mica is generally of a rose red, sometimes yellowish -green. It crystallizes in rhomboidal tables, rarely truncated on -the acute angles, passing into the hexaedral table. The tourmalines -are light and dark green and blue, of various shades of intensity, -frequently acicular and stellated. The black, the red, and the -violet tourmalines also occur, but more rarely. Sometimes the -green prisms enclose others of blue and black. Specific gravity -of these varieties from 3. to 3.1. The green and blue crystals in -this locality are translucid or semi-transparent. The feldspar is -generally white, rarely light blue. There are some emeralds in -the granite. Among some specimens which Mr. Weeks of New-York, -who discovered this locality, was so good as to give me, I found -a beautiful rose emerald in its matrix. It is a hexaedral prism, -about one and a quarter inch in diameter, the summit a plane, one -of the lateral edges has a truncature. About half of the diameter -of the prism is free from the matrix, and half an inch of the -prism. The colour is a pale rose, rather more transparent than the -emerald. - -The colour of the mica of the Goshen granite calls to mind the -lepidolite or lilalite, which (formerly considered as a distinct -species) has now been united to mica. The lepidolite of Rosena is -also accompanied by the tourmaline apyre, now the red tourmaline. - - - - -ART. V. _Observations on the Minerals connected with the Gneiss -range of Litchfield county, by Mr._ JOHN P. BRACE, _of Litchfield, -Conn._ - - -The gneiss formation is the most extensive of any in Litchfield -county, and embraces a number of very interesting minerals. It -extends east into Hartford county. On the north it runs into -Massachusetts, though frequently interrupted by the limestone -formation, which rests upon it. It forms the principal, and in many -cases the only rock of the eastern and northeastern sections of the -county, and of the towns of Litchfield, Goshen, Warren, Cornwall, -and Norfolk. In Washington and Canaan, it constitutes the rock of -the high mountains, and is a part of the same range in the other -towns, while the valleys and the more moderate elevations are -covered with limestone. - -The river Housatonic appears to have made its way through this -range, for the same rock continues on the western side of the river -parallel to it in the mountains of Kent, Sharon, and Salisbury. -In Litchfield commences a range of porphyritic granite, or -_porphyritic gneiss_, which alternates with the common gneiss, -and in some instances rests upon it. This rock begins at Mount -Prospect, between Litchfield and Warren, and runs through South -Farms, Bethlem, and Watertown. The crystals of feldspar in it, are -often very perfect. - -The primitive granite, as a rock, is not found, though it lies -scattered on the surface in great quantities, and large masses. The -graphic granite in this region is often remarkably fine. Mica slate -constitutes a considerable part of those rocks that rest on the -gneiss, though never found in such elevated situations. The mica -slate rocks are always inclined at a great angle with the horizon, -and follow the direction of the other range. Litchfield village, -Chesnut hill, and great part of Harwington, are entirely composed -of this rock. The Bantum and the Waterbury rivers have their -bottoms of it. Some of the brooks entering the Waterbury, have -cut their passage through the mica slate, leaving walls of 40 or -50 feet on each side, traversed by veins of a very coarse-grained -granite, and often much mixed with sulphuret of iron. The slate -near Harwington meeting-house contains a great quantity of -sulphuret of iron. Mica slate likewise lies on the sides of the -gneiss range in Canaan and Salisbury, where it dips under the -limestone. _Sienite_ is scattered on the surface in large masses, -especially where the porphyritic gneiss is found. Sometimes, -however, the masses are so large as to form mountains. Mount -Tom, between Litchfield and Washington, is of this nature, being -entirely composed of sienite, resting on gneiss. Slaty sienite is -frequently found, having a very large proportion of hornblende. - -The minerals that are found in this region, are much more -interesting than its geology. In describing them, I shall confine -myself to the district east of the limestone range, intending at -some future time to investigate and describe the limestone country. - -Carbonate of lime, the granular limestone, is scattered over the -whole of this region. It often is found in the cavities of decayed -quartz rocks, and contains tremolite and augite. - -_Cyanite_ or _Sappar_, is found in great quantities, especially in -Harwington and Litchfield. A crystalline mass of this was found a -few years ago, weighing probably 15 cwt.; it lay on a mica slate -ridge, and undoubtedly had been formerly imbedded in the slate. -Beautiful white talc, and small crystals of sulphuret of iron, are -disseminated in the mass. Specimens of this mass are in almost all -the cabinets in America. Smaller masses have been found associated -with feldspar. Small crystals of this mineral are very common in -mica slate, with staurotide and garnet. Two of these crystals are -often arranged at right angles with each other. In Cornwall it is -found in small crystals in the gneiss containing graphite. - -_Staurotide_ is very common and very beautiful. It is found -principally in mica slate, and exhibits often the cross. It most -generally is crystallized in four-sided prisms. - -_Quartz_, of course, is common. Cornwall particularly is -distinguished for the _smoky_ variety. Ferruginous quartz is found -in rolled masses in the whole of this range. - -_Petro silex_, in rolled masses with ferruginous quartz, containing -veins of _chalcedony_ and _hornstone_, and geodes of quartz -crystals, are common in Litchfield and Goshen. Sometimes these -masses in the interior assume the appearance of Burrstone. - -_Common opal_ has been found in Litchfield, though rarely. It was -part of a mass of ferruginous quartz, with indelible dendritic -impression. It is very hard, and its fracture is conchoidal. - -_Mica_ is very common. It is found green, white, and perfectly -black. It generally occurs in blocks of granite. - -_Schorl_, in rounded crystals, is found in all the granite in this -range; in radiating crystals on quartz; and in acicular crystals on -mica slate. The large crystals are so brittle, that few of them can -be obtained perfect. I once found it in Litchfield, near Plymouth, -in prismatic crystals on earthy graphite. - -Feldspar is very common and beautiful in all the towns. It is -usually found in rhomboidal fragments, and has a fine lustre. It is -blue, white, and red. Some of the granite of Torringford is very -beautiful, being composed of white and smoky quartz, red feldspar, -and green mica. In the porphyritic gneiss, feldspar is in six-sided -prisms. One small crystal of adularia, well defined, has been found -by E. Wilkins, Esq. - -_Beryl_, both crystallized and massive, is often found in -Litchfield in granite. Its colours are green, greenish yellow, pale -yellow, and brown. Its crystals are often very perfect. - -_Garnets_ are common in all the towns of this range. - -_Epidote._ Very beautiful crystals of this mineral have been found -in Washington, associated with feldspar. They are so rounded as to -render it very difficult to discover their form. They have a very -fine lustre, and are of an olive green; in Litchfield, in crystals -with hornblende, and graphic granite, and in veins in sienite. - -Perhaps no region can be found containing more beautiful -_tremolite_. All its varieties occur; the fibrous of Litchfield and -Bethlem is very distinguished. In Canaan, it is found containing -crystals of sulphuret of iron. I do not speak here of the tremolite -found in the limestone range. - -_Common asbestus_ exists in Washington and New Milford. - -The white _augite_ is a mineral found in this range; in Litchfield, -in six-sided prisms very much flattened, on quartz, and carbonate -of lime with tremolite. They sometimes occur several inches long. - -The _lamellar_ and _slaty_ varieties of common _hornblende_ are -very common. - -Radiated _actynolite_ of a beautiful bluish green in Litchfield; in -Canton of a brownish green. - -_Steatite_ is common, and is quarried in Litchfield. The varieties -of _talc_ are very common, connected with steatite, cyanite, and -chlorite. - -_Chlorite_ in Litchfield, is found on quartz, with talc. - -Porcelain clay in Litchfield in small quantities, and in Washington. - -_Graphite_ is found in Cornwall in great quantities. Its gangue is -gneiss and sienite. It is lamellar, and has a metallic lustre; is -easily obtained, and might be made useful. Epidote and cyanite are -found with it. - -_Ores_ are not common. Oxides of iron, and sulphuret of iron are -scattered over the whole range. Near Mount Prospect in Litchfield, -sulphuret of iron in mass is in great quantities; and sulphate of -iron on the surface of the ground near it. A stone containing a few -grains of _native copper_ was found in Litchfield. - -The red oxyde of _titanium_ occurs in Litchfield sparingly. A very -handsome specimen of the _reticulated oxyde of titanium_, was -picked up. It was on mica, and the mica had an evident tendency -towards the same form. - - - - -BOTANY. - - - - -ART. VI. _An Account of two North American Species of Rottböllia, -discovered on the Sea-coast in the State of Georgia, by Dr._ -WILLIAM BALDWIN, _of Philadelphia_. - -_Flowers in pairs, or two from each joint of the rachis, one -neutral. The neutral, or imperfect flowers, pedicillate._ - - -_Rottböllia corrugata._ - -Culmo erecto, compresso, sulcato, glabro, ramoso: foliis -longis angustisque: spicis sub-compressis, nudis super uno -latere, solitariis et terminalibus, supremis approximatis: -calycis bivalvis, valva exteriori transversè _corrugata_ et -longitudinaliter rugosa: corolla trivalvis. - -Culm erect, compressed, sulcate, smooth, ramose: leaves long and -narrow: spikes slightly compressed, naked on one side, solitary -and terminal, approximating towards the summit: calyx 2-valved, -the exterior valve transversely _corrugate_, and longitudinally -wrinkled: corolla 3-valved. _Vid._ _Nuttall's North American -Genera_, v. I. p. 84.[51] - -_Culm_ two to three feet high, with a very solid exterior, but -_spongy_ within, compressed, and deeply grooved on its inner angle -the whole length between the joints. _Leaves_ long, narrow, and -acute, scabrous on the margin and midrib. _Sheaths_ compressed, -corresponding with the culm, shorter than the internodes, open, -with membraneous margins. _Peduncles_ short, clothed with a thin -membraneous acute pointed sheath, which generally encloses also -the base of the spike. _Spikes_ two to three inches long. The -flowers are arranged in alternate order, but occupy only one side -of the rachis, as in the _R. dimidiata_. The neutral florets, or -_clavate_ pedicels, are joined _laterally_ to the perfect flowers. -Articulations of the rachis remarkably tumid, attenuated beneath, -flat on the interior side, exteriorly convex, scabrous, and -longitudinally striate. The exterior valve of the calyx, in the -perfect flowers, is ovate, obtuse, very thick, cartilaginous, the -inner margin inflected, and deeply marked on its outer surface with -from three to five _corrugations_, with longitudinal ridges between -them; the interior valve is smaller, of equal length, acute, ruled, -coriaceous, smooth, and with the inner margin also inflected. The -valves of the corolla are membraneous, ovate, acute, white, shorter -than the calyx, the exterior one the longest. The neutral florets -are sometimes male, but most commonly consist of nothing more than -a 2-valved calyx, the valves equal, gaping, scabrous, and much -smaller than those of the perfect flower. _Stamens_ 3, very short. -_Anthers_ twin, yellow. _Styles_ 2, rather longer than the stamens. -_Stigmas_ small, plumose, dark purple. - -_Discovered_ between St. Mary's and Jefferson, in Camden county, -Georgia, on the 13th of July, 1813. _Inhabits_ flat, moist pine -barren. I have not seen it "on the sea-coast of Florida." - - -OBSERVATIONS. - -It will be perceived that my description of this plant differs -_materially_ from that of _Mr. Nuttall_. This has unavoidably -arisen from _my_ having attended to it in its living state, and -from _his_ not availing himself of the information which it would -have afforded me pleasure to have communicated, had he done me -the favour to have requested it, or informed me of his wish to -publish an account of plants thus obtained. He has called the culm -_solid_, leaves _rather short_, spikes _cylindric_, _axillary_, the -flowers and rachis _entirely smooth_, pedicel of the neutral flower -_emarginate_, outer valve of the hermaphrodite calyx _acute_, the -valves of the corolla _obtuse_, and the styles _very short_. I have -not been able to confirm the above _characters_, nor do I find them -even in the dried specimens. Besides, he has omitted to inform us -that the rachis is _naked on one side_. This is a most important -and prominent _specific character_, the omission of which would -necessarily lead to much doubt in identifying the species. What -he means by stating that the "outer valve of the hermaphrodite -flower is 3-valved," I cannot imagine, nor do I comprehend what -is intended by an "exterior auxiliary valve, or neutral rudiment; -nearly the length of the calyx." I have noticed in a single -instance, connected _laterally_ with the corolla of the perfect -flower, two very delicate, narrow, acute pointed bodies, the length -of the outer valve, and of the same quality and appearance; but -these I have considered as accidental, and cannot perceive any -thing about them like _neutral rudiments_. Nor can I consider the -articulations of the rachis as "deeply excavated." They are, as -already stated, flat on the inner side, and constitute from their -_flexuous_ form, position, and connexion with the pedicels of the -neutral florets, an arch, in which the perfect flowers are situated. - - -_Rottböllia ciliata._[52] - -Culmo erecto, tereti, glabro, ramoso: foliis angustissimis, -brevibus: spicis cylindricis super pedunculis teretibus longis, -solitariis terminalibusquæ: calycis bivalvis, margine valva -exteriori _ciliata_: corolla bivalvis. - -Culm erect, terete, smooth, ramose: leaves very narrow, short: -spikes cylindrical upon long terete peduncles, solitary and -terminal, calyx 2-valved, the margin of the exterior valve -_ciliate_: corolla 2-valved. - -_Root_ perennial. _Culm_ two to four feet high, _generally_ -ramose, solid, and terete, except that between the joints where -the branches originate, it is grooved on the inner side, and often -ciliate on its angles near the joints. The branches originate -towards the extremity, commonly from two to three in number, -each supporting a single terminal spike. _Leaves_ very narrow, -acute, comparatively short, those beneath much the longest, -rigid, somewhat involute, and sharply serrulate towards the apex. -_Sheaths_ rather shorter than the _internodes_, open to the base, -but closely embracing the culm. _Spikes_ 3 to 5 inches long, the -peduncles clothed with a very delicate acute pointed sheath, which -embraces it so closely as almost to elude observation, varying -much in length, but seldom extending to the base of the spike. -Peduncles scabrous near the spike. _Flowers_ alternate, the _male_ -or neutral florets situated on one side of the rachis. _Rachis_ -compressed, slender, flexuous, hairy on its exterior surface. -Pedicel of the neutral florets also compressed, and hairy on its -exterior surface. _Valves_ of the calyx _nearly_ equal, lanceolate, -acute, coriaceous, polished, the inner margin of each inflected. -The exterior margin of the outer valve finely _ciliate_ towards -the apex. _Valves_ of the corolla lanceolate, acute, membraneous, -nearly the length of the calyx. The male or neutral, are rather -smaller than the hermaphrodite flowers. _Stamens_ 3, very short. -_Anthers_ twin, purple. Styles 2, excerted, plumose, dark brown. - -Discovered in flat pine barren on the north side of Satilla river, -in Georgia, on the 21st of October, 1815. - - -GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. - -These plants are unquestionably allied to _andropogon_ in their -mode of flowering, but have nevertheless sufficient _essential -characters_ to distinguish them. In _habit_, they appear but -slightly similar. They differ _principally_ from their congeners -in the pedicellate character of their neutral florets. _The spikes -are not axillary in either of them._ The branches are _axillary_, -of which several sometimes originate from the same axil in the -_R. corrugata_. Each spike, when fully evolved, is not only -_pedicellate_, but the _pedicel_, or peduncle, is connected with -a _culm_ containing one, two, or more joints.[53] The culm is not -compressed, nor the leaves long in the _R. ciliata_, as stated by -_Mr. Nuttall_, who appears to have confounded the two species in -these, and some other instances. The joints of the rachis in both -are _fragile_, the joints of the culm in neither. - -Another species noticed by Michaux, and included in all our books -as the _R. dimidiata, L._ has long been familiar to the southern -botanists. Whether this be the _dimidiata_ found also on the -sandy shores of India, or the _compressa_ of the same country, as -suggested by _Mr. Elliott_, or a species distinct from either, I -am not prepared to determine. But I have collected this plant in -the Bermudian Isles, at Rio de Janeiro, and Bahia, on the Brazilian -coast, and lastly on the island of Flores, near one hundred miles -from the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, as well as on the main in -the Banda Oriental. - - - - -ART. VII. _Floral Calendar kept at Deerfield, Massachusetts, with -Miscellaneous Remarks, by Dr._ STEPHEN W. WILLIAMS, _of Deerfield._ - - - _To Professor Silliman._ - - SIR, - -Any thing which has a tendency to elicit facts with regard to -the climate of a country must be interesting. I believe that -observations upon the time of the germination, foliation, -florification, and fructification of plants, afford a much more -correct criterion respecting climate than thermometrical, or other -meteorological journals. They should be made at the same time in -various parts of the country, and for several years in succession. -I send you a Calendarium Floræ, with miscellaneous remarks, made in -Deerfield, Massachusetts, during a part of the years 1811, 1812, -and 1818, which, if you please, you may insert in your valuable -Journal. Latitude of Deerfield, 42° 32′ 32″, longitude 72° 41′. - - -1811. - - _March_ 1. Blackbirds arrived. - - 15. Black ducks arrived. Bees out of the hive. - - 20. Early garden peas, lettuce, and peppergrass sown. - - 28. The woods were swarming with pigeons. Wild geese passed over. - -The greater part of the month of March was warm and pleasant. The -sugar-maple yielded its sap profusely for a few days, but the -nights were so warm that much less than the usual quantity of sugar -was made this year. - - - _April_ 1. Frogs begin to sing. Peas and oats sown. - - 8. Buds of the lilac, (_Syringa vulgaris_) the small red rose, - the elm, (_Ulmus Americana_) the apple, and the peas considerably - swoln. - - 14. Dandelion (_Leontodon taraxicum_) in full flower. - - 20. Indian corn planted; a few garden seeds sown. Martins and - bank swallows arrived. Leaves of the currant and gooseberry - expanded. Weather for a few days past sultry and smoky. - - 21. Blue violet (_Viola cucullata_) in full flower. Shad-bush - (_Aronia Botryapium_) in blossom. Flower-buds of the lilac swoln; - likewise the flower-buds of the cherry, pear, and apple. - - 23. Blood-root (_Sanguinaria Canadensis_) in full flower. - - 25. Asparagus fit for the table. - - 26. Chili strawberries in flower; this plant begins to blossom - early, and continues to flower late in the season. English - cherry, black heart (_Prunus cerasus_) in full flower. - - 27. Garden violet (_V. tricolor_) in full flower. - - _April_ 29. Flower-buds of the peach expanded. Large white - plum (_Prunus domestica_) in full flower. Winter pear (_Pyrus - communis_) in flower. - - - _May_ 1. Red and white currants in flower. - - 2. Leaves of the Lombardy poplar (_Populus dilatata_) expanded. - - 3. English and field strawberries in blossom. - - 4. Butternut (_Juglans cinerea_) in blossom. - - 6. House flies arrived. - - 7. Apple-trees in full flower. - - 8. Lilac in full flower. Red-headed woodpecker arrived. - - 15. Rye (_Secale cereale_) beginning to head. Pleasant days and - cold nights. Hard frosts for a few nights past. - - 18. Honeysuckle (_Azalea nudiflora_) in full flower. - - 19. Small red rose in flower. Choke cherry (_Prunus Serotina_) in - full flower. - - 25. Common red clover (_Trifolium pratense_) in full flower. - - 26. Garden peas in full flower. Hummingbird arrived. - - 27. Night-hawks arrived. - - 30. Sugar-maple in flower. - - - _June_ 2. Locust-tree (_Robinia pseudacacia_) in flower. - - 3. Field strawberries beginning to ripen. Piony in flower. - - 4. High blackberry (_Rubus villosus_) in full flower. - Broad-leafed laurel (_Kalmia latifolia_) beginning to blossom. - - 7. Snow-ball, guelder-rose (_Viburnum opulus_) in full flower. - Radishes fit for the table. - - 12. Our farmers begin to mow their first crop of grass in low - land. Large white rose (_Rosa alba_) in full flower. - - 21. Red currants beginning to ripen in plenty. Blackberried elder - (_Sambucus canadensis_) beginning to blossom. - - 27. Indian corn tasseling. Black raspberries beginning to ripen. - Nodding lily (_Lilium canadense_) in flower. - - 29. Potato (_Solanum tuberosum_) in full flower. - - - _July_ 1. Red raspberry (_Rubus strigosus_) beginning to ripen. - Poppy (_Papaver somniferum_) in flower. - - _July_ 5. Chestnut-tree (_Castanea Americana_) flowering. - - 6. Large red cherry (_Prun. ceras._) fully ripe. String beans fit - for the table. - -Perhaps we never experienced a greater degree of heat in this part -of the country than has been felt for three days past. A number of -hives of honey have melted during the heat. - - 14. Cucumbers fit for the table. - - 15. Rye fit for the sickle. - - 16. Black whortleberries (_Vaccinium resinosum_) ripening. - - 19. Early potatoes fit for the table. Indian corn (green) fit for - the table. - - 20. Jenneting apples ripe. - - 21. Choke cherries (_Prun. serotina_) ripe. - - 26. Gooseberries ripening. - - - _August_ 1. Martins departed. - - 5. Barn and bank swallows collecting in millions, upon our - islands in the river, to depart. - - 12. Blackberries ripe. - - 20. Thorn apple (_Datura stramonium_) in full flower. - Elderberries fully ripe. - - - _September_ 1. Common pear fully ripe. Rare-ripe peaches fully - ripe. - - 6. Bergamot pears fully ripe. - - 17. Great grapes (_Vitis æstivalis_) fully ripe. Frost grapes - (_Vitis cordifolia_) ripening. - - 21. Butternuts beginning to fall from the tree. - - 24. Our farmers busily engaged in harvesting their corn. - - 26. Butternut defoliating. - - 28. Elm beginning to defoliate. - - - _October_ 2. Chestnut burrs opening. Tree defoliating. - - 8. Sugar-maple and sycamore defoliating. - - 26. Blackbirds arrived again. Squirrels in plenty in our woods, - though chestnuts and walnuts are scarce. Butternuts plenty. Cider - and apples in great abundance. - - - _November_ 20. Wild geese returning to the southern regions. - - -1812. - - _March_ 21. Blackbirds, woodpeckers, and robins arrived. Wild - geese passed over. - - 23. Bees out of the hive. - - - _April_ 3. Black ducks arrived. Large flocks of pigeons passed - over. - - 9. Flower-buds of the elm considerably swoln. - - 11. Skylarks arrived. - - 12. Frogs begin to sing. - - 13. Leaf-buds of the soft maple (_Acer rubrum_) much swoln. - - 13. Leaf-buds of the gooseberry much swoln. - - 16. Early garden peas sown. - - 19. Dandelion (_Leon. tarax._) in full flower. Blue or meadow - violet (_V. cucullata_) in flower. Leaves of the lilac beginning - to expand. Our farmers busily engaged in ploughing for sowing. - - 23. Peas and oats sown, and Indian corn planted. - - 25. Swallows arrived, and whippoorwills begin to sing. - - 27. Leaves of the gooseberry, and willow (_Salix Muhlenbergii_) - beginning to expand. - - - _May_ 5. Martins arrived. - - 10. Asparagus fit for the table. Blood-root (Sang. canadensis) in - full flower. - - 11. Chili garden strawberries beginning to blossom. Flower-buds - of the lilac swoln. - - 12. Elm in full flower. Leaves of the meadow violet beginning to - expand. - - 13. Garden violet (_V. tricolor_) in flower. - - 14. Field strawberries in full flower. Shad-bush (_Aronia - botryapium_) in blossom. - - 15. English cherry beginning to flower. - - 19. Winter pear beginning to blossom. - - 22. Hummingbirds arrived. Large white plum (_Prunus domestica_) - in full flower. Butternut beginning to flower. - - 23. Flower-buds of the peach (_Amydalus persica_) beginning to - expand. Gooseberry in flower. - - _May_ 27. Apple-trees beginning to blossom. - - 29. Early garden lettuce (_Lactuca sativa_) fit for the table. - - 30. Apple-trees in full flower. - - 31. Night-hawks arrived. - -Vegetation has put forth more to appearance in three days past -than in all the spring before. Nature seems to revive from a -state of torpidity, from the warm and invigorating rays of the -sun. The month of May has been more backward than the month of -April, 1811. The observation of elderly people, that the month of -April, old style, was never known to terminate without producing -apple-blossoms, has by no means been verified this year, they being -now (June 1st.) in full flower. The snow upon the mountains, thirty -or forty miles back, is at a great depth; so deep, that on the warm -day of the 29th our river rose a foot from its melting. Diseases of -the chronic kind have been peculiarly severe for three months past. -The gladsome return of the cheering warmth will probably renovate -the enfeebled constitutions of many of our aged people. - - - _June_ 1. House flies arrived. - - 5. Choke cherry (_Prun. serotin._) in full flower. Honeysuckle - apple (_Azalea nudiflora_) in full flower. - - 8. Piony in full flower. Snowball (_Viburnum opulus_) in full - flower. Flower-de-luce (_Iris versicolor_) in blossom. - - 11. Early peas in blossom. Carraway (_Carum carui_) in flower. - - 15. Locust-tree (_Robin. pseudacac._) in full flower. Field - strawberries beginning to ripen. - - 18. Common red clover in full flower. Cranesbill (_Geranium - maculatum_) in blossom. Red raspberry in full flower. - - 23. Chili strawberries beginning to ripen. Garden sage (_Salvia - officinalis_) in full flower. - - 29. Our farmers busily engaged in haying. - - 30. Large red rose, large white rose, and damask rose (_Rosa - damascena_) in flower. - - - _July_ 1. White pond lily (_Nymphæa odorata_) in flower. - - 4. Black elder (_Sambucus canadensis_) in full flower. - - 7. Early peas fit for the table. Red and white currants ripening. - - 8. Nodding lily (_Lilium canadense_) in flower. - - 11. Garden beans (_Phaseolus vulgaris_) in full flower. Chestnut - in flower. Black raspberries ripening. - - 20. Early corn tasseled (_Zea mays._ Variety _præcox._) Red - raspberries fully ripe. - - 22. Whortleberries ripe (_Vaccin. resinos._) - - 24. Cucumbers fit for the table. - - 28. Early potatoes fit for the table. - - 29. Rye fit for the sickle. Early garden squashes (_Cucurbita - Melo-pepo_) fit for the table. - - - _August_ 2. Jenneting apples ripening. - - 5. Early corn fit for the table. - - 8. Wheat (_Triticum hyburnum_) fit for the sickle. - - 28. Summer peas ripening. - - - _September_ 4. Watermelons and muskmelons ripe. - - 5. Swallows departed. - - 6. Elderberries fully ripe. - - 11. Choke cherries and wild cherries (_Prunus virginiana_) ripe. - - 12. Yellow plum (_Prunus chicasa_) fully ripe. - - 15. Butternut beginning to fall from the tree. - - 16. Our farmers making their first cider. - - 22. Great grapes ripe. - - - _October_ 2. Butternut and elm beginning to defoliate. - Chestnut-burrs beginning to open. - - 9. Our farmers beginning to harvest their Indian corn. - - -1818. - - _March_ 11. Bluebirds arrived. - - 13. Woodpeckers, robins, and blackbirds arrived. Bees out of the - hive. - - _March_ 14. Broad-leaved panic grass (_Panicum latifolium_) - beginning to sprout on a southern exposure, while there is - sleighing in the street. A solitary spathe of skunk-cabbage - (_Pothos fœtida_) beginning to show itself on the same exposure. - Leaves of curled dock (_Rumex crispa_) appeared in the same - place. Maple-trees tapped for sugar. - - 16. _Pothos fœtida_ in full flower. - - 25. Black ducks arrived. Catkins of the poplar-tree (_Populus - tremuloides_) expanded. Catkins of the speckled willow (_Salix - Muhlenbergiana_) expanded. - - 30. Wild geese arrived. Phœbe arrived. - -It began to rain hard on the first of March, and continued raining -two days and a half, which nearly carried off an immense body of -snow which enveloped the ground. Our rivers, which were more firmly -locked with ice than they had been before known for many years to -be, rose above their usual bounds, and swept the ice with such -rapidity down their channels as to destroy most of the bridges on -Connecticut river, besides doing immense damage in other respects. -Our meadows were nearly all under ice and water; and at that time -a great explosion was heard in the north meadows, two miles from -the street, similar to the noise of a cannon. It was occasioned by -the throwing up of an immense quantity of frozen ground, which is a -great curiosity. The cause is not yet satisfactorily explained. The -weather was very warm and pleasant from the 4th to the 22d. What -snow the rain did not carry off was melted by the sun during the -pleasant weather. Vegetation had begun to put forth rapidly, and -many of our birds of passage had arrived. A storm, which commenced -on the 22d, as rapidly retarded the progress of vegetation as it -was before accelerated, and the remainder of the month was gloomy -and uncomfortable. Mud mid-leg deep in the streets. - - - _April_ 7. Flower-buds of the elm (_Ulmus americana_) beginning - to swell. - - _April_ 8. Leaf-buds of the lilac (_Syring. vulg._) beginning to - swell. - - 10. Leaf-buds of the soft or meadow maple (_Acer rubrum_) - beginning to swell. Black alder (_Alnus serrulata_) in flower. - American hazel (_Corylus americana_) in flower, and its catkins - appearing. - - 11. Fair and pleasant, after a long storm. It has rained sixteen - days in succession. Frogs begin to sing. Leaf-buds of the English - cherry (_Prunus cerasus_) black heart beginning to swell. Garden - peas sown. - - 12. Flies in myriads arrived in our streets. Catkins of the - butternut (_Juglans cinerea_) beginning to swell. Saxifrage - (_Saxifraga virginiensis_) in flower. - - 13. Skylarks arrived. - - 14. Sweet fern (_Comptonia asplenifolia_) in flower. White birch - (_Betula populifolia_) in flower. - - 16. Our farmers beginning to plough for spring wheat. - - 18. Bank swallows arrived. - - 19. Leaf-buds of the currant, the gooseberry, and the apple, - considerably swoln. - - 20. Dandelion (_Leon. tarax._) beginning to flower. _Viola - cucullata_ beginning to blossom. - - 22. Our farmers ploughing for peas and oats. The snow upon the - hills 20 miles north and west from Deerfield is two feet and a - half deep, and the winds from those quarters are so chilly as to - retard the progress of vegetation. Icicles scarcely melted upon - the south side of buildings in Halifax, Vermont; and it is too - cold for making sugar. - - 25. Blood-root (_Sanguinaria canadensis_) in flower on a warm - south side hill. Leaves of the English gooseberry beginning - to expand. Venus's pride (_Houstonia cœrulea_) in flower. - Early life-everlasting, (_Gnaphalium plantagineum_) crowfoot, - (_Ranunculus fascicularis_) tooth-root, (_Dentaria laciniata_) - and meadow-rue (_Thalictrum cornutum_) in full flower. - - 26. Trailing arbutus (_Epigaea repens_) in full flower. Leaves - of the barberry (_Berberis vulgaris_) beginning to expand. - Five-finger, (_Potentilla pumilla_) adder's-tongue, (_Erythronium - dens-canis_) liver-leaf, (_Hepatica triloba_) and wind-flower, - (_Anemone nemorosa_) in flower. - - _April_ 27. Early potatoes and early corn planted. Elm in full - flower. - - 29. Water crowfoot (_Ranunculus sceleratus_) and American cowslip - (_Caltha palustris_) in full flower. - - 30. Daffodil (_Narcissus pseudo-narcissus_) and rue-anemone - (_Anemone thalictroides_) in flower. - - - _May_ 1. Soft maple (_Acer rubrum_) in flower. - - 2. Martins arrived. - - 3. Leaves of the gooseberry beginning to expand. - - 4. Leaves of the currant and lilac beginning to expand. Pigeons - arrived. - - 5. Wood bulrush (_Juncus sylvaticus_) in flower. A great freshet - in our meadows, from the melting of the snow upon the mountains, - and from the great rain which has continued nearly a month. Beth. - nodding trillion (_Trillium rhomboideum_) in flower. - - 7. Flowers of the garden violet (_V. tricolor_) beginning to - expand. - - 8. The young heads of asparagus breaking the ground. - - 9. Our farmers busily engaged in planting their Indian corn, - though the weather is excessively cold. Sowed onions, parsnips, - &c. - - 10. Bobylincolns (_Bob of lincolns_) arrived. Flower-buds of the - lilac appearing. - - 11. Field strawberries (_Fragaria virginiana_) in full flower. - Colts-foot (_Tussilago farfara_) in flower. - - 12. Whip-poor-wills begin to sing. - - 13. Spice-bush (_Laurus benzoin_) in full flower. A freshet in - the meadows. - - 14. Goldthread (_Coptis trifolia_) in full flower. - - 15. Rattlesnake violet (_Viola primulifolia_) in full flower. - - 16. Chimney swallows arrived. - - 17. Leaves of the apple-tree expanding. Sugar maple (_Acer - saccharinum_) in full flower. Garden daisy (_Bellis perennis_) in - full flower. - - _May_ 18. Asparagus fit for the table. - - 19. Smooth gooseberry (_Ribes uva-crispa_) in flower. - - 20. Shad-bush (_Aron. botryap._) in flower. - - 21. House wrens arrived. Moose-wood (_Dirca palustris_) in flower. - - 22. Garden currant (_Ribes rubrum_) beginning to flower. - - 24. Wake-robin (_Trillium cernuum_) and peas (_Pyrus communis_) - in flower. - - 25. Our mountain scenery diversified. Weather very warm. Garden - potatoes and garden corn, planted on the 27th April, breaking - the ground. Garden beans, cucumbers, squashes, watermelons, &c. - planted. - - 26. Damson plum (_Prunus domestica_) and yellow or wild plum - (_Prunus chicasa_) in flower. Elder (_Sambucus canadensis_) in - flower. Carolina chatterer arrived. - - 27. Garden gooseberry (_Ribes grossularia_) and avens (_Geum - rivale_) in blossom. Weather intensely warm. Thermometer at 86° - at 2 o'clock, P. M. yesterday. - - 29. Apple-trees in full flower. Night-hawk arrived. - - 30. Choke cherries (_Prun. Serotin._) in flower. - - 31. Lilac in full flower. - -The weather till the last week in May was very cold and rainy. -Perhaps we have never known more gloomy weather than that of the -first twenty days of the month. The last week in the month of May -was unusually warm and fine. Vegetation has put forth more within -this week than it has in all the season before. The blossoms on -apple-trees are scanty, and there is but little prospect of fruit. -Peach-trees in the vicinity of this place were all killed by the -extreme cold winter. - - - _June_ 1. Hummingbirds arrived. - - 2. Honeysuckle apple (_Azalea nudiflora_) in full flower. - - 3. Blue-eyed grass, (_Sisyrinchium anceps_) _Krigia virginica_, - and thorn-bush (_Cratægus coccinea_) in flower. Garden seeds, - planted on the 25th ult. have vegetated 3 or 4 inches high. - Garden rhubarb (_Rheum tataricum_) in flower. - - _June_ 4. Garden rocket (_Hesperis pinnatifida_) in flower. - - 6. Yellow water lily (_Nuphar advena_) in full flower. - Flower-de-luce (_Iris virginica_) in flower. Garden peas in full - flower. - -The weather for twelve days past has been unusually warm and -sultry. The thermometer, much of the time in the middle of the day, -has stood at 84°, and vegetation has put forth with astonishing -rapidity. - - 8. House-flies arrived. - - 9. Horse-radish (_Cochlearea armoracea_) and peony in full flower. - - 10. Chives (_Allium schænoprasum_) in full flower. - - 11. Smooth stem lichnidea (_Phlox maculata_) in full flower. Our - farmers busily engaged in hoeing their corn. - - 12. Fumitory (_Fumaria officinalis_) in full flower. - - 13. Field strawberries beginning to ripen. - - 14. Locust-tree (_Robinia pseudacacia_) in full flower. - - 15. Locusts appearing in the south part of the town. The last - time of their appearance here was in the year 1801. Their - periodical returns are once in seventeen years. Their appearance - in the years 1733, 1750, 1767, 1784, and 1801, is recorded on - the town-book. They first attack the leaves of the black oak - (_Quercus nigra_.) - - 16. Small red rose in flower. - - 17. _Rosa caroliniensis_ in full flower. - - 18. Garden sage (_Salvia officinalis_) in flower. - - 19. Mock syringa (_Philadelphus coronarius_) in flower. - - 20. Tulip-tree, commonly called cypress or white-wood - (_Liriodendron tulipifera_) in blossom. - - 21. Carnation pink (_Dianthus caryophyllus_) in flower. - - 22. Our farmers commenced haying. An immense crop of grass on the - ground. - - 23. Side-saddle flower (_Sarracenia purpurea_) in flower. - - 24. Common St. John's wort (_Hypericum perforatum_) in full - flower. - - _June_ 26. Garden radishes fit for the table. - - 27. Early garden peas fit for the table. Weather intensely warm. - - 28. American lime or linden-tree (_Tilia americana_) in flower. - - 30. Flax (_Linum usitatissimum_) in full flower. Thermometer in - the shade at 2 P. M. 100°. - -Vegetation has put forth and increased with a more astonishing -rapidity this month than has ever been known. Notwithstanding the -spring was very backward, the season now is forward. Our farmers -commenced their first haying about a week earlier than they did -last year. - - - _July_ 1. White water lily (_Nymphæa odorata_) in flower. - - 3. Red and white currants ripening. Yellow day lily - (_Hemerocallis flava_) and _Lilium canadense_ in full flower. - - 4. Cucumbers and watermelons in flower. Early summer corn (_Zea - mays_, variety _præcox_) beginning to tassel. Garden rue (_Ruta - graveoleus_), mustard (_Sinapis nigra_), motherwort (_Leonorus - cardiaca_) and mullein (_Verbascum thapsus_) in full flower. - Blue whortleberries (_Vaccinium frondosum_) beginning to ripen. - Dewberry (_Rubus trivialis_) ripening. - - 5. Poppy (_Papaver somniferum_) in flower. - - 6. Garden squashes (_Cucurbita Melo-pepo_) in flower. - - 7. Red raspberry fully ripe. - - 10. Black raspberry fully ripe. - - 11. String-beans fit for the table. - - 12. Unicorn plant (_Martinia proboscidea_) in full flower. - - 13. Thorn apple (_Datura stramonium_) and marygold (_Tagetes - erecta_) in full flower. - - 15. Great water plantain (_Alisma plantago_) and field clover - (_Trifolium arvense_) in flower. - - 17. Mad dog weed (_Scutellaria lateriflora_) and purple vervain - (_Verbena hastata_) in blossom. - -The weather for three weeks past has been excessively warm. The -thermometer, for several days, has stood above 95°, part of the -time at 98°. Our lands are now parching with drought. Our grass -fields are completely embrowned. Our farmers beginning to reap -their rye. - - _July_ 19. Cucumbers fit for the table. Early corn (_green_) fit - for the table. - - 21. Mother of thyme (_Thymus vulgaris_) in full flower. - - 22. Fig-wort (_Scrophularia marylandica_) and loosestrife - (_Lysimachia stricta_) in flower. - - 24. Morning-glory (_Convolvulus sepium_) and _Orchis ciliaris_ in - full flower. - - 26. Whortleberries (_Vaccinium resinosum_) ripe. Single-seeded - cucumber (_Sicyos angulata_) in flower. - - 28. Garden lettuce and hop (_Humulus lupulus_) in full flower. - - 30. Our farmers reaping their wheat--a tolerable crop. Buckwheat - (_Polygonum fagopyrum_) in flower. - -We had a great rain about the 20th, which restored the parched -vegetation. The latter part of the month was, however, warm and dry. - - - _August_ 1. Grasshoppers begin to sing. Crickets arrived. - - 2. Larkspur (_Delphinium consolida_) in flower. - - 3. Sunflower (_Helianthus annuus_) and pigweed (_Chenopodium - album_) in flower. - - 6. Broom-corn (_Sorghum saccharatum_) and lavender (_Lavendula - spica_) in flower. - - 7. Early jenneting apples ripe. _Ambrosia trifida_ and American - senna (_Cassia marylandica_) in flower. - - 11. Muskmelon ripe. Garden squashes and shelled beans fit for the - table. - - 13. Seed-box (_Ludwigia alternifolia_) in flower. Garden - gooseberries fully ripe. - - 14. Our farmers gathering their peas and oats--an indifferent - crop. Weather warm and dry. - - 16. Martins departing. Bush clover (_Lespedeza capitata_) in - flower. - - 18. Our farmers beginning to mow their second crop of hay. - Jerusalem oak (_Chenopodium botrys_) in flower. - - 20. Houseleek (_Sempervivum tectorum_) in flower. - - 21. Herb clarry (_Salvia sclarea_) in blossom. - - 22. Swallows collecting in thousands to depart. Toothed coral - (_Cymbidium odontorhizom_) in flower. Saw bats for the first time - this year. - - 24. Lopseed (_Phryma leptostachia_) and ladies' traces (_Neottia - pubescens_) in flower. - - 27. Gay mallows (_Lavatera thuringiaca_) and _Solanum nigra_ in - full flower. - - 30. Burnet saxifrage (_Sanguisorba canadensis_) and water - horehound (_Lycopus europæus_) in full flower. - - STEPHEN W. WILLIAMS. - -_Deerfield, (Mass.) Jan. 25, 1819._ - - - - -ART. VIII. _Description and Natural Classification of the Genus -Floerkea, by_ C. S. RAFINESQUE. - - -This genus was discovered in Pennsylvania, near Lancaster, by the -Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, who communicated the same to Wildenow of -Berlin. This celebrated botanist ascertained that it was a new -genus, to which he gave the name of a German botanist, (Floerke) -and published it in the third volume of the transactions of the -society _des Curieux de la Nature_ of Berlin, for 1801, under -the name of _Floerkea proserpinacoides_, which long and uncouth -specific name has been changed by every subsequent author. Michaux -has omitted it altogether, (with many more American species) in -his _Flora Boreali Americana_, published in 1803. Persoon calls -it _Floerkea lacustris_, in Syn. plant. 1. p. 393. Muhlenberg -_Floerkea uliginosa_, in Cat. pl. Amer. Sept. p. 36. and Pursh, in -Flora Amer. Sept. 1. p. 239, unites it with the genus _Nectris_, -and calls it _Nectris pinnata_, putting it therefore in the -Hexandria digynia of Linnæus, while all the preceding authors had -classed it in the Hexandria monogynia. I will show presently which -among them appear to be wrong; but I must notice before, that no -botanist had, I believe, endeavoured to class it naturally, until -Mr. Correa de Serra, who in his _reduction of American genera to -the natural families of Jussieu_, attempted, without having had -an opportunity to see the plant, to place it in the family of -_Junci_, taking it therefore to be a monocotyle plant; being led -into this error by a mistaken idea, that all hexandrous plants must -be monocotyle! But in the spring of 1816, I found this plant in the -neighbourhood of Philadelphia, (near the falls of the Schuylkill) -where it had escaped the attention of all the botanists of that -city, and in particular of Dr. William Barton, who has therefore -omitted it in his Prodr. fl. Philad. and having communicated it to -Mr. Correa, he acknowledged that it was dicotyle, of which fact I -was aware, even before seeing the plant and dissecting its seed, by -attending to its habit. - -The following exact description of this genus will enable the -reader to ascertain how far I am correct in my presumptions towards -its natural arrangement. - -_Floerkea._ Perigone double persistent, sixpartite; the exterior -calicinal 3 partile, sepals acute; the interior shorter, coloured -3 partile, sepals petaloid, oblong, obtuse. Six stamens perigyne, -filaments filiform, of the length of the interior sepals, anthers -round. One free ovarium, rounded and bilobed, one central and -bifod style, two capitated stigmas. Fruit a bilobed atricule, -tuberculated and bilocular dispermous, sometimes round, unilocular -and monospermous by abortion of one lobe and cell. Seeds attached -to the centre near the bottom, nearly lenticular, smooth -albuminous, easily divided in two lobes. _Habit._ Small, delicate, -annual, and glabrous plant, with alternate polytome pinnated -leaves, flowers axillar, solitary, pedunculated. - -_Floerkea uliginosa._ Caule tenello flaccido erecto simplex, foliis -4 petiolatis imis ternatis, summis pinnato, quinatis, pinnulis -lineari oblongis obtusis, integris floribus axillaris, solitaris -pedunculis longis apice incrastatis. Stem delicate, soft, upright, -and simple, leaves petiolated, the inferior ternated, the superior -pinnated, quinate, pinnules linear-oblong obtuse, flowers axillar, -solitary, and on long peduncles, swelled under the flower. - -Among the several specific names given to this plant, I prefer -Muhlenberg's, as it expresses exactly the kind of situations -where it grows, say in moist grounds, occasionally swampish or -overflowed; those I found near Philadelphia, grew by thousands on -the banks of a small brook in a wood below the left side of the -falls of Schuylkill. Persoon's name of _lacustris_, being wrong, as -it would seem to imply that it grows in lakes only; and Wildenow's -name being too long and illusive, its similarity of habit with the -genus _Proserpinaca_ not being very striking. However, even the -name of _uliginosa_ is liable to some slight objection; and did I -think myself permitted to coin a new name, while so many have been -proposed already, I should have called it either _F. tenella_, or -_F. flaccida_, or _F. olitoria_, being a very delicate and tender -plant, and very good to eat in sallad, as I have tried it myself, -its taste is sweet and pleasant, the whole plant may be eaten, -(even the root) being all juicy and tender: it grows in such an -abundance in some spots, that it might occasionally afford a most -precious and delightful sallad, but if cultivated for that purpose, -it might be found an agreeable addition to our culinary herbs. - -In addition to my above definition, it will be proper to state that -the stem of this plant rises from 4 to 8 inches, it is cylindrical, -smooth, and yellowish, the middle leaves are the largest, the lower -peduncles are longer than the leaves, and the upper ones shorter, -the petals or interior sepals, and the stamens are yellow. It -blossoms in May, and is annual, it even lasts only three months. - -It will be perceived that I do not agree with Mr. Pursh, in -uniting this plant with the genus _Nectris_: he owns himself that -it deviates a _little_ from the generic character of _Nectris_, -but these deviations appear to me very material; they exist in -the pistils and fruits, the most essential parts of the flowers, -since they agree in the perigone and stamens. The genus _Nectris_ -(or _Calomba_ of Aublet) has _two ovaries_, _two styles_, and -_two polispermous capsules_, or _achens_! and belongs therefore -to the second order _Perimesia_, (class _Eltrogynia_) eighth -family _Achenopsia_ next to the genus _Myriophyllum_: while the -genus Floerkea which has a _bilobed ovary_, _one central style_, -_two stigmas_, and _one bilocular dispermous achen_, must belong -to the eleventh order of the same class; _Isostimia_, which is -characterized by having more than one stigma, the stamens in -regular number, and not central; it will form a connecting link -between this order and the foregoing _Polymesia_, by its affinity -with many genera of the _Euphorbia's_ tribe, such as _Callitriche_, -_Tragia_, _Mercurialis_, &c. from which it differs merely by having -hermaphrodite flowers, and perispheric regular stamens. It will at -present stand nearly isolated in this order, where it may form the -small family _Galenidia_, along with the genus _Galenia_, &c. and -which shall have much affinity with the family _Phytolacia_; but -this differs by having a multilocular berry, while the _Galenia_ -merely differs by having a 4 sided perigone, 8 stamens, and 2 -styles. - -I admit, however, that there is a strong affinity between the -genera _Floerkea_ and _Nectris_, but stronger affinities often -exist in plants of different classes. If, however, it should happen -that Aublet[54] might have been mistaken in describing the ovaries -and capsules of the _Nectris_ as double, if they should prove to -be simple but bilobed, then the _Nectris_ would belong to the -same family as the _Floerkea_; but yet stand as a peculiar genus -distinguished by having 2 styles, and the achens not monospermous! - -It was insinuated to me by Mr. Correa, that the _Floerkea_ might -have some affinity with the tribe of _Ranunculaceous_, but I cannot -discover any, since that tribe is widely different, by having many -ovaries, stamens, and fruits, each ovary with 1 style or stigma, -a deciduous perigone, the anthers adnate, &c. The analogy in the -structure of the seed and habit, is too slight to be taken in -consideration. - - - - -ART. IX. _Descriptions of Three New Genera of Plants, from the -State of New-York. Cylactis, Nemopanthus, and Polanisia, by_ C. S. -RAFINESQUE. - - -1. _N. G. Cylactis._ - -Calyx campanulated 6 to 10 fidus, sepals a little unequal. Petals -4 to 6 equal. Many perigynous stamens. Pistils 8 to 12, ovaries -sessile ovate, styles elongated, stigmas capitated. Berries few, -distinct, one seeded. - -This new genus belongs in the analytical and natural method, (see -Analysis of Nature) to the first natural class _Eltrogynia_, first -natural order _Rhodanthia_, second natural family _Senticosia_, -next to the genera _Rubus_, _Oligacis_, &c. It would range itself -into the artificial class _Icosandria_ of the Linnæan sexual -system; but not properly into any of its orders, since the number -of pistils is variable, and never above 12. Only one species -belongs to it, which I have discovered in company with Mr. Knevels, -on the Catskill mountains. The etymology of the name derives from -two Greek words meaning _radiated calyx_. It differs essentially -from _Rubus_ by the unequal many cleft calyx, variable petals, and -few pistils. - -_Cylactis montana._ Mountain cylactis--Stem herbaceous upright, -unarmed, pubescent; leaves quinate, nearly smooth, upper ones -sessile, stipules oblong, folioles ovate acuminate, incised, -serrated, ciliated, base acute, entire, the middle one petiolated: -flowers few corymbose, peduncles erect elongated bracteolated; -calyx pubescent, sepals lanceolate acute, nerved, reflexed; petals -cuneate-obovate, longer than the calyx. - -It is a small perennial plant, rising about half a foot; flowers -white, blossoming in June. On the Catskill mountains near the great -falls, &c. - - -2. _N. G. Nemopanthus._ - -Dioical. M. flowers calyx 5 phylle, equal, deciduous. No corolla. -Stamina 5 hypogynous, alternating with the calyx. Fem. fl. calyx -deciduous 5 phylle? Ovary ovate, stigma sessile 4 lobed. Berry 4 -celled 4 seeded. - -The name means _flower with a filiform peduncle_. A shrub forms -this genus, which had perhaps been united with _ilex_ by Michaux, -&c.; but it differs altogether from it by the want of corolla, -hypogynous stamens, sessile, style, &c. it does not even belong to -the same family, but to the natural family _Rhamnidia_, natural -order _Plynontia_, and natural class _Eltrogynia_, next to the -genus _frangula_. In the sexual system it would belong to _Dioecia -pentandria_, very far apart from _Frangula_. - -_Nemopanthus fascicularis._ Fascicled nemopanthus. Shrubby, -leaves fasciculated, petiolate, oblong, mucronate, entire, rather -undulated, membranaceous, smooth; flowers axillary fasciculated, -peduncles filiform, shorter than the leaves. - -It forms a small shrub from 5 to 8 feet high, covered with gray -bark, and with slender upright branches; the flowers are greenish, -very small, the female flowers have shorter and thicker peduncles; -they blossom in June. It grows on the Catskill mountains near the -two lakes. It is, perhaps, the _Ilex canadensis_? of Michaux and -Pursh. And it has some analogy with the _Frangula alnifolia_. - - -3. _N. G. Polanisia._ - -Calyx 4 phylle, phylles coloured unequal, the upper one -unguiculated spatulated. Corolla with 4 unequal petals, the two -upper ones larger and unguiculated. A nectarium upwards glandular, -broad, and truncated. Stamina 9 to 14, unequal, erect, hypogynous. -Ovary oblong on a short pedicel, one style, one truncated stigma. -Fruit a follicular capsule, one celled, two valved, many seeded, -seeds inserted on each side of each suture, nearly snail-shaped. - -The type of this genus is the _Cleome dodecandra_ of Linnæus, -under which denomination many species were blended, which have no -similitude with the real genus _cleome_, differing in the calyx, -corolla, nectarium, stamina, and fruit. I shall describe here that -of North America, where 2 or 3 species exist, besides those of the -West Indies, Africa, and Asia, which are totally different. The -etymology of the name which I have given to it, derives from _many -irregularities_. It belongs in the analytical method of botany, -to the first natural class _Eltrogynia_, ninth natural order -_Monostimia_, natural family _Capparidia_. It can find no place in -the sexual system since the number of stamina varies from 9 to 14, -unless it be forced into _Dodecandria_. - -_Polanisia graveolens._ Clammy polanisia--hairy and glutinous all -over, stem upright, leaves alternate, petiolate, ternated, folioles -sessile, the intermediate longest, oblong, obtuse, entire, hairy on -the margin and nerves: flowers racemose erect, bracteas petiolate, -ovate, obtuse, calyx hairy, petals emarginate, crenate, capsules -divaricate glutinous. - -It is the _Cleome dodecandra_ of Michaux and Pursh. It grows on -the banks of rivers and lakes, on the Hudson near Newburgh, on -the Susquehannah near Harrisburg, on Lake Erie, on the Ohio, and -Mississippi, &c. It blossoms in July and August, the stem rises -about 1 foot, the petals are white, or slightly red. The whole -plant has a strong graveolent smell, similar to that of _Erigeron -graveolens_. (Received January, 1818. _Editor._) - - - - -ART. X. _Notice on the Myosurus Shortii._ - - -I have the pleasure to announce to the botanists, that the genus -_Myosurus_, hitherto thought an European genus, and composed of -a single species, has been detected in the United States by Dr. -Short of Kentucky, who has discovered it in the neighbourhood -of Hopkinsville, in Christian county, West Kentucky, and has -communicated me specimens of it; by which, on comparing them with -the European _Myosurus_, figured in _Flora Danica_, Lamarck's -Illustrations, &c. I have been enabled to ascertain, that the -American plant must form a second species of that genus, which -I have accordingly dedicated it to the discoverer, by naming it -_Myosurus Shortii_. This adds another genus and another new species -to our Flora. I add the comparative definitions of the two species, -exhibiting; their different characters and diagnosis. - -_Myosurus minimus._ Lin. &c. - -Leaves linear-cuneate, broader near the top, and acute. Scapes -as long as the leaves, thickened towards the upper part. Calix 5 -leaved, Spurs consimilar: petals 5. Stamens 5 to 8. Carpophore as -long as the scapes. - -_Myosurus Shortii._ Raf. - -Leaves linear obtuse, hardly attenuated below. Scapes shorter than -the leaves, and filiform. Calix 3 to 5 leaved, spurs membraneous: -petals 3 to 5. Stamens 10 to 12. Carpophore shorter than the scapes. - - C. S. RAFINESQUE. - -_Philadelphia, May 1, 1819._ - - - - -ART. XI. _Description of a New Species of Gnaphalium, by Professor_ -E. IVES. - - -_To B. Silliman, Esq. M.D., &c._ - -The following description of a new species of Gnaphalium, -accompanied with a drawing, has been in my possession for two -years. If the subsequent observations will be of use to correct -error, or solve doubts which may have existed concerning some -species of gnaphalium, they are at your service. - - E. IVES. - - -This plant was first observed by me, in company with Mr. C. -Whitlow, in July, 1817, by the margin of a brook, a few rods north -of Mr. E. Whitney's gun manufactory, near New-Haven. It is also -found on the margin of the Housatonick, about thirty miles from -Long Island sound, where it was observed by Dr. Alfred Monson, the -last summer. Specimens of this plant were sent to Z. Collins, Esq. -of Philadelphia, for the purpose of comparing it with the species -of gnaphalium in Muhlenberg's herbarium, more particularly with the -_luteo-album_ and _Pennsylvanicum_, which I had not seen. - -[Illustration: _Gnaphalium decurrens._] - -I am indebted to the politeness of Mr. Collins, for the facts on -this subject relative to Muhlenberg's herbarium. He observes, -"your Gnaphalium is certainly not the _luteo-album_ of Muhlenberg, -which may not strictly be a native, but introduced. Yours most -approaches G. polycephalum Mx. Still, from the decurrent leaves and -other differential marks, it appears to me to be a new species. -Muhlenberg's collection has it not." - -As the _luteo-album_ is said to grow in New-England, yet so far as -my observation has extended it has not been found by any of the -botanists, I am induced to believe that this opinion has arisen -from some erroneous description of the plant which is the subject -of this paper. - -As the decurrent leaves of this Gnaphalium distinguish it so -obviously from all the other American species of Gnaphalium, I -propose to give it the specific name of _decurrens_. - - -_Specific description of Gnaphalium Decurrens (large life -everlasting.)_ - -Leaves lanceolate, broad at base, acute, decurrent, somewhat -scabrous above, tomentose beneath; stem leafy branched spreading, -about three feet high.--See the plate.--The plate represents a -section of the upper part of the plant. - - - - -FOSSIL ZOOLOGY, &c. - - - - -ART. XII. _Observations on some Species of Zoophytes. Shells, &c. -principally Fossil, by_ THOMAS SAY. - - -If the following descriptions and notices of some of the animal -productions of our country, chiefly fossil, and of which some are -but little known, should be found of sufficient interest to occupy -a place in the Journal of Science, they are very much at your -service for that work. - -The greater portion of them are extracted, with some modification, -from an essay which I read about three years ago, to the Academy -of Natural Sciences, without any intention at the time of giving -publicity to them. But the rapid diffusion of a taste for -geological research, seems to require corresponding exertions on -the part of those who have attended to fossil remains, inasmuch as -geology, in order to be eminently furnished with every advantage -that may tend to the developement of many important results, must -be in part founded on a knowledge of the different genera and -species of reliquiæ, which the various accessible strata of the -earth present. The accessory value of this species of knowledge, -is now duly estimated in Europe, as affording the most obvious -means of estimating, with the greatest approximation to truth, the -comparative antiquity of formations, and of strata, as well as of -identifying those with each other which are in their nature similar. - -Certainly very little is yet known about the fossils of North -America, and very little can be known accurately, until we shall -have it in our power to compare them with approved detailed -descriptions, plates, or specimens of those of Europe; which have -been made known to the world by the indefatigable industry, and -scientific research of Lamarck and other naturalists. - -America is rich in fossils. In many districts of the United States, -vast beds of fossil shells, zoophytes, &c. are deposited, which, -for the most part, are concealed from the inquiring eye, offering -superficially a mere confused mass of mutilated fragments. These -rich repositories must finally be exposed to view, by the onward -pace of improvement, and the more interior strata will be unveiled -by some fortunate profound excavations, the result of enterprise -in the pursuit of gain. The very surface of the country in many -regions, is almost overspread with the abundance of casts, or -redintigrate fossils, many of which are apparently specifically -anomalous, and some generically so. The correct, and only useful -mode in which the investigation of our fossils can be conducted, is -attended with some difficulty and labour. - -The task presumes the knowledge, not only of fossils in all their -different states, from the apparently unchanged specimen, to the -fragment or section of a cast uninsulably imbedded in its rocky -matrix, but it also requires an adequate acquaintance with recent -specimens, or those of which the inhabitants are not yet struck -from the list of animated beings, in other words those of the -present, as well as those of the former world. - -Due advantage being taken of the many opportunities which are -from time to time offered to us, of obtaining knowledge in this -department, will probably be the means of producing a list of -American animal reliquiæ, coextensive with that of Europe at -the present day. In the present state of the science, however, -the correct naturalist will feel it a duty which he owes to his -colaborators to proceed with the utmost caution, that he may not -add unnecessarily to the already numerous species. - - -_Genus Alveolites, Lam._ - -Coral lapideous, covering extraneous bodies, or in a simple mass, -formed of concentric strata; strata composed each of a union of -numerous alveoles, which are very short, contiguous, reticulate, -and generally parallel. - - -_Species._ - -_A. glomeratus_, alveoles vertical, subequal, oval, or obsoletely -hexagonal, much shorter than the diameter, parallel; paries simple; -strata numerous, forming a rounded mass. (_Cabinet of the Academy -of Natural Sciences._) - -Found often on the coast of North America, cast up by the waves, -the animals sometimes still living. Forms masses of various sizes -and figures, generally more or less rounded or lobed, and composed -of a great number of concentric layers. The number of these strata -seems to be regulated in some degree, by the quantity of surface -they have to cover. Thus if the nucleus happens to be a small -shell, such as the _Naticæ_, _Nassæ_, &c. of our coast, or even -the oyster, (_O. virginica_,) clam, (_V. mercenaria_,) &c. the -strata are often very numerous; but on the thoracic plate of -_Limulus polyphemus_, having a considerable space over which to -extend themselves, the strata are but few, not more than 2 or 3. -I have seen the thoracic plate of this animal so entirely covered -by the _Alveolite_, as to have the eyes and stemmata concealed so -as to be perfectly blind. When composed of a single layer only, -it much resembles a _Flustra_, or a _Cellapore_ of which the -convex surfaces have been removed by attrition. The animal I have -not yet examined. The alveoles or cells of a layer, are arranged -in lines of different degrees of curvature, obscurely radiating -from different centres; these lines are placed side by side, the -alveoles alternating with each other throughout the layer in a -quincunx manner; the thickness of the paries is somewhat equal to -one half of the conjugate diameter of the alveole, the length of -which, or thickness of the layer, is scarcely more considerable; -but these proportions vary. - -The species to which it seems allied, are _madreporacea_ and -_incrustans_. The former is fossil, and differs in being subramose; -the latter forms but a single expansion. - - -_Genus Favosites, Lam._ - -Coral lapideous, simple, of a variable form, composed of parallel -prismatic and fasciculated tubes; tubes contiguous, pentagonal, or -hexagonal, more or less angular, rarely articulated. - - -_Species._ - -_F. striata_, more or less turbinate; _paries of the alveoles_ -longitudinally striated within, and fenestrate with minute osculi; -_alveoles_ with very numerous septæ. (_Cabinet Acad. Nat. Sciences; -and Peale's Museum--common._) - -Found fossil in various parts of the United States, at the falls -of the Ohio; Genessee, New-York; Pittsburg and Wilksbarre, -Pennsylvania; Missouri, &c. &c. but not yet in the alluvial deposit -of New-Jersey. - -The tubes are generally, partially, or entirely filled with -silicious matter, sometimes so completely so, as to resemble -in miniature, basaltic columns; when the alveoles are free on -the surface, these fossils are known by the name of _petrified -wasp-nests_, from the resemblance they bear to the nests of those -insects. The silex is usually only infiltrated into the cavities, -leaving the substance of the coral in its original calcareous -state, but the specimens which are found amongst the rolled pebbles -of the Delaware River, near Philadelphia, are completely silicified. - -The size varies from one fourth of an ounce, to two hundred pounds -or more, and the tubes occur of every intermediate diameter, from -the fortieth to one fourth of an inch. It is not common to find any -two specimens of like form, they are, however, ordinarily more or -less turbinate, but are sometimes depressed or compressed, and the -tubes rectilinear or excurved, and of various lengths. The dilated -summit is not so much the effect of a gradual enlargement of the -tubes, as of the frequent and adventitious interposition of young -ones, which of course renders the openings of the tubes unequal. -The tubes or alveoles, vary in the same coral, being 5 or 6, rarely -seven sided, but the hexagonal form is most common; the interior -of a tube is divided into a great number of apartments or cells, -by approximate transverse septæ, each of the cells appears to be -connected with the corresponding cells of the surrounding tubes, -by lateral orifices in the dividing paries; these orifices are -minute, inequidistant, orbicular, their margins slightly prominent, -and forming from one to three longitudinal series on each side -of the tube; each row is separated from the adjoining one by an -impressed line. By means of these osculi it seems probable that all -the animals inhabiting a common coral, were connected together, -or had free communication with each other, but whether by means -of a common organ as in _Pyrosoma_, _Stephanomia_, &c. or simply -by contact as in the aggregating _Salpa_, &c. we have no means of -determining. - -The _striata_ differs from _Madrepora truncata_, Esper. (_F. -alveolata_, Lam.) in not being "extùs transversè sulcata." It seems -to be allied to _Corallium Gothlandicum_, Amœn. Acad. v. 1. p. 106, -and it is possible it may prove synonymous, or very similar to it, -when that species becomes better known; the latter has been taken -for Basalt, and M. Lamarck when describing it, inquires "Est-ce -un polypier?" _Madrepora fascicularis_, of Volck. and Parkin. in -common with _F. striata_ and _F. Gothlandicum_, is distinguished -by the transverse septa, a character which induced me to refer the -species here described to _Favosite_; they seem therefore to be -congeneric, as analogy indicates a participation in the character -of osculated paries. - -Amongst the great variety exhibited by this species, we have to -remark more particularly the following, viz.: - -1st. Alveoles perfectly free, that is, destitute of aciculi or -lamellæ, the septa wanting, and sometimes the osculi obsolete. - -2d. Alveoles filled almost to the summit with the septa, and -resembling those combs of the bee-hive which are filled with honey -and covered over. - -3d. Paries beset with very numerous, interrupted, alternating, -transverse lamellæ, which are denticulated at their tips, and -project towards the centre with various degrees of prominence and -irregularity. - -The first variety corresponds with the generic character, and -the third approaches the genus _Porites_; yet so unequivocally -identical are they, that I have seen them all united in the same -mass, and perforated throughout by the osculi. The identity is -further obvious by the perfect gradation which renders them -inseparable. - -With respect to the transverse septa, I think their presence may be -accounted for by supposing that as the animal elongates its tube in -consequence of an increase of growth, or in order to maintain an -equal elevation with the adjacent tubes, (rendered necessary by the -origin of young tubes in the interstices) it gradually vacates the -basal portions of its tube, and sustains itself at the different -elevations, by successively uniting the parietal lamellæ so as -to exclude the vacuity. That this is probable, we may infer from -a similar procedure on the part of several species of testaceous -mollusca. Thus some Linnæan _Serpula_ become camerated, and a -familiar instance presents itself in the _Triton tritonis_, the -animal of which adds successive partitions to the interior of the -spire, as that part becomes too strait for the increasing volume -of its body. If the above supposition proves correct, the organs -of communication which pass through the osculi, can hardly be in -common, but must rather connect the animals by simple contact only, -otherwise these parts would be broken when the animal changes its -place by vacating the inferior part of the tube. - -The third variety is then the state of that portion of the -tube which is inhabited by the body of the animal, and not yet -interrupted by the septæ. - -From the above observations, it is evident that this species, and -probably the entire genus _Favosite_ under which I have placed it, -will not arrange properly with the _Tubipores_, _Millepores_, &c. -but must be transferred to the _Polypiers Lamellifères_ of Lamarck. -And if the _Madrepora retepora_ of Solander and Ellis, is a true -_Porites_, as M. Lamarck supposes it to be from the appearance of -its tubes, I should conclude this genus to be very proximately -allied to _Favosites_, by that species and the _F. striata_ having -in common the remarkable character of fenestrated paries. But -to this character I should conceive a generic importance ought -to be attached, as indicating a differential organization of -the artificers. I have no doubt that on close inspection of a -perfect specimen, the same character will be found to exist in _F. -Gothlandicum_, and possibly also in _F. truncata_, if not in the -latter only, it may be proper to separate the genus and to withdraw -from _Porites_ the forementioned species, retaining to _striata_ -as specifically essential, the second member of the differential -description. - -(_To be continued._) - - - - -PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, &c. - - - - -ART. XIII. _Observations on Salt Storms, and the Influence of Salt -and Saline Air upon Animal and Vegetable Life. Read before the -Lyceum of Natural History of New-York, March 7, 1819, by_ JOHN B. -BECK, M. D. - -(Communicated for this Journal.) - - -Meteorology is a science of so much general concern, that it seems -to be incumbent upon every member of society to aid in augmenting -the stock of facts, which the labours of ingenious and scientific -men have already accumulated on that subject. Under this impression -I propose to devote the following paper to some observations on -_salt winds_ or _storms_, as they have occurred in this country -and in Europe--a subject, which although presenting many phenomena -of a more than temporary interest, has as yet excited but little -attention. Indeed, the opportunities for observation have occurred -so rarely as readily to account for its having in a great measure -escaped the philosophical acumen of the present age. - -It must have been early observed that the atmosphere in the -vicinity of the sea frequently becomes impregnated with saline -materials; but the first and only account of a _salt storm_ that I -have met with, is to be found in the Transactions of the Linnæan -Society of London. The 8th volume of that work gives an interesting -narration of the effects of a storm of this description, which -occurred in England, in January, 1803. It was occasioned by an east -wind, which blew for some days, and which, in its passage over -the ocean, had imbibed large quantities of salt water, which were -afterward deposited upon the land. In most cases these depositions -proved fatal to the plants and vegetables which received them. So -extensive were the effects of this singular storm, that they were -felt in the vicinity of London, at a distance of about seventy -miles from the ocean, and in all the intermediate country. In -most instances, the leaves of the plants, which suffered from -it, appeared as if they had been scorched, and in some places -even the tops of the branches mortified. A storm of the same kind -took place in England, in February, 1804; and the memoir states, -that Sir Joseph Banks had noticed another some years before in -Lincolnshire.[55] - -A storm attended with similar effects occurred in this country in -1815, and vented its fury upon the eastern states. It commenced on -the 23d of September, between eight and nine o'clock, A. M. with -the wind from the east. In about two hours the wind shifted to -southeast, and blew a perfect hurricane. The extended devastation -which ensued, is still in the recollection of every person. The -tides rose from nine to twelve feet higher than ordinary, and in -many of the principal cities and towns along the coast of New -England, churches, houses, bridges, wharves, and in some instances -valuable citizens, were buried in one common ruin. In less than -three hours the gale abated, and before sunset there was a perfect -calm. Such were the more striking features of this tremendous -gale--but other effects were observed more peculiarly interesting -to the philosopher. At New-London, Salem, and other places, both -on the coast, and several miles in the interior, the air was found -to be loaded with salt; and the leaves of many trees appeared, a -few hours after the storm, as if they had been scorched. Besides -this effect upon vegetables, there were additional evidences of -the saline quality of the wind. At Salem and some other places an -incrustation of salt was perceived on the windows, and the fruit in -several gardens had a perceptible taste of salt on their surface. -At New-London it was remarked that the air in the eddies was -extremely hot and suffocating. - -Other facts of a similar nature might be collected, but these it is -presumed are sufficient to characterize the state of the atmosphere -during that storm. - -Several interesting inquiries arise from the consideration of the -foregoing facts. - -1. In what way does the salt exist in the atmosphere in these -storms? On this point there are two different opinions. The most -prevalent is, that it is merely the spray of the sea driven onward -by the force of the wind. This opinion has received the sanction of -Sir Joseph Banks,[56] and also of Sir Humphry Davy, if we may judge -from an incidental expression in his Agricultural Chemistry.[57] -Another opinion[58] is, that muriate of soda is continually rising -into the atmosphere from the surface of the ocean, and that the -air, in all maritime situations, is thus constantly more or less -impregnated with salt. The most striking fact in support of this -doctrine, (so opposite to the commonly received views on the -subject of the evaporation of sea water) is the actual existence of -muriate of soda in the rain and snow which fall in the vicinity of -the ocean.[59] The experiments of Vogel and Bouillon Lagrange, on -the distillation of sea water, are also in favour of the position, -that salt may be carried into the air in the ordinary process of -evaporation. On distilling salt water they found a considerable -quantity of muriate of soda in the receiver.[60] - -Admitting the correctness of these experiments, still it is not -easy to conceive, how they will account satisfactorily for the -_large_ quantities of salt found in the air during the storms under -consideration. - -Whichever of these solutions may be adopted, it is unquestionably a -fact that salt does, in some way or other, exist in the atmosphere -in the neighbourhood of the sea. - -2. The next object of inquiry is, the influence which this saline -air has upon vegetable life. Independently of the facts already -stated, there are many others which prove its deleterious agency -upon the vegetable creation. Dr. Mitchill informs me, that in some -parts of the south side of Long-Island fruit trees do not thrive -well, except at a distance of thirty miles from the sea, and even -the sturdy oak does not extend its branches towards the ocean.[61] -If I am correctly informed, it was with great difficulty, that -the trees on our Battery were made to accommodate themselves to a -situation so near the salt water. It is also well known, that when -plants are taken to sea, they speedily perish, if exposed but a -short time to a wind, which is sufficiently strong to turn over -the tops of the waves into _white caps_, as they are called by the -sailors. - -In order to ascertain positively, whether these effects were to be -attributed to the operation of salt, I made a solution of muriate -of soda in common rain water; with this I watered for a couple of -days the leaves of different plants. In a short time they began to -dry up, and in a few days were completely dead. - -It appears from Volney, that the Egyptian air is strongly charged -with salts. The evidences of it are to be found even at Cairo.[62] -It is this property of the air, which this philosophical traveller -considers, as one of the causes of the rapid vegetation in that -country. He mentions, however, that _exotic_ plants will not thrive -there. It is found necessary to renew the seeds of them every year. -May not this be occasioned by the saline quality of the air? The -_native_ plants are doubtless accustomed to its action, and do not -so sensibly feel its injurious effects. And if the Egyptian air is -so very penetrating from this very cause, as to produce ophthalmia, -may we not rationally conclude, that its influence must be equally -injurious to plants not accustomed to it. - -Another illustration of the influence of salt on vegetation is -to be found in the _Dead Sea_, or _Lake Asphaltites_. "In Lake -Asphaltites," says Volney, "there is neither animal nor vegetable -life. No verdure is to be seen on its banks, nor fish to be found -within its waters; but it is not true, that its exhalations are -pestiferous, so as to destroy birds flying over it. It is not -uncommon to see swallows skimming its surface, and dipping for -the water necessary to build their nests. The _true_ cause which -deprives it of vegetables and animals is the extreme saltness of -the water, which is vastly stronger than that of the sea. The -soil around it, equally impregnated with this salt, produces no -plants, and the _air_ itself, which becomes loaded with it from -evaporation, and which receives also the sulphureous and bituminous -vapours, cannot be favourable to vegetation; hence the deadly -aspect which reigns around this lake."[63] - -3. In what way does the salt operate in producing its deleterious -effects on the leaves of vegetables? It is by no means easy to -answer this question. It cannot be by shutting up the pores of the -leaf, and thus obstructing its perspiration. It is well known that -when the surfaces of leaves are covered with oil, they will soon -die.[64] But salt water is certainly not sufficiently viscid to act -in a similar way. - -Nor can it be satisfactorily attributed to the difference of -structure between maritime and land plants. There is some -difference indeed between many of these, maritime plants being -generally covered by a pubescence, of which most land plants are -destitute. It is idle however to suppose that the object of this -covering is to protect maritime plants from the action of the salt -air, as there are many of them which do not possess it. Besides, -is it not rational to conclude, from the large quantities of soda -which are always found in sea plants, that this saline atmosphere -is rather propitious than otherwise to their growth, and that it -only proves injurious to plants accustomed to the unadulterated air -of the land. - -Again, I do not think that it can be explained by supposing, that -the salt is absorbed into the plant, and thus acts as a poisonous -substance. We know, that in land plants which are cultivated in the -neighbourhood of the sea, salt is absorbed through their roots.[65] -It must of course circulate with the juices through the whole -plant; and yet in these cases the leaves are not destroyed by it. - -The most plausible method of explaining it appears to be this: that -the salt, by its irritating or corrosive power, destroys the small -vessels in the leaf which are necessary for the circulation going -on in it during health. - -Dr. Darwin has ingeniously shown the analogy between the functions -of the leaves of plants, and the lungs of animals. If this be -admitted, it will not be difficult to account for the action of -salt upon leaves. This substance, when taken into the stomach, -proves not merely innocuous, but wholesome; but when accidentally -introduced into the lungs, irritation, inflammation, and death -are the consequences. So with plants--when admitted into them in -combination with their juices, it may be harmless; but when applied -to the lungs or leaves, death ensues. - -4. I shall devote the remainder of this paper to a few concise -observations on the effects of salt, and a saline atmosphere, upon -_animal_ life. - -Upon the more imperfect animals, such as slugs, worms, toads, &c. -it is well known that salt proves speedily destructive of life. -It is not my intention to attempt an explanation of this singular -fact. But it is remarkable that it should not have been turned to -better account in the treatment of those worms, which infest the -human body. Although used for that purpose by the common people -in Ireland as well as in this country, I believe it has not, -until very lately, claimed the attention of the profession, as an -anthelmintick. A late English journal[66] contains a notice of some -cases which satisfactorily prove its efficacy, when administered -with this intention. This fact, in addition to numerous others, -strikingly illustrates the advantages which the healing art might -derive from a careful observation of the phenomena daily developed -by the collateral sciences. - -In cases of _hæmoptysis_ and _hæmatemesis_, common salt has been -used with decided success. The public is indebted to Dr. Rush, for -the introduction of this remedy into general practice. - -Dr. Hosack informs me, that he has found sea air extremely salutary -in _remittent fever_, _cholera infantum_, and _dyspepsia_. - -Among the deleterious effects caused by a _saline atmosphere_, may -be mentioned the _ophthalmia_ of Egypt. This disease is so common -there, "that out of a hundred persons," says Volney, "I have met -while walking the streets of Cairo, twenty have been quite blind, -ten wanting an eye, and twenty others have had their eyes red, -purulent, or blemished."[67] Throughout the Delta, and at Cairo, -this complaint is more prevalent than in any other part of Egypt. -In Syria it is also common, although less so than in Egypt, but -it is only met with on the _sea-coast_. The reasoning of Volney -on this subject, is decisive of the position, that the prevalence -of this complaint, in these regions, is owing to their proximity -to the ocean. In confirmation, he states that he has himself -experienced the irritating effects of the air of the Delta upon the -organ of vision.[68] - -In those cases of _scurvy_ which occur in long voyages, the saline -nature of the atmosphere co-operates very powerfully with salt -provisions and bad water, in producing that general vitiation of -the system which characterizes this disorder. - -Of all diseases, however, those of the lungs appear to be most -affected by a saline air. I have known a lady of this city who had -been afflicted for many years with _asthma_, to be essentially -benefited by a voyage across the Atlantic. Another case has fallen -under my observation, of a lady troubled with asthma, being much -relieved by removing from the interior to this city. What proves -beyond a doubt that her relief is owing to the air she breathes, -is, that whenever she takes a jaunt into the country, she is sure -to suffer a paroxysm of her old complaint. - -_Pulmonary consumption_ certainly prevails more on the sea-coast, -than in the interior. In all our sea-port towns, it is this -disorder which so frightfully augments the catalogue of our bills -of mortality. According to Dr. Rush, "in Salem, in the state -of Massachusetts, which is situated near the sea, and exposed, -during many months of the year, to a moist east wind, there died -in the year 1799, 160 persons; fifty-three of whom died of the -consumption."[69] In Philadelphia, which is more remote from the -sea, the deaths from consumption are much less numerous than in -New-York, or the other cities immediately on the coast. In Great -Britain, which is exposed to the sea on all sides, it is calculated -that about 55,000 die annually from this disease. - -Such are some of the facts on this subject; but the conclusion -does not appear to be warranted, that these pulmonary affections -arise from the irritating quality of the air. In Holland, the West -Indies, as well as in other countries and islands, exposed to the -sea air, consumption is of rare occurrence. In Syria, Volney even -states that the air of the coast is particularly favourable to -those labouring under this malady. Accordingly they are in the -habit of sending such patients from Aleppo to Latakia, or Saide, -where they may enjoy the benefit of sea air.[70] - -Again, we know that many persons suffering from this affection, -have been completely cured by a voyage, after all the resources of -medicine had been exhausted upon them in vain. - -It is evident then, that a _pure_ sea air is not detrimental in -cases of consumption. Dr. Rush, with his usual ingenuity, explains -the prevalence of this complaint in our sea-ports, by attributing -it to the mixture of land and sea air; and in confirmation -observes, that "those situations which are in the neighbourhood of -bays and rivers, where the fresh and salt waters mix their streams -together, are more unfavourable to consumptive patients than the -seashore, and therefore should be more carefully avoided by them in -exchanging city for country air."[71] - -Independently, however, of these causes, I think the frequent and -sudden vicissitudes of temperature, which we suffer on the coast, -are alone sufficient to account for the prevalence of catarrhal and -pneumonic affections, which most commonly are the precursors of -consumption. - -I trust the foregoing observations have not been considered too -_medical_ to comport with the objects of this Society. Natural -history is only useful in its practical applications; and if it -can be shown to throw any light upon an art, which contributes so -much to the comfort and happiness of man, we have established one -of the strongest considerations, which can recommend it to general -patronage and investigation. Physicians ought in an especial manner -to set a high value upon the researches of naturalists. The aid -they have already given is sufficient to entitle them to the -lasting gratitude of our profession. It was one of the merits of -that illustrious physician of our own time and country, Dr. Rush, -that he seized with avidity every fact, from whatever quarter -it might be drawn, to elucidate his favourite science. If ever -medicine shall attain to the elevation of a truly _philosophical -science_, it must be accomplished, in part at least, by imitating -his example, and by developing the infinite and diversified -associations which exist between it and the other sciences. - - - - -ART. XIV. _Thoughts on Atmospheric Dust. By_ C. S. RAFINESQUE, -_Esq._ - - -1. "When we find the ruins of ancient cities buried under ground; -when the plough uncovers the front of palaces and the summit of -old temples, we are astonished: but we seldom reflect why they are -hidden in the earth. A sort of imperceptible dust falls at all -times from the atmosphere, and it has covered them during ages." - -2. These are the words of the worthy and eloquent philosopher -VIREY, in his article Nature, Vol. XV. p. 373, of the French -Dictionary of Natural History. Even before reading them I had -observed the same phenomenon, and I have since studied their -effects in various places. I could quote one thousand instances of -the extensive and multifarious operations of this meteoric dust: -but I mean to give the results merely of those that fall daily -under notice, and are yet totally neglected; wishing to draw on -them the attention of chemists, philosophers, and geologists. - -3. Whenever the sun shines in a dark room, its beams display a -crowd of lucid dusty molecules of various shapes, which were -before invisible as the air in which they swim, but did exist -nevertheless. These form the atmospheric dust; existing every where -in the lower strata of our atmosphere. I have observed it on the -top of the highest mountains, on Mount Etna, in Sicily, on the -Alps, on the Alleghany and Catskill mountains in America, &c. and -on the ocean. - -4. It deserves to be considered under many views: which are its -invisibility, its shape and size, its formation and origin, its -motion, its deposition and accumulation, its composition, its uses, -and its properties. - -5. This dust is invisible, owing to the tenuity of its particles, -but they become visible in the following instances; when the sun -shines on them, since they reflect the light, when their size is -increased, and when they are accumulated any where. - -6. The size of the particles is very unequal, and their shape -dissimilar; the greatest portion are exceedingly small, similar to -a whitish or grayish spark, without any determinable or perceptible -shape; the larger particles are commonly lamellar or flattened, but -with an irregular margin, and the largest appear to be lengthened -or filiform; the gray colour prevails. Other shapes are now and -then perceptible with the microscope. - -7. Among the properties of atmospheric dust are those of being -soft, as light as atmospheric air, of reflecting the rays -received directly from the sun, of possessing a kind of peculiar -electricity, which gives it a tendency to accumulate on some -bodies more readily than on some others, and of forming an earthy -sediment, which does not become effervescent with acids. - -8. This dust is either constantly or periodically formed, but -chemically in the atmosphere like snow, hail, meteoric stones, -honey-dew, earthy rains, &c. by the combination of gaseous and -elementary particles dissolved in the air. Its analysis has never -been attempted by chemists; but the earthy sediment which is the -result of its accumulated deposition, proves that it is a compound -of earthy particles in a peculiar state of aggregation, and in -which alumine appears to preponderate, rather than calcareous or -silicious earths or oxides. - -9. Its motion in calm weather, or in a quiet room, is very slow; -the particles appear to float in the air in all directions, some -rising, some falling, and many swimming horizontally, or forming -a variety of curved lines; what is most singular, is that no two -particles appear to have exactly the same direction; yet after -awhile the greatest proportion fall down obliquely, somewhat in the -same manner as a light snow in a calm day. When a current of air is -created naturally or artificially in the open air or in a room, you -perceive at once an increased velocity in their motion; they move -with rapidity in all directions; but when a strong current or wind -prevails, they are carried with it in a stream, preserving however, -as yet, their irregular up and down motion. - -10. Its formation is sometimes very rapid, and its accumulation -very thick in the lower strata of our atmosphere, but the intensity -is variable. Whenever rain or snow falls, this dust is precipitated -on the ground by it, whence arises the purity of the air after rain -and snow; but a small share is still left, or soon after formed. In -common weather it deposits itself on the ground by slow degrees, -and the same in closed rooms. It forms then the dust of our floors, -the mould of our roofs, and ultimately the surface of our soil, -unless driven by winds from one place to another. - -11. I have measured its accumulation in a quiet room, and have -found it variable from one-fourth of an inch to one inch in the -course of one year; but it was then in a pulverulent fleecy state, -and might be reduced by compression to one-third of its height, -making the average of yearly deposit about one-sixth of an inch. -In the open air this quantity must be still more variable, owing -to the quantities carried by the winds and waters to the plains, -valleys, rivers, the sea, &c. or accumulated in closed places or -against walls, houses, &c. I calculate, however, that upon an -average, from six to twelve inches are accumulated over the ground -in one hundred years, where it mixes with the soil and organic -exuviæ, to form the common mould. - -12. The uses of this chronic meteor are many and obvious. It serves -to create mould over rocks, to increase their decomposition, to -add to our cultivable soil, to amalgamate the alluvial and organic -deposits, to fertilize sandy and unfruitful tracts in the course of -time, to administer to vegetable life, &c. It does not appear that -it has any bad influence on men and animals breathing it along with -air, unless it should be accumulated in a very intense degree. - -13. At Segesta, in Sicily, are to be seen the ruins of an ancient -temple; the steps, which surround it on all sides below the -pillars, are built on a rock, on the top of a hill detached from -any other higher ground. Yet now all the steps and the base of the -pillars are under the ground, which has accumulated from this dust -and the decay of plants (not trees) to which it has afforded food. -There are from five to eight feet from the rock to the surface -of this new soil, which has chemically combined in a variety -of hardness. This soil has arisen there in about 2000 years, -notwithstanding the washings of rain. I quote this as a remarkable -instance of the increase of soil by aerial deposits, among many -which have fallen under my personal examination. - -14. It is commonly believed that the dust of our rooms is produced -by the fragments of decomposed vestments, beddings, furnitures, -&c.; this cause increases it, and produces a different dust, which -mixes with the atmospheric dust; but it is very far from producing -it. - -15. The dust of the open air is ascribed to that raised from -roads and fields, by the pulverization of their surface; but this -secondary and visible dust is only a consequence of the first. From -whence could arise the dust observed by the means of the sunbeams -in a dark corner, in winter, when the ground is frozen, or when it -is wet and muddy, or at sea, or on the top of rocky mountains? - -16. It is therefore a matter of fact, worth taking into -consideration by geologists, that the air still deposits a quantity -of dust, which must have been much greater in former periods. Just -the same as the sea deposits still a quantity of earthy and saline -particles dissolved in it, and which were superabundant at the -period when the rocky strata were formed on its bottom. Water being -more compact, deposits rocks. Air, which is less dense, deposits a -pulverulent matter! - - - - -ART. XV. _On the Effect of Vapour on Flame. By_ J. F. DANA, -_Chemical Assistant in Harvard University, and Lecturer on -Chemistry and Pharmacy in Dartmouth College_. - - - _Cambridge, Mass. February 5, 1819._ - - _To Professor Silliman._ - - DEAR SIR, - -About a year since I made some experiments on the effect of steam -on ignited bodies, with a view to learn the theory of the action -of the "American water-burner." These experiments were published -in an anonymous paper in the North American Review, and have been -published in London, without an acknowledgment of their source. - -The effect of them concerning bodies is peculiar, and it probably -admits of more extensive application to the arts than in the above -named instrument alone. - -When a jet of steam, issuing from a small aperture, is thrown -on burning charcoal, the brightness is increased, if the coal -be held at the distance of four or five inches from the pipe -through which the steam passes; but if the coal be held nearer it -is extinguished, a circular black spot first appears where the -steam is thrown on it. The steam in this case does not appear to -be decomposed, and the increased brightness of the coal depends -probably on a current of atmospheric air, occasioned by the steam. -But when a jet of steam, instead of being thrown on a single -coal, is made to pass into a charcoal fire, the vividness of the -combustion is increased, and the low attenuated flame of coal is -enlarged. - -When the wick of a common oil lamp is raised, so as to give off -large columns of smoke, and a jet of steam is thrown into it, the -brightness of the flame is increased, and no smoke is thrown off. - -When spirits of turpentine is made to burn on a wick, the light -produced is dull and reddish, and a large quantity of thick smoke -is given off; but when a jet of steam is thrown into this flame, -its brightness is much increased; and when the experiment is -carefully performed, the smoke entirely disappears. - -When the vapour of spirits of turpentine is made to issue from -a small orifice, and inflamed, it burns, and throws off large -quantities of smoke; but when a jet of steam is made to unite with -the vapour, the smoke entirely disappears. When vapour of spirits -of turpentine and of water are made to issue together from the same -orifice, and inflamed, no smoke appears. Hence its disappearing, in -the above experiment, cannot be supposed to depend on a current of -atmospheric air. - -When a jet of steam is thrown into the flame of a spirit of wine -lamp, or into flames which evolve no smoke or carbonaceous matter, -the same effect is produced as by a current of air. - -It appears, from these experiments, that in all flames which evolve -smoke, steam produces an increased brightness, and a more perfect -combustion. - -Now, with a very simple apparatus, steam might be introduced into -the flames of street lamps, and that kind of lamp which is used -in butchers' shops in London, and in all flames which evolve -much smoke. The advantage of such an arrangement would be a more -perfect combustion, and a greater quantity of light from the same -materials. The flame of the lamps, to which steam is applied, might -be made to keep the water boiling which supplies the steam. - -I hope the above may not be altogether uninteresting and useless to -the readers of your Journal. - - Very respectfully, your obedient servant, - - J. F. DANA. - - - - -ART. XVI. _Analysis of the Harrodsburg Salts, by_ EDWARD D. SMITH, -M. D. _Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the South-Carolina -College_. - - -More than a year since I received a quantity of a white earthy -substance, which was said to be obtained by the evaporation of -certain mineral waters at Harrodsburg, Kentucky, and there vended -at a considerable price, under the name of Epsom salts. The -respectable character who presented this powder to me, requested -that I would make an analysis of it; but I had not sufficient -leisure until lately, to pay the requisite attention to this -subject. The results of my examinations are now submitted to the -public eye. - -The external qualities of this substance are as follow: small white -lumps, hard to the touch, but dry and easily yielding to pressure, -somewhat gritty to the teeth, and imparting an earthy and saline -taste to the tongue. - -1. 120 grains of the powder were put into about a half ounce of -alcohol, digested for six hours, then, washed with more alcohol, -filtered and carefully dried. - -2. On weighing the dry powder, the loss appeared to be but one -grain, so that it contains very little of any substance which is -soluble in alcohol. - -3. 115 grains (four grains having been lost in the transfer from -the filter) were collected and put into rather more than eight -times their weight of cold distilled water, and digested for two -hours. - -4. This watery solution was then filtered, and on weighing, the -residue appeared to be 48 grains, so that 67 grains must have been -dissolved. - -5. 10 grains of the insoluble residue (4) were put into a flask, -with 10 ounces of distilled water, and boiled for 1 hour. - -6. A small portion of this solution, on being tested with nitrate -of barytes, gave a copious white precipitate, with oxalic acid, -a white cloud; with ammonia, a slight white cloud; with muriatic -acid, a slight bluish tinge. From these tests it was inferred -that sulphate of lime was present, with perhaps a slight trace of -muriate of lime. - -7. The remainder of this solution was filtered, and on weighing the -dried residuum, the loss appeared to be 2 grains, so that sulphate -of lime probably constitutes nearly ⅕ of the insoluble residence -(48 grains. 4.) - -8. The watery solution, (4) which was supposed to contain 67 -grains, was evaporated, and left a residue that weighed but 34 -grains, so that 33 grains must have disappeared in the process. - -9. Some of this residue dissolved in distilled water, was tested -with carbonate of soda, forming an immediate white cloud; with -nitrate of barytes, the same; with ammonia, the same; but with -oxalate of ammonia, it did not form any cloud until it had stood -some time, and then it was slight. From these tests it was inferred -that sulphate of magnesia was present. - -10. A portion of the dried residuum (7) was treated with diluted -muriatic acid, which dissolved nearly the whole of it, with -considerable effervescence. The new compound, on examination, -proved to be muriate of lime; so that it may be concluded the -residuum (7) was principally carbonate of lime. - -On considering the results of the preceding experiments, it will -appear that more than one half of the substances submitted to -analysis, was easily soluble in water, and from the chemical tests -used, that it was composed principally of sulphate of magnesia, -(Epsom salt) with perhaps a small portion of muriate of lime or -magnesia, that of the remainder, about ⅕ was sulphate of lime, -and difficultly soluble in water; and that the rest was perfectly -insoluble in water, and consisted principally of carbonate of lime. - -There can be no doubt then, that the Harrodsburg salt, in its -present state, is very improperly prepared, containing in its -composition a large proportion of matter, that is not only inert, -but which may produce considerable inconvenience and injury in the -stomach and bowels, from its ponderous nature and tendency to form -mechanical obstructions. Perhaps the occurrence of such injury may -not be frequent, from the circumstance of a large portion of the -salt being so insoluble; but admitting this to be the fact, there -is a manifest impropriety in offering to the public, as medicine, -an article which cannot be used as such. Probably the proprietors -of this manufactory are not aware of the real nature of the case, -and of the facility with which, by a little additional trouble, -they could separate the useful and valuable material, from that -which is at least useless, and which might also be pernicious. - -_South-Carolina College, March, 1819._ - - - - -ART. XVII. _Additional Notice of the Tungsten and Tellurium, -mentioned in our last Number._ - - -PART I. _Description of the Ore._ - -Colour, dark brown, almost black; brittle, powder a lighter shade -of brown than the mineral; hard, scratches glass, scintillates with -steel, with a red spark; a degree of polish produced, where the -steel strikes, and when the steel is impressed upon it. - -Structure compact, in some places slightly porous; lustre, -generally dull, sometimes glimmering, and almost resinous. - -Crystals octahedral. Specific gravity of three massive pieces, 5.7, -6. and 6.44 mean, 6.05 nearly; probably that of the crystals would -be higher. - -Infusible by the blow-pipe even with borax, and does not by strong -ignition impart any colour to it or to potash; not magnetic, even -in fine powder, nor after being heated red hot on charcoal, and in -contact with burning grease. - -Many specimens decrepitate violently under the blow-pipe. When -heated on coals in pieces of considerable size, they often explode -with a smart report, and are thrown in fragments sometimes several -yards from the fire. - -Gangue quartz; accompanying minerals in the same vein, native -bismuth, native silver, galena, iron and copper pyrites, much -magnetic pyrites, blende, &c. - -_Geological relations._ The country is primitive, and the immediate -rock which forms the walls of the vein is said to be gneiss; (we -have not seen it.) - -Locality, town of Huntington, parish of New Stratford, county of -Fairfield, 20 miles west from New-Haven, Connecticut. - -_Remark._ Native bismuth in small quantities, has been for several -years obtained from this mine, but the shaft has been sunk only -about ten feet. - - -PART II. _A variety of the Ore._ - -General characters as above, but on some parts, there is seen a -whitish, or yellowish, or sometimes darkish metallic substance; it -is in thin plates, like the leaf metals, and sometimes reticulated, -and graphic in its disposition; it is soft and easily cut with the -knife. In the specimens examined, it was so much blended with the -other ore, and so trifling in quantity, that it was not possible to -separate it mechanically, so as to examine it separately. - - -PART III.--A. _Chemical Trials._ - -1. Muriatic acid, hot or cold, produces no effect; hot -nitro-muriatic dissolves the ore with energy, red fumes are -evolved, and generally a red solution obtained, from which ammonia -precipitates red oxyd of iron abundantly. - -2. A heavy lemon-yellow powder remains, insoluble of course in -acids, but easily and completely soluble in warm ammonia. - -3. A dark powder, in diminished quantity, again appears, more acid -dissolves it in part, and again reveals the yellow powder, which -ammonia again dissolves, and so on, till nothing remains but some -portion of the gangue. - -4. The ammoniacal solution, which contains the oxyd of tungsten, is -decomposed by acids, and by heat, and instantly deposits a white -heavy powder, becoming yellowish by standing, and full yellow by -heat. - -5. This powder is infusible by the blow-pipe, but ignited with -borax in a platinum crucible, it became of a superb blue, like -smalt, or between that and Prussian blue. - -6. The quantity obtained was too small to make it convenient to -attempt its reduction to the metallic state; no doubt remained, -however, that it was oxyd of tungsten, or as it is sometimes -called, tungstic acid. - -7. There were traces of manganese, and all the facts perhaps -justify the conclusion, that the ore is very similar to the -ferruginous tungsten or wolfram. - -8. The calcareous tungsten occurs in octahedral crystals, but we -have not before heard of this form in the ferruginous species, -which generally affects the prismatic forms. - - -B. REMARK. - -We had been for some time inclined to believe, that the above ore -was ferruginous tungsten, but although fortified by the opinion of -Col. Gibbs, we were withheld from announcing it, because the form -of the crystals, the specific gravity, the colour, and perhaps -some other characters, were not perfectly accordant with European -descriptions, and with the specimens in our possession, which are -from Saxony and Cornwall. - -During the necessary chemical trials (which have, we trust, -established the correctness of the above opinion,) we very -unexpectedly discovered in some of the ores of tungsten, proofs -of the existence of tellurium. The conclusion was induced by the -phenomena, for nothing was farther from our expectations. - -Two fragments were pulverized _by an assistant_, and we therefore -cannot say whether they had any external characters different from -those of the other pieces; they came, however, from the same part -of the vein, and their powder resembled that of the other pieces. - -1. Digested in nitro-muriatic acid, a straw-yellow solution, -slightly inclining to green, was obtained, and a black powder was -left behind. - -2. More acid digested on this powder, gave a deep red solution of -iron, and left the yellow oxyd of tungsten, which being dissolved -in ammonia, the black powder again appeared, and so on, as under 3. -Part III. - -3. The solution 1, diluted largely with water, deposited an -abundant white precipitate, which was very heavy and rapidly -subsided. - -4. Alcohol and ammonia, respectively produced the same effect, only -more decidedly. - -5. This precipitate, evidently an oxyd of a metal, being collected -on a filter and dried, exhibited the following properties. - -6. Heated by the blow-pipe on charcoal, it was instantly -volatilized in part, and in part decomposed, with an almost -explosive effervescence; numerous ignited globules of metal -appeared on the charcoal, and burned with an abundant flame of a -delicate blue colour, edged occasionally with green. - -7. In many trials, these results always occurred, and sometimes -a peculiar odour was perceived, at first thought to be owing to -arsenic, but it was incomparably feebler, and somewhat resembled -that of radishes.[72] - -8. Zinc, iron, and tin, plunged into separate portions of the -nitro-muriatic solution, precipitated abundantly a black flocculent -substance. - -9. On charcoal before the blow-pipe, this substance was very -combustible, with a blue flame, and was completely dissipated in -the form of white oxyd, with the above smell. - -10. Some of it was obtained on the charcoal in metallic globules; -it was a brittle metal, white, with a tinge of red, and foliated, -but not so distinctly as bismuth and antimony. - -11. The filters on which the white oxyd had been deposited, burned -almost with explosion, nearly as rapidly as if they had been soaked -with nitrate of potash, or of ammonia, and the characteristic blue -flame appeared while the burning lasted. - -12. Other experiments were made upon the metal, (not the oxyd.) It -gave to strong sulphuric acid, (simply by standing in it in the -cold) an amethystine colour, which disappeared as the acid grew -weaker, by attracting water from the air. - -13. With nitric acid it formed a colourless solution, not -decomposed by water. - -14. It did not dissolve in muriatic acid, till a few drops of -nitric acid were added. - -15. The white oxyd heated with charcoal in a small coated recurved -glass tube, afforded brilliant metallic globules, which rose by -distillation, collected in the bend of the tube, and resembled -drops of quicksilver, except that they were solid. - - -C. REMARK. - -The above facts having induced the conclusion that the metal, thus -unexpectedly discovered in the ores of tungsten, was tellurium,[73] -we were led to search for external characters by which to judge -what specimens contained it. The ores from Transylvania, (the -only telluric ores with which we are acquainted,) bearing no -analogy in appearance or composition to those before us, we were -led to inquire whether the tellurium in these latter ores was _in -combination_ with tungsten, or merely _in mixture_. The external -characters detailed in part II, tend perhaps to fortify the -latter opinion. If we mistake not, we there found a proper ore of -tellurium mixed with a proper ore of tungsten, but we have also by -chemical means, found tellurium where similar external characters -were not apparent. Before the appearance of our next Number, we -hope to obtain purer and better specimens. In the mean time we add -the following facts. - -1. A crystal, and a massive piece of the kind described under part -I, and specimens of two varieties of those described under part II, -were digested in nitro-muriatic acid. - -2. Both oxyd of tungsten, and oxyd of tellurium were obtained from -all of them. - -3. Many specimens have been examined which have afforded tungsten -only, and no tellurium. - - -At a convenient time, it is hoped that a more complete examination -of this subject may be presented to the public. - -In the mean time, we may submit to mineralogists and chemists, -whether if this is not a new mineral, it is not at least a new -association of two minerals before known. It has not been forgotten -that gold and silver are frequently combined with tellurium: -neither of them has, however, been discovered, (although sought -after by proper tests) during the above trials. - -_Yale College, March, 1819._ - - - - -ART. XVIII. _A Substitute for Woulfe's or Nooth's Apparatus, -by_ ROBERT HARE, M. D. _Professor of Chemistry in the Medical -Department of the University of Pennsylvania, and Member of various -Learned and Scientific Societies_. With a Plate. - - -Few subjects have more occupied the attention of chemists, than -the means of impregnating fluids with gaseous substances. The -contrivances of Woulfe and Nooth, especially the former, have -been almost universally used; and have gained for the inventors -merited celebrity. Various improvements in Woulfe's bottles have -been devised. Still I believe an apparatus replete with similar -advantages, but less unwieldy, less liable to fracture; and having -fewer junctures to make at each operation, has been a great -desideratum with every practical chemist. It has, however, ceased -to be so with me, since I contrived the apparatus which I am about -to describe. - -Fig. 1. represents 3 jars placed concentrically within each other, -and so proportioned and situated, as to admit 2 open-necked -concentric bell glasses alternately between them. The neck of -the exterior bell glass is introduced into the tubulure of the -receiver above, and receives the neck of the interior bell glass. -Into this is inserted a trumpet-shaped tube. The two interior jars -are furnished with feet F, _f_. In order to put this apparatus into -operation, remove (without taking them apart) the bell glasses, -receiver, and tube from the jars. Pour into the latter the fluid, -to be impregnated, till it reaches the height marked by the dots. -The funnel mouth, _m_, of the receiver being provided with a -suitable cork soaked in wax, fasten into it firmly the beak of the -retort, containing the generating materials. The bell glasses are -then to be replaced in the jars, and arranged as in the figure. It -must be self-evident that the gas proceeding from the retort, (if -the juncture at _m_ be air tight) must press on the fluid in the -innermost jar, through the trumpet-shaped tube. If not imbibed with -adequate speed, it must soon press on the fluid at _a_, causing it -to subside to the narrow part of the foot _f_, and thus to expose -a much larger surface. If the absorption be still inadequate, a -further subsidence must ensue, and the gas escaping round the -brim of the interior bell glass will act on the fluid at _b_, and -enlarge its surface by depressing it to the narrow part of the foot -F. Should the increased pressure and more extended contact thus -obtained, be still incompetent to effect a complete absorption, the -excess of the gas may escape round the brim of the external bell -glass into the atmosphere. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 1._ - -_Fig. 4._ - -_Fig. 5._ - -_Fig. 3._ - -_Fig. 2._ - -_Drawn & Engraved by Kneass, Young & Co._] - -But so effectual is this process in promoting impregnation, that -I have obtained strong muriatic acid in the central jar, without -producing any sensible acidity in the outside one. Absorption -into the retort or receiver, is prevented by not allowing as much -fluid to be above the mouth of the trumpet-shaped tube, as would -be competent to fill the cavity between it, and the termination -of the open neck of the exterior bell glass at _t_. As this neck -rises about 2 or 3 inches into the receiver, it prevents any foul -matter which may condense or boil over, from getting into the jars. -If practicable, it would be better that the bell glasses, and -tube, and receiver, should be united together while hot, at the -glass-house. If all could not be joined in this way, it would still -be advantageous to unite thus the receiver, and the exterior bell -glass. The interior bell and tube might then be fastened together, -by grinding or luting. As yet I have only used lutings of waxed -cloth, or cork. It may be proper to point out, that 3 or more -concentric bell glasses, and 4 or more jars, might be used. The -union of the bells, receiver, and tube once effected, it is hardly -more troublesome to use 3 than 2. When the fluid in the central jar -is saturated, this may be emptied and replenished from the middle -jar, the latter from the external one. Then supplying the external -jar anew, the process may be continued. - -The other figures are to explain an apparatus on the same -principle, constructed of hollow, oblong paralellopipeds, differing -in length more than in breadth; so as to allow a serpentine tube to -wind into the interior, and deliver gas under a vessel shaped like -a T. - -Fig. 2. represents a vertical section of the whole as when situated -for use.[74] - -Fig. 3. a vertical section of the lower vessels only. - -Fig. 4. a vertical section of the covers alone. - -Fig. 5. a horizontal section, or ground plan of the lower vessels. -The upper vessels are so proportioned as to divide the distances -between the lower ones equally. - -It may be well to mention, that this apparatus, from the facility -with which it may be cleaned and inspected internally, admits of -being made of porcelain or stone ware.[75] I have had a cylindrical -one constructed of the latter material, in which the covers are -in one piece, with a tube in the centre for introducing gas. The -apparatus may be made more efficacious, by drilling a series of -small holes round the brims of the bell glasses or covers, so as to -cause the gas, instead of passing round the brims in large bubbles, -to divide itself into very small ones. By this means it will be -more thoroughly intermingled with fluid. - - - - -ART. XIX. _A New Theory of Galvanism, supported by some Experiments -and Observations made by means of the Calorimotor, a new Galvanic -Instrument. Read before the Academy of Natural Sciences, -Philadelphia,[76] by_ ROBERT HARE, M. D. _Professor of Chemistry -in the Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania, and -Member of several Learned Societies_. - -(With an Engraving.) - - -I have for some time been of opinion that the principle extricated -by the Voltaic pile is a compound of caloric and electricity, both -being original and collateral products of Galvanic action. - -The grounds of this conviction and some recent experiments -confirming it, are stated in the following paper. - -It is well known that heat is liberated by the Voltaic apparatus, -in a manner and degree which has not been imitated by means of -mechanical electricity; and that the latter, while it strikes at a -greater distance, and pervades conductors with much greater speed, -can with difficulty be made to effect the slightest decompositions. -Wollaston, it is true, decomposed water by means of it; but the -experiment was performed of necessity on a scale too minute to -permit of his ascertaining, whether there were any divellent polar -attractions exercised towards the atoms, as in the case of the -pile. The result was probably caused by mechanical concussion, or -that process by which the particles of matter are dispersed when -a battery is discharged through them. The opinion of Dr. Thomson, -that the fluid of the pile is in quantity greater, in intensity -less, than that evolved by the machine, is very inconsistent with -the experiments of the chemist above mentioned, who, before he -could effect the separation of the elements of water by mechanical -electricity, was obliged to confine its emission to a point -imperceptible to the naked eye. If already so highly intense, -wherefore the necessity of a further concentration? Besides, were -the distinction made by Dr. Thomson correct, the more concentrated -fluid generated by a galvanic apparatus of a great many small -pairs, ought most to resemble that of the ordinary electricity; -but the opposite is the case. The ignition produced by a few -large Galvanic plates, where the intensity is of course low, -is a result most analogous to the chemical effects of a common -electrical battery. According to my view, caloric and electricity -may be distinguished by the following characteristics. The former -permeates all matter more or less, though with very different -degrees of facility. It radiates through air, with immeasurable -celerity, and distributing itself in the interior of bodies, -communicates a reciprocally repellent power to atoms, but not to -masses. Electricity does not radiate in or through any matter; and -while it pervades some bodies, as metals, with almost infinite -velocity; by others, it is so far from being conducted, that it can -only pass through them by a fracture or perforation. Distributing -itself over surfaces only, it causes repulsion between masses, but -not between the particles of the same mass. The disposition of the -last-mentioned principle to get off by neighbouring conductors, and -of the other to combine with the adjoining matter, or to escape by -radiation, would prevent them from being collected at the positive -pole, if not in combination with each other. Were it not for a -modification of their properties, consequent to some such union, -they could not, in piles of thousands of pairs, be carried forward -through the open air and moisture; the one so well calculated to -conduct away electricity, the other so favourable to the radiation -of caloric. - -Pure electricity does not expand the slips of gold-leaf, between -which it causes repulsion, nor does caloric cause any repulsion -in the ignited masses which it expands. But as the compound fluid -extricated by Galvanic action, which I shall call electro-caloric, -distributes itself through the interior of bodies, and is evidently -productive of corpuscular repulsion, it is in this respect more -allied to caloric than to electricity. - -It is true, that when common electricity causes the deflagration -of metals, as by the discharge of a Leyden jar, it must be supposed -to insinuate itself within them, and cause a reaction between -their particles. But in this case, agreeably to my hypothesis, the -electric fluid combines with the latent caloric previously existing -there, and, adding to its repulsive agency, causes it to overpower -cohesion.[77] - -Sir Humphry Davy was so much at a loss to account for the continued -ignition of wire at the poles of a Voltaic apparatus, that he -considers it an objection to the materiality of heat; since the -wire could not be imagined to contain sufficient caloric to keep -up the emission of this principle for an unlimited time. But if we -conceive an accumulation of heat to accompany that of electricity -throughout the series, and to be propagated from one end to the -other, the explanation of the phenomenon in question is attended by -no difficulty. - -The effect of the Galvanic fluid on charcoal is very consistent -with my views, since, next to metals, it is one of the best -conductors of electricity, and the worst of heat, and would -therefore arrest the last, and allow the other to pass on. Though -peculiarly liable to intense ignition, when exposed between -the poles of the Voltaic apparatus, it seems to me it does not -display this characteristic with common electricity. According to -Sir Humphry Davy, when in connexion with the positive pole, and -communicating by a platina wire with the negative pole, the latter -is less heated than when, with respect to the poles, the situation -of the wire and charcoal is reversed. The rationale is obvious: -charcoal, being a bad conductor, and a good radiator, prevents the -greater part of the heat from reaching the platina, when placed -between it and the source whence the heat flows. - -I had observed that as the number of pairs in Volta's pile had -been extended, and their size and the energy of the interposed -agents lessened, the ratio of the electrical effects to those -of heat had increased; till in De Luc's column they had become -completely predominant; and, on the other hand, when the pairs were -made larger and fewer (as in Children's apparatus) the calorific -influence had gained the ascendancy. I was led to go farther in -this way, and to examine whether one pair of plates of enormous -size, or what might be equivalent thereto, would not exhibit heat -more purely, and demonstrate it, equally with the electric fluid, -a primary product of Galvanic combinations. The elementary battery -of Wollaston, though productive of an evanescent ignition, was too -minute to allow him to make the observations which I had in view. - -Twenty copper and twenty zinc plates, about nineteen inches -square, were supported vertically in a frame, the different metals -alternating at one half inch distance from each other. All the -plates of the same kind of metal were soldered to a common slip, so -that each set of homogeneous plates formed one continuous metallic -superficies. When the copper and zinc surfaces, thus formed, are -united by an intervening wire, and the whole immerged in an acid, -or aceto-saline solution, in a vessel devoid of partitions, the -wire becomes intensely ignited; and when hydrogen is liberated -it usually takes fire, producing a very beautiful undulating, or -coruscating flame. - -I am confident, that if Volta and the other investigators of -Galvanism, instead of multiplying the pairs of Galvanic plates, -had sought to increase the effect by enlarging one pair as I have -done, (for I consider the copper and zinc surfaces as reduced to -two by the connexion) the apparatus would have been considered -as presenting a new mode of evolving heat, as a primary effect -independently of electrical influence. There is no other indication -of electricity when wires from the two surfaces touch the tongue, -than a slight taste, such as is excited by small pieces of zinc and -silver laid on it and under it, and brought into contact with each -other. - -It was with a view of examining the effects of the proximity and -alternation in the heterogeneous plates that I had them cut into -separate squares. By having them thus divided, I have been enabled -to ascertain that when all of one kind of metal are ranged on one -side of the frame, and all of the other kind on the other side of -it, the effect is no greater than might be expected from one pair -of plates. - -Volta, considering the changes consequent to his contrivance as -the effect of a movement in the electric fluid, called the process -electro-motion, and the plates producing it electro-motors. But -the phenomena show that the plates, as I have arranged them, are -calori-motors, or heat movers, and the effect calori-motion. -That this is a new view of the subject, may be inferred from the -following passage in Davy's Elements. That great chemist observes, -"When very small conducting surfaces are used for conveying very -large quantities of electricity, they become ignited; and of the -different conductors that have been compared, charcoal is most -easily heated by electrical discharges,[78] next iron, platina, -gold, then copper, and lastly, zinc. The phenomena of electrical -ignition, whether taking place in gaseous, fluid, or solid -bodies, always seem to be the result of a violent exertion of the -electrical attractive and repellent powers, which may be connected -with motions of the particles of the substances affected. That no -subtile fluid, such as the matter of heat has been imagined to be, -can be discharged from these substances, in consequence of the -effect of the electricity, seems probable, from the circumstance, -that a wire of platina may be preserved in a state of intense -ignition in vacuo, by means of the Voltaic apparatus, for an -unlimited time; and such a wire cannot be supposed to contain an -inexhaustible quantity of subtile matter." - -But I demand where are the repellent and attractive powers to -which the ignition produced by the Calorimotor can be attributed? -Besides, I would beg leave respectfully to inquire of this -illustrious author, whence the necessity of considering the heat -evolved under the circumstances alluded to as the effect of the -electrical fluid; or why we may not as well suppose the latter -to be excited by the heat? It is evident, as he observes, that -a wire cannot be supposed to contain an inexhaustible supply of -matter however subtile; but wherefore may not one kind of subtile -matter be supplied to it from the apparatus as well as another; -especially, when to suppose such a supply is quite as inconsistent -with the characteristics of pure electricity, as with those of pure -caloric? - -It is evident from Mr. Children's paper in the Annals of -Philosophy, on the subject of his large apparatus, that the -ignition produced by it was ascribed to electrical excitement. - -For the purpose of ascertaining the necessity of the alternation -and proximity of the copper and zinc plates, it has been mentioned -that distinct square sheets were employed. The experiments have -since been repeated and found to succeed by Dr. Patterson and Mr. -Lukens, by means of two continuous sheets, one of zinc, the other -of copper, wound into two concentric coils or spirals. This, though -the circumstance was not known to them, was the form I had myself -proposed to adopt, and had suggested as convenient for a Galvanic -apparatus to several friends at the beginning of the winter;[79] -though the consideration above stated induced me to prefer for a -first experiment a more manageable arrangement. - -Since writing the above, I find that when, in the apparatus of -twenty copper and twenty zinc plates, ten copper plates on one side -are connected with ten zinc on the other, and a communication made -between the remaining twenty by a piece of iron wire, about the -eighth of an inch in diameter, the wire enters into a vivid state -of combustion on the immersion of the plates. Platina wire equal to -No. 18 (the largest I had at hand) is rapidly fused if substituted -for the iron. - -This arrangement is equivalent to a battery of two large Galvanic -pairs; excepting that there is no insulation, all the plates being -plunged in one vessel. I have usually separated the pairs by a -board, extending across the frame merely. - -Indeed, when the forty plates were successively associated in -pairs, of copper and zinc, though suspended in a fluid held in -a common recipient without partitions; there was considerable -intensity of Galvanic action. This shows that, independently of -any power of conducting electricity, there is some movement in the -solvent fluid which tends to carry forward the Galvanic principle -from the copper to the zinc end of the series. I infer that -electro-caloric is communicated in this case by circulation, and -that in non-elastic fluids the same difficulty exists as to its -retrocession from the positive to the negative end of the series, -as is found in the downward passage of caloric through them. - -It ought to be mentioned, that the connecting wire should be placed -between the heterogeneous surfaces before their immersion, as the -most intense ignition takes place immediately afterward. If the -connexion be made after the plates are immersed, the effect is much -less powerful; and sometimes after two or three immersions the -apparatus loses its power, though the action of the solvent should -become in the interim much more violent. Without any change in the -latter, after the plates have been for some time suspended in the -air, they regain their efficacy. I had observed in a Galvanic pile -of three hundred pairs of two inches square, a like consequence -resulting from a simultaneous immersion of the whole.[80] The bars -holding the plates were balanced by weights, as window-sashes are, -so that all the plates could be very quickly dipped. A platina -wire, No. 18, was fused into a globule, while the evolution of -potassium was demonstrated by a rose-coloured flame arising from -some potash which had been placed between the poles. The heat -however diminished in a few seconds, though the greater extrication -of hydrogen from the plates indicated a more intense chemical -action. - -Agreeably to an observation of Dr. Patterson, electrical excitement -may be detected in the apparatus by the condensing electroscope; -but this is no more than what Volta observed to be the consequence -of the contact of heterogeneous metals. - -The thinnest piece of charcoal intercepts the calorific agent, -whatever it may be. In order to ascertain this, the inside of a -hollow brass cylinder, having the internal diameter two inches, -and the outside of another smaller cylinder of the same substance, -were made conical and correspondent, so that the greater would -contain the less, and leave an interstice of about one-sixteenth -of an inch between them. This interstice was filled with wood, by -plugging the larger cylinder with this material, and excavating the -plug till it would permit the smaller brass cylinder to be driven -in. The excavation and the fitting of the cylinders was performed -accurately by means of a turning lathe. The wood in the interstice -was then charred by exposing the whole covered by sand in a -crucible to a red heat. The charcoal, notwithstanding the shrinkage -consequent to the fire, was brought into complete contact with -the inclosing metallic surfaces by pressing the interior cylinder -further into the exterior one. - -Thus prepared, the interior cylinder being made to touch one of -the Galvanic surfaces, a wire brought from the other Galvanic -surface into contact with the outside cylinder, was not affected in -the least, though the slightest touch of the interior one caused -ignition. The contact of the charcoal with the containing metals -probably took place throughout a superficies of four square inches, -and the wire was not much more than the hundredth part of an inch -thick, so that unless it were to conduct electricity about forty -thousand times better than the charcoal, it ought to have been -heated; if the calorific influence of this apparatus result from -electrical excitement. - -I am led finally to suppose, that the contact of dissimilar metals, -when subjected to the action of solvents, causes a movement in -caloric as well as in the electric fluid, and that the phenomena -of Galvanism, the unlimited evolution of heat by friction, the -extrication of gaseous matter without the production of cold, -might all be explained by supposing a combination between the -fluids of heat and electricity. We find scarcely any two kinds -of ponderable matter which do not exercise more or less affinity -towards each other. Moreover, imponderable particles are supposed -highly attractive of ponderable ones. Why then should we not infer -the existence of similar affinities between imponderable particles -reciprocally? That a peculiar combination between heat and light -exists in the solar beams, is evident from their not imparting -warmth to a lens through which they may pass, as do those of our -culinary fires. - -Under this view of the case, the action of the poles in Galvanic -decomposition is one of complex affinity. The particles of -compounds are attracted to the different wires agreeably to their -susceptibilities to the positive and negative attraction, and the -caloric leaving the electric fluid with which it had been combined, -unites with them at the moment that their electric state is -neutralized. - -As an exciting fluid, I have usually employed a solution of one -part sulphuric acid, and two parts muriate of soda with seventy of -water; but, to my surprise, I have produced nearly a white heat by -an alkaline solution barely sensible to the taste. - -For the display of the heat effects, the addition of manganese, red -lead, or the nitrates, is advantageous. - -The rationale is obvious. The oxygen of these substances prevents -the liberation of the gaseous hydrogen, which would carry off the -caloric. Adding to diluted muriatic acid, while acting on zinc, -enough red lead to prevent effervescence, the temperature rose from -70 to 110 Fahrenheit. - -The power of the calorimotor is much increased by having the -communication between the different sheets formed by very large -strips or masses of metal. Observing this, I rendered the sheets -of copper shorter by half an inch, for a distance of four inches -of their edges, where the communication was to be made between the -zinc sheets; and, vice versa, the zinc was made in the same way -shorter than the copper sheets where these were to communicate with -each other. The edges of the shortened sheets being defended by -strips of wood, tin was cast on the intermediate protruding edges -of the longer ones, so as to embrace a portion of each equal to -about one quarter of an inch by four inches. On one side, the tin -was made to run completely across, connecting at the same time -ten copper and ten zinc sheets. On the other side there was an -interstice of above a quarter of an inch left between the stratum -of tin embracing the copper, and that embracing the zinc plates. -On each of the approaching terminations of the connecting tin -strata was soldered a kind of forceps, formed of a bent piece of -sheet brass, furnished with a screw for pressing the jaws together. -The distance between the different forceps was about two inches. -The advantage of a very close contact was made very evident by the -action of the screws; the relaxation or increase of pressure on the -connecting wire by turning them being productive of a correspondent -change in the intensity of ignition. - -It now remains to state, that by means of iron ignited in this -apparatus, a fixed alkali may be decomposed extemporaneously.[81] -If a connecting iron wire, while in combustion, be touched by the -hydrate of potash, the evolution of potassium is demonstrated by -a rose-coloured flame. The alkali may be applied to the wire in -small pieces in a flat hook of sheet iron. But the best mode of -application is by means of a tray made by doubling a slip of sheet -iron at the ends, and leaving a receptacle in the centre, in which -the potash may be placed covered with filings. This tray being -substituted for the connecting wire, as soon as the immersion of -the apparatus causes the metal to burn, the rose-coloured flame -appears, and if the residuum left in the sheet iron be afterward -thrown into water, an effervescence sometimes ensues. - -I have ascertained that an iron heated to combustion, by a -blacksmith's forge fire, will cause the decomposition of the -hydrate of potash. - -The dimensions of the Calorimotor may be much reduced without -proportionably diminishing the effect. I have one of sixty plates -within a cubic foot, which burns off No. 16, iron wire. A good -workman could get 120 plates of a foot square within a hollow cube -of a size no larger. But the inflammation of the hydrogen which -gives so much splendour to the experiment, can only be exhibited -advantageously on a large scale. - -[Illustration: CALORIMETER - - _Fig. 1._ - -_Fig. 2._ - -_Fig. 3._ - -_Fig. 4._ - -_Drawn & Engraved by Kneass, Young & Co._] - - -EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. - -A _a_, Fig. 1st, two cubical vessels, 20 inches square, inside. -_b b b b_ a frame of wood containing 20 sheets of copper, and 20 -sheets of zinc, alternating with each other, and about half an -inch apart. T T _t t_ masses of tin cast over the protruding edges -of the sheets which are to communicate with each other. Fig. 2, -represents the mode in which the junction between the various -sheets and tin masses is effected. Between the letters _z z_, the -zinc only is in contact with the tin masses. Between _c c_ the -copper alone touches. It may be observed, that, at the back of -the frame, ten sheets of copper between _c c_, and ten sheets of -zinc between _z z_, are made to communicate, by a common mass of -tin extending the whole length of the frame, between T T: but in -front, as in fig. 1, there is an interstice between the mass of -tin connecting the ten copper sheets, and that connecting the ten -zinc sheets. The screw forceps, appertaining to each of the tin -masses, may be seen on either side of the interstice: and likewise -a wire for ignition held between them. The application of the rope, -pulley, and weights, is obvious. The swivel at S permits the frame -to be swung round and lowered into water in the vessel _a_, to wash -off the acid, which, after immersion in the other vessel, might -continue to act on the sheets, encrusting them with oxide. Between -_p p_ there is a wooden partition which is not necessary, though it -may be beneficial. - -Fig. 3, represents an apparatus alluded to, page 419. It consists -of a couronne des tasses, reduced to a form no less compact -than that of the trough. Hollow parallelopipeds of glass are -substituted for tumblers or cells. The plates are suspended to bars -counterpoised like window-sashes. - -The advantages are as follows. The material is one of the best -non-conductors, is easily cleansed, and is the most impervious to -solvents. The fracture of one of the cups is easily remedied by -a supernumerary. They may be procured (as in the United States) -where porcelain cannot be had. The shock from 300 pairs is such as -few will take a second time. Some of the effects have already been -stated.[82] - -At Fig. 4, one of the hollow glass parallelopipeds on an enlarged -scale is represented. - - - - -MATHEMATICS. - - - - -ART. XX. _An improved Method of obtaining the Formulæ for the Sines -and Cosines of the Sum and Difference of two Arcs, by_ PROFESSOR -STRONG, _of Hamilton College_. - - -[Illustration] - -In the circle ABCD let AB and BC denote any two arcs contiguous -to each other. Draw their limiting diameters A_a_, C_c_; their -sines B_x_, B_y_; and join _x_, _y_. Then will _xy_ = sine of (AB -+ BC): for if upon OB as a diameter we describe a circle, it will -manifestly pass through the points _x_ and _y_, (since the angles -O_x_B, O_y_B are right, see Euc. 31. 3.) therefore O_x_B_y_ is a -quadrilateral inscribed in a circle described on OB as a diameter, -and the angle _y_O_x_ at the circumference stands upon an arc -whose chord is _xy_. Again, if from _a_ we draw _ad_ perpendicular -to C_c_, it will be the sine of the arc _ac_ (= AB + BC). If now -we describe a circle on _a_O as diameter, it will pass through -_d_, (see Euc. 31. 3.) therefore _ad_ is the chord of an arc on -which the angle _a_O_c_ stands in the circle described on _a_O. -But in equal circles the chords of arcs on which equal angles at -the centres or circumferences stand are equal; (see Euc. 26. and -29. 3.) hence _xy_ = _ad_ = sin(AB + BC). Now sine O_x_B_y_ is a -quadrilateral inscribed in the circle described on OB as diameter, -we shall have (Euc. D. 6.) - - OB · xy = Bx · Oy + By · Ox = sinAB · cosCB + sinCB · cosAB. - - If OB be denoted by r, we shall have xy, or - - sin(AB + BC) = (sinAB · cosCB + sinCB · cosAB)/r. - - If AB = A, BC = B, and the radius r = 1, - - sin(A + B) = sinA · CosB + sinB · cosA; - -which is the known formula for the sine of the sum of two arcs, to -the radius 1. - -Again, if through O we draw the diameter DE perpendicular to A_a_, -then will DC be the complement of (AB + BC). Draw C_p_, the sine of -DC = cos(AB + BC). Through B draw the diameter B_b_; from _b_, draw -the sines _bz_, _br_, of the arcs _bc_, _b_E respectively, and join -_z_, _r_. Then by describing two circles, one on _b_O as diameter, -the other on OC, it may be proved as before that the circle -described on _b_O passes through the points _z_ and _r_, and that -the circle described on CO passes through _p_: and hence, by the -same reasoning as before, _zr_ = C_p_ = cos(AB + BC). Now O_bzr_ -being a quadrilateral inscribed in the circle described on _b_O, we -have (by the prop. before cited) - - bO · zr + Or · bz = br · Oz; - - and hence bO · zr = br · Oz - Or · bz. - -But _br_ = sine arc _b_E = sine arc BD; and since BD is the -complement of AB, _br_ = cosAB. In like manner O_z_ = cosBC, O_r_ = -sinAB, and _bz_ = sinBC; hence by substitution, - - bO · zr = cosAB · cosBC - sinAB · sinBC. - - By using the same notation as before, we have - - cos(A + B) = (cosA · cosB - sinA · sinB)/r - = (if r = 1) cosA · cosB - sinA · sinB, - -which is the known formula for the cosine of the sum of two arcs. - -The same construction will answer for the two remaining cases: for -if we suppose that _b_E and _bc_ are two arcs, then will _c_E be -their difference, and _zr_ the sine of _c_E, as proved above; hence - - zr (= sin(bE - bc)) = (br · Oz - Or · bz)/bO. - -But _br_ = sin_b_E, and O_r_ = its cosine; and _bz_ = sine _bc_, -and O_z_ = its cos., hence if _b_E be denoted by _a_, _bc_ by _b_, -and O_b_ as before, then will - - sin(a - b) = (sina · cosb - sinb · cosa)/r - = (if r = 1) sina · cosb - sinb · cosa. - -Again, AB + BC is the complement of DC or _c_E; hence by the first -part of the above investigation, - - xy = sin(AB + BC) = coscE: - - but xy or sin(A + B) = cos(a - b) = (sinA · cosB + sinB · cosA)/r; - -and as sinA or AB = cosBD = cos_b_E, O_x_ = cosA or AB = sinBD = -sin_b_E, B_y_ = _bz_ = sin_bc_, and O_y_ = O_z_ = cos_bc_, we -shall have, by substitution, - - cos(a - b) = (cosa · cosb + sina · sinb)/r, - = (if r = 1) cosa · cosb + sina · sinb. - -From what has been said it appears, that if A and B be any two -arcs, of which A is the greatest, then - - Sin(A ± B) = (sinA · cosB ± sinB · cosA)/r; - - Cos(A ± B) = (cosA · cosB ∓ sinA · sinB)/r. - -When the radius _r_ is supposed = 1, the denominators in these -formulæ disappear. In the latter, A and B are used for _a_ and _b_, -for the sake of homogeneity. The propriety of this is manifest; for -as _a_ and _b_ denote two indefinite arcs, the same reasoning will -apply to A and B, as to _a_ and _b_, the first being supposed in -each case the greatest. - - * * * * * - -The following Diophantine Problem was proposed for solution -some months ago in a Periodical Journal, which has since been -discontinued. To those who are interested in speculations of this -nature, we presume that the following solution, forwarded by -Professor STRONG, of Hamilton College, will not be unacceptable. - - -PROBLEM. - -_To find three positive rational Numbers, x, y, and z, such that -x^2 - y, x^2 - z, y^2 - x, and y^2 - z may all be squares._ - - Assume x - ay for the root of the square x^2 - y: - - then x^2 - y = (x - ay)^2, whence x = (a^2y + 1)/2a. - - In like manner, by assuming x - bz for the root of the square x^2 - z, - - we find z = (2bx - 1)/b^2. - - But y^2 - x = y^2 - (a^2y + 1)/2a, (since x = (a^2y + 1)/2a); - - and as this is to be made a square, assume y - c((a^2y + 1)/2a) - for its root; whence, by proceeding as before, we find - - y = (2a + c^2)/(4ca - a^2c^2). - - But x = (a^2y + 1)/2a = (by substituting for y its value) - - (a^2 + 2c)/(4ca - c^2a^2). - - Again z = (2bx - 1)/b^2 = (by substituting for x its value) - - [2b((a^2 + 2c)/(4ca - c^2a^2)) - 1]/b^2; hence - - y^2 - z = [((2a + c^2)/(4ca - c^2a^2))^2 × b^2 - - 2b((a^2 + 2c)/(4ca - c^2a^2)) + 1]/b^2 - - (by substituting for y and z their values;) and as this also is - to be made a square, assume for its root (be - 1)/b. Then we shall have - - ((2a + c^2)/(4ca - c^2a^2))^2 × b^2 - - 2b((a^2 + 2c)/(4ca - c^2a^2)) + 1 = (be - 1)^2; - - from which, by reduction, - - - b = 2 × [e(4ca - c^2a^2)^2 - (a^2 + 2c)(4ca - c^2a^2)] - / [e^2(4ca - c^2a^2)^2 - (2a + c^2)^2]. - - Hence the values of the required numbers are as follows: - - z = (2bx - 1)/b^2, - (in which the value of b is to be found from the last equation,) - - x = (a^2 + 2c)/(4ca - c^2a^2), and - - y = (2a + c^2)/(4ca - c^2a^2). - -The numbers _a_, _c_, and _e_, are to be so assumed that _x_, _y_, -and _z_ may come out positive. If _a_ = 1, _c_ = 2, and _e_ = 2, -then will _x_ = 5/4, _y_ = 3/2, and _z_ = 14/9, which numbers -will be found upon trial to satisfy the question. It may also be -observed that _c_ and _a_ being positive, _ca_ must not exceed 4; -but the form of the above expressions for _x_, _y_, _z_, will be -sufficient to direct us how _a_, _c_, and _e_, are to be assumed. - - - - -MISCELLANEOUS. - - - - -ART. XXI. _An Account of several Ancient Mounds, and of two Caves, -in East Tennessee, by_ MR. JOHN HENRY KAIN, _of Knoxville_. - -(Communicated for the American Journal of Science, &c.) - - -_Mounds._ - -On the plantation of Mr. John Kain of Knox county, near the north -bank of the Holston River, 5 miles above its junction with the -French Broad, is a curious collection of mounds of earth, evidently -the work of art, but of an almost antediluvian antiquity, if we may -form any conjecture of their age, from that of the forest which -grows around and upon them. They are about half a dozen in number, -and arise on about half an acre of level ground without any seeming -regularity. They are pyramidal in their shape, or rather sections -of pyramids, whose bases are from 10 to 30 paces in diameter. The -largest one in this group rises about 10 feet above the level -ground, and is remarkably regular in its figure. A perpendicular -section of this mound was made about a year since, but no important -discovery was made. It was found to consist of the surface thrown -up, and contained a good deal of ashes and charcoal. - -This group of mounds is surrounded by a ditch, which can be -distinctly traced on three sides, and enclosing besides the mounds, -several acres of ground. It is like the mounds covered with trees, -which grow in it and about it. At every angle of this ditch, it -sweeps out into a semicircle, and it appears in many respects well -calculated for defence. - -There are many other mounds of the same form in Tennessee. At the -junction of the French Broad with the Holston, there is one in -which human bones are said to have been found. Farther up French -Broad, near Newport, is a very large mound. It reposes on a very -level and extensive plain, and is itself the largest I ever saw. It -is thirty feet high, and its base covers half an acre of ground. -As it ascends from its base, there is a slight inclination from -a perpendicular on all sides, and the upper surface is as level -as the rest is regular. From the great size of this mound, its -commanding situation, and the mystery which veils its history, it -is a most interesting spot of ground. There are many other mounds -of this description in the State of Tennessee, but I have not -visited them. - -Though not immediately connected with this subject, I take the -liberty to subjoin an account of a remarkable cave or grotto, in -a bluff of limestone, on the south bank of the Holston River, -opposite the mounds first described. The bluff is perhaps 100 feet -high and 50 wide. The grotto is a large natural excavation of the -rock, 60 feet high and 30 feet wide. It is very irregular, and to -the very top bears marks of the attrition of waves. The river to -have been so high, must have covered the valley through which it -now winds its quiet way. The excavation gradually diminishes in -size as you proceed backward, till at 100 feet from the entrance, -it terminates. A remarkable projection of the rock divides the -back part into two stories. This grotto, whose walls are hung with -ivy, and the bluff crowned with cedars, and surrounded by an aged -forest, on which the vine clambers most luxuriantly, viewed from -the river which winds slowly around it, and reflects its image, is -more than beautiful: it is even venerable. But what renders it most -interesting to many visitors, is a number of rude paintings, which -were, as tradition reports, left on it by the Cherokee Indians. -These Indians are known to have made this cave a resting-place, -as they passed up and down the River Holston. These paintings -are still distinct, though they have faded somewhat within my -remembrance. They consist of representations of the sun and moon, -of a man, of birds, fishes, &c. They are all of red paint, and -resemble in this respect, the paintings on Paint Rock near the warm -springs. - -Much has been said of the objects of curiosity in the country -north of us; and I took the liberty to describe some of them in -my preceding communication. Indeed we may say, without danger of -exaggeration, that the range of Alleghany Mountains presents a -variety of the most curious features, and many objects of beauty -and sublimity. I have noticed a few of the most prominent, but "the -half is not told." - - -_Extract of a Letter, &c._ - - _Knoxville, Nov. 24, 1818._ - -I was on a visit to a friend a few days since, about 30 miles to -the north of this, and was invited by him to visit an interesting -curiosity in the neighbourhood. We crossed the Clynch River where -it is much confined by mountains, and banks as high as mountains. -Our guide conducted us to the foot of a steep declivity, where we -left our horses, and with some difficulty ascended about 70 yards. -Here we came to the mouth of a cave which had been stopped up by a -stone wall. The wall was made of limestone and mortar, which is now -harder than the stone itself. It is, without a doubt, artificial, -for besides the evidence afforded by its structure, it contains -bones and animal remains. - -What was this wall built for? There was a tradition among -the inhabitants that it contained money, and they were much -disappointed on opening it, not to find any. Like other caves, -it contains a variety of calcareous concretions, and I obtained -some fine specimens of brown spar, which I will take the first -opportunity to send you. - - I remain your Friend, - - JOHN H. KAIN. - -N. B. This wall is 10 feet thick. - - - - -_For the American Journal of Science, &c._ - -BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, ESQ. - - _Dear Sir_, - -Should you think the facts detailed in the following statement -worthy of publication, you are at liberty to publish them. The -knowledge of the first, I derived in the year 1802, from a -gentleman and a lady, both inhabitants of the town where the person -whose case is detailed, lived: of the third in 1802, from the same -lady: and of the second in 1802, from a lady, a near relative of -Mrs. S. When the facts were communicated to me, I immediately -committed them to writing, and to avoid mistakes, read what I had -written to the persons communicating them. - - I am very respectfully, - - Your Friend, and obedient Servant, - - BENJAMIN W. DWIGHT. - - -ART. XXII. _Facts illustrative of the Powers and Operations of the -Human Mind in a Diseased State._ - - -1. Some years ago a farmer of fair character, who resided in an -interior town in New England, sold his farm, with an intention of -purchasing another in a different town. His mind was naturally -of a melancholy cast. Shortly after the sale of his farm, he was -induced to believe that he had sold it for less than its value. -This persuasion brought on dissatisfaction, and eventually a -considerable degree of melancholy. In this situation, one of his -neighbours engaged him to enclose a lot of land, with a post and -rail fence, which he was to commence making the next day. At the -time appointed he went into the field, and began with a beetle and -wedges to split the timber, out of which the posts and rails were -to be prepared. On finishing his day's work, he put his beetle and -wedges into a hollow tree, and went home. Two of his sons had been -at work through the day in a distant part of the same field. On -his return, he directed them to get up early the next morning, to -assist him in making the fence. In the course of the evening he -became delirious, and continued in this situation several years; -when his mental powers were suddenly restored. The first question -which he asked after the return of his reason, was, whether his -sons had brought in the beetle and wedges. He appeared to be wholly -unconscious of the time that had elapsed from the commencement of -his delirium. His sons, apprehensive that any explanations might -induce a return of his disease, simply replied that they had been -unable to find them. He immediately arose from his bed, went into -the field where he had been at work a number of years before, and -found the wedges, and the rings of the beetle, where he had left -them, the beetle itself having mouldered away. During his delirium, -his mind had not been occupied with those subjects with which it -was conversant in health. - -2. Mrs. S., an intelligent lady, belonging to a respectable family -in the State of New-York, some years ago undertook a piece of fine -needlework. She devoted her time to it almost constantly for a -number of days. Before she had completed it, she became suddenly -delirious. In this state, without experiencing any material -abatement of her disease, she continued for about seven years; when -her reason was suddenly restored. One of the first questions which -she asked after her reason returned, related to her needlework. -It is a remarkable fact, that during the long continuance of her -delirium she said nothing, so far as was recollected, about her -needlework, nor concerning any such subjects as usually occupied -her attention when in health. - -3. A lady in New England, of a respectable family, was for a -considerable period subject to paroxysms of delirium. These -paroxysms came on instantaneously, and after continuing an -indefinite time, went off as suddenly; leaving her mind perfectly -rational. It often happened that when she was engaged in rational -and interesting conversation, she would stop short in the midst -of it, become in a moment entirely delirious, and commence a -conversation on some other subject, not having the remotest -connexion with the previous one, nor would she advert to that -during her delirium. When she became rational again, she would -pursue the same conversation in which she had been engaged during -the lucid interval, beginning where she had left off. To such a -degree was this carried, that she would complete an unfinished -story or sentence, or even an unfinished word. When her next -delirious paroxysm came on, she would continue the conversation -which she had been pursuing in her preceding paroxysm; so that she -appeared as a person might be supposed to do, who had two souls, -each occasionally dormant, and occasionally active, and utterly -ignorant of what the other was doing. - - - - -INTELLIGENCE. - - - - -ART. XXIII. 1. _Discovery of American Cinnabar and Native Lead._ - - - _Extract of a letter from Dr. Comstock of Hartford, to the Editor._ - - SIR, - -In answer to your inquiry concerning the discovery of sulphuret of -mercury and native lead in this country, I send you the following -summary of a letter I received from B. F. Stickney, Esq. Indian -agent, dated Fort Wayne, Dec. 1, 1818. - -Mr. Stickney states, that the situation of Fort Wayne, and the -country surrounding, is a high level, probably about 800 feet -above the sea. From this place the water-courses divide and take -different directions, on the one hand falling into the Gulf of -Mexico, and on the other into the Bay of St. Lawrence. The whole -country is of secondary formation, chiefly calcareous and aluminous. - -Bitumen and sulphur are every where to be found, and as usual, -accompanied by the metals. - -In speaking of the cinnabar, his words are, "I have found a black -and garnet-coloured sand, in great abundance on the shores of -the Lakes Erie and Michigan, this is a sulphuret of mercury, and -yields about sixty per cent. It is so easy to be obtained, and -in so convenient a form for distillation, that it must become an -important article of commerce." - -The native lead was found on the Anglaize River, at a considerable -distance from the fort. - -Of this he says, "metallic lead is so interspersed with galena, as -to prove incontestably the existence of native lead." - - Respectfully, - - Your obedient Servant, - - J. L. COMSTOCK. - - _Hartford, Conn. Feb. 17, 1819._ - - _Benjamin Silliman, M. D., &c._ - - -2. _Theoretical views of Professor Hare of Philadelphia._ - -We are authorized to mention, that Dr. Robert Hare has taught in -his lectures during the last eighteen months, that acid properties -never appearing in the absence of water, this fluid or its elements -are most entitled to be considered as the acidifying principle: -but that probably it does not exist in acids as water, but is -decomposed when added to them, the particles of hydrogen and oxygen -by their different polarities taking opposite sides of those -composing the base. The extrication of hydrogen by the action of -diluted sulphuric acid on iron or zinc, being the consequence of -a previous, not simultaneous decomposition of water. Hence when -sulphuric or nitric acids are so concentrated as to char or ignite, -they are not acids really. - - -3. _New Work on Chemistry._ - -Dr. John Gorham of Boston, Professor of Chemistry in Harvard -University, &c. has published the first volume of his Elements of -Chemical Science. The work will be comprised in two volumes, and -its completion will be anticipated with interest by the scientific -public. - - -4. _Botanical._ - -Dr. Romer of Zurich, has begun, since 1815, to publish a new -edition of the Systema Vegetabilium of Linnæus; he proceeds in its -publication; it will form several volumes. - -Robert Brown of London, is endeavouring to group the natural orders -of plants into natural classes, or rather into larger natural -orders, with determinate characters: he has communicated some parts -of his labour to the botanists of Paris. He has been the first to -employ as a new character in the distinction of natural orders, the -estivation of flowers, or the manner in which they are folded in -the buds. - -C. S. Rafinesque, in his Analysis of Nature, has adopted a new -practice, that of giving single substantive Latin names to the -natural orders and families of plants. - -Mirbel has proposed a new nomenclature of fruits in his Elements of -Botany. - -Decandolle, after publishing the principles of the science in -his Theory of Botany, has begun to undertake a general species -plantarum, according to the natural classification. - -Three splendid Floras of the south of Europe have been undertaken. -1. Flora Græca, by Sibthorp and Smith in England. 2. Flora -Lusitanica, by Link and Hoffmansegg in Germany. 3. Flora -Nepolitana, by Tenore in Naples. They are very expensive works, and -are not yet terminated. _Received in January, 1819._ - - -5. _Staurotide._ - - Extract of a letter to the Editor, from John Torrey, M.D., of - New-York. - -[Illustration] - -"Mr. Pierce and myself lately found staurotide on the island of -New-York. It occurs in considerable quantity in a rock of _mica -slate_, on the banks of the Hudson, about three and a half miles -from the city. The crystals very seldom form the perfect cross, -though many were found, intersecting each other imperfectly at -angles of 60°. Several single crystals were obtained exceedingly -perfect. They were short 4-sided prisms, with the acute lateral -edges truncated at each extremity on the two solid angles of -the most obtuse lateral edges, forming diedral terminations at -each extremity of the prism. The faces of these terminations were -inclined to each other at an angle of 67° and a few minutes. The -annexed figure shows the form of the crystal." - - -6. _Supplement to the "Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of a -Section of Massachusetts, on Connecticut River, &c." contained in -No. 2, Art. I, of this Journal, by_ E. HITCHCOCK, A. M. - -The following minerals, found in the region above named, were -either omitted in the former list, or have been noticed since that -was made out. - - _Bog-iron Ore._ In Greenfield and Warwick. - - _Hornstone._ Rare; in Deerfield and Conway. - - _Silicious Slate._ In rolled pieces, on the banks of Deerfield - river; not abundant. - - _Basanite_, or _Lydian Stone_. Same locality. - - _Augite._ In an aggregate of greenstone, quartz, and calcareous - spar, in the greenstone range, Deerfield. Colour black, and the - crystals usually imperfect, or broken. - - _Staurotide._ In mica slate, Northfield, one mile east of the - village, on the turnpike to Boston. The crystals observed were - six-sided prisms. The same rock contains reddish garnets. - - -THE LEVERETT RANGE OF GRANITE. - -This name is given to a granite range that emerges from the -puddingstone near the centre of Amherst, and extends northerly, -with some interruption, nearly thirty miles, through Leverett -and Montague to Northfield. And, indeed, there is some reason to -suppose that it again appears to the north of Northfield. The range -is widest in Leverett, where its breadth is more than a mile. It -is noticed in the "Remarks," No. 2, Art. I, of this Journal, and -may be seen on the section accompanying that communication. But on -further examination it has been found to be more extensive than was -supposed. The texture of the rock is coarse. Plates of mica, 3 or -4 inches across, are common in it; and one specimen of a beautiful -blue feldspar, the fragment only of a crystal, measured in one -direction 8 inches. - -Two circumstances in this range give it an interest in the eye of a -geologist. The one is its proximity to sandstone and puddingstone; -and the other, its small elevation in comparison with the -surrounding rocks of later formations. In some places no other rock -could be found lying between the granite and puddingstone; though -the soil prevented my observing whether there is an actual contact. -But in general there is a stratum of mica slate a few rods wide -between these rocks, and not unfrequently gneiss lies between the -mica slate and granite. - -Standing on this range in Leverett, you have on the west, at -about 100 rods distant, a precipitous mountain of sandstone and -puddingstone, five or six hundred feet higher than the granite. On -the east, a mile or two distant, a mountain of sienite gradually -rises to a still greater height than the puddingstone; and on the -southwest, at nearly the same distance, you can see an alluvial -formation. In general this granite does not rise so high as the -adjacent rocks, whether secondary or primitive. - - -VEINS OF ORE IN THIS GRANITE. - -1. _Of Galena in Leverett._ - -This ore forms a narrow vein in the southwest part of the town, -on land of Moses Smith, two miles from the Congregational -meeting-house. The direction of the vein is nearly north and south, -and where I saw it, only a foot wide. The gangue is sulphate of -barytes. - -2. _Of Galena, Copper Pyrites, and Blende._ - -This vein is a little more than a mile north of the one above -described, and it may be a continuation of the same vein. The -gangue is nearly an equal admixture of sulphate of barytes and -quartz; and galena and sulphuret of copper are disseminated through -it in about the same, that is, equal proportions. The blende, which -is of a yellowish aspect when the fractured crystal is held in a -certain position, appears only occasionally. This vein is several -feet wide, has been wrought to a small extent in two places, and -its direction is nearly north and south. It is on land of Mr. Field. - -_Radiated quartz._ In the above vein. A considerable tendency to -crystallization appears at this place, not only in the quartz, but -in the foliated structure of the barytes. - -_Brown spar._ In the same place. But little of this mineral was -noticed. It exfoliated before the blowpipe, turned black, and -became magnetic. - - -3. _Of Specular Oxide of Iron in Montague._ - -This is found in a partially detached eminence, 100 feet high, near -the north line of Montague, on land of Mr. Taft, a little southwest -from the confluence of Miller's river with the Connecticut. The -whole hill, not less than 100 rods in circumference at its base, is -traversed by numerous veins of this ore; and scarcely a foot of the -rock is to be seen that does not contain these, varying in width -from a mere line to several inches. The principal vein appears on -the top of the hill; and is, as nearly as I could determine, not -less than ten feet wide, lying in a north and south direction. The -ore seems to be abundant, and generally pure. Masses, that have -been separated by blasting, and weighing from 100 to 200 pounds, -lie on the surface. A small proportion of sulphuret of iron was -observed in some specimens. The gangue is quartz, and the walls and -hill granite. - -No opinion is here intended to be offered concerning the probable -value of these ores, if worked. If they be useless to the present -generation, they may not be so to some future one, when labour -shall be cheaper; and therefore it was thought to be of some -consequence to point out their localities. - -In the remarks, to which this paper is a supplement, _blue quartz_ -was inadvertently put down among the minerals found in Deerfield. -I presume it does not exist there. It is also probable that the -variety of garnets found in Conway, is not, as formerly stated, the -melanite. - - -7. _New Process for Tanning._ - -A process for effecting the tanning of leather in a neat, -expeditious, and thorough manner, has been discovered by a Mr. -Steel, of Connecticut: some account of it may be given hereafter. - - -8. _Connexion between Chemistry and Medicine._ - -This subject has been discussed in an able and interesting manner -by Professor Cooper, of Philadelphia, in a public discourse, which -has now been some months before the public. - - -9. _Brucite._ - -A new Species in Mineralogy, discovered by the late Dr. Bruce. We -hope to publish in the next Number a description and analysis of it. - - -10. _Lithography._ - -We are promised for our next Number, a full account of this art, -of which we have received a beautiful specimen, _A Minerva_, -executed by Mr. Bates Otis, an ingenious and enterprising artist -of Philadelphia, who, under the patronage of Dr. Samuel Brown, is -preparing to disseminate the productions of his skill, and to make -this important art (executed with American materials,) extensively -useful in this country. - - -N. B. As this number has already much exceeded its proper size, we -are obliged to suppress many articles of domestic, and all those of -foreign intelligence. - - - - -CONCLUSION. - - -In the prospectus of this work, the expectation was expressed that -each Number would contain from 64 to 80 pages; that as many as -four Numbers might be issued within the year, and engravings were -promised for such subjects as might require them. - -The Numbers published, have actually contained from 104 to 132 -pages, the four have been issued within a period of ten months, and -twelve copper-plate engravings and several woodcuts, illustrate the -present volume. - -Of the subjects proposed in the plan of the work, our pages contain -notices, more or less extensive, of Geology, Mineralogy, Botany, -Zoology, Chemistry, Natural Philosophy, Mathematics, Useful Arts, -Fine Arts, Inventions, Reviews, Biography, and Intelligence. How -far then we have redeemed our pledge, we leave it for our readers -to decide. - -In the commencement of an enterprise, for the first time attempted -in this country, an enterprise arduous in its nature and uncertain -in its issue, it will not be doubted that considerable solicitude -was experienced. - -To concentrate American efforts in science and the arts, by -furnishing a Journal to record their proceedings, will, in our -view, not only have a direct influence in promoting the honour -and prosperity of the nation as connected with its physical -interests, but will also tend in no small degree to nourish an -enlarged patriotism, by winning the public mind from the odious -asperities of party. That entire success will attend our efforts, -it would perhaps be presumptuous to expect, but we trust that -the interesting previous question, whether such a work can be -adequately sustained, by appropriate materials, may be considered -as now decided. The support which we have received, and for which -we are deeply grateful, has been far beyond our most sanguine -hopes, and has caused us to dispense with no small portion of those -less important efforts of our own, with which we were prepared to -succour our infant undertaking. - -If we may be allowed to express a wish relative to the nature of -future communications, it would be, that those of a scientific -nature should not be diminished, while those relating to the arts, -to agriculture, and to domestic economy, should be increased; we -particularly solicit the communications of practical men, versed in -the useful and ornamental arts, and they will be acceptable should -they not even be clothed in a scientific dress. - -Arrangements have been made for the reception of an increased -number of the best European Journals, both from the continent and -from Britain; they have already begun to arrive, and we hope to -give in future numbers, more full details of foreign scientific -intelligence, although it is true that this species of information -has hitherto been stinted, not from poverty of materials, but from -the pressure of original American communications. - - * * * * * - -In justice to the publishers of this work, we add, that _this -publication is an expensive one_; very heavy advances have been -already made by them, while only a trivial amount has been received -in return. It is hoped, therefore, that subscribers will promptly -remit, _free from postage_, the small stipulated sum, and also make -the required advance for the succeeding volume. This last is not -due till the first number of that volume has been issued, but it -would save postage to remit both sums at once, and thus also it -will be known what subscriptions are continued. In a subscription -so widely dispersed over a large portion of the United States, an -inattention to _punctual payment_, must soon put in hazard the -existence of a work, having otherwise the fairest prospects of -continuance, and we hope of usefulness. - -Should this appeal be promptly answered, the first number of -the next volume (already in considerable forwardness,) will be -published in the course of the summer; and should men of ability -continue to furnish communications, and _the public be willing to -pay for the work_, it is our wish to publish future numbers with -greater frequency, and to complete our volumes whenever we are -prepared, without confining ourselves to particular periods of time. - -_New-Haven, Conn. May 17, 1819._ - - - - -POSTSCRIPT. - -AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. - - -We have the pleasure to announce, that an American Geological -Society has been recently organized by an association of gentlemen, -residing in various parts of the United States. An Act of -Incorporation, conferring the necessary powers, has been granted by -the Legislature of Connecticut, and farther accounts of the plan -and progress of the Society may be expected in future numbers of -this work. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[46] See Number 1. page 59. - -[47] The proper name of these prairies, and of one of the places -where they are found, being illegible in the MS, we were obliged -to omit those names; we believe however that the sense is not -injured.--_Editor._ - -[48] Former orthography, _Toghconnuck_ and _Toghconnuc_. That of -the text deviates farther from the _Indian_, but is later and -preferable. - -[49] See Map. - -[50] If this memoir should ever meet the eye of this amiable -man, I trust he will excuse the notice to which his labours so -justly entitle him. To him we are indebted for a complete science -of crystallography, and for having determined the existence and -limit of species, which mineralogists had not obtained, and -chemists could not determine. He has devoted a long life to the -improvement of science, and it is his praise, that he has preserved -the meekness of religion amidst the most flattering success. -Our scientific countrymen, who have visited Paris, have been -particularly indebted to him; and this notice is, in their behalf, -both the tribute of justice and gratitude. - -[51] _Mr. Nuttall_ will excuse me for retaining _my own specific -name_. His knowledge of this plant was derived from my Herbarium, -where he found it under the name of _tripsacum cylindricum, Mich_? -Although it can hardly be the plant of _Michaux_, it was so -considered by the late _Dr. Muhlenberg_, when specimens were first -communicated to him. It remains under this name in his Herbarium, -but is not included in his _work on the grasses_. He left it for me -to describe along with other new and doubtful plants from the south. - -[52] This is the specific name found in my Herbarium by _Mr. -Nuttall_, under which it had been previously transmitted to Mr. -Elliott. _Vid._ _Nuttall's North American Genera_, v. I. p. 83. - -[53] _Mr. Nuttall_ was probably deceived from having examined the -_spikes_ before they were fully evolved. - -[54] Mr. Stephen Elliott has confirmed the description of Aublet, -in his Botany of the Southern States. (Received January, 1818. -_Editor._) - -[55] I refer the scientific reader for further particulars to -"_An account of a storm of Salt_, which fell in January, 1803. By -Richard Salisbury, F.R.S. L.S." in the Transactions of the Linnæan -Society of London. Vol. VIII. p. 207-10. - -[56] Linnæan Transactions. Vol. VIII. p. 289. - -[57] P. 339. Lond. ed. - -[58] Maintained by Dr. Mitchill. - -[59] My friend, Dr. John Torrey, has favoured me with the following -results of some experiments, which he made at my request upon -the last snow which fell. "A pint and a half of snow water was -reduced by evaporation to a few drops. On testing this with -vegetable blue infusions no alteration of colour took place. It was -afterward evaporated to dryness, and about a quarter of a grain -of a solid residuum was obtained. This was redissolved in a small -quantity of pure rain water, and prussiate of potash added to it, -without occasioning any precipitate. Nitrate of silver produced -a white precipitate so copious, that the solution was thick with -it. Carbonate of soda produced no effect. The transparency of a -solution of muriate of barytes was not disturbed by it. These -experiments prove, that a _free acid_ does not exist in snow water, -but that the muriate exists in it combined with an alkali, which is -most probably soda." - -[60] Mr. J. Murray, of London, considers this to be a mistake. -_Free muriatic acid_, and not muriate of soda, he says, will be -found in the recipient.--_Elements of Chemistry._ Part I. p. 212. -Lond. ed. 1818. - -[61] That is, in those oaks which grow near the salt water, the -branches that directly face the sea do not attain so great size and -strength as those on the opposite side; this has also been observed -on the south side of Long-Island. - -[62] Volney's Travels in Syria and Egypt. Vol. I. p. 48. Perth ed. - -[63] Volney's Travels in Syria and Egypt. Vol. I. p. 217. - -[64] Darwin's Botanic Garden. P. 256. - -[65] To prove that salt is absorbed into land plants growing near -the sea, the following facts, for which I am indebted to my friend, -Dr. D. V. Knevels, are conclusive. The fruit of those cocoa-nut -trees which grow near the seashore in the West-Indies is generally -found to have a saltish taste; and even the milk in the nut is -perceptibly impregnated with it. Those trees on the contrary which -grow in the interior, beyond the influence of salt water, have -their fruit perfectly fresh and sweet. - -The same gentleman informs me, that in a plantation of his -father's, in the West-Indies, situated on the seashore, a whole -crop of the cane was rendered unfit for the purpose of making -sugar, in consequence of the great quantity of salt which it had -imbibed. - -[66] Journal of Science and the Arts. No. X. - -[67] Volney's Travels in Syria and Egypt, Vol. I. p. 167. - -[68] On the subject of the Egyptian ophthalmia, it may be asked -"why it does not appear in innumerable other situations, equally -exposed to salt air, as Cape Cod, and the West-India Islands?" -To this it may be replied, that in the production of any disease -whatever, a _predisposing_ state of the system is as necessary as -an _exciting_ cause. This predisposition appears to exist in a -great degree among the Egyptians, and depends upon the nature of -their climate, their habits, and mode of living, all of which have -a tendency to produce _debility_ of the eyes, and thus render them -more susceptible of the impression of those causes which excite -inflammation. - -[69] Rush's Medical Observations and Inquiries, Vol. II. p. 132. - -[70] Volney's Travels, Vol I. p. 226. - -[71] Rush's Observations and Inquiries, Vol. II. p. 133. - -[72] This was most remarkably perceived on one occasion, where, -under the idea that possibly chrome might exist in the ores, they -had been intensely heated in a forge along with pearl ashes. The -mass, when lixiviated, gave only a greenish solution, becoming -colourless by nitric acid, and again greenish by an alkali; this -was supposed to be owing to iron and manganese. No metal was -obtained, except a few minute globules of attractable iron, but the -laboratory was filled with white fumes, having the peculiar odour -alluded to. - -[73] Several of the facts, we are aware, accord with the properties -of bismuth, between which and tellurium there are several strong -points of resemblance, but a number of other facts appear -irreconcilable with the properties of that metal, and of every -other except tellurium. - -[74] Excepting, that the covers ought to be so depressed, as that -their brims may be lower than the bottoms of the interior vessels -over which they are placed respectively. This is necessary to -prevent the gas from escaping, ere it have access to the surface of -the fluid beneath those bottoms. - -[75] The apparatus may also be made of glass bottles, duly -proportioned, and cut (truncated) alternately near the shoulder and -near the bottom. - -[76] In whose Journal it was ordered to be printed, but, to prevent -delay, it was published, by the Author, in a separate paper, and -forwarded by him to the Editor of this Journal. - -[77] Possibly the electric fluid causes decompositions when emitted -from an impalpable point (as in the experiments of Wollaston) -because its repulsive agency is concentred between integral atoms, -in a mode analogous to that here referred to; a filament of water -in the one case, and of wire in the other, being the medium of -discharge. - -[78] The conclusions are drawn from experiments made by the -electricity of the Voltaic apparatus. - -[79] Especially to Dr. T. P. Jones, and Mr. Rubens Peale, who -remember the suggestion. - -[80] See Plate. Fig. 3. - -[81] This evidently differs from the common mode of decomposing the -fixed alkalies by galvanism: there the effect depends on electrical -attractions and repulsions--here on the chemical agency of ignited -iron produced _extemporaneously_ in the galvanic circuit: this mode -of operating appears to be new. _Editor._ - -[82] The glasses may be had by applying to Edw. A. Pearson, No. 71 -Cornhill, Boston. - - - - -INDEX. - - - _Accidents_ from fulminating powders, 168. - - _Acid_, (sulphuric) lake of, 49, 58 - river of, 59. - - _Address_ to the people of the Western Country, 203. - - _Agates_, 49, 134, 236. - - _Alkali_, a new one, 309, 310. - - _Alleghany_ mountains, 60. - - _Alluvial_ formation, 324. - - _Alveolites_, 383. - - _Alumine_, pure, 310. - - _American_ Geological Society, 442. - - _Amianthus_, 55. - - _Analcime_, at Deerfield, 134. - - _Antigua_, silicious petrifactions of, 56 - --geology of, 141. - - _Apatite_, 236. - - _Apparatus_, improvement on Woolf's, &c., 410. - - _Asbestos_, 237, 243. - - _Asclepias_ lanceolata, 252. - - _Atwater_, (Caleb, Esq.) on prairies, 116 - --on Ohio, 207 - --on Belmont county, 226 - --on winds of the west, 276. - - _Augite_, 244, 310. - - - B. - - _Baldwin_, (Dr. William) on Rottböllia, 355. - - _Barbuda_, (island of) its geology, 142. - - _Barrens_ and Prairies of the West, 116. - - _Barrow's_ travels, extract from, 148. - - _Barytes_, (sulphat of) 63, 237, 240. - - _Basins_, peculiar formation of, 213. - - _Battery_, (electrical) of Dr. Dana, 292. - - _Beck_, (Dr. John B.) on salt storms, 388. - - _Belmont_ county, Ohio, its geology, &c., 227. - - _Beryl_ of Haddam, 242. - - _Bigelow_, (Prof.) on American climate, 76. - - _Blende_, 50. - - _Blow-pipe_, compound, priority of discovery and use of, 97. - - _Boats_, steam, 8. - - _Bodies_, dead, preservation of, 307, 8. - - _Bones_, extraction of gelatine from, 170. - - _Botany_, American, 5. - - _Brace_, (Mr. John J.) on cut-worm, 154 - --on minerals of Litchfield county, &c., 350. - - _Breccia_ of the Potomack, 216. - - _Brest_, experiments at, 174. - - _Bridge_, natural, 66, 319. - - _Brongniart_ on organized remains, 71 - --his address in Paris, 74. - - _Brown_, (Dr. Samuel) 147, 439. - - _Bruce_, (Dr.) 3, 37, 255, 299, 439. - - _Bufo_ cornuta, 265. - - _Burial_ ground of the Aborigines, 108. - - _Burrstone_ of Indiana, 132. - - - C. - - _Cabinet_ of Col. Gibbs, 6 - --of B. D. Perkins and Dr. Bruce, 37. - - _Calendar_, floral, of United States, 76 - --near Philadelphia, 77 - --of Plainfield, 255 - --of Deerfield, 359. - - _Calorimotor_ of Prof. Hare, 413. - - _Calton_ hill, its structure, 230. - - _Carbonats_, hard, of lime, 63 - --of magnesia, pulverulent, at Hoboken, 54 - --crystallized, 142. - - _Cave_, Wier's, 59, 64, 317 - --in Mount Toby, 111 - --at Corydon, with Epsom salt, 133. - - _Caves_, in Tennessee, 429. - - _Chabasie_, at Deerfield, 49, 134. - - _Chalcedony_ in silicious wood, 57, - at Deerfield and East Haven, 134. - - _Characters_ of minerals, 43-45. - - _Cinnabar_, in Michigan, 433. - - _Clays_, porcelain, 57, 58, 242. - - _Cleaveland_, (Prof.) Review of his mineralogy, 35 - --notice of, 308. - - _Coal_ mines of Virginia, 125 - --of Tennessee, 63 - --of Ohio, 239 - --of Connecticut, _ibid._ and 240. - - _College_, (Medical) of Ohio, 311. - - _Coluber_ trivittata, &c., 260-262. - - _Comstock_, (Dr.) 433. - - _Cooper_, (Prof. Thomas) 439. - - _Copal_, identity of, with amber, 307. - - _Copper-head_ snake, 84. - - _Copper_, native, 55. - - _Cornelius_, (Rev. Elias) 59, 214, 317. - - _Crotali_, 263. - - _Cumberland_ mountain, 221-223. - - _Cut-worm_, 154. - - _Cuvier's_ geology, 68. - - _Cylactis_, &c., 377. - - - D. - - _Dana_, (Dr. J. F.) on electrical battery, 292 - --on Myrica cerifera, 293 - --on flame, 301. - - _Deerfield_, Floral Calendar of, 359. - - _Delirium_, intermissions of, 431. - - _Dewey_, (Prof. Chester) his sketch, &c., 337. - - _Diplocea_ barbata, 252. - - _Disruption_ of the ground at Deerfield, 286. - - _Distillation_ of seawater, 172. - - _Doolittle_, (Mr. Isaac) on gelatine, 170. - - _Drake_, (Dr. Daniel) and others, 206. - - _Dust_, atmospherical, 397. - - _Dwight_, (Dr. B. W.) on delirium, 431. - - - E. - - _Earthquakes_ of 1811 and 1812, 93. - - _Eaton_, (Mr. Amos) on New-England geology, 69 - --on Southampton level, 136. - - _Elliott_ (Stephen, Esq.) 5. - - _Engine_, (Steam) its importance, 7. - - _Exoglossum_ (a freshwater fish) 155. - - - F. - - _Falls_ in Connecticut river, 111. - - _Favosites_, 389. - - _Fish_, impressions of, 110. - - _Fisher_, (Prof.) his essay, &c., 9, 179. - - _Flame_, how affected by steam, &c., 401. - - _Flint_, 225. - - _Floral_ calendar of the United States, 76 - --Plainfield, 254 - --Deerfield, 359. - - _Floerkea_, genus, 373. - - _Fluor_ Spar, 49-52. - - - G. - - _Galvanism_, Dr. Hare's discovery in, 413. - - _Gambold_, (Mrs.) on the Cherokee plants, 245. - - _Gas_, (Oxygen) respiration of, 95. - - _Gases_, (Inflammable) in Ohio, 49. - - _Guadaloupe_, minerals from, 237. - - _Gelatine_, how obtained from bones in Paris, 170. - - _Geological_ society, (American) 442. - - _Geology_ and mineralogy of Virginia, &c., 50, 317 - --New-England, index of, 59 - --Deerfield and vicinity, 107 - --Indiana, 131 - --Antigua, &c., 140 - --introduction to the study of, 50. - - _Gibbs_, (Col. George) on gunpowder, 87 - --on light and magnetism, 89, 207 - --on tourmalines, &c., 346. - - _Gill_, (Mr. Thomas) his new lamp, 207. - - _Gnaphalium_, new species of, 380. - - _Gneiss_, 339. - - _Gorham_, (Prof. John) elements of chemistry, 434. - - _Granite_, 237, 339, 437. - - _Grammer_, (Mr. John) on coal mines of Virginia, 125. - - _Graphite_, 237. - - _Grindstones_, 62. - - _Gunpowder_, its force, how increased, 87. - - _Gypsum_, 62, 211, 245. - - - H. - - _Hard_ carbonate of lime, 63. - - _Hare_, (Dr. Robert) his blow-pipe, 97 - --on Woulfe's apparatus, 411 - --his calorimotor, 413 - --theoretical views, 434. - - _Harrodsburg_ salts, analysis of, 403. - - _Hayden_, (Dr. H. H.) on new minerals, 244, 306. - - _Heat_ and light, new mode of producing, 91. - - _Herpetology_, Thomas Say on, 256. - - _Hitchcock_, (Mr. Ed.) on Deerfield, &c., 105 - --disruption, 286 - --supplement, 426. - - _Hoboken_, carbonate of magnesia at, 54. - - _Hematite_, brown, 236. - - _Hornstones_, 62, 225. - - - I. - - _Ice_, (Greenland) 101. - - _Indiana_, geology of, 131. - - _Insect_, destructive, 328. - - _Intelligence_, botanical, 435. - - _Iron_ ores, 50, 62, 438. - - _Ives_, (Prof. Eli) on limosella, 74 - --asclepias, 252 - --the potato, 297 - --gnaphalium, 380. - - - J. - - _Java_, river and lake of sulphuric acid in, 58, 59. - - _Jameson_, (Prof.) his additions to Cuvier, 69. - - _Jasper_, 62, 236. - - _Journals_, scientific, 1-3 - --of vegetation, 76, 77, 255, 359. - - - K. - - _Kain_, (Mr. John H.) on geology, &c., 60 - --mounds and caves, 428-430. - - - L. - - _Lane_, (Ephraim) his mine, 316. - - _Lamp_ without flame, 207. - - _Lead_ ore, 53, 63 - --native, in Michigan, 434. - - _Light_, connexion between, and magnetism, 89, 207 - --and heat, new mode of producing, 91. - - _Lime_, augments the force of gunpowder, 87. - - _Limestone_, with shells, 61 - --carbonates of, 63, 131, 237, 241, 307, 341. - - _Limosella_, description of, 74. - - _Lithia_, a new alkali, 309. - - _Lithography_, art of, 439. - - _Localities_, (American) of minerals, 49. - - - M. - - _Maclure_, (William, Esq.) his geological survey, 37 - --map, 61 - --on geology, 209. - - _Magnesia_, sulphat of, 49 - --carbonat, 49, 54, 236 - --of hydrate, 55. - - _Magnetic_, iron mine of, 89. - - _Magnetism_ and light, their connexion, 89. - - _Malachite_, compact, 236. - - _Manganese_, 50. - - _Marten_, new species of, 82. - - _Matches_ kindling without fire, 308. - - _Mercury_, fulminating explosion of, 168. - - _Metal_, new, 310. - - _Meteors_, theory of, 266. - - _Mica_, plumose, 50 - --of Porto Rico, 237 - --of slate, 339. - - _Mill_ stones, 62, 132. - - _Mineralogy_, elementary works on, 38. - - _Minerals_ of Deerfield, &c., 112 - --of Indiana, &c., 132 - --of Southampton level, 136 - --silicious, 224 - --localities, by Rev. Mr. Schaeffer, 237 - --American collections, of, 310. - - _Mineral_ springs, 66. - - _Mind_, human, its operations in a diseased state, 431. - - _Mitchill_, (Dr. S. L.) 37, 55 - --his edition of Cuvier, 68. - - _Molybdena_, 50, 238, 242. - - _Morey_, (Samuel) his fire apparatus, 91 - --steam engine, 162. - - _Mounds_, ancient, 322, 428. - - _Mountains_, Alleghany, 60. - - _Mustela_ vulpina, 82. - - _Myosurus_ Shortii, 379. - - _Myrica_ cerifera, analysis of, 294. - - - N. - - _Native_ copper, near New-Haven, 55 - --sulphur of Java, 58 - --237. - - _Natural_ Bridge, 66. - - _Necronite_, 306. - - _New_ England, its geology, 69. - - _Nitrate_ of lime and of potash, 65. - - _Nitre_, natural, 321. - - _Nomenclature_ of minerals, 45. - - _Nugent_, (Dr.) on Antigua, &c., 56, 141. - - - O. - - _Ohio_, notes on, 207 - --its medical college, 311. - - _Opal_, semi, 225, 237. - - _Ophisaurus_ ventralis, 262. - - _Organized_ remains, Brongniart on, 71. - - _Oxygen_ gas, respiration of, 95. - - - P. - - _Paint_, rock, 77. - - _Paris_, porcelain of, 56. - - _Paris_, (Dr. John Ayston) on sandstone, 234. - - _Passage_, northwest, 101. - - _Peat_ of Dutchess county, 139. - - _Peril_, (Mr Pelatiah) 85. - - _Perkins_, (Dr. Benjamin) 37. - - _Petroleum_, 49. - - _Phalæna_ devastator, 154. - - _Picture_ of Independence, 200. - - _Pierce_, (James, Esq.) on magnesia, 54, 142 - --on Staten-Island, 143. - - _Plants_ of Cherokee country, 245. - - _Plumbago_, 239. - - _Pole_, north, attempts to discover the, 101. - - _Pomeroy_, (T.) his certificate, 87. - - _Porcelain_ and porcelain clays, 57. - - _Porter_, (Dr. J.) on vegetation at Plainfield, 254. - - _Potato_, Prof. Ives on, 297. - - _Powders_, fulminating, 168. - - _Prairies_ and barrens of the west, 116, 331. - - _Prehnite_, 50, 135. - - _Pyrites_, magnetical, 49. - - _Pyroxene_, red, 244. - - - Q. - - _Quartz_, 53, 237, 238, 241, 340, 345. - - - R. - - _Ray_ (solar) connexion with magnetism, 90. - - _Rafinesque_ (C. S., Esq.) on vegetation, 77 - --on mustela vulpina, 83 - --on copper-head, 84 - --on sponges, 149 - --on Xanthium maculatum, 151 - --Exoglossum, 155 - --on Diplocea barbata, 252 - --on discoveries in the West, 311 - --on genus Floerkea, 373 - --on Cylactis, &c., 377 - --on Myosurus shortii, 379 - --atmospheric dust, 397. - - _Rain_, red, 309. - - _Refraction_, (polar) effects on magnetism, 90. - - _Respiration_ of oxygen gas, 95. - - _Review_ of Cleaveland's Mineralogy, 35. - - _Reynolds_ (Dr. W. G.) on meteors, 266. - - _Ridge_, (Blue) its geology, 217. - - _River_, (White) in Java, 59 - --In a cave, 320. - - _Rock paint_, 67. - - _Rocks_, transition, of East Tennessee, 61 - --Of Indiana, 131 - --Secondary, 213. - - _Rottböllia_, 355. - - - S. - - _Sandstone_, old red, 212 - --of the Capitol, Washington, 215 - --of Cornwall, England, 234. - - _Salt_, its effects on vegetation, 389-391 - --on animals, 394. - - _Salts_ of Harrodsburg, 403. - - _Say_ (Mr. Thomas) on Herpetology, 256 - --on zoophytes, &c., 381. - - _Schaeffer_, (Rev. F. C.) on peat, 139 - --localities, 236. - - _Sea-water_, (distilled) 172. - - _Seybert_, (Dr. Adam) 37. - - _Sienite_, 106. - - _Sheldon_ (Wm.) on tanning, &c., 312. - - _Silver_, (fulminating) accidents from, 169. - - _Sines and Cosines_, formulæ for, 424. - - _Slate_, argillaceous, 62, 67, 70, 342. - - _Smith_ (Professor E. D.) on earthquakes, &c., 93. - - _Soapstone_, 62. - - _Society_, (American Geological) 442. - - _Southampton level_, 137. - - _Spar_, (fluor) 49, 52. - - _Sponges_, on Long Island, 149. - - _Springs_, saline, 49 - --mineral, 66. - - _Steam_ decomposed, 92 - --engine, 93 - --rotatory of S. Morey, 162. - - _Stilbite_, 134. - - _Stilson_ (Mr. W. B.) on Indiana. - - _Storms_, salt, 388. - - _Strong's_ (Prof.) mathematical papers, 424. - - _Sullivan_ (John S., Esq.) on heat and light, 91 - --on steam engines, 157. - - _Sulphur_, (native) 237 - --springs in Indiana, 133. - - - T. - - _Tabular view_, 46, 134. - - _Talc_, fibrous and scaly, 237. - - _Tanning_, by means of chesnut wood, 312 - --notice of a new mode of, 439. - - _Tar_, used to afford light, 92 - --to work steam engines, 164. - - _Tennessee_, (East) its Geology, &c., 60. - - _Temperament_, (Musical) essay on, 9, 176. - - _Thorax_, (affection of) relieved by oxygen gas, 95. - - _Titanium_, oxyde of, 50, 134, 355. - - _Tom_ (Mount) rests on sandstone, 109. - - _Torpedoes_ of fulminating silver, 169. - - _Torrey_, (Dr. John) on Staurotide, &c., 437. - - _Tourmaline_, 237. - - _Tourmalines_ of Goshen, &c., Col. Gibbs on, 346. - - _Trap_, what it is, 51 - --primitive and transition, 212. - - _Trumbull_, (Col.) his picture of Independence, 206. - - _Tungsten_ and Tellurium, American, 312, 316, 405. - - - V. - - _Vapour_, effects of, on flame, 401. - - _Vauquelin_, a new alkali, 310. - - _Vegetables_, effects of their combustion, 334. - - _Vegetation_, Journals of, 76, 77, 256, 359. - - _View_, tabular, 46. - - _Virginia_, geology and mineralogy of, &c., 60. - - - W. - - _Wacke_, of aqueous origin, 233 - --analysis of, 296. - - _Warm_ springs, 66. - - _Waterhouse_, (Dr. Benjamin) 37. - - _Webster_ (Dr. I. W.) on Calton Hill, 230 - --letter from, 243 - --on wacke, 296 - --his lectures, 304 - --cabinet, 305. - - _Wells_ (Mr. R. W.) on Prairies, &c., 331 - --of Columbia affected by earthquakes, 93. - - _Western_ Museum Society, 203. - - _Williams_, (Dr. Stephen) his calendar, &c., 359. - - _Williamstown_, its geology, &c., 337. - - _Winds_ of the West, 276. - - _Wood_, petrifactions of, 50-56 - --chesnut applied to tanning, 313. - - _Woolf's_ apparatus, substitute for, 410. - - _Works_ (elementary) on mineralogy, 38. - - - X. - - _Xanthium_ maculatum, 151. - - - Z. - - _Zoology_, American, 5 - --fossil, 381. - - _Zoophytes_, &c., 381. - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Four illustrations have been moved from their book location to be - close to the text describing them. One from page 289 to p293; - another from p413 to p337; another from p414 to p423; another - from p448 to p91. - - Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been - corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within - the text and consultation of external sources. - - Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, - and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example, - knifeblade, knife-blade; New England, New-England; carbonat, carbonate; - musqueto; illy; chesnut; connexion. - - Pg 2, 'these scources' replaced by 'these sources'. - Pg 13, 'arch AGN .. VA' replaced by 'arc AGN..VA'. - Pg 14, 'Vth A´D´G' replaced by 'Vth A´D´G´'. - Pg 39, 'sooner, in might' replaced by 'sooner, it might'. - Pg 50, 'are two limited' replaced by 'are too limited'. - Pg 51, 'importance usally' replaced by 'importance usually'. - Pg 58, 'shall be acertained' replaced by 'shall be ascertained'. - Pg 60, 'Geology of the the' replaced by 'Geology of the'. - Pg 77, '20th of Ferbuary' replaced by '20th of February'. - Pg 90, 'than elswhere;' replaced by 'than elsewhere;'. - Pg 91, 'convenient mothod' replaced by 'convenient method'. - Pg 94, 'heretofore peccolated' replaced by 'heretofore percolated'. - Pg 104 Footnote [16], 'by inadventence' replaced by 'by inadvertence'. - Pg 108, 'aud three feet' replaced by 'and three feet'. - Pg 113, 'Some has' replaced by 'Some have'. - Pg 133, 'tress; insects' replaced by 'trees; insects'. - Pg 138, 'three huudred feet' replaced by 'three hundred feet'. - Pg 147, 'quantitites of sandrock' replaced by 'quantities of sandrock'. - Pg 149, 'is is not a proper' replaced by 'is not a proper'. - Pg 158, Illustration caption, 'P. IV' replaced by 'Pl. IV'. - Pg 171, 'much of the gelantine' replaced by 'much of the gelatine'. - Pg 173, 'empyxeuma arising' replaced by 'empyreuma arising'. - Pg 204, 'unknown to to all' replaced by 'unknown to all'. - Pg 238, 'Honsatonuck River' replaced by 'Housatonick River'. - Pg 247, 'Inis, low' replaced by 'Iris, low'. - Pg 249, 'Yacca filamentosa' replaced by 'Yucca filamentosa'. - Pg 257, 'eleven apicial' replaced by 'eleven apical'. - Pg 261, 'the tripple series' replaced by 'the triple series'. - Pg 269, 'situation of of the' replaced by 'situation of the'. - Pg 285, 'my own observatiou' replaced by 'my own observation'. - Pg 290, 'thrown purmiscuously' replaced by 'thrown promiscuously'. - Pg 308, 'for sometime made' replaced by 'for some time made'. - Pg 315, 'chrystallography of Haüy' replaced by 'crystallography - of Haüy'. - Pg 315, 'in cold weather.' replaced by 'in cold water.'. - Pg 316, 'common iron pyrytes' replaced by 'common iron pyrites'. - Pg 344, 'regular octaedrons' replaced by 'regular octahedrons'. - Pg 345, 'Hill in Cattskill' replaced by 'Hill in Catskill'. - Pg 346, 'The schorl cruciforn' replaced by 'The schorl cruciform'. - Pg 359, 'Deerfield, Massachuchusetts,' replaced by 'Deerfield, - Massachusetts,'. - Pg 363, 'Humingbirds arrived' replaced by 'Hummingbirds arrived'. - Pg 367, 'American hazle' replaced by 'American hazel'. - Pg 370, 'been unusully warm' replaced by 'been unusually warm'. - Pg 371, 'and mullin' replaced by 'and mullein'. - Pg 409, 'appear irreconcileable' replaced by 'appear irreconcilable'. - Pg 415, 'inerposed agents' replaced by 'interposed agents'. - Pg 416, 'corruscating flame' replaced by 'coruscating flame'. - Pg 429, 'to many visiters' replaced by 'to many visitors'. - - Index. - 'Diplocœa barbata, 282.' replaced by 'Diplocea barbata, 252.'. - 'Localites' replaced by 'Localities'. - 'Rafinesque', 'on Diplocœa barbata, 352' replaced by 'on Diplocea - barbata, 252'. - 'Slate', '70--342.' replaced by '70, 342.'. - 'Torrey' page number '437' added. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's American Journal of Science, Vol. 1., by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL 1 *** - -***** This file should be named 52663-0.txt or 52663-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/6/6/52663/ - -Produced by Eric Hutton, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - |