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diff --git a/old/52666-8.txt b/old/52666-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index bf6b3df..0000000 --- a/old/52666-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9246 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Glimpses of Ocean Life, by John Harper - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Glimpses of Ocean Life - Rock-Pools and the Lessons they Teach - -Author: John Harper - -Release Date: July 28, 2016 [EBook #52666] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GLIMPSES OF OCEAN LIFE *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Whitehead, K.D. Thornton and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - 'Natural History is the appointed handmaiden of Religion, enabling - us to feel and in some humble proportion to appreciate how closely - and how carefully the well-being and happiness of all creatures has - been provided for,--how admirably they are severally adapted to their - respective stations and employments, and how wonderfully every part - of their economy is made subservient to the general good. This is the - true spirit in which the aquarïst ought to work, and this is the end - and object of his science.'--_Rhymer Jones._ - - - - - [Illustration: - - 1 & 2 Valves of PHOLAS SHELL - 3 _Pholas crispata_, with siphons extended - 4 COMMON BRITTLE STAR (_Ophiocoma rosula_) From Nature, showing the - progressive growth of new rays - 5 COMMON CROSS-FISH (_Uraster rubens_)] - - - - - GLIMPSES OF OCEAN LIFE; - OR, - Rock-Pools and the Lessons they Teach. - - BY - - JOHN HARPER, F.R.S.S.A. - AUTHOR OF 'THE SEA-SIDE AND AQUARIUM,' ETC. - - WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR. - - '_Armado._ How hast thou purchased thy experience? - _Moth._ By my penny of observation.' - - SHAKSPEARE. - - - LONDON: - T. NELSON AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW; - EDINBURGH; AND NEW YORK. - - MDCCCLX. - - - - - TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE - LORD BROUGHAM AND VAUX, - - CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, - ETC., ETC., ETC., - - THIS LITTLE VOLUME - Is Inscribed, - AS A TRIFLING TOKEN OF RESPECTFUL ADMIRATION - FOR - UNIVERSALLY RECOGNISED GREATNESS. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - ON THE PLEASURES DERIVED FROM THE STUDY OF MARINE ZOOLOGY. - Page - - Introduction--Two classes of readers--Marine zoology - as an amusement--The botanist and his - pleasures--Entomological pursuits--Hidden marvels - of nature--The little Stickleback--Conclusion, 17 - - - CHAPTER II. - - A GLANCE AT THE INVISIBLE WORLD. - - Microscopic studies--When to use the - microscope--Modern martyrs of science--Infusoria--Use - of Infusoria--Distinction between plants and - animals--_Vorticella_--_Rotatoria_--Wheel - animalcules--Mooring Thread of Vorticellæ--A - compound species of Vorticella described--_Zoothamnium - spirale_ of Mr. Gosse--Nature's scavengers, 27 - - - CHAPTER III. - - SEA ANEMONES. - - Animal-flowers--_A. mesembryanthemum_--'Granny,' - Sir J. Dalyell's celebrated anemone--Original anecdote--_A. - troglodytes_--How to capture actiniæ--A roving 'mess.'--An - intelligent anemone--Diet of the actiniæ--Voracity of these - zoophytes--Defence of certain species--Actiniæ eating - crabs--Their reproductive powers--Size of the 'crass.'--The - Plumose anemone--Its powers of contraction, 45 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - EDIBLE CRAB--SHORE CRAB--SPIDER CRAB, ETC. - - The Partane--Its character defended--Crustaceous demons--The - wolf and the lamb--Interesting anecdote--Reason and - instinct--Anecdote of the Shore crab--'The creature's run - awa''--A crustaceous performer--The Fiddler crab--A little - prodigal--Singular conduct of the Shore crab--The minute - Porcelain crab--_Maia squinado_--_Hyas - araneus_--_Maia_ and _C. mænas_--Anecdote--The - common Pea crab--Pinna and Pinnotheres--The Cray - fish--Masticatory organs of crabs--Fishing for - crabs--Crab fishers, 63 - - - CHAPTER V. - - HERMIT CRABS. - - Enthusiastic students of nature--Aristocratic Hermit - crabs--Swammerdam--Hermit crab and its habits--Anecdote--The - Hermit in a fright--Soldier crab and Limpet--A crustaceous - Diogenes--Prometheus in the tank--The martyr Hermit - crab--The author's pet Blenny--Anecdote, 89 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - EXUVIATION OF CRUSTACEA (THE PHENOMENA OF CRABS, ETC., - CASTING THEIR SHELLS). - - The Tower of London--A crustaceous armory--The author's - experience on the subject--Reamur and Goldsmith--Rejected - shells of crabs--Anecdote--Hint to the young - aquarian--Exuviation described from personal observation - in several instances--Renewal of injured limbs--Frequency - of exuviation--Effect of diet on crustacea--Exuviation - arrested--Exuviation of the Hermit crab--How the process - is effected, 109 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - PRAWNS AND SHRIMPS. - - Habits of the Prawn--The Common Shrimp--How to catch - shrimps--Conclusion, 135 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - ACORN-BARNACLES--SHIP-BARNACLES. - - The Common Barnacle described--Exuviation of the - _Balani_--Anecdote--The Ship Barnacle--Barnacle - Geese, 143 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - PHYLLODOCE LAMINOSA (THE LAMINATED NEREIS). - - A rainy day at the sea-shore--Laminated Nereis--Its - tenacity of life--Its unsuitableness for the aquarium--How - the young annelids are produced--Evidence of a French - naturalist, 151 - - - CHAPTER X. - - THE FAN-AMPHITRITE. - - Its renewal of mutilated organs--How to accommodate this - annelid in the tank--The 'case' of the - Fan-Amphitrite, 159 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - THE COMMON MUSSEL. - - Dr. Johnson and Bozzy--Habits of the Mussel--Marine - 'at homes'--The Purpura and its habits--Enemies of the - Mussel--Anecdote--Construction of the beard (or - Byssus)--Author's experience--Anecdote of the - mussel--Muscular action of its foot--Threads of the - beard--The bridge at Bideford--Anecdote--The - Mussel tenacious of life--The beard not poisonous--M. - Quatrefage--Mussel beds of Esnandes--Branchiæ of the - Mussel--Food of this bivalve, 163 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - TEREBELLA FIGULAS (THE POTTER). - - Anecdote of the Potter--Its cephalic tentacula--Construction - of its tubular dwelling--_Terebella littoralis_--Curious - anecdote--Branchial organs of this annelid, 189 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - ACALEPHÆ (MEDUSÆ, OR JELLY-FISH). - - Introduction--Jelly-fish--Whales' - food--Lieutenant Maury--Appearance of the Greenland - Seas--Sir Walter Scott--The girdle of Venus--The - Beröe--_Pulmonigrade acalephæ_--Portuguese - man-of-war--_Hydra-tuba_--Alternation of - generations--Dr. Reid--_Modera-formosa_--_Cyanea - capillata_--Conclusion, 201 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - DORIS EOLIS, ETC. - - Anecdote--Young Dorides--Doris spawn--_Nudibranchiate - gasteropoda_--Dr. Darwin--Mr. Gosse--A black - Doris--_Bêches de mer_--A Chinese dinner--Bird's - nest soup, and Sea-slug stew, 221 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - THE CRAB AND THE DAINTY BEGGAR. - - Anecdote--The Pholas and Shore-crab--The - _hyaline stylet_--The dainty beggar--The - gizzard of the Pholas--Of what use is the stylet? 233 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - THE PHOLAS, ETC. (ROCK-BORERS). - - Pholades at home--Habits of the Pholas--_P. - crispata_--The pedal organ--Finny gourmands--How is - the boring operation performed?--Various theories on - the subject--Mr Clark, Professor Owen--The Pholas at - work--The boring process described from personal - observation--Author's remarks on the subject--Pholas - in the tank--Conclusion, 241 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - THE SEA-MOUSE. - - The Sea-mouse--Bristles of the aphrodite--Its - beautiful plumage (?)--Its weapons - of defence--The spines described--Shape of the - aphrodite, &c., 263 - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - STAR-FISHES, ETC. - - The Coral polypes--The Lily-stars--St. Cuthbert's - beads--_Pentacrinus europæus_--Rosy feather star - _Ophiuridæ_--Brittle-stars--_Ophiocomo-rosula_--British - asteridæ--_Uraster rubens_--Habits of this species--Submarine - Dandos--Sir John Dalyell--Professor Jones--Star-fish feeding - on the oyster--Bird's foot Sea-star--_Luidia - fragillissima_--Cushion-stars--Professor Forbes, 269 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - SEA-URCHINS. - - Sea Urchins in the tank--Growth of the Echinus--Its - hedgehog-like spines--Suckers and pores--Ambulacral - tubes--Professor Agassiz--Movements of the - Echinus--_Pedicellariæ_--Masticatory - apparatus--Common Egg Urchin--_Echinus sphæra_--How - to remove the spines--'Do you boil your sea eggs?'--The - Green-pea Urchin--The Silky-spined Urchin--The Rosy-heart - Urchin, 287 - - - CHAPTER XX. - - THE SEA-CUCUMBER. - - Its unattractive appearance out of water--Trepang--Several - varieties eaten by the Chinese--Common Sea Cucumber--Habits - of the Holothuriæ--Their self-mutilation and renewal of - lost parts, 301 - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - THE APLYSIA, OR SEA-HARE. - - Anecdote--The Sea Hare plentiful at North Berwick--Its - powers of ejecting a purple fluid at certain times--Sea - Hares abhorred by the ancients--Professor Forbes--Spawn - of the Aplysia, 307 - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - SERPULÆ AND SABELLÆ. - - Tubes of the _Serpulæ_--Dr. Darwin--The harbour - of Pernambuco--Its wonderful structure--Reproduction of - the _Serpulæ_--_Sabellæ_--Their sandy - tubes, &c., 313 - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - THE SOLEN, OR RAZOR FISH. - - How it burrows in the sand--How specimens are - caught--_Cum grano salis_--Bamboozling the Spout - Fish--Amateur naturalists, and fishermen at the - sea-shore, 321 - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - A GOSSIP ON FISHES--INCLUDING THE ROCKLING, SMOOTH BLENNY, - GUNNEL FISH, GOBY, ETC. - - Punch's address to the ocean--Old blue-jackets and the - 'galyant' Nelson--The ocean and its inhabitants--Life - beneath the wave--Fishes the happiest of created - things--A fishy discourse by St. Antony of - Padua--Traveller's ne'er do lie?--The veracious - Abon-el-Cassim--Do fishes possess the sense of - hearing--Author's experience--An intelligent Pike - fish--Dr. Warwick--The Blenny in its native - haunts--A 'Little Dombey' fish--Anecdote--The - Viviparous Blenny--The Gunnel fish--Five-bearded - Rockling--Two-spotted Goby--Diminutive - Sucker-fish--Montagu's Sucker--The - Stickleback--Its nest-building habits - described--Conclusion, 327 - - - CHAPTER XXV. - - ON THE FORMATION OF MARINE AQUARIÆ, ETC. - - Mimic oceans--Practical hints on marine - aquariæ--Various tanks described--The 'gravity - bubble'--Evaporated sea-water--Aquariæ in - France--Sea-water a contraband article across the - Channel--An aquarium on a fine summer's day--The - Lettuce Ulva--Author's tank--'Excavations on a - rocky shore'--Tank 'interiors'--Various centre - pieces--New siphon--Aquariæ difficult to keep in - hot weather--How to remove the opacity of the - tank--New scheme proposed--Conclusion, 353 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - No. - - FRONTISPIECE, 1 - - COMPOUND VORTICELLÆ, 2 - - "GRANNY," Sir John Dalyell's celebrated Anemone, 3 - - A. TROGLODYTES, 4 - - A. CRASSICORNIS, 5 - - EDIBLE CRAB, 6 - - EDIBLE CRAB casting its Shell (from Nature), 7 - - SPIDER CRAB, 8 - - SHORE CRAB, 9 - - PORCELAIN CRAB, 10 - - HERMIT CRAB, 11 - - HERMIT CRAB in Shell of Large Whelk, 12 - - SHIP BARNACLES, 13 - - ACORN BARNACLES attached to Shell of the Limpet, 14 - - THE LIMPET, as seen from beneath, 15 - - LAMINATED NEREIS, 16 - - COMMON MUSSEL,--Shell open, 17 - - COMMON MUSSEL,--Shell closed, 18 - - THE BERÖE, 19 - - FAN AMPHITRITE, 20 - - TEREBELLA FIGULUS, 21 - - TEREBELLA LITTORALIS, 22 - - THE SEA-MOUSE, 23 - - DORIS, 24 - - YOUNG OF DORIS, 25 - - EOLIS, 26 - - THE PHOLAS, and Valves of its Shell, 27 - - THE BRITTLE STAR, 28 - - COMMON CROSS-FISH, 29 - - COMMON SUN-STAR (with 14 rays), 30 - - PURPLE-TIPPED SEA-URCHIN, 31 - - PURPLE-TIPPED SEA-URCHIN, Spine of, 32 - - PURPLE-TIPPED SEA-URCHIN, Suckers of, 33 - - THE APLYSIA, or SEA-HARE, 34 - - TEETH of the SEA-URCHIN (two views), 35 - - THE SEA-CUCUMBER, 36 - - SERPULÆ attached to piece of rock, 37 - - THE SOLEN, or RAZOR FISH, 38 - - THE BLENNY, 39 - - THE VIVIPAROUS BLENNY, 40 - - THE SPOTTED BLENNY, or GUNNEL-FISH, 41 - - THE MONTAGU SUCKER-FISH (three views), 42 - - THE MONTAGU SUCKER-FISH, Sucker of (magnified), 43 - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -INTRODUCTORY. - -On the Pleasures derived from the Study of Marine Zoology. - - -'Woe to the man-- - Who studies nature with a wanton eye, - Admires the work, but slips the lesson by.' - - - - -I. - - -As every fresh branch of investigation in natural history has a -tendency to gather around it a rapidly accumulating literature, some -explanation may probably be looked for from an author who offers a new -contribution to the public. And when, as in the present instance, the -writer's intentions are of an humble kind, it is the more desirable -that he should state his views at the outset. Nor can the force of this -claim be supposed to be lessened, from the gratifying fact, that the -present writer has already received a warm welcome from the public. - -But, before entering upon any personal explanations, it may not be out -of place, in an introductory chapter such as the present, to bring -under review some of the objections which have been, and still continue -to be urged against this, in common with other departments of study, -which are attempted to be made popular. No branch of natural history -has been subjected to more disparaging opposition, partly, it must be -owned, from the misplaced enthusiasm of over zealous students, than -that of marine zoology. - -There are two classes of readers, different in almost all other -respects, whose sympathies are united in dislike of such works as this. -The one, represented by men distinguished for their powers of original -research, are apt to undervalue the labours of such as are not, -strictly speaking, scientific writers. There is another class who, from -the prejudice of ignorance, look upon marine zoology as too trivial, -from the homeliness and minuteness of its details. The wonders of -astronomy, and the speculations suggested by geological studies, nay, -the laws of organization as exhibited in the higher forms of animal -life, are clear enough to this class of readers; but it is not easy to -convince them that design can be extracted from a mussel, or that a -jelly-fish exhibits a marvellous power of construction. - -Now, in my belief, the opposition of the better educated of these two -classes of readers is the more dangerous, as it is unquestionably the -more ungenerous. If Professor Ansted, when treating of the surprising -neglect of geology, could thus express himself--'How many people do -we meet, otherwise well educated, who look with indifference, or even -contempt on this branch of knowledge,'--how much oftener may the -student of the humble theme of marine zoology bewail the systematic -depreciation of persons even laying claim to general scientific -acquirements. This may be illustrated by an observation, made in a -northern university, by a celebrated professor of Greek to a no less -celebrated professor of natural history. The latter, intently pursuing -his researches into the anatomy of a Nudibranche lying before him, -was startled by the sudden entrance of his brother professor, who -contemptuously advised him to give up skinning slugs, and take to more -manly pursuits. - -There is one light in which the study of marine zoology may be -regarded, without necessarily offending the susceptibilities of the -learned, or exciting the sneers of the ignorant. The subject may be -pursued as an amusement--a pastime, if you will; and it is in no -higher character than that of a holiday caterer, that the author asks -the reader's company to the sea-side. No lessons but the simplest are -attempted to be conveyed in this little volume, and these in as quiet -and homely a style as possible. - -Even in the light of an amusement, the author has something to say in -behalf of his favourite study. He believes it to be as interesting, -and fully as instructive as many infinitely more popular. For example: -The sportsman may love to hear the whirr of the startled pheasant, as -it springs from the meadow, and seeks safety in an adjoining thicket. -I am as much pleased with the rustling of a simple crab, that runs for -shelter, at my approach, into a rocky crevice, or beneath a boulder, -shaggy with corallines and sea-weed. He, too, while walking down some -rural lane, may love to see a blackbird hastily woo the privacy of a -hawthorn bush, or a frightened hare limp across his path, and strive to -hide among the poppies in the corn-field; I am equally gratified with -the sight of a simple razor-fish sinking into the sand, or with the -flash of a silver-bodied fish darting across a rock-pool. - -Nay, even the trembling lark that mounts upwards as my shadow falls -upon its nest among the clover, is not a more pleasant object to my -eye, than the crustaceous hermit, who rushes within his borrowed -dwelling at the sound of footsteps. In fact, the latter considerably -more excites my kindly sympathies, from its mysterious curse of -helplessness. It cannot run from danger, but can only hide itself -within its shelly burden, and trust to chance for protection. - -Neither the botanist nor the florist do I envy. The latter may love to -gather the 'early flowrets of the year,' or pluck an opening rose-bud, -but, although very beautiful, his treasures are ephemeral compared with -mine. - - 'Lilies that fester, smell far worse than weeds.' - -But I can gather many simple ocean flowers, or weeds that-- - - 'Look like flowers beneath the flattering brine,' - -whose prettily tinted fronds will 'grow, bloom, and luxuriate' for -months upon my table. They do not want careful planting, or close -attention, or even-- - - 'Like their earthly sisters, pine for drought,' - -but are strong and hardy, like the pretty wild flowers that adorn our -fields and hedge-rows. In the pages of an album, I can, if so disposed, -feast my eyes for years upon their graceful forms, whilst their colours -will remain as bright as when first transplanted from their native -haunts by the sea-shore. - -The entomologist delights to stroll in the forest and the field, to -hear the pleasant chirp of the cricket in the bladed grass, to watch -the honey people bustling down in the blue bells, or even to net the -butterfly as it settles on the sweet pea-blossom, while I am content to -ramble along the beach, and watch the ebb and flow of the restless sea-- - - 'So fearful in its spleeny humours bent, - So lovely in repose--' - -or search for nature's treasures among the weed-clad rocks left bare by -the receding tide. - -A disciple of the above mentioned branch of natural history will -dilate with rapture upon the wondrous transformations which many of -his favourite insects undergo. But none that he can show surpasses in -grandeur and beauty the changes which are witnessed in many members of -the marine animal kingdom. He points to the leaf, to the bloom upon -the peach, brings his microscope and bids me peer in, and behold -the mysteries of creation which his instrument unfolds. 'Look,' he -says, pointing to the verdant leaf, 'at the myriads of beings that -inhabit this simple object. Every atom,' he exultingly exclaims, 'is -a standing miracle, and adorned with such qualities, as could not be -impressed upon it by a power less than infinite!' Agreed. But has not -the zoologist equal reason to be proud of his science and its hidden -marvels? Can he not exhibit equal miracles of divine power? - -Take, as an example, one of the monsters of the deep, the whale; and -we shall find, according to several learned writers, that this animal -carries on its back and in its tissues a mass of creatures so minute, -that their number equals that of the entire population of the globe. A -single frond of marine algæ, in size - - 'No bigger than an agate stone - On the forefinger of an alderman,' - -may contain a combination of living zoophytic beings so infinitely -small, that in comparison the 'fairies' midwife' and her 'team of -little atomies' appear monsters as gigantic, even as the whale or -behemoth, opposed to the gnat that flutters in the brightest sunbeam. - -Again: in a simple drop of sea-water, no larger than the head of a pin, -the microscope will discover a million of animals. Nay, more; there are -some delicate sea-shells(_foraminifera_) so minute that the point of a -fine needle at one touch crushes hundreds of them. - - 'Full nature swarms with life; one wondrous mass - Of animals, or atoms organized, - Waiting the vital breath when Parent Heaven - Shall bid his spirit flow.' - -Lastly, How fondly some writers dwell upon the many touching instances -of affection apparent in the feathered tribe, and narrate how carefully -and how skilfully the little wren, for example, builds its nest, and -tenderly rears its young. I have often watched the common fowl, and -admired her maternal anxiety to make her outspread wings embrace -the whole of her unfledged brood, and keep them warm. The cat, too, -exhibits this characteristic love of offspring in a marked degree. She -will run after a rude hand that grasps one of her blind kittens, and, -if possible, will lift the little creature, and run away home with it -in her mouth. Now, whether we look at the singular skill of the bird -building its nest, the hen sitting near and protecting its brood, or -the cat grasping her young in its jaws, and carrying them home in -safety, we shall find that all these charming traits are wonderfully -combined in one of the humblest members of the finny tribe, viz., the -common stickleback,--the little creature that boys catch by thousands -with a worm and a pin,--that lives equally content in the clear blue -sea or the muddy fresh water pool. - -The author now finds that he has been much too prolix in these -preliminary observations to leave himself space for a lengthened -explanation of his reasons for again intruding upon the public. These -are neither original nor profound. But he cannot help expressing an -earnest hope that he may get credit from old friends, and perhaps from -some new, for wishing to show that the book of nature is as open as it -is varied and inexhaustible; and that, however jealously guarded are -many of the great secrets of organization, a knowledge of some of the -most familiar objects tends to inspire us alike with wonder and with -awe. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -A Glance at the Invisible World. - - -'There is a great deal of pleasure in prying into this world of -wonders, which Nature has laid out of sight, and seems industrious to -conceal from us.... It seems almost impossible to talk of things so -remote from common life and the ordinary notions which mankind receive -from the blunt and gross organs of sense, without appearing extravagant -and ridiculous.'--ADDISON. - - - - -II. - - -It is hardly possible to write upon marine zoology without either -more or less alluding to those many objects, invisible to the naked -eye, which call for the use of the microscope; and it seems equally -difficult for any one who has been accustomed to this instrument -to speak in sober terms of its wonderful revelations. The lines of -Cowper, as the youngest student in microscopic anatomy will readily -acknowledge, present no exaggerated picture of ecstasy:-- - - 'I have seen a man, a worthy man, - In happy mood conversing with a fly; - And as he through his glass, made by himself, - Beheld its wondrous eye and plumage fine, - From leaping scarce he kept for perfect joy.' - -It is proper, however, to notice that a serious objection has been -urged against the use of the microscope by young persons, namely, the -injurious effects of its habitual use upon the eyesight. - -So far as my experience goes, I cannot deny that this objection is -well founded. Since I have begun to use the instrument, I am obliged, -if I wish to view distinctly any distant object, to distort my eyes -somewhat to the shape of ill-formed button-holes puckered in the -sewing. Some individuals, I am aware, foolishly affect this appearance, -from the notion that it exhibits an outward and visible sign of their -inward profundity of character. In my own case this result may have -arisen from my having worked principally at night or in the dusk. -'As to the sight being injured by a continuous examination of minute -objects,' writes Mr. Clark, a most scientific naturalist, 'I can truly -say this idea is wholly without foundation, if the pursuit is properly -conducted; and that, on the contrary, it is materially strengthened by -the use of properly adapted glasses, even of high powers; and in proof -I state, that twenty years ago I used spectacles, but the continued -and daily examination of these minutiæ (_foraminifera_) has so greatly -increased the power of vision, that I now read the smallest type -without difficulty and without aid. The great point to be attended to -is not to use a power that in the least exceeds the necessity; not -to continue the exercise of vision too long, and never by artificial -light; and to reserve the high powers of certain lenses and the -microscope for important investigations of very moderate continuance. -The observant eye seizes at a glance the intelligence required; -whilst strained poring and long optical exertions are delusive and -unsatisfactory, and produce those fanciful imaginations of objects -which have really no existence. The proper time for research after -microscopic objects is for _one_ hour after breakfast, when we are in -the fittest state for exertion.' - -Mr. Lewes, again, speaking to the same point, viz., the eyes being -injured by microscopic studies, says:--'On evidence the most conclusive -I deny the accusation. My own eyes, unhappily made delicate by -over-study in imprudent youth, have been employed for hours daily -over the microscope without injury or fatigue. By artificial light, -indeed, I find it very trying; but by daylight, which on all accounts -is the best light for the work, it does not produce more fatigue than -any other steadfast employment of the eye. Compared with looking at -pictures, for instance, the fatigue is as nothing.' - -In spite of the foregoing assertions, I feel it my duty to caution the -student against excess of labour. Let him ride his hobby cautiously, -instead of seeking to enrol his name among the martyrs of science, -of whom the noble Geoffry St. Hilaire, M. Sauvigny, and M. Strauss -Dürckheim, are noted modern examples. Each member of this celebrated -trio spent the latter part of his existence in physical repose, having -become totally blind from intense study over the microscope. But -setting aside the evils of excess, we must bear witness to the intense -delight which this pursuit affords when followed with moderation. - - "'Tis sweet to muse upon the skill displayed - (Infinite skill!) in all that _He_ has made: - To trace in Nature's most minute design - The signature and stamp of power divine. - Contrivance intricate, expressed with ease, - _Where unassisted sight no beauty sees_." - -As my aim is merely to give the reader a taste of the subject, and -whet his appetite for its more extensive pursuit at other sources, I -shall confine my remarks to a few of those creatures which are readily -to be found in any well-stocked aquarium. The number of animalculæ -and microscopic zoospores of plants, invisible to the naked eye, -with which such a receptacle is filled, even when the water is clear -as crystal, is truly marvellous. These animals mostly belong to the -class _Infusoria_, so called from their being found to be invariably -generated in any _infusion_, or solution of vegetable or animal matter, -which has begun to decay. Now, the water in an aquarium which has -been kept for any length of time necessarily becomes more or less -charged with the effete matter of its inhabitants, which, if allowed to -accumulate, would soon render the fluid poisonous to every living thing -within it. This result is happily averted by the Infusoria, which feed -upon the decaying substances in solution, while they themselves become -in their turn the food of the larger animals. Indeed, they constitute -almost the sole nutriment of many strong, muscular shell-fish, as -pholas, mussel, cockle, &c.; and doubtless help to maintain the life -of others, such as actiniæ, and even crabs, which, as is well known, -live and grow without any other apparent means of sustenance. Thus -the presence of Infusoria in the tank may be considered a sign of its -healthy condition, although their increase to such an extent as to give -a milky appearance to the water, is apt to endanger the well-being -of the larger, though delicate creatures. The peculiar phenomenon -alluded to arises from decaying matter, such as a dead worm or limpet, -which should be sought after and removed with all possible speed. The -whereabouts of such objectionable remains will be generally indicated -by a dense cloud of Infusoria hovering over the spot. The milkiness, -however, although it may look for the time unsightly, is ofttimes -the saving of the aquarium 'stock.' When these tiny but industrious -scavengers have completed their task of purification, they will cease -to multiply, and mostly disappear, leaving the water clear as crystal. -I believe it is the absence or deficient supply of Infusoria that -sometimes so tantalizingly defeats the attempts of many persons to -establish an aquarium. Pure deep-sea water, although never without -them, often contains but very few, hence great caution is necessary not -to overstock the tank filled with it, otherwise the animals will die -rapidly, although the water itself appears beautifully transparent. - -Of Infusoria there are many species. They are nearly all, at one stage -or other of their existence, extremely vivacious in their movements; -so much so, indeed, that it becomes a matter of difficulty to observe -them closely. Some have the power of darting about with astonishing -velocity, others unceasingly gyrate, or waltz around with the grace of -a Cellarius; while not a few content themselves by, slug-like, dragging -their slow length along. The last are frequently startled from their -propriety and aplomb by the rapid evolutions of their terpshicorean -neighbours. Some, again, grasping hold of an object by one of their -long filaments, revolve rapidly round it, whilst others spring, leap, -and perform sundry feats of acrobatism that are unmatched in dexterity -by any of the larger animals. - -I may here observe that the motions and general structure of many of -the microscopic forms of vegetation, so much resemble those of some -of the infusoria, that it has long puzzled naturalists to distinguish -between them with any degree of certainty. The chief distinction -appears to lie in the nature of their food. Those forms which are truly -vegetable can live upon purely inorganic matter, while the animals -require that which is organized. The plants also live entirely by the -absorption of fluid through the exterior, while the animalculæ are -capable of taking in solid particles into the interior of the body. -Their mode of multiplication, and the metamorphoses they undergo, are -much alike in both classes, being, during one stage of their existence, -still and sometimes immovably fixed to stones, sea-weed, &c., and at -another freely swimming about. Notwithstanding the similarities here -stated, the appearance of certain of the species is as various as it -is curious. One of the commonest species of the Infusoria (_Paramecium -caudatum_) is shaped somewhat like a grain of rice, with a piece -chipped out on one side, near the extremity of its body. It swims about -with its unchipped extremity foremost, rotating as it goes. During the -milky condition of the water (before alluded to), these creatures swarm -to such a degree, that a single drop of the fluid, when placed under -the microscope, appears filled with a dense cloud of dancing midges. -Another (_Kerona silurus_) may be said to resemble a coffee-bean, with -a host of _cilia_, or short bristles, on the flat side. These are used -when swimming or running. But perhaps the most singular and beautiful -of all the infusorial animalcules are the _Vorticellæ_, which resemble -minute cups or flower-bells, mounted upon slender retractile threadlike -stalks, by which they are moored to the surface of the weeds and -stones. They are called Vorticellæ on account of the little vortices -or whirlpools which they continually create in the water, by means of -a fringe of very minute cilia placed round the brim of their cups. -These cilia are so minute as to require a very high microscopic power -to make them visible, and even then they are not easily detected, on -account of their extremely rapid vibration, which never relaxes while -the animal is in full vigour. On the other hand, when near death, -their velocity diminishes, and ample opportunity is afforded for -observing that the movements consist of a rapid bending inwards and -outwards, over the edge of the cup. This is best seen in a side view. -The action is repeated by each cilium in succession, with such rapidity -and regularity that, when viewed from above, the fringe looks like the -rim of a wheel in rapid revolution. A similar appearance, produced -by the same cause, in another class of animalcula, of much more -complex structure than the Vorticellæ, has procured for it the name of -_Rotifera_, or wheel-bearers. The result of this combined movement of -the cilia is, that a constant stream of water is drawn in towards the -centre of the cup, and thrown off over the sides, when, having reached -a short distance beyond the edge, it circles rapidly in a small vortex, -curling downwards over the lips. These currents are rendered evident -by floating particles in the water. The possession of these vibratile -cilia is not peculiar to this class of animals; indeed, there is good -reason to believe that there is scarcely a living creature, from the -lowest animalcule, or plant germ, up to man himself, that is not -provided with them in some part or other. In many of these Infusoria -the cilia constitute the organs of locomotion; while in the higher -forms they serve various other purposes, but chiefly that of directing -the flow of the various internal fluids through their proper channels. -But the peculiar and perhaps most wonderful organ of the Vorticella, -is its stalk or mooring thread. This though generally of such extreme -tenuity as to be almost invisible with ordinary microscopes, yet -exhibits a remarkable degree of strength and muscular activity in -its movements, which apparently are more voluntary than those of the -cilia. Its action consists of a sudden contraction from a straight to -a spiral form with the coils closely packed together, by which the -head or bell is jerked down almost into contact with the foot of the -stalk; after a few seconds the tension seems gradually relaxed, the -coils are slowly unwound, and the stalk straightens itself out. This -action takes place at irregular intervals, but it is seldom that more -than a minute elapses between each contraction. It (the contraction) -invariably happens when the animal is touched or alarmed, and is, -consequently, very frequent when the water swarms with many other -swimming animalcula. When it takes place the flower-bell generally -closes up into a little round ball, which opens out again only when -the stalk becomes fully extended. From this we might almost infer that -some animalcule, or other morsel of food, had been seized and retained -within the cup; moreover, that the contraction of the stalk assisted in -securing or disposing of the prey. This, however, is uncertain. - -The motions of the Vorticella do not seem much affected by the stalk -losing hold of its attachment; but the result of such an accident -taking place is that the cilia cause the animal to swim through the -water, trailing its thread behind it, and the contraction of the latter -merely causes it to be drawn up to the head. - -There are various species of Vorticellæ. That just described is the -simplest, consisting merely of a hemispherical ciliated cup, attached -to a single thread. It is barely visible to the naked eye. But there -is a compound species which I have this year found to be extremely -abundant in my aquarium,--whose occupants, both large and small, it -excels in singularity and beauty. In structure it is to the simple -Vorticella what a many-branched zoophyte is to an _Actinia_. My -attention was first drawn to the presence of this creature by observing -some pebbles and fronds of green ulva thickly coated with a fine -flocculent down. On closer inspection this growth appeared to consist -of a multitude of feathery plumes, about one-sixteenth of an inch in -height, and individually of so fine and transparent a texture as to be -scarcely discernible to the unassisted sight. On touching one with the -point of a fine needle it would instantly shrink up into a small but -dense mass, like a ball of white cotton--scarcely so large as a fine -grain of sand. In a few seconds it would again unfold and spread itself -out to its original size. By carefully detaching a specimen with the -point of a needle or pen-knife, and transferring it, along with a drop -of water upon a slip of glass, to the stage of the microscope, a sight -was presented of great wonder and loveliness:-- - - 'The more I fixed mine eye, - Mine eye the more new wonders did espye!' - -Let the reader imagine a tree with slender, gracefully curved, and -tapering branches thickly studded over with delicate flower-bells -in place of leaves. Let him suppose the bells to be shaped somewhat -between those of the fox-glove and convolvolus, and the stem, branches, -bells, and all, made of the purest crystal. Let him further conceive -every component part of this singular structure to be tremulous with -life-like motion, and he will have as correct an idea as words can give -of the complex form of this minute inhabitant of the deep. Moreover, -while gazing at it through the microscope, the observer is startled -by the sudden collapse of the entire structure. The lovely tree has -shrunk together into a dense ball, in which the branching stem lies -completely hidden among the flower-bells--themselves closed up into -little spherules, so closely packed together that the entire mass -resembles a piece of herring-roe. This contraction is so instantaneous -that the mode in which it is accomplished cannot be observed until the -tree is again extended. As the re-extension takes place very slowly, we -are enabled to observe that each branchlet has been coiled in a spiral -form, like the thread of the simple Vorticella previously described; -and also that the main stem, above the lowest branch, was coiled up in -the same way, but not so closely, and that the part below the lowest -branch had, curiously enough, remained straight. Sometimes, in large -and numerously branched specimens, one or two of the lowest members -do not contract at the same time with the rest, but do so immediately -afterwards, as if they had been startled by the shrinking movements of -their neighbours. Sometimes these lowest branches will contract alone, -while all the others remain fully extended,--a fact that would almost -seem to indicate that they possessed an independent life of their own. - -In the accompanying engraving I have attempted faithfully to portray -one of these wonderful creatures. Fig. 1 represents it fully extended, -while Fig. 2 indicates its collapsed form. There is another curious -circumstance which I have fortunately observed in connection with this -Vorticella, a description of which will perhaps be interesting to the -reader. I allude to the casting off of what may be called the fruit -of the tree. When this event takes place, the buds (or fruit) dart -about with such rapidity, that it is almost impossible to keep them -in the field of view for the briefest space of time. A represents the -enchanted fruit hanging on the tree; B shows it as it swims about. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. and Fig. 2.] - -Although not exactly fruit, it is, no doubt, the means by which -the Vorticellæ are propagated, for it is known that many fixed -zoophytes, and even some plants, produce free swimming germs or spores, -which afterwards become fixed, and grow up into forms like those -which produced them. In some of the branching zoophytes (_Coryne_, -_Sertularia_, &c.), the germs are exactly like little medusae, being -small, gelatinous cups fringed with tentacula, by means of which they -twitch themselves along with surprising agility. In this Vorticella, -however, it is more like one of the ciliated Infusoria. The first one -that I saw attached I conceived to be a remarkably large bell, with -its mouth directed towards me, but the cilia with which it appeared -to be fringed were unusually large and distinct. The movements of -these appendages being comparatively slow, it was most interesting -to watch them as they successively bent inwards and rose again, like -the steady swell of a tidal wave, or an eccentric movement in some -piece of machinery, making a revolution about twice in a second, and -in the opposite direction to the hands of a clock. Suddenly the tree -contracted, when, to my surprise, I observed the bell, which not an -instant before appeared attached, now floating freely in the water, -its ciliary movements not being in the least interrupted. Presently, -however, they became brisker, the bell turned over on its side, and, -ere the tree had again expanded, darted out of view, not, however, -before I had remarked that it was not a bell, but a sphere flattened -on one side, and having its circular ring of cilia on the flat side, -with only a slight depression in the middle of it. There also appeared -to be a small granular nucleus immediately above this depression, the -rest of the body being perfectly transparent. I afterwards saw several -others attached to the tree, each seated about the centre of a branch; -but none of these were so fully developed. They were like little -transparent button mushrooms, and had all more or less of a nucleus -on the side by which they were attached. On only one of these did I -detect any cilia. - -Mr. Gosse, in his 'Tenby,' gives a picture of an animal exceedingly -like what I have described; but from his account of it, there seems to -be some doubt of their identity. He calls it '_Zoothamnium spirale_,' -because the insertions of the branches were placed spirally around the -main stem, like those of a fir-tree. In my specimens the branches were -set alternately on opposite sides of the main trunk, and the whole was -curved like a drooping fern leaf or an ostrich feather, the bells being -mostly set on the convex side. - -In conclusion, let me mention that it is an error to suppose, as many -persons do, that putrid water alone contains life. Infusoria occur, -as before hinted, in the clear waters of the ocean, in the water that -we drink daily, and also in the limpid burn that flows through our -valleys, or trickles like a silver thread down the mountain side.[1] - -[1] Ehrenberg states that Infusoria are in a higher state of -organization when taken from pure streams than from putrid waters. - - 'Where the pool - Stands mantled o'er with green, invisible, - Amid the floating verdure millions stray. - Each liquid too, whether it pierces, soothes, - Inflames, refreshes, or exalts the taste, - With various forms abounds. Nor is the stream - Of purest crystal, nor the lucid air, - Though one transparent vacancy it seems, - Void of their unseen people. These, concealed - By the kind art of forming Heaven, escape - The grosser eye of man.' - -Let it be remembered, too, that Infusoria, when found in either do not -themselves constitute the impurity of fresh or salt water; they merely -act as 'nature's invisible scavengers,' whose duty it is to remove -all nuisances that may spring up; and most unceasingly do these tiny -creatures labour in the performance of their all-important mission of -usefulness. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -Sea Anemones. - - -'The living flower that, rooted to the rock, - Late from the thinner element, - Shrunk down within its purple stem to sleep, - Now feels the water, and again - Awakening, blossoms out - All its green anther-necks.' - - - - -[Illustration: - -1 Sir J. G. Dalyell's celebrated ACTINIA (Drawn from Nature Jan. 1860.) -2 A. CRASSICORNIS -3 CAVE DWELLER (_A. troglodytes_)] - - - - -III. - - -No marine objects have become more universally popular of late years -than Sea Anemones. Certainly none better deserve the attention which -has been, and is daily bestowed upon them by thousands of amateur -naturalists, who cannot but be delighted with the wondrous variety of -form, and the beauteous colouring which these zoophytes possess. - -A stranger could scarcely believe, on looking into an aquarium, that -the lovely object before him, seated motionless at the base of the -vessel, with tentacula expanded in all directions, was not a simple -daisy newly plucked from the mountain side, or it may be a blooming -marigold or _Anemone_ from some rich parterre--instead of being, in -reality, a living, moving, animal-flower. - -One great advantage which the _Actiniæ_ possess over certain other -inhabitants of the sea-shore, at least to the eye of the naturalist, is -the facility with which specimens may be procured for observation and -study. Scarcely any rock-pool near low water mark but will be found to -encompass a certain number of these curious creatures, while some rocky -excavations of moderate size will at times contain as many as fifty. -Should the tide be far advanced, the young zoologist need not despair -of success, for, by carefully examining the under part of the boulders -totally uncovered by the sea, he will frequently find specimens of the -smooth anemone, contracted and hanging listlessly from the surface of -the stone, like masses of green, marone, or crimson jelly. - -The Actiniæ, and especially examples of the above mentioned species, -are extremely hardy and tenacious of life, as the following interesting -narrative will prove. - -The late Sir John Dalyell writing in 1851, says, 'I took a specimen -of _A. mesembryanthemum_ (smooth anemone) in August 1828, at North -Berwick, where the species is very abundant among the crevices of the -rocks, and in the pools remaining still replenished after the recess of -the tide. It was originally very fine, though not of the largest size, -and I computed from comparison with those bred in my possession, that -it must have been then at least seven years old.' - -Through the kindness of Dr. M'Bain, R.N., the writer has been permitted -to enjoy the extreme pleasure of inspecting the venerable zoophyte -above alluded to, which cannot now be much under thirty-eight years of -age! - -In the studio of the above accomplished naturalist, 'Granny' (as she -has been amusingly christened) still dwells, her wants being attended -to with all that tenderness and care which her great age demands. - -Sir J. Dalyell informs us that during a period of twenty years this -creature produced no less than 344 young ones. But, strange to say, -nearly the fortieth part of this large progeny consisted of monstrous -animals, the monstrosity being rather by redundance than defect. One, -for instance, was distinguished by two mouths of unequal dimensions -in the same disc, environed by a profusion of tentacula. Each mouth -fed independently of its fellow, and the whole system seemed to derive -benefit from the repast of either. In three years this monster became -a fine specimen, its numerous tentacula were disposed in four rows, -whereas only three characterize the species, and the tubercles of vivid -purple, regular and prominent, at that time amounted to twenty-eight. - -From the foregoing statement we learn that this extraordinary animal -produced about 300 young during a period of twenty years, but, 'wonder -of wonders!' I have now to publish the still more surprising fact, -that in the spring of the year 1857, after being unproductive for many -years, it unexpectedly gave birth, during a single night, to no less -than 240 living models of its illustrious self! - -This circumstance excited the greatest surprise and pleasure in the -mind of the late Professor Fleming, in whose possession this famous -Actinia then was. - -Up to this date (January 1860) there has been no fresh instance of -fertility on the part of Granny, whose health, notwithstanding her -great reproductive labours and advanced age, appears to be all that -her warmest friends and admirers could desire. Nor does her digestive -powers exhibit any signs of weakness or decay; on the contrary, that -her appetite is still exquisitely keen, I had ample opportunity of -judging. The half of a newly opened mussel being laid gently upon the -outer row of tentacula, these organs were rapidly set in motion, and -the devoted mollusc engulphed in the course of a few seconds. - -The colour of this interesting pet is pale brown. Its size, when fully -expanded, no larger than a half-crown piece. It is not allowed to -suffer any annoyance by being placed in companionship with the usual -occupants of an aquarium, but dwells alone in a small tank, the water -of which is changed regularly once a week. This being the plan adopted -by the original owner of Granny, is the one still followed by Dr. -M'Bain, whose anxiety is too great to allow him to pursue any other -course, for fear of accident thereby occurring to his protegée. - -A portrait of Granny, drawn from nature, will be found on Plate 2. - -_A. troglodytes_[2] (cave-dweller) is a very common, but interesting -object. The members of this species are especial favourites with the -writer, from their great suitableness for the aquarium. They vary -considerably in their appearance from each other. Some are red, violet, -purple, or fawn colour; others exhibit a mixture of these tints, while -not a few are almost entirely white. There are certain specimens which -disclose tentacula, that in colour and character look, at a little -distance, like a mass of eider-down spread out in a circular form. A -better comparison, perhaps, presents itself in the smallest plumage of -a bird beautifully stippled, and radiating from a centre. The centre -is the mouth of the zoophyte, and is generally a light buff or yellow -colour. From each corner, in certain specimens, there branches out -a white horn that tapers to a very delicate point, and is oft times -gracefully curled like an Ionic volute, or rather like the tendril of a -vine. - -[2] The above mentioned Actinia is extremely abundant on the shores -of the Frith of Forth. Sir J. Dalyell terms it _A. explorator_. -Local amateur naturalists frequently reject the specific name -of 'Troglodytes,' and adopt the more musical appellation of -'Daisy-Anemone.' Such error seems very pardonable, when we remember the -close resemblance which the creature when expanded bears to the daisy -of the field. In no single instance have I met with specimens of the -true _A. bellis_ at the above named locality, nor do I think any have -ever been found by previous naturalists. - -In addition to the pair of horns alluded to, may sometimes be seen a -series of light-coloured rays, occurring at regular intervals around -the circumference of the deep tinted tentacula, and thereby producing -to the eye of the beholder a most pleasing effect. - -As a general rule, never attempt to capture an anemone unless it be -fully expanded, before commencing operations. By this means you will be -able to form a pretty accurate estimate of its appearance in the tanks. -This condition of being seen necessitates, of course, its being covered -with water, and, consequently, increases the difficulty of capturing -your prize, especially when the creature happens to have taken up a -position upon a combination of stone and solid rock, or in a crevice, -or in a muddy pool, which when disturbed seems as if it would never -come clear again. - -It is, in consequence, advisable to search for those situated in -shallow water, the bottom of which is covered with clean sand. When -such a favourable spot is found, take hammer and chisel and commence -operations. Several strokes may be given before any alarm is caused to -the anemone, provided it be not actually touched. No sooner, however, -does the creature feel a palpable vibration, and suspect the object of -such disturbance, than, spurting up a stream of water, it infolds its -blossom, and shrinks to its smallest possible compass. At same time -apparently tightens its hold of the rock, and is, indeed, often enabled -successfully to defy the utmost efforts to dislodge it. - -After a little experience, the zoologist will be able to guess whether -he is likely to succeed in getting his prize perfect and entire; if -not, let me beg of him not to persevere, but immediately try some other -place, and hope for better fortune. - -Although apparently sedentary creatures, the Actiniæ often prove -themselves to be capable of moving about at will over any portion of -their subaqueous domain. Having selected a particular spot, they will -ofttimes remain stationary there many consecutive months. A smooth -anemone that had been domesticated for a whole year in my aquarium -thought fit to change its station and adopt a roving life, but at last -'settled down,' much to my surprise, upon a large mussel suspended -from the surface of the glass. Across both valves of the mytilus the -'mess.' attached by its fleshy disc, remained seated for a considerable -length of time. It was my opinion that the mussel would eventually be -sacrificed. Such, however, was not the case, for on the zoophyte again -starting off on a new journey, the mollusc showed no palpable signs of -having suffered from the confinement to which it had so unceremoniously -been subjected. - -The appearance of this anemone situated several inches from the base -of the vessel, branching out from such an unusual resting-place, and -being swayed to and fro, as it frequently was, by the contact of a -passing fish, afforded a most pleasing sight to my eye. Indeed, it was -considered for a while one of the 'lions' of the tank, and often became -an object of admiration not only to my juvenile visitors, but also to -many 'children of larger growth.' - -There is a curious fact in connection with the Actiniæ which deserves -to be chronicled here. I allude to the apparent instinct which they -possess. This power I have seen exercised at various times. The -following is a somewhat remarkable instance of the peculiarity in -question. - -In a small glass vase was deposited a choice _A. dianthus_, about an -inch in diameter. The water in the vessel was at least five inches -in depth. Having several specimens of the _Aplysiæ_, I placed one in -companionship with the anemone, and was often amused to observe the -former floating head downward upon the surface of the water. After a -while it took up a position at the base of the vase, and remained there -for nearly a week. Knowing the natural sluggishness of the animal, -its passiveness did not cause me any anxiety. I was rather annoyed, -however, at observing that the fluid was becoming somewhat opaque, -and that the Dianthus remained entirely closed, and intended to find -out the cause of the phenomena, but from some reason or other failed -to carry out this laudable purpose at the time. After the lapse of a -few days, on looking into the tank, I was delighted to perceive the -lace-like tentacula of the actinia spread out on the surface of the -water, which had become more muddy-looking than before. - -I soon discovered that the impurity in question arose from the Aplysia -(whose presence in the tank I had forgotten) having died, and its body -being allowed to remain in the vessel in a decaying state. The deceased -animal on being removed emitted an effluvium so intolerably bad that -it seemed like the concentrated essence of vile odours. The water, of -course, must have been of the most deadly character, yet had this most -delicate of sea-anemones existed in it for several consecutive days. - -In order further to test how long my little captive would remain alive -in its uncongenial habitation, I cruelly refused to grant any succour, -but must own to having felt extremely gratified at perceiving, in the -course of a few days, that instead of remaining with its body elongated -to such an unusual extent, the Dianthus gradually advanced along the -base, then up the side of the vessel, and finally located itself in -a certain spot, from which it could gain easy access to the outer -atmosphere. - -After this second instance of intelligence (?) I speedily transferred -my pet to a more healthy situation. - -Having procured a small colony of Actiniæ, you need be under no anxiety -about their diet, for they will exist for years without any further -subsistence than is derived from the fluid in which they live. Yet -strange as the statement will appear to many persons, the Actiniæ -are generally branded with the character of being extremely greedy -and voracious. 'Nothing,' says Professor Jones, 'can escape their -deadly touch. Every animated thing that comes in contact with them is -instantly caught, retained, and mercilessly devoured. Neither strength -nor size, nor the resistance of the victim, can daunt the ravenous -captor. It will readily grasp an animal, which, if endowed with similar -strength, advantage, and resolution, could certainly rend its body -asunder. It will endeavour to gorge itself with thrice the quantity of -food that its most capacious stomach is capable of receiving. Nothing -is refused, provided it be of animal substance. All the varieties of -the smaller fishes, the fiercest of the crustacea, the most active of -the annelidans, and the soft tenants of shells among the mollusca, all -fall a prey to the Actiniæ.' - -This is a sweeping statement, and, although corroborated by Sir J. -Dalyell and others, is one that requires to be received with a certain -degree of caution. It most certainly does not apply to _A. bellis_, -_A. parisitica_, _A. dianthus_, _troglodytes_, or any other members of -this group; and to a very limited extent only is it applicable to _A. -coriacea_ or _A. mesembryanthemum_. - -As may readily be conceived, the writer could not keep monster -specimens, such as are often found at the sea-shore; but surely if -the statement were correct that, _as a general rule_, the actiniæ -eat living crabs, the phenomenon would occasionally occur with -moderate-sized specimens, when kept in companionship with a mixed -assembly of crustaceans. Yet in no single instance have I witnessed a -small crab sacrificed to the gluttony of a small anemone. - -With regard to _A. mesembryanthemum_, _A. bellis_, and _A. dianthus_, -they get so accustomed to the presence of their crusty neighbours, -as not to retract their expanded tentacula when a hermit crab, for -instance, drags his lumbering mansion across, or a fiddler crab steps -through the delicate rays, like a sky terrier prancing over a bed of -tulips. - -Thus much I have felt myself called upon to say in defence of certain -species of Actiniæ; but with regard to _A. crassicornis_, I must -candidly own the creature is greedy and voracious to an extreme degree. - -Like many other writers, I have seen scores of this species of Actiniæ -that contained the remains of crabs of large dimensions, but at one -time considered that the latter were dead specimens, which had been -drifted by the tide within reach of the Actiniæ, and afterwards -consumed. That such, indeed, was the correct explanation in many -instances I can scarcely doubt, from the disproportionate bigness of -the crabs as compared with the anemones, but feel quite confident, that -in other instances, the crustacea were alive when first caught by their -voracious companions. - -To test the power of the 'crass.,' I have frequently chosen a specimen -well situated for observation, and dropped a crab upon its tentacula. -Instantly the intruding animal was grasped (perhaps merely by a claw), -but in spite of its struggles to escape, was slowly drawn into the -mouth of its captor, and eventually consumed. In one case, after the -crab had been lost to view for the space of three minutes only, I drew -it out of the Actinia, but although not quite dead, it evidently did -not seem likely to survive for any length of time. - -In collecting Actiniæ great care should be taken in detaching them from -their position. If possible, it is far the better plan not to disturb -them, but to transport them to the aquarium on the piece of rock or -other substance to which they may happen to be affixed. This can in -general be done by a smart blow of the chisel and hammer. - -Should the attempt fail, an endeavour should be made to insinuate the -finger nails under the base, and so detach each specimen uninjured. -This operation is a delicate one, requiring practice, much patience, -and no little skill. We are told by some authors that a slight rent -is of no consequence, since the anemone is represented as having the -power of darning it up. It may be so, but for my part I am inclined in -other instances to consider the statement more facetious than truthful. -In making this remark, I allude solely to the disc of the animal, an -injury to which I have never seen repaired. On the other hand, it is -well known that certain other parts may be destroyed with impunity. If -the tentacula, for instance, be cut away, so great are the reproductive -powers of the Actiniæ, that in a comparatively short space of time the -mutilated members will begin to bud anew. - -'If cut transversely through the middle, the lower portion of the -body will after a time produce more tentacula, pretty near as they -were before the operation, while the upper portion swallows food as -if nothing had happened, permitting it indeed at first to come out at -the opposite end; just as if a man's head being cut off would let out -at the neck the bit taken in at the mouth, but which it soon learns to -retain and digest in a proper manner.' - -The smooth anemone being viviparous, as already hinted, it is no -uncommon circumstance for the naturalist to find himself unexpectedly -in possession of a large brood of infant zoophytes, which have been -ejected from the mouth of the parent. - -There is often an unpleasant-looking film surrounding the body of -the Actiniæ. This 'film' is the skin of the animal, and is cast off -very frequently. It should be brushed away by aid of a camel-hair -pencil. Should any rejected food be attached to the lips, it may be -removed by the same means. When in its native haunts this process is -performed daily and hourly by the action of the waves. Such attention -to the wants of his little captives should not be grudgingly, but -lovingly performed by the student. His labour frequently meets with -ample reward, in the improved appearance which his specimens exhibit. -Instead of looking sickly and weak, with mouth pouting, and tentacula -withdrawn, each little pet elevates its body and gracefully spreads -out its many rays, apparently for no other purpose than to please its -master's eye. - -_A. mesembryanthemum_ (in colloquial parlance abbreviated to 'mess.'), -is very common at the sea-shore. It is easily recognised by the row of -blue torquoise-like beads, about the size of a large pin's head, that -are situated around the base of the tentacula. This test is an unerring -one, and can easily be put in practice by the assistance of a small -piece of stick, with which to brush aside the overhanging rays. - -_A. crassicornis_ grows to a very large size. Some specimens would, -when expanded, cover the crown of a man's hat, while others are no -larger than a 'bachelor's button.' Unless rarely marked, I do not now -introduce the 'crass.' into my tanks, from a dislike, which I cannot -conquer, to the strange peculiarity which members of this species -possess, of turning themselves inside out, and going through a long -series of inelegant contortions. Still, to the young zoologist, this -habit will doubtless be interesting to witness. One author has named -these large anemones 'quilled dahlias;' and the expression is so -felicitous, that if a stranger at the sea-side bear it in mind, he -could hardly fail to identify the 'crass.,' were he to meet with -a specimen in a rocky pool. Not the least remarkable feature in -connection with these animal-flowers, is the extraordinary variety of -colouring which various specimens display. - -_A. troglodytes_, is seldom found larger than a florin. Its general -size is that of a shilling. From the description previously given, the -reader will be able to make the acquaintance of this anemone without -any trouble whatever. - -_A. dianthus_ (Plumose anemone), is one of the most delicately -beautiful of all the Actiniæ; it can, moreover, be very readily -identified in its native haunts. Its colour is milky-white,--body, -base, and tentacula, all present the same chaste hue. Specimens, -however, are sometimes found lemon-coloured, and occasionally of a deep -orange tint. Various are the forms which this zoophyte assumes, yet -each one is graceful and elegant. - -The most remarkable as well as the most common shape, according to -my experience, is that of a lady's corset, such as may often be seen -displayed in fashionable milliners' windows. Even to the slender waist, -the interior filled with a mass of lace-work, the rib-like streaks, and -the general contour, suggestive of the Hogarthian line of beauty, the -likeness is sustained. - -When entirely closed, this anemone, unlike many others, is extremely -flat, being scarcely more than a quarter of an inch in thickness; -indeed, so extraordinary is the peculiarity to which I allude, that a -novice would have great difficulty in believing that the object before -him was possessed of expansive powers at all, whereas, in point of -fact, it is even more highly gifted in this respect than any other -species of Actiniæ. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -Edible Crab, Shore-Crab, Spider-Crab, &c. - - -'With a smart rattle, something fell from the bed to the floor; and -disentangling itself from the death drapery, displayed a large pound -_Crab_.... Creel Katie made a dexterous snatch at a hind claw, and, -before the Crab was at all aware, deposited him in her patch-work -apron, with a "_Hech, sirs, what for are ye gaun to let gang siccan a -braw partane?_"'--T. HOOD - - - - -[Illustration: - -1 EDIBLE CRAB -2 EDIBLE CRAB, casting its shell, from Nature -3 SPIDER CRAB -4 COMMON SHORE-CRAB -5 MINUTE PORCELAIN-CRAB] - - - - -IV. - - -The foregoing motto, extracted from a humorous tale by 'dear Tom Hood,' -which appeared in one of his comic annuals,--or volumes of 'Laughter -from _year_ to _year_,' as he delighted to call them,--may not inaptly -introduce the subject of this chapter. - -The term _partane_ is generally applied in Scotland to all the true -crabs (_Brachyura_). An esteemed friend, however, informs me that in -some parts it is more particularly used to denote the Edible Crab -_(Cancer pagurus_), which is sold so extensively in the fishmongers' -shops. However that may be, there is no doubt it was a specimen of this -genus that Creel Katie so boldly captured. - -Now this crab, to my mind, is one of the most interesting objects of -the marine animal kingdom, and I would strongly advise those of my -readers who may have opportunities of being at the sea-side to procure -a few youthful specimens. Its habits, according to my experience, are -quite different from those of its relative, the Common Shore-Crab -(_Carcinus_ _mænas_), or even the Velvet Swimming-Crab (_Portunus -puber_). Unlike these, it does not show any signs of a vicious temper -upon being handled, nor does it scamper away in hot haste at the -approach of a stranger. Its nature, strange as the statement may appear -to many persons, seems timid, gentle, and fawn-like. - -On turning over a stone, you will perhaps perceive, as I have often -done, three or four specimens, and, unless previously aware of the -peculiarity of their disposition, you will be surprised to see each -little fellow immediately fall upon his back, turn up the whites of his -eyes, and bring his arms or claws together,-- - - 'As if praying dumbly, - Over his breast:' - -making just such a silent appeal for mercy as a pet spaniel does -when expecting from his master chastisement for some _faux pas_. One -of these crabs may be taken up and placed in the hand without the -slightest fear. It will not attempt to escape, but will passively -submit to be rolled about, and closely examined at pleasure. Even when -again placed in its native element, minutes will sometimes elapse -before the little creature can muster up courage to show his 'peepers,' -and gradually unroll its body and limbs from their painful contraction. - -Most writers on natural history entertain an opinion totally at -variance with my own in regard to the poor _Cancer pagurus_, of whom -we are speaking. By some he is called a fierce, cannibalistic, and -remorseless villain, totally unfit to be received into respectable -marine society. Mr. Jones relates how he put half a dozen specimens -into a vase, and on the following day found that, with the exception -of two, all had been killed and devoured by their companions; and in a -trial of strength which speedily ensued between the pair of 'demons in -crustaceous guise,' one of these was eventually immolated and devoured -by his inveterate antagonist. Sir J. Dalyell mentions several similar -instances of rapacity among these animals. Now, these anecdotes I do -not doubt, but feel inclined, from the results of my own experience, to -consider them exceptional cases. - -When studying the subject of exuviation, I was in the habit of -keeping half a dozen or more specimens of the Edible Crab together as -companions in the same vase; but except when a 'friend and brother' -slipped off his shelly coat, and thus offered a temptation too great -for crustaceous nature to withstand, I do not remember a single -instance of cannibalism. True, there certainly were occasionally -quarrelling and fighting, and serious nocturnal broils, whereby life -and limb were endangered; but then such mishaps will frequently occur, -even in the best regulated families of the higher animals, without -these being denounced as a parcel of savages. - -Compared to _Cancer pagurus_, the Shore-Crab appears in a very -unamiable light. When the two are kept in the same vase, they exhibit -a true exemplification of the wolf and the lamb. This, much to my -chagrin, was frequently made evident to me, but more particularly so -on one occasion, when I was, from certain circumstances, compelled to -place a specimen of each in unhappy companionship. Here is a brief -account of how they behaved to each other: The poor little lamb (_C. -pagurus_) was kept in a constant state of alarm by the attacks of her -fellow-prisoner (_C. mænas_) from the first moment that I dropped her -in the tank. If I gave her any food, and did not watch hard by until it -was consumed, the whole meal would to a certainty be snatched away. Not -content with his booty, the crabbie rascal of the shore would inflict a -severe chastisement upon his rival in my favour, and not unfrequently -attempt to wrench off an arm or a leg out of sheer wantonness. To -end such a deplorable state of matters, I very unceremoniously took -up wolf, and lopped off one of his large claws, and also one of his -hind legs. By this means I stopped his rapid movements to and fro, -and, moreover, deprived him somewhat of his power to grasp an object -forcibly. In spite of his mutilations, he still exhibited the same -antipathy to his companion, and, as far as possible, made her feel the -weight of his jealous ire. Retributive justice, however, was hanging -over his crustaceous head. The period arrived when nature compelled -him to change his coat. In due time the mysterious operation was -performed, and he stood forth a new creature, larger in size, handsomer -in appearance, but for a few days weak, sickly, and defenceless. His -back, legs, and every part of his body were of the consistency of -bakers' dough. The lamb well knew her power, and though much smaller in -size than her old enemy, she plucked up spirit and attacked him; nor -did she desist until she had seemingly made him cry peccavi, and run -for his life beneath the shelter of some friendly rock. Without wishing -to pun, I may truly say the little partane came off with _eclat_, -having my warmest approbation for her conduct, and a _claw_ in her arms -as token of her prowess. I knew that when wolf was himself again there -would be a scene. Reprisals, of course, would follow. Therefore, rather -than permit a continuance of such encounters, I separated the crabs, -and introduced them to companions more suited to the nature of each. - -The difference exhibited in the form and development of the tail in -the ten-footed Crustacea (_Decapoda_)--as for instance, the crab, the -lobster, and the hermit-crab--is so striking that naturalists have -very appropriately divided them into three sections, distinguished by -terms expressive of these peculiarities of structure: 1st, _Brachyura_, -or short-tailed decapods, as the Crabs; 2d, _Anomoura_, or irregular -tailed, as the Hermit-crabs; 3d, _Macroura_, or long-tailed, as -Lobster, Cray-fish, &c. - -It is to a further consideration of a few familiar examples of the -first mentioned group that I propose to devote the remainder of this -chapter. - -Few subjects of study are more difficult and obscure than such as -belong to the lower forms of the animal kingdom. However carefully -we may observe the habits of these animals, our conclusions are too -often apt to be unsound, from our proneness to judge of their actions -as we would of the actions of men. As a consequence, an animal may -be pronounced at one moment quiet and intelligent, and at another -obstinate and dull, while perhaps, if the truth were known, it deserves -neither verdict. - -For my own part, the more I contemplate the habits of many members -of the marine animal kingdom, the more am I astounded at the seeming -intelligence and purpose manifested in many of their actions. Prior, -apparently, must have been impressed with the same idea, for he says, -speaking of animals,-- - - "Vainly the philosopher avers - That reason guides our deeds, and instinct _theirs_. - How can we justly different causes frame - _When the effects entirely are the same?_ - Instinct and reason, how can we divide? - 'Tis the fool's ignorance, and the pedant's pride!" - -This train of thought has been suggested to my mind by viewing the -singular conduct of a Shore-Crab, whom I kept domesticated for many -consecutive months. Three times during his confinement he cast his -exuvium, and had become nearly double his original size. His increased -bulk made him rather unfit for my small ocean in miniature, and gave -him, as it were, a loblolliboy appearance. Besides, he was always -full of mischief, and exhibited such pawkiness, that I often wished -he were back again to his sea-side home. Whenever I dropped in a meal -for my Blennies, he would wait until I had retired, and then rush out, -disperse the fishes, and appropriate the booty to himself. If at all -possible, he would catch one of my finny pets in his arms, and speedily -devour it. Several times he succeeded in so doing; and fearing that -the whole pack would speedily disappear, unless stringent measures for -their preservation were adopted, I determined to eject the offender. -After considerable trouble, his crabship was captured, and transferred -to a capacious glass. - -The new lodging, though not so large as the one to which for so long -a time he had been accustomed, was nevertheless clean, neat, and -well-aired. At its base stood a fine piece of polished granite, to -serve as a chair of state, beneath which was spread a carpet of rich -green ulva. The water was clear as crystal; in fact, the accommodation, -as a whole, was unexceptionable. The part of host I played myself, -permitting no one to usurp my prerogative. But in spite of this, -the crab from the first was extremely dissatisfied and unhappy with -the change, and for hours together, day after day, he would make -frantic and ineffectual attempts to climb up the smooth walls of -his dwelling-place. Twice a day, for a week, I dropped in his food, -consisting of half a mussel, and left it under his very eyes; nay, I -often lifted him up and placed him upon the shell which contained his -once-loved meal; still, although the latter presented a most inviting -come-and-eat kind of appearance, not one particle would he take, but -constantly preferred to raise himself as high as possible up the sides -of the vase, until losing his balance, he as constantly toppled over -and fell upon its base. - -This behaviour not a little surprised me. Did it indicate sullenness? -or was it caused by disappointment? Was he aware that escape from -his prison without aid was impossible, and consequently exhibited -the pantomime, which I have described, to express his annoyance, and -longing for the home he had lately left? - -Thinking that perhaps there was not sufficient sea-weed in the glass, -I added a small bunch of _I. edulis_. Having thus contributed, as I -believed, to the comfort of the unhappy crab, I silently bade him -_bon soir_. On my return home, I was astonished by the servant, who -responded to my summons at the door, blurting out in a nervous manner, -'O sir! the creature's run awa!' 'The creature--what creature?' I -inquired. 'Do ye no ken, sir?--the wee crabbie in the tumler!' - -I could scarcely credit the evidence of my sight when I saw the -'tumler' minus its crustaceous occupant. The first thought that -occurred to me was as to where the crab could be found. Under chairs, -sofa, and fender, behind book-case, cabinet, and piano, in every -crevice, hole, and corner, for at least an hour did I hunt without -success. Eventually the hiding-place of the fugitive was discovered in -the following singular manner: As I sat at my desk, I was startled by -a mysterious noise which apparently proceeded from the interior of my -'Broadwood,' which, by-the-by, I verily believe knows something about -the early editions of 'The battle of Prague,' The strings of this -venerable instrument descend into ill-disguised cupboards, so that -at the lower part there are two doors, or, in scientific language, -'valves.' On opening one of these, what should I see but the poor -crab, who, at my approach, 'did' a kind of scamper polka over the -strings. This performance I took the liberty of cutting short with -all possible speed. On dragging away the performer, I found that his -appearance was by no means improved since I saw him last. Instead of -being ornamented with gracefully-bending polypes, he was coated, body -and legs, with dust and cobwebs. I determined to try the effect of a -bath, and presently had the satisfaction of seeing him regain his usual -comely appearance. The next step was to replace him in his old abode; -and having done so, I felt anxious to know how the creature had managed -to scale his prison walls. The _modus operandi_ was speedily made -apparent; yet I feel certain that, unless one had watched as I did, the -struggles of this little fellow, the determination and perseverance he -exhibited would be incredible. - -After examining his movements for an hour, I found, by dint of standing -on the points of his toes, poised on a segment of weed, that he managed -to touch the brim of the glass. Having got thus far, he next gradually -drew himself up, and sat upon the edge of the vessel. In this position -he would rest as seemingly content as a bird on a bush, or a schoolboy -on a gate. - -My curiosity satisfied, the _C. mænas_ was again placed in the vase, -and every means of escape removed. - -Here let me mention that I still had a Fiddler-Crab in my large tank, -who had formerly lived in companionship with the shore-crab above -mentioned. With 'the fiddler' I had no fault to find; he was always -modest and gentle, and gave no offence whatever to my Blennies. He -never attempted to embrace them, nor to usurp their lawful place at the -table, nor even to appropriate their meals. On the contrary, he always -crept under a stone, and closely watched the process of eating until -the coast was clear, when he would scuttle out, and feed, Lazarus-like, -upon any crumbs that might be scattered around. - -Although so modest and retiring, I soon discovered that this little -crab possessed an ambitious and roving disposition. This made him -wish to step into the world without, and proceed on a voyage of -discovery--to start, indeed, on his own account, and be independent of -my hospitality, or the dubious bounty of his finny companions. Taking -advantage on one occasion of a piece of sandstone that rested on the -side of the aquarium, he climbed up its slanting-side, from thence he -stepped on to the top of the vessel, and so dropped down outside upon -the room floor. For nearly two days I missed his familiar face, but had -no conception that he had escaped, or that he wished to escape from his -crystal abode. It was by mere accident that I discovered the fact. - -Entering my study, after a walk on a wet day, umbrella in hand, I -thoughtlessly placed this useful article against a chair. A little pool -of water immediately formed upon the carpet, which I had no sooner -noticed, than I got up to remove the _parapluie_ to its proper place in -the stand, but started back in surprise, for in the little pool stood -the fugitive fiddler moistening his branchiæ. - -Taking up the little prodigal who had left my protection so lately, -I soon deposited him in a vase of clear salt water. After a while, -thinking it might conduce to the happiness of both parties, I placed -him in companionship with his old friend, _Carcinus mænas_. This, -like many other philanthropic projects, proved a complete failure. -Both creatures, once so harmless towards each other, seemed suddenly -inspired by the demon of mischief. Combats, more or less severe, -constantly occurring, in a few days I separated them. - -The 'fiddler' I placed in the large tank, where he rested content, and -never again offered to escape--evidently the better of his experience. -Not so his old friend, who still continued obstinate and miserable as -ever. In his case I determined to see if a certain amount of sternness -would not curb his haughty spirit. For two days I offered him no -food, but punished him with repeated strokes on his back, morning and -evening. This treatment was evidently unpleasant, for he scampered -about with astonishing rapidity, and ever endeavoured to shelter -himself under the granite centre-piece. When I thought he had been -sufficiently chastised, I next endeavoured to coax him into contentment -and better conduct. My good efforts were, however, unavailing. Every -morning I placed before him a newly-opened mussel, but on no occasion -did he touch a morsel. All day he continued struggling, as heretofore, -to climb up the side of his chamber, trying by every means in his power -to escape. This untameable disposition manifested itself for about a -week, but at the end of that time, on looking into the vase, I saw -the crab seated on the top of the stone, his body resting against the -glass. I then took up a piece of meat and placed it before him. To my -surprise he did not run away as usual. Having waited for some minutes, -and looking upon his obstinacy as unpardonable, I tapped him with a -little stick--still he never moved. A sudden thought flashed across my -mind; I took him up in my hand, examined him, and quickly found that he -was stiff and dead! - - * * * * * - -There is a little crab, _Porcellana longicornis_, or Minute -Porcelain-Crab, frequently to be met with in certain localities. - -The peculiarity of this creature is the thickness and the great -disproportionate length of his arms, as compared with the size of his -pea-like body. He possesses a singular habit which I have not observed -in any other crustaceans. He does not sit under a stone, for instance, -but always lies beneath such object with his back upon the ground; -so that when a boulder is turned over, these crabs are always found -sitting upon it, whereas the shore-crabs, when the light of day is -suddenly let in upon them, scamper off with all possible speed; or if -any remain, it appears as if they had been pressed to death almost, by -the weight of the stone upon their backs. - -The colour of _P. longicornis_ is that of prepared chocolate, shaded -off to a warm red. - -Another crab, equally common with those already mentioned, is to -be met with when dredging, and in most rock-pools. At Wardie, near -Edinburgh, I have seen hundreds of all sizes hiding beneath the rocks -at low tide. Its scientific name is _Hyas araneus_, but it is better -known as one of the Spider-Crabs. It claims close relationship with -that noted crustaceous sanitory reformer, _Maia squinado_. Although -this H. araneus is a somewhat pleasant fellow when you get thoroughly -acquainted with his eccentricities, appearances are sadly against him -at starting. Speaking with due caution and in the gentlest manner -possible, consistent with truth, I must say that this crab is, without -exception, one of the dirtiest-looking animals I have ever met with in -my zoological researches. At a by no means hasty glance, he appears to -be miraculously built up of mud, hair, and grit on every part, except -his claws, which are long and sharp as those of any bird of prey. - -The first specimen I ever saw, seemed as if he had been dipped in a gum -pot, and then soused over head and ears in short-cut hair and filth. - -The second specimen, although equally grimy, had some redeeming points -in his personal appearance, for at intervals every part of his back and -claws were covered with small frondlets of ulva, dulse, _D. sanguinea_, -and other beautiful weeds, all of which were in a healthy condition. -After keeping him in a vase for a week, he managed, much against my -wish, to strip himself of the greater part of these novel excrescences. - -Instead of minute algæ, we read that these crabs are sometimes found -with oysters (_Ostrea edulis_) attached to their backs. Mr. W. Thompson -mentions two instances where this occurs, with specimens of _H. -araneus_, to be seen in Mr. Wyndman's cabinet. Speaking of these, he -adds, 'The oyster on the large crab is three inches in length, and five -or six years' old, and is covered with many large Balani. The shell, -a carapace of the crab, is but two inches and a quarter in length, -and hence it must, Atlas-like, have born a world of weight upon its -shoulders. The presence of the oyster affords interesting evidence that -the Hyas lived several years after attaining its full growth. - -For days after I had brought him home, my second specimen appeared as -if he were dead, and it was only by examining his mouth through a hand -lens that I could satisfy myself as to his being alive. When I pushed -him about with an ivory stick he never resisted, but always remained -still upon the spot where I had urged him. - -This species of _acting_ he has given up for some time, and at the -present moment I rank H. araneus among my list of marine pets, for he -does not appear any longer to pine for mud with which to decorate his -person, but is quite content to 'purge and live cleanly' all the rest -of his days. - -The ancients imagined that _Maia squinado_ possessed a great degree of -wisdom, and further believed him to be sensible to the divine charms -of music. It is very curious, as well as true, that this animal has -in a far higher degree than other crustaceans, a gravity of demeanour, -and a profound style of doing everything, that always excites our -irreverent laughter, but at the same time leaves an impression that, -if justice were done, the animal ought to hold a higher position in -the marine world than a scavenger and devourer of ocean garbage. If -_Maia_ and _C. mænas_ be both eating out of the same dish, in the shape -of an open mussel, the former seems ever inclined to admonish his -companion upon greediness and want of manners. The only seeming reason -why _M. squinado_ does not really give such advice, is because of the -impossibility of any individual speaking with his mouth full. The -knowledge, too, that if he commenced a pantomimic discourse, it would -give his young friend an opportunity of gaining too large a share of -the banquet, may, perhaps, have something to do with his preferring to -remain quiet. - -As for _Maia's_ possession of appreciative musical qualities, I can -only state that both he and his friend _Hyas_ really do convey to -the beholder an impression confirmatory of this statement. I have -frequently been amused to observe the singular phenomenon of each -animal coming to the side of the vase and rocking his body to and fro, -in apparent delight at the exercise of my vocal abilities, just as -when a pleasing melody is being played in the concert room, we bend -backwards and forwards, and beat time to the tune. These animals also -adopt the same course: it must be to unheard music (which the poets say -is sweetest), that seems ever and anon to fall on their ears, giving -them great delight. - -The movements here alluded to may be in no way influenced by music; but -such as they are, it is curious that they have not been noticed as an -apparent explanation of the origin of the ancient belief regarding the -Spider-Crabs. - - * * * * * - -A friend, on one occasion having procured for me, among other objects, -a Common Limpet, I placed this mollusc in my aquarium, and soon had -the pleasure of watching it affix its broad foot to the surface of the -glass. After a while, on the Limpet slightly raising its canopy, I was -surprised to observe a little Shore-Crab peer out from between the foot -and shell. On suddenly ejecting the intruder by means of a small brush, -he speedily hid himself from view among the surrounding pebbles. A few -hours after, on again approaching the tank to view the Patella (which -was easily identified, from the fact of an immense colony of Mussels -being settled on its back), I found to my great astonishment that the -crab had re-seated himself in his old position. I often repeated the -sweeping operation, but without success, for the little rascal had -become artful, and was not inclined to be driven forth a second time -by a _coup de main_. I touched the Limpet frequently and saw it glue -itself, as usual, to the glass; but, singular to state, the creature -always left a larger space between its foot and the circumference -of the shell on the side at which the crab was seated, than on the -opposite one, seemingly from a wish to accommodate its crustaceous -friend. This space, moreover, let me observe, was larger than was -absolutely necessary, for, as the shell was not air-tight, I was -enabled to thrust my camel-hair pencil teazingly upon the crab, and was -much amused to watch him clutch at the intruding object, and, at times, -move about with it in his grasp, thus proving that he was by no means -uncomfortably 'cabin'd, cribb'd, confin'd.' - -For a whole week the crab remained in his favorite lodgings, and only -resigned occupancy thereof when his friend gave up the shell--and died. - -There is a certain species of crab, _Pinnotheres pisum_, or common -Pea-Crab, frequently found in _Mytilus edulis_, the Oyster, and the -Common Cockle. Indeed, one gentleman states, that on his examining, on -two occasions, a large number of specimens of the _Cardium edule_, he -found that nine out of every ten cockles contained a crab. Still, in no -other instance than the one my own experience furnishes, have I ever -heard of the Shore-Crab, or, indeed, of any other crustacean, becoming -the guest of _Patella_. - -The classical reader will not fail to remember Pliny's statement -(somewhat analogous to that above narrated) of a small crab, -_Pinnotheres veterum_, which is always found to inhabit the Pinna,--a -large species of mussel. This latter animal being blind, but muscularly -strong, and its juvenile companion quick-sighted, but weak of limb, the -crab, it is said, always keeps a sharp look-out, and when any danger -approaches, he gladly creeps into the gaping shell for protection. Some -writers assert, that when the bivalve has occasion to eat, he sends -forth his faithful henchman to procure food. If any foe approaches, -_Pinnotheres_ flies for protection with his utmost speed to the anxious -bosom of his friend, who, being thus warned of danger, closes his -valves, and escapes the threatened attack. When, on the contrary, the -crab loads himself with booty, he makes a gentle noise at the opening -of the shell, which is closed during his absence, and on admission, -this curious pair fraternize, and feast on the fruits of the little -one's foray. - -For those of my readers who may prefer verse to prose, I here append a -poetical version of this fable--equally pretty, but, let me add in a -whisper, equally opposed to fact, at least in its principal details:-- - - 'In clouded depths below, the Pinna hides, - And through the silent paths obscurely glides; - A stupid wretch, and void of thoughtful care, - He forms no bait, nor lays no tempting snare; - But the dull sluggard boasts a _crab_ his friend, - Whose busy eyes the coming prey attend. - One room contains them, and the partners dwell - Beneath the convex of one sloping shell: - Deep in the watery vast the comrades rove, - And mutual interest binds their constant love; - That wiser friend the lucky juncture tells, - When in the circuit of his gaping shells - Fish wandering enters; then the bearded guide - Warns the dull mate, and pricks his tender side. - He knows the hint, nor at the treatment grieves, - But hugs the advantage, and the pain forgives: - His closing shell the Pinna sudden joins, - And 'twixt the pressing sides his prey confines. - Thus fed by mutual aid, the friendly pair - Divide their gains, and all their plunder share.' - -There is one singular feature in the Crustacea which it may prove -interesting to dwell a little upon. I allude to their power of living -apparently without food, or at least without any other sustenance -than is afforded by the animalculæ contained in the water in which -they dwell. One accurate observer states that he kept a Cray-fish for -a period of two years, during which time the only food the animal -received was a few worms,--not more than fifty altogether. This -statement I have often had ample means of verifying. Yet, on the other -hand, strange to say, the crab is always on the hunt after tit-bits; -and nothing seems to give him greater delight than a good morning meal, -in the shape of a newly opened Mussel, Cockle, and above all--a Pholas. -Let a youthful crustacean cast its shell, and rest assured, unless its -companions have had their appetites appeased, they will endeavour to -fall upon and devour the defenceless animal. This, to my chagrin and -annoyance, I have known to occur repeatedly. When nothing else can be -procured, not only the Lobster Crabs, but any Brachyurous Decapods -who may be at hand, will set to work, and industriously pick off and -eat the Acorn-Barnacles attached to any object within reach. These -facts show that the asceticism of the crab is not voluntary, and that -when opportunity occurs, he is as fond of a good dinner as are animals -possessed of a higher degree of organization. - -It will be gratifying if other observers are able to verify the -circumstance which I shall allude to hereafter, and which would seem -to show that the _exuviation_ of crustacea is expedited by affording -specimens an unlimited supply of food. - -'The organs for pursuing, seizing, tearing, and comminuting the food of -the Brachyurous Decapods,' says Professor Bell, 'are carried to a high -degree of development; ... these appendages consist of six pairs, of -which some are actual organs of mastication, as the mandibles or the -true jaws, the foot jaws or pedipalps, generally serving to keep the -food in contact with the former, whilst it is being broken up by them. - -'The buccal orifice in the Brachyura occupies the interior face of -the cephalic division of the body, and is bounded anteriorly by a -crustaceous lamina of determinate form, which has been termed the upper -lip, and posteriorly by another, termed the lower lip. The mandibles -occupy the sides of the opening. After these, and external to them, -are the first, and then the second pair of true jaws, followed by the -three pairs of pedipalps or foot jaws, the last of which, when at rest, -close the mouth, and include the whole of the preceding ones. In the -Macroura the pedipalps are very different in their forms, and have the -aspect of very simple feet. - -'The means of comminuting the food are not restricted to the -complicated machinery above referred to, for the stomach itself -contains a very remarkable apparatus, consisting of several hard -calcareous pieces, which may be termed _gastric teeth_. They are -attached to horny or calcareous levers, fixed in the parietes of -the stomach; they are moved by a complicated system of muscles, and -are admirably adapted to complete the thorough breaking-down of the -aliment, which had already been to a considerable extent affected by -the buccal appendages. These gastric teeth may be readily seen and -examined in the larger species of Decapoda, as in the large eatable -crab and the lobster; and it will be readily perceived how perfectly -the different pieces are made to act upon each other, and to grind the -food interposed between them.' - -Having been on a certain day at the sea-side collecting, I was amused -to observe the movements of two ragged little urchins, who approached -near to where I stood, bottle in hand, examining some beautiful -zoophytes by aid of a pocket lens. One of them had a short iron rod, -with which he very dexterously hooked out any unfortunate crab who -happened to have taken up its quarters in some crevice or beneath -a boulder. Having captured a specimen, it was handed over to his -companion, who quickly tied it to a string which he held in his hand. - -I had seen many a rope of onions, but this was the first time I had -seen a rope of crabs. On inquiry, I learned that the boys had taken two -dozen animals in about two hours. When any of the green-bellied crabs -happened to be poked out, they were allowed to escape back again as -quickly as they pleased. - -With poor _Cancer pagurus_ the case was different,--every specimen, as -soon as caught, being strung up, and doomed to 'death in the pot.' - -The above, I need scarcely state, is not the usual manner of fishing -for crabs, the approved plan being to take them in what are termed -crab-pots, 'a sort of wicker-trap made, by preference, of the twigs of -the golden willow (_salex vitellina_), at least in many parts of the -coast, on account, as they say, of its great durability and toughness. -These pots are formed on the principle of a common wire mousetrap, but -with the entrance at the top; they are baited with pieces of fish, -generally of some otherwise useless kind, and these are fixed into the -pots by means of a skewer. The pots are sunk by stones attached to the -bottom, and the situation where they are dropped is indicated, and the -means of raising them provided, by a long line fixed to the creel, or -pot, having a piece of cork attached to the free end of the line; these -float the line, and at the same time serve to designate the owners -of the different pots--one, perhaps, having three corks near together -towards the extremity of the line, and two distant ones--another may -have one cork fastened crosswise, another fastened together, and so -on. It is, of course, for their mutual security that the fishermen -abstain from poaching on their neighbour's property; and hence we find -that stealing from each other's pots is a crime almost wholly unknown -amongst them.' - -'The fishery for these crabs constitutes an important trade on many -parts of the coast. The numbers which are annually taken are immense; -and, as the occupation of procuring them is principally carried on -by persons who are past the more laborious and dangerous pursuits of -general fishing, it affords a means of subsistence to many a poor man -who, from age or infirmity, would be unable without it to keep himself -and his family from the workhouse.'[3] - -[3] Bell's Brit. Crus. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -Hermit-Crabs. - - - 'Finding on the shoar -Som handsome shell, whose native lord of late -Was dispossessed by the doom of Fate, -Therein he enters, and he takes possession -Of th' empty harbour, by the free concession -Of Nature's law--who goods that owner want, -Alwaies allots to the first occupant.' - - DU BARTAS. - - - - -[Illustration: - -1 COMMON HERMIT-CRAB (_Pagurus bernhardus_) in shell of common Whelk -2 COMMON HERMIT-CRAB out of shell -3 SHIP BARNACLES] - - - - -V. - - -Twice in every twenty-four hours the waters of the ocean ebb and flow. -Twice only in each month, however, do the spring-tides occur. For there -are few dangers that the ardent student of nature would not encounter. -Lord Bacon tells of a certain bishop who used to bathe regularly twice -every day, and on being asked why he bathed thus often, answered, -'Because I cannot conveniently bathe _three_ times.' The zoologist, -like the 'right reverend father' alluded to, would willingly undergo -what appears to others much hardship and trouble, not only once or -twice, but even three times daily, in pursuit of his favourite studies, -did Nature but offer the kind convenience. - -On these occasions the zoologist can pursue his researches at the -shore, at a distance beyond the usual tidal line. Numerous boulders and -rock-pools, during many days covered by the sea, being then laid bare -and exposed to his eager, searching hands and eyes, he is frequently -able to discover many rare objects, or, at least, common ones -revelling in almost giant-like proportions, and wonderful profusion. - -The Soldier or Hermit-Crabs (to an account of whom we intend to devote -this chapter), offer a most remarkable proof of this. Occupying the -centre of a rocky excavation, I have repeatedly found several dozen -of these comical creatures, each inhabiting the cast-off shell of a -defunct Whelk (_Buccinum undatum_), which measured not less than five -or six inches in length. To my surprise these aldermanic crustaceans -possessed no companions of a smaller growth; while at a few yards -nearer shore, as many shells would be found congregated together as in -the more distant pool,--the largest, however, being no bigger than a -damson, while the smallest might be compared to an infantile pea, or -cherry-stone. - -I cannot explain this appearance otherwise, than by supposing that -the _Anomoura_ become prouder, or, it may be, more cunning, as they -grow older, and, having arrived at their full development, they -fit themselves with their final suit; thereafter, in a spirit of -aristocratic exclusiveness, they retire to fashionable subaqueous -residences, distant as far as possible from the homes of the -_canaille_, who inhabit the common, littoral boundaries of the shore. - -The peculiarity, to which I alluded, of the _Anomoura_ occupying -shells that have formerly belonged to other animals, is so strange -that some writers have not hesitated to express doubt upon the -subject. This denial of a fact, which can so readily be proved, is one -of the 'curiosities of literature.' Swammerdam, a Dutch naturalist -contemptuously observes, 'What an idle fable that is which is -established even among those who study shell-fishes, when they show -some kind of the crab kind in their museums, adding at the same time, -that they pass from one shell to another, devour the animals that -lived in those shells, and keep them for their own habitations. They -dignify them with the high-sounding names, and additions, as Soldiers, -Hermits, and the like; and thus, having no experience, they commit -gross errors, and deceive themselves, as well as others, with their -idle imaginations.' - -That there is nothing mythical in the matter can easily be made -apparent to any person who chooses to visit the sea-shore. At such -locality he need have no difficulty in recognising the Hermit-Crab, or -meeting with numerous specimens for examination. Supposing such a one -is at a rock-pool, and, moreover, that he knows by sight the Buckie -(periwinkle), and Common Whelk, he will probably in such case be aware -that the animals occupying these shells are snail-like in construction, -and that their locomotion is consequently slow and formal. If, -therefore, when peering into any pool he sees the Buckie, for instance, -apparently change its nature, and instead of - - 'Dragging its slow length along,' - -scamper off suddenly, or roll over and over from the top of an -eminence to the bottom, he may rest assured that the original -inhabitant has departed, and that its place is occupied by a -Lobster-Crab. - -The cause of his strange peculiarity I will briefly explain. - -In the true Lobster the tail forms a most valuable appendage. In the -tail the principal muscular power of the animal is seated; and by means -of it, too, the animal is enabled to spring to a considerable distance, -and also to swim through the water at will. This important organ is -well protected by a casing consisting of a 'series of calcareous rings, -forming a hard and insensible chain armour.' - -In the Lobster-Crab there is no such arrangement. 'The abdominal -segment of this singular animal, instead of possessing the same -crustaceous covering as the rest of his body and claws, is quite -soft, _and merely enveloped in a thin skin_. To protect this delicate -member from the attacks of his voracious companions, the poor Pagurus -is compelled to hunt about for some Univalve, such as a Whelk or -Trochus, and having found this, he drops his tail within the aperture -and hooks it firmly to the columella of the shell. Why Providence -has doomed the poor Hermits to descend to such physical hypocrisy, -and clothe themselves in the left-off garments of other animals, it -is not easy to conjecture. No doubt, besides the defence of their -otherwise unprotected bodies, he has some other object of importance -in view. Perhaps they may accelerate the decomposition of the shells -they inhabit, and cause them sooner to give way to the action of the -atmosphere; and as all exuviæ may be termed nuisances and deformities, -giving to these deserted mansions an appearance of renewed life and -locomotion, removes them in some sort from the catalogue of blemishes.' - -Professor Jones, when treating of this class of animals, forcibly -remarks that 'the wonderful adaptation of all the limbs to a residence -in such a dwelling, cannot fail to strike the most curious observer. -The _Chelæ_, or large claws, differ remarkably in size, so that when -the animal retires into its concealment, the smaller one may be -entirely withdrawn, while the larger closes and guards the orifice. The -two succeeding pairs of legs, unlike those of the Lobster, are of great -size and strength, and instead of being terminated by pincers, end in -strong-pointed levers, whereby the animal can not only crawl, but drag -after it, its heavy habitation. Behind these locomotive legs are two -feeble pairs, barely strong enough to enable the Soldier-Crab to shift -his position in the shell he has chosen; and the false feet attached -to the abdomen are even still more rudimentary in their development. -But the most singularly altered portion of the skeleton is the fin -of the tail, which here becomes transformed into a kind of holding -apparatus by which the creature retains a firm grasp of the bottom of -his residence.' - -So great is the power of the animals to retain hold of their shell, and -so intense their dislike to be forcibly ejected therefrom, that they -will often allow their bodies to be pulled asunder, and sacrifice their -life rather than submit to such indignity. This fact I have proved -on sundry occasions. But supposing a crab to have taken a fancy to a -shell, occupied by some brother Pagurus, (a circumstance of frequent -occurrence), he quickly proceeds to dislodge the latter. Curious to -state, this process never seems attended with any fatal result. - -When watching the operation, it has appeared to me as if the crab -attacked preferred to yield rather than be subjected to continuous -annoyance, and the discomfort of keeping for so long a time buried -within the inner recesses of his dwelling. - -The contrast in appearance of the Hermit-Crab when seated in his shell, -and crawling about minus such appendage, is great indeed. - -This the reader will readily perceive by examining the Illustrations on -Plate 4, which are drawn from nature, and are truthful portraitures of -this singular creature. - -I have already mentioned the extreme difficulty there is in expelling -a Lobster-Crab. This, be it understood, applies only to the animal in -good health; for no sooner does he feel sick than he instantly leaves -his shell, and crawls about in a most pitiable plight. He sometimes -becomes convalescent again by being placed solus in some fresh water, -or laid out in the air for a few moments. But he ought, on no account, -when in a sickly condition, to be allowed to hide himself beneath any -pieces of rock or shadow of the Algæ. - -If he is out of sight, be sure not to let him be out of mind; for, -should he die in the tank, and his body be allowed to remain for any -length of time, he will very soon afford you full proof that such -toleration on your part is anything but pleasant. - -Although, as already stated, this animal cannot be drawn out of his -shell except by extreme force, the object can easily be obtained by aid -of strategy. Having been for some time at a loss how to give certain -young visitors a sight of the Hermit-Crab in his defenceless state, I, -by accident, hit upon the following simple plan:-- - -With a piece of bent whalebone I lifted up a Pagurus, shell and all, -and allowed the latter to drop upon the outer row of the tentacula of -an Actinia, which quickly stuck fast to the intruding object. The crab -at first did not seem fully alive to his critical position. He popped -out of his shell and looked unsuspectingly around, until catching -sight of my face, he instantly retired from view with a casket-like -snap. In a minute he was out again, and this time prepared to change -his position. For this purpose he gave several successive pulls, but -finding all his efforts to remove his carriage unavailing, he unhooked -his tail and scrambled down among the pebbles. My purpose was thereby -gained, for the next moment he was resting in the palm of one of my -juvenile friends, who seemed quite delighted with his prize. Twice -afterwards, being in a mischievous mood, I gave the crab a fright in -the way just mentioned; but it was quite evident, that what might be -sport to me was death to him, for he was both annoyed and alarmed at -my procedure. Even when guiltless of any intention of touching the -creature, if I merely showed him the cane he immediately hobbled away -at the utmost rate of speed he could muster. On several occasions I -followed after and brought him back to the edge of the tank, although -such conduct met with his strongest disapproval, and caused him for -some time to sulk beneath an arch-way of rock work, away from the reach -of vulgar eyes. - -Upon the side and near the base of my tank a fine specimen of the -Limpet was at one time attached. From the centre of its shell a forest -of sea-grass waved gracefully, shadowing a large colony of Barnacles -thickly clustered beneath. Soon the Patella decided upon taking its -usual morning stroll in search of food, a task of little difficulty, -standing as the animal already did upon the margin of a broad meadow, -richly coated with a verdant growth, composed of the infant spores of -the Ulva. Slowly moving along, the Patella, with its riband-like band -of teeth, swept off the luscious weed in a series of graceful curves, -thus making an abundant and healthful meal. Before proceeding far, -however, he was forced to bear the weight of a Soldier-Crab, who had -most unceremoniously climbed upon his back, and taken up a position at -the base of the _latissima_ fronds. - -There seemed so much nonchalance about the Pagurus that I determined -to watch his movements, and, if possible, to see how he would manage -to descend from a position which, if the mollusc continued his mowing -operations, would soon be unenviably high. - -In about an hour the Limpet had reached the level of the water in the -aquarium, and there took up his abode for the night. Next day and the -next there was no change of situation. The crab now began evidently -to perceive the danger of the position in which he was placed, for he -constantly moved to and fro, and peered over into what must have seemed -to him an unfathomable abyss. - -While I stood, the Patella made a sudden movement of its shell--so -sudden, indeed, as to startle its companion, who quickly put out his -claws to save himself from falling. Unfortunately, in his spasmodic -gesture he allowed the tip of one of his claws to intrude under the -edge of the conical canopy, thus, in fact, pricking the fleshy 'mantle' -of the animal within, who instantly, of course, glued itself to the -glass with immoveable firmness. I suppose the same thing must have -frequently occurred without my knowledge, for after a lapse of several -days the Pagurus and his bearer were still in the same spot. I felt a -growing alarm for the continued health of the Hermit-Crab, from the -fact of its being poised so directly over the ever-expanded tentacles -of a large Anemone. To prevent any mishap, I went to lift his crabship, -with a view of transferring him to a place of safety, when, no sooner -did he perceive the advancing forceps, than he rushed into his shell -with a sudden and audible 'click,' forgetting for the moment that he -stood on such ticklish ground. The consequence was that, seeking to -avoid Scylla, he fell into Charybdis. In other words, he dropped plump -upon the well-gummed tenter-hooks of the Crassicornis, which instantly -closed and engulphed its prize. In vain did I endeavour with all speed -to pick out the devoted Pagurus. The more I tried, the more firmly did -the Actinia hold him in its convulsive grasp. - -With extremely few exceptions, the Hermit-Crabs are always found to be -a prying, prowling, curious class of animals, and are ever, like the -husband of the fair Lady Jane-- - - 'Poking their nose (?) into this thing and that.' - -They will turn over each shell and pebble that comes in their way, and -examine it with profound attention, or industriously climb up and roll -down hillocks and trees in the shape of small rocks and sea-weeds, -much to their danger. - -I once possessed a Hermit-Crab, whose voracious movements afforded -considerable amusement to myself and my friends. My Diogenes--or, -as the Cockney news-boys used to pronounce the now extinct comic -periodical, _Dodgenes_--on a certain occasion had climbed up a -segmentally cut frond of Irish Moss. On reaching the topmost point, his -weight became too great for the weed to bear; so, finding he was losing -his equilibrium, in great alarm he made a clutch at the first object -that stood near, in order to save him from falling. - -A mussel was moored hard by, to the side of the vase by means of its -silken byssus threads, and upon this friendly bivalve the Pagurus -leaped by aid of his long taper legs. Unluckily the shell of the -Mytilus was open, and the crab unwittingly thrusting his toe within the -aperture, the intruding object was of course instantly gripped by the -mollusc. This accident put him in a terrible fright. His gestures were -most excited, and no wonder. Let the reader fancy himself hanging on -to a window sill, at a height say of twenty feet from the ground, with -the sash-frame fixed on his hand, and a huge iron foot-bath, or some -such object, attached to the lower part of his body, and he will have a -tolerably correct idea of the painful position of our crustacean friend. - -After curling and uncurling his tail, and trying several times in vain -to throw his tub upon the valve of the mussel, he released hold of his -encumbrance, and allowed it to drop. Although still hanging, he had no -difficulty in rolling up his 'continuation,' and elevating his body -to the walls of his prison. Once again upon solid ground, he laboured -hard to get his leg free. But unsuccessful in his efforts, he adopted -another course, and snapped it off in a rage. - -Scarcely, however, was the act of mutilation finished, when the stupid -animal apparently seemed anxious to recover his lost toe, (which I may -mention, had in reality fallen down among the pebbles). - -After scraping, then resting, and scraping again, many successive -times, he at last succeeded in diving the points of his largest claw -into the chasm formed by the gaping mollusc. Of course, the member was -held as if by a powerful vice. Very soon his courage deserted him, and -he seemed to wait and weep despairingly for fate to release him from -the sad predicament into which he had foolishly fallen. Alas! he little -knew the singular part that fickle fortune had doomed him to play,--to -become, if I may so term it, a kind of Prometheus in the tank. - -My pack of fishes, having been on short rations for several days, had -become exceedingly ravenous, and consequently were keeping a sharp -look-out for scraps. Hence their intense delight on catching sight -of the devoted 'Dodgenes' can readily be imagined. Such a delicious -_morceau_ was perfectly irresistible:-- - - 'Mercy, mercy! - No pity, no release, no respite, oh!' - -At it they went, 'tooth and nail,' First one and then another tore away -a mouthful, until in the twinkling of an eye, almost, the martyr crab -was left forlorn and dead-- - - 'A remnant of his former self.' - -During the early portion of last year I had a Hermit-Crab inhabiting a -pretty Purpura, whose shell I wished to sketch as an illustration, it -being of peculiar form and colour. On going to the tank I discovered -that Pagurus had most apropos vacated his turbinated cot, apparently -in consequence of his feeling rather squeamish. Thinking he might -perhaps presently recover, or pick up another dwelling, I hesitated -not to abstract the shell, in order to make the required drawing. I -had not been occupied with my task for more than five minutes, when my -attention was attracted by a great excitement and clatter pervading the -tank. A hasty glance within the vessel sufficed to explain the cause of -the hubbub. - -The brief domestic drama of which I was a spectator, with its somewhat -singular denouement, I will now proceed to unfold for the reader's -entertainment. It conveys a good lesson in natural history, and also -exhibits a striking example of life beneath the waters. - -The Blennies, I may state, had become very voracious, pugnacious, and -audacious; nothing seemed safe from their attacks. I had begun to feed -them on the _Cardium edule_ and Mussel, but such diet, after a time, -only served to whet their appetite, which certainly appeared to 'grow -by what it fed on,' for they darted about through the water in all -directions, searching, as I suppose, for other dainties. These efforts -were unsuccessful, until they caught sight of the plump, undefended -portion of the body of their companion, the Hermit-Crab, who had just -left his shell, as above stated. - -The sight of such a feast must have (figuratively speaking) made their -'mouths water,' One after another these rascally fish dodged round -the crustaceous victim, and gripped, and shook his 'continuation' -with extraordinary violence. In vain did the crab try to act on the -defensive; all his efforts to retaliate were ineffectual, and in this -instance it might be truly said that 'might' overcame 'right.' He ran -to and fro in great distress, scraping the pebbles and shells about -(thus partly creating the clatter that I had heard while sketching), in -the hope that he might find an empty univalve in which to deposit his -mutilated carcase. When almost breathless and exhausted, he discovered -a worn-out Wentletrap, and strove to lift his quivering body into the -aperture, alas! without success. His strength failed him, and he fell -dead at the very threshold of his new-found home. - -While watching thus far the above transaction, the writer felt almost -inclined to waver in the faith he had long held with others, namely, -that fishes and other marine animals are insensible to pain. But -the movements of this poor Hermit-Crab were as indicative of severe -suffering as anything he ever witnessed in bird or quadruped. - -Wishing to examine the remains of the crab, I stepped aside for a few -moments to procure my forceps, but when I again reached the vase, to -my intense surprise the defunct animal was nowhere to be seen! I could -only account for so singular a circumstance by supposing some of the -larger crustaceans had taken advantage of my absence to complete the -work of destruction, and therefore took no further notice of the matter -at the time. - -I had often wished that some of my finny pets would deposit their spawn -in the tank, and felt very anxious, if such an event did take place, -that I might be near to witness it. But I was most anxious to watch the -gradual development of the ova, and, if practicable, to become the fond -owner of a host of infant 'fishlings.' - -Guess the thrill of pride, then, which ran through my veins when, on -peering into my mimic rock-pool, after a brief absence from home, I -observed the largest of my Blennies to be apparently in an 'interesting -condition.' I watched and petted her many times daily, and fed her with -every suitable dainty that could be thought of. Sometimes I took her -in the palm of my hand, and with a fine camel-hair pencil stroked her -glossy back. This operation evidently gave great delight to the little -beauty; and after a while, when my hand was laid in the water, she -gently floated off into her native element with almost swan-like grace. - -The law of nature being the same with this fish as with the -Stickleback, I knew the nest, if there was to be one at all, should -be built by the male. But as I could not detect any specimen of the -'sterner sex' among my pack, and there being no signs of preparation -for the grand event about to take place, I felt in a manner compelled -to carry out the nidifying task in my own humble way. Of course, I gave -up all idea of 'weaving' a nest with bits of weed, stones, and marine -glue; nor was such a style of structure a desideratum in the present -instance, wanting, as I did, to take notes, in Paul Pry fashion, of the -minutest particular that might occur within the building. The following -was the plan I adopted. First was procured the exquisitely formed valve -of a large _Pecten_, the interior of which was white and beautifully -irridescent. This pretty cot, I said to myself, shall serve as a -chamber for my _protégé_. The shell being deposited behind a piece of -rock, in such a position that its side rested against the surface of -the glass, I was thus enabled to watch what was going on within. Some -fronds of sea-weed were trained around so as to form a kind of drapery. -The Blenny, I am quite certain, knew perfectly well that all this care -and preparation was on her account, for nearly the whole of each day -she spent in the novel apartment extemporized for her accommodation. -After a week had elapsed, she grew uneasy and pettish, was ever -snapping at her companions, and hunting them about in all directions. -On one occasion, however, she seemed to be uneasy, now clashing round -the rock, then darting to the top of the tank, and down again upon the -pebbles. Scores of times these movements were repeated, until I felt -alarmed for her safety, and annoyed at my inability to relieve her -sufferings. But aid from me being impossible, I felt compelled, though -very unwillingly, to allow nature to take its course. - -On looking into the aquarium one morning, I observed some strange -object protruding from the fish. The little creature, too, on catching -sight of me, came to the side of the tank, near to where I stood, and -by her movements asked me, as plainly as any dumb animal could ask, to -give her my assistance. After a few minutes spent in a 'brown study', I -resolved to grant her petition, and immediately setting to work, drew -from her--what? what do you suppose, reader? In truth neither more nor -less than the body, head, and long antennæ of the 'martyr' Hermit-Crab! -whose late sudden disappearance was now fully accounted for. - -There are ten British species of Lobster-Crab, but one only, _P. -Bernardhus_, to which the reader has been introduced, is common to our -shores. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -Exuviation of Crustacea. - -(THE PHENOMENA OF CRABS, ETC., CASTING THEIR SHELLS.) - - -'As Samson at his marriage propounded a riddle to his companions -to try their wits thereon, so God offereth such enigmas in Nature, -partly that men may make use of their admiring as well as of their -understanding; partly that philosophers may be taught their distance -betwixt themselves, who are but the lovers, and God, who is the giver -of wisdom.'--INTRODUCTION TO CONCHOLOGY, page 384. - - - - -VI. - - -The Armory of the Tower of London forms, it is generally admitted, one -of the most interesting sights of the great metropolis. No one can look -without wonder upon that goodly array of knights and noble warriors, -nor help an involuntary sigh over the degeneracy of modern humanity. -Though the figures before us are technically and irreverently termed -'dummies,' the hardened shell with which their body and limbs are -cased we know has felt the throb of many a true English heart, maybe, -glistened beneath the sun at Cressy and Agincourt, or perhaps on the -bloody fields of Worcester and Marston Moor. It requires no great -power of the imagination to transport ourselves to bygone centuries, -and listen to the ring of hostile arms, the sepulchral voices of men -whose heads are inurned in casques of steel, blended with the clash of -battle-axes, the whizz of arrows, the neighing of steeds, the rattle of -musketry, and at intervals the deep booming cannon's roar. - -But, asks the gasping reader, what has this parade of mail-clad -warriors and old battle-fields to do with so prosaic a theme as the -exuviation of crabs? I must acknowledge that the question is a very -natural one, for there appears at first sight no connection between -the two subjects. The analogy will not, I believe, appear so forced -when I mention my possession of a smaller, although hardly less -singular armory, consisting of various coats of shelly mail, each of -which, at one time or other, belonged to, and was worn by a living -creature, and proved as effectual a protection in many fierce though -bloodless combats as any casque or helmet worn by knight. Unlike the -dummies of the Tower, my specimens are perfect, and give a complete -representation, more truthful than any photograph, of the defunct -originals, when armed by Nature _cap-a-pie_. - -In plain words, I own a curious collection of the cast-off shells of -various crabs, which have from time to time been under my protection. -From the fact that no museum in the kingdom contains a single _series_ -of such objects, exhibiting the various stages of growth in any -crustaceous animal, the reader will easily conceive the difficulty -there must be in procuring them, and consequently the interest that -attaches to the mysterious phenomenon of exuviation. - -Strange to say, the subject of this chapter is one of the least known -in the whole range of natural history. The facts connected with the -process are few, and far from well authenticated. This state of things -appears the more extraordinary, when we remember the great facility -with which specimens of crustacea may be found. - -For years past I have paid much attention to the elucidation of this -subject, and during that period have had to submit to numberless -mishaps and disappointments. For example, perhaps after watching a -'pet' day after day for months, anxiously expecting that exuviation -would take place, in nine cases out of ten,--ay, in ninety-nine out of -the hundred,--I would find that the process had been completed when -I was asleep, or that the animal had died suddenly. In the latter -case new specimens had to be procured, and the same watching process -repeated, in most cases with the like unhappy results. - -I will now, however, endeavour as briefly as possible to make the -reader acquainted with what has already been written upon exuviation, -as far as I have been able to learn, up to the present time, -interspersing the narrative with such notes as may seem necessary by -way of illustration, and then proceed, in the words of Shakspeare, to -lay down my own 'penny of observation.' - -The first clear and satisfactory remarks on this subject were made by -the celebrated Reaumur, who lived above a century ago: 'The unexampled -accuracy and truthfulness of this great naturalist is attested,' says -one writer, 'by the fact, that of all the observations made by himself -alone, far exceeding those of any other writer of past or present -times, and occupying in their published form numerous large quarto -volumes, scarcely one has been contravened by subsequent credible -observers, whilst they have formed the substance of half the numerous -compilations on insect life, acknowledged or otherwise, which have -appeared since his time.' - -Goldsmith, who derived his knowledge of this subject from Reamur, tells -us, in his usual free and easy style, that crustaceous animals (as -crabs and lobsters) 'regularly once a year, and about the beginning of -May, cast their old shell, and nature supplies them with a new one. -Some days before this necessary change takes place, the animal ceases -to take its usual food. It then swells itself in an unusual manner, -and by this the shell begins to divide at its junctures between the -body and the tail. After this, by the same operation, it disengages -itself of every part one after the other, _each part of the joints -bursting longitudinally_, till the animal is at perfect liberty. _This -operation, however, is so violent and painful that many die under -it_; those which survive are feeble, and their naked muscles soft to -the touch, being covered with a thin membrane; but in less than two -days this membrane hardens in a surprising manner, and a new shell as -impenetrable as the former supplies the place of that laid aside.' - -This, then, was and is to a great extent, up to the present time, the -universally adopted explanation. Goldie, of course, could not afford -time, and it may be doubted if he possessed the requisite amount of -patience, to confirm what he wrote by actual observation. Seeing that -the statement was graphic in its details, and evidently either wholly -or in part the result of personal observation, he very naturally -gave it full credence. But what shall we say of a noted writer (Sir -C. Bell)[4] who apparently half doubts the truth of exuviation, for -although he mentions the particular account which Reamur gives, yet -tells his readers that '_naturalists have not found these cast off -shells_.' After such a remark as this, we need no longer sneer at the -compilations of the author of the 'Vicar of Wakefield.' - -[4] Illustrations to Paley's Natural Theology. - -I need hardly state, that at certain seasons of the year almost every -rock-pool at the sea-shore will exhibit to the observant eye scores of -'these cast off shells' in a perfect state. The writer above quoted -also remarks, 'We presume the reason that the shells of the crustacea -are not found in our museums, is because they are not thrown off at -once, but that the portions are detached in succession.' An ill-founded -presumption this, the fact being that the inelastic integument is -invariably (in all the Decapoda at least) thrown off entire, the eyes -and long antennæ sheaths, the claws with the hair attached, even the -gastric teeth, all remain with wonderful exactness. - -To look at the rejected shell, indeed, any person not previously -acquainted with the fact would naturally suppose that he saw before him -the living animal, a close inspection being necessary to dispel the -illusion. As soon as the crab has emerged from its old covering, it -increases with such astounding rapidity, that at the end of one or two -days it can grow no larger until the next moulting time. - -In referring to my own introduction to the subject of exuviation, I may -be allowed to notice the annoyance a young aquarian experiences from -the rapidity with which the tank water is apt to become opaque. As such -a state involves considerable trouble, especially when the occupants of -the tank are the subjects of continued observation, I may mention, in -passing, that the means I adopted to correct this state of matters was -either to syringe the water frequently, or what seemed to answer still -better, to permit it to run off by a syphon into a basin on the floor. - -When the opacity of the tank is occasioned by decaying animal matter, -the only remedy is to remove the offending 'remains.' But with many of -the common inhabitants of the tank--the crustaceans, for example--great -difficulty is often experienced in ascertaining their state of health, -with a view to sanitary investigation. As these creatures, instead -of boldly exhibiting themselves during the day, generally hide under -pebbles or pieces of rock, or are buried in the sand, it is sometimes -necessary to submit the contents of the mimic rock-pool to a process -of 'putting things to rights,' as the ladies say when about doing a -kindness,--oh, horror!--to our books and papers. - -It happened on a certain occasion that my aquarium was in an -unsatisfactory condition. A nasty vapour arose from the base, and -diffused itself over nearly the entire vessel. My fishes disliking -their usual haunts, were all spread out at full length high and dry -upon a ledge of rock-work, projecting above the surface of the water. -The little Soldier-Crab had managed to drag his body and heavy tail -piece up the brae, hoping to breathe the fresh air in safety. His big -brother was not so successful, and despite his efforts speedily came to -grief. Finding he could not drag his carriage up the rock, he stepped -out of the lumbering vehicle. His appearance soon became woe-begone -in the extreme. In a few minutes he expired. The buckies, too, with -singular instinct, had collected in a row along the dry ledge of the -tank. - -Upon counting the numbers of my little colony, I found all right, -excepting _C. mænas_; him I could not discover, and I soon began to -suspect that he was defunct. No time, therefore, was to be lost, -so a diligent search for his remains was instantly commenced. -Fishes, Buckies, Hermits, &c., were speedily placed in safety in -an extemporaneous tank--nothing else than an old pie-dish. This -receptacle, when partly filled with sea-water, admirably answered the -required purpose. - -The water in the large vase was gently run off, and on approaching -the base I found, as I expected, the dismembered carcase of the -crab. One leg lay here, and another there, while the body was snugly -esconced beneath a stone, on which sat my favourite limpet with -its curiously formed shell, profusely decorated with a plume of -sea-grass and infantile _D. sanguinea_. Here, then, I thought, was -the mystery explained. It was from this spot that the noxious vapour -must have emanated. Of course, the body of the crab was removed; but -in performing this necessary act I tilted the stone, and so disturbed -the Limpet. Guess my surprise at observing the overturned shell of the -Patella to be quite empty, and its former occupant lying before me a -mass of putrefaction.[5] It now began to dawn upon me that I must have -libelled _C. mænas_. A few moments served to confirm this opinion, for -on lifting the stone, there darted out _a_--I could scarcely believe it -was _the_ crab, who instantly went through a circus-like performance -around the circumference of the vessel. - -[5] This affords an important hint to the young aquarian to watch the -Patella, and occasionally to touch its conical house, to make sure the -proprietor is alive and well. - -The reader will be prepared to learn that what I had at first observed -were portions of the exuvium, which had by some means been distributed -over the tank. - -Many months did I wait with nervous anxiety to see the exact process of -exuviation, but, except in the instances I am now about to chronicle, -my wishes were never gratified. - -I had at one time in my possession six little vases, each containing a -crab measuring about one inch across the back (_carapace_). By constant -watchfulness, morning and evening, for several months, I naturally -entertained a confident hope of being favoured with a sight of the -moulting operation in at least a single instance. But no; persevering -though my endeavours were, I was always disappointed. The exuviæ were -cast regularly enough, but the crabs so managed matters, that the -process was completed either when I was asleep, or had just gone away. -I could almost have sworn that the whole pack had entered into a league -to annoy me. - -On one occasion I sat up all night, feeling confident, from symptoms -which a certain Cancer mænas exhibited, that he was speedily about to -exuviate. Alas! I was mistaken. On my endeavouring to expedite the -event by lifting up the carapace of the crab, I received a nip on my -finger so severe, that I shall never forget it. - -But at length in the early portion of last year (1859), I, most -happily for my own peace of mind, did actually witness the entire -process of exuviation in a tolerably large specimen of the Common Shore -Crab. The animal in question, who was domiciled in a crystal vase, -or, in common language, a glass tumbler, rendered himself a favourite -from his constant habit of poking part of his head and his entire -claw (he had got but one), out of the water whenever he caught sight -of me. Who could resist such a powerful, though silent appeal to 'the -generous impulses of one's nature' as this? Certainly I could not, -and therefore, once a day at least, gave Master Cancer the half of a -newly-opened mussel, a tit-bit that was greatly relished. He would -sometimes get a grip of the valve, and allow himself and the Mytilus -to be entirely raised out of the water. Improving upon this, he would -then partly finish his meal while seated in my hand. On the morning -of the above mentioned eventful day, I gave the crab a portion of a -Pholas, but to my surprise, the heretofore high-class dainty remained -untouched. I was in ecstasies! for I felt morally certain that the -grand event, so long looked for, was soon to take place. Consequently, -I took out the crab, cleaned the windows of his dwelling in order -that I might the better see what was going on within, treated him to -some fresh water, as well as a new frond of sea-weed, and then again -introduced my pet to his old apartment. - -Before doing this I had the animal closely examined, to see if any -signs of the approaching moult could be detected, but none were -visible, except that the glassy bags, if I may so call them, which for -some weeks had been gradually thrown out from the stumps of the three -mutilated limbs, appeared finer in texture than usual. Indeed, so -transparent had they become, that I could distinctly see the contour of -the new limb about to be reproduced, folded up within each capsule. - -A few minutes after the crab had been placed in the tumbler, I gave a -peep to see how he was getting on. To my intense surprise, I observed -that his shell had just opened near the tail! My first feeling was -one of sorrow, thinking that in handling the specimen I had been too -rough, and had perhaps injured it. This apprehension was soon changed -to delight, as I became by degrees aware that exuviation had actually -commenced. - -The operation did not extend beyond five minutes (although the time -appeared much longer to me), and was carried on by gentle, and at first -almost imperceptible degrees. The shell, or carapace, was slowly raised -over the back, and gave one the idea of the rear view of a lawyer's -white wig when tilted over his brow, thus exposing the natural black -hair on the occiput below; for, as the body of the animal came forth, -it was very dark in colour, while the old case assumed a whitish hue. -I need hardly say, the leg sheaths of the crab did _not_ split open, -and yet the corresponding limbs were drawn out with the greatest ease. -Moreover, they did not appear in view one by one, but in a cluster, as -it were, and packed close to the bent body of the crab. - -During the entire process the animal appeared to use scarcely any -exertion whatever, certainly not half so much as any human being would -exhibit in throwing off the most trifling garment. In fact, the crab -seemed to swell painlessly, and gently roll or glide out in a kind -of ball. Until it had completely escaped from its old shell, I was -somewhat puzzled to guess what shape it would eventually assume. The -eyes and antennæ, so soon as they left their old sheaths, commenced, -together with the flabellæ, to work as usual, although as yet they were -still inside the exuvium. This circumstance was distinctly visible by -looking through the side of the half-cast shell. - -It was a curious and extraordinary sight to see the eyes gradually lose -their brilliancy, and exhibit the filmy, lack-lustre-like appearance of -death, while the act of exuviation was being accomplished. I may add -that the tumbler which held my little captive stood upon a table near -a large window, and that the sloughing operation was watched through a -powerful hand lens. - -On an after and well-remembered occasion, I saw a moderate-sized -Partane standing on the top of a bush of _Chondrus Crispus_ that grew -in my aquarium. The fronds were attached to a piece of sandstone, -placed uppermost upon a cluster of rock-work, situated, as before -mentioned, in the centre of the vessel, and rising slightly above the -level of the water. Thinking he was planning means of escape, I turned -away for a few moments to procure a simple instrument wherewith to -carry him to a less elevated position. On my return I saw him in the -act of backing out of his shell. It was a singular circumstance that -I should have just risen from the perusal of a talented author, who -informed me that 'the crab hitches one of its claws into some crack or -fissure, and from this point of resistance gives more power in emerging -and withdrawing itself from between the carapace and the tail.' - -Certainly no statement could more inadequately describe what I had -witnessed in both of my crabs. Not only was the whole operation -performed with perfect ease, but I am much inclined to believe with a -degree of pleasure. For a while one of my crabs stood in juxtaposition -to the shadow of its former self, and rubbed his antennæ and wee -peeping eyes as if awakening from a sleep. He had been lately, there -was no doubt, living in an oppressed state, and might probably have -surveyed things around him somewhat darkly, but now all was bright and -clear again. On turning, the first object that caught his awakened -eye was his cast-off vestment, which he seemed to scan as dubiously -as a grown man would an exhumed pair of boyish corduroys, and mutter -musingly, while stroking his chin, 'Well, come what will, it can never -be my _case_ again.' - -On taking it in my hand, the Partane felt quite soft and velvetty to -the touch, and exhibited no signs of alarm. - -Since then I have repeatedly had shells of crabs cast _in smooth glass -globes, containing nothing else but clear salt water_. This fact, in -my opinion, completely subverts the statements of certain writers, who -assert that these animals require extraneous assistance when about to -exuviate. - -Some writers have questioned the truth of the generally-received -opinion that the new parts of the crab are derived from the old: that, -for instance, a claw is regenerated within a claw, a limb within a -limb, eyes within the eyes, and that on exuviation each is withdrawn -from the pre-existing organ as from a sheath. But my operations tend -fully to confirm the popular and existing belief. - -There is yet one curious point connected with this subject which -requires explanation, as it is not generally understood. I allude to -the apparent disproportionate smallness of the 'glassy bag,' situated -at the stump, as compared with the size of the regenerated limb, which -is supposed to be folded up within the bag previous to exuviation. -On looking at the newly-formed member, we can scarcely believe it -possible that the transparent case could by any possibility have held -it. The mystery vanishes if the new limb or claw be examined; for, -although in shape it is perfect, even to the most minute particular, it -remains for a certain period comparatively useless to the animal, from -the fact of its being utterly devoid of flesh. - -The new limb, therefore, can be considered merely as an expanded case, -which, by a wonderful law of nature, becomes slowly filled up and -completed. Immediately after exuviation has taken place, and a claw is -introduced in the place of some mutilated stump, if any one will pull -off the new member, he can readily confirm the truth of what I have -stated, and, moreover, be able to test into how very small bulk the new -limb may be rolled. - -As the reader may remember, Goldsmith states that the crab casts its -shell 'regularly once a-year, at the beginning of May.' Professor -Owen fixes the date in the month of August. Professor Bell states, -that 'there is no doubt exuviation takes place _annually_ with great -regularity, until the growth is completed, which, in many species, is -not before the animal is many years old.' Another professor, treating -on the same subject, thus writes, 'We are told that all this coat -of mail is _annually_ thrown off in a single piece by the contained -animal,--the great proficient in Chinese puzzles may well be posed at -this greater puzzle.' In fact, all writers whose works I have had -opportunity of examining repeat the statement. Mr. Ball, who writes -from personal observation, apparently confirms beyond a doubt, the -annual moult of Crustacea. This gentleman, we learn, kept a Cray-fish -alive for two years in a vase, and found that _during each year its -exuvium was shed but once_. - -It may readily be believed, with such a formidable array of contrary -evidence, that I offer my own observations with modesty. But at the -same time, I feel justified in confidently stating that the moult of -the crab, (in its comparatively youthful state, at all events), takes -place not only once, but many times during each year of its existence. -My specimens may, perhaps, be considered exceptions to the general -rule, but the facts I relate cannot by any possibility admit of doubt. -The cast-off shells lie before me as I write. - -Here is a set of three belonging to the same animal, exhibiting with -marvellous exactness the gradual development of a broken claw. In the -first the member appears very diminutive, in the second it is nearly -twice its size, while in the third it has advanced to its natural form -and bulk. To my regret, I cannot state the exact period that elapsed -between each successive moult, but I am confident that the trio were -cast in the course of a very few months. - -I may here take the liberty of informing the uninitiated, that the -appearance of the above objects is extremely pleasing; for, as the -exuvium becomes dry, its colour changes to a bright scarlet, somewhat -resembling that which the crab assumes when placed for a time in -boiling water. - -The next series of specimens, five in number, possess even still -greater interest than the first examples. They were produced by a -youthful _C. mænas_, at the following consecutive intervals:-- - -The first moult took place on 11th April 1858; the second on the 22d -of May following; the third on July the 3d; the fourth on the 30th of -August; and the fifth on the 26th of September in the same year. So -that between the first and second period of exuviation there was an -interval of forty-one days, between the second and third forty-two days -elapsed, between the third and fourth fifty-eight days, but, singular -to state, between the fourth and fifth moult _only twenty-seven days -intervened_. - -My first impression was, that as the creature grew older, its shell -would be renewed less frequently, and the dates of the sloughings -seemed to support this idea--until the fourth moult. It had occurred -to me that perhaps the operation might be accelerated by the amount -of diet which the crab consumed. In order to test this, I fed the -animal carefully every day, as though he were a prize beast about to be -exhibited at some Christmas show. Nothing loath, he ate of everything -that was placed before him with a gusto that would have done credit to -an alderman. The result was, that the shell was renewed in less than -half the time that elapsed between the preceding moults. - -These interesting investigations, which had been conducted thus far so -satisfactorily, were suddenly brought to a close by the death of my -protégé. This sad event occurred unexpectedly, not from overfeeding, as -some persons may suppose, but from natural causes. - -Whether increase of food always produces a like effect to that -mentioned, is a point that I hope some of my brother naturalists will -be able to determine. That the moult was accelerated by such means -in my own specimen I have not the slightest doubt, for, on no other -grounds can I explain its unusually speedy occurrence. - -I may here assure my readers that the above dates may be confidently -relied upon as correct, and also that each exuvium was produced by the -same crab--one specimen only being in the tank during the whole period. - -Since the foregoing was written, I have again been fortunate enough to -have ocular demonstration of the phenomenon of exuviation, as occurring -in a _Cancer Pagurus_, about as large as a moderate-sized walnut. - -While watching this crab, it flashed across my mind that it would be a -happy circumstance if by any means _I could arrest the process then -going on before my eyes, while it was yet only half completed_, in -order that others might also be enabled to witness the marvellous act -of exuviation. - -But how to carry out this scheme was the rub. I knew that-- - - 'If 'twere done, then 'twere well it were done quickly.' - -One minute passed,--two minutes flew by;--the crab would speedily -complete his labours; still was I perplexed. - -To plump it into fresh water would, I knew, be fatal to the animal, -but not in such a speedy manner as was desirable. Boiling water next -suggested itself, and doubtless would have answered the purpose -effectually, had a supply been near at hand at the time, but such was -not the case. I then thought of _spirits_. Ah! capital idea.... Before -the third minute had passed, I might be seen to rush frantically to the -sideboard, pour _something_ into a glass, then dart back to the tank, -dive down my trembling hand, bring up the poor unfortunate crab, and -drop it into a fatal pool of pure "Glenlivet." - -The animal appeared to die quickly, and was next day transferred to a -vessel filled with Mythilated spirits. As it luckily turned out, the -whisky answered the intended purpose remarkably well. - -The preparation in question is, as far as I can discover, _unique_; at -least I have neither read nor heard of another such existing in any -private or public museum in the kingdom.[6] - -[6] A drawing of this crab will be found on Plate 3. - -It shows at a glance the increase that instantaneously takes place -in the size of the crab after the act of exuviation is performed, -the portion exuded being on a scale considerably larger than the old -covering, which, however, is capacious enough to hold that half of the -animal that had not effected its deliverance at the moment when the -novel arrestment was so unceremoniously served. - -The fourth and fifth pair of legs are free, while the eyes and antennæ -are also drawn out of their sheaths. (This is not very evident now, -but such is really the fact, I having distinctly seen those organs -in motion when the animal was in the living state.) The _chelæ_, or -large claws, being still undetached, serve to bind the crab to its old -integument, and thus enable the act of exuviation, or one phase of it -at least, to be distinctly apparent. - -I know of no work on Natural History that speaks of the Hermit-Crabs -(_Anomoura_) casting their shells, and on this account I have given -some attention to them. These animals being so common, I kept by me at -least a dozen specimens for the purpose of observing some of them, if -possible, in the act of exuviation. The result of my labours has not -been so satisfactory as I could wish, from my not having been able to -collect any 'sets' of exuviæ. I cannot, therefore, speak with certainty -as to the frequency of this phenomena. By this time my readers will -know that the tail of the Hermit-Crab is very tender and fleshy, being -covered merely with an extremely delicate membraneous skin, while the -carapace, claws, and antennæ of the animal are protected by a hard -crust, similar to the Lobster, Cray-fish, &c. - -From this peculiar formation of the crab, I was not at all surprised to -find, on several occasions, the upper part of its body alone cast off, -and therefore came to the very natural conclusion, that as the tail was -soft, it would grow and increase in proportion to the other parts of -the animal, without ever needing the skin to be changed. - -Each morning and evening during the time my experiments were being -conducted, I examined all the tanks attentively, to see whether an -exuvium had been cast. If visible, the object was picked out and gummed -in a box, and a date placed above it for future reference. After -having performed an operation of this kind one afternoon in October -1858, I saw a Hermit-Crab (who had cast his shell on the previous -day) hurriedly leave his testaceous dwelling, then scrape away at his -tail, and after a moment's interval, leap into his old seat again. On -inspection, I found to my surprise _that he had actually_ _slipped off -the skin of his tail_![7] much in the same fashion as we would draw off -a well-fitting glove. Here was a strange and unexpected discovery. - -[7] The fact of the exuvium of the Hermit-Crab being cast off in two -pieces, and at different periods, I have since confirmed 'many a time, -and oft.' - -On submitting the exuvium to the microscope, we find that the covering -of the false feet, and the cilia attached to the same, all remained -fixed in their natural position to the tail-piece. Although in several -cases I have had no difficulty in discovering the rejected cuticle of -the tail, at other times it has eluded my search. The cause of this -I cannot explain. It may be that the animal, adopting the habits of -the toad, swallows a portion of its exuviæ as soon as cast. On two -occasions I found the slough of the body and claws of a crab, and -waited patiently for several days, without success, expecting to get -the tail portion. Growing impatient, it occurred to me that it would be -a curious experiment to try and draw off the exuvium with my fingers. -This was easy to talk about, but difficult to perform. - -In the first place, the crab would not, if he could help it, allow -himself to be handled even in the most gentle manner. To overcome -this difficulty the shell had to be broken. This was done; but, alas! -the shock nearly killed the poor little Hermit. After some trouble, -I carefully unwound his body from the whirls of the Top Shell, and -proceeded to perform the intended operation. Reader, have you -ever seen a child take a rose-bud in his hands, and force open its -half-pouting blossom, in the belief that by so doing he was assisting -nature? If so, you must have watched the puzzled expression of the -boy's countenance when he beheld the leaves fall one by one at his -feet, and the bud itself exhibit evident signs of approaching decay. - -In just such a position did I stand with regard to the poor -Hermit-Crab, for, in spite of all my care in manipulation, the skin -of the animal was so tender and delicate that the first gentle pinch -caused a puncture which proved fatal; and as to drawing off the -covering, the thing I now believe to be impossible, even under the most -favourable circumstances. - -The upper portion of the Soldier-Crab, I may mention, is cast off in -one piece, while the animal is seated in its turbinated dwelling. The -act is performed with the most perfect ease. Unlike the _Brachyura_, -the _Anomoura_ do not exhibit signs of such rapid growth immediately -after exuviation, but increase in size very gradually indeed. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -Prawns and Shrimps. - - -'Men holden ye therefore prophanes - Ye eaten neither shrimps nor pranes,' - - - - -VII. - - -Although abundant at many parts of the Scottish coast, at Cockburnspath -(situated near the mouth of the Frith of Forth) only, has the writer -met with the very beautiful prawn, _Palæmon Squilla_. At this locality -specimens were very frequent in rock-pools situated near the shore, nor -were such difficult to capture. The small net being placed cautiously -over their head, the animals did not show signs of resistance, until -they found themselves, by a sudden jerk of the hand, drawn bodily out -of the water. Then, indeed, unless some degree of skill was used, the -captives would give a powerful spring, and escape, from the confinement -of the net, to the more congenial element from which they had been so -unceremoniously ejected. - -Prawns (_Palæmonidæ_) exuviate very frequently, in some instances as -often as once or twice a month. No sooner is one coat thrown off and -the Palæmon recovered from the weakness which the process occasions, -than it commences, at first at intervals, and then almost incessantly -day and night, preparations for a renewal of the wonderful operation. - -Every part of the body--eyes, antennæ, and especially the sub-abdominal -fins, to certain portions of which the ova are attached in groups, -and the lobes of the tail--are submitted to a severe rubbing and -brushing process. The appearance of the prawn at this period is -really most interesting, and, I may also add, amusing. Sometimes the -tail is compressed inwards, beneath the body for a few seconds, and -then suddenly elevated and forced out with donkey-like extravagance -of gesture, the animal the while standing upon its first pair of -forcep-like feet. - -At the appointed time the shell opens at the back part of the head, -and the prawn becomes gradually freed from its old covering. The -marvellous process completed, like all its crustaceous brethren, the -creature becomes to a certain extent helpless, and if such convenience -be afforded, retires for protection beneath some shell or fragment -of rock, from whence it soon re-appears, and repeats its gymnastic -exercises, which cease, however, for a few days, as soon as the new -coat is sufficiently hardened. - -The prawn is an extremely interesting occupant of an aquarium, from -the fact of its being constantly on the move, and also on account -of the pretty blue and orange markings of its many-jointed legs, -and the singular transparent appearance of its body. This latter -feature is made still more notable when the animal happens to have the -ova attached, as the latter are opaque, and of a deep brown colour -approaching to black. By the prawn the act of exuviation seems to be -considered an event of no slight importance, and, although occurring -so frequently, is fraught with danger. Specimens oftener die at the -moulting time than at any other. In fact, unless I am very much -mistaken, they are then subject to some peculiar disease, which is -apt to prove fatal. At all events, several of my little captives, -after having performed their gymnastic movements (before alluded -to) for several days, turned sickly, and died. The commencement of -their illness was always denoted by a small, white, opaque dot that -mysteriously appeared in the centre of the body. This object speedily -increased in size, until it eventually spread over the entire animal. -Then, no longer diaphanous, the flesh of the prawn seemed composed of a -solid substance not unlike lime or pounded chalk. - -The Shrimp is so common, and so well known, that a lengthened -description of it is unnecessary. I shall, therefore, merely record -an ingenious plan by which specimens of the _Crangon vulgaris_ may be -procured by visitors at the sea-side, who do not care to wade in the -water with a large net. - -It is one generally pursued by Scotch boys as a mere amusement, for -neither shrimps nor prawns are eaten to any great extent by the -inhabitants of Scotland generally. - -On arriving at a pool, a person will soon know whether shrimps are -contained therein, from the number of sand clouds that are raised by -these little crusty fellows at any intrusion upon their privacy. Many -persons employ a hand net, and pass it rapidly through the water, -thinking thereby to startle and entrap the animals in question. -Sometimes the plan succeeds, but more often it turns out a failure. - -Instead of using the net, let the young zoologist stoop down, place the -palms of his hands suddenly upon the surface of the sand, then slowly -draw them near each other, at same time cautiously close the fingers, -and he will in all probability feel the objects of his search wriggling -to escape from his unwelcome and unfriendly grasp. - -To satisfy curiosity, take one of the captured specimens and drop it in -the sand that surrounds the cavity in which your skill as a shrimper -has been exercised, and I will venture to assert that, in an instant, -the little creature will have disappeared as if by magic--such is -the wonderful rapidity with which the shrimp burrows itself. Even -when lying upon the surface a practised eye is required to detect the -presence of a shrimp, in consequence of its colour being of the exact -shade of the sand in which it hides. In clear pools its body is of -a light drab colour, which becomes changed to a dark tint when the -animal is located in a pool, the base of which is of a sombre hue. - -The prawn, or shrimp, is somewhat of a gourmand, and requires to be fed -occasionally. The most simple food to give either, when in an aquarium, -is an open mussel or cockle. A marine worm, such for instance as the -_Terrebella_, however (as on one occasion I vexatiously discovered), is -a dainty more highly prized than the flesh of a bivalve, but one which -cannot often be indulged in from its comparative rarity. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -Acorn Barnacles.--Ship Barnacles. - - -'Barnacles turn Solan Geese - In the islands of the Orcades.' - - - - -VIII. - - -If the reader has been struck at what has been said in regard to the -exuviation of crabs, &c., he will probably be more surprised when I -state that precisely the same phenomena take place in the simple _Acorn -Barnacle_, that studs in countless numbers almost every rock and shell -situated between tide marks. No one can visit the sea-shore, at certain -localities, without noticing the white spots which constitute the -shells of the cirripeds in question, although he may not be acquainted -with the marvellous beauty of the animal contained within each. - -Its loveliness, it is true, is in no wise apparent when parched and -dry; but let the welcome waves advance and playfully dash their spray -against the dwelling of the little crustacean, and quickly its valves -will open, displaying a delicate feathery plume, thrust forth and -hastily withdrawn again. - -As it is not convenient to watch the movements of this animal in a -rock-pool, let me request the reader kindly to take a peep into my -aquarium. Here is a Trochus shell, for example, inhabited, as you -perceive, by a Soldier-Crab, the surface of which is thickly covered -with shelly cones, of small dimensions. These are the Barnacles -(_Balani_). The Trochus most fortunately being near the side of the -glass, is capitally situated for our purpose. Take the hand lens, -adjust its focus, and watch carefully for the opening of the cones. -Tush! The hermit never _will_ rest contented in any position for two -consecutive minutes; but see! as he walks away the fairy hands are -being rapidly thrown out and made to sweep the water in graceful -curves, thereby suggesting some resemblance to a bevy of school -children at Christmas time, bidding _adieux_ to their friends, while -seated on the roof of an old stage coach. - -Carefully I lift the Pagurus bodily out of the tank, and transfer him -to a wine glass filled with clean water. After a few minutes have -elapsed, the hands again commence their fishing operations. Observe, -now, that these organs fan the fluid in such a manner as to catch any -animalculæ that may be near, and draw them towards the aperture caused -by the opening of the valves of the Barnacle. A close inspection will, -I am sure, prove to your satisfaction that there is also distinctly -apparent a second and smaller cluster of feathery fingers, whose duty -it is to catch the food, brought near by the larger and corresponding -organs, and finally convey it into the mouth of the little cirriped. -There may be, in the wide range of Nature's lower scale of life, -prettier sights to gladden the eye of the student than that above -described,--but if so, I must confess _my_ inability to indicate where -such are to be found. The fishing apparatus here mentioned consists of -a number of slender _cirri_, thickly coated with microscopic filaments -(cilia), and is, at certain periods, thrown off complete and entire by -the process of exuviation, just as we have seen it occur in the higher -crustacea. - -Would you, my young friend, like to procure an exuvium of the Barnacle -for examination? Yes. Then follow the directions I am now about to -give, and your wish will be speedily gratified. - -Presuming that your tank already contains a number of Barnacles -attached to various objects, and that such have been in the same vessel -for some weeks; syringe the water for a few minutes, and you will -find floating about, or rising to the surface, many specimens of the -desired object. They will, in all probability, be visible to the naked -eye. To attempt to lift one out of the water, however, by means of -your finger and thumb would be utterly useless. Such a procedure, even -were it successful, would inevitably mar the delicate beauty of this -'inessential' object, which, spirit like, casts no shadow upon weed or -water. The best plan is to insert a tube of glass into the aquarium, in -such a way that the exuvium may ascend the interior. Then place your -finger on the top, and draw the tube out of the water, and you will be -able to deposit the skin of the Barnacle upon a slip of glass by merely -lifting off your finger. The specimen can then be leisurely arranged, -and spread out by aid of a hand lens and fine pointed needles. - -Walking by the sea-shore one fine summer afternoon, I met a fisher -boy running along with some curious objects spread out in the palm of -his left hand, while in his right, suspended from finger and thumb, -appeared a still more desirable prize. - -At first glance I detected the objects to be specimens of the _Lepas -anatifera_. They had, so the boy stated in answer to my inquiries, been -plucked from the base of a ship newly arrived from a long voyage. When -I offered him sixpence for the 'lot,' the embryo plougher of the deep -looked up in my face with a singularly mistrustful expression, and -said, 'D'ye mean it, sir?' I gave speedy assurance of my sincerity, -and on receiving the purchase money, after handing over the Barnacles -to my custody, the young urchin started off as fast as his legs, -encased in huge wading boots, would allow him. His alarm was quite -unnecessary, for although in a few days after I would not have given a -penny for a thousand, I would willingly, on the above occasion, have -paid five shillings for a single specimen, rather than have missed -the opportunity of possessing such an interesting object as the Ship -Barnacle. - -On placing them in water one only of the creatures showed any signs -of life, and by next morning they made the scentral organ of my face -so highly indignant that, in order to allay its irritability, I was -obliged to remove the defunct animals to the outside of the window. -There they remained for several months, and were eventually transferred -to the privacy of a card-board box. Although twelve months have elapsed -since the last-mentioned removal took place, these creatures even now, -when the lid of the case is lifted, give out a smell, so 'antient and -fish-like,' that I believe not a few of 'the sweet perfumes of Arabia' -would be needed in order to subdue its power. - -One cluster contained thirty Lepades, and the other eighteen. The -average length of each Barnacle is about three or four inches. -One, however, measured nearly ten inches. The fleshy stalk is of a -purplish-grey colour, semi-transparent, and perfectly smooth. The -shell, which consists of five pieces, is bluish-white, while that -portion from whence the cirri protrude appears of a brilliant orange, -the cirri themselves being exquisitely tinted with violet, shaded off -to a deep purple. - -I may here mention that the above animal was by our ancestors most -unaccountably supposed to be the young of the solan goose!--a bird that -haunts in vast numbers the Bass Rock and Ailsa Craig. Indeed, a common -belief in different parts of Scotland, and over the west of England -was, that the shells grew upon certain trees, and in process of time -opened of themselves; whereupon a certain animated substance contained -within the shell dropped down, and according to the place where it fell -perished or fructified. By falling into the water it grew to be a fowl; -but by falling upon land the vital principle became extinct. The fowls -which resulted from the more fortunate contingency were called Barnacle -Geese in Scotland, and Brant, or Tree Geese in England. This delusion -appears to have arisen from the fact of Barnacles having been found in -great abundance on trunks and even branches of trees long submerged -in the sea.[8] Bishop Hall thus alludes to the popular notion in his -Satires:-- - - 'His father dead! tush, no, it was not he; - He finds records of his great pedigree; - And tells how first his famous ancestor - Did come in long since with the Conqueror. - Nor hath some bribed herald first assigned - His quartered arms, and crest of gentle kind; - _The Scottish Barnacle, if I might choose, - That of a worme, doth waxe a winged goose_.' - -[8] Vide author's 'Seaside and Aquarium.' - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -Phyllodoce Laminosa--the Laminated Nereis - - - 'His meaner works -Are yet his care, and have and interest all-- -All, in the universal Father's love.' - - --COWPER. - - - - -[Illustration: - -1 COMMON BARNACLES attached to shell of Limpet -2 ANIMAL OF THE LIMPET (_P. vulgata_) as seen from below -3 THE LAMINATED NEREIS (_Phyllodoce Laminosa_)] - - - - -IX. - - -To oblige an English correspondent who requested some blocks of -stone containing Pholas perforations, the writer, in company with a -fellow-student, started betimes for the sea-shore, some four miles' -distance. We made for a certain spot, where it was expected the object -of our wishes could easily be found. Our equipment consisted merely -of a hammer, a bottle, and two chisels, enclosed in a carpet-bag, the -better to mask our mission from impertinent curiosity. - -On reaching the shore, it soon became painfully apparent that no pieces -of rock could be procured of a character at all suitable for a museum. -To make matters still more irritating, a breeze arose, and with it -came a furious shower of rain, which soon completely saturated our -light costume. At such a time it is laughable to note how faint becomes -the poetry of practical zoology--how excessively like street puddles -are the fairy-grots, as the rock-pools are called; how unsightly the -great, distorted anemones look, too, when viewed from beneath a large -boulder, where you are crouched in the fond idea that you are thus -getting shelter from the rain. - -On this occasion, my friend and I, being soaked to the skin, started -up from our unpleasant position, and boldly daring the rain to do its -worst, proceeded to hunt after any object of interest that might by -chance be lying stranded near. - -After an hour's search, two objects, among many others of more or less -interest, were captured, that fully repaid us for our uncomfortable -'ducking.' The first was an elegant Actinia (_A. Dianthus_), which -seemed to be exquisitely modelled in the finest virgin wax. The second -was a specimen of the Laminated Nereis (_Phyllodoce Laminosa_), a -wonderfully beautiful _worm_! - -Fair reader, start not nor curl that rosy lip of thine at the -expression, 'beautiful,' being applied to such an humble creature, for -indeed the title is a just and true one. - -This Annelid is generally found coiled up and attached to the under -part of stones situated near low water mark. Its general colour is -emerald green, excepting along the centre of the back, which is -iridescent, and reflects a brilliant blue, changing into purple and -other hues, only equalled in beauty by the enamelled corslet of the -brightest beetle, or the flashing tints that dance upon the plumage of -the humming-bird. - -The body of the _P. Laminosa_, like that of all other _Dorsibranchiate -Annelidans_, is divided into a consecutive series of rings. Upon either -side of each ring is situated a singular appendage, which acts as a -gill or branchial organ, by the exercise of which the blood of the -animal is effectually purified, and respiration adequately provided for. - -When the Nereis is in a state of repose, these gills are laid flat over -its back; but in a state of activity they are fully spread out, and act -as 'paddles,' by aid of which the animal is enabled to glide through -its native element with a graceful serpentine motion. - -At the base of each paddle is situated a smaller one, consisting of -a fleshy pedicle shielding a fan-like bunch of hairs, each of which -tapers to a sharp point. Combined, these hairs or spines form a -powerful defensive weapon, which can be extended or retracted at will; -and it also serves as an _oar_, or propeller. - -As a noteworthy instance of tenacity of life in the lower animals, it -may be well to mention here that I have on various occasions, by aid of -the microscope, watched for several minutes the bunch of spines, above -alluded to, thrust out and retracted in a single segment cut from the -body of the Nereis; and only as the object became devoid of moisture -did its beautiful mechanism cease to play. - -The specimen now before me is comparatively small, being only twelve -inches in length, yet its body contains nearly one thousand lateral -appendages, constituting, it must be admitted, a most extensive and -wonderful locomotive apparatus. - -This Annelid is not a suitable object for the aquarium, on account of -its frequent great length, and the consequent likelihood of its getting -entangled among stones and rock-work when in search of food. - -If the hinder parts be cut off, as has been already hinted, they will -exhibit vitality for a considerable period when placed in water, but -we are told it is the anterior (?) portion of the Phyllodoce which -alone possesses the power of regenerating lost segments; these will be -reproduced sometimes at the rate of three or four in a week. - -'These creatures,' says a learned author, 'as might be expected from -their activity and erratic habits, are carnivorous; and innocent and -beautiful as they look, they are furnished with weapons of destruction -of a unique and most curious description. The mouth of the Nereis would -seem at first to be a simple opening, quite destitute of teeth; but on -further examination, this aperture is found to lead into a capacious -bag, the walls of which are provided with sharp, horny plates, even -more terrible than those which are occasionally to be met with in -the gizzards of some of the higher animals. It is not surprising, -therefore, that by many anatomists the structure in question has been -described as a real gizzard, or by some as the stomach itself. A little -attention to the habits of the living Annelid will, however, soon -reveal the true character of the organ. No sooner does the creature -wish to seize its food than this so-called gizzard is at once turned -inside out, in which condition it protrudes from the mouth like a great -proboscis, and the teeth, which were before concealed in the interior -of the cavity, now become external, and display as formidable an -assortment of rasps, files, knives, saws, hooks, or crooked fangs, as -any one could wish to see. Let us suppose them, when in this condition, -plunged into the body of some poor helpless victim, while at the same -moment the proboscis is rapidly inverted and withdrawn; the prey thus -seized is at the same instant swallowed, and at once plunged into a -gulf where all struggles are unavailing, there to be bruised, and -crushed, and sucked at leisure.' - -There is a curious fact in connection with these Annelids which is -too interesting to be omitted here. I allude to the wonderful manner -in which their young are produced by a process that may be called -'sprouting.' - -This invariably takes place in the segment immediately preceding -the terminal one. When a new animal is about to be formed, the -reproductive segment swells, and after a certain time the infant -worm is seen growing from the tail of its parent. When sufficiently -developed, the offspring detaches itself, and starts life on its own -account. Sometimes before the elder born Annelid is fully formed, the -mysterious segment produces a second offspring, and, according to -Professor Milne Edwards, as many as six young ones may be generated in -succession from the same posterior segment, all of which will for some -time continue attached to the parent worm. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -The Fan-Amphitrite. - - - - -X. - - -At the lowest ebb of spring-tide may often be seen protruding above -the surface of the beach an object that at a little distance might be -mistaken for the twig of a tree, or a decayed and blackened reed. A -close examination discloses it to be a smooth, tough tube, apparently -composed of dark leather or old gutta-percha, affixed at its lower -extremity to some rock or other solid substance. - -The pretty Annelid occupying this dark cylinder is the Fan-Amphitrite -(_A. ventilabrum_). Unlike the Terrebella, this animal may really be -captured without much difficulty. The first time I made the experiment -it was successful. By carefully digging down with chisel, or digits, -to the base of the tube, which may be reached in the course of a -few minutes, the entire structure, with its living occupant, may be -transferred to your extemporaneous tank. - -I have an Amphitrite in my aquarium at the present time displaying its -richly-tinted tentacula to the sun, which lights them up with unusual -beauty. - -As the 'case' of this animal is flexible, and as its owner will only -thrive in an upright position, the reader will easily conceive that -to afford the Annelid suitable accommodation in the aquarium is not -a very easy task. What other naturalists do I cannot tell; but the -following is the plan I adopt for the creature's comfort and my own -gratification:-- - -Having procured a small cylinder of glass (or gutta-percha), close up -one end, and drop in the Amphitrite, taking care to first tie the lower -portion of its sheath with a piece of thread or silk. It is very pretty -to see the plume of the Annelid spreading completely over and covering -the extremity of the tube, giving the idea in the one instance that the -animal was mysteriously gifted with the power of exuding gutta-percha -instead of its usual mucus. - -The Annelid may be made to recline against the sides of the vase, or be -propped up on any chosen spot by aid of a small cairn of pebbles, and -thus form a very curious feature in the aquarium. - -To test a fact, relative to the power which the Amphitrite is said -to possess, in common with other tubiculous Annelids, of renewing -certain portions of its body after sustaining injury, I snipped off the -principal portions of its branchiæ, and found that, after the lapse of -a few months, my specimen renewed its mutilated organs. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -The Common Mussel. - - -'Travelling is not good for us; we travel so seldom. How much more -dignified leisure _hath a Mussel glued to his impassable rocky limit -two inches square_! He hears the tide roll over him, backwards and -forwards, twice a day (as the Salisbury coach goes and returns in eight -and forty hours), but knows better than to take an outside place on -the top on't. _He is the owl of the sea, Minerva's fish_, the _fish of -wisdom_.' - - C. LAMB to B. BARTON. - - - - -[Illustration: - -1 COMMON MUSSEL (_Mytilus edulis_) - -a The foot -b The byssus -c c Muscles which regulate the action of the foot - -2 THE MUSSEL CLOSED - -3 THE BERÖE (_Cydippe pileus_) - -4 THE FAN AMPHITRITE (_A. ventilabrum_)] - - - - -XI. - - -In his celebrated journey to the western islands of Scotland, Dr. -Johnson tells us that when at Ulinish, hearing of a cavern by the -sea-side remarkable for powerful reverberations of sound, he determined -to pay a visit to the spot. After dinner, having procured the services -of some boatmen, the doctor, in company with Bozzy, started off on -his trip, which, on the whole, appears to have been a pleasant one. -There was, however, no _echo_ to be heard; but to make up for this -disappointment, Mr. Boswell went angling, and caught a wee 'cuddy,' -(a fish about the size of a gudgeon), while the doctor was gratified -by the sight of some sea-weed growing upon stones, and above all, at -witnessing for the first time _Mussels in their natural state_. - -The impression made by this candid acknowledgment upon our minds -is one of wonder, that a man like Johnson could have reached his -advanced years without having seen so common a sight. But it is -possible that even in our day, with its unprecedented facilities -for cheap travelling for the most inland inhabitants, there may be -many persons to whom the sight of a Mussel fixed to a boulder by its -self-constructed cable, would be as great a novelty as it was to the -eloquent author of Rasselas. - -It is, however, one of the commonest appearances which meet the eye of -those in the habit of visiting the sea-shore. At certain localities -myriads of Mussels may be noticed attached to the surface of the rocks. -So thickly are these sometimes covered over, that the blade of a knife -cannot be inserted at any part without touching one or more of the -esculent bivalves that are to form the subject of this chapter. - -The Mussel anchors itself by means of the Byssus; or, as it is commonly -termed, the 'beard.' This appendage is composed of various slender -threads which are attached to any object within reach, whether such be -the shell of a neighbouring Mussel, a small stone, or huge boulder. -The members of each colony are thereby bound together, it may be -figuratively said, by the silken cords of friendship, and mayhap of -love. The _Mytili_ evidently believe that 'there's no place like home.' -Although gifted with a power of moving about at will, they never -attempt to exercise this when living together in a family circle, -but pass through life's stages upon the spot where they were born. -Certainly, if there be such a sight as a truly happy and contented -family in the marine animal kingdom, it is to be found exemplified in -these bearded molluscs. - -As hinted, they live shoulder to shoulder, back to back, and otherwise -mutually support each other. They need not look about for a single -meal, but have merely to allow themselves to be fed by the waves, which -yield them a constant supply of fresh and wholesome food. Their sole -duty in this respect is limited to the selection of objects suitable -to their palate. Their 'at homes' being so frequent, the _Mytili_ can -boast of a large circle of acquaintances. The Periwinkle, and his -friend Silver Willie, often make a morning call, take pot luck, as it -is termed, and then politely retire. _Mr. Carcinus Mænas_ and his poor -and dirty relation, _Maia Squinado_, perchance look in of an evening. -_Solaster Papposa_, or occasionally the lanky-legged _Uraster Rubens_, -and other 'stars' of the marine world, crawl in at unseasonable hours -in their usual lazy style, and are generally rewarded by finding the -doors (valves) shut against them. This 'cut direct' does not appear to -be at all annoying; or if so, the Star-fishes are too cunning to show -it, for they quietly saunter away as if they never had the slightest -wish to put their feet within their neighbour's dwelling. - -There is a 'black sheep,' as Sir Pertinax Mac Sycophant would say, who -intrudes himself into Mussel society, and plays sad havoc among its -members. This crawling rascal is the wolf of all Musseldom flocks. -Young and old alike experience the blighting effects of his villanous -propensities. The name of this obnoxious personage is _Purpura -Lapillus_ (Common Whelk). What, the reader will ask in surprise, a -univalve prey upon a bivalve? Is that possible? It is, unfortunately, -too true. - -If we take a Mussel in our hand we shall find it perfectly impossible -to force its valves asunder, without the aid of a strong knife or other -instrument; yet the Common Whelk, fleshy and insignificant creature -though it be, will consume the animal within, and make the valves -fly open in a brief space of time, by means of its soft tongue. But -leaving such general remarks, let us suppose we are standing before a -boulder covered with these mussels. Numbers of gaping shells may be at -intervals perceived still attached to the rock, but with the interior -of each valve so empty and smooth, that we could scarce believe they -had ever embraced a living occupant. On taking up one of the valves and -closely examining it, do you observe nothing peculiar about it now? -'No.' Take up the other then, and submit it to a similar inspection. -Well, what do you see now? 'Nothing,' you still reply, 'unless it be a -peculiar little hole about the size of a pin's head, which surely is -of no importance.' That little hole was of _vital_ importance to the -poor mollusc, for through that aperture the life and substance of the -Mytilus was drawn by the voracious Purpura. - -But the poor Mussel is exposed to the attacks of other enemies--aquatic -birds, as sea-gulls and ducks, eagles, vultures. Even water-rats and -monkeys may also be included in the list. - -It is amusing to see a gull, by no means a foolish bird, standing -patiently before a Limpet, for example. The animal, unsuspicious of the -presence of an enemy, raises his canopy with the view of relaxing his -overstrained muscles, and is instantly toppled over by the intruding -beak of the bird. If unsuccessful in his first attempt, the gull is -well aware it would be useless to try a second time at that tide. - -But if a Mussel be the object of attack, it is wrenched from its seat, -raised to a certain height, and then allowed to drop upon a stone with -the view of breaking the shell. In one locality called Mussel Bay, Mr. -Barrow says he disturbed some thousands of birds, and found so many -thousands of shell-fish scattered over the surface of a heap of shells, -that, for aught he knew, would have filled as many thousand waggons. - -This habit of the feathered tribe was, by the way, well known to the -ancients, and I may be pardoned relieving my pages by a quotation on -the subject from the 'Shepherd's Calender' of Spenser, whose exquisite -descriptions of natural history are as marvellous as his allegorical -poem. The author of the 'Fairy Queen' thus humorously reads a lesson -to an ambitious man,-- - - "He is a shepherd in gree, - But hath been long ypent, - One day he sat upon a hill, - As now thou wouldst mee; - But I am taught by Algrinds ill, - To love the lowe degree. - For sitting so, with barred scalpe, - An eagle soared hye, - _That weening his white head was chalke, - A shell-fish down let flye! - She weened the shell-fish to have broke, - But therewith bruised his brayne_, - So now astoined with the stroke, - Hee lyes in lingering payne!" - -It seems remarkable that the 'illustrious French naturalist,' Reaumur, -should have been the first, if not to discover, at least to publish, -any description of the manner in which the Mussel spins its silken -cable. Yet one hour's experience in a tea-cup or tumbler will exhibit -most of the features in this interesting process. - -That Reaumur's narrative, although usually copied by most writers of -the present day, is not strictly correct, and, moreover, that the foot -of the mussel is _not_ 'useless as an instrument of progression' (as -generally asserted), may be easily proved to the satisfaction of the -student by adopting some such simple experiment as that which I am now -about to describe:-- - -Being at the sea-side on a fine summer afternoon, I procured three -specimens (I might have had as many hundreds if disposed) of the -Mytilus. On my return home I placed them in a common tumbler, and -waited patiently to see the result. My object was, if possible, to -witness the manner in which this animal grows its beard. - -In less than five minutes an industrious little fellow, whom we will -call No. 1, gently opened his shell, and immediately protruded his -fleshy foot until it reached a length of nearly two inches. So far as I -could determine, the design of the Mussel was to discover, in the first -place, what kind of a lodging he occupied; whether or not he had any -companions; and also, to know if these or any other objects could be -found worthy of his _attachment_. - -Sometimes the foot would be protruded under the shell, then in a -contrary direction. Or by an exertion of the strong muscular power -which that organ possesses, the entire shell would be lifted off the -ground and urged forward to a considerable distance. Of course he soon -come in contact with a neighbour Mussel, whom we may term No. 2, but as -the latter was not anchored by any byssus, he was speedily pushed on, -and on, until No. 3 was met, and the latter, in his turn, made to take -up a new position. - -Being tired of wandering about, No. 1 then extended his foot along the -base of the vase to a certain point, and there let it rest for a few -seconds. When again withdrawn, to my great delight, I saw the first -thread of a new byssus had been constructed. - -As my principal object was to become acquainted with the mode of -formation of the beard, I did not feel satisfied with merely watching -the movements of the animal from above. After a brief interval another -thread was spun. I bore in mind the words of Reaumur, who says, 'The -Mussel never spins more than four or five threads in the twenty-four -hours.' Aware that no time must be lost, though still afraid to disturb -the mollusc lest it might suspend its labours, I instantly detached -my specimen, and again turned its shell round so as to bring the -opening of the valves against the face of the glass. The creature did -not seem at all offended at his handiwork having been destroyed, but -still obstinately refused to let me see the working of its foot. Again -was the shell rolled over, and again did I replace it in its former -position. This time, in order to keep it from being shifted, a stone -was deposited upon the valve. Nothing daunted, the animal gradually -separated the valves of its shell, and at the same time advanced and -elevated its foot to the exact position that I had so long desired. - -The spinner, when at its full length, was pressed firmly upon the -flat surface of the glass, and there allowed to remain for a while. -Suddenly, at nearly _half an inch distance from its extreme end_ (or -point), a little mouth was seen to form, about the size of a large -pin's head, from which there issued a milk-white fluid, that gradually -hardened and became fixed to the glass. This object being light in -colour, had a pretty effect when contrasted with the rich brown tint -of the spinner. Shortly afterwards the foot rolled over and withdrew -into the shell, leaving behind it the silken thread which had just been -spun. The 'little mouth,' above described, was, if I may so term it, -the mould in which the end of the thread was cast. - -In the course of two hours a bundle of byssus threads, sixteen in -number, were produced by this industrious little labourer. - -Having thus seen that the foot is useful to the Mussel as an instrument -of progression _before_ the beard is formed, let me now endeavour -to show that it is, at times, of equal service for the same object, -_after_, and when the mollusc is anchored thereby to any particular -spot. - -When we remember that this anchorage is formed of a harp-like set of -strings, amounting to ten or even _a hundred_ in number, it does seem -an almost incredible fact that the Mytilus is enabled to change its -station, even when living in single blessedness. - -To see a Mussel 'flit,' is a sight one may often watch and wait -for without success. On the other hand, when least expected, the -self-willed mollusc may commence operations. When about to take up -a new home, the animal shaves off its beard entirely, or in more -scientific language, 'rejects its byssus' altogether. In order to -excite the locomotive instincts of my specimens, I used to cut all -the threads of their cable except one. The animal being suspended, of -course its whole weight was then thrown upon a single fibre. Such a -state of insecurity was by no means agreeable, and I generally found in -the course of a few hours that fresh threads were rapidly thrown out, -and an entirely new byssus formed; the old one, which was broken off at -the root, being left behind as useless. - -Another singular peculiarity of the Mussel which came under my -observation has not been, so far as I am aware, noticed by previous -naturalists. I allude to the power which the animal possesses of -lengthening out the root or stem of the beard, apparently to an -unlimited extent. This power appears to be seldom exercised, for -although I have had hundreds of specimens of the Mytili, in only one -instance have I witnessed the phenomenon in question. - -A large specimen of this bivalve, procured accidentally from a fishwife -in the street, was dropped into the aquarium, and placed close against -the surface of the glass. The animal seemed highly delighted with its -change of situation, for in a few moments the valves were opened, and -a long draught of water taken in to bathe its branchiæ, and furnish -a hearty meal. Having satisfied its appetite, the next process, of -course, was to find out what kind of a home he had been introduced -into. The foot, a noble specimen, was soon protruded, and one after -the other, in rapid succession, various threads were formed. By next -morning the animal, advancing by a series of easy stages, had reached -the surface of the water, which was exactly five inches deep. I knew -it would not remain long in this position, and was anxious to discover -what plan would next be adopted. Several courses were open to him. -For instance, like a marine Captain Cook, he might circumnavigate his -little _Globe_,--or he might let go his cable and drop plump to the -bottom,--or he could follow the route I had often seen taken by his -relations, viz., to journey back to the place from whence he started. -It pleased him, however, to strike out into a new path,--to devise a -method of his own. While located near the top of the tank, he threw out -exactly ninety-eight threads, not certainly for security, but merely, -it would appear, for pleasure. - -Then slowly but surely, day by day, he lengthened out the stem of his -byssus tree, until it reached the extreme length of nearly five inches. -To what further degree it would have been extended, had the mollusc not -reached the base of the tank, it is impossible to conjecture. - -No sooner did the shell touch terra firma, than the cable which had -taken so long to spin was immediately broken off. I have succeeded in -keeping the same animal by me for the last twelve months, but have seen -no attempt at a renewal of the operation, in the progress of which I -had taken so lively an interest. I may add that this Mussel taught me -another lesson; it was this: in my early studies regarding the habits -of the Mytilus, I had adopted a certain theory of the manner in which -the beard was formed; and having watched so long, and witnessed the -process so repeatedly, I thought myself justified in forming certain -conclusions. My belief was that the creature could not form more than -one thread at a time, _without withdrawing its foot into the shell_, as -I believed, in order to procure a fresh supply of material. That this -notion was erroneous, this animal proved to my entire satisfaction. Not -only may one, but two, three, four, and even six threads be attached -to any selected object, the point of the foot being passed from one -position to another, without the organ being withdrawn into the valves -until the whole of the threads are formed. How many more the Mussel is -capable of producing at one 'stretch,' I have no means of knowing, but -six is the largest number that any of my specimens in such case have -ever fabricated. - -The general idea seems to be that the Mussel works in the same manner -as the spider, who emits a drop of liquid against some foreign -substance, which, being allowed to harden somewhat, is then drawn out -as the spider recedes. This notion, I may state, is quite erroneous. -When the sucker of which we have spoken is formed, _the thread is -completed_. It is true that the foot as it retires into the shell -generally glides down the newly-constructed filament, but this is not -of necessity, nor does such circumstance invariably occur. Indeed, -while busily engaged in attaching a disc to the glass, the muscles of -the foot will contract, and thus throw open the folds of the groove, -situated in the middle of that organ; when thus exposed, the byssus -thread may be seen in the furrow, stretched like the string of a harp -or dulcimer. - -While the end of the thread is being attached to a certain spot, a -conspicuous muscular action is perceived going on in the foot, which -alternately swells and contracts, as if something were being pumped -up through the byssal channel, until it reached a certain point. -There being dilated and spread out in successive layers, it assumes a -trumpet-like disc, which is firmly fixed to the foreign object. Indeed, -I am by no means certain that the thread is not, when first produced, -exactly like a trumpet in shape. It also conveys the idea of being -blown out in a similar manner to a piece of bottle glass. After being -exposed to the air for some little time, the hollowness of the thread -is not so apparent as when it is newly fabricated. - -The mucous fluid, from which the fibres are formed, is secreted in -a gland situated at the base of the foot, whence it is apparently -expelled at the will of the animal into the furrow already referred -to, and is there spun into threads. The toughness of these filaments, -considering that each is finer than the thinnest strand of silk, is -remarkable. Their strength, however, may be easily accounted for, -when we know that each is composed in reality of innumerable delicate -threads, bound together by a subtle gelatinous fluid. This phenomenon -may be made out quite distinctly with a common hand lens, if the -following simple experiment be adopted: Make a Mussel construct its -thread in such a way that the disc of each is planted on the face of -the glass. Then place the fine point of a common needle upon the outer -edge of a chosen disc or sucker, and gently draw the former away to -a little distance, and you will find that by so doing the stretched -string becomes _peeled_. Continue this process carefully, and before -the thread gives way you will have divided it into a dozen parts at -least, all of which are visible to the naked eye, but clearer when the -hand lens is used, and still more distinctly and beautifully defined, -of course, if the microscope be brought into play. - -The foot of the Mussel appears to be firmly strapped on, as it were, -to certain transverse muscles, by a contraction of which the animal -closes its shell with surprising force. This strap, composed of a -powerful tendon which passes under the adductor muscles, is attached at -either end to the base of the foot. Thus we account for the remarkable -strength which is evidently seated in the foot, and makes it of so much -importance to the animal. At first sight nothing appears more easy -than to pluck out this organ by the roots, but an attempt will prove -the experiment to be more difficult than many persons suppose. - -The colour of the foot varies considerably in different specimens, -even of the same species. Some, for instance, are of a chestnut brown; -others of a kind of mauve or purple, covered with a peach-like bloom -during life; others, again, are of a deep-toned umber, while not a few -are pearly white, and streaked sometimes with pink like a tulip. - -The peculiarity of the Mussel to attach itself to foreign substances -has been taken advantage of for the benefit of man, and a curious -instance is exhibited at Bideford in Devonshire, at which town there is -a bridge of twenty-four arches, stretching across the Torridge river -near its junction with the Taw. 'At this bridge the tide flows so -rapidly that it cannot be kept in repair by mortar. The corporation, -therefore, keep boats in employ to bring mussels to it, and the -interstices of the bridge are filled by hand with these mussels. It is -supported from being driven away entirely by the strong threads these -mussels fix to the stonework.' - -Like most other writers who quote this strange account, I have not -had ocular proof of its accuracy.[9] That it is quite probable I can -readily believe, as a pretty experiment will partly prove it to any -spirited aquarian. Following out the above idea of the bridge at -Bideford, I managed to build an exceedingly pretty centre piece for my -tank. - -[9] Since writing the above, I have received the following interesting -epistle from Mr. Edward Capern, the celebrated 'poet and rural postman' -of Bideford, who kindly sought out the information I desired, relative -to the present state of the bridge above alluded to:-- - - Bideford, January 27, 1859. - -DEAR SIR,--I have inquired of the bridge warder, and he informs me that -the feoffees of the bridge command mussels to be brought up by the -cart-load, to protect the foundation, which is laid on _rubble_. - -I am pleased that it has been in my power to procure this information -for you--I am, dear sir, faithfully yours, - - EDWARD CAPERN. - -Having no ready means of making a rock arch, I collected such pieces -of rock, stones, &c., with weeds attached, as I thought would answer -my purpose, and then proceeded to fabricate the object of my wishes in -the following simple way: First were laid two stones parallel to each -other at three or four inches apart. Upon these I placed a large piece -of rock in a transverse direction. Between the interstices a number -of small mussels were then inserted. When fully satisfied that the -bivalves had moored themselves, I gradually piled one piece of rock -upon another until the structure reached the desired height, each piece -being bound to its neighbour by means of the byssus threads of the -Mytili. - -Before each block of stone that formed the foundations of the arch -was placed a splendid frond of Lettuce Ulva, tied by a strand of -silk to a white pebble. These verdant fronds, so smooth in texture -and so gracefully convoluted, rising up from the base of the tank -and reaching to its brim,--mingling, too, with the various tufts of -corallines and other sea-weeds that jutted from each crevice, were -very pretty to look at. When disturbed by the movements of the fishes -passing in and out, the gracefulness and beauty of the sea-weed was -doubly increased. - -In making observations upon any bivalve, such as the Mussel, it is -extremely puzzling to know what is going on _inside_ the shell. -Yet it is almost necessary to acquire this knowledge by means not -always apparent, in order to satisfy one's mind relative to certain -appearances, which we perceive going on externally. We have to form our -judgment of things we do not see from those that are apparent--at all -times a difficult task. But not often so tantalizing as in the case of -an insignificant creature like the Mussel, who lives, moves, and works -constantly before our eyes. I may add that it was not enough for me -that I saw the spinning process frequently. It all seemed tolerably -clear to my mind, but still I did not feel thoroughly satisfied. My -desire was to peep into the shell, and find out where the last spun -thread was situated; or, in other words, from what part of the trunk -the new branch sprung. On examining various specimens of the byssus, -this point was by no means apparent. Various means I adopted failed -to secure me the requisite knowledge. At length I hit upon a plan, -which, after no long time, I found opportunity to put in practice. My -largest Mussel lifted up its testaceous canopy, put aside the fringed -and fleshy veil that surrounded its edge, protruded its spinner to -make sure the ground was secure, and then withdrew it again into the -shell as usual. After the lapse of a second, the foot reappeared and -was stretched out to an unusual length. No sooner was the end of the -thread formed on the glass than immediately I firmly pressed the valves -together, and held them in this position until I had gradually worked -the Mussel up out of the vase, when I bound them close together by -means of a piece of cord. I need not describe my manoeuvres further; -suffice it to say that the thread nearest to the base of the groove -was found to be the one that was spun last. This, in my opinion, is -invariably the case. - -I may mention that the above experiment also proved to my mind that the -foot must be a most important vital organ of the Mytilus. At times, on -placing an open Mussel in my tank as food for crabs or other animals, I -have noted that if every other part were eaten, and the foot allowed to -remain attached to the muscles of the bivalve, that member would after -a lapse of several days show signs of--I do not say life--but sensation -and retractile power. - -But when the foot is cut and otherwise injured, the animal dies -quickly. In the experiment mentioned the valves were not kept closed -for more than half an hour; yet when they were opened, vitality had -evidently ceased within. This was the more singular when we remember -that the Mytili will live for many days out of the water; the shells, -of course, during the whole period being firmly closed. - -The Mussel, as already hinted, is very tenacious of life. I have kept -specimens by accident for several days in the pocket of my coat, but -found them quite well and lively when placed in sea-water. - -In general the sure sign of their not being in a healthy condition is -when the shell opens; for, while the animal retains any sense whatever, -it exercises a strict and judicious 'closeness.' - -I have found, however, on several occasions, that the shell being -contracted is not always a valid proof of its owner's convalescence, -for when placed in water the Mussel would float for several days upon -the surface like a cork, although it was near death's door. - -This phenomenon must be caused, I should suppose, by some sudden fright -compelling the mollusc to close its shell with such rapidity as to -prevent a proper supply of water being taken in. Having only air to -exist upon, the animal then lingers on until its branchiæ become dried -up, and all moisture exhausted. In this state the Mussel opens its -shell with a deep bursting sigh, and sinks to the bottom--dead. - -Being at the sea-side one fine summer day, I heard a little Scotch -girl cry out to her brother who was about to swallow entire, a fine -specimen of the _Mytilus edulis_, 'Eh, Willie dear, dinna ye eat that. -Dinna eat the _beard_ or ye'll dee!' Many years ago I remember a remark -to the same purport as the above being made by a poor child to its -playmate, in the neighbourhood of Gravesend. - -I little thought at that time that the Mussel was so interesting a -shell-fish, or that I years after should spend many an anxious hour -studying the formation and nature of its despised beard. - -I need hardly state that the idea of the beard being poisonous is a -vulgar error. In general the fish may be eaten entire with impunity. - -Cases have occurred where persons have been taken ill after eating it, -but this result has been satisfactorily explained to have been caused -by the Mussels being procured from places such as Leith Docks, where -their food consisted chiefly of unwholesome and putrescent matters. - -This mollusc is not used as food to any very great extent by the poorer -classes. It is employed very extensively, however, by the fishermen as -bait along all parts of the British coast. But in France it is much -esteemed both by rich and poor. The trade in them is successfully -cultivated, and affords a means of support to hundreds of industrious -and deserving men. - -From the learned author of the "Rambles of a Naturalist" we learn -that at the village of Esnandes, on the coast of France, the Mussel -trade, commenced about eight hundred years ago, has assumed a gigantic -extent. Both here and at the neighbouring villages of Charron, -Marsilly, Mussels are bred in an ingenious and systematic manner. At -the level of the lowest tide short piles or stakes are driven into the -mud, in a series of rows about a yard apart. This palisade is then -roughly fenced in with long branches. On this structure the Mussel -spawn is deposited, and it is found that the molluscs thus produced in -the open sea are much finer than those which are bred nearer the shore. - -These artificial Mussel beds are termed 'bouchots.' The fishermen who -engage in this branch of industry are known as 'boucholeurs.' - -'The little Mussels,' continues M. Quatrefage, 'that appear in the -spring are known as _seeds_. They are scarcely larger than lentils, -till towards the end of May, but at this time they rapidly increase, -and in July they attain the size of a haricot bean. They then take -the name of _renouvelains_, and are fit for transplanting. For this -purpose they are detached from those _bouchots_, which are situated -at the lowest tide mark, and are then introduced into the pockets or -bags made of old nets, which are placed upon the fences that are not -quite so far advanced into the sea. The young Mussels spread themselves -all round the pockets, fixing themselves by means of those filaments -which naturalists designate by the name of byssus. In proportion as -they grow and become crowded together within the pockets, they are -cleared out and distributed over other poles lying somewhat nearer -to the shore, whilst the full-grown Mussels which are fit for sale -are planted on the _bouchots_ nearest the shore. It is from this part -of the Mussel bed that the fishermen reap their harvest, and every -day enormous quantities of freshly gathered Mussels are transported -in carts or on the backs of horses to La Rochelle and other places, -from whence they are sent as far as Tours, Limoges, and Bordeaux.... -The following data, which were collected by M. D. Orbigny more than -twenty years ago, will show how important this branch of industry -must be to the district in which it is cultivated. In 1834 the three -communes of Esnandes, Charron, and Marsilly, representing a population -of 3000 souls, possessed 340 _bouchots_, the original cost of which -was valued by M. D. Orbigny at 696,660 francs; the annual expenses of -maintaining them amounted to 386,240 francs, including the interest of -the capital employed, and the cost of labour, which, however, is spared -to the proprietor who works on his own account. The nett revenue is -estimated at 364 francs for each _bouchot_, or 123,760 francs for the -three communes. Finally, the expense of the carts, horses, and boats, -employed in transporting the Mussels, then amounted annually to 510,000 -francs; but these numbers are far from representing the expenses -or profits at the present day. At the time M. D. Orbigny lived at -Esnandes, the _bouchots_ were only arranged in four rows; now however, -there are _no less than seven rows, and some of them measure more than -1000 yards from the base to the summit_. The whole of these _bouchots_, -which were at first limited to the immediate neighbourhood of the three -villages, of which I have already spoken, extend at the present day -uninterruptedly from Marsilly far beyond Charron, and _form a gigantic -stockade for two miles and a half in breadth, and six miles in length_.' - -A curious circumstance connected with the Mytilus remains to be -described. Let the reader, who may be so fortunate as to possess a -good microscope, cut away a portion of the fleshy part of the Mussel, -then place it in a watch glass, and examine it through that 'portal -to things invisible,' and, unless I am much mistaken, he will own the -sight to be supremely wonderful. Some water being deposited in the -glass the fleshy object will be seen to swim about in a most singular -and mysterious manner, while a close inspection shows every portion of -it to be in active motion. - -This motive power is caused by countless cilia, the rapid vibration of -which creates constant currents. This action preserves the health of -the poor mollusc by ærating the water which passes over his respiratory -organs. - -That some such wonderful contrivance is adopted, for conveying food -within the valves, too, is evident, when we consider that the Mussel -is always affixed to some foreign substance, that it cannot hunt after -prey, and therefore can subsist only upon whatever nutritious particles -may be contained in the element in which it lives. These consist of -minute animalculæ, principally crustacea, which are drawn within the -shell by powerful currents. - -I have often watched this phenomenon through a hand lens, and have -seen the young shrimps and skip-jacks, for instance, notwithstanding -the nimbleness of their movements, irresistibly drawn into the gulf -of destruction. Even tolerably sized specimens that were seated in -fancied security upon a valve of the Mussel, have suddenly been drawn -in, out of sight. As an instance of the power of these currents, I may -state that the water in a small aquarium is often seen to be affected -by the respiratory action of a single bivalve. The same thing has even -been apparent to the writer, while watching the movements of a colony -of Barnacles attached to a Limpet, the most distant part of the fluid -being gradually drawn near, in obedience to the beck of these delicate -and graceful little creatures. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -Terebella figulus. - -(THE POTTER.) - - -'Whether progressing on the solid surface, or moving through the -water, or tunneling the sand, advancing or retreating in its tube, -the Annelid performs muscular feats distinguished at once for their -complexity and harmony. In grace of form the little worm excels the -serpent. In regularity of march, the thousand-footed Nereid outrivals -the Centipede. The leaf-armed Phyllodoce swims with greater beauty of -mechanism than the fish; and the vulgar earthworm shames the mole in -the exactitude and skill of its subterranean operations. Why, then, -should the "humble worm" have remained so long without a historian? Is -the care, the wisdom, the love, the paternal solicitude of the Almighty -not legible in the surpassing organism, the ingenious architectures, -the individual and social habits, the adaptation of structure to the -physical conditions of existence of these "degraded beings?" Do not -their habitations display His care, their instincts His wisdom, their -_merriment_ His love, their vast specific diversities His solicitous -and inscrutable Providence.'--DR. WILLIAMS. - - - - -[Illustration: - -1 THE POTTER (_Terebella figulus_) -2 _Terebella littoralis_] - - - - -XII. - - -Having visited the sea-side a few weeks since, along with some -'aquarian naturalists,' among other objects we managed to capture -a very fine _Terebella Figulus_, commonly called the 'Potter.' The -specimen measured about five inches in length, and was nearly as -thick as a common drawing pencil. I could discover no signs whatever -of any tube in the rocky basin in which the Annelid was situated, a -circumstance that struck me as being rather curious. - -On returning home, my much-valued prize was placed in a tumbler of -large dimensions, the base of which I strewed with newly-pounded shells -and gravel. By the following morning all the fine or powdered portion -of the 'Silver Willies' had been collected and used in the construction -of a tube, sufficient in length to cover half the contracted body of -the industrious little mason. After labouring for a fortnight, the tube -was gradually extended across the bottom of the vase in a cylindrical -form, but eventually it assumed a semi-circular shape, being built -upon the glass, and elevated by gentle stages up each side of the -vessel until the level of the water was reached, when all further -labours ceased for a time. - -After the lapse of a few days the building operation was resumed, -and the tube carried fully an inch further, at right angles to its -former position. The opposite end of the structure was next extended -at an angle of 45° from the base of the vase, to a height of about two -inches. Then commenced a very curious phenomenon. Some of the tentacles -were incessantly elevated and extended across the vessel, until they -touched the opposite end of the tube, with what object I could not then -conceive. The design, however, was afterwards made evident: in less -than two days the animal succeeded _in making both ends of its tube -meet together, so as to form a continuous circle_. I happened to be -watching the mason, when the last stroke of his labial trowel was given -to the building, and shall never forget the cautious way in which the -animal crept for the first time over the newly-completed portion of the -work, and the seeming delight with which it continued to glide, hour -after hour, over the entire circuit of its dwelling-place. - -Sometimes its body would be long drawn out, until the tips of the -tentacula would reach, and apparently tickle the extreme point of the -tail; then a race would commence, in character exactly resembling -that so often witnessed with the kitten, or the playful whelp, when -either of these animals foolishly imagine that the tip of their tail is -adorned with some coveted tit-bit. - -The branchial organs of my specimen were very beautiful objects, being -formed of three blood-red spiral tufts, the effect of which were -heightened by their being placed in contact with the drab, coloured -cephalic[10] tentacles, which seemed to be almost innumerable. These -latter organs, although apparently so useless when seen closed, are in -reality of the greatest importance to the _Terebella_, for they not -only act as auxiliary organs of respiration, and aid most materially -in building its dwelling-place, but also constitute the real organs of -locomotion. - -[10] Cephalic, belonging to the head. - -'They consist,' says Dr. Williams, 'of hollow flattened, tubular -filaments furnished with strong muscular parietes. The band may be -rolled longitudinally into a cylindrical form, so as to enclose a -hollow cylindrical space, if the two edges of the band meet, or a -semi-cylindrical space if they only meet imperfectly. This inimitable -mechanism enables each filament to take up and firmly grasp _at any -point of its length_ a molecule of sand, or, if placed in a linear -series, a row of molecules. But so perfect is the disposition of the -muscular fibres at the extreme free end of each filament, that it is -gifted with the twofold power of acting on the sucking and muscular -principle. - -'When the tentacle is about to seize an object, the extremity is -drawn in, in consequence of the sudden reflux of fluid in the hollow -interior. By this movement a cup-shaped cavity is formed, in which -the object is securely held by atmospheric pressure. This power is, -however, immediately aided by the contraction of the circular muscular -fibres. Such, then, are the marvellous instruments by which these -peaceful worms construct their habitation, and probably sweep their -vicinity for food.' - -The foregoing beautifully and accurately describes the tentacular -cirri. The use of these organs in the formation of the tube in which -the Annelid dwells, I will now endeavour to make clear, from close -personal observation. - -It is an extremely interesting sight to watch a Terebella extend its -tentacles in all directions in search of building materials, catching -up the surrounding molecules (sometimes visible along the whole length -of each filament), and then, by a strong muscular contraction, bringing -the collected atoms to the opening of the tube, around which, as is -generally supposed, they are then immediately attached by a secretion -which is exuded from the body of the animal. Such, however, is not the -case. - -When the filaments bring their 'subscriptions,' the material thus -gathered, instead of being used at once for building purposes, _is, -in reality, first eaten by the animal, and, after undergoing a kind -of mastication, becomes coated with a salivary secretion, and is then -ejected in mouthfuls at the extremity of the tube_, which, by such -means, becomes gradually elongated. The shell work, when deposited as -above mentioned, is held in position, and prevented from falling over -the outside of the cavity, by the filaments which are made to hang -down in a most ingenious manner; the animal, at the same time, putting -itself in motion, allows the slimy surface of its body to press and -rub against the new addition to the tube, which is thus effectually -strengthened and soldered together. - -The animal does not always wait until the opening of the tube is -reached, but gently disgorging while lying at its ease, it then pushes -forward by aid of its head and tentacles the mass of building material, -which soon becomes distributed and moulded to its proper shape. - -If your specimen should happen to build a complete tube, its mode of -working cannot be well seen; but should it economize its labours, and -run its house up in a semi-circular form against the transparent side -of the vessel, as the animal I write of did, you will be enabled to see -distinctly every movement that goes on in the interior. - -It seems somewhat singular that the Terebella should possess the power -of turning itself within its tube, so as to be able to extend its -habitation from either end at will. I have very often watched the -operation with emotions of pleasure, not unmixed with wonder. - -Wishing to test the powers and intelligence of my specimen, I -dropped within its tube, which was curved in shape lengthways, some -particles of sand, and a pebble which nearly filled up the 'bore' of -the cylinder. The great annoyance occasioned by this intrusion to -the master of the house was painfully evident. For a whole day the -Terebella endeavoured to push out the objectionable matter by means of -its head and cephalic tentacula, but without success; for although the -mass frequently neared, it never touched or toppled over the mouth of -the aperture, and consequently fell to its original position at the -bottom of the tube as soon as the animal removed the pressure. - -Apparently despairing of its efforts, though still oftener repeated, -being eventually prosperous, the poor Annelid literally 'turned tail,' -and very coolly proceeded to elongate the opposite end of its dwelling. -This operation did not last long; for in the course of a few hours, on -peering again into the vessel, I saw that the humble and insignificant -worm had mustered up courage to 'face the enemy' once more, and had, -in fact, apparently conceived a new idea, the wisdom of which was -soon made palpable; for slowly, but surely, most of the arenaceous -particles were eaten, and nothing being left but the pebble, it was -speedily and triumphantly ejected from the tube, and the sand soon -after employed for building purposes. The Terebella having completed -its laborious and well-executed task, seemed to be quite exhausted, and -lay to all appearance lifeless for the succeeding four and twenty hours. - -When walking along the sandy beach, myriads of peculiar objects may be -seen swayed to and fro by the roll of the waves. Frequently, when the -tide has receded, these tubes remain sticking out of the sand to the -height of two or three inches, each terminating in a tuft, like the end -of a piece of cord that had been teazed out. - -Within such a fragile habitation dwells the _Terebella littoralis_, -the most common species of the marine tubiculous Annelids. I have very -often tried, by aid of my fingers only, or a strong spade, to capture -one of these creatures, but have never been successful, even in a -solitary instance. Yet several authors tell their readers the task is -perfectly easy. Mr. Lewes, for instance, made me feel ashamed of my -previous manipulative efforts when I read his vivid description of a -Terebella hunt, and caused me lately to journey a distance of six miles -to try my hand again, with no better result than hitherto. - -I have lately seen a specimen of _T. littoralis_ which a friend of -mine was so fortunate as to capture. The tube of the animal, instead -of being in its usual position, was situated in a pool, and offered a -most rare prize to its discoverer, it being the only one he had ever -caught. The tube, being of great length, was cut down to about six -inches and transferred to a shallow glass tank, in which was introduced -some pounded shells. The beautiful Annelid soon made itself at home, -and commenced to repair the damage done to its habitation by collecting -these particles, by means of its tentacula, which were thrown out to an -extraordinary distance in all directions. - -The result of the animal's labours was soon apparent by a most amusing -white patch being added to each end of its dark tube. - -As soon as this operation was completed _mon ami_ carefully tore up -the patched garment, and ejected the defenceless Terebella into the -vessel, wherein was placed a piece of glass tube that measured an -inch in length. Strange to state, the animal instantly crept into -this object, and soon made itself quite at home and comfortable. When -the building materials were placed near, they were collected and -_attached to each end of the glass cylinder_ by the little architect, -who doubtless was the first of its 'family' who could boast of such a -noble mansion,--which ultimately assumed a very remarkable aspect from -the variously-coloured 'mortar' that was employed in its construction. -Above and below the transparent centre came patches of red, white, and -blue material, composed respectively of broken tile, pounded shells, -and coloured glass. Such a 'concourse of atoms' was surely never before -combined, either 'fortuitously' or otherwise, in the construction of so -common an object as the tube of an Annelid. - -The branchiæ of the above mentioned specimen presented a most exquisite -appearance, resembling the perfect skeleton of a leaf, supposing that -to be dyed a brilliant crimson colour, and made to exhibit incessant -life-like motion even in its most delicate and minute ramifications. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -Acalephæ. - -(MEDUSÆ, OR JELLY-FISH.) - - -'And now your view upon the ocean turn, - And there the splendour of the waves discern; - Cast but a stone, or strike them with an oar, - And you shall flames within the deep explore; - Or scoop the stream phosphoric as you stand, - And the cold flames shall flash along your hand, - When lost in wonder, you shall walk and gaze - On weeds that sparkle, and on waves that blaze.' - - - - -XIII. - - -There are certain narrow-minded persons who raise objections to men -of science prying into the secrets of nature, and profanely, as they -think, attempting to explain the design and purpose of the great -Creator. - -But to the intelligent and right thinking man, no employment could -be found more elevating or ennobling than this; and whether he be a -fellow-worker himself, or merely an approving observer of the labours -of others, still he feels, and conscientiously believes in the words of -Milton, that-- - - "The desire which tends to know - The works of God, thereby to glorify - The great Workmaster, leads to no excess - That merits blame, but rather merits praise - The more it seems excess." - -When such a one contemplates the atmosphere, for instance, with its -'wonderful phenomena of clouds, rain, and sunshine, that alternately -shield, moisten, and warm the face of the earth, he feels awed by the -grandeur of the exquisite system of machinery by which such beautiful -results are accomplished. To him also the sea, with its physical -geography, becomes as the main-spring of a watch; its waters, and its -currents, and its salts, and its inhabitants with their adaptations, -as balance wheels, cogs, and pinions, and jewels. Thus he perceives -that they too are according to design; that they are the expression of -one thought, a unity with harmonies, which one intelligence only could -utter.' To his eye all created things possess an interest doubly great, -not only from their marvellous structure, but from the mission they are -destined to fulfil in this lower world. - -What peculiar mission the Acalephæ (which we are now about to consider) -were destined to fulfil it has long puzzled men of science to explain. -Nor can this be wondered at, when we remember the amazing number of -these creatures, and also the extreme delicacy of their structure. -Some indeed appear almost as if they were formed by the sportive -combination of air and water, as if the sea-breeze ruffling the face of -ocean caused bubbles innumerable to arise, which becoming mysteriously -endowed with life, thenceforth existed as Medusæ. - -They have, indeed, frequently been spoken of as 'animated sea-water,' -or 'living jelly.' These expressions seem most appropriate when we -remember, that if one of these creatures be placed upon a plate of -glass, and allowed to remain exposed to the sun's rays, the only -thing that will remain to testify to the existence of this singularly -graceful object is a thin film, that a stroke of the sponge or finger -will remove in an instant. - -The most satisfactory explanation that has been offered as to the use -and purpose of the Medusæ is, that _they serve as the principal food of -whales and other Cetacea_. To these marine monsters--frequently found -from 70 to 110 feet long--we can imagine a few hundreds of jelly-fish -would be considered a small meal. The supply, however, is ever equal to -the demand, as we shall see hereafter. - -I may here be permitted to explain that, in most large fishes, the -jaws are completely filled with formidable teeth, as in the shark, -for instance. This rapacious monster--which has been aptly termed the -tiger of the sea by us, and which the French, in allusion to the deadly -character of its habits, have named Requin, or Requiem, the rest or -stillness of death--possesses a most marvellous dental apparatus. - -Its teeth are not, as might be supposed, fixed in sockets, but attached -to a cartilaginous membrane. The teeth, in fact, are placed one -behind the other in a series of rows; the first of which, composed of -triangular cutting teeth, stands erect and ready for use. But as the -membrane continues to grow and advance forward, it slowly perishes, -and the teeth drop off, their place being taken by the next row which -formerly stood second. These, in the course of time, are succeeded by -a third series, which are again followed by others. - -Now, whales possess no such weapons. Their enormous mouths are not -filled with 'tusks or grinders, but fitted instead with vast numbers of -oblique laminæ of a softer substance, usually denominated whalebone, -which is admirably adapted for the crushing and masticating of soft -bodies.' - -To give an idea of the amazing extent of the harvests of 'whale food,' -as the Medusæ are termed, that abound in various parts of the ocean, -we need only quote the evidence of various navigators on the subject. -One (Lieut. Maury), for example, states, that on the coast of Florida -he met with a shoal of these animals, that covered the sea for many -leagues, through which his vessel, bound for England, was five or six -days in passing. The most singular part of the story is that, on his -return some sixty days after, he fell in with the same shoal off the -Western Islands, and here again he was three or four days in getting -clear of them. - -The Western Islands here mentioned are, it seems, the great resort for -whales; and 'at first there is something curious to us in the idea -that the Gulf of Mexico is the harvest field, and the Gulf Stream -the gleaner which collects the fruitage planted there, and conveys -it thousands of miles off to the living whales at sea. But, perhaps, -perfectly in unison is it with the kind and providential care of that -great, good Being who feeds the young ravens when they cry, and caters -for the sparrow.' - -But Dr. Scoresby, in his work on the Arctic Regions, by aid of figures -conveys the most vivid idea of the myriads of these creatures that -float in the bosom of the ocean. This writer discovered that the -olive-green colour of the waters of the Greenland sea was caused by the -multitudes of jelly-fish contained therein. On examination he found -that 'they were about one-fourth of an inch asunder. In this proportion -a cubic inch of water must contain 64; a cubic foot, 110,592; a cubic -fathom, 23,887,872; and a cubical mile, 23,888,000,000,000,000! From -soundings made in the situation where these animals were found, it -is probable the sea is upwards of a mile in depth; but whether these -substances occupy the whole depth is uncertain. Provided, however, the -depth which they extend be but 250 fathoms, the above immense number -of one species may occur in a space of two miles square. It may give -a better conception of the amount of Medusæ in this extent, if we -calculate the length of time that would be requisite with a certain -number of persons for counting this number. Allowing that one person -could count 1,000,000 in seven days, which is barely possible, it would -have required that 80,000 persons should have started at the creation -of the world to complete the enumeration at the present time! What a -prodigious idea this fact gives of the immensity of creation, and of -the bounty of Divine Providence, in furnishing such a profusion of life -in a region so remote from the habitations of man. But if the number of -animals be so great in a space of two miles square, what must be the -amount requisite for the discolouration of the sea through an extent of -perhaps 20,000, or 30,000 square miles.' - -These creatures may be appropriately termed the glow-worms of the -ocean, for it is to them that the phosphorescence of the sea is mainly -attributable. - -Sir Walter Scott, in his poem of the 'Lord of the Isles,' thus alludes -to this phenomenon:-- - - 'Awaked before the rushing prow, - The mimic fires of ocean glow. - Those lightnings of the wave. - Wild sparkles crest the broken tides, - And, flashing round the vessel's sides, - With elfish lustre lave; - While far behind their livid light - To the dark billows of the night - A gloomy splendour gave.' - -Hugh Miller also gives a beautiful prose description of the luminosity -of our own seas, but we must resist the temptation to introduce it here. - -The appearance of the Greenland Seas is principally owing to the -presence of the minute species of Acalephæ, but there are many others -that grow to an immense size. Specimens of these may be frequently seen -cast on the sea-beach by the force of the waves. When in their native -element they form the swimmer's dread, owing to a peculiar stinging -power which they possess. - -The Medusæ have been divided into groups, and distinguished according -to their different organs of locomotion. The common idea is that all -jelly-fishes are like mushrooms or miniature umbrellas. Such, it is -true, is their general form, but others abound both in our own and -in foreign seas, that possess a totally different appearance. For -instance, some move by means of numerous cilia, or minute hairs that -are attached to various parts of their bodies. By the exercise of these -organs the creatures glide through the water, and hence they are called -_ciliograde Acalephæ_. - -One of the most remarkable examples of this class is seen in the -Girdle of Venus (_Cestum veneris_). 'This creature is a large, flat, -gelatinous riband, the margins of which are fringed with innumerable -cilia, tinted with most lively irridescent colours during the day, -and emitting in the dark a phosphorescent light of great brilliancy. -In this animal, too, which sometimes attains the length of five or -six feet, canals may be traced running beneath each of the ciliated -margins.' - -This animal, as it glides rapidly along, has the appearance of an -undulating riband of flame. Most likely it is the species to which -Coleridge alludes in the following passage:-- - - 'Beyond the shadow of the ship - I watched the water snakes - They moved in tracks of shining white, - And when they reared, the elfish light - Fell off in heavy flakes. - * * * * * - Within the shadow of the ship - I watched their rich attire-- - Blue, glossy green, and velvet black, - They curled and swam; and every track - Was a flash of golden fire.' - -Another of this class is the common Beroë (_Cydippe pileus_); its body -is melon-shaped, and covered over by rows or bands of cilia, placed -similarly to the treads on a water wheel, one above another. These are -entirely under the will of the little gelatine. It can use each or -all of them, and thus row itself along at pleasure. But perhaps the -most singular portion of this creature is what has been termed its -fishing apparatus, though by some writers it is considered merely to -be the means by which the Beroë anchors its body to any desired spot. -It consists of two exceedingly slender filaments or streamers, which -measure many times the length of the Beroë itself. Some writers, again, -fancy that these organs are used to propel the animal. This must be an -erroneous notion, for if they were cut off, the creature would still -continue to move with the same power as before. Nay more, if the little -Cydippe be cut into pieces, and the ciliated bands be attached to -each fragment, the latter will swim about with the same power as when -connected with the entire animal. - -From the filaments here described, others more slender still depend at -regular intervals, which curl up like vine tendrils upon the principal -stem. The whole can be spontaneously elongated or slowly withdrawn -within the body of the Beroë, where they lie enclosed in two sheaths -until again required for use. - -These interior 'sheaths,' which resemble in shape the drone of a -bag-pipe, are easily seen, being almost the only parts which are not -perfectly transparent. They are whitish in colour, and semiopaque. -(Plate 6 contains a sketch of the Beroë, drawn from nature.) - -I may mention that the paddles, with their comb-like array of cilia, -flap successively in regular order from the top to the bottom of each -row. This wave-like movement takes place simultaneously in all the -rows, when the animal is in full vigour. - -The organs of progression in the _Pulmonigrade_ Acalephæ, as their name -imports, bear certain resemblance to the lungs in respiration. They -move by the expansion and contraction of their umbrella-shaped bodies. -Graceful and elegant indeed are the motions of these creatures. I have -seen small specimens about the size of a sixpence, advance, in three -springs, from the bottom to the top of a large vase in which they were -confined. - -In descending they turn over and allow themselves to sink gradually as -if by their own weight. - -The third division of the Acalephæ is termed _Physograde_. The most -common member of this group is the _Physalus_, so well known to all -sailors under the name of the Portuguese Man-of-War. It is buoyed up -by air bladders--in fact, its entire body appears as one bladder, which -the animal is enabled to contract or expand at will. At first glance -the _Physalus_ appears to belong to quite a different family--suffering -under some maltreatment; for from its lower side, what seem a number of -entrails, of all shapes and sizes, hang down. When the upper surface -or crest of its swimming bladder projects above the waves, it has a -beautiful appearance, spangled with rays of purple, blue, and gold. -This formation acts as a kind of sail, by means of which the creature -is enabled to glide along with considerable speed. - -This Physalus is a somewhat mysterious being, and zoologists have not -as yet been able to determine many points connected with its structure -and development. - -The _Cirrigrade_ Acalephæ, too, are a singular family. They exhibit a -higher stage of development than those already alluded to, and possess -a kind of skeleton embedded within their gelatinous bodies. - -The _Porpita_ and _Velella_ are examples of this class, but for -detailed descriptions I must refer the reader to larger works which -treat on the subject. - -I cannot conclude this brief and imperfect sketch of the Acalephæ -without noticing their singular mode of reproduction. Nothing can -appear more marvellous than this process when first brought before -one's attention. It far excels the wildest dreams of fiction; and were -it not so well authenticated by naturalists who have devoted labour and -valuable time to gain ocular demonstration of the fact, we might well -hesitate to believe the statements laid before us in their works. - -For example, a Polype, as _Hydra Gelatinosa_ or _Hydra Tuba_(found -on buoys, oyster shells, &c., long submerged), will, it may be in a -simple aquarium, produce a number of small objects which, on being -examined through the microscope, are found to be, not young Polypes, -but Jelly-fish! In process of time, the latter, by a wondrous law of -nature, will produce in their turn, not Medusæ, but Polypes! - -'Imagine,' says Mr. Lewes, 'a lily producing a butterfly, and the -butterfly in turn producing a lily, and you would scarcely invent -a marvel greater than this production of Medusæ was to its first -discoverers. Nay, the marvel most go further still, the lily must first -produce a whole bed of lilies like its own fair self before giving -birth to the butterfly, and this butterfly must separate itself into a -crowd of butterflies, before giving birth to the lily.' - -Let me now, by entering briefly into detail, endeavour to make the -reader acquainted with the leading features of this mysterious subject, -known as 'the alternation of generations.' - -The adult Medusæ, then, gives birth to a number of oval gemmæ or buds, -appropriately so called by most writers, which appear like minute -jelly bubbles, covered with numberless vibratile cilia. These organs, -ten thousand times more delicate, we may imagine, than the eyelashes -of some infant member of fairy land, are ever in constant motion. The -currents produced thereby serve to propel the little animal to some -stray pebble or stalk of sea-weed, situated at a respectful distance -from its gelatinous relative. On some such object the young bud -attaches itself, and proceeds to vegetate. - -The body gradually lengthens, and becomes enlarged at its upper -extremity; from this portion of the animal four arms appear surrounding -a kind of mouth. The arms lengthen, and are soon joined by four others. -These organs, as also the inner surface of the lips and of the stomach, -are covered with cilia, and become highly sensitive. They are used -in the same manner as the tentacula of the Actiniæ, namely, for the -capture of food. There is this difference, be it observed, between the -two animals, that while the infant Medusæ labours incessantly to gain -its daily meals, the zoophyte remains still, and trusts to chance for -every meal that it enjoys. - -Fresh sets of arms continue to be developed successively upon the -little jelly fish, until the whole amount in number to twenty-five or -thirty. 'And the body, originally about the size of a grain of sand, -becomes a line, or the twelfth part of an inch in length.' - -Thus far there appears nothing particularly striking or improbable in -the history of the Medusæ; the next stage, however, exhibits matter for -our 'special wonder.' - -The young Acaleph now throws off its animal existence, and sinks into a -plant or compound polype. - -The lower part of the body swells, and from thence, what may be termed -a _stolen_, is thrown out. On the upper surface of the stolen one -and even two buds are often formed. 'As the bud enlarges it becomes -elongated, and bends itself downwards to reach the surface of the stone -to which the elongated extremity adheres; after this the attached end -is gradually separated from the body of the parent. When thus detached, -a small opening presents itself at its upper end, its interior -gradually becomes hollowed out, and cilia grow upon it, and tentacula -begin to sprout around the mouth, exactly in the same manner as in the -buds formed on the upper surface of the stolens.' - -Thus, from a single bud numberless other buds are formed, each being -endowed with equally prolific powers. If the parent be cut in half -transversely, the cut will close in, attach itself to some object, and -produce stolens and buds! If cut longitudinally, and the cut edges -be allowed to touch each other, they will again adhere, and exhibit -no trace of their ever having been divided. If the cut edges of each -division be not kept apart they will approximate and adhere together, -and thus two separate animals will be produced, each gifted with the -power of throwing out stolens and buds with the same prodigality as if -they had never been disunited! - -How long this budding process of necessity continues we cannot tell. It -may be only during the winter season. These creatures in their perfect -condition are generally found crowding our seas during the summer -months; most probably, therefore, as Sars and Steenstrup state, it is -at the commencement of spring that they undergo the last portion of -this 'transformation strange.' - -Still, this cannot be taken as a general rule. Dr. Reid, who for a -period of two years kept colonies of Medusæ, and assiduously watched -the various stages of their development, found that the larvæ of -one colony, which was obtained in September 1845, did not split -transversely into young Medusæ in the spring of 1846, as he expected -them to do, but continued to produce stolens and buds abundantly. - -On the other hand, the larvæ of the other colonies, which this -gentleman obtained in July, began to yield young Medusæ about the -middle of March. This process takes place in the following manner: -A 'bud' having arrived at maturity, it becomes 'cylindrical,' -considerably elongated, and much diminished in diameter, its outer -surface being marked with a series of transverse wrinkles. - -These wrinkles, or rings, which frequently amount to thirty or forty -in number, are first formed at the top, and slowly extend downwards. -Gradually as these furrows become deeper, the tentacula waste away, and -upon the margin of the upper ring eight equi-distant rays are formed. -The process continuing, in the space of a fortnight or so each groove -or ring is in like manner furnished with rays. The Medusæ now present -an appearance exactly resembling a series of cups piled up one within -the other. Strange to state, each little cup becomes eventually endowed -with life! As the uppermost segment is completely developed, it rests -upon the slender lips of the one beneath. It then glides off from its -old resting-place, and swims freely about in the water. Quickly it -aspires to the rippling surface above, and by a series of graceful -evolutions accomplishes its object. Once among the dancing waves and -exposed to the rays of a cheering sun, our little Medusa assumes its -complete form; and as a beautiful _Modecra formosa_, it may be destined -at some time or other to be the prize of an ardent zoologist, who, I -venture to assert, could not compliment it in more poetical language -than Professor Forbes has already done. This delightful author, -describing the little gem in question, says, 'It is gorgeous enough -to be the diadem of sea fairies, and sufficiently graceful to be the -night-cap of the tiniest and prettiest of mermaidens.' Or as an adult -_Cyanea capillata_, our once insignificant jelly-bag may perhaps -appear, and by an exercise of its urticating powers, send some unhappy -swimmer smarting and trembling to his home. - -While the Medusæ column proceeds to throw off from its uppermost part -living segments of itself, its lower half, or stem, continues to grow, -but does not become ringed, for as the budding process ceases, the last -formed cup rests on newly-formed tentacula! Then again stolens are -thrown out, on which young Medusæ are formed, as before described. - -Contemplating such mysteries as these, the mind becomes bewildered and -the spirits humbled. - - 'Imagination wastes its strength in vain, - And fancy tries and turns within itself, - Struck with the amazing depths of Deity.' - -The above may be deemed one of the most interesting zoological theories -that has ever been promulgated in modern times. It was founded by -Chamisso, and termed the 'alternation of generation,' but was much -improved and extended by the researches of Steenstrup. Professor Owen, -however, had previously reduced the theory to a fixed and definite -scientific form, under the title of '_Parthenogenesis_.' Another -author, not viewing the Medusæ in the various stages of development -as an aggregation of individuals, 'in the same sense that one of -the higher animals is an individual,' proposes that each Medusa be -considered as an individual, developed into so many 'zooids.' - -Into this abstract question, of course, I cannot enter. The reader who -would wish to know more of the subject than I have faintly shadowed -forth in this chapter, may consult Steenstrup's Memoir, published -by the Ray Society; Dr. Reid's admirable papers in the 'Magazine of -Natural History' 2d series; Lewes' 'Sea-Side Studies;' and the learned -works of Professor Owen. - - - - -[Illustration: MEDUSÆ IN VARIOUS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -Doris, Eolis, &c. - - -'The inhabitants of the watery element were made for wise men to -contemplate and fools to pass by without consideration.'--ISAAK -WALTON. - - - - -XIV. - - -One fine morning during the month of January, on peering into my -largest tank I perceived, attached to the upper portion of the marble -arch (centre piece), a peculiar object that had evidently been -deposited during the preceding night, but by whom or by what means I -knew not. It resembled a fungoid growth, or riband of flesh, plaited up -and attached at one edge to the stone. At every undulation of the water -the object moved to and fro with an extremely graceful motion. - -By careful and close examination it was seen to be covered with a film, -that gradually expanded until it burst, and thus gave means of escape -to thousands of minute white granules. On submitting these to the -microscope, a most wondrous sight met my astonished eyes. Each dot or -granule proved to be a transparent shell, resembling the periwinkle or -rather the nautilus in shape; containing an animal whose excited and -rapid movements were amusing to witness. From out the opening of the -shell appeared now and again two rings of cilia. When these organs -were about to be put into action, they reminded me of two circular -tubes of gas connected together, and each containing innumerable -perforations, which were sometimes suddenly and entirely lit up by a -torch being applied to one end. - -The _cilia_ may be distinctly seen to play at a certain point, and then -gradually extend round the circumference of the rings. When the whole -are in full action their movements are so extremely swift _as to appear -devoid of motion_, and thus bear a resemblance to rings of flame. - -The result of the movements of the cilia was always evident in -the vigorous evolutions of the little embryos, for the microscope -filaments, while in action, caused the animal to roll about in all -directions in a confined circle. When this envelope burst, the little -nautiline dashed out, and then--then it was of little use attempting to -get a view of the animal again, so rapid and violent were its movements -to and fro, never resting for one instant on any spot, and least of -all the spot wished. By the aid of blotting-paper, I sometimes reduced -the quantity of water in the watch glass; and the animal, thus being -compelled to confine its evolutions to a narrower stage, was more often -within the field of view. - -On visiting the sea-shore shortly after the discovery of the egg -cluster just described, I perceived attached to numberless stones and -large boulders thick clusters, composed of the self-same objects! -Beside them were lying confused heaps of _sea-slugs_, evidently -exhausted with their hatching exertions. Anything more repulsive to -the eye than those animal heaps exhibited it would be difficult to -conceive. Yet, at the same time, I know of no sight more pleasing than -to watch the _Doris_ in its healthy state, gliding along with outspread -plume on the under surface of the water, or up the sides of the tank, -more especially if it be observed through a powerful hand lens. - -These remarks will perhaps convey some new information to the young -naturalist, embracing as they do the leading facts connected with the -wondrous embryotic development of many marine animals. The reader will -already be prepared to learn that the vivacious little animal, moving -by aid of cilia and enclosed in a _shell_, was in reality the youthful -stage of that slow creeping gasteropod the _Doris_, which, in its -mature form, is possessed of no cilia, nor any shelly covering whatever. - -I should not have introduced this subject so familiarly did I not feel -anxious to make my readers aware how easy it is for each of them to -conduct experiments in the early stages of embryotic development, and -to gain practical evidence of the wonders which this study unfolds. - -'What,' eloquently asks Mr. Lewes, 'can be more interesting than to -watch the beginnings of life, to trace the gradual evolution of an -animal from a mass of cells, each stage in the evolution presenting -not only its own characteristics, but those marks of affinity with -other animals which make the whole world kin? To watch the formation -of the blood-vessels, to see the heart first begin its tremulous -pulsations, to note how life is from the first one incessant struggle -and progress--these keep us with fascinated pertinacity at our studies.' - -The remarkable fact above mentioned, of the young of the Nudibranchiate -Gasteropoda being furnished with a shell is exhibited not only in -Doris, but in Eolis, Tritonia, Aplysia, &c., while the embryos of the -Purpura, Nerita, Trochus, &c., are likewise in their youthful state -furnished with cilia, by the agency of which these animals swim freely -about in their native element. - -There is one exception to this, which occurs in _Chiton_, the early -stage of which has recently been shown by the observations of Mr. -Clarke and Professor Loven to be peculiar, and more resembling that -of an annelid than of a mollusc. In this case the animal can scarcely -be said to undergo a metamorphosis; for the embryo, even within the -egg, has nearly the form of the parent, and the appearance of the -shell-plates is a mere matter of development. - -I have never attempted to count the ova that were contained in any -single riband of Doris spawn, in fact I considered the task an -impossibility; but at a rough calculation, I concluded there would not -be less than a million. Dr. Darwin, however, travelling in the Falkland -Isles, met with a riband of spawn from a white Doris (the animal itself -was three and a half inches long), which measured twenty inches in -length, and half an inch in breadth! and by counting how many balls -were contained in a tenth of an inch in the row, and how many rows in -an equal length of riband, this gentleman reckoned that upon a moderate -computation there could not be less than six millions of eggs. Yet, in -spite of such amazing fecundity, this Doris was not common. 'Although,' -says Dr. Darwin, 'I was searching under the stones, I saw only seven -individuals. No fallacy is more common with naturalists, than that the -numbers of an individual species depend on its powers of propagation.' - -This apparent paradox is not difficult of explanation when we consider -the number of enemies which are always hovering near, and ready with -hungry mouths to snap up the infant embryos as soon as they begin -to show signs of vitality. The Hermit-Crabs are especially fond of -Doris spawn, so much so, indeed, that the writer could never retain -any for hatching purposes while any of the Paguri were near. Mr. -Peach says they (the young Dorides) have myriads of enemies in the -small _Infusoria_, which may be noticed, with a powerful microscope, -hovering round them, and ready to devour them the instant weakness or -injury prevents their keeping in motion the cilia, which serve both -for locomotion and defence. Let them cease to move, a regular attack -is made, and the animal is soon devoured; and it is interesting to -observe several of the scavengers sporting with the empty shell, as if -in derision of the havoc they have made. - -The same difficulty of calculation does not exist, at least to any such -extent, with the spawn of Eolis, which is laid in stringy coils. M. -Gosse mentions a specimen of _E. papillosa_ that laid nine strings of -spawn in his tank between the 20th of March and the 24th of May, all as -nearly as possible of the same length. Each string contained about a -hundred convolutions, each convolution about two hundred ova, and each -ova including, on an average, two embryos, making a total progeny of -forty thousand, produced from one parent in little more than two months. - -I may mention that on no occasion have I ever found the spawn coils of -either Doridiæ or Eolididæ in my tanks, or at the sea-shore, except -during the months of January and February or March; neither have any -of my specimens spawned more than once during an entire season. From -noticing the same group of parent slugs congregated, and remaining, -as I can affirm, for weeks near their egg clusters, evidently in a -most enfeebled condition, it has occurred to me that on the Frith of -Forth, at least, vast numbers of these animals do not long survive the -hatching season. - -Whether this be the case or not, it is a most singular fact that -in this locality, a Doris more than one or two inches in length is -scarcely ever to be met with. - -There is at present in one of my tanks a specimen of the Doris of a -pearly-white colour, a second, tinted white and pink, and two others -which are quite _black_,--all being procured from the coast near -Edinburgh. The last-mentioned animals are, I think, somewhat uncommon. -When watching one of them in motion while the sun is shining down upon -it, the hue of the creature changes from a black to a very deep purple, -owing, no doubt, to its fleshy disc being many shades lighter than its -body, which, being extended, and exhibited under a full glow of light, -becomes semi-transparent. This peculiarity is not evident, of course, -when the Doris is lying in a passive state, with all its gill-plumes -closed up. - -This sombre-coated gasteropod, although rare in some localities, is -very plentiful in foreign parts, if the following may be received as -an accurate narrative. 'On a reef of rocks near the island of Raiatea -is a huge unshapely black or brown slug, here called '_Biche_,' from -six to seven inches long, and five to six broad. Is is caught in vast -quantities, and not only regarded as a great delicacy by the natives, -but being cured, has become a valuable article of commerce in the China -market, whither it is carried from many insular coasts of the Pacific -by American ships. We have seen a number of lads fill three canoes in -two hours with these sea-snails.' - -Thus uninviting as this slimy animal seems to our English taste, there -is evidently no doubt of its being used by the Chinese as an article of -food, and according to the evidence of certain authors, is esteemed by -the 'barbarians' a high-class luxury; but then we must remember that -the inhabitants of the land of gongs and chopsticks, have always been -famed for their singular gastronomic tastes. One poet writes:-- - - 'That man had sure a palate covered o'er - With brass or steel, that, on the rocky shore, - First broke the oozy oyster's pearly coat, - And risked the living morsel down his throat.' - -But, 'Mandarins and Pigtails,' what was such _risk_, I ask, compared -to that which _he_ endured, who swallowed the first mouthful of -birds'-nest soup? or horror of horrors, the first spoonful of sea-snail -stew? Yet we are told that both the 'mucilage' and the _Bêches de Mer_ -dishes are savoury and highly grateful to the palate of an appreciating -gourmand. - -A recent author, describing a Chinese dinner from personal observation, -tells us, that when the first dish, composed of birds'-nest soup, -was over, he waited the advent of the next course with very nervous -excitement. 'It was a stew of sea-slugs. They are slippery, and very -difficult to be handled by inexperienced chopsticks; but they are most -pleasant and succulent food, not at all unlike in flavour to the green -fat of the turtle. If a man cannot eat anything of a kind whereof he -has not seen his father and grandfather eat before him, we must leave -him to his oysters, and his periwinkles, and his craw-fish, and not -expect him to swallow the much more comely sea-slug. But surely a -Briton, who has eaten himself into a poisonous plethora upon mussels, -has no right to hold up his hands and eyes at a Chinaman enjoying his -honest, well-cooked stew of _Bêches de Mer_. - -'During the discussion of this dish our Chinese master of the -ceremonies solemnly interposed. We were neglecting the rudiments of -politeness, no one had offered to intrude one of these sleek and -savoury delicacies, deeply rolled in sauce, into the mouth of his -neighbour. Efforts were made to retrieve the barbarian honour, but -with no great success, for the slugs were _evasive_, and the proffered -mouthful was not always welcome.' - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -The Crab and the Dainty Beggar. - - -'In taking a review of most, if not all the actions of the animal -world, it must be obvious that, whether we allow them reason or not, -the actions themselves comprehend those elements of reason, so to -speak, which we commonly refer to rational beings, so that if the same -actions had been done by our fellow-creatures, we should have ascribed -them without hesitation to motives and feelings worthy of a rational -nature.'--SCHLEIDER. - -'All things are bigge with jest; nothing that's plain - But may be wittie, if thou hast the vein.' - - --GEORGE HERBERT. - - - - -XV. - - -I have been observing for several days the movements of a Common -Shore-Crab, which has been almost all his life under my protection. -Although his present dimensions would render such a feat impossible, -when first I shook the little fellow off a bunch of _C. officinalis_, -he could have crawled with the greatest of ease into the mouth of a -small popgun. We all know that members of this family are bold and -daring in their attacks upon their weaker neighbours; upon each and all -they wage a constant predatory warfare. The poor Pholades, however, are -the favourite objects of their attacks. On these innocent bivalves the -Crustacea successfully prey, unless they are protected by their usual -rock-bound citadel, which, of course, they cannot always be. In order -to watch the Pholas at work, it is necessary that the siphons should be -more or less protruding from his tubular dwelling. If supported, say, -to the full depth of his valves, the animal is secure; for I notice -that neither crab nor fish can tear away the gristly ends of the -siphonal appendages when withdrawn; and when disturbed, the poor Pholas -leaves only this part in view. I have frequently seen the Fiddler-Crab -embrace a Pholas in his claws, and struggle to pull him from his seat. -On one occasion this operation was performed successfully, much to my -annoyance, as I had been at some trouble to saw the rock away in order -to watch easily every movement of the animal within. At night when I -looked into the tank my pet was safe; next morning it was wedged under -some pebbles, and the crab was feasting leisurely upon his tender flesh. - -It is most amusing to watch the Blennies, too, attack a Pholas, cast -into the tank, and to witness their mode of pecking at and shaking -their victim, and turning innumerable somersaults with it in their -mouths. The strength they exhibit in these manoeuvres is perfectly -astounding. - -About two hours after they had received one of their favourite -'muttons' to feast upon, I peeped into the aquarium, and found, as I -expected, the Blennies hard at their work of destruction. Behind them, -among some bushy tufts of _I. edulis_, the little crab, before alluded -to, was seated. In his arms he held an object unlike anything I had -seen on sea or land. It appeared like a slender stick of beautifully -iridescent opal. My amazement at this sight may readily be conceived, -for I had not the remotest idea as to how he had become possessed of -such a prize. - -Next day I placed another devoted Pholas in the tank, and after a while -looked in to see how its finny enemies were conducting themselves, -when, what should meet my eye, but the crab, sneaking off with another -opal baton in his arms! I was more puzzled than ever. It was quite -certain that the object in question had been procured from the Pholas, -yet I had not heard of, or ever seen anything like it in that animal. - -I was 'on thorns' until next day, so that I might by watching solve -the mystery. A third Pholas was flung into the den. The fishes, eager -as usual, instantly attacked and pulled the mollusc to pieces. After a -while the crab began to move about to and fro, evidently very restless, -and anxious for my departure. I did retire, but only to such distance -as would allow me a distinct view of his movements. In a few moments he -stepped out mincingly on the tips of his toes, and crossed the tank to -the spot where the poor Pholas lay, like some fine beau in Queen Anne's -reign tripping jauntily down the Mall, or across St. James' Park, to -feed the ducks in Rosamond's Pond. - -The Blennies darted off at his approach. He then seated himself before -the mangled corpse, and scraped at it vigorously, manifestly searching -for some coveted treasure. Shortly after, perceiving him clutch at -something, I quickly approached and disturbed his movements--took up -the Pholas, and to my surprise found, on drawing out an object that -protruded from the foot of the animal, that I possessed the pearly and -gelatinous cylinder, such as the crab had twice before devoured with -such evident relish.[11] - -[11] My first introduction to the Hyaline stylet as above narrated, -occurred in October 1858. - -It was plain then that the little rascal had become so dainty, that -he 'turned up his nose,' or rather his 'pair of noses,' at what is -vulgarly termed the 'first cut,' and condescended only upon the -tit-bits, for his marine banquet. So his crabship, in order to save -himself trouble, actually waited until the fishes had cut up the -Pholas to a certain point, when he would rush forward and seize on his -favourite fare. - -Some of my readers will doubtless remember the anecdote of the crossing -sweeper, whose idiosyncrasy led him to covet diurnally a mutton-chop -situated in the middle of the loin. My Lady Pepys, or Mr. Saccharine, -the great grocer, couldn't always procure the desired 'cut!' -_n'importe_ the knight of the besom met with no such disappointment. - -This individual's place of business was luckily situated opposite to a -noted butcher's shop, which circumstance easily enabled him to watch -until, from the demands of sundry customers, the perspective of the -loin, which lay temptingly upon the chopping block, had become adapted -to his point of sight. He would then step in and meekly order a simple -pound avoirdupois. With this _bonne-bouche_ carefully packed in his -pocket, he would again mount guard, and remain until night. At dusk of -evening he shut up shop,--that is, he swept the dirt over the parallel -path that he had all day kept scrupulously clean, and then marched off -to enjoy his dinner at a fashionable hour, in private. - -Are not these cases palpably alike? Passing by certain details, were -not the pawkiness and cunning of the epicurean beggar fully equalled by -our diminutive friend, _C. mænas_? - -'But,' you ask, 'what then was the opal stick?' Ay, there's the rub, -for even the greatest naturalists cannot positively agree as to the -use and purpose of this mysterious organ. Yet it is to be found (as we -have seen) in the foot of the Pholas, in the Mussel, the Cockle; and, -in fact, it occurs in almost all bivalves both great and small. It is -termed the 'hyaline cylindrical stylet,' and is very _lucidly_ and -scientifically described as 'an elastic spring to work the corneous -plate or attritor, and by the muscular action of the foot and body, to -divide and comminute the food, and especially the minute crustaceous -and testaceous alimentary matters received into the stomachial cavity. -It appears then that this appendage acts as _a gizzard_, and the -bivalve mollusca are thus supplied with a masticatory apparatus very -analogous to the gizzards of some of the gasteropoda.' - -Now, the simple fact that I have stated above, of the hyaline stylet -being found in the _foot_, and not in the stomach, at once proves -that it cannot possibly act as a _gizzard_ to the Pholas, or any other -bivalve in which it is known to exist. - -In the succeeding chapter I shall endeavour, from personal observation, -to shed a slender ray of light upon the function of the stylet. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -The Pholas, &c. - -(ROCK-BORERS.) - - -'He that of greatest works is finisher - Oft does them by the meanest minister.' - - - - -XVI. - - -At certain parts of the Scottish coast, the 'dykes,' or walls built -near the road-side, are constructed entirely of rough-hewn pieces of -hard sandstone rock, brought from the neighbouring shore. Sometimes a -dyke will extend for two or three miles, without presenting an isolated -fragment, in which the honeycomb-like perforations of certain species -of the boring Mollusca are not more or less apparent. - -A fragment of soft sandstone lies before me, measuring three and a half -inches in length, and two inches in breadth, which, small though it be, -contains no fewer than seventeen cylindrical tunnels. Each of these -exhibits so wonderful a skill in construction, that human hands could -not surpass it, though aided by 'all the means and appliances to boot,' -of mechanical agency. - -It is generally stated that the Pholas never intrudes itself into the -apartment occupied by a neighbouring 'worker.' The Pholas, however, -often intrudes on its neighbour; and such intrusion is manifested in -the small piece of stone alluded to in no less than four instances. -Here let me observe, that it is not always the larger mollusc that -bores through the smaller one; it as frequently happens that the latter -deserves the brand of wanton aggressor. Both cases are common enough, -and, indeed, must of necessity occur, wherever at any time a colony of -various sized Pholades are clustered together in a small portion of -rock. - -A fragment of rock riddled by the Pholas is a much more pleasing -sight than can be witnessed at the sea-shore in connection with that -animal under usual circumstances. For this reason: When visiting the -habitat of the boring bivalves, a host of small circular holes are -sometimes seen; at other times the surface of the same portion of the -beach appears comparatively sound, and it is only by striking a smart -blow with a hammer upon the ground, that we render scores of orifices -instantly observable in all directions, from each of which is thrown a -small jet of water. This phenomenon is caused by the Pholades in alarm -retracting their siphons, which had hitherto filled the entire extent -of the tunnels. At such a locality, if a piece of rock be excavated, -various specimens of these boring molluscs, shrunk to their smallest -possible size, will be discovered at the base of the cavities, which -are invariably of a conical form, tapered at the top, and gradually -enlarging as they descend. - -It must be evident, then, that neither the likeness of the animal, nor -the formation of its singular dwelling-place, can be seen by the casual -wanderer along the sea-shore. - -It will also be apparent to the intelligent reader, that when once the -Pholas is located in a certain spot, he becomes a tenant for life; -for never by any chance whatever, can the poor miner leave his rocky -habitation by his own unaided exertions, even were he so inclined. As -he grows older and increases in size, nature teaches the animal to -enlarge his habitation in a proportionate and suitable manner. - -During the period of the boring process, the orifice becomes clogged -above the shell with the _debris_ of the rock, and this, if allowed to -accumulate would speedily asphyxiate the animal. To get rid of such -an unpleasant obstruction, the Pholas retracts, and closes the end of -its siphons, then suddenly extends the 'double barrelled' tube to its -full length, until it reaches the entrance of the tunnel. This movement -often repeated, causes portions of the pulverized stone to be forced -outwards at each operation. - -It is interesting to watch the curious manner in which the end of the -principal siphon is alternately closed and spread out when it reaches -the water, like a man inspiring heavily after any unusual exertion; it -is then made again to descend, and renew its task, as above described. - -In extracting that portion of the _debris_ which is deposited at -the _base_ of the cavity, below the body of the industrious miner, a -different plan is adopted. Wherever a Pholas is at its labours, there -are always deposited within a circumference of several inches round the -tunnel, myriads of short thin threads, which are squirted out from the -smaller siphon. - -The nodules on examination are found to be composed of pulverized -rock, which is drawn in at the pedal opening, and ejected in the -above manner, thereby effectually clearing the lower portion of the -orifice. It was suggested to me that these threadlike objects were the -foecal matters of the Pholas, but this idea was soon dispelled by the -assistance of the microscope; and, moreover, from the fact that the -threads are never visible when the animal is in a quiescent state, but -only when it is busily engaged in its mysterious task of boring. - -I was for some time puzzled to find any aperture in connection with -the club-like foot of the Pholas (_P. crispata_), although several of -the bivalves were sacrificed to the cause of science. But what the -microscope and scalpel in this instance failed to unfold, attentive -watching of the animal in the aquarium made palpably apparent, in the -following manner. - -I had on one occasion captured about a dozen Pholades, some of which -were embedded in the solid rock, others detached. - -The first mentioned, I knew would be quite safe among the blennies -and crabs, from the untempting and unedible nature of their siphonal -tubes. Very different was the case with the defenceless, disentombed -specimens. These were intended as food for their finny companions, who -happened to be particularly fond of a change of diet. My 'pack' had -subsisted for some time on Mussels, and on such excellent food, had -become impudent, corpulent, and dainty. But overgorged epicures though -they were, I knew that although everything else failed, a 'real live' -Pholas placed before them would serve to speedily whet their appetites. - -A splendid specimen of the siphoniferous bivalve was dropped into the -tank, the base of which it had no sooner reached, than the fishes, with -eager eyes and watering mouths, came hovering like a flock of vultures -round the welcome meal thus unexpectedly placed before them. - -One rascal, who seemed to be cock of the walk, came forward and made -the first grip at the delicate fleshy foot, that in appearance was as -white as a newly fallen snowflake. The pedal organ was, of course, -instantly and forcibly withdrawn, so much so, indeed, as to be almost -hidden from view, except at its extreme base. In this position it -remained for several seconds. When the finny gourmand again boldly -advanced to take a second mouthful, to my intense surprise he was, -apparently, blown to a distance of several inches. I could scarcely -credit the evidence of my senses. Another and another of the fishes -were in their turn served in like manner as their leader. In a short -time, however, the poor mollusc failed to repulse his enemies, and -finally fell a passive victim to their gluttonous propensities. - -Now comes the important question, 'How is the boring operation -performed?' How can this simple animal, with its brittle shell, and -soft fleshy body, manage to perforate the sandstone, or other hard -substances, in which it lives? - -For hundreds of years this query has been asked, and various are the -replies which from time to time have been given. Singular to state, -although specimens of the Pholas, and its allies the Saxicavæ, are to -be procured in abundance in many parts of the kingdom, the subject is -not even yet positively settled. - -There have been many theories advanced, some the result of fancy -or guess-work; others, of practical study. All these have their -supporters, but none have, by common consent, been adopted by -physiologists as the true one. - -Having for several years made this subject a study of personal -observation, I believe I may venture to state, that I have succeeded -in casting a feeble ray of light upon it; and, although the result of -my labours may not be deemed conclusive, I may at least claim some -credit for my endeavours to clear up a most difficult, though deeply -interesting point in natural history. - -The various theories promulgated on this knotty point are generally -classed under five heads: 1st, That the animal secretes a chemical -solvent--an acid--which dissolves the substance in which it bores. -2d, That the combined action of the secreted solvent, and rasping by -the valves, effects the perforations. 3d, That the holes are made by -rasping effected by silicious particles studding the substance of -certain parts of the animal. 4th, That currents of water, set in action -by the motions of vibratile cilia, are the agents. 5th, and lastly, -That the boring mollusca perforate by means of the rotation of their -shells, which serve as augurs. - -Of all the above, the first which is quite a fancy theory, seems to -meet with greatest favour among certain naturalists. But as it is -rather puzzling to find a chemical solvent, which will act equally upon -sandstone, clay, chalk, wax, and wood, this hypothesis can only be -looked upon by practical men as ingenious, but incorrect. Even were it -proved that the animal really possessed the power of secreting an acid -sufficiently powerful, the question naturally arises, How can the shell -escape being affected in like manner with the much harder substance in -which it is situated? - -The second theory, or the combined action of rasping and the secreted -solvent, is, for obvious reasons, equally objectionable. - -The third theory, which endeavours to account for the wearing away of -the rock by means of silicious particles situated in the foot and other -parts of the animal, has been for some time proved to be erroneous, -from the fact, that the combined skill of some of our best anatomists -and microscopists has failed to discover the slightest presence of any -particles of silex in the Pholadidæ, although these are believed to -exist in other families of the boring acephala. - -The fourth theory, that of ciliary currents as an accessory agent in -boring, is worthy of greater consideration, chiefly from the evidence -we possess of the immense power which the incessant action of currents -of water possess in wearing away hard substances. - -We come now to what may be considered the most important of the -theories above enumerated, viz., the mechanical action of the valves of -the Pholas in rasping away the rock, &c. This hypothesis is one which -most naturally suggests itself to the mind of any impartial person, on -examining, for instance, the rasp-like exterior of the shell of _Pholas -crispata_.[12] But as I shall endeavour to show, although the shell -forms the principal, it does not by any means constitute the _sole_ -agent in completing the perforating process. - -[12] Specimens of this species, I may mention, have always formed the -subject of my experiments, and therefore are alone alluded to in the -following remarks. - -Mr. Clark, a clever naturalist, considers with Mr. Hancock that the -powerfully armed ventral portion of the _mantle_ of the closed boring -acephala is fully adequate to rub down their habitations, and that the -theories of mechanical boring, solvents, and ciliary currents, are -so utterly worthless and incapable of producing the effects assigned -to them, as not to be worth dwelling upon for one moment. Mr. Clark, -therefore, comes to the conclusion that 'the foot is the true and -sole terebrating agent in the Pholas.' This 'fact' he considers to -be 'incontestably proved,' for the following reason, viz., because -he had discovered specimens of this bivalve with the foot entirely -obliterated,--which phenomenon, Mr. Clark states, is caused by -the animal having arrived at its full growth, at which period the -terebrating functions cease; and as 'nature never permanently retains -what is superfluous,' the foot is supposed gradually to wither away, -and finally disappear. - -This, I suspect, is another 'fancy' theory. Although I have excavated -hundreds of Pholades, some of giant-like proportions, it has never -been my lot to witness the foot otherwise than in a healthy and fully -developed condition. - -Another writer, having no opportunity of viewing the living animal, -does not consider it difficult to imagine the Pholas 'licking a hole' -with its foot, from the fact that he (Mr. Sowerby) managed to make 'a -sensible impression' upon a piece of kitchen hearthstone. 'I had,' he -says, 'not patience to carry the experiment any further, but as far -as it went, it left no doubt on my mind that, with the foot alone, -and without any silicious particles, without a chemical solvent, and -without using the rasping power of its shell, our little animal could -easily execute his self-pronounced sentence of solitary confinement for -life.' - -Such an inconclusive statement as this would, I feel certain, never -have been penned, had its author been so fortunate as to have had -opportunity of watching a Pholas at work. - -But, as Professor Owen truly observes, 'Direct observation of the -boring bivalves in the act of perforation has been rarely enjoyed, and -the instruments have consequently been guessed at, or judged of from -the structure of the animal.' Such, evidently, is the case with Mr. -Sowerby, and several other writers who treat on this subject. - -Here we may call attention to the folly of naturalists endeavouring -to tag a pet theory upon all the boring acephala, to the exclusion of -every other. Such a system is defended upon the principle that, 'it -is much more philosophical to allow that animals, so nearly allied as -these in question, are more likely to effect a similar purpose by the -same means, than that several should be adopted. Surely this is more -consistent with the unity of the laws of nature, and that beautiful -simplicity which is everywhere prevalent in her works.' - -How much more shrewd and philosophical are the opinions of such a man -as Professor Owen, who, when speaking of the mechanical action of the -valves of _P. crispata_, says, 'To deny this use of the Pholas shell, -because the shell of some other rock-boring bivalves is smooth, is -another sign of a narrow mind.' Again, this learned author forcibly -remarks, in direct opposition to the writer previously quoted, '_The -diversity of the organization of the boring molluscs plainly speaks -against any one single and uniform, boring agent at all_!' - -The more I study this subject, the more does the truth of the -last-mentioned statement become apparent to my mind. - -An examination of engravings of the shells, or even of the Pholas -itself, when lying loose in the tank, or quietly seated in the rock, -extending and retracting its siphons, fails to give one the slightest -idea of its extraordinary appearance when enlarging its dwelling. At -such times it seems to be a totally different animal, and to have -suddenly acquired a most marvellous degree of power, energy, and -perseverance, forming a striking contrast to its usual quiet, passive -habits. - -In the first place, as I have elsewhere written, it retracts its tube -to, and even under, the level of its shell, just as a man, about to -urge onwards some heavy mass with his shoulders, would depress his -head to increase and concentrate his muscular power. Then follows an -expansion of the neck or upper part of the ventral border, from whence -the siphons protrude. This movement closes the posterior portions of -the valves below the hinge, and brings their serrated points together. -The next act on the part of the animal is to place its foot firmly -at the base of the hole; when leaning forward, it makes a sweeping -movement fully half round the cavity, pressing firmly-upon the umboes, -which nature has strengthened for the purpose by two curved teeth -fixed on the inside of the valves. At this stage it again reclines on -its breast, and tilting up the shell as much as possible, it makes -another motion round to its former position, leaning upon its back. By -these intricate movements, which the Pholas appears to accomplish by -a contraction almost painfully strong, it opens the rasping points of -the valves. These execute a very peculiar scooping movement at the base -of the cavity, and the animal having got so far, prepares itself for -further exertion by a short rest. - -The specimen whose movements I have attempted to describe, lived in -my possession for a considerable time. It bored so completely through -the piece of rock in which it was embedded, that the whole of its foot -dropped through the aperture, and remained in this position for months, -the animal, in consequence, being unable to change its position even in -the slightest degree. Each movement of this specimen, both before and -while the hole at the base of the cavity was gradually being enlarged, -was watched, and every striking and interesting feature that occurred -noted down at the moment. Various queries were put and answered, as -far as possible, by direct ocular demonstration of the labours of the -animal in the vase before me. - -I consider myself to have been singularly fortunate in being able -to view the actions of the creature from beneath, in consequence of -the hole being bored through the rock. This circumstance allowed me -distinctly to see what was going on at the base of the orifice. - -My early observations have fortunately been confirmed in other captive -Pholades, which at various periods have been domesticated in my tanks. - -I am convinced, then, that the shell forms the _principal_ agent in -boring the animal's dwelling, without either acid or flinty particles. -The late lamented Professor Forbes held that if this were the case, -the rasping points on the surface of the valves would soon be worn -down,--an appearance which, he says, is never seen. With all respect -for such an eminent name, I must state that he was in error. Not only -are the edges at certain times worn, but the rough surface is worn -nearly smooth, appearing in certain parts of a white colour, instead of -a light drab, as usual. - -But the reader may ask, if certain parts of the valves are occasionally -worn smooth, and the animal works so vigorously, how is it that they -are never rasped through? This is a very natural question, and one that -I put to myself repeatedly. - -I have made frequent and careful observations while the animal was -actually at work, in order to satisfy myself upon this point, and have -always perceived that the particles of softened rock fell from, and on -each side of, the large and well-developed _ligament_ that binds the -hinge, and extends to the lowest points of the valves. Moreover, this -leathery substance always seemed scraped on the surface. I cannot, -therefore, but believe that the ligament aids very materially in -rubbing off the rock, or at all events, in graduating the pressure of -the valves during the process, and that this curious organ, instead -of being worn away, may, like the callosity upon a workman's hand, -increase in toughness the more labour it is called upon to perform.[13] - -[13] Mr. Clark says, 'M. Deshayes, in his comment on Pholas, in the -last edition of Lanarck, mentions the hinge as scarcely existing, and -not being _a veritable ligament_.' How different from the fact; and -I will observe, that '_if there is a genus better provided than any -other of the bivalves with ligamental appendages, it is Pholas.... The -Pholas is iron-bound as to ligament_, which in it is far more powerful -in securing the valves, than is the shell of any other group of the -acephala, of similar fragility and tenuity!' - -The reason why so few specimens of the Pholades exhibit a worn shell -may be thus explained: As the animal only bores the rock in sufficient -degree to admit of its increased bulk of body, it only requires to bore -occasionally, and there may be often an interval of many months, during -which time nature may have renewed the serrated edge and rough surface -of the valves, and thus enabled the creature to renew its wondrous -operations. - -We now come to a consideration of the foot, which, as many writers -aver, forms the 'sole terebrating agent.' - -Although this sweeping statement is incorrect, I will freely admit that -the foot constitutes an agent second only in importance to the shell of -the animal. A casual examination of any Pholas perforation will show -that the foot could not have been the only instrument by which the -cavity was formed, from the peculiar rings that line the lower portion -of its interior. These rough appearances, I feel convinced, could be -formed by no other means than the rotatory motion of the shelly valves. - -The valves, however, could not rotate and press against the surface of -the rock, were it not for the aid which the foot affords to the animal, -by its being placed firmly at the base of the hole, and thus made to -act as a powerful fulcrum. - -This supposition fully accounts for the lowest extremity of the rocky -chamber being always smooth, and hollowed out into a cup-like form by -the action of the fleshy foot above alluded to. - -The foot for a long time was a complete puzzle to me: I was unable to -satisfy my mind as to how it acquired its seeming extraordinary power. -The phenomenon was fully explained when I became aware of the presence -of that mysterious organ the hyaline stylet, situated _in the centre of -the foot_. The use of this springy muscle, which is, as we have shown -in the previous chapter, by naturalists erroneously considered to be -the gizzard of the animal, is, I believe, _solely to assist the Pholas -in its boring operations_. - -Perhaps some of my readers would like to know how to procure a sight -of the stylet; if so, their wishes may be easily gratified. Take up a -disentombed Pholas in your hand, and with a sharp lancet or point of a -pen-knife, briskly cut a slit in the extreme end of the foot, and, if -the operation be done skilfully, the object of your search will spring -out of the incision to the extent, it may be, of a quarter of an inch. -If not, a very slight examination will discover the opal gelatinous -cylinder, which may be drawn out by means of a pair of forceps. - -When extracted and held between the finger and thumb by its smaller -end, the stylet will, if struck with a certain degree of force, vibrate -rapidly to and fro for some seconds, in the same manner as a piece of -steel or whalebone would be affected, under like circumstances.[14] - -[14] In the _Athenæum_ (Nos. 1632 and 1636), were kindly published two -letters from the author on the above subject, under the respective -dates January 26th, and February 28th, 1859. - -So long as a Pholas exhibits only the ends of its siphons to the eyes -of a greedy crab, it is perfectly safe from attack. It is only when -the fleshy foot is unprotected that it falls a prey to some hungry -crustacean. - -The toughness of the siphonal orifices is, I believe, a most important -point, for, as I shall endeavour to explain, the siphonal tubes -constitute important accessory excavating agents, to those already -enumerated. - -We all know that the hole which each young Pholas makes, when first -he takes possession of his rocky home, is extremely minute,--not -larger than a small pin's head; now, it stands to reason, that if the -shell was the only terebrating agent, the opening of the cavity in -question would always remain of the same size, or, perhaps, on account -of the action of the water, a slight degree larger than its original -dimensions. Such, however, is not the case. - -Here is a fragment of rock exhibiting several Pholas holes. The -aperture of one of these, which I measure, is nearly half-an-inch in -diameter, while in juxtaposition with it is situated another cavity, -measuring across the entrance less than the eighth part of an inch. -The reader will at once perceive, if the foot and shell were the sole -augurs, that as the animal descended deeper into the rock, the siphonal -tube, as it enlarged in proportion to other parts of the animal, would -have to be drawn out to an extremely fine point to fit the opening of -the tunnel. But as this is not the state of matters, the conclusion -forces itself upon us, that that portion of the orifice situated above -the shell of the animal must be enlarged by the constant extension and -retraction of the siphons, aided by currents of water acting on the -interior surface of the cavity. - -This same theory will also serve to explain how it is that all Pholades -situated at the same depth in the rock, are not all of a uniform size. -I have frequently seen a piece of rock exhibit the peculiarity of two -burrows of vastly different proportions as regards breadth, being -precisely the same depth from the surface of the stone. This appears -to me equally wonderful and puzzling at first sight, as the 'boring' -question. - -What age is attained by any species of the rock-borers before they -arrive at full growth, there are no means of knowing. This point, -like several others in the history of these animals, still remains a -mystery, nor is it likely soon to be cleared up. The largest specimen -of _P. crispata_ that I have seen is at present in my possession. Each -valve measures three and a half inches in length, by two inches in -breadth. Some foreign specimens of this species, and especially of _P. -dactylus_, are, however, frequently found of much larger dimensions. - -On no occasion have I ever examined any Pholas excavation that had lost -its conical shape, a fact that seems to prove that the successive -stages of the boring operation must have taken place solely in -consequence of the animal not having reached its adult form.[15] For -had the shell attained its full development, and its owner continued -to labour, and rasp away the rock, the sides of the cavity at its base -would necessarily present a parallel appearance--a phenomenon which is -never witnessed. - -[15] The above remark holds good, even although (_as is frequently the -case_) the animal wilfully deviates from the straight path, and bores -its tunnel in a curved form. - -From this we may conclude that the depth of the perforation, which is -seldom many inches, depends entirely upon the growth of the mollusc. - -When keeping specimens of the Pholas for observation, the usual plan is -to chip away the rock to the level of the valves, so that the whole of -the animal's siphonal tubes may be distinctly seen, however slightly -these organs may be extended. This plan, I found, did very well for a -time, but I was annoyed to witness, that in the course of a few months, -the siphons ceased to be either advanced or retracted,--they having -become, as it were, rudimentary. - -To obviate such contingency, the writer adopted the following scheme. - -To place in the tank a Pholas completely embedded in a fragment of -rock, so that nothing but the tips of its siphons, when extended to the -utmost, were visible, would not afford much pleasure to the student. I -therefore managed to saw away the rock in such a manner, as to leave a -narrow slit along the entire length of the tunnel, so as to expose the -slightest movement of the animal within. Having natural support for its -siphons, I expected that these organs would be constantly retracted and -extended; but such was not the case; at least for so long a period as I -had anticipated. - -After repeated experiments, I have now discovered that whether the -siphons be protected as above described or not, they will always be -vigorously exercised if the animal be placed in shallow water, so that -its tubes when fully extended will reach the surface of the fluid. - -The conclusion, from what has been stated, is, that the Pholas can -no longer be considered a weak and helpless animal. Possessed of a -rasp-like shell, a horny ligament, retractile tubes, a strong muscular -foot, and a powerful spring or stylet, it is not by any means difficult -to conceive that these agents when they are all brought into play, are -fully equal to the task of excavating the rocky chamber in which the -animal lives. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -The Sea-Mouse. - -(APHRODITE ACULEATA.) - - -'For seas have ... - As well as earth, vines, roses, nettles, melons, - Mushrooms, pinks, gilliflowers, and many millions - Of other plants, more rare, more strange than these, - As very fishes living in the seas.' - - - - -[Illustration: - -1 THE SEA MOUSE (_Aphrodite aculeata_) -2 THE DORIS -3 YOUNG OF THE DORIS -4 EOLIS PAPILLOSA] - - - - -XVII. - - -Beauteous stars also the sea contains, as numberless, though not so -brilliant in appearance as those which stud the firmament of heaven; -flowers, too, grow beneath the wave, and rival in loveliness the gems -which adorn our fields and hedge-rows. Nay, more, like the land, the -ocean owns its various grasses, its lemons, and cucumbers, its worms, -slugs, and shelly snails, its hedgehogs, its birds, its ducks and geese -(_anatidæ_), its dogs, its hares, and lastly its _mice_ (_aphroditæ_.) -The latter objects, despite their unprepossessing name, being in no -wise less interesting than those above mentioned. - -The _Aphrodite aculeata_ is, perhaps, one of the most gorgeous -creatures that inhabits the seas of our British coast. Its body is -covered with a coating of short brown hairs, but as these approach the -sides of the animal, they become intermixed with long dark bristles, -the whole of which are of an iridescent character. In one respect -this creature bears no resemblance to its namesake of the land, being -extremely slow and sluggish in its movements (at least according to -our experience) when kept in confinement. Some writers, however, affirm -that the Aphrodite possesses the power, although seldom exercised, of -both running and swimming through the water with considerable speed. - -In general the animal loves to tenant the slimy mud, and wherever the -writer has happened to come upon a specimen at the sea-shore, its back -has always been thickly coated with sand or dirt. The Sea-Mouse, then, -unlike the peacock, can never be deemed an emblem of haughty pride, -yet has nature in her lavish beauty endowed this humble inhabitant of -the deep with a richness of plumage, so to speak, fully equal in its -metallic brilliancy to that which decorates the tail of the strutting -bird we have mentioned. As the bristles of the Aphrodite are moved -about, tints--green, yellow, and orange, blue, purple, and scarlet--all -the hues of Iris play upon them with the changing light, and shine with -a metallic effulgence. Even if the animal, when dead, is placed in -clear water, the same varied effect is seen as often as the observer -changes his position. - -Not only are the _Setæ_ worthy of notice on account of their lustrous -beauty, but also for their shape, and the important part they play in -the economy of the animal. These lance-like spines seem to be used by -the Aphrodite as weapons of defence, like the spines of the hedgehog -or porcupine. In some species they are like harpoons, each being -supplied with a double series of strong barbs. - -The instruments can all be withdrawn into the body of the animal at -will, but we can easily conceive that such formidable weapons being -retracted into its flesh would not add to the creature's comfort--in -fact they would produce a deadly effect, were it not for the following -simple and beautiful contrivance. - -Each spine is furnished with a double sheath composed of two blades, -between which it is lodged; these sheaths closing upon the sharp points -of the spear when the latter is drawn inwards, effectually guard the -surrounding flesh from injury. - -The shape of this animal is oval, the back convex, while the under part -presents a flat and curious ribbed-like appearance. Its length varies -from three to five inches; specimens, however, are sometimes to be -procured, even on our own shores, of much larger dimensions. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -Star-fishes. - -(OPHIURIDAE AND ASTERIADAE.) - - -'As there are stars in the sky, so there are stars in the sea.'--LINK. - - - - -XVIII. - - -There are not a few persons still to be met with, who believe that -man and the lower animals appeared simultaneously upon the face of -the earth. Geology most forcibly proves the error of such an idea, -for although the fossilized remains of every other class of organized -beings have been discovered, human bones have nowhere been found. -This fact, though deeply interesting, is perhaps not more so than -many others which this wonderful science has unfolded. What can be -more startling to the student for instance, than the information that -for a long period, it may be thousands of years, no species of fish -whatever inhabited the primeval seas? True it is that certain creatures -occupied the shallows and depths of ocean, but these were of the lowest -type. The most conspicuous were the coral polypes, which even then as -now were ever industriously building up lasting monuments of their -existence, as the Trilobites, a group of Crustacea, and the Crinoids, -or Lily-stars. - -The last-mentioned group of animals were analogous to the present tribe -of Star-fishes, and are now nearly extinct. The body of the Lily-star, -which resembled some beautiful radiate flower, was affixed to a long, -slender stalk, composed of a series of solid plates superposed upon -one another, bound together by a fleshy coat, and made to undulate -to and fro in any direction at the will of the animal. The stalk -was firmly attached to some foreign substance, and consequently the -Crinoid Star-fish, unlike its modern representative, could not rove -about in search of prey, but only capture such objects as came within -reach of its widely expanded arms. 'Scarcely a dozen kinds of these -beautiful creatures,' observes Professor Forbes, 'now live in the seas -of our globe, and individuals of these kinds are comparatively rarely -to be met with; formerly they were among the most numerous of the -ocean's inhabitants,--so numerous that the remains of their skeletons -constitute great tracts of the dry land as it now appears. For miles -and miles we may walk over the stony fragments of the Crinoidae, -fragments which were once built up in animated forms, encased in -living flesh, and obeying the will of creatures among the loveliest -of the inhabitants of the ocean. Even in their present disjointed and -petrified state, they excite the admiration not only of the naturalist, -but of the common gazer; and the name of stone lily, popularly applied -to them, indicates a popular appreciation of their beauty.' Each -wheel-like joint of the fossil Encrinite being generally perforated -in the centre, facility is thus afforded for stringing a number of -these objects together like beads, and in this form the monks of old, -according to tradition, used the broken fragments of the lily-stars as -rosaries. Hence the common appellation of St Cuthbert's Beads, to which -Sir Walter Scott alludes,-- - - 'On a rock by Lindisfarn - St. Cuthbert sits, and toils to frame - The sea-born beads that bear his name.' - -One solitary species of the Crinoid Star-fishes has of late years been -found to flourish in our own seas; it is, however, affixed to a stalk -(pedunculated) only in the early periods of its existence. - -When first discovered by Mr. Thompson in its infant state, the -_Pentacrinus Europæus_ was believed to be a distinct animal. It was -taken attached to the stems of zoophytes of different orders, and -measured about three-fourths of an inch in height. In form it resembled -a minute comatula mounted on the stalk of a Pentacrinus. Subsequent -research has proved that the little stranger was merely the young state -of the feather star _Comatula rosacea_, and that although for a certain -period attached to a slender waving stem, the Pentacrinus, when arrived -at a certain stage of development, feels fully able to start life on -its own accord, and hence takes opportunity to break off its early -ties, and become a free animal, dependent upon its own exertions for -subsistence. - -It is no uncommon thing, as a late writer forcibly remarks, in the -inferior classes of the animal kingdom, to find animals permanently -attached from the period of their birth, and during all their -existence. Familiar examples of this occur in the oyster, and various -other bivalve shell-fish, as well as in numerous compound zoophytes. We -likewise meet with races which are free and locomotive in their first -stages, and afterwards become permanently fixed; but an animal growing -for a period in the similitude of a flower on a stem, and then dropping -from its pedicle, and becoming during the remainder of its life free -and peripatetic, is not only new, but without any parellel in the whole -range of the organized creation. - -The Comatula, or as it is commonly called, the Rosy Feather-star, is -allowed to be without exception the most lively of all the star-fishes. -Its movements in swimming are said to resemble exactly the alternating -strokes given by the medusa to the liquid element, and have the same -effect, causing the animal to raise itself from the bottom, and to -advance back foremost even more rapidly than the medusa. It has ten -very slender rays with numbers of long beards on the sides. The body, -which is of a deep rose colour, is small and surrounded with ten little -filiform rays. The extremities of these organs are shaped like claws, -by means of which the animal attaches itself to various kinds of -sea-weed, and other submarine objects. - -The adult Comatula generally measures about five inches across its -fully expanded rays. - -Before treating of what are termed the _true_ Star-fishes, we require -to dwell briefly upon an intermediate family named by Professor Forbes -the _Ophiuridæ_, 'from the long serpent or worm-like arms, which are -appended to their round, depressed, urchin like bodies.... They hold -the same relation to the Crinoidea that the true Star-fishes hold to -the Sea-Urchins. They are spinigrade animals, and have no true suckers -by which to walk, their progression being effected (and with great -facility) by means of five long flexible-jointed processes placed at -regular distances around their body, and furnished with spines on the -sides and membraneous tentacula. These processes are very different -from the arms of the true Star-fishes, which are lobes of the animal's -body, whereas the arms of the Ophiuridæ are super-added to the body, -and there is no excavation in them for any longation of the digestive -organs.'[16] - -[16] British Star-fishes. - -The British Ophiuridæ are now classed under two genera; of the Ophiuræ, -or Sand-stars only two species (_O. texturata_ and _O. albida_) are -found on our shores; and the Ophicomæ, or Brittle-stars, of which there -are ten. - -An extraordinary feature, characteristic of all the above-mentioned -animals, is the great tendency which they have to mutilate themselves, -and throw their limbs about in fragments on the slightest provocation. -If a specimen be handled, a certain number of fragments will assuredly -be cast off. If the rays become entangled in sea-weed, or even if the -water in which the animal resides happens to become impure, the same -disastrous result follows, until nothing but the little circular disc -remains. As a set off against this weakness, both the Ophiuræ and the -Brittle-stars possess reproductive powers of a high order. Hence it not -unfrequently happens that if each and all the rays of a specimen be -rejected, the animal will live on, and eventually, perhaps, become a -complete and perfect star-fish. - -The best means of preserving an Ophiura is to let the devoted animal -remain for a time expanded in sea-water, then with a small pair of -forceps lift it carefully up, and plump it into a bath of cold 'fresh' -water, letting it lie there for about an hour. The animal speedily -dies, as if poisoned, in the fresh liquid, in a state of rigid -expansion. Some writers recommend that, at this stage, the specimen -should be dipped for a moment into boiling water, and then dried in a -current of air; but I have never been able to detect any great benefit -arising from the adoption of the process. - -When examining any of the Brittle-stars, I have always found it an -excellent plan to raise them up by aid of the forceps applied to the -disc. By this means a specimen may be moved about without any fear -of mutilation; whereas if the fingers be used as forceps, an unhappy -result will assuredly follow. - -The _Ophiocoma rosula_, figured on Plate 9, will serve to convey to -the reader a general idea of this class of animals. Its popular title -is the Common Brittle-star, indicative of the inherent fragility of the -species, as also of their prevalent appearance at the sea-shore; but, -though so exceedingly 'common,' we must at the same time in justice -add, that the _O. rosula_ exceeds in beauty many other species which -are rare, and consequently more highly prized by the collector. - -It is very abundant on all parts of the British coast, and is often -found in clusters upon the stems of _L. digitata_, and as frequently -upon the under side of boulders. In dredging, the Brittle-star is an -unfailing prize. It is a marvellous sight when the scrapings of the -ocean bed are spread out upon the dredging-board for examination, -to see hundreds of these singularly delicate creatures twisting and -twining about in all directions,--over each other's bodies, through the -weed, sand, shells, and mud, and strewing fragments of their snake-like -arms upon every surrounding object. - -At the mere mention of 'Star-fishes,' the most uninitiated reader will -at once realize in his mind's eye a tolerably correct notion of the -form of these curious productions of the marine animal kingdom, even -although he had never seen a living or dead specimen. - -The body of the animal is divided into rays, like the pictured form of -one of the heavenly stars, and the fancied resemblance is most apparent -in the Asteridæ, or true Star-fishes, of which we are now about to -speak. - -This wonderful race of animals, for their beauty of colour, elegance -of shape, and peculiarity of structure, possess a great degree of -interest, not only to the naturalist, but also to the casual observer -by the sea-side. - -There are fourteen British species of Asteriadæ, which are arranged -under four families, namely--the Urasteriæ, the Solasteriæ, the -Gonasteriæ, and the Asteriæ. This group contains no less than eight -generic types, clearly distinguished from each other by certain -characters, 'derived from the outline of the body, the number of rows -of suckers in the avenues, and the structure and arrangement of the -spines covering the surface and bordering the avenues.' - -There are four species of Star-fishes belonging to the genus Uraster, -the most common of which is the _Uraster rubens_, or Common Cross-fish. - -No person in the habit of visiting the sea-shore can be unfamiliar with -the likeness of this creature, which is generally seen lying wedged -in some rocky crevice, or among the Fuci, there patiently waiting the -return of the tide. - -At such a time, the Devil's-hand (as the Irish people term it), does -not appear by any means attractive. If placed in water, however, its -appearance becomes wonderfully improved. - -Here is a small specimen, just brought from the sea-shore at -Cockburnspath (a most romantic and delightful locality, situated on -the coast of Berwickshire). It is neatly wrapped up in a mantle of -sea-weed. Freed of its verdant envelope, I deposit the youthful Rubens -upon his back--'willy-nilly'--in a tumbler partly filled with clear -sea-water, and then proceed to watch its movements through a magnifier. - -At a glance we perceive that each of its five rays is grooved on its -lower surface, and filled with minute perforations, through which is -gradually protruded a multitude of fleshy suckers, knobbed at the end. -It is by aid of these organs that the animal grasps its food, and -changes its position, as we shall presently see. One of the rays is now -slowly lifted up and moved about in various directions, while from its -extreme point the suckers are extended to the utmost limit. No sooner -do they touch the side of the vessel than they are firmly fixed and -contracted. A _point d'appui_ being thus gained, the animal is enabled -by degrees to draw its body round, so as to get another regiment of -suckers into play, and, by such plan of operations being repeated, -the animal is eventually enabled to 'right itself,' and crawl up the -polished surface of the glass. - -Generally, when the Star-fish is disturbed, or placed on a dry piece -of stone, the suckers are withdrawn into the body, leaving no signs -of their previous existence except a series of minute tubercles. In -fact, the Asterias, although enabled to adhere with great tenacity to -any foreign object when immersed in water, possesses but little power -to retain its hold if the fluid be removed. Hence the young zoologist, -keeping this peculiarity in mind, should not too hurriedly return a -verdict of 'Found dead,' when he meets with a helpless specimen upon -the beach, for in all likelihood, were the creature to be laid for a -few minutes in a rock-pool, it would soon exhibit signs of returning -animation. - -A simpler, though not so sure a test for ascertaining whether a -Star-fish be living or not, is to handle the specimen. If it feels soft -and flabby, it is dead; but if tolerably firm to the touch, it may be -'recalled to life,' by the means pointed out. - -It may not be out of place to chronicle here a singular circumstance -which the writer has often verified in connection with the true -Star-fishes. It is this. When any captured specimens have been placed -in confinement, no matter how large or small such might be, they never -moved through the liquid element with a tithe of the rapidity that I -well knew they were capable of. At the sea-side, I have seen a specimen -of the Cross-fish glide through the water so nimbly, yet withal so -gracefully, that I have felt inclined to rank natation among the few -other acomplishments of which the species can boast. - -The _Uraster rubens_ is also popularly known as 'Five Fingers.' For -ages past it has been subject to the bitter denunciation of fishermen -and others, for the injury which it is said to inflict upon oysters. -At one time, according to Bishop Spratt, the Admiralty Court laid -penalties upon those engaged in the oyster-fishing who did not -tread under their feet, or throw upon the shore, a fish they call a -Five-Finger, resembling a spur-rowel, because that fish gets into the -oysters when they gape, and sucks them out. Poets have also endeavoured -to perpetuate the vulgar opinion:-- - - 'The prickly Star-fish creeps with fell deceit, - To force the Oyster from his close retreat, - Whose gaping lids their widened void display; - The watchful Star thrusts in a pointed ray-- - Of all its treasures robs the rifled case, - And empty shells the sandy hillock grace.' - -Even yet the oyster fishermen at certain localities wreak all -possible vengeance upon the 'submarine Dando's,' for their supposed -gourmandizing propensities. I say _supposed_, for although so -many naturalists have studied the question, it is not, up to the -present time, satisfactorily settled. Some deny the alleged tendency -altogether, while less sceptical observers are unable to understand -the mode in which the Star-fish could injure an animal apparently so -capable of self-defence as the oyster. According to certain authors, -the Star-fish encircles the oyster with its five fingers, and by some -clever process of suction destroys the unfortunate mollusc. Others, -again, maintain that the first step of the attack is the injection -of some marine chloroform between the shells of the oyster, and that -during the insensibility that follows, the Star-fish effects an -entrance. - -As this is an interesting subject, perhaps the reader would like to -have the exact words which are used by two celebrated naturalists, one -of whom attempts to vindicate the character of the Asteridæ, the other -to blacken it. - -Sir John Dalyell--a high authority upon all matters of marine -zoology--shrewdly remarks: 'I have not heard it suggested that the -Star-fish possesses any kind of solvent compelling the bivalves -to sunder. Neither can its hostility be very deadly to the larger -univalves, from the distance to which they are enabled to retreat -within their portable dwellings. Their general habits are, to force the -shells of smaller bivalves asunder, and to devour the contents; they -likewise consume the substance of ordinary fishes entire; nevertheless, -as far as I am yet aware, their destruction of oysters is destitute of -evidence. The Star-fish sometimes shows an eversion of stomach, or of -some membrane of it. Whether this may be the means of affecting their -prey, merits investigation.' - -Professor Jones, who affirms that in the latter suggestion Sir J. -Dalyell has nearly hit upon the true solution of the problem, thus -gives what _he_ considers to be the correct mode of procedure on the -part of the Star-fish: 'Grasping its shell-clad prey between its rays, -and firmly fixing it by means of its prehensile suckers, it proceeds -deliberately to turn its stomach inside out, embracing in its ample -folds the helpless bivalve, and perhaps at the same time instilling -some torpifying fluid, for the shells of the poor victim seized soon -open, and it then becomes an easy prey.' - -Now, many fishermen with whom I have conversed hold the same opinion as -Bishop Spratt, and believe that when the oyster is gaping the Star-fish -insinuates a finger, and hastily scrapes out the delicious mouthful; -nay, further maintain that the Star-fish is far from being successful -at all times, very often, especially when there has only been one ray -inserted, the frightened oyster grasps it with all his might, and -obliges his discomfited opponent to retire minus a limb. - -If the writer might venture to suggest an opinion, he would express -his belief that the following is the correct account of the state of -matters. He believes with the fishermen that frequently the star-fish -begins his attack by inserting an arm, but he does not believe that the -oyster under such circumstances escapes with life. Let us suppose the -star-fish to have succeeded in insidiously introducing a ray within the -shell of the apathetic oyster, and that the oyster immediately resented -such intrusion by closing his shell with all the force he can exert. -The opposite argument at this stage is, that the intruder is obliged -from _pain_ to abandon his hold, and even pay for his audacity by the -forfeit of a limb. But against this we advance the notorious fact, that -the star-fish, like so many marine creatures of a similar organization, -is remarkably indifferent to pain. I therefore believe the true -explanation to be, that the oyster being unable to sustain such -continued muscular exertion for nearly so long a time as the star-fish -can tolerate the pressure upon its ray, the latter is consequently, in -the long run, successful. - -The number of rays in the several genera of the true Star-fishes is -extremely various. In the genus _Uraster_, as we have seen, five is -the predominant number. If we turn to the two species which comprise -the genus _Cribella_, we still find the quintuple arrangement adhered -to. In _Solaster endeca_, on the contrary, the rays vary from nine -to eleven, and even reach as high as twelve or fifteen in _Solaster -papposa_. - -In the genus _Palmipes_ we have the pentagonal form, it is true, but -the space between each ray is filled up, so as to resemble the webbed -foot of a bird, hence the popular title of this solitary species, -'The Bird's-foot Sea-star.' 'It is the flattest of all its class, and -when alive it is flexible like a piece of leather.' Passing by the -'Cushion-stars' (which have five _angles_--it seems a misnomer to call -them rays), which connect the true Star-fishes with the Sea-Urchins, -we come lastly to the 'Lingthorn,' _Luidia fragillisima_, with its -seven rays. This is the animal of which Professor Forbes discourses so -pleasantly about its winking derisively at his despairing endeavours -to preserve even a small portion of what at that time was his maiden -specimen. The Luidia is even more brittle--more regardless of its -wholeness, than the _Ophiuræ_, which renders the capture of a perfect -specimen a most difficult task. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -Sea-Urchins (Sea-Hedgehogs). - - -'Truly the skill of the Great Architect of Nature is not less displayed -in the construction of the Sea-Urchin than in the building up of a -world.'--P. FORBES. - - - - -[Illustration: - -1 THE APLYSIA or SEA-HARE -2 PURPLE-TIPPED SEA-URCHIN -3 Spine of PURPLE-TIPPED SEA-URCHIN -4, 5 Suckers of PURPLE-TIPPED SEA-URCHIN -6 COMMON SUN-STAR] - - - - -XIX. - - -Sea-Urchins are frequently taken in dredging. Several common species, -usually of a small size, are often found among the rocks situated -between tide marks. - -Into the aquarium no specimens larger than from one to two inches in -diameter should be introduced, and even these require to be closely -watched, for if afflicted with a fatal illness, I know of no animal -whose remains sooner taint the water. Almost before life is extinct, -the Urchin throws out a light-coloured nauseous fluid, that speedily -poisons the surrounding water, and, of course, causes the destruction -of any inhabitants of the tank who may neither have the sense nor -opportunity to inhale copious draughts of fresh air. As a rule, if the -suckers are motionless, or if on touching the animal it is found not to -be adherent to any object, transfer it at once to your 'infirmary' for -further observation. - -I have always found small specimens to be much more lively and -walkative, (if I may be allowed the expression) than their more -corpulent brethren. - -The inflexible, mail-like crust, or shell, as it is commonly called, -of the Echinus is perhaps one of the most marvellous objects on which -the eye can rest. Although at first sight it appears to be a solid -calcareous box, it is in reality composed of several hundred pentagonal -plates,[17] of various sizes, so closely dove-tailed together that -their marks of junction are scarcely perceptible. Upon a superficial -examination we are apt (most erroneously) to consider this wonderful -piece of work to be more elaborate than the wants of the animal demand. -The fact of the Lobster or Crab throwing off its entire shell at -certain seasons, to admit of the increased growth of the animal is a -truly marvellous phenomenon, still, it would more excite our wonder -were we to find that, instead of being cast away at all, the hard, -inelastic envelope which surrounds the bodies of crustaceans was made -to swell or expand proportionately with the soft parts of the animal! -Now, the mosaic-like shell of the Sea-Urchin, though built up, as -before stated, of several hundred pieces, is by a beautiful process -slowly and imperceptibly enlarged correspondingly with the growth of -the animal. - -[17] In a specimen that I examined, and then carefully took to pieces, -there were exactly 1780 plates. - -The gradual enlargement of the Echinus shell takes place in the -following manner:-- - -Over the entire surface of the globular shell, spines, and joints of -the living Urchin, there exists a delicate membrane that insinuates -itself between the pentagonal plates above mentioned, and continually -deposits around the edges a certain portion of calcareous matter -(carbonate of lime). The same process being also carried on by the -fleshy covering that surrounds the spines, &c., it must be evident that -so long as the vital power of the animal exists, each plate and spine, -still keeping to its original form, must be daily and hourly augmented -in size until the Sea-Egg has attained its full and mature dimensions. - -As to how the spines retain their relative position in each plate, as -the latter gradually becomes enlarged, I cannot positively state; but -may be permitted to mention, that, judging from carefully prepared -sections of the plates when submitted to the microscope, each spine -appeared to my eye to be by some singular process urged along in a kind -of groove to its proper place. - -The hedgehog-like spines that surround the globose body of the -Sea-Urchin are all moveable at the will of the animal,--each prickle -being connected by a ball-and-socket joint to a pearly tubercle, which -acts as the 'socket' on which the 'ball' of the spine revolves. If -the spine be removed, a comparatively smooth surface will be left, on -which are various sized tubercles systematically arranged. Situated at -regular intervals between the tubercles are ten broad bands, disposed -in pairs, and containing many hundreds of very minute perforations, or -ambulacral orifices, as they are generally termed by naturalists. - -Through these apertures issue numerous sucker-like feet, closely -resembling those of the Star-fish, but endowed with far greater powers -of contraction and extension. - -The number of suckers is very great. In an Urchin measuring exactly -three inches in diameter, by aid of a hand lens, I counted no less than -3300 pores in the ten avenues. Now, these pores are always situated in -pairs, and as each sucker occupies a pair of pores, it will give 1650 -as the total amount of suckers. - -There is no doubt that it is almost entirely by means of these curious -organs that the Sea-Urchin is enabled to move about from place to -place, although no less an authority than Professor Agassiz asserts -to the contrary. 'How, in fact,' says this author, 'could these small -tentacula, situated as they generally are in that part of the body -which is never brought into contact with the ground when the animal -moves, and overhung by calcareous solid spines--how, I ask, could -these flexible tubes be used as organs of motion? It is an undeniable -fact, and I have often observed it myself, that _it is with their -spines the Echini move themselves, seize their_ _prey, and bring it -to their mouths_ by turning the rays of their lower edge in different -directions. But the correction of an error respecting the functions -of the ambulacral tubes does not solve the problem relating to their -nature and use. This problem we are yet unable to solve, as we know -nothing more respecting them than that they are connected with the -aquiferous system.' - -Many other writers, among whom is Professor Forbes (from whose work -on Star-fishes I have transferred the foregoing extract), assert, in -opposition to the great Swiss naturalist, that the Echinidæ move by -the joint action of their suckers and spines. 'The argument,' says the -great British naturalist, 'against the suckers being organs of motion, -founded on their position above as well as below, would equally apply -to the spines, to which organs Professor Agassiz has attributed all -progressive powers in these animals.' - -The fact is now so well established, that it is scarcely necessary -for the writer to state, that from personal observation he can fully -confirm the evidence of Professor Forbes relative to the functions -of the suckers of the Sea-Urchins. But although that talented author -entertained no doubt as to the organs in question being powerful -locomotive agents, he evidently seems to have felt himself unable to -suggest any purpose they could possibly serve when situated on the back -or upper part of the animal. - -My own experience incontestibly proves that the suckers in question -are used for precisely the same purpose as those situated in any -other part of the body. I am enabled to state, from having repeatedly -witnessed the phenomenon, that _the Echinus can walk about with equal -facility while lying on its back as in its more natural position_. The -advantage of this power to the animal under certain circumstances will -be apparent upon a little reflection. - -With regard to the spines, I fancy their purpose is almost solely to -assist the Urchin to burrow in the sand, and to protect it from the -attacks of its enemies. It may be, however, that at particular times -they serve as aids to locomotion, but that their assistance can be, and -is, often dispensed with entirely by the animal, I can most positively -assert. - -My experiments were always conducted in glass vases, up the smooth, -polished sides of which my specimens frequently advanced. Upon reaching -the surface of the water, I have seen an Urchin roll completely round -and move along on its back, then after a time change its position, and -travel round the circumference of the vessel _while attached by its -side_, the body of the animal being sometimes inverted. - -At such times as these it must be quite evident that the spines would -be totally useless, and that by the suckers alone did the animal -perform its interesting movements. - -According to a certain writer, there are some foreign species of the -Echini remarkable for possessing spines, which act both as offensive -and defensive weapons. 'On one occasion' (this writer says) 'when -searching for a fish in the crevice of a coral rock, I felt a severe -pain in my hand, and upon withdrawing it, found my fingers covered -with slender spines, evidently those of the Echinus, of a grey colour, -elegantly banded with black. - -'They projected from my fingers like well-planted arrows from a target, -and their points being barbed could not be removed, but remained -for some weeks imbedded as black specks in the skin. Its concealed -situation did not permit me to examine this particular Echinus. In some -experiments I approached the spines with so much caution, that had they -been the most finely pointed needles in a fixed state no injury could -have been received from them, yet their points were always stuck into -my hand rapidly and severely.' - -In addition to those above described, the Sea-Urchin is provided with -other organs, in shape somewhat resembling minute pincers, supported on -fleshy stems, which always keep up an incessant motion when the animal -is in a healthy condition. They are scattered in great numbers over -the surface of the body, among the spines, and around the mouth of the -Urchin. - -The use of these singular objects--by naturalists termed -Pedicellariæ--is totally unknown. Some writers think they are an -integral part of the Echinus, others describe them as distinct and -parasitic animals. There is good reason to believe that the former will -eventually be proved to be the correct explanation of the matter. - -Its masticatory apparatus is not the least wonderful portion of the -Sea-Urchin. The teeth, five in number, which may frequently be seen -protruding from the mouth, are of extreme hardness, and of seemingly -disproportionate length. They are not fixed in sockets as ours are, -or they would be speedily worn away by their action on the shelled -mollusca upon which the animal feeds, but fresh substance is added -to each tooth as fast as it is worn away by use, as in the case of -many gnawing animals. 'In order to allow of such an arrangement, as -well as to provide for the movements of the teeth, jaws are provided, -which are situated in the interior of the shell, and these jaws, from -their great complexity and unique structure, form perhaps the most -admirable masticating instrument met with in the animal kingdom. The -entire apparatus removed from the shell consists of the following -parts. There are five long teeth, each of which is enclosed in a -triangular bony piece, that for the sake of brevity we will call jaws. -The five jaws are united together by various muscles, so as to form a -pentagonal pyramid, having its apex in contact with the oval orifice -of the shell, while its base is connected with several bony levers by -means of numerous muscles provided for the movements of the whole. -When the five jaws are fixed together in their natural position, they -form a five-sided conical mass, aptly enough compared by Aristotle -to a lantern, and not unfrequently described by modern writers under -the name of "the lantern of Aristotle." The whole of this complicated -machinery is suspended by muscles from a frame-work fixed in the -interior of the shell, and may often be picked up upon the beach, or -still better exposed _in situ_ in a dead Echinus, by those who would -examine closely this wonderful piece of mechanism.'[18] - -[18] The 'Aquarian Naturalist,' p. 224. - -I have made two careful drawings of the jaws and teeth of the Echinus. -No. 1 represents, as it were, the 'elevation' of the pentagonal pyramid -above described, while No. 2 constitutes the 'plan' of the same object. - -The _Echinus sphæra_, or common Egg-Urchin, may often be seen forming -a curious ornament in the drawing-rooms of the "West End," and also in -the dwellings of the poorer classes, who, according to some authors, -boil it like eggs, and so eat it. Hence its popular title. Among the -ancients the Echinidæ were accounted a favourite dish. 'They were -dressed with vinegar, honied wine or mead, parsley and mint. They were -the first dish in the famous supper of Lentulus when he was made Flamen -Martialis. By some of the concomitant dishes they seemed designed as a -whet for the second course to the holy personages, priests and vestals, -invited on the occasion.' - -The illustration on Plate 10 was drawn from a living specimen, and -gives a somewhat unusual representation of a Sea-Urchin. In general the -spines alone are shown, but I have endeavoured to give the uninitiated -reader some faint notion of the appearance which the _suckers_ present -when extended from the surface of the shell. - -The young Urchin sat very quietly while I was engaged in taking his -portrait, but continually extended crowds of his slender tubular legs -in all directions, as above indicated, much to my gratification and -apparently to his own. - -In preparing a Sea-Urchin for a chimney ornament, the most important -point is to remove the spines so as to let the tubercles remain entire. -In performing this operation some little experience is necessary. -Several times I attempted the process by aid of a pen-knife and a pair -of pliers, but not with a satisfactory result. Having mentioned my -difficulty to a friend, he laughingly asked me if I had ever heard of a -certain pilgrim who, for some peccadillo he had committed, was doomed -to perform penance by walking to Loretto's shrine with peas in his -shoes? Of course I was acquainted with the story, but could not see -what it had to do with Sea-Urchins, and told my brother naturalist so. -Still smiling, he said, 'Do you remember the relief that was said to be -afforded to the humorous rascal, both mentally and bodily, by _boiling -his peas_?' Yes. 'Well, then,' was the reply, 'do you boil your -Sea-Eggs, and you will find your troubles speedily cease.' I did as I -was directed, and found the advice of great service; for, after being -an hour or two in the 'pot,' the spines of the Urchin may be totally -rubbed off by aid of a nail brush, or some such instrument. Moreover, -the colour of the shell is improved, and the dental apparatus may be -drawn out entire, with the greatest ease. - -I may here take opportunity to mention, that the student who may think -proper to act upon the hint above given, should not boil the Urchin too -long, or the fleshy parts will become dissolved, and the entire shell -fall into a multitude of fragments. - -This unfortunate result actually happened on one occasion to a genial, -clever friend of mine, much to his chagrin and my malicious delight. - -There are several other species of Sea-Urchins whose forms are -tolerably well distinguished by their popular appellations. Thus we -have the 'Silky Spined Urchin;' the 'Green Pea-Urchin,'--the latter -is the commonest and prettiest of all its kindred, its back being -covered with a kind of powdery green, as is seen on the elytra of -many beetles; the 'Cake-Urchin,' which from its flattened form may be -regarded as a link between the Sea-Urchins and the true Star-fishes; -the 'Purple Heart-Urchin,' and the pretty 'Rosy Heart-Urchin,' -appropriately named from the brilliant crimson hue that its body -presents during life. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -Sea-Cucumbers. - -(HOLOTHURIADÆ.) - - - - -XX. - - -There is a very singular group of animals, the _Holothuriadæ_, that -claims a passing notice, from their near relation in structural -formation to the Sea-Urchins, although externally they also exhibit -a certain resemblance to the _Annelides_. They are commonly termed -Sea-Cucumbers, from the fancied likeness which they bear, both in shape -and colour, to their namesakes of the vegetable kingdom. - -A Holothuria is very unattractive in appearance when lying listless -upon the sea-beach, but if a small specimen be transferred to the -aquarium, it exhibits features of a very singular and interesting -character. When about to change its position, the head, hitherto -concealed, is protruded and expanded, until it assumes the form of a -beautiful flower. - -The animal moves principally by aid of sucker-like feet, similar in -form to those of the Asteriadæ, or Sea-Urchins. In most species, the -body is divided longitudinally into five rows of suckers. In some, -however, these organs are scattered over the entire surface, while in -the small Sea-Cucumber (_Psolus phantapus_), they are arranged in three -rows upon a soft, oblong, flat disc, situated beneath the body of the -animal, like the foot of a gasteropod mollusc. - -Of one genus--the Trepang--many species are eaten by the omnivorous -inhabitants of the Celestial Empire, by whom it is employed in the -preparation of 'nutritious soups, in common with an esculent sea-weed, -shark's fins, edible birds' nests, and other materials affording much -jelly.' The intestines, which are generally found to be filled with -coral, and solid masses of madreporic rock, are extracted, and the -animal then boiled in sea-water and dried in smoke. - -Nothing can possibly be less enticing than the black and shrivelled -carcases of these defunct gasteropods, as they are seen spread out and -exposed for sale in the China markets. There are many varieties of -Trepang, some being held in higher esteem than others,--hence the great -difference which exists in the price of the article. The lowest quality -being ten dollars, and the highest fifty dollars, per pecul of 133 lbs. - -The following are titles by which a few of the Holothuriæ are known in -China:-- - - Great Black-Stone Trepang; - Peach-blossom Trepang; - Great White-Stone Trepang; - The Bald Trepang; - The Scarlet Trepang; - Great Clear-Ball Trepang; - The Middle Ash-Bald Trepang, &c., &c. - -The illustration on Plate 11 gives a good idea of the typical form -of the Holothuriadæ. It represents a species of the genus Cucumaria, -_C. communis_, or common Sea-Cucumber. Its length is from four to -eight inches; but, like all its kindred, it possesses the power of -considerably extending or contracting its body at will. The Tentacula -are ten in number, pinnate and plumose, stalked and rather large. The -body is five-sided, with numerous suckers on the angles, but more on -the sides, which are papilose. The colour is yellow, or brownish-white, -although specimens found on the Irish coast exhibit a purplish hue. - -This, the most common species of its genus, is an inhabitant of -deep water, and is therefore most frequently taken with the dredge. -Occasionally, specimens may be found after violent storms stranded on -various parts of the shores of the United Kingdom. - -The Sea-Cucumbers possess the singular power of disembowelling -themselves upon the slightest provocation, and also of throwing off -their Tentacula entire. There is one species, indeed, that exhibits -a still more wonderful phenomenon. At certain times members of this -species will divide their body into a number of parts, each of which -will in due course become a new and completely-formed animal. After -this the reader will be prepared to learn, that to build up a new -inside, or create a new set of branchiæ, is to a Holothuria a very -trifling and insignificant task. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -The Aplysia, or Sea-Hare. - - -'The origin and the source of the smallest portion of the universe -overpowers our comprehension. How little can the acutest senses, the -profoundest judgment, the widest view, embrace! It is as nothing; it is -as less than nothing. We are capable of doing no more than surveying -the edifice and adoring the Architect.' - - SIR J. DALYELL. - - - - -XXI. - - -At several parts of the Scottish coast, and especially at North -Berwick, may be found specimens of that curious gasteropod named the -Aplysia, or Sea-Hare, the _Lepus marinus_ of the ancients. - -On visiting North Berwick during summer, I have been astonished to -discover, in almost every pool, from two to twenty of these creatures. - -At rest, the Aplysia is not by any means inviting, but when in motion, -elevating and depressing the fleshy mantle that covers over the fringed -and lobed branchiæ, its appearance is exceedingly graceful. - -Striding across a pool on the look-out for some Gobies, whose forms -darting beneath a large stone had not escaped my glance, I perceived -the water in the rocky basin gradually lose its crystal brightness, and -become changed to crimson. The Gobies were therefore allowed to rest -in peace, while I proceeded to investigate a phenomenon that, at the -moment, seemed somewhat singular. - -A kind friend and brother zoologist, who happened to be near, called -attention to the fact that the crimson stream flowed thickest near -where my foot rested. - -On closely examining the spot pointed out, and turning over some fronds -of Dulse, we came upon a small fleshy ball of a dark brown colour, -from which there still issued a fluid of vivid crimson hue. Having -placed this strange object in a bottle, I soon pronounced it to be an -Aplysia, with whose full-length portrait, as represented in books, I -had previously been made acquainted. - -The power which this animal possesses, under irritation, of spurting -out a peculiar secretion, I also remembered to have seen mentioned by -several writers on natural history. - -Although generally believed to be gentle and perfectly harmless, yet, -as Professor Forbes observes, few molluscs have had a worse character -than the Aplysiæ. From very ancient times they have been regarded with -horror and suspicion; and many writers on natural history, conversant -with them only through the silly stories of ignorant fishermen, -have combined to hold them up as objects of detestation. To touch -them, according to European prejudices, was sufficient to generate -disease in the foolhardy experimenter; while Asiatics, reversing -the consequences, maintained, perhaps with greater truth, that they -met with instantaneous death when handled by man. Physicians wrote -treatises on the effects of their poison, and discussed the remedies -best adapted to neutralize it. Conspirators brewed nauseous beverages -from their slimy bodies, and administered the potion confident of its -deadly powers. Every nation in the world on whose shores the poor -Sea-Hares crawled, accorded to them the attributes of ferocity and -malignant virulence, although there never appears to have been the -slightest foundation for a belief in their crimes. - -A specimen of the Aplysia that I had in my tank deposited a stringy -coil of spawn, which closely resembled that of the Eolis, with the -exception that the eggs, instead of being white, were of a reddish -tint. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -Serpulæ and Sabellæ. - - - - -[Illustration: - -1, 2 SEA-URCHIN'S TEETH (Two illustrations.) -3 COMMON SEA CUCUMBER -4 COMMON RAZOR-SHELL -5 COMMON SERPULÆ, attached to a piece of stone.] - - - - -XXII. - - -With the exception of the Balani (Acorn-Barnacles), perhaps the most -common objects to be met with at the sea-shore are the Serpulæ. -Scarcely a rock, or shell, or bit of old china, or piece of wood, or -rusty nail, lying near low-water mark, but is encrusted with colonies -of these animals. I have a small twig of a tree by me, so thickly -coated with Serpulæ as to obscure all signs of its ligneous character, -except at each end. A shell also exhibits the same phenomenon, and -well-nigh defies the most skilful observer to define its original form -with any degree of certainty. - -The shelly tubes of these animals are built in the form of serpents, -or twisted funnels, of a milk-white colour. Although so extremely -hard, these tubes are formed solely by an exudation from the body -of the animal--a simple marine worm. Unlike its erratic friend, the -earth-worm, the Serpula is sedentary in its habits, and at no time does -it ever leave its dwelling. - -The delicate, but brilliant feathery plume--the only portion of the -animal ever visible--constitutes the principal mechanism by means of -which the Serpula constructs its calcareous tube. - -A most wonderful instance of how mighty are the works which these -insignificant creatures form when congregated together in vast numbers, -and how useful such labours may sometimes be to mankind, is narrated by -Dr. Darwin in his 'Voyage of the Beagle.' - -Being delayed by adverse winds, this gentleman made a stay at -Pernambuco, a large city on the coast of Brazil, and the most curious -object that he saw there was the reef that formed the harbour. 'I -doubt,' to use his own words, 'whether in the whole world any other -natural structure has so artificial an appearance. It runs for a length -of several miles in an absolutely straight line, and parallel to, and -not far distant from the shore. It varies in width from thirty to -sixty yards, and its surface is level and smooth; it is composed of -obscurely stratified hard sandstone. At high water the waves break over -it; at low water its summit is left dry, and it might then be mistaken -for a breakwater erected by Cyclopean workmen. On this coast the -currents of the sea tend to throw up in front of the land long spits -and bars of loose sand, and on one of these the town of Pernambuco -stands. In former times a long spit of this nature seems to have become -consolidated by the percolation of calcareous matter, and afterwards -to have been gradually upheaved, the outer and loose parts during the -process having been worn away by the action of the sea, and the solid -nucleus left as we now see it. Although night and day the waves of -the open Atlantic, turbid with sediment, are driven against the steep -outside edges of this wall of stone, yet the oldest pilots know of no -tradition of any change in its appearance. This durability is by far -the most curious fact in its history; _it is due to a tough layer, a -few inches thick, of calcareous matter, wholly formed by the successive -growth and death of the small shells of Serpulæ, together with some -few Barnacles_, &c. These insignificant organic beings, especially -the Serpulæ, have done good service to the people of Pernambuco, for -without their protective aid the bar of sandstone would inevitably have -been long ago worn away, and without the bar there would have been no -harbour,' - -Nothing whatever appears to be known relative to the mode of -reproduction of these Annelids. I have paid much attention to the -subject, but as yet have not gained any positive information regarding -it. The only fact which I consider worthy of being chronicled is the -following: On one occasion, when quite a novice in Marine Zoology, -while observing a beautiful group of Serpulæ seated on a stone, I saw -issuing from out one of the tubes a kind of very fine dust, of a rich -crimson hue, which continued to arise for nearly an hour in spite of -repeated efforts to disperse it by aid of a camel-hair pencil. At first -I believed the 'dust' to be the 'remains' of a deceased serpula, but -afterwards found that such was not the case, the annelid being alive -and healthy. Never having seen the phenomenon since, it has been a -great source of regret to me that I did not endeavour to discover what -the dust was composed of; but have little doubt that the microscope -would have shown it to be, in reality, the ova of the Serpula. - -Another class of Annelidans, termed Sabellæ, like the Serpulæ, also -build habitations for themselves, but not of the same materials. -Instead of being white, the tubes of the first mentioned animals are -brown in colour, and composed of minute granules of sand, or small -shells, and lined internally with a gelatinous substance exuded from -the body of the worm. On the interior of the oyster and other shells, -and even in univalves occupied by the Lobster Crab, various tubes of -Sabellæ may often be seen. They are, however, generally discovered -congregated together, forming a kind of honeycomb mass in the fissures -of rocks, or against the sides of rock-pools, or on the surface of -small stones, &c. - -A mass of Sabellæ tubes forms by no means an inappropriate or -unpleasant object for the tank, as the animals are hardy, and will -live for many months if the water be kept pure. Moreover, while in -confinement, they do not live in luxurious indolence, but ever seem -to be busy in the exercise of their architectural propensities, making -alterations, repairing damages, or otherwise 'sorting' their tubiculous -habitations. - -'The tubes of the Sabellæ,' says Dr. Williams, 'are soft, flexible, -and muddy. Slimy mucus furnished by the integumentary glands of the -body is the mortar or cement, fine sand molecules are the "stones" or -solid material of the architecture. In the Sabellæ the lime of which -the tubes are built is held in solution in the mucus provided by the -cutaneous glands. It is adjusted in the fluid form, and moulded by -appropriate tools into the required shape. It then _solidifies, too, -under water_, like the "Aberthaw lime." The tube of the Sabellæ fits -closely round the body of the worm; it is slightly elastic, and the -interior is smooth.' - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -The Solen, or Razor-Fish - - - 'His mansion he extends, -So well concealed beneath the crumbling sands.' - - - - -XXIII. - - -Few people who are in the habit of visiting the sea-shore but must have -noticed the empty shells of the animal about to be described. I allude -to the Solen, or Razor-Shell, commonly so called from its resemblance -to the handle attached to a barber's scythe. - -This bivalve, improbable as the statement will appear to the -uninitiated, is one of the most efficient burrowers to be met with on -our shores. - -By means of its fleshy foot it digs a hole in the mud or sand. -Sometimes it retreats from the surface to a distance of several feet, -but generally remains sufficiently near to allow its short, fringed -siphons to project above the sand. - -In walking along the beach, left bare by the receding tide, the -pedestrian may often perceive little jets of water thrown up at his -approach. These jets proceed from the Razor-Fish in question. Although -we may be several yards from his burrow, his sense of feeling is so -acute, that the faintest vibration of the earth around causes the -creature to retire alarmed within his dwelling. - -In many places the Solen is much sought after by the poor, who esteem -it a great luxury. In foreign countries--Japan, for example--it is so -highly prized that we are told, 'by express order of the prince of that -country, it is forbid to fish them until a sufficient quantity hath -been provided for the emperor's table.' - -The Irish people, when they go out to catch the Solen siliqua, have -an appropriate song and chorus which they sing, but whether to amuse -themselves or charm the fish 'this deponent sayeth not,' for very -obvious reasons. In general, I should think the less noise the more -likelihood of success to those endeavouring to capture this animal. - -'Who has not seen the picture of the stupid-looking boy going warily -out with a box of salt, having been gravely informed by some village -wag that if he would only just drop a pinch of salt on the birds' tails -he would be sure to catch them. We are all familiar enough with this -venerable joke, but not so with its successful application in another -case. This time it is the fisherman, instead of the village boy, who -carries the box. He cautiously slips a little salt into the hole, -which irritates the ends of the siphons, and makes the _Solen_ come -quickly out to see what is the matter, and clear itself of this painful -intrusion. The fisher, on the alert, must quickly seize his prey, or -else it will dart back again into its retreat, whence no amount of -salting or coaxing will bring it out again.' - -If after reading the above quotation any person should fancy that in -his mind's eye he perceives at many sea-side places, scores of hardy, -weather-beaten fishermen walking about, each armed with nothing but a -box filled with salt, wherewith to bamboozle the Spout-Fish, he will be -most lamentably deceived. True it is, this plan is sometimes adopted by -children and amateur naturalists, but by fishermen--never. Instead of a -salt-box, these, when in search of their favourite bait, always carry -a kind of harpoon, formed of a piece of iron rod, the end of which is -sharpened to a point. - -Having witnessed the Solen throw up his jet of water, and retire -beneath the soil, the fisherman suddenly plunges his instrument into -the orifice. Should the action have been skilfully performed, the -rod will have pierced the animal between its valves, which instantly -retract upon the intruding object. To draw the fish to the surface is -then a comparatively easy task. If the first plunge of the rod be not -successful, the fisher knows full well it would be futile for him to -repeat the attempt, as the object of his attack would quickly burrow -itself down to such a depth as to render pursuit hopeless. Juveniles -at the sea-side, imitating the plan above described, become by practice -very expert in procuring specimens of the Razor-Fish by means of a -piece of wire sharpened at one end. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -A Gossip on Fishes &c., - -INCLUDING THE ROCKLING, SMOOTH BLENNY, GUNNEL-FISH, GOBY, ETC. - - - - -[Illustration: - -1 SMOOTH BLENNY -2 VIVIPAROUS BLINNY -3 SPOTTED BLENNY or Gunnel-Fish -4, 5, 6 THE MONTAGU SUCKER-FISH - (Three illustrations.) -7 SUCKER of THE MONTAGU SUCKER-FISH] - - - - -XXIV. - - -One of the best _bons mots_ that I ever remember to have read was -entitled, 'Punch's Address to the Ocean'-- - - 'With all thy faults I love thee _still_.' - -Any landsman who finds himself occupying a seat in a fishing-smack or -oyster-boat while a stiffish breeze is blowing will, I am sure, with -great mental fervour echo the above sentiment. - -For myself, I can never take even a short trip on the water without -experiencing some unpleasantness--proving to me that the sea is not 'my -element.' Still, I am one of those to whom the 'salt ocean' is endeared -by early recollections, having been, when a child, frequently among the -aged and mutilated veterans of our country who vegetate on the banks of -the 'silver Thames.' - -From the tobacco-stained mouths of some of these old blue-jackets (all -of whom, I may mention, according to their own account, had fought -'alongside of the _galyant_ Nelson'), many strange stories have been -poured into my eager and willing ears, and even now a thrill of delight -is evoked when any of these 'yarns' rise to remembrance. Still, the -truth must be told: ever since I narrowly escaped drowning by plumping -into the water backwards, from leaning against the _unsnibbed_-door of -a bathing-machine, and at another time from being in a boat that, to -my intense horror and dismay, had sprung a leak--I have enjoyed the -sea best when my feet are on dry land; in other words, I like to view -the 'world of fluid matter,' in its various phases, from a distant and -perfectly safe point of view. Nay more, I can always better appreciate -certain of its beauties (at all events during winter time) when seated -by a warm fireside. - -When lately in such a cosy position, my thoughts reverted to the -marvellous operations ever going on within the liquid walls of the -great deep. There artifices and stratagems, robbery and murder, and -cannibalism in its worst forms continually occur. On the other hand, -there may be scenes of courtship, touching instances of maternal -affection, such as, were they chronicled, would make our hearts bleed -with truest sympathy. Still, the Rob Roy maxim of - - 'They should take who have the power, - And they should keep who can,' - -seems therein to be carried out with a rigour that would do honour to -the 'bold outlaw Macgregor.' Might there is generally predominant over -right. Fishes eternally prey upon each other; and for such reason, were -it not for the wonderful fecundity of these creatures (one cod-fish, -for instance, producing several millions of ova in a single season), we -should soon have the waters depopulated of all but the monsters of the -deep. - -Now, knowing that such a state of things exists--that cannibalism is -of such frequent occurrence, and the dogs of war are there ever let -loose--the inquiry naturally presented itself: Are the inhabitants of -the ocean a happy race or not? According to many writers, the answer -must be given in the affirmative; nay, more, some authors state, and -with good show of authority, too, be it observed, that _fishes are -in reality the happiest of created things_, by reason that they have -no fear or apprehension of death, nor are they subject to pain or -disease, nor, in fact, to any of those ills that _flesh_ is heir to. -These creatures cannot, of course, live for ever; but by a merciful -dispensation of Providence, their final pang endures but for an instant. - -The celebrated St. Anthony is among the believers in the consummate -happiness of the finny tribe. There is on record a discourse said to -have been preached by him to an assembly of fish, in which they are -flattered to an amazing extent. It almost rouses one's jealous ire to -find such fulsome adulation bestowed upon the lower animals, at the -expense of all other objects in nature, not excepting _man_ himself. -There is, however, such a singular force and truthfulness in some of -the expressions and sentiments which occur in the Jesuitical discourse -alluded to (given by Addison in his 'Remarks on Italy'), that I cannot -resist the temptation of quoting a few of its most prominent passages. - -We are told that St. Anthony, feeling annoyed at certain heretics not -listening devoutly to his preaching, he determined to teach them a -lesson; and for this purpose went down to the sea-shore, and called -the fishes together in the name of God, that they might hear his holy -word. The fish soon swam towards the speaker in vast shoals, and, -having ranged themselves, according to their several species, into a -very beautiful congregation, were addressed just as if they had been -rational creatures. - -The sermon commences in the following words:-- - -'My dearly-beloved Fish,--Although the infinite power and goodness -of God discovers itself in all the works of his creation, as in the -heavens, in the sun, in the moon, and in the stars--in the lower world, -in man, and in other perfect creatures,--nevertheless, the goodness of -the divine Majesty shines out in you more eminently, and appears after -a more particular manner, than in any other created beings. - -'It is from God, my beloved fish, that you have received being, life, -motion, and sense. It is he that has given you, in compliance with your -natural inclinations, the whole world of waters for your habitation. -It is he that has furnished it with lodgings, chambers, caverns, -grottoes, _and such magnificent retirements as are not to be met with -in the seats of kings or in the palaces of princes_! - -'You have the water for your dwelling--a clear, transparent element, -brighter than crystal; you can see from its deepest bottom everything -that passes on its surface. You have the eyes of a lynx or of an Argus; -you are guided by a secret and unerring principle, delighting in -everything that may be beneficial to you, and avoiding everything that -may be hurtful; you are carried on by a hidden instinct to preserve -yourselves, and to propagate your species; you obey, in all your -actions, works, and motions, the dictates and suggestions of nature, -without the least repugnance or contradiction. - -'The cold of winter and the heat of summer are alike incapable of -molesting you. A serene or a clouded sky are indifferent to you. Let -the earth abound in fruits or be cursed with scarcity, it has no -influence on your welfare. You live secure in rains and thunders, -lightnings and earthquakes; you have no concern in the blossoms of -spring or in the glowings of summer, in the fruits of autumn or in the -frosts of winter. You are not solicitous about hours or days, months or -years, the variableness of the weather or the change of seasons.' - -The saint still further 'butters his fish' by reminding them, among -other things, that they were specially favoured by God at the time of -the universal deluge, they being the only species of creatures that -were insensible of the mischief that had laid waste the whole world! He -then begs of them, as they are not provided with words, to make some -sign of reverence; give some show of gratitude, according to the best -of their capacities; express their thanks in the most becoming manner -that they are able, and be not unmindful of all the benefits which the -divine Majesty has bestowed upon them. - -He had no sooner done speaking, but behold a miracle! The fish, as -though they had been endued with reason, bowed down their heads with -all the marks of a profound devotion, and then went joyously bobbing -around with a kind of fondness, as in approval of what had been spoken -by the blessed father, St. Anthony. - -Many of the heretics, as a matter of course, were converted at -beholding the miracle; and the polite and pious little fishes, having -received his benediction, were dismissed by the saint. - -Shakspeare authoritatively asserts that-- - - 'Travellers ne'er do lie, -Though fools at home condemn them.' - -Here I beg to differ with the sweet Bard of Avon, who, I am sure, would -have retracted his statement had he read the above fishy discourse, -and also the following among many other strange anecdotes which are -published regarding the 'denizens of the deep.' - -An Eastern traveller tells us that, 'in a certain river whose waters -flow from Mount Caucasus into the Euxine, there arrives every year a -great quantity of fish.' This information not being particularly novel -in regard to most rivers, will fail to excite surprise in the mind of -the reader. A different result, however, will follow when he hears -that, according to Abon-el-Cassim, 'The people cut off all the flesh on -one side of those inhabitants of the deep, and let them go. Well, the -year following,' as this veracious writer avers, 'the same creatures -return and offer the other side, which they had preserved untouched; it -is then discovered that new flesh has replaced the old!' - -This account reminds us of the tale of the traveller who reported that -he had seen a cabbage, under whose leaves a whole regiment of soldiers -were sheltered from a shower of rain. Another, who was no traveller -(but the wiser man), said he had passed by a place where there were -four hundred braziers making a cauldron--two hundred within, and two -hundred without beating the nails in. The traveller, asking for what -use that huge cauldron was, he told him, 'Sir, it was to boil your -cabbage!' A wittily severe, but deserved rebuke. - -There are many other statements regarding fishes which, although -curious, are, nevertheless, to a certain extent true. - -The Chinese, for instance, who breed large quantities of the well-known -gold-fish, call them, it is said, with a whistle to receive their food. -Sir Joseph Banks used to collect his fish by sounding a small gong; and -Carew, the historian of Cornwall, brought his grey Mullet together to -be fed by making a noise with two sticks. - -In spite of these accounts, there are many writers who affirm that -_fishes do not possess the sense of hearing at all_; and certainly -a belief that these creatures are gifted with such a faculty is not -necessary, in my opinion, in order to explain the above-mentioned -phenomenon. - -At the fountains, in the gardens of Versailles, the writer has seen -numbers of fishes flocking together and anxiously waiting for the -subscriptions of the visitors. Now, had a bell been rung, these -animals, doubtless, would have appeared at the edge of the fountain as -usual; but had the bell _not_ been sounded, and any human figure been -visible, they would have taken up the self-same position. - -I have, at various times, kept packs of fishes (Blennies, &c.), and -tamed them, so that each member would feed out of my hand. For some -time I used to attract them to the side of the vessel in which, they -resided by striking a wine glass with a small stick; but I also noted -that if I made myself visible, and remained silent, while handing down -a few fish mouthfuls, that the whole pack followed as readily as if I -had sounded the mimic gong. Nay, whether I offered any bribe or not, -and silently approached their crystal abode, the whole family would -immediately flock in great haste towards me. - -The tameness of these little creatures was somewhat remarkable. On -numberless occasions I have taken them up in the palm of my hand, -without the slightest opposition on their part, and then stroked and -smoothed them on the back, as I would do a bird. At such times they -made a kind of musical chirp, expressive of pleasurable emotion, and -seemed in no hurry to escape into their native element even when I laid -my hand in the water. - -Such delightful confidence was always rewarded with some dainty. - -Dr. Warwick relates an instance of instinct and intelligence in the -Pike, which is so remarkable that I am sure my readers will be pleased -to be made acquainted with it. I am the more induced to transfer it -to these pages, from the remarks with which the doctor closes his -narrative. From reasons stated above, the reader will be prepared to -learn that I do not consider the statements therein advanced--that -fishes are really sensible to sound--by any means conclusive. - -When residing at Dunham, the seat of the Earl of Stamford and -Warrington, he (Dr. Warwick), was walking one evening in the park, -and came to a pond where fish intended for the table were temporarily -kept. He took particular notice of a fine pike of about six pounds -weight, which, when it observed him, darted hastily away. In so doing -it struck its head against a tenterhook in a post (of which there were -several in the pond, placed to prevent poaching), and, as it afterwards -appeared, fractured its skull, and turned the optic nerve on one side. -The agony evinced by the animal appeared most horrible. It rushed to -the bottom, and boring its head into the mud, whirled itself round with -such velocity that it was almost lost to sight for a short interval. -It then plunged about the pond, and at length threw itself completely -out of the water on to the bank. He (the doctor) went and examined it, -and found that a very small portion of the brain was protruding from -the fracture in the skull. He then carefully replaced this, and with a -small silver toothpick raised the indented portion of the skull. The -fish remained still for a short time, and he then put it again in the -pond. It appeared at first a good deal relieved, but in a few minutes -it again darted and plunged about until it threw itself out of the -water a second time. A second time Dr. Warwick did what he could to -relieve it, and again put it in the water. It continued for several -times to throw itself out of the pond, and with the assistance of the -keeper, the doctor at length made a kind of pillow for the fish, which -was then left in the pond to its fate. Upon making his appearance at -the pond on the following morning, the pike came towards him to the -edge of the water, and actually laid its head upon his foot. The doctor -thought this most extraordinary, but he examined the fish's skull and -found it going on all right. He then walked backwards and forwards, -along the edge of the pond for some time, and the fish continued to -swim up and down, turning whenever he turned; but being blind on the -wounded side of its skull, it always appeared agitated when it had that -side toward the bank, as it could not then see its benefactor. On the -next day he took some young friends down to see the fish, which came -to him as usual, and at length he actually taught the pike to come -to him at his whistle, and feed out of his hands. With other persons -it continued as shy as fish usually are. He (Dr. Warwick) thought -this a most remarkable instance of gratitude in a fish for a benefit -received, and as it always came at his whistle, _it proved also what he -had previously, with other naturalists, disbelieved, that fishes are -sensible to sound_. (?) - -On hunting among the rock-pools by the sea-shore, several peculiar -little fishes are frequently to be found, and although some of them -cannot be considered suitable for the aquarium, still, for the reader's -information, it may be as well that I devote a brief space to a -description of the peculiarities of each. - -By far the most interesting of all the finny occupants of the -rock-pool, is, to my taste, the Smooth Blenny, or, as it is variously -termed, Shanny, or Tansy. It is also more abundant than many other -species, and may therefore be readily captured during summer. The -Blenny varies from two to five inches in length. The back is ornamented -with exquisite markings, but the most characteristic features are the -peculiar bluntness of the head, and the brilliant crimson dot both on -and immediately beneath the eyes. - -Although easily tamed, the Blenny, in his native haunts, appears to -be the most timid of animals, darting with the rapidity of lightning -to the shelter of some stone or overhanging weeds at the remotest -indication of approaching footsteps, or the faintest shadow of a human -form being cast on the water. - -When desirous to procure a specimen, it is best to choose as small a -pool as you can for your hunt. Drop in your net at one end, and as the -Shanny precipitately retreats to the other, give him chase. Having -arrived at the extremity of his domain, he will endeavour to hide among -the weeds, but if you hold your net across the pool with one hand, and -with the other lift up a stone or beat the bushes, the little fellow -will become greatly excited, and darting out, of course, unwillingly, -falls into the snare prepared for him. - -Having gained your prize, do not handle it, but placing your finger -under the net, tilt it over the mouth of the bottle, and allow the -Blenny to fall as gently as possible into the water. You need be under -no uneasiness after introducing him to the aquarium about the nature of -his diet. He is far from being epicurean in his tastes. I supply mine -according to my whim at the moment, with whatever is at hand, a bit of -fowl, roast beef, or the like. - -The only caution I adopt when giving animal food to the Blenny is to -remove all traces of fat. I mince their food into minute particles, and -having sufficiently moistened it, I place a morsel upon a hair pencil. -This attention to their comforts the Blennies soon learn to appreciate, -and will, after a while, display at meal times the sagacity of larger -animals. - -Perhaps the simplest plan to adopt is to cut open a mussel and throw -it into the tank. A considerable deal of amusement, moreover, is often -to be obtained by watching the fishes engaged at such a meal. How -they toss the valves of the Mytilus about, and snap at each other's -tails! How vexed they become if by accident the shelly dish is turned -topsy-turvy, and resists all their manoeuvres to reverse it so as -to get at the meat! The valves of a large mussel will sometimes be -literally cleaned out by some half dozen Blennies in the course of an -hour. - -I have noticed a singular fact in connection with the Blenny--namely, -_that they do not all increase in size as they grow older_. Out of five -that I kept domesticated for more than two years, one specimen remained -at the end of that period of the same size as when I first made its -acquaintance in a rock-pool by the sea-shore, while its companions had -greatly increased their proportions. But let me in justice add, that -if my little finny pet failed to increase in corpulency, it gained -largely in intelligence. Who is there that has not seen children, short -in stature, and comparatively old in years, who deserve the epithet -applied to them by the vulgar, of 'little--but _knowing_.' This remark -would apply with great truth to my 'little Dombey' fish. - -Before becoming expert in carrying out the plan (which will be fully -detailed hereafter) for clarifying the water of an aquarium which has -become opaque from superabundant vegetative growth, I had to submit to -many annoying failures. Thus it was in a certain instance. - -I had cleaned out my tank, refilled it with partially purified water, -and again inserted the various animals constituting my 'stock.' -Emboldened by the success which had attended my operations, I thought a -still further dose of diluted acid might be added, in order thoroughly -to remove the greenish hue of the water. A few minutes showed me -the folly of not letting well alone, for soon flakes of discharged -vegetation were precipitated to the base of the vessel, covering it -with a coating of fur. - -The poor Blennies speedily showed signs of distress, and changed -colour, as they generally do, upon the most trifling cause. Instead of -dark brown or black, their bodies appeared of a yellowish tint, spotted -with white. Such a change was lovely to the eye, but, alas! it was-- - - 'The loveliness in death, -Which parts not quite with parting breath.' - -The little creatures jumped and dived about in all directions, all -their motions being extremely violent. I quickly perceived the error -which had been committed, and, moreover, discovered to my chagrin that -such error could not possibly be rectified for some time, on account of -my not having by me any reserve of pure salt water. Taking several of -the fishes in my hand, I stroked their backs with a camel-hair pencil, -and was pleased to find that as their alarm subsided their natural -hue returned. My being obliged to place my pets in their unhappy and -pestilential home again was, as the reader may suppose, a source of -regret to me; but I had some hopes that they might by chance survive, -and become used to the 'vapour of their dungeon,' at all events until -such time as I could hasten to the sea-side and procure a new supply -of water. My expectations of such a result were built upon the fact, -that although four of the fishes had changed colour, the small Blenny -still retained its natural hue. How did this happen? it will be asked. -I answer, by little Dombey (doing as his brethren had always hitherto -done in similar circumstances) leaping on to a ledge of rock that -projected out of the water, and there breathing the fresh air in safety. - -On the following morning I peeped into the vessel, and saw by their -upturned gills that all my finny proteges were dead! - - 'All my pretty ones? -Did I say all?' - -All except the smallest of the pack, he was still dressed in his sombre -coat, and gracefully reclining upon the rocky couch above mentioned. - -How thankfully he received the breakfast that I temptingly offered upon -the tips of my feeding brush, and how grateful he seemed to be, when, -after the lapse of a few hours, I was enabled to let him float again in -his pure native element, a fresh supply of which had been procured with -as little delay as possible! - -The Viviparous Blenny differs from the other British Blennies 'in the -circumstance to which its name refers--that of bringing forth its young -alive, which seem perfectly able to provide for themselves from the -moment they are excluded.' - -It is a most gentle, graceful-looking fish, but as far as my experience -goes, one that is impossible to tame, or rather, I should say, -embolden. All my efforts to domesticate various specimens have proved -unavailing; and in spite of the most earnest and kindly attention, -they have generally pined away and died within a week after their -introduction to the aquarium. - -From the illustration on Plate 12 the reader will have no difficulty -in recognising the original, should he by chance meet with it hiding -among the tangle, or beneath the stones by the sea-shore. - -The spotted Blenny, Butter-Fish, or Gunnel-Fish, as it is variously -termed, is found lurking under stones in the same places as the -preceding. In the north of Scotland it is called 'cloachs,' and is used -extensively as a bait for larger fish. When disturbed, it wriggles its -body about in the muddy bottom of the rock-pool like an eel, for which, -indeed, it is occasionally mistaken. - -Its length varies from three to nine inches; the depth only half an -inch; the sides very much compressed and extremely thin. - -The dorsal fin consists of seventy-eight short spiny rays, and runs the -length of the back almost to the tail. The most conspicuous feature in -the Gunnel-Fish are the eleven round spots which occur at the top of -the back, and reach the lower half of the dorsal fin; they are black, -half encircled by white. - -The tail is rounded, and of a yellow colour. The back and sides are of -a deep olive; the belly whitish. - -In its young state I have had this fish live in my aquarium for several -months, but it never seemed to be happy or contented. - -The Five Bearded Rockling is almost as great a favourite with the -writer as the Smooth Blenny. It is a very pretty fish, and may be -easily tamed. In the course of a week I trained one to feed out of my -hand, and when I put my finger in the water the fish would rub against -it with its head, just as a favourite cat frequently does against the -leg of a person with whom it is very familiar; moreover, if I moved the -intruding digit with a circular motion through the water, the Rockling -would waltz round the tip with evident signs of pleasure. - -This fish is often found in tide-pools, and may readily be identified -by the prominent appendages attached to its head, to the presence of -which, the Rockling owes its familiar appellation. - -The Goby (_Gobius unipunctatus_), or, as it is more popularly termed, -One-Spotted Goby, is frequently found inhabiting the same pool as the -Blenny or the Rockling. The distinguishing character of this pretty -creature is the black spot which is situated between the fifth and -sixth ray of the first dorsal fin. Its length is usually about one, or -one and a half inches; specimens have, however, sometimes been found on -the shores of the Frith of Forth, that measured nearly three inches. - -The colour of the Goby is very changeable. If the animal is labouring -under excitement, its body assumes a deep brownish tint, approaching -in some instances to black; this gives place to brown, drab, and even -amber, or yellowish white. - -The Goby possesses the power of attaching its body to any object by -means of its ventral fins, which become united together in the form of -a funnel. - -Another species (_Gobius bipunctatus_), or Two-Spotted Goby, is -generally found among the _Fuci_, in rocky situations. Its name is -derived from a dark spot which is distinctly apparent on each side, -near to the origin of the pectoral fin. - -The head and upper part of the body is dark brown,--the under part of -the head and belly white or pale drab. - -Allusion has already been made to the peculiarity of the Gobies -affixing their bodies to rocks or other substances, by means of a -sucker formed by the junction of the ventral fins. The adhesive power -in question, which this class of creatures possess, is very limited -as compared with that which is exercised by the true sucker fishes, -and especially by the members of a certain species, whose bodies are -furnished with two distinct organs of adhesion. - -The extraordinary adhesive powers of the Lump-Sucker, for instance, -have been tested by several writers. One observer states, that a fish -of moderate size has been known to suspend a weight of above 20 lbs., -upon which it had accidentally fastened itself. Mr. Pennant says still -more, for he has known that, in flinging a fish of this kind just -caught into a pail of water, it fixed itself so firmly to the bottom, -that, on taking it by the tail, the pail was lifted up, though it -contained several gallons of water. - -To descend from the largest to the smallest species, we arrive at the -Montague Sucker-Fish, or, as it is sometimes called, the Diminutive -Sucker, one of the most interesting little creatures to be met with -at the sea-shore. At the coast near Edinburgh I have met with many -specimens, equally well in the spring or winter season, as during -the summer months. At such locality this species may therefore be -pronounced common; yet it is comparatively unknown to most 'collectors' -in the neighbourhood. Many, indeed, contend that my designation is -erroneous. But having taken considerable pains to satisfy my mind upon -the subject, I have no hesitation whatever in stating that the little -fish in question is identical with that of the Montague Sucker. - -Donovan, in his 'Natural History of British Fishes,'[19] was the first -to illustrate and publish an account of this _petite_ gem of ocean. -His figures are copied from drawings made by Colonel Montague, who -also furnished the description of the specimen delineated. With the -important exception of the sucker--an organ of adhesion which is very -nearly correct--the general appearance of the Diminutive Sucker-Fish -as figured, is not at all satisfactory. Perhaps this is not to be -wondered at, when we remember that the specimen from which the sketches -were taken was very small indeed. Moreover, it was diaphanous, and is -depicted as being principally transparent, spotted, and tinged with -pink. - -[19] This splendid work, which was published in five volumes, between -the years 1802-8, contains 120 exquisite illustrations, all, _with -the solitary exception, unfortunately, of the Montague Sucker-Fish_, -accurately drawn and coloured from living specimens, procured at vast -trouble by the author. - -The Diminutive Sucker, in its adult state, is said to be from two to -three inches in length; consequently Colonel Montague's first specimen -must have been an extremely young one. - -The usual colour is deep orange, varied with minute dark spots. The -under parts of the body and throat are of flesh colour; the centre of -the sucker being faintly tinged with crimson. - -I have seldom met with specimens measuring more than one, or one and a -quarter inches. It is a marked peculiarity in this Sucker-Fish, that -when adhering to any substance it has a constant habit of curving the -tail towards the head. In such position it will remain motionless for -several hours. - -There is little difficulty in capturing the Montague Sucker in its -native haunts. It does not possess the power of darting to and fro with -the speed of the Blenny, or most other fishes, but progresses through -the liquid element with a peculiar quivering motion. - -It is not a fish that can be recommended for the aquarium. A fortnight -to three weeks is the longest time that I have been able to keep a -specimen alive; indeed, until I adopted the plan of allowing each -little captive to remain quiet and undisturbed in a dark and shady -place, death ensued in the course of one or two days. - -My illustrations (Plate 12) having been carefully drawn and coloured -from a living specimen, the student will, I trust, find no difficulty -in recognising the Diminutive Sucker, should he be so fortunate as to -meet with it in a rocky pool. - -'There is also a fish called the Sticklebag, a fish without scales, but -hath his body fenced with several prickles. I know not where he dwells -in winter, nor what he is good for in summer, but only to make sport -for boys and _women anglers_.' Thus contemptuously does dear old Izaak -speak of the Sticklebag, or Stickleback, as it is now termed, one of -the most amusing and interesting members of the finny tribe. I have -frequently transferred specimens of the Stickleback from fresh water to -salt water, and found them live quite as well in the latter as in the -former. - -The contrast, however, between the appearance of the three spined -Stickleback, when first taken from the sea, and one captured in the -fresh water pond is very remarkable. The first is dressed in a gorgeous -coat of varied colours. Around the mouth and belly it is bright -crimson, on the upper part of its body various tints of green prevail; -while in the pond specimen no red colour is visible at all, but only -white blended with green. - -In addition to _Gasterosteus aculeatus_, whom we have above alluded -to, there is another species, _G. spinachia_, or Fifteen-Spined -Stickleback, which is also an inhabitant of rock-pools by the -sea-shore, but unlike the first-mentioned, is never found in fresh -water. Both species possess one peculiarity in common, a description of -which will form an appropriate conclusion to this chapter. I allude to -their nest-building habits, which has only of late years been proved to -exist, although Aristotle has recorded the same fact regarding a fish -(_Phycis_) in the Mediterranean Sea, which was known to make a nest and -deposit its spawn therein. - -The duties of mason and architect are invariably undertaken by the -male Stickleback. His materials are of course very limited, still his -labours are skilfully and even artistically performed. Having chosen a -suitable spot as a foundation for his house, he collects some delicate -sea-weeds, gravel and sand, and with these materials, aided by a -glutinous fluid which is given off from his body, the house is built. -When completed, and not before, he seeks out his mate, and invites -her to take possession of her newly formed home. If she shows any -affectation or coquetishness, he does not hesitate to nip hold of her -tail, and urge her forward by equally expressive signs. Soon, like a -dutiful little pet, she enters, and having deposited spawn, retires -again, leaving her lord and master to guard the casket and its living -treasure. This task, though extremely arduous, he adopts with pride and -gratification. - -How so small a creature can bear up so long under such a state -of apparent excitement appears marvellous. His assiduity is most -extraordinary. By night he rests beside the nest, and by day, if he can -possibly hinder it, he allows nothing to approach. When there are other -members of the Stickleback family in the aquarium, numerous combats -are sure to ensue, for as the young and transparent offspring of one -fish are deemed a great dainty by the non-parental body, the latter -invariably endeavour to satisfy their cannibal propensities at the -harrowing expense of their neighbours. - -When the spawn are hatched, fresh care devolves upon the parent, in -order to keep them within the nursery, and protect them from the greedy -mouths of the larger fish, always on the look-out for tit-bits. Should -one of the little fishlings stray beyond the prescribed bounds, the -watchful parent darts after it, and in an instant his jaws close over -the wanderer apparently for ever, but in fact only for a time, for -swimming quickly back the old fish puffs out the straggler into its -nest lively and uninjured. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -On the Formation of an Aquarium, &c. - - -'And so I end this little book, hoping, even praying that it may -encourage a few more labourers to go forth into a vineyard which those -who have toiled in it know to be full of ever fresh health, and wonder, -and simple joy, and the presence and the glory of Him whose name is -Love.'--C. KINGSLEY. - - - - -[Illustration: A SKETCH FROM NATURE - -1 Mussels attached by their byssus threads to the glass -2 Fronds of _Chondrus chrispus_ -3 Fronds of _Delesseria Sanguinea_ -4 Fronds of _Ulva latissima_] - - - - -XXV. - - -No ornament for the drawing-room or parlour can possibly be more -beautiful than a well-stocked and tastefully-arranged aquarium; nor is -there one likely to be productive of a greater amount of pleasure and -amusement. And it is instructive as well as amusing, for by means of -it the statements of writers relative to the habits of certain marine -animals may be verified by personal observation, and even difficult -problems in natural history satisfactorily solved. Aided by one of -these 'mimic oceans,' let the reader commence the practical study of -marine zoology, and I have little fear of his ever becoming tired of it. - -'Age cannot wither it, nor custom stale - Its infinite variety.' - -When pursued even in the most humble way, this recreation yields a -degree of interest greater than any other 'hobby' can produce, at least -in an equal space of time. If engaged in business during the day, the -student can always devote an hour morning or evening to the aquarium, -and when least expected, some circumstance will take place to excite -his wonder, and fill his mind with deep and devout reflection. -Moreover, the young naturalist will undoubtedly derive pleasure from -his endeavours to establish published facts relative to many of his -little prisoners; pleasure in noting down any interesting anecdote that -may occur; pleasure in knowing that his time is being profitably spent; -and above all, that he is making himself acquainted with objects framed -with marvellous skill and care by the hand of the Almighty:-- - -'Wonderful indeed are all His works, - Pleasant to know, and worthiest to be all - Had in remembrance, always with delight.' - -Without further preface, I shall now proceed to offer some practical -hints relative to the establishment of a marine aquarium. And, as some -of my readers may be perfectly unacquainted with the subject, I shall -treat it in as simple a style as possible. If, however, the experienced -zoologist will kindly follow me to the end of the chapter, it may be -that he will find some hints sufficiently new and useful to repay him -for his trouble. - -First, then, in regard to the tank. This indispensable requisite may be -procured at certain shops in almost every town in the United Kingdom. -Its price varies from two or three shillings to £20. The expensive -kinds are generally oblong in form, but their construction being -somewhat intricate, they are apt to get out of order, unless made by -skilful and thoroughly competent artistes. Under certain circumstances, -there is no doubt that an oblong tank of moderate dimensions is a great -desideratum; but what I wish particularly to impress upon the mind of -the reader is, that a large tank is not at all necessary in order to -study the habits of marine animals; indeed, the more capacious the -vessel, the more difficult becomes the task of watching the secret -movements of any of its occupants. On this account it not unfrequently -happens that a common glass tumbler becomes of much greater service to -the student than the most elaborate aquarium. - -The tanks which I use are circular in form, the largest being not more -than sixteen inches in diameter, by seven inches in depth. Its cost -was four shillings. Each one rests on a base of mahogany, elevated on -turned legs to a height of nine inches. - -Some persons object to the circular tank, on the ground that its -occupants when seen from the sides appear magnified. This fact, as -I have elsewhere remarked, is rather a recommendation with me, as -it presents more distinct views of each movement in the vessel, and -whenever I wish to see the objects of their natural size, I can do so -by looking in from the top. - -On the edge of the tank are placed three chips of gutta percha in which -are inserted three steel pins with brass heads; on these there is -laid a circular piece of common glass, cut two inches larger than the -diameter of the tank. As the 'pins' are about three-quarters of an inch -above the tank, they allow a current of air to pass over the water, -and also prevent, to a certain extent, particles of dust from falling -in. On the edge of the movable lid I _paste_ some crimson lace, which -serves for ornament, and also prevents the glass from cutting the hand -of any person moving it about. Sometimes I have a circular piece, about -four inches in diameter, cut out of the centre of the glass lid, which -allows the latter to be lifted off easily. - -A glass syringe to aerate the water occasionally, a camel-hair pencil, -an ivory crotchet pin, and a pair of gutta percha forceps, complete the -whole machinery of the aquarium, the cost of which is so trifling that -the poorest person might manage to procure them. - -One great point in favour of an aquarium, and one by no means generally -understood is, that having once filled the tank with salt water, it -will last for months, and even years, if proper care be taken, without -requiring one particle of sea-water to be again added; for as the water -evaporates, the salt falls to the bottom, and the deficiency may be -supplied with _fresh_ water from the cistern or filter. In order to -ascertain when the sea-water is of the proper density, you require -to have a 'gravity bubble,' which can be had for sixpence. This may -always be kept in the tank. When 'all's well' it sinks to the bottom, -and when anything comes amiss it rises to the surface, but falls again -quickly upon the introduction of the fresh water.[20] - -[20] _Vide_ author's "Sea-side and Aquarium." - -A more simple plan is, to mark on the glass the height of the fluid -when the tank is first filled, then as the water sinks, raise it again -to its original level by means of fresh water. - -Many persons decline starting an aquarium on account of the great -difficulty of procuring a proper supply of sea-water. This objection, -of course, can be offered only by those who happen to reside inland; -but even these need not now be discouraged, for an ingenious plan has -lately been devised for sending the commodity in question through the -post! - -Mr. Bolton, chemist, Holborn Bars, London, supplies, not sea-water, but -'marine salts for the instantaneous production of sea-water,' About six -ounces is sufficient to make a gallon, by the application of _fresh_ -water. The saline material here alluded to, is not an artificial -chemical compound, but is produced by the simple process of evaporating -sea-water itself. Those individuals so fortunate as to possess a marine -villa, or any other more humble residence at or near the sea-coast, -have no occasion to resort to the scheme above-mentioned for filling -their tanks, a pure supply of sea-water being attainable with scarcely -any trouble whatever. A stone jar should be kept for this purpose only, -and care taken that the vessel is perfectly free from any smell, as -that of spirits, dirty corks, or the like, as any such impurity would -quickly spoil the water. - -It may not be uninteresting to some of my readers to know, that in -France an aquarium cannot be established with the same ease as in -England. In the former country 'the whole contents of the sea itself -is a contraband article,--that is, the contents of the salt sea of -the English Channel or the Atlantic Ocean.' One writer tells us, that -staying on the French coast, he kept sea-anemones alive in glasses, -but was frequently warned by his friends to be careful how he fetched -water from the sea, lest the custom-officers should interrupt him. 'My -bottle,' to use the writer's own words, 'being very small, they let -it pass, on the principle that the law does not care about extremest -trifles; had it been a pailful, the case would have been different. A -lady keeping a marine aquarium, explained her wants to the local head -of the customs. He came and saw it--found it beautiful, and being a -gentlemanly man, with some love for natural history, he gave a written -order for the procuring of any reasonable quantity of water from the -sea. Every time the needful element was brought from the shore, it was -accompanied by its passport, as formally as if it had been a cask of -wine, or a suspicious stranger. French salt sellers thus enjoy the -height of protection; they are protected even from their colossal -competitor, the sea!' - -I do not know a prettier sight than that exhibited by a healthy -aquarium on a fine summer's day; the effect of the sunshine upon it -being to cause innumerable bubbles of oxygen--that look like balls of -quicksilver--to form on every weed, shell, and smallest pebble. On -looking through the transparent sides of the vessel, small particles -hitherto resting on its base, may be seen slowly arising to the -surface of the water, each buoyed up by a miniature gas balloon. The -broad, ribbon like fronds of the ulva, from the self-same cause, float -upwards, and reflect a beauteous emerald hue upon all objects that lie -beneath; while the glass bulb, placed in the tank as before stated, to -denote the density of the water, at such a time belies its mission, -and covered with numerous argent globules, mounts gracefully in -companionship with the sea-weed, until shades of evening approach, when -its buoyancy gradually subsides, and once more it falls to its original -resting-place. - -Wherever the above phenomenon is apparent, rest assured that the -aquarium is in good condition. It is, in fact, to the oxygen thus given -out by the plants and infant vegetation that the animals owe their -existence. If no algæ were introduced, the water would become impure, -and unless changed often, your little colony would surely die,--at -least those of its members who were unable to rise above the fluid, and -occasionally breathe the fresh air. - -The secret herein involved, that animal and vegetable respirations -counterbalance each other, has only of late years been discovered; yet -it is apparent to any observing eye at the sea-shore; there we never -meet with a rock-pool containing living animals, that is not more or -less adorned with sea-weeds. - -The green Lettuce Ulva, so abundant in rock-pools, the sea-grass, which -covers almost every fixed object at the sea-shore, or the well-known -dulse or Chondrus Crispus, form the only sea-weeds that it is necessary -to introduce into an aquarium. In fact, one or two fronds of the Ulva -Latissima alone, will answer perfectly well to purify the water of even -a comparatively large tank. I have often been surprised to find how -small a quantity of algæ was required for the purpose mentioned. After -allowing a single frond to float for a few days in a tank, in which -some sea-water was newly deposited, I took it out, and for an entire -twelvemonth the water remained healthy and as clear as crystal. - -The arrangement of the 'stock' of an aquarium is quite a matter of -taste; perhaps no two persons adopt precisely the same plan. It may, -therefore, be advisable, as this matter is so arbitrary, for the writer -to state how his own tanks are mapped out, leaving it to his readers -to imitate the arrangements, or adopt a style of their own as they may -think proper. - -At one time I used to make a grounding of sand, but this plan is not -to be recommended, even though it be one highly approved of by several -species of crabs, &c. White pebbles do very well, but I now prefer to -cover the base of the tank with crushed shells, washed very clean. - -The following is a sketch of one of my tanks as it at present stands:-- - -In the centre of the vessel is a _semi-circular arch_, formed of pure -white Sicilian marble, which has to my eye a most pleasing appearance. -Around it, and indeed over the entire floor of the tank, are strewn -chippings of the same material as the centre piece itself.[21] From -the arch, at certain intervals, hang various sized specimens of the -_Mytilus edulis_, which have gradually advanced to their more or less -elevated positions entirely by their own unaided exertions. Near hand -a hardy _A. mesembryanthemum_ has taken up his abode, and sits with -ever expanded tentacles, motionless and happy. On either side of -the Anemone is deposited a riband of Doris spawn, that undulates to -and fro whenever by any chance the water is in the slightest degree -disturbed. Several soldier crabs, of course, act as sentinels of the -tank, and appear to be ever 'on duty,' marching about in all parts -of their subaqueous habitation; while beneath the marble fragments -repose, each with his 'weather eye' open, a small _Maia squinado_, two -long-armed crabs, and a small _Carcinus mænas_. On the sides of the -vase rest a Limpet, a Trochus, and two fine Periwinkles, with skin -of glossy blackness. The shells of either 'Buckie' is covered with -myriads of quicksilver globules, that rest on the tips of the young -and rising vegetation like dew upon the bladed grass. As I write, -upon the inner surface of the water, like a fly upon the ceiling of -a room, an Eolis and two pearly white Dorides lie idly floating in -close companionship. Beneath them, upon the verge of the aperture of a -large empty whelk shell, sits a pretty, cream-coloured Plumose Anemone -(_A. dianthus_). On two blocks of stone repose several specimens of -that mysterious animal the Pholas, who, by my unkindness, are thus -made to become members of the marine 'houseless poor.' Several young -specimens of these bivalves are seated, in a piece of rock, and daily -engaged in 'boring.' A stick of wood, formerly the slender twig of -a tree, is thickly clustered with fairy-handed acorn barnacles and -serpulæ, and being placed against the glass, the movements of these -singularly beautiful creatures can be watched with ease. Then there are -two Star-fishes, a pack of three little Blennies, and a Five-bearded -Rockling, whose singular movements I have previously alluded to. -Against the arch some fronds of ulva are anchored, while at chosen -spots specimens of delicate sea-weeds are also fixed--these rising up, -and being magnified through the sides of the vase, have a pleasing -effect, even to the eye of a child. - -[21] The arch was cut from one of the waste pieces, of which there are -always a large number, lying in a marble mason's yard, and cost but a -few pence. The 'chippings' may be had in most cases for the trouble of -carrying them away. - -It is a pretty sight to watch the fishes glide under and around the -marble arch, or throw themselves upon its highest point, there to enjoy -the fresh air, and have a pleasant 'crack' together. This expression is -literally correct, for the Blennies, when thus situated, usually make a -kind of noise not inaptly expressed by snapping the nail of the thumb -and finger together. - -The foregoing animals which constitute the entire stock of one tank, -are, I am proud to state, all in a healthy condition, and if we may -judge by appearances, all contented and happy. It will be from no fault -of mine if they do not long continue thus, and exhibit no signs of -yearning for their native haunts by the sea-shore. - -'Those gay watery grots-- - Small excavations on a rocky shore, - That seem like fairy baths or mimic wells, - Richly embossed with choicest weed and shells, - As if her trinkets nature chose to hide - Where nought invaded but the flowing tide.' - -In another tank I have introduced as a centre object a fine piece of -white coral, the higher branches of which rise above the surface of the -water. The roughness of the coral seems to be much approved of by many -of the animals, who are not slow to avail themselves of the facility -thus afforded them of climbing and otherwise exercising their peculiar -propensities. When purchasing coral, care must be taken to procure a -specimen that has not undergone any cleaning process, for although such -may be more pleasing to the eye, it is not so suitable for a 'centre -piece' as the cream-coloured, and less expensive coral. - -A third aquarium which I possess is fitted up in a somewhat novel -style, which offers, for certain purposes, some slight advantages over -others that I have seen employed. It can be adopted in almost any kind -of tank; but the one under consideration is circular in form, and is, -in fact, a bell-shaped inverted fern glass, the knob of which is sunk -into a stand of wood supported on three legs. - -The plan alluded to, which was suggested to the writer by an ingenious -friend,[22] consists of the introduction of a floating centre piece -composed of gutta percha, which serves as a resting place for various -small animals, such as Actiniæ, Mussels, Barnacles, Serpulæ, and -even Pholades and Cockles. At the base of the vessel, which is quite -uncovered, rest sundry members of the crustaceous family, whilst -fishes of various kinds swim freely about over the entire vessel free -from all annoyance. - -[22] Mr. Walter Hardie of Edinburgh, who has been my companion in many -a delightful excursion among the rock-pools of the shores of the Frith -of Forth, and to whom I feel myself greatly indebted for much valuable -information relative to the subject of marine zoology. - -The question will doubtless be asked, 'How can I procure the centre -piece here spoken of?' I answer, Make it yourself; a little skill -combined with patience and gutta percha being all that is required. The -following directions will serve to aid the young reader who may wish to -test his manipulative powers. - -Procure a thin piece of gutta percha, and lay it in hot water for a few -minutes until it is thoroughly soft and pliable. Then get a globe--an -orange will do if nothing better offers--and cover it with the above -material. Having done this, throw it into cold water, and when hard, -cut the fruit in two, so as to leave the gutta percha cast to the shape -of each half. - -Next make a circular tray about eight or nine inches in diameter, and -turn up its edge about half an inch all round. Then heat the brim of -each cup, and fasten them to the centre of the upper and under part of -the 'tray.' The structure will then float in water. This, however, is -not all that you want, as your centre piece must always be entirely -immersed. First bore a few holes in the tray, then fix a pretty shell, -with a hole in it, to the base of the lower 'cup,' and also form a loop -of gutta percha, from which to suspend, by means of a piece of silk, a -fragment of stone or marble of sufficient bulk to balance the centre -piece, and sink it an inch or two below the surface of the water. -At the centre of the upper cup fasten a small piece of gutta percha -tube, at the end of which the valve of a Pecten may be attached as an -ornament. The whole structure must be gently warmed and entirely coated -with fine sand; then tastefully decorated with shells and fronds of -green Ulva, and the crimson Delesseria Sanguinea. - -Sometimes I introduce a globe of glass as a buoy, and to its centre -attach the tray of gutta percha. - -A useful centre piece, a specimen of which I have had in use for -several months, may be formed thus. Make a tripod of gutta percha, on -the top of which attach the valve of a Pecten. From the centre of this -object fix a branch of coral by aid of gutta percha, in such a way that -it rises above the water in the tank. From under the shell pieces of -coral may be made to branch out in various directions. The stand should -be coated either with crushed shells or sand, to give it an ornamental -appearance. - -It is often a source of annoyance to find the base of the aquarium so -thickly covered with dirt, &c. To get rid of this great 'eye sore,' -without emptying and re-arranging the tank, I call in the aid of a very -simple and effective instrument. By its application all objectionable -matter may be gradually removed without in the slightest degree -disturbing the water, or materially displacing the objects situated at -the base of the vessel. - -The instrument mentioned is composed of a gutta percha globe, made in -the manner previously described, into one end of which is inserted -a tube of gutta percha or glass about four inches long, and at the -opposite end of the ball is introduced a second tube about eight inches -in length. - -To use this instrument, close the orifice of the longest tube, and -plunge it into the water over any spot where the debris is collected, -then by removing your finger from the end of the tube, _the impurity -will be instantly sucked up into the ball_. By again placing the finger -in its former position, the siphon may be lifted out of the tank, and -its contents allowed to run off into a jug or basin placed near for the -purpose. - -This operation must be repeated until the whole of the offending -particles are removed. Of course, more water will be drawn off than is -necessary, but it can easily be poured back into the tank as soon as -the sediment has been fully precipitated. - -Aquaria are generally much more difficult to keep in order in summer -than in winter, owing to the rapid and profuse growth of minute -vegetation which renders the water opaque and exceedingly unpleasant to -the eye. - -This ugly opacity I at one time attributed to decaying animal matter, -for I could scarcely believe that the mere increase of the algæ spores -could produce such a vile effect. Experience, however, has proved that -the latter was in reality the true cause. I tried often by syringing -the water, or drawing it off by means of the siphon, or stirring it -about in all manner of ways, to remove the objectionable muddiness, -but always without success. Limpets and Periwinkles seemed quite -useless. Nor did shutting out the rays of light for a few days have any -perceptible effect in subduing the growth of the algæ which collected -with wondrous rapidity, and arrayed each stone, shell, pebble, and even -the poor crabs, in a greenish garb. - -I was therefore under the necessity, on several occasions, of renewing -the water, and considering that my residence was several miles from the -sea-coast, this task was by no means a pleasant one. What made matters -still more provoking, was the fact that the rejected fluid seemed -perfectly free from all offensive smell. I now adopt the following -novel method for removing the opacity of the water, without the latter -being changed, and also for preventing the too abundant growth of the -algæ at all seasons. - -The plan in question (which requires, as already shown, to be carried -out with extreme caution by the inexperienced aquarianist) is merely to -dilute a small quantity of _alum_ in a wine-glass full of water, and -then mix it with the water contained in the aquarium. A pellet of alum -about the size of a pea is sufficient for the purpose, if the tank be -of moderate size. And if inserted on the first appearance of dimness -in the water, much future trouble will be saved. - -Supposing the water to have become opaque, proceed thus--Draw off a -portion into a large jug, and mix with it the diluted acid as before -stated, then let the jug remain undisturbed for about twelve hours. The -vegetation having been deposited in flakes at the base of the vessel, -the water should then be gently strained off through a piece of fine -muslin into a second receptacle, which, in its turn, should be allowed -to stand for some time, and the contents again strained as before. This -process it is advisable to repeat several times, until the whole of the -fluid in the tank has been thoroughly cleansed from impurity. - -Should the water be returned too early, an unpleasant fur coating will -appear over the entire base of the tank. This can be easily removed by -means of the siphon. Let one end of this instrument, when in action, -be passed gradually over the lower portion of the vase, and in the -course of a few minutes every sign of 'fur' will be obliterated with -the loss of but a small portion of water. When once the fluid has been -clarified in the manner here mentioned, there is little fear of the -young aquarianist being again troubled in like manner for many months, -the acid apparently preventing the algæ from being reproduced to any -such excess as hitherto. - - - - -GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS. - - -Extracted principally from Professor Owen's learned work entitled, -"Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Invertebrate -Animals." - -=Ambulacra= (L. _ambulacrum_, an avenue, or place for walking). -The perforated series of plates in the shell of the Sea-star, or -Sea-urchin, through which the sucking-feet are protruded. - -=Acalepha= (Gr. _akalephe_, a nettle). The class of radiated animals -with soft skins which have the power of stinging like a nettle. -Commonly called Sea-nettles or Jelly-fish. - -=Actinæ= (Gr. _aktin_, a ray). The genus of Polypes which have many -arms radiating from around the mouth. - -=Alternate generation.= That modification of generation in which -the young do not resemble the parent, but the grandparent; so that -the successive series of individuals seem to represent two species, -alternately reproduced, in which also parthenogenesis alternates with -the ordinary engendering by impregnation. - -=Algæ= (sea-weeds). A large class of cryptogamic plants inhabiting salt -and fresh water. - -=Anomoura= (Gr. _anomos_, irregular, and _oura_, a tail). A section -of crustaceous animals distinguished like the Hermit crabs, by the -irregular form of the tails. - -=Annelid.= The Anglicised singular of _annelleta_. - -=Adductor muscles=, are those which hold together the shell of a -bivalve, such as the Oyster, Mussel, &c. - -=Animalcules.= Those extremely small animals which are invisible to the -naked eye. - -=Antenna= (from the Latin for yard-arm). Applied to the jointed feelers -or horns upon the head of insects and crustacea. - - -=Balanoids= (Gr. _balanos_, an acorn). A family of Sessile cirripeds, -the shells of which are commonly called Acorn-shells. - -=Bivalve.= When a shell consists of two parts, closing like a double -door. The mollusca so protected are commonly called bivalves, as the -Mussel. - -=Brachyura= (Gr. _brachus_, short; _oura_, tail). The tribe of -crustacea with short tails, as the Crabs. - -=Branchiæ= The gills or respiratory organs which extract the oxygen -from air contained in water, as in fishes and other aquatic animals. - -=Buccal= (L. _bucca_, mouth). Belonging to the mouth. - -=Byssus= (Gr. _byssos_, fine flax). A term applied to the silken -filaments or 'beard' of the Mussel and Pinna. - -=Carapace.= The upper shell of the Crab, &c. - -=Calcareous.= Composed more or less of lime. - -=Carnivorous= (L. _caro_, flesh; _voro_, I devour). The animals which -feed on flesh. - -=Caudal= (L. _cauda_, the tail). Belonging to the tail. - -=Cephalópoda= (Gr. _kephale_, a head; _pous_, a foot). The class of -Molluscous animals in which long prehensile processes, or feet, project -from the head, as in the Cuttle-fish. - -=Ciliogrades= (L. _cilium_, an eyelash; _gradior_, I walk). The order -of the _acalephæ_ (as the Beröe) which swims by action of cilia. - -=Cilia= (L. _cilium_, an eyelash). The microscopic hair-like bodies -which cause, by their vibratile action, currents in the contiguous -fluid, or a motion of the body to which they are attached. - -=Cirri= (L. _cirrus_, a curl). The curled filamentary appendages, as at -the feet of the Barnacles. - -=Cirripedes=, or =Cirripedia= (L. _cirrus_, a curl; _pes_, a foot). -A class of articulate animals having curled, jointed feet; sometimes -written Cirrhipedia and Cirrhopoda. - -=Conchifera= (L. _concha_, a shell; _fero_, I bear). Shell-fish; -usually restricted to those with bivalve shells. - -=Comminuted.= Broken or ground down into small pieces. - -=Conchology.= The department of science which treats of shells. - -=Convoluted= (L. _convolutus_). Rolled together. - -=Cornea= (L. _corneus_, horny). The transparent horny membrane in front -of the eye. - -=Crinoid= (Gr. _krinon_, a lily; _eidos_, a discourse). A family of -Star-fishes which bear some resemblance to the form of a lily. The -fossils called Stone-lilies, or Encrinites, are examples. - -=Crustacea= (L. _crusta_, a crust). The class of articulate animals -(which includes the Crab, Lobster, &c.) with a hard skin or crust, -which they cast periodically. - - -=Decapoda= (Gr. _deca_, ten; _pous_, a foot). The crustaceous and -molluscous animals, which have ten feet, such as the Crab, Cray-fish, -&c. - -=Digitate= (L. _digitus_, a finger). When a part supports processes -like fingers. - - -=Effete.= Barren, worn out. - -=Elytra= (Gr. _elytron_, a sheath). The sheath or wing covers of -coleopterous insects (Beetles). - -=Entomostraca= (Gr. _entoma_, insects; _ostracon_, a shell). The order -of small crustaceans, many of which are enclosed in an integument like -a bivalve shell. - -=Entomology= (Gr. _entoma_, insects; _logos_, a discourse). The branch -of science treating of insects. - -=Exuvium=, Pl. =exuviæ= (L. _exuo_, I cast off). The shell or skin of -an animal which is shed in moulting. - -=Epizoa= (Gr. _epi_, upon; _zoon_, an animal). The class of low -organized parasitic crustaceans which live upon other animals. - - -=Fissiparous= (L. _fissus_, divided; _pario_, I produce). The -multiplication of a species by the self-cleavage of the individual into -two parts. - -=Frond= (L. _frons_, a leaf). A term applied to that part of flowerless -plants resembling true leaves. - -=Fucivorous= (L. _fucus_, sea-weed; _voro_, I devour). Animals which -subsist on sea-weed. - -=Flora.= The plants which belong to a country or district. - -=Foliaceous= (L. _folium_, a leaf). Shaped or arranged like leaves. - - -=Gasteropoda= (Gr. _gaster_, stomach; _pous_, a foot). That class of -animals which (like the Snail) have the locomotive organ attached to -the under part of the body. - -=Gemmiparous= (L. _gemma_, a bud; _pario_, I produce). Propagation by -the growth of the young like a bud from the parent. - - -=Habitat.= The locality in which an animal habitually resides. - -=Hinge.= That part of a shell at which the valves cohere. - -=Hyaline= (Gr. _hualos_, crystal). The pellucid substance which -determines the spontaneous fission of cells. - -=Hydra= (Gr. _hudra_, a water serpent). The modern generic name of -certain fresh water polypes. - -=Hydrogen= (Gr. _hydor_, water; _gemmæ_, I produce). A gas forming one -of the components of water and atmospheric air. - - -=Infusoria.= The class of animalcules which abound in vegetable and -animal infusions. - - -=Lamellibranchiata= (L. _lamella_, a plate; _branchiæ_, gills). The -class of acephalous molluscs, with gills in the form of membraneous -plates, of which the oyster and mussel are familiar examples. - -=Larva= (L. _larva_, a mask). Applied to an insect in its first active -state, which is generally different from, and, as it were, masks the -ulterior form. - -=Ligament=. A membrane close by the hinge which connects the valves. - - -=Mantle.= The external soft, contractile skin of the mollusca, which -covers the viscera and a great part of the body like a cloak. - -=Macroura= (Gr. _makros_, long; _oura_, a tail). A tribe of ten-footed -crustacea (as the Lobster, Cray-fish), which have long tails. - -=Medusæ.= A genus or family of soft radiated animals or Acalephæ, so -called because their organs of motion and prehension are spread out -like the snaky hair of the fabled medusa. - -=Molecules.= Microscopic particles of matter. - -=Mollusc--Mollusca= (L. _mollis_, soft). The primary division of the -animal kingdom. It contains most shell-fish, slugs, &c. - -=Monograph= (Gr. _monos_, one; _grapho_, I write). A written -description of a single thing, or class of things. - -=Multivalve= (L. _multus_, many; _valvæ_, folding doors). Shells -composed of many pieces or valves, as the Chiton. - - -=Nudibranchiate= (L. _nudus_, naked; _branchiæ_, gills). An order of -gasteropods, in which the gills are exposed, as the Eolis, Doris, &c. - - -=Oxygen.= A gas which is one of the constituent parts of water and of -atmospheric air. It is essential to animal life. - -=Oviparous= (L. _ovum_, an egg; _pario_, I bring forth). The animals -which bring forth eggs. - -=Operculum= (from the Latin for lid). Applied to the horny or shelly -plate which closes certain univalve shells, as the Whelk, Periwinkle, -&c. - - -=Papillæ= (L. _papilla_, a nipple). Soft prominences which resemble in -form the teats of animals. - -=Palpi= (L. _palpo_, I touch). The organs of touch commonly called -'feelers,' developed from the lablum and maxillæ of insects. - -=Pectinated= (L. _pecten_, a comb). Toothed like a comb. - -=Physograde= (Gr. _physis_, air; _gradior_, I advance). The acalephes -that swim by means of air-bladders. - -=Phytophagous= (Gr. _phuton_, a plant; _phago_, I eat). Plant-eating -animals. - -=Pulmonigrade= (L. _pulmo_, a lung; _gradior_, I walk). The tribe of -Medusæ which swim by contraction of the respiratory disc. - - -=Rotifera= (L. _rota_, a wheel; _fero_, I bear). The name of a class of -infusorial animalcules, characterized by the vibratile and apparently -rotating ciliary organs upon the heads. - -=Rhodospermes.= The red-coloured sea-weeds. - - -=Serrated= (L. _serra_, a saw). Toothed like a saw. - -=Sessile.= Attached by a base. - -=Silicious= (L. _silex_, a flint). Flinty. - -=Setæ.= Bristles, or similar parts. - -=Spicula= (L. _spiculum_, a point or dart). Fine-pointed bodies, like -needles. - - -=Tuberculate.= Warty, or carved with small rounded knobs. - -=Testacea= (L. _testa_, a shell). Molluscs with a shelly covering, as -the Oyster, Whelk, &c. - - -=Univalve= (L. _unus_, one; _valvæ_, doors). A shell composed of one -calcareous piece, as the Periwinkle. - -=Umbones.= The base of a shell about the hinge. - - -=Viviparous= (L. _vivus_, alive; _pario_, I bring forth). The animals -which bring forth their young alive. See Oviparous. - - -=Whorl.= The spiral turn of a shell. - - -=Zoology= (Gr. _zoon_, animal; _logos_, a discourse). That branch of -science that treats of the habits, structure, and classification of -animals. - -=Zoologist.= One who is acquainted with the science of Zoology. - -=Zoophyte= (Gr. _zoon_, an animal; _phyton_, a plant). The lowest -primary division of the animal kingdom, which includes many animals -that are fixed to the ground and have the form of plants. - - - - -INDEX. - - - _Animalculæ_, 37. - - _Actiniæ_ (Sea anemones), 38, 47. - _mesembryanthemum_, 48, 365. - _troglodytes_, 51, 62. - _bellis_, 56. - _dianthus_, 57, 62, 154, 366. - _crassicornis_, 61, 100. - _coriacea_, 56. - _parasitica_, 66. - _explorator_, 51. - - Acorn barnacles, 145. - - Adductor muscle, 178, 182. - - Annelids, 154, 191, 315. - - _Acalephæ_, 203. - - Alternation of generations, 214. - - _Aphrodite aculeata_, 267. - - _Aplysiæ_, 54, 309, 311. - - _Aquariæ_ (on the formation of marine), 357. - - _Anomoura_ (Hermit crabs), 69, 92, 130, 133. - - _Asteriadæ_, 271. - - Algæ, 97. - - _A. ventilabrum_, 161. - - Amphitrite, 162. - - - _Buccinum undutum_, 92. - - Byssus of Mussel, 168, 170, 177, 184. - - _Beröe_, 210. - - _Bêches de mer_, 31. - - Brittle Star-fishes, 277. - - Bird's foot Sea-star, 285. - - Blenny (Smooth), 71, 104, 236, 336, 341, 365. - - Blenny (Viviparous), 346. - - Butter fish, 347. - - _Brachyura_ (crabs, &c.), 69, 133. - - Buckie, 93. - - Barnacles, 98, 146. - - Barnacle geese, 150. - - Boring Acephaia, 251. - - Bivalves, 122, 167, 282, 363. - - Bearded rockling, 346. - - - _Cilia_, 35, 147, 214. - - _Coryne_, 41. - - Crabs, 67. - - _Cancer Pagurus_ (Edible crab), 67, 69, 128. - - _Carcinus mænas_ (Common Shore crab), 67, 78, 120, 127, 167, 239. - - Common Whelk, 94. - - Common Cockle, 84, 106, 239. - - Cray fish, 128, 131. - - _Crangon vulgaris_ (Common Shrimp), 139. - - _Cestum veneris_, 209. - - _Cydippe pileus_, 210. - - _Cyanea capillata_, 218. - - _Comatula rosacea_, 275. - - Crinoid Star fishes, 275. - - Cross fish, 280. - - Cushion stars, 285. - - Cake Urchin, 300. - - _Chondrus crispus_ (Irish moss), 101, 123. - - _Cirri_, 147. - - _Cetacea_, 205. - - Chiton, 226. - - _C. offinalis_, 285. - - _Ciliograde acalephæ_, 209. - - Common Sea cucumber, 305. - - - Doris, 223, 363. - - Doris (Spawn of), 226. - - Diminutive Sucker-fish, 350. - - _Decapoda_ (ten-footed crustacea), 69, 85, 115. - - _D. sanguinea_, 78, 118, 368. - - Dorsibranchiate annelidans, 155. - - Devil's hand, 279. - - Dulse, 310. - - - Exuviation of Crabs, &c., 85, 113, 120, 132. - - Exuviation of Prawns, &c., 139. - - Exuviation of Barnacles, 147. - _Eolis_, 223. - - _Eolis_, (Spawn of) 228. - _papillosa_, 228. - - _Echinus_, 291. - _sphæra_, 297. - - Entomology, 28. - - Egg Urchin, 297. - - - _Foraminifera_, 24, 30. - - Fan-amphitrite, 161, 163. - - Fishes 329. - - Five-fingers (Star-fish), 281. - - - Gulf stream, 206. - - Girdle of Venus, 209. - - Green-pea urchin, 299. - - Gunnel-fish, 346. - - Goby (one-spotted), 309, 348. - - Goby (two-spotted), 348. - - _Gasterosteus aculeatus_, 352. - - Golden willow, 87. - - - _Hyas araneus_, 80. - - Hermit crabs, 94, 105, 108, 130. - - _Hydra tuba_, 213. - - _Hydra gelatinosa_, 213. - - Hyaline stylet, 239. - - _Holothuriadæ_, 303. - - - _Infusoria_, 33, 43, 227. - - _Iridea edulis_, 74, 236. - - Irish Moss, 101. - - - Jelly fish, 203. - - - _Kerona silurus_, 35. - - - _Lepas anatifera_ (Ship barnacle), 148, 150. - - Laminated nereis, 155. - - _Luidia fragillissima_, 285. - - _Lepus marinus_, 309. - - Lettuce Ulva, 180, 364. - - Limpet, 81, 98. - - Lobster crabs, 94. - - Lily stars, 271. - - Lobster (The), 131, 290. - - _L. digitata_ (Oar weed), 277. - - Lingthorn, 285. - - Lump sucker, 347. - - - _Maia squinado_ (Spider crab), 79, 80, 82, 167. - - Mussel (_Mytilus edulis_), 82, 122, 167, 363. - - _Medusæ_, 203, 210, 216. - - _Modera formosa_, 217. - - Montague Sucker-fish, 349. - - Marine Aquariæ, 357. - - _Macroura_ (as Lobsters), &c. - - - _Nereis_, 155, 158. - - Nudibranchiate gasteropoda, 226. - - - _Ostrea edulis_ (oyster), 81. - - _Ophiuræ_, 277. - _texturata_, 277. - _albida_, 277. - - _Ophiocoma rosula_, 279. - - - _Paramecium caudatum_, 35. - - _Portunus puber_ (Velvet crab), 68. - - _Porcellana longicornis_ (Minute Porcelain crab), 79. - - Periwinkle, 95. - - _Pagurus bernardhus_ (Hermit crab), 96, 108, 146. - - Pecten, 108, 370. - - Prawn, Common (_Palæmon squilla_), 137. - - _Phyllodoce laminosa_, 155. - - _Purpura lapillus_ (Whelk), 103, 168. - - Portuguese man-of-war, 212. - - Pholas (_crispata_), 84, 153, 236, 245, 258, 365. - - Pholas (_dactylus_), 260. - - _Pentacrinus Europæus_, 275. - - _Psolus phantapus_, 304. - - Pike-fish, 339. - - _Pinnotheres pisum_ (Common Pea-crab), 82. - - Pinna, 83. - - Partane, The (Edible crab), 65, 124. - - _Pulmonigrade acalephæ_, 21l. - - _Physograde acalephæ_, 211. - - _Parthenogenesis_, 218. - - - _Rotifera_, or Wheel-bearers, 36. - - Rosy Feather star, 276. - - Rosy Heart urchin, 300. - - Rockling (Five-bearded), 347. - - Razor-fish, 323. - - - Stickleback, 25, 108, 352. - - _Sertularia_, 41. - - Ship Barnacle, 145. - - Sea-Mouse, 267. - - Star fishes, 273. - - _Solaster papposa_, 167, 286. - _endeca_, 286. - - Sea Urchins, 289. - Silky Spined urchin, 299. - - Sea Cucumbers, 303. - - Sea Hares, 309. - - _Serpulæ_, 315. - - _Sabellæ_,315, 319. - - _Solen siliqua_, Razor-fish, 324. - - Soldier crabs, 92. - - Shrimps, 137. - - _Saxicavæ_, 248. - - Sucker fishes, 348. - - Shore crab, 65, 68, 72, 120, 235. - - Swimming crab, 66. - - Spider crab, 78. - - _Salex vitellina_ (golden willow), 87. - - Silver Willie (_T. zizziphanus_), 191. - - - _Terebella figulus_ (the potter), 191, 195. - _littoralis_, 197. - - Trepang, 304. - - Top-shell, 132. - - _Trochus_, 146. - - Tubiculous annelids, 162, 194. - - Tanks, 355. - - - _Uraster rubens_, 167, 281. - - _Ulva latissima_, 98, 180, 367, 368. - - Univalves, 94. - - Urchins (Sea), 298. - - - _Vorticellæ_, 35, 38. - - Velvet Fiddler crab, 66, 74. - - - Whelk (_Purpura lapillus_), 168. - - - _Zoothamnium spirale_, 43. - - _Zooids_, 219. - - Zoophytes, 47, 49. - - - - -NEW WORKS - -SUITABLE FOR PRESENTS, &c. - -JUST PUBLISHED, BY T. 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