diff options
471 files changed, 17 insertions, 22139 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..429f77e --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #52906 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52906) diff --git a/old/52906-0.txt b/old/52906-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4943a56..0000000 --- a/old/52906-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8664 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Grave-mounds and Their Contents, by -Llewellynn Frederick William Jewitt - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: Grave-mounds and Their Contents - A Manual of Archæology, as Exemplified in the Burials of the Celtic, the Romano-British, and the Anglo-Saxon Periods - - -Author: Llewellynn Frederick William Jewitt - - - -Release Date: August 29, 2016 [eBook #52906] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS*** - - -E-text prepared by Charlene Taylor, Wayne Hammond, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images -generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the almost 500 original illustrations. - See 52906-h.htm or 52906-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52906/52906-h/52906-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52906/52906-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/gravemoundstheir00jewiuoft - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). - - Some characters might not display in this UTF-8 text - version or in the html version. If so, the reader should - consult the original page images referred to above. - - - - - -GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS. - - -[Illustration: CIB HILL TUMULUS, NEAR ARBOR-LOW, DERBYSHIRE.] - - - - -GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS: - -A Manual of Archæology, - -As Exemplified in the -Burials of the Celtic, the Romano-British, and -the Anglo-Saxon Periods. - -by - -LLEWELLYNN JEWITT, F.S.A., - -ETC., ETC. - -With nearly Five Hundred Illustrations. - - - - - - - -London: -Groombridge and Sons, -5, Paternoster Row. - -1870. - - - - - TO - - MY OLD AND MUCH-ESTEEMED FRIEND, - - JOSEPH MAYER, ESQ., - - FELLOW OF THE SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF LONDON; - FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NORTHERN ANTIQUARIES - OF COPENHAGEN; - FELLOW OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY; - MEMBER OF THE SOCIETIES OF ANTIQUARIES OF - FRANCE, NORMANDY, THE MORINI, - ETC., ETC., ETC.; - ONE OF THE MOST ARDENT AND ZEALOUS OF ARCHÆOLOGISTS, - AND MOST KINDLY OF MEN; - THE PRINCELY DONOR TO THE PUBLIC - OF THE FINEST AND MOST EXTENSIVE - MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITIES - EVER COLLECTED TOGETHER BY A SINGLE INDIVIDUAL; - - I, WITH TRUE PLEASURE, - - Dedicate this Volume. - - LLEWELLYNN JEWITT. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - Page - - Grave-mounds in general--Their Historical Importance--General - Situation--Known as Barrows, Houes, Tumps, and Lows--List of - Names--Division into Periods 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - Ancient British or Celtic Period--General characteristics of - the Barrows--Modes of construction--Interments by inhumation - and by cremation--Positions of the Body--Hitter Hill - Barrow--Elliptical Barrow at Swinscoe--Burial in contracted - position--In sitting and kneeling positions--Double Interments 6 - - - CHAPTER III. - - Ancient British or Celtic Period--Interment by - cremation--Discovery of lead--Burial in Urns--Positions of - Urns--Heaps of burnt Bones--Burnt Bones enclosed in cloth - and skins--Stone Cists--Long-Low--Liff’s-Low, etc.--Pit - Interments--Tree-coffins 31 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - Ancient British or Celtic Period--Sepulchral Chambers - of Stone--Cromlechs--Chambered Tumuli--New Grange and - Dowth--The Channel Islands--Wieland Smith’s Cave, and - others--Stone Circles--For what purpose formed--Formation of - Grave-mounds--Varieties of Stone Circles--Examples of different - kinds--Arbor-Low, etc. 50 - - - CHAPTER V. - - Ancient British or Celtic Period--Pottery--Mode of - manufacture--Arrangement in classes--Cinerary or Sepulchral - Urns--Food Vessels--Drinking-cups--Incense Cups--Probably - Sepulchral Urns for Infants--Other examples of Pottery 83 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - Ancient British or Celtic Period--Implements of - Stone--Celts--Stone Hammers--Stone Hatchets, Mauls, - etc.--Triturating Stones--Flint Implements--Classification - of Flints--Jet articles--Necklaces, Studs, etc.--Bone - Instruments--Bronze Celts, Daggers, etc.--Gold articles 109 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - Romano-British Period--General Characteristics--Modes of - Burial--Customs attendant on Burial--Interments by cremation - and by inhumation--Barrows--Tombs of Stone--Lead Coffins--Clay - and Tile Coffins--Sepulchral Inscriptions, etc. 134 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - Romano-British Period--Pottery--Durobrivian Ware--Upchurch - Ware--Salopian Ware--Pottery found at Uriconium--Potteries - of the New Forest, of Yorkshire, and of other - places--Sepulchral Urns--Domestic and other vessels 151 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - Romano-British Period--Pottery--Samian Ware--Potters’ - Stamps--Varieties of Ornamentation--Glass Vessels--Sepulchral - Vases, etc.--Lachrymatories--Bowls--Beads--Coins found - with Interments 175 - - - CHAPTER X. - - Romano-British Period--Arms--Swords--Spears, - etc.--Knives--Fibulæ--Armillæ--Torques of Gold, etc.--Other - Personal Ornaments 190 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - Anglo-Saxon Period--Distribution of Anglo-Saxon Population - over England--General characteristics of Grave-mounds--Modes - of Burial--Poem of Beowulf--Interments by cremation and by - inhumation--Articles deposited with the Dead--Positions of - the Body--Double and other Interments--Burial in - Urns--Cemeteries and Barrows 202 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - Anglo-Saxon Period--Pottery, general characteristics - of--Cinerary Urns--Saxon Urn with Roman Inscription--Frankish - and other Urns--Cemeteries at Kings Newton, etc.--Mode - of manufacture--Impressed Ornaments 214 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - Anglo-Saxon Period--Glass - Vessels--Drinking-glasses--Tumblers--Ale-glasses--Beads--Necklaces - --Ear-rings--Coins, etc. 228 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - Anglo-Saxon Period--Arms--Swords--Knives--Spears--Shields--Umbones - of Shields--Buckles--Helmets--Benty-Grange Tumulus--The - Sacred Boar--Grave at Barlaston--Enamelled - Discs and pendant Ornaments, etc.--Horse-shoes 236 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - Anglo-Saxon Period--Fibulæ--Enamelled circular Fibulæ--Gold - Fibulæ--Pendant Cross--Cruciform Fibulæ--Penannular - Fibulæ--Irish and English examples--Pendant Ornaments, etc. 266 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - Anglo-Saxon Period--Buckets--Drinking-cups of wood--Bronze - Bowls--Bronze Boxes--Combs--Tweezers--Châtelaines--Girdle - Ornaments--Keys--Hair-pins--Counters, or Draughtmen, - and Dice--Querns--Triturating Stones, etc.--Conclusion 280 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - -ANCIENT BRITISH OR CELTIC PERIOD. - - Fig. Page - - Gib Hill Tumulus. (Frontispiece.) - - 2 Section of Grave-mound, Lord’s Down, Dewlish, Dorset 8 - - 3 Section of Grave-mound, Gib Hill, Derbyshire 9 - - 4 Section of Grave-mound, with two modes of interment by - cremation 10 - - 5 Section of Grave-mound, with inverted urn 10 - - 6 Interment, Smerril Moor 12 - - 7 Interment, Tissington 13 - - 8 Interment, Roundway Hill 14 - - 9 Interment, Hitter Hill 15 - - 10 Plan of Barrow, showing interments, Hitter Hill 17 - - 11 Interments, Hitter Hill 18 - - 12 Interments, Hitter Hill 20 - - 13 Skull, Hitter Hill 21 - - 14 Plan, with interments, Swinscoe 23 - - 15 Interment, sitting position, Parcelly Hay 26 - - 16 Interment, sitting position, Monsal Dale 28 - - 17 Plan of Barrow, with interments, Monsal Dale 29 - - 18 Plan of Barrow, with interments, Cressbrook 30 - - 19 Section of Barrow 32 - - 20 Stone Cist, Baslow Moor 33 - - 21 Section of Barrow 33 - - 22 Inverted Urn, with burnt bones, Wardlow 34 - - 23 Plan of Long-Low 36 - - 24 Stone Cist, Long-Low 38 - - 25 } - } Skull, Long-Low 39 - 26 } - - 27 Mode of construction, Long-Low 40 - - 28 Stone Cist, Middleton Moor 41 - - 29 Stone Cist, Liff’s-Low 42 - - 30 Stone Cist, Gib Hill 43 - - 31 Portion of woollen garment, Scale House 45 - - 32 } - } Tree-coffin, Gristhorpe 48 - 33 } - - 34 Dagger, etc., Gristhorpe 49 - - 35 Flint, etc., Gristhorpe 49 - - 36 Tree-coffin, boat shape 49 - - 37 Cromlech, Lanyon 52 - - 38 Cromlech, Lanyon plan 52 - - 39 Cromlech, Chun 53 - - 40 Cromlech, Chun plan 53 - - 41 Cromlech, Plas Newydd 54 - - 42 Minning-Low, plan 55 - - 43 New Grange, general view 56 - - 44 New Grange, entrance to passage 57 - - 45 Dowth, general view 58 - - 46 Dowth, entrance to passage 58 - - 47 Cromlech, Knockeen 59 - - 48 Cromlech, Knockeen plan 59 - - 49 Cromlech, Gaulstown 60 - - 50 Cromlech, Gaulstown plan 60 - - 51 Cromlech, Ballynageerah 61 - - 52 Cromlech, Ballynageerah 62 - - 53 Cromlech, Ballynageerah plan 62 - - 54 Cromlech, L’Ancresse 63 - - 55 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, south entrance 64 - - 56 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, opening in north chamber 65 - - 57 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, plan of chamber 65 - - 58 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, carved stones 65 - - 59 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, carved stones 66 - - 60 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, carved stones 66 - - 61 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, carved stones 67 - - 62 Chambered Tumulus, Stony Littleton 68 - - 63 Chambered Tumulus, Stony Littleton plan 58 - - 64 Chambered Tumulus, Five Wells, Taddington 69 - - 65 Chambered Tumulus, Five Wells, Taddington plan 69 - - 66 Flax Dale Barrow, plan 72 - - 67 Section, Elk-Low 73 - - 68 Stone Circle, “Nine Ladies,” Stanton Moor 73 - - 69 Stone Circle, “Nine Ladies,” Stanton Moor plan 74 - - 70 Stone Circle, construction of 75 - - 71 Stone Circle, Sancreed 76 - - 72 Stone Circle, 76 - - 73 Stone Circle, Isle of Man 76 - - 74 Stone Circle, Trewavas Head 77 - - 75 Stone Circle, Mule Hill 77 - - 76 Stone Circle, Channel Islands 78 - - 77 Stone Circle, with “twin barrow” 78 - - 78 Stone Circle, with “twin barrow” 79 - - 79 Stone Circle, construction 79 - - 80 Stone Circle, Boscawen-un 80 - - 81 Stone Circle, Aber 80 - - 82 Stone Circle, Berriew 81 - - 83 Stone Circle, Penmaenmaur 81 - - 84 Stone Circle, Arbor-Low, Derbyshire 82 - - 85 Pottery--fragment, Darwen 86 - - 86 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Monsal Dale 87 - - 87 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Ballidon Moor 88 - - 88 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Ballidon Moor _in situ_ 88 - - 89 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Trentham 89 - - 90 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Darwen 90 - - 91 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Dorsetshire 91 - - 92 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Dorsetshire 91 - - 93 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Darley Dale 92 - - 94 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Stone 93 - - 95 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Cleatham 93 - - 96 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Cleatham 93 - - 97 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Calais Wold, Yorkshire 94 - - 98 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Darley Dale 95 - - 99 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Tredinney 96 - - 100 Pottery--Cinerary Urn, Morvah 96 - - 101 Pottery--Food vessel, Trentham 97 - - 102 Pottery--Food vessel, Fimber 98 - - 103 Pottery--Food vessel, Hitter Hill 98 - - 104 Pottery--Food vessel, Hitter Hill 99 - - 105 Pottery--Food vessel, Monsal Dale 100 - - 106 Pottery--Food vessel, Fimber 100 - - 107 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Fimber 102 - - 108 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Hay Top, Monsal Dale 102 - - 109 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Grind-Low 102 - - 110 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Elk-Low 103 - - 111 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Elk-Low bottom 104 - - 112 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Roundway Hill 104 - - 113 Pottery--Drinking-cup, Gospel Hillock 105 - - 114 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106 - - 115 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106 - - 116 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106 - - 117 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106 - - 118 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106 - - 119 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106 - - 120 Pottery--Incense cup, Dorsetshire 106 - - 121 Pottery--Incense cup, Yorkshire 106 - - 122 Pottery--Incense cup, Stanton Moor 107 - - 123 Pottery--Incense cup, Baslow 107 - - 124 Pottery--Incense cup, Dorsetshire 107 - - 125 Pottery--Incense cup, Darley Dale 107 - - 126 Pottery--Handled vessel, Yorkshire 108 - - 127 } - } - 128 } - } - 129 } Stone celts, Royal Irish Academy 110 - } - 130 } - } - 131 } - - 132 Stone celt, Derbyshire example 110 - - 133 Stone hammer-head, Wollaton 111 - - 134 Stone celt, Derbyshire example 112 - - 135 Stone hammer-head, Winster 112 - - 136 Stone hammer-head, Cambridgeshire 112 - - 137 Stone hammer-head, Trentham 112 - - 138 Stone hammer-head, Dorsetshire 113 - - 139 } - } - 140 } Stone mauls, Royal Irish Academy 113 - } - 141 } - - 142 Stone hammer-head, Mickleover 113 - - 143 } - } Triturating stones 114 - 144 } - - 145 Spindle whorl 115 - - 146 } - } - 147 } - } - 148 } - } - 149 } - } Flint arrow-heads, Greenlow and other places in Derbyshire 116 - 150 } - } - 151 } - } - 152 } - } - 153 } - - 154 Flint, Green-Low 117 - - 155 Flint, Arbor-Low 118 - - 156 Flint, Calais Wold 119 - - 157 Flint, Calais Wold 119 - - 158 Flint, Gunthorpe 119 - - 159 Flint, Ringham-Low 119 - - 160 Flint, Calais Wold 119 - - 161 Flint, Calais Wold 119 - - 162 } - } - 163 } - } - 164 } - } - 165 } - } Flint, Derbyshire examples 120-122 - 166 } - } - 167 } - } - 168 } - } - 169 } - - 170 Flint celt, Gospel Hillock 122 - - 171 Necklace of jet, Middleton Moor 123 - - 172 Necklace of jet and bone 124 - - 173 Necklace of jet, Fimber 125 - - 174 Jet studs, Gospel Hillock 126 - - 175 Jet studs, Calais Wold 126 - - 176 Jet pendant, Derbyshire 126 - - 177 Bone implement, Green-Low 126 - - 178 } - } - 179 } - } Bone implement, Thor’s Cave, etc. 127 - 180 } - } - 181 } - - 182 Bone pendant, Arbor-Low 127 - - 183 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 128 - - 184 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 129 - - 185 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 129 - - 186 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 129 - - 187 Bronze celt, Moot-Low 129 - - 188 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131 - - 189 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131 - - 190 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131 - - 191 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131 - - 192 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131 - - 193 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131 - - 194 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131 - - 195 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131 - - 196 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy 131 - - 197 Bronze socketed celt, Kirk Ireton 131 - - 198 Bronze dagger, Bottisham 132 - - 199 Coin, Mount Batten 133 - - 200 Coin, Mount Batten 133 - - 201 Coin, Mount Batten 133 - - 202 Coin, Mount Batten 133 - - 203 Coin, Mount Batten 133 - - 204 Coin, Birkhill 133 - - 205 Coin, Blandford 133 - - - ROMANO-BRITISH PERIOD. - - 206 Cist of stone, York 144 - - 207 Leaden coffin, Colchester 144 - - 208 Leaden coffin, Bishopstoke 145 - - 209 Clay coffin, Aldborough 145 - - 210 Chest of stone, with pottery, etc., Avisford 147 - - 211 Tomb of tiles, York 148 - - 212 Potter’s kiln, Castor 152 - - 213 } - } - 214 } Pottery, Headington 154 - } - 215 } - - 216 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, scroll ornaments 155 - - 217 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, scroll ornaments 157 - - 218 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, scroll ornaments 157 - - 219 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, scroll ornaments 157 - - 220 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, hare hunting 157 - - 221 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, hare hunting 158 - - 222 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, hare hunting 158 - - 223 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, stag hunting 158 - - 224 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, stag hunting 158 - - 225 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, stag hunting 159 - - 226 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, indented urn 161 - - 227 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, cup 161 - - 228 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, indented urn 161 - - 229 Pottery, Durobrivian ware, indented urn 161 - - 230 Pottery, Upchurch ware, group of vessels 163 - - 231 Pottery, Upchurch ware, urn 164 - - 232 Pottery, Salopian ware, group of vessels 166 - - 233 Pottery, group, Headington 167 - - 234 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Toot Hill 167 - - 235 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Little Chester 168 - - 236 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Leicester 168 - - 237 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Little Chester 169 - - 238 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, 169 - - 239 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, 169 - - 240 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, London 170 - - 241 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Water Newton 170 - - 242 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, London 170 - - 243 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Leicester 170 - - 244 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Winchester 170 - - 245 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Castor 170 - - 246 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Water Newton 170 - - 247 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Castor 170 - - 248 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Castor 171 - - 249 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, London 171 - - 250 Pottery, Amphora London 172 - - 251 Pottery, Amphora London 172 - - 252 Pottery, Amphora London 172 - - 253 Pottery, Amphora London 172 - - 254 Pottery, Mortarium London 171 - - 255 Pottery, group, Headington 173 - - 256 Pottery, Headington 173 - - 257 Pottery, Headington 173 - - 258 Pottery, Headington 173 - - 259 } - } - 260 } - } - 261 } - } - 262 } - } Pottery, various localities 174 - 263 } - } - 264 } - } - 265 } - } - 266 } - - 267 Pottery, Samian ware, cup, Leicester 175 - - 268 to 275 Potters’ marks 176 - - 276 Potters’ stamp 177 - - 277 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, London 178 - - 278 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, Arezzo 179 - - 279 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, Arezzo 179 - - 280 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, London 179 - - 281 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, London 180 - - 282 Pottery, Samian ware, patera London 180 - - 283 Pottery, Samian ware, foliage 181 - - 284 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, Castor 182 - - 285 Pottery, Samian ware, bacchanalian scene 182 - - 286 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, Castor 183 - - 287 Pottery, Samian ware, Cologne 183 - - 288 to 291 Samian ware, cups, etc., London 184 - - 292 Glass, sepulchral vessel, Bartlow Hills 185 - - 293 Glass, bowl, Leicester 186 - - 294 to 297 Glass beads 186 - - 298 Glass beads, etc. 187 - - 299 Sword, Lough Lea 191 - - 300 Sword, Lincolnshire 191 - - 301 Spear or lance-head, Little Chester 190 - - 302 Spear or lance-head, Hartshay 190 - - 303 Spear or lance-head, Wardlow 192 - - 304 Arrow-head, bronze 192 - - 305 Knife 192 - - 306 Knife Wetton 193 - - 307 Fibula, Waleby 194 - - 308 Fibula, Elton 194 - - 309 Fibula, Monsal Dale 194 - - 310 to 315 Fibulæ, various localities 194 - - 316 Fibula, Royal Irish Academy 194 - - 317 Fibula, Little Chester 194 - - 318 Fibula, Bottisham 195 - - 319 Fibula, Elton 195 - - 320 Fibula, Hoylake 195 - - 321 Armillæ, Stony Middleton 196 - - 322 Torques, Needwood Forest 198 - - 323 Torques, Royal Irish Academy 199 - - 324 Horse-shoe, lamp, and fibulæ, Gloucester 201 - - - ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. - - 325 Plan of interment, Lapwing Dale 209 - - 326 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Kingston 215 - - 327 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, North Elmham 217 - - 328 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Chestersovers 217 - - 329 Pottery, drinking vessel 217 - - 330 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Selzen 221 - - 331 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Londinières 221 - - 332 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Selzen 221 - - 333 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Londinières 221 - - 334 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Cologne 221 - - 335 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Pfahlbau 223 - - 336 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Pfahlbau 223 - - 337 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Pfahlbau 223 - - 338 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Pfahlbau 223 - - 339 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 222 - - 340 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 222 - - 341 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 224 - - 342 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 224 - - 343 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 224 - - 344 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 225 - - 345 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 225 - - 346 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 225 - - 347 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 226 - - 348 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton 226 - - 349 Pottery, notched stick 227 - - 350 Pottery, notched stick 227 - - 351 Pottery, punctured ornament, Kings Newton 227 - - 352 Pottery, cup, Kings Newton 227 - - 353, 354, 355 Glass tumblers 229 - - 356, 357 Ale-glasses 229 - - 358 Glass cups 229 - - 359 Cup-bearer, with ale-glass 230 - - 360 Cellarer, with barrels and pitchers 230 - - 361 Banquet 231 - - 362, 363 Glasses, decanter shape 231 - - 364, 365, 366 Ale-glasses 232 - - 367, 368, 369 Glass and clay beads 233 - - 370 Glass and amber necklace 234 - - 371 Glass Bead and ring 235 - - 372 Sword, Tissington 237 - - 373 Sword, Grimthorpe 237 - - 374 Sword, Grimthorpe guard 237 - - 375 Sword, Grimthorpe chape 237 - - 376 to 390 Swords, from illuminated MSS. 239 - - 391 Swordsman with shield and sword 240 - - 392 to 396 Knives or daggers, Kentish graves 242 - - 397 to 403 Spear-heads, Kentish graves, etc. 244 - - 404 Spears, from illuminated MSS. 244 - - 405 Shield plates, etc., Grimthorpe 246 - - 406 Umbone of shield, Kentish graves 247 - - 407 Umbone of shield, Kentish graves 247 - - 408 Umbone of shield, Tissington 247 - - 409 to 416 Shields, from illuminated MSS. 248 - - 417 to 428 Buckles, from Kentish graves 249, 250 - - 429 Drinking-cup, Benty Grange 251 - - 430 Enamelled ornaments, etc., Benty Grange 251 - - 431 Helmet, Benty Grange 253 - - 432 Ornaments, Benty Grange 253 - - 433 Plan of interment, Barlaston 259 - - 434 Bronze ring, Barlaston 259 - - 435 Enamelled disc, Barlaston 260 - - 436 Enamelled disc, Middleton Moor 261 - - 437 Enamelled ornament, Middleton Moor 262 - - 438 Enamelled ornament, Royal Irish Academy 262 - - 439 Bronze disc and rivets, Grimthorpe 263 - - 440 Horse-shoe, Berkshire 264 - - 441 Horse-shoe, Berkshire 264 - - 442 Plan of interment, Rhine 265 - - 443 Fibula, Kingston Down 267 - - 444 Fibula, Winster Moor 269 - - 445 Pendant cross, Winster Moor 269 - - 446 Fibula, Sittingbourne 270 - - 447 Fibula, Wingham 270 - - 448 Fibula, Kent 270 - - 449 Fibula, Stowe Heath 271 - - 450 Fibula, Ingarsby 271 - - 451 Fibula, Northamptonshire 272 - - 452 Fibula, Stow Heath 272 - - 453 Fibula, Royal Irish Academy 272 - - 454 Fibula, Royal Irish Academy 273 - - 455 Fibula, Royal Irish Academy 273 - - 456 Fibula, Westmoreland 274 - - 457 Fibula, Bonsall 275 - - 458 Fibula, Bonsall 276 - - 459 Fibula, Westmoreland 277 - - 460 Bucket, Northamptonshire 281 - - 461 Bucket, Fairford 281 - - 462 Bucket, Envermeu 282 - - 463 Drinking-cup, Sibertswold 283 - - 464 Drinking-cup, Sibertswold 283 - - 465 Bronze bowl, Over-Haddon 284 - - 466 Bronze box, etc., Church Sterndale 285 - - 467 Bronze ornament, Church Sterndale 285 - - 468 Bronze box, Newhaven 286 - - 469 Comb, Royal Irish Academy 287 - - 470 Comb, Kent 287 - - 471 Comb, Thames 288 - - 472 Comb, Arica 288 - - 473 Comb, Arica 288 - - 474 Comb, Indian scalp 288 - - 475 Comb, Tweezers, Leicestershire 289 - - 476 Châtelaines, Kent 290 - - 477 Latch-keys (?) Ozengall 291 - - 478 Girdle suspenders, Wilbraham 291 - - 479 Girdle suspenders, Searby 291 - - 480 Hair-pin, Searby 292 - - 481 Hair-pin, Royal Irish Academy 292 - - 482 Hair-pin, Royal Irish Academy 292 - - 483 Hair-pin, Royal Irish Academy 292 - - 484 Draughtmen, Cold Eaton 294 - - 485 Dice, Gilton 295 - - 486 Quern, Winster 295 - - 487 Quern, Kings Newton 296 - - 488 Triturating stones 296 - - 489 Triturating stones 296 - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -The object of the following work is, I apprehend, so obvious as to -render an introduction scarcely needful. It may be well, however, -to remark, that it is the only work of its kind which has ever been -issued, and that therefore, taking a stand of its own, and following no -other either in plan or treatment of its subject, it is hoped that it -will command the attention of antiquaries and of all who are interested -in the history and the manners and habits of our early forefathers. - -It has long appeared to me that a general _résumé_ of the almost -endless store of knowledge presented by the very varied relics of the -grave-mounds of the three great divisions of our history--the Celtic, -the Romano-British, and the Anglo-Saxon--kept distinct from the -histories of those peoples, and from extraneous matters, and treating -them more in a general than in an ethnological manner, could not fail -to be a useful addition to our archæological literature, and would -prove of great value and convenience to the general reader, as well as -to the antiquary and the historian. Thus it is that I have been induced -to prepare the present volume. - -I have treated my subject in a popular manner, divesting it of -technicalities, of theories, and of discursive matter, and have -endeavoured, as far as space would permit, to give, simply and clearly, -as correct an insight as possible into the modes of burial adopted -in early times in our own country, and into the various remains of -different races which an examination of their grave-mounds discloses. - -Having great faith in the usefulness of engravings, and believing that, -if judiciously introduced, a work of the kind cannot be too profusely -illustrated, I have brought together in my present volume a larger -number of engravings than could well have been expected; and these, -I trust, will add much to its usefulness and value. To all my kind -friends who have aided me in this matter I give my hearty thanks. - -The work may have some, perhaps many, defects. If such exist, I shall -be thankful to have them pointed out, and to remedy them in a future -edition. - - LLEWELLYNN JEWITT. - - WINSTER HALL, - DERBYSHIRE. - - - - -Grave-mounds and their Contents. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - Grave-mounds in General--Their Historical Importance--General - Situation--Known as Barrows, Houes, Tumps, and Lows--List of - Names--Division into Periods. - - -To the grave-mounds of the early inhabitants of our island, more than -to any other source, we are indebted for our knowledge of their arts, -their habits, and their occupations. Indeed, to these mounds and their -contents, we owe almost all the knowledge we possess as to the history -of the races and peoples who have preceded us, and are enabled to -determine, approximately, their chronological succession as masters of -the soil. - -From the very earliest ages men of every race have bestowed peculiar -care over the graves of the dead, and have marked to later ages, in an -unmistakable manner, these places of sepulture, which have, in many -instances, been preserved with religious care to modern times. Thus -the relics which they contain have come down to us intact, and even -now tell their wondrous tale, in a language of their own, of ages and -of races of beings long since passed away. A single implement of stone -or of flint; a weapon or an ornament of bronze, of iron, or of bone; a -bead of jet or of glass; an urn, or even a fragment of pottery; or any -one of the infinity of other relics which are exhumed, no matter to -what period they belong, or from what locality they may have come; one -and all tell their own tale, and supply new links to our ever-extending -chain of knowledge. - -To the graves, then, of our earliest ancestors, must we mainly turn for -a knowledge of their history and of their modes of life; and a careful -examination and comparison of their contents will enable us to arrive -at certain data on which, not only to found theories, but to build up -undying and faultless historical structures. - -As, wherever the country was populated, interments of the dead must, -as a necessity, have taken place, these all-important store-houses -of after-knowledge exist, or have existed, to more or less extent in -almost every district throughout the land, and give evidence, whenever -opened by experienced hands, of their historical value and importance. -The earliest grave-mounds are mostly found in the mountainous districts -of the land--among the hills and fastnesses; the latter overspreading -hill and valley and plain alike. Thus, in Cornwall and Yorkshire, -in Derbyshire and in Dorsetshire, in Wiltshire and in many other -districts, the earliest interments are, or have been, abundant; while -the later ones, besides being mixed up with them in the districts -named, are spread over every other county. In the counties just -named Celtic remains abound more than those of any other period. In -Dorsetshire, for instance, that county, as the venerable Stukeley -declares, “for sight of barrows not to be equalled in the world,” the -early mounds abound on the downs and on the lofty Ridgeway, an immense -range of hills of some forty miles in extent, while those of a later -period lie in other parts of the county. In Yorkshire, again, they -abound chiefly in the wolds; and in Cornwall, on the high lands. The -same, again, of Derbyshire, where they lie for the most part scattered -over the wild, mountainous, and beautiful district known as the -High Peak--a district occupying nearly one half of the county, and -containing within its limits many towns, villages, and other places -of extreme interest. In this it resembles Dorsetshire; for in the -district comprised in the Ridgeway and the downs are very many highly -interesting and important places, around which the tumuli are most -plentiful. - -It is true that here and there in Derbyshire, as in other counties, -an early grave-mound exists in the southern or lowland portion of the -county; but, as a rule, they may be almost said to be peculiar, and -confined, to the northern, or hilly district, where in some parts they -are very abundant. Indeed, there are districts where there is scarcely -a hill, even in that land, where - - “Hills upon hills, - Mountains on mountains rise,” - -where a barrow does not exist or is not known to have existed. In -passing along the old high-road, for instance, over Middleton Moor -by way of Arbor Low,[1] Parcelly Hay, High Needham, Earl Sterndale, -and Brier Low, to Buxton, or along the high-roads by way of Winster, -Hartington, or Newhaven, the practised eye has no difficulty in resting -on the forms of grave-mounds on the summits of the different hills or -mountains, whose outlines stand out clear and distinct against the sky. - -The situations chosen by the early inhabitants for the burial of their -dead were, in many instances, grand in the extreme. Formed on the tops -of the highest hills, or on lower but equally imposing positions, the -grave-mounds commanded a glorious prospect of hill and dale, wood and -water, rock and meadow, of many miles in extent, and on every side -stretching out as far as the eye could reach, while they themselves -could be seen from afar off in every direction by the tribes who -had raised them, while engaged either in hunting or in their other -pursuits. They became, indeed, land-marks for the tribes, and were, -there can be but little doubt, used by them as places of assembling. - -Sepulchral tumuli are known as barrows, lows, houes, tumps, etc. -_Barrow_ is of pretty general use; _low_ is almost universal in -Derbyshire, Staffordshire, and other districts; _tump_ is in use in -Gloucestershire, etc.; and _houe_ in Yorkshire. - -In Derbyshire and Staffordshire, the term “Low” is so very usual that, -wherever met with, it may be taken as a sure indication of a barrow -now existing or having once existed at the spot. As a proof of this, -it will only be necessary to say that at about two hundred places in -Derbyshire alone, and at about half that number on the neighbouring -borders of Staffordshire, which bear the affix of _Low_, barrows are -known to exist or have already been opened. For my present purpose, -it will be sufficient to give the few following names:--Arbor-Low, -Kens-Low, Ringham-Low, Blake-Low, Fox-Low, Gib-Low, Green-Low, -Great-Low, Grind-Low, Cal-Low, Chelmorton-Low, Casking-Low, Larks-Low, -Thirkel-Low, Ribden-Low, Har-Low, Bas-Low, High-Low, Foo-Low, Lean-Low, -Huck-Low, Borther-Low, Dow-Low, Totman’s-Low, Staden-Low, Stan-Low, -Blind-Low, Boar-Low, Bottles-Low, Brown-Low, Caldon-Low, Calver-Low, -Cock-Low, Cop-Low, Cow-Low, Cronkstone-Low, Dars-Low, Drake-Low, -Elk-Low, End-Low, Far-Low, Pike-Low, Fowse-Low, Galley-Low, Gris-Low, -Grub-Low, Herns-Low, Hawks-Low, Horning-Low, Hard-Low, Knock-Low, -Knot-Low, Laidmans-Low, Lady-Low, Liffs-Low, Lomber-Low, Lousy-Low, -Mick-Low, Moot-Low, Money-Low, Musden-Low, May-Low, Needham-Low, -Nether-Low, Ox-Low, Off-Low, Pars-Low, Painstor-Low, Peg-Low, -Pigtor-Low, Pike-Low, Pinch-Low, Queen-Low, Ravens-Low, Rains-Low, -Rick-Low, Rocky-Low, Rolley-Low, Round-Low, Rusden-Low, Saint-Low, -Sitting-Low, Sliper-Low, Thoo-Low Three-Lows, Ward-Low, Warry-Low, -White-Low, Whithery-Low, Wool-Low, and Yarns-Low. To some of these I -shall again have occasion to make reference. In Yorkshire, the names -of William Houe, Three Houes, and Three Tremblers Houes, will be -sufficient indication of the local use of the term “Houe.” - -Grave-mounds may, naturally, be divided into the three great periods; -the Celtic, the Romano-British, and the Anglo-Saxon. This division -will be adopted in the present volume, and it will be its aim, while -speaking of the characteristics of each, to classify and describe their -contents, and to point out, briefly, such circumstances of interment, -and such evidences of customs, as they may present, and which may -appear to be of sufficient interest and importance to its plan. - -Of the forms of barrows, and their characteristics and modes of -construction, occasion will be taken to speak in a later chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - Ancient British, or Celtic, Period--General characteristics of - the Barrows--Modes of construction--Interments by inhumation - and by cremation--Positions of the body--Hitter Hill - Barrow--Elliptical Barrow at Swinscoe--Burial in contracted - position--In sitting and kneeling positions--Double interments. - - -The barrows of the Celtic, or ancient British, period vary in their -form and size as much as they do in their modes of construction, and in -their contents. Sometimes they are simply mounds of earth raised over -the interment; sometimes heaps of stones piled up over the body; and -sometimes again a combination of cist and earth and stone. Generally -speaking the mounds are circular, rising gradually and gently from -the level of the ground towards the centre, but in some instances the -rise is somewhat acute. Now and then they are oval in form. Where -elliptical barrows occur (generally known as “long barrows”), they -are, I have reason to believe, not matters of original design, but of -accident, through additional interments; and I much doubt the propriety -of archæologists at the present day continuing the very questionable -nomenclature adopted by Sir R. C. Hoare and others. In some cases, -however, as in the instances of chambered or walled tumuli, the -elliptical form of the barrow can be easily understood. An examination -of a very large number of barrows leads me to the opinion that the -original form of all was circular, and that no deviation from that -form, and no difference in section, can be taken as indicative of -period or of race. - -The other appellation occasionally used, of “twin barrows,” is further -evidence of this--two interments having been made within a short -distance of each other, and the mounds raised over them running into -and joining each other. It may, however, for purposes of description, -and for this alone, be well to retain the names, while discarding -much of the theory and of the system which has been attempted to be -established regarding them. - -The mounds of earth alluded to, present occasionally highly interesting -and curious features, and show that, like those of a different -construction, they have frequently been used for successive interments. -The section of one of these is shown on the next page. It is one of -a group of six barrows on Lord’s Down, in the parish of Dewlish, in -Dorsetshire. It was eighty-two feet in diameter, and fourteen feet in -height in the centre. The primary interment, an urn, was placed in a -cist cut in the chalk sub-soil. Over the urn was raised a small cairn -of flints, and the cist was then filled in, and raised a little above -the surface with chalk rubble. Over this was a layer of earth, upon -which an interment had taken place, and in its turn covered with a -thick layer of chalk rubble, in the centre of which, in a cist, another -interment had again been made. Above this rose another layer of earth, -another of chalk, and then a final one of earth, on each of which -interments had at different periods been made. Thus the tumulus, which -was formed of alternate layers of chalk and earth, exhibited no less -than six successive sepulchral deposits.[2] The interments were both by -inhumation and cremation. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. - - 1. Earth to the depth of three feet. - 2. Chalk, two feet in depth. - 3. Earth to the depth of three feet. - 4. Loose rubble chalk, three feet in depth. - 5. Earth, one foot in depth. - 6. Chalk rubble, six inches in depth. - Cist, filled with chalk rubble and flints, two feet in depth. -] - -Another example of a barrow of this period is shown in section on the -fig. 3. There had originally been four small mounds, or barrows, -formed in a group, on the natural surface of the ground (see the two -dotted lines in the engraving). They were composed of tempered earth, -approaching in tenacity almost to clay, and on these the general mound -was raised to a height of about eighteen feet, and was composed of -earth, intermixed with loose rubbly limestones. Nearly at the top, in -the centre, a stone cist, enclosing an interment, was discovered. It -was in form a perfect, though miniature, example of what are commonly -called cromlechs. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.] - -It is not an unfrequent occurrence in barrows to find that interments -have been made at different periods and by different races, as will be -hereafter shown. - -The two examples of mounds of earth already given will show the -successive layers which have occurred in their formation. The simpler, -and intact, mounds of earth, which are very common, require no -illustration. They are simply immense circular heaps of earth raised -over the interment, whether in cist or not. - -Barrows, or mounds, of stone are of frequent occurrence. They are -of very simple construction. The interment, whether by cremation or -otherwise, having been made in a natural or artificial cist, or simply -laid upon the natural surface of the ground, rough stones were placed -in a large circle around it, and an immense quantity of stones were -then piled up to a height of several feet. Some of these cairns are -of very great size, and cover a large area of ground. Sections of two -tumuli of this description are given in figs. 4 and 5. The cairn of -stone was, as will be seen, covered to some depth with earth; perhaps -in some instances this might be a part of the original design, but in -most cases the soil which now covers these stone barrows may be traced -to the ordinary process of decay of vegetation in successive ages. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.] - -Barrows were not unfrequently surrounded by a circle of stones, set -upright in the ground. These circles, in many instances, remain to the -present day in different parts of the kingdom, and, the barrow itself -having disappeared, are commonly called by the general appellation of -“Druidical circles.” But of these, later on. The construction of the -stone circles varied considerably. In some instances the upright stones -were pretty close together; in others, wide apart; and in others, -again, the spaces between the uprights were filled in with a rude loose -rubble masonry, which thus formed a continuous wall. - -Some tumuli contained stone chambers and passages, formed of massive -upright slabs, and covered with immense blocks of stone. Over these -chambers, etc., the mounds of earth, or of stone, or of both combined, -were raised, as will be hereafter shown. - -Interments in the Celtic grave-mounds were both by inhumation and -cremation, and the modes of interment, in both these divisions, was -very varied. - -Where inhumation obtained, the body was sometimes laid on its side, in -a contracted position; at others, extended full length on its back or -side; and in other instances, again, was placed in an upright sitting -or kneeling posture. Occasionally, too, where more than one body has -been buried at the same time, they have been laid face to face, with -their arms encircling each other; at other times an infant has been -placed in its mother’s arms. - -When cremation has been practised, the remains have either -been gathered together in a small heap on the surface of the -ground--sometimes enclosed in a small cist, at others left uncovered, -and at others covered with a small slab of stone--or wrapped in a -cloth or skin (the bone or bronze pin which has fastened the napkin -being occasionally found), or enclosed in cinerary urns, inverted or -otherwise. In some instances, even when placed in urns, they were first -enclosed in a cloth. - -These are the general characteristics of the interments of the Celtic -period, and they will be best understood by the following examples. - -When the body has been buried in a contracted position, it is found -lying on its side; the left side being the most usual. The head -generally inclines a little forward; the knees are drawn up near to -the chest, and the heels to the thighs; the elbows are brought near -to the knees,--frequently, indeed, one of them will be found beneath, -and the other on, the knees, which have thus been held between them; -and the hands are frequently brought up to the front of the face. This -position, which is after all, perhaps, the most easy and natural one -to choose, will be best understood by the following engraving (fig. 6), -which shows an interment found in a barrow on Smerril Moor, opened by -my much lamented friend the late Mr. Thomas Bateman. In this case the -body had been laid on its left side in an irregularly formed cavity -on the surface of the natural rock, on a bed of clay, over which, as -usual, the mound was formed of loose stones and mould. Behind the -skeleton, as will be seen in the engraving, was found a remarkably -fine “drinking cup,” along with a bone meshing rule or modelling tool, -twelve inches long, made from the rib of a horse or cow; a flint -dagger; an arrow-head; and some other implements, also of flint, all of -which had been burned. The femur of this skeleton measured nineteen -and a half inches, and the tibia sixteen inches. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.] - -The next example (fig. 7), from Tissington, will be seen to have been -laid in very much the same position. It lies on its left side, the -knees drawn up, and the feet, elbows, and hands in the position I have -already described. This barrow possessed considerable interest, from -the fact that a later interment--of the Anglo-Saxon period--had been -made immediately above the figure here subjoined. To this I shall -refer under the head of Anglo-Saxon. In the same barrow, shown at A -on the engraving, was a deposit of burnt bones. Fig. 8, again, shows -an interment in the contracted position, the head, in this instance, -resting upon the left hand. The skeleton lay in an oblong oval cist, -five feet long by two and a half feet wide, smoothly hollowed out of -the chalk, and over this the mound was raised. Along with it were -found a bronze dagger, a barbed arrow-head of flint, a beautiful -drinking cup and other objects. This example is from Roundway Hill, -in North Wiltshire.[3] Another excellent example, from Hitter Hill, -Derbyshire, is given in the next engraving (fig. 9), which shows -successive interments, each being on the left side, in the usual -contracted position. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.] - -Of this barrow, the opening of which presented peculiarly interesting -features, a tolerably detailed account will be advisable. It was opened -by myself and Mr. Lucas in 1862. The mound, which was about twenty-two -feet in diameter, was composed of rough stone and earth intermixed. It -was only about three feet in height, its centre being somewhat sunk. -The first opening was made at the part marked A on the accompanying -ground-plan (fig. 10), where, from the outside, we cut a trench, four -feet in width, in a north-easterly direction, towards the centre of -the barrow, and soon came upon an interment of burnt and unburnt human -bones. Along with these were an immense quantity of rats’ bones[4] -and snail-shells. After proceeding to a distance of seven feet, we -came upon the side, or what may almost be called the entrance, of -a cist formed partly of the natural rock, and partly of stones set -up edgewise. The dimensions of this cist were about forty inches by -twenty-six inches, and it was two feet in depth, the floor being -three feet six inches below the surface. The cist was formed between -two portions of natural rock, and protected at its entrance by a large -flat stone set up edgwise, and other stones filled up the interstices -at the sides. It was also covered with a large flat stone. On clearing -away the surrounding earth, after removing the covering stone, we were -rewarded by finding that the cist contained the fragmentary remains -of a young person, which had lain on its right side, in the usual -position, with the knees drawn up. The accompanying engraving (fig. -11) will show the opened cist, with the stone across its entrance, and -the interment _in situ_. In front of the skeleton, and close to its -hands, was a remarkably good and perfect food vessel, which was richly -ornamented with the diagonal and herring-bone lines, formed by twisted -thongs impressed into the soft clay. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.] - -The next morning we dug a trench four feet wide, on the west side -towards the centre, as shown at B on the plan (fig. 10), and the day’s -labours had an equally satisfactory result. At about the same distance -as on the previous day we came to the side of a cist, immediately in -front of which, at F on the plan, lay a heap of burnt bones, and a few -flakes of burnt flint. Having cleared away the surrounding stones and -earth, and removed the large flat covering stones, which showed above -the surface of the mound, we found the cist to be composed on one side -by the natural rock, and on the other by flat stones set up on edge. -Its dimensions were about one foot ten inches by four feet, and it -contained a large quantity of rats’ bones and snails’ shells. In this -cist was an interment of an adult, much crushed by one of the large -covering stones having fallen upon it. Thanks to this circumstance, -however, a food vessel, which we discovered, owed its preservation. -The body lay in the usual contracted position, on its right side, as -shown on the ground-plan at B, and in front and close to the hands was -the food vessel, which, like the other, was taken out entire. It is -five and a quarter inches in height, and six and a quarter inches in -diameter at the top, and is richly ornamented. - -Continuing the excavations to the south, we found that another cist -C adjoined the one just described, and was, like it, formed of flat -stones set up edgewise; in fact, it was like one long cist divided -across the middle. In this second cist, besides the usual accompaniment -of rats’ bones, was the remains of an interment, sufficiently _in -situ_ to show that the skeleton had, like the others, been deposited -in a contracted position. A small fragment of pottery was also found, -but owing to the cist being so near the surface the stones had been -partially crushed in, and thus both the deposit and the urn had become -destroyed. A portion of a stone hammer was also found. - -The two cists are here shown (fig. 12), which also shows the central -interment at a higher level, to be hereafter described. - -On the following Monday we resumed our operations by making an opening -on the north-west side, as shown at D on the plan. Here, again, at a -few feet from the outer edge, we came upon an interment H, without a -cist, accompanied by an unusual quantity of rats’ bones. Continuing the -excavation, we were again rewarded by the discovery of a fine cist, -but at a greater depth than those before described. Above this cist -we found some large bones of the ox, and on the covering stone was a -deposit of burnt bones and ashes, with innumerable quantities of rats’ -bones. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.] - -The cist, which was covered with one extremely large flat stone, we -found to be formed partly of the natural rock, and partly--like the -others--of flat stones set up edgewise; and it was, without exception, -the most compact and neatly formed of any which have come under -our observation. Its form will be seen on the plan at D, and its -appearance, when the interior soil was removed, is shown on fig. 9. The -dimensions of the cist were as follows:--Width at the foot, twenty-four -inches; extreme length, forty inches; general depth, twenty inches. -The floor was composed of the natural surface of the rock, with some -small flat stones laid to make it level, and at the narrow end a raised -edge of stone, rudely hollowed in the centre, formed a pillow on which -the head rested. The sides of the cist were square on the one side to -the length of twenty-eight, and on the other of twenty-one, inches, and -it then gradually became narrower until at the head its width was only -ten inches. When the cist was cleared of its accumulation of soil and -rats’ bones--of which scores of jaw-bones were present, thus showing -the large number of these ravaging animals which had taken up their -abode there--it presented one of the most beautiful and interesting -examples of primeval architecture ever exhumed. It contained the -skeleton of an adult, laid on his left side, in the usual contracted -position, but without any pottery or flint. The skull, of which an -outline engraving is given on fig. 13, is a most interesting and -characteristic example of the cranium of an ancient Coritanian Briton. -It is brachy-cephalic, and is the subject of deformity from nursing -on the cradle-board in infancy.[5] It is the skull of a middle-aged -man, and is remarkably well formed. The bones, with the exception of -some of the small ones, were all remaining, and formed a skeleton -of considerable ethnological interest. The small bones were gnawed -away by the rats, and it is curious to see to what distances, in some -interments, these active little animals have dragged even large bones -from their original resting-places. It may not be without interest to -note, that within the skull of this skeleton the bones of a rat, head -and all, were found imbedded in the soil, along with some small stones, -which he doubtless had dragged in with him on his last excursion. We -continued our excavations in a north-easterly direction, as shown at -G on the plan, and found another interment, but without a cist or any -other notable remains; and next day we commenced opening that portion -of the centre of the barrow between the cists already described, and -soon came upon an interment of an adult person, as shown on the plan -at E. The bones were very much disturbed, but sufficient remained to -show that the deceased had been placed on his left side, in the same -contracted position as the others in this mound. The body was not more -than twelve inches below the surface, and was much disturbed, but it is -more than probable the top of the barrow had at some distant time been -taken off, most likely for the sake of the stone. The position of this -interment will be seen on reference to the plan, and it is also shown -on figs. 9, 11, and 12. - -In addition to these illustrations, it will be sufficient to give the -annexed engraving (fig. 14), which shows the position of a number of -interments uncovered by Mr. Bateman in the centre of an elliptical -barrow[6] at Swinscoe. The interments were as follows:--1. A young -adult, lying in a contracted position, on its right side, in a shallow -grave cut about six inches deep in the chert rock, with a stone placed -on edge at the head, and another at the feet. 2. A young adult, lying -on its right side, an upright stone at its head. 3. A middle-aged -person, lying with the face upwards, and guarded by a large stone at -its side. 4. The bones of a young hog, enclosed in a stone cist. 5. -Remains of a cinerary urn and burnt bones. 6. Skeleton of an aged -man, lying in a contracted position, on its left side, upon a thin -layer of charred wood. 7. A deposit of burnt bones. 8. Skeleton, very -fragmentary. 9. A double interment, consisting of two skeletons, with a -flat stone on edge by their side. These were an adult, and a child of a -few months old only. 10. Skeleton of an aged man, lying in the usual -position, on his left side, enclosed in a circle of stones. Behind him -lay a handsome drinking-cup. 12. Portions of a skeleton in a pentagonal -cist. 13. Skeleton of a young person, placed close up to an upright -flat stone. 14. Skull and portions of a skeleton. Several flints and -other remains were found with these various interments. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.] - -Interments where the body has lain extended are of much rarer -occurrence, in this period, than those just described. Some few -instances have been brought to light in Derbyshire, and in other -counties, but they are indeed “few and far between,” and are the very -rare exceptions to a general rule. One of the most interesting of -these instances is the one called “Shuttlestone Low,” opened a few -years ago by Mr. Bateman, and thus described by him: “It consisted of -a compact mass of tempered earth down to the natural surface of the -land, below which point, in the centre of the barrow, there appeared a -large collection of immense limestones, the two uppermost being placed -on edge, and all below being laid flat, though without any other order -or design than was sufficient to prevent the lowest course resting -upon the floor of the grave inside which they were piled up, and which -was cut out to the depth of at least eight feet below the natural -surface; thus rendering the total depth, from the top of the mound -to the floor of the grave, not less than twelve feet. Underneath the -large stones lay the skeleton of a man, in the prime of life, and of -fine proportions, apparently the sole occupant of the mound; who had -been interred while enveloped in a skin of dark-red colour, the hairy -surface of which had left many traces both upon the surrounding earth -and upon the verdigris, or patina, coating; a bronze axe-shaped celt -and dagger deposited with the skeleton. On the former weapon there -are also beautifully distinct impressions of fern leaves, handfuls of -which, in a compressed and half-decayed state, surrounded the bones -from head to foot. From these leaves being discernible on one side -of the celt only, whilst the other side presents traces of leather -alone, it is certain that the leaves were placed first as a couch for -the reception of the corpse, with its accompaniments, and after these -had been deposited, were then further added in quantity sufficient -to protect the body from the earth. The position of the weapons with -respect to the body is well ascertained, and is further evidenced by -the bronze having imparted a vivid tinge of green to the bones where in -contact with them. Close to the head were one small black bead of jet -and a circular flint; in contact with the left upper arm lay a bronze -dagger with a very sharp edge, having two rivets for the attachment -of the handle, which was of horn, the impression of the grain of that -substance being quite distinct around the studs. About the middle of -the left thigh-bone was placed the bronze celt which is of the plainest -axe-shaped type. The cutting edge was turned towards the upper part of -the person, and the instrument itself has been inserted vertically into -a wooden handle, by being driven in for about two inches at the narrow -end--at least the grain of the wood runs in the same direction as the -longest dimension of the celt,--a fact not unworthy of the notice of -any inclined to explain the precise manner of mounting these curious -implements. The skull--which is decayed on the left side, from the body -having lain with that side down--is of the platy-cephalic form, with -prominent parietal tubers--the femur measures 18½ inches.” - -Another good instance is from Yorkshire, where two skeletons were found -side by side, extended, with their heads respectively east and west, -lying in a bed of charcoal. - -Occasionally, as has been stated on a previous page, interments have -been made in an upright sitting position. Instances of this kind are -rare and very curious. Our engraving (fig. 15) shows an interment of -this kind, which occurred in a barrow at Parcelly Hay. The body had -been placed in a sitting posture, leaning back against the side of -the cist, which was only three feet in height, and not more than that -in its greatest width. The cist was roughly covered in with large -slabs of limestone. The skull, which was a remarkably fine one, has -been engraved in “Crania Britannica.”[7] On the covering-stones lay -another skeleton, among the loose stones of which the barrow itself was -composed. This secondary interment was accompanied by a fine axe-head -of stone and a bronze dagger. Of course the seated skeleton must have -been of an earlier date still. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.] - -Another remarkable instance of this kind of interment--but this time -in a kneeling position--was discovered in the Cromlech De Tus, or -De Hus, in Guernsey, by Mr. F. C. Lukis.[8] This interesting relic -is situated near Paradis, in the parish of Vale, and is a chambered -tumulus of simple but excellent construction. The mound is surrounded -by a circle of stones, about twenty yards in diameter. In the centre -is the principal chamber, covered with large flat stones, and from it -to the extremity of the mound, on the east, was a passage formed by -upright stones, and covered here and there with cap-stones dividing it -into chambers. On the north side of this passage was a chamber formed -by upright stones, on which rested the large flat covering stone; and -close to this was another similar but smaller chamber. In the first -were discovered “vases, bone instruments, celts, and human remains.” -In the latter, on removing the soil at the top, “the upper part of two -human skulls were exposed to view. One was facing the north, and the -other the south, but both disposed in a line from east to west,”--in -other words, side by side, and shoulder to shoulder, but facing -opposite ways. They were skeletons of adult males, and, on clearing -away the soil, they were found to have been buried at the same time. -“The perfect regular position of a person kneeling on the floor, in an -upright posture, with the arms following the direction of the column, -pelvis, and thigh-bones, and gradually surrounded by the earth, in like -manner as may be conceived would be done were the persons buried alive, -will give an exact representation of this singular discovery.” - -Another excellent example of this very unusual mode of interment--this -time in a sitting posture--was discovered by some tufa-getters, -and examined by Mr. Bateman, in Monsal Dale, and is shown on the -accompanying engraving, fig. 16, which exhibits a section of the rock, -etc.; and shows the position of the skeleton, and the manner in which -the cavity containing the body had been filled up with the river sand. -The body in this case, as in the last, had been placed in the cavity, -in a sitting position, and must have been so placed from an opening in -front. The cavity was ten or twelve feet above the bed of the river -Wye, and above it were some five feet in thickness of solid tufa rock, -while, from the face of the rock, the cavity was about twelve feet. The -body may therefore be said to have been entombed in the middle of the -solid rock. The roof of the cavity when found was beautifully covered -with stalactites. The skeleton was that of a young person, and near it -were found a flint and some other matters. The cavity was filled to -part way up the skull with sand. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.] - -Another example of interment in a sitting posture was discovered some -years ago, at Kells in Ireland. These will be sufficient to show the -curious character of this mode of interment. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.] - -Several examples of double interments, besides those described above, -have been discovered in different localities. One of the most curious -is the one in the largest cist, in fig. 17. In this cist, which is -composed of four upright slabs of stone,[9] were the skeletons of a man -and woman, and the remains of two children; the family having probably -been immolated at the death of its head, and all buried together. A -small urn was found in the same cist; and in the same barrow, in -other portions which were excavated, as shown in the plan, were other -interments, both by cremation and by inhumation. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.] - -In No. 9, on fig. 14, an interment of a mother and her child together -is shown. Another instance is shown on the next engraving, fig. 18. In -this instance the woman was laid in the usual contracted position, on -her left side, with her head to the east. Close in front of the breast, -lying in the arms in the same contracted position, lay the infant. Some -flints and a fragment of pottery were found along with this touching -interment. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - Ancient British or Celtic Period--Interment by - cremation--Discovery of lead--Burial in urns--Positions of - urns--Heaps of burnt bones--Burnt bones enclosed in cloth - and skins--Stone cists--Long-Low--Liff’s-Low, etc.--Pit - interments--Tree-coffins. - - -When the interment has been by CREMATION, the remains of the burnt -bones, etc., have been collected together and placed either in a small -heap, or enclosed in a skin or cloth, or placed in a cinerary urn, -which is sometimes found in an upright position, its mouth covered -with a flat stone, and at others inverted over a flat stone or on the -natural surface of the earth. This position, with the mouth downwards, -is, perhaps, the most usual of the two. In some instances the bones -were clearly enclosed, or wrapped, in a cloth before being placed in -the urn. The place where the burning of the body has taken place is -generally tolerably close to the spot on which the urn rests, or on -which the heap of burnt bones has been piled up. Wherever the burning -has taken place there is evidence of an immense amount of heat being -used; the soil, for some distance below the surface, being in many -places burned to a redness almost like brick. Remains of charcoal, the -refuse of the funeral pyre, are very abundant, and in some instances -I have found the lead ore, which occurs in veins in the limestone -formation of Derbyshire, so completely smelted with the heat that it -has run into the crevices among the soil and loose stones, and looks, -when dug out, precisely like straggling roots of trees. - -Is it too much to suppose that the discovery of lead may be traced to -the funeral pyre of our early forefathers? I think it not improbable -that, the fact of seeing the liquid metal run from the fire as the ore -which lay about became accidentally smelted, would give the people -their first insight into the art of making lead--an art which we know -was practised at a very early period in Derbyshire and other districts -of this kingdom.[10] Pigs of lead of the Romano-British period, -inscribed with the names of emperors and of legions, have occasionally -been found; but much earlier than these are some cakes (if the term can -be allowed) of lead which have evidently been cast in the saucer-shaped -hollows of stones. Of these, which are purely British, some examples -have fortunately been preserved. - -But to resume. The positions I have spoken of in which the cinerary -urns and heaps of burnt bones have been usually found, will be -best understood by the accompanying engravings. The first (fig. -19) represents a section of a barrow in which, at _a_, is shown a -sepulchral urn in an upright position, capped with a flat stone; and -at _b_ a heap of burnt bones piled up in the usual fashion, and first -covered with earth and then with the loose stones of which the whole -barrow was composed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.] - -The next engraving (fig. 20) again shows, within a cist, in a barrow -on Baslow Moor called “Hob Hurst’s House,”[11] two heaps of bones, the -one simply collected together in a small heap, and the other guarded by -a row of small sandstone “boulders” all of which had been subjected to -fire. The next illustration (fig. 21) gives a section of the Flax Dale -barrow at Middleton by Youlgreave, which shows the inverted position of -the sepulchral urn. This barrow was formed on a plan commonly adopted -by the ancient Britons, and will therefore serve as an example of mode -of construction as well as of the inverted position of the urn. A -circle of large rough stones was laid on the surface of the ground, -marking the extent of the proposed mound. Within this the interments, -whether in an urn or not, were placed, and the mound was then raised of -stones to the required height, and afterwards covered to some thickness -with earth, and thus the outer circle of the barrow was considerably -extended, as will be seen by the engraving. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.] - -Another excellent example of the inverted position of the sepulchral -urns is here given (fig. 22) from one of the cists in Rolly-Low, near -Wardlow. I have chosen it because, when found by Mr. Bateman, it had -received a considerable fracture on one side, and thus showed the -burnt bones which it contained, through the aperture. The urn was -about sixteen inches in height and twelve inches in diameter, and was -ornamented in the usual manner with indentations produced by a twisted -thong. It was inverted over a deposit of calcined human bones, among -which was a large red deer’s horn, also calcined. The urn was so -fragile as to be broken to pieces on removal. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.] - -In some urns discovered in Cambridgeshire, at Muttilow Hill, the Hon. -R. C. Neville found that the calcined bones had been collected and -wrapped in cloth before being placed in the urns. The contents of one -of the urns he describes as “burnt human bones enveloped in a cloth, -which, on looking into the vessel, gave them the appearance of being -viewed through a yellow gauze veil, but which upon being touched -dissolved into fine powder.”[12] The urns were all inverted. - -A somewhat peculiar feature of urn burial was discovered at Broughton, -in Lincolnshire, where the urn containing the burnt bones was placed -upright on the surface of the ground, and another urn, made to fit the -mouth, inverted into it to form a cover. - -In instances where the ashes of the dead have been collected from the -funeral pyre, and laid in a skin or cloth before interment, the bone -or bronze pins with which the “bundle” was fastened still remain, -although, of course, the cloth itself has long since perished. - -In other instances small stones have been placed around, and upon, the -heap of burnt bones before raising the mound over the remains. - -It is frequently found in barrows, where the interment has been by -cremation, that there will be one or more deposits in cinerary urns, -while in different parts of the mound, sometimes close by the urn, -there will be small heaps of burnt bones without any urn. The probable -solution of this is, that the simple heaps of bones were those of -people who had been sacrificed at the death of the head of the family, -and burned around him. - -It is a very frequent occurrence in barrows for the interments to -be made in stone cists, and these, of course, vary both in size and -in form, according to the nature of the spot chosen, and to the -requirements of each particular case. The cists are usually formed of -rough slabs of limestone, grit-stone, granite, or other material which -the district offers, set up edgeways on the surface of the ground, so -as to form a sort of irregular-square, rhomboidal, or other shaped -compartment. In this the interment, whether of the body itself or -of the urn containing the calcined bones, or of the calcined bones -without an urn, has been made, and then the cist has been covered with -one or more flat stones, over which the cairn of stones, or earth, -or both, has been raised. Some barrows contain several such cists, -in each of which a single, or in some instances a double, interment -has been made. Excellent examples of these are afforded by the -accompanying engravings, and by figs. 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 17, 20, 28, -and 29. Occasionally, when the natural surface of the ground was not -sufficiently even or solid for the interment to be as conveniently made -as might be wished, a flooring of rough slabs of stone was laid for the -body to rest upon. This was the case in a barrow called “Long-Low,” -near Wetton, in the moorlands of Staffordshire (shown on fig. 24), -which was opened by Mr. Carrington. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.] - -As there are some singular features connected with this barrow, a -detailed account of the mode of its construction becomes necessary. -This very peculiar barrow had been thought, time out of mind, to be -a “mine rake,” and attempts have from time to time been made by lead -miners to find a shaft, by removing certain portions of the mound--a -shaft had, in fact, been sunk very nearly in the centre of the barrow. -This rendered the operations of opening both difficult and laborious. -Long-Low is what is usually denominated a “twin barrow,” consisting -of two circular mounds, connected by a bank, which altogether are 220 -yards long. A plan of this barrow, drawn to scale, is shown on the -accompanying engraving (fig. 23). The circular mound at the north-east -end is thirty yards across and seven feet high in the centre, that -at the south-west end not so large; the connecting bank at its base -is fifteen yards wide, and where entire about six feet in height, -with regular sloping sides where not mutilated. “The barrow runs in -a straight line along the highest part of the land, a strong wall, -separating the fields, is built over it lengthways, the stone for -which, like other field walls in the vicinity, appears to have been -procured from the bank of the tumulus, which, with the exception of -some parts of the surface, is formed of large flat stones, which have -evidently been procured in the immediate neighbourhood, where the -surface of the land is lowered to a considerable extent. This is the -only instance (as far as my experience goes) of a barrow being formed -of stones got by quarrying, they being generally composed of such -stones as are found on the surface of uncultivated land, which, owing -to exposure to the atmosphere, have their angular points rounded. -The strata in the neighbourhood of this barrow are but slightly -consolidated, and are separated from each other by a thin seam of -earthy matter, and abound with vertical cracks, so that it would not be -a difficult task to dig out stones with sharpened stakes--the principal -instruments, I presume, for such purposes in primitive times.” - -The internal construction of this cairn is singular. By making holes -in various places along the bank, was found a low wall in the centre, -built with large stones, which appears to be carried the whole length -of the bank. Against this, large flat stones, with their tops reclining -against the wall, are placed, thus leaving many vacancies, and showing -an economical way of raising the mound at less expenditure both of -labour and materials. The portions of this which have been laid bare -are, with remains of interments, shown on the plan (fig. 23) at C, D, -E, and F. - -A large cist, or chamber, was discovered near the centre of the large -mound. It was formed by four immense stones, inclosing an area six feet -long, five feet wide, and about four feet deep. In all probability -the capstone had been removed, as none was found. On the cist being -cleared, was discovered a regular paved floor of limestone, entirely -covered over with human bones, presenting a confused mass of the relics -of humanity. The skeletons lying in the primitive position, crossed -each other in all directions. They proved to be the remains of thirteen -individuals, both males and females, varying from infancy to old age. -The interior of this cist is shown on the accompanying engraving, and -its position in the mound will be seen at A on the plan. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.] - -On the floor were found three arrow-heads of flint, wrought into -beautiful thin leaf-shaped instruments, and many other calcined flakes -of the same material; also bones of the ox, hog, deer, and dog. Not -far from the cist, and near the surface, was found a skeleton minus -the head, imbedded in gravel, rats’ bones, and charcoal. On the floor -some animal bones were found that had been burned, also neatly wrought -arrow-heads and pieces of flint, and fragments of two human skulls. -The point of a bone spear and a bone pin were found during our labours -in this mound. “Another skeleton was found in the bank, crushed into -small fragments; and where another grave had been made in the bank, -for a secondary interment, the sides and bottom were found to have -been burned to lime, which now resembled old mortar, to an extent that -could not have been effected by an ordinary fire. It is not unusual -to find small stones burnt to lime on the floors of barrows; in the -present instance it had acquired a hardness almost equal to the stones, -effected during a very long period by imbibing carbonic acid gas from -the atmosphere, to which it had free access; pieces several inches -thick were broken up intermixed with charcoal.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.] - -On one side of the cist two skulls lay close together, and mixed up -with a skeleton, the bones of which, in some instances, crossed each -other; in the centre lay the fine skull shown in figs. 25 and 26.[13] -Two other remarkable skulls, one of a woman of about fifty years of -age, and the other of a girl not more than seven years old, were also -found. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.] - -When the mound at the other extremity of the “bank” was opened, -calcined bones and animal remains only were found, but the singular -construction of this portion of the barrow made ample compensation for -the paucity of relics. It appeared that the longitudinal wall, noticed -before, terminated in the centre of this mound; and at its termination -another and well-built wall was carried crossways at right angles with -it (fig. 27), which was laid bare to the length of more than half the -diameter of the mound--it was three feet in height--the whole extent -was not proved. From the centre of this wall, and forming a straight -line with the longitudinal one, there was a row of thin moderately -large stones, set on edge, by the ends being set in the soil that -formed the floor of the mound; these were placed with their edges close -together, and occasionally in two or three ranks, as if for better -support in an upright position. They were from 1½ to 2 feet in height, -and were extended from the wall to the length of five yards. The burnt -bones were found in the west angle formed by the cross wall and the -upright stones, as shown in the engraving. It appeared as though the -bones had originally been deposited near the surface, as they were now -found in the interstices betwixt the stones, from near the top to the -bottom. This mound was formed of large stones, like the other parts, -reared against each other all around, with their tops inclining towards -the centre. - -A tolerably good cist, formed of rough masses of stone surrounding -the body, is the one engraved on fig. 28, from Middleton. This cist -contained the skeleton of a woman, lying on her left side, in a -partially contracted position. Above her lay the remains of an infant, -and about her neck were the beads of a remarkably fine necklace of jet. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.] - -Another good example of a stone cist is the next (fig. 29), from -Liff’s-Low. The cist was formed of eight large slabs of rough -limestone, set edgewise; and formed a chamber of very compact and -almost octagonal form. It contained the skeleton of a man, lying in a -partly contracted posture on his left side, the face looking to the -west. Behind the knees was placed a hammer-head, formed of the lower -part of the horn of the red deer. One end is rounded and polished, and -the other knotched across, somewhat, (to use a homely comparison) like -what is usually called a “wafer-seal.” Behind the head were a number -of miscellaneous but highly interesting articles, showing, as they -did after the lapse of so many centuries, that “the savage Briton, -reposing in this cairn, had cultivated the art of making war amongst -the inhabitants of the forest in preference to molesting his fellow -savages; as almost the first observed articles were a pair of enormous -tusks of the wild boar, trophies of some, perhaps his last, sylvan -triumph. Next came two arrow-heads of flint, delicately chipped, and of -unusual form; two spear-heads of the same material; two flint knives, -polished on the edge, one of them serrated on the back in order to -serve as a saw; and numerous pieces of flint of indescribable form and -use, which, together with all the flint instruments enumerated above, -seem to have undergone a partial calcination, being gray, tinted with -various shades of blue and pink. With these articles were found three -pieces of red ochre, the rouge of these unsophisticated huntsmen, -which, even now, on being wetted, impart a bright red colour to the -skin, which is by no means easy to discharge.” With these articles lay -a small urn of unique form. - -On fig. 30 is shown a remarkably pretty cist, formed of four upright -stones, supporting a capstone. It contained a vase of good form. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.] - -Pit interments are occasionally met with, but are very rare. One -instance will suffice: it is that at Craike Hill, near Fimber, -Yorkshire, and was opened by Mr. Mortimer.[14] In it no less than four -interments were made, one above another, in a pit or grave covered over -by a mound. The two lower and the upper were skeletons in the usual -contracted positions; the other a heap of calcined bones, with a fine -food vessel. Near the upper skeleton was another heap of burnt bones -and another food vessel. With one of the skeletons, that of a female, -was found a splendid necklace of jet, and a drinking cup of elaborate -design. These are all engraved in the present volume. - -Burials in tree-coffins, of various periods, have been occasionally -met with in grave-mounds, and a few words concerning them may here be -introduced. One of the most interesting was found recently by that -indefatigable antiquary, the Rev. Canon Greenwell, at Scale House, in -Yorkshire.[15] The barrow was about thirty feet in diameter, and five -feet in height, and was surrounded by a circle of soil at the base. -It was entirely composed of soil, interspersed here and there with -fragments of charcoal, firmly compacted. On the top, for a space of -about six or seven feet in diameter, a covering of flattish stones -was laid just below the surface. On digging down at this spot it was -found that a hollow had been made in the natural surface, that had been -filled up with soil, upon which had been placed a few stones and then -a coffin, constructed of the trunk of a small oak tree. This primitive -coffin was laid north and south, the thicker end, which no doubt -contained the head of the corpse, towards the south; which was also -the case in the Gristhorpe barrow. The oaken trunk, or tree-coffin, -was seven feet three inches in length, and one foot eleven inches in -diameter, at the spot in which it was measured. The Gristhorpe coffin -“is seven feet and a half long, and three feet three inches broad.” -Above the coffin the soil was finer, and upon this finer stratum was -situated a layer of dark matter a good deal burned, and containing -pieces of charcoal. Over the whole was a covering of the ordinary -compacted soil of which the barrow was composed. The body inhumed in -this tree-coffin, and not burned, had gone totally to decay, leaving -only a whitish unctuous matter behind. This substance was no doubt -_adipocire_, the production of which is to be accounted for by the -extreme wetness of the barrow. Before interment the corpse had been -clothed, or wrapped, _from head to foot_ in a woollen fabric,[16] a -specimen of which is represented in the following figure:-- - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.] - -There were no flint chippings discovered in the soil of which the -barrow was composed, or other object, and nothing else was contained -in the tree-coffin, save the body in its wrappings. Some pieces of a -bright black substance like pitch, which appeared to have been placed -on the inside of the coffin, on examination are found to be composed of -carbon and oxide of iron. - -It is most unfortunate that this curious and interesting barrow had -been previously opened at the top. By this proceeding the tree-coffin -had been broken through, and its contents disturbed about the middle. -And it is also much to be regretted that the barrow was saturated with -moisture, which had percolated into the coffin, carrying the soil with -it. By this means all the contents of the barrow, save the _adipocire_ -of the body itself, including both the tree-coffin and the woollen -garment, had acquired a rottenness which precluded the recovery of -anything more than mere fragments. Those of the woollen dress were so -filled with particles of soil, and at the same time so tender, as to -admit of being reclaimed only in a very imperfect manner. The woollen -cloth, which went from head to foot, there is no doubt had been loosely -wrapped round the body, in the manner of a shroud, not swathed like -an Egyptian mummy, so that “the fabric filled the whole of the inside -of the coffin from end to end.” Hence, as is confirmed by the barrows -opened in Jutland, there is every reason to infer that it was the -ordinary woollen dress of the individual interred in the tumulus, who -must have held such a position in society as to ensure these great -attentions to his remains. - -“In many ancient British barrows marks of the garments of the deceased -have been discovered, in which the body appears to have been wrapped -before interment. Indications of skin dresses are seen early, and -after these, in the bronze and iron periods, where the rust of weapons -has retained impressions of such grave-clothes, tissues of linen and -woollen appear. Mr. Bateman met with signs of such textures, and in -the case of the Tosson cists, in Northumberland, from one of which -the skull of plate 54 of the _Crania Britannica_ was derived, an -iron spear-head was found in one of them, and there were signs of two -fabrics of cloth impressed upon the oxidized surface of this relic. - -“Again, British barrows have been opened containing tree-coffins, -in which the remains have been inhearsed. The celebrated Gristhorpe -barrow, the skeleton from which is preserved in the Scarborough Museum, -and of the skull of which there is a fine engraving, plate 52, and a -careful description by Dr. Thurnam, in the work just named, offers -an instance of a tree-coffin formed of a split oak of small girth. -In this case, the body had been wrapped in the skin of some animal -having soft hair. The interment had belonged to the ancient British -late stone or the bronze period. The coffin contained three flakes, or -rude implements of flint, as well as objects made of bronze and bone. -In the course of the description alluded to, there are references to -many other examples of coffins hollowed out of solid trunks, oaken -and tree-coffins. These appear to belong to very different periods, -extending from the ancient British to early Saxon, and perhaps -Christian times. That called the “King Barrow,” at Stowborough, in -Dorsetshire, contained an oaken tree-coffin with the body in an -envelope of deer-skins. It is said, that more recently a barrow opened -in the wolds of Yorkshire offered fragments of an oaken coffin, -together with the remains of a British urn. Also, at Wath, in the North -Riding of Yorkshire, in an oaken coffin an urn was found of the later -British type, the whole being enclosed in a barrow.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.] - -The Gristhorpe coffin, shown on figs. 32 and 33, consisted of the -trunk of a large oak, roughly hewn, and split into two portions. The -markings seemed to indicate that it had been hollowed with chisels of -flint; but that the tree had been cut down with a much larger tool, -the marks being such as would be made by a stone hatchet. It is seven -and a half feet long and three feet three inches broad. In the bottom -is a hole three inches in length. The lid was kept in place by the -uneven fracture of the wood. The back was in good preservation, with -its coatings of lichens distinct. At the narrow end of the lid, cut -in the bark, was a sort of leaf-shaped knob, perhaps intended for a -handle. The objects found in the coffin alluded to above are shown on -figs. 34 and 35. In these engravings, Nos. 1, 2, and 6 are flakes of -flint. The first has been slightly chipped at the edge, but the others -are simply split off from the native flint. No. 5 is a bronze dagger, -three and a half inches long, but much corroded--the two rivets showing -that the handle was not of much thickness. No. 4, no doubt the top -of such handle, is a disc of bone, polished, and of oval shape with -perforations on either side for the pins by which it was fastened. No. -8 is a small implement of wood, with a rounded head, and flattened -on one side to about half its length. No. 3 is the fragment of a ring -of horn--a fastening, perhaps, of the dress. On the lower part of the -breast was an ornament of very brittle material, in the form of a -rosette, with two loose ends. By the side was a shallow basket, about -six inches in diameter, formed of bark, curiously stitched with the -sinews of animals; at the bottom were decomposed remains, perhaps of -food. There was also a quantity of vegetable substance, mixed with -lanceolate foliage supposed to be that of the mistletoe. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.] - -Another form--which may be called the “boat shape”--of tree-coffin is -here shown for the purpose of comparison. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - Ancient British or Celtic Period--Sepulchral Chambers - of stone--Cromlechs--Chambered Tumuli--New Grange and - Dowth--The Channel Islands--Wieland Smith’s Cave, and - others--Stone Circles--For what purpose formed--Formation of - Grave-mounds--Varieties of Stone Circles--Examples of different - kinds--Arbor Low, etc. - - -One of the most important classes of barrows is that which contains -sepulchral chambers of stone; not the simple cists which have been -spoken of in the preceding chapter, but of a larger, more complicated, -or colossal character. Mounds of this description exist, to more or -less extent, in different districts. In most instances the mound -itself, _i.e._, the earth or loose stones of which the superincumbent -mound was composed, has been removed, and the gigantic sepulchral -chamber alone left standing. In many instances the mounds have been -removed for the sake of the soil of which they were formed, or for -the purpose of levelling the ground in the destructive march of -agricultural progress. In many cases, however, they have doubtless been -removed in the hope of finding treasure beneath; it being a common -belief that immense stores of gold--in one instance the popular belief -was that a “coach of gold” was buried beneath--were there for digging -for. Where the mounds have been removed, and the colossal megalithic -structures allowed to remain, they have an imposing and solemn -appearance, and seem almost to excuse the play of imagination indulged -in by our early antiquaries in naming them Cromlechs, and in giving to -them a false interest by making them out to be “Druids’ altars”--altars -on which the Druids made their sacrifices. These same authorities -have, indeed, gone so far in their inventions as to affirm, that when -the capstone was lower on one side than another, as must necessarily -frequently be the case, it was so constructed that the blood of the -victims might run off in that direction, and be caught by the priests; -that some of the naturally formed hollows in the stones were scooped -out by hand to receive the heart and hold its blood for the highest -purposes; and that when the cromlech was a double one, the larger was -used for the sacrifice, and the smaller for the Arch-Druid himself -whilst sacrificing. - -Researches which have been made in recent times show the absurdity -of all this, and prove beyond doubt that the cromlechs are neither -more nor less than sepulchral chambers denuded of their mounds. In -several instances they have been found intact, and, these mounds -being excavated, have been brought to light in a perfect state. These -instances have occurred in Cornwall, in Derbyshire, and in other -districts of England, as well as in the Channel Islands and elsewhere. -One instance is that of the Lanyon cromlech in Cornwall. It seems that -some seventy years ago “the farmer” to whom the ground belonged cast a -longing eye on what appeared to be an immense heap of rich mould, and -he resolved to cart it away and spread it over his fields. Accordingly -he commenced operations, his men day after day digging away at the -mound, and carting the soil off to the fields. By the time some hundred -cart loads or so had been removed the men came to a large stone, -which defied their efforts at removal, and, not knowing what it might -be, or what it might lead to, they went on removing the surrounding -earth, and gradually cleared, on all its sides, the majestic cromlech -which is now one of the prides of Cornwall. This highly interesting -chamber contained a heap of broken urns and human bones. This “Lanyon -cromlech,” a view of which is given on fig. 37, consists now of -three immense upright stones, on which rests an enormous capstone, -measuring about eighteen and a half feet in length and about nine -feet in width, and is computed to weigh above fifteen tons. How such -stones were raised and placed on the rough upright stone supports which -had been prepared for them is almost beyond comprehension, when it -is recollected that they were raised by a people who were devoid of -machinery. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.] - - “The heart, - Aching with thoughts of human littleness, - Asks, without hope of knowing, whose the strength - That poised thee here.” - -This cromlech when first uncovered consisted of _four_ upright stones, -on which rested the capstone. In 1815, during a tremendous storm, -the capstone and one of the supports were thrown down. In 1824 the -capstone was replaced, under the superintendence of Lieut. Goldsmith, -R.N., and at this time a piece was broken off at A. The fourth upright -stone was not replaced, having been broken when thrown down. Fig. 37 -shows the cromlech as replaced. Fig. 38 is a plan of it, showing the -uprights and the capstone. The large outline is the capstone, the part -marked A being the part broken off; the shaded parts are the present -three uprights; and B the fourth upright, broken. - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.] - -Kits Cotty House, in Kent; the Chun cromlech, in Cornwall (figs. 39 and -40)--the covering stone of which is calculated to weigh twenty tons; -the Molfra cromlech, in the same county, which consists of a compact -cist closed on three sides and open on the fourth; the Zenor cromlech; -the Plas Newydd cromlech, and many others which it is not necessary to -enumerate, are all of the same class. The Plas Newydd (fig. 41) is a -double cromlech, the two chambers being close together, end to end. The -capstone of the largest, which is about twelve feet in length by ten -feet in breadth, originally rested on seven stones, two of which have -disappeared. The two erections undoubtedly were originally covered with -a single mound. - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.] - -At Minninglow, in Derbyshire, erections of this kind occur, but, not -being denuded of their mounds, are still partially buried. The mound -is of large size. Under the centre and in four places in the area of -the circle are large cists, which if cleared from the earth would be -fine cromlechs of precisely the same form as those just described. -They are formed of large slabs of the limestone of the district, -placed upright on the ground, and are covered with immense capstones -of the same material. All these chambers had contained interments. -The accompanying plan (fig. 42) of some of these cists gives the -situation of the stones forming the sides of the large chamber; of the -passage leading to it; of the slabs which closed its entrance; and of -the covers or capstones. The chamber is rather more than five feet in -height, and the largest capstone about seven feet square, and of great -thickness. A kind of wall similar to those which have been found to -encircle some of the Etruscan tumuli, forms the circle of this mound, -which rises to a height of more than fifteen feet from the surface of -the ground.[17] - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.] - -The general arrangement of this example will be seen to bear an analogy -to the Plas Newydd and others spoken of, and shows by what an easy -transition the building of galleries, or a series of chambers for -family tombs, in these large mounds, would be arrived at. Of this kind -some very large examples exist in Ireland, and in the Channel Islands, -as well as in various parts of England. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.] - -One of the most important in size, as well as in general interest; is -the one at New Grange, county Meath. “The cairn, which even in its -present ruinous condition measures about seventy feet in height, and is -nearly three hundred feet in diameter, from a little distance presents -the appearance of a grassy hill, partly wooded; but upon examination -the coating of earth is found to be altogether superficial, and in -several places the stones, of which the hill is entirely composed, are -laid bare. A circle of enormous stones, of which eleven remain above -ground,[18] originally encircled its base. The opening (of which an -engraving is shown on fig. 44) was accidentally discovered about the -year 1699, by labouring men employed in the removal of stones for the -repair of a road. The gallery, of which it is the external entrance, -extends in a direction nearly north and south, and communicates with -a chamber, or cave, nearly in the centre of the mound. This gallery, -which measures in length about fifty feet, is at its entrance from the -exterior about four feet in height, in breadth at the top three feet -two inches, and at the base three feet five inches. These dimensions it -retains, except in one or two places, where the stones appear to have -been forced from their original position, for a distance of twenty-one -feet from the external entrance. Thence towards the interior its sides -gradually increase, and its height where it forms the chamber is -eighteen feet. Enormous blocks of stone, apparently water-worn, and -supposed to have been brought from the mouth of the Boyne, form the -sides of the passage; and it is roofed with similar stones. The ground -plan of the chamber is cruciform; the head and arms of the cross being -formed by three recesses, one placed directly fronting the entrance, -the others east and west, and each containing a basin of granite. -The sides of these recesses are composed of immense blocks of stone, -several of which bear a great variety of carvings.[19] In front of the -entrance (fig. 44) will be seen one of these carved stones.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.] - -At Dowth and Nowth (Dubhath and Cnobh), very similar chambered tumuli -exist, the former of which is also remarkable for its sculptural -stones, which bear a strong resemblance to those at New Grange. The -Cairn of Dowth here engraved (fig. 45), is of immense size, and -contains a cruciform chamber similar to that at New Grange, with a -passage twenty-seven feet in length, composed--as was the chamber--of -enormous stones. On some of the stones were carvings and Oghams. The -mouth of the passage leading to the cruciform chamber is shown on fig. -46. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.] - -Other excellent examples of Irish cromlechs and chambers are those at -Monasterboise (“Calliagh Dirras House”); Drumloghan (full of Oghams); -Kells; Knockeen (figs. 47 and 48); where the right supporting stones -are six in number, and arranged rectangularly, so as to form a distinct -chamber at the S.E. end, the large covering stone being 12 feet by 8 -feet, and weighing about four tons, and the smaller one about half that -size; Gaulstown (figs. 49 and 50), the inner chamber of which measures -7 feet by 6 feet 4 inches, and is seven feet in height; Ballynageerah -(figs. 51, 52, and 53), the capstone of which is cleverly and -curiously poised on two only of the upright stones, as will be seen -by the engravings;[20] Howth, Shandanagh, Brennanstown, Glencullen, -Kilternan, Mount Brown, Rathkenny, Mount Venus, and Knock Mary, Phœnix -Park, as well as at many other places. - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.] - -In the Channel Islands the indefatigable and laudable researches of -Mr. Lukis show that the galleried stone chambers of the tumuli in -that district had been used by successive generations for many ages. -One of the most important of these is the gigantic chambered burial -place, surrounded by a stone circle, at L’Ancresse, in Guernsey. In -this, “five large capstones are seen rising above the sandy embankment -which surrounds the place; these rest on the props beneath, and the -whole catacomb is surrounded by a circle of upright stones of different -dimensions.” The length of the cromlech is 41 feet from west to east, -and about 17 feet from north to south, on the exterior of the stones. -At the eastern entrance the remains of a smaller chamber is still seen; -it consisted of three or four capstones, and was about seven feet in -length, but evidently within the outer circle of stones.[21] In a -careful examination made by Mr. Lukis, many highly interesting features -were brought to light, of which he has given an excellent account in -the “Archæological Journal,”[22] to which the reader cannot do better -than refer. The engravings there given, show the interiors of some of -the chambers, with their deposits _in situ_, and exhibit some of the -highly interesting relics found during the excavations. The pottery was -of a totally distinct character from that of the Celtic period found -in England, some of the forms being of what are usually considered the -Anglo-Saxon type, and are the result of the use of these chambers by -successive generations, as already named. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55.] - -Another of the more remarkable structures of the Channel Islands is -that of Gavr Innis, in the Morbihan, Brittany. The tumulus is about -thirty feet high, and its circumference at the base about 300 feet. -The cromlech is entered from the south end (fig. 55), fig. 56 being -the opening on the north, and consists of 14 upright stones on the -east side, 13 on the west, and 2 on the north, supporting, in all, 10 -capstones. In general features it bears a strong resemblance to those -at New Grange, Dowth, and other places. The remarkable feature of this -chambered tumulus is that the stones composing the passage are for the -most part sculptured in lines and patterns, which have been described -as very similar to the patterns tattooed on their faces and bodies by -the New Zealanders. Examples of these will be seen on the accompanying -engravings, which exhibit some of the more marked and distinct of -the patterns noticed and copied by Mr. Lukis, in his examination -of this mound, and described by him in the journal of the British -Archæological Association, to the Council of which I am indebted for -these illustrations. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 60.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.] - -In England, besides those already named, and others, “Wayland,” or -“Wieland Smith’s Cave,” at Ashbury, in Berkshire; one at Stoney -Littleton, near Wellow, in Somersetshire; the “Five Wells,” at -Taddington, in Derbyshire; and one or two others in the same county, -as well as in other places, are the most important. The annexed -woodcut, fig. 62, exhibits a section of the chambered tumulus at -Stoney Littleton, and fig. 63 is a ground plan of the same. “The -entrance was on the north-west side, where a stone upwards of seven -feet long and three and a half feet wide, supported by two others, -left a square aperture of about four feet high, which had been closed -by another large stone. This entrance led to a long passage or avenue, -extending in the direction from north-west to south-east forty-seven -feet six inches, and varying in breadth. There were three transepts, or -recesses, on each side. The side walls were formed of thin laminæ of -stone piled closely together without cement, and a rude kind of arched -roof made of stones so placed as to overlap each other. When the large -stones in the side walls did not join, the interstices were filled up -with layers of small ones.”[23] Interments had evidently been made in -each of these chambers, some by cremation, and others by inhumation, -but the bones were scattered about, the result of previous rifling of -its contents. One urn was found. - -[Illustration: Fig. 62.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 64.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 65.] - -The chambered tumulus, called the “Five Wells,” near Taddington, of -which an engraving is here given (fig. 64), has been a mound of large -size, and the chambers and passages, or gallery, have been extensive. -A plan of this tumulus is given in fig. 65. The “Five Wells” tumulus -consists of two vaults or chambers, situated near the centre of a -cairn (which is about thirty yards in diameter), each approached by -a separate gallery or avenue, formed by large limestones standing -edgeways, extending through the tumulus, respectively in a south-east -and north-west direction. These chambers are marked B and G on the -plan, G being the cist engraved on fig. 64. E E E are stones supposed -to be the capstones thrown down. Another five-chambered tumulus in the -same county is called Ringham-Low, which has many interesting remains. - -Another extremely important mound of this description is the one at -Uley, in Gloucestershire, of which an able account has been written by -Dr. Thurnham.[24] The mound is about 120 feet in length, 85 feet in -its greatest breadth, and about 10 feet in height. It is higher and -broader at its east end than elsewhere. The entrance at the east end -is a trilithon, formed by a large flat stone upwards of eight feet in -length, and four and a half in depth, and supported by two upright -stones which face each other, so as to leave a space of about two and -a half feet between the lower edge of the large stone and the natural -ground. Entering this, a gallery appears, running from east to west, -about twenty-two feet in length, four and a half in average width, -and five in height; the sides formed of large slabs of stone, set -edgeways, the spaces between being filled in with smaller stones. The -roof is formed, as usual, of flat slabs, laid across and resting on -the side-slabs. There are two smaller chambers on one side, and there -is evidence of two others having existed on the other side. Several -skeletons were found in this fine tumulus when it was opened, many -years ago. - -It will have been noticed that circles of stones surrounding -grave-mounds have frequently been named in this and the preceding -chapter. It will, therefore, be well to devote a few lines to these -interesting remains. - -Circles of stone of one kind or other are not unfrequently to be -noticed in various parts of the kingdom, and they vary as much in their -size and in their character as they do in their other features. The -bases of grave-mounds were frequently defined by these circles, and -sometimes by a shallow fosse, and occasionally by a combination of -both. To this circumstance the origin of many of the circles of stones -remaining to this day are to be traced; while others of a far larger -construction, and of a totally different character, such as those of -Stonehenge, Abury, Rollrich, and, probably, Arbor-Low, have been formed -for totally different purposes. With these larger ones, except in so -far as they are connected with sepulchral tumuli, I have in my present -work but little to do. Of the smaller ones, those which have surrounded -grave-mounds, I will now proceed to give some particulars. - -Excavations into various grave-mounds have proved beyond doubt the fact -that, in many instances, when an interment was made, the size of the -proposed cairn to be raised over the remains was marked by a circle -of stones laid on the surface of the ground, or inclining inwards, or -set upright in the earth. The stones were then piled up within this -enclosure, till the whole size and altitude of the mound was reached. -In the case of the Flax Dale barrow, this mode of construction is shown -in the next engraving (fig. 66). A circle of large flat stones was -placed upon the surface of the earth, around the interment (which in -this case consisted of calcined bones, in urns and without), and upon -these a second course of stones was placed. The mound was then raised -in the manner indicated in fig. 4, and over this a thick layer of earth -was laid, which increased both the circumference and the altitude of -the barrow. To render this crust more compact, fires were evidently -lit on the circumference of the circle, which had the effect, by -burning the soil, of hardening it, and making it in some cases almost -of the consistency of brick. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66.] - -An example of the second mode of construction I have indicated is at -Elk-Low, a section of which is given on fig. 67. The barrow has a -depression running around its upper surface, something like an elevated -fosse, as will be seen in the section. The interments were made on the -natural surface of the ground, where, in the centre, lay a skeleton, -on its right side, in a contracted position, with its head resting on a -piece of limestone which was placed as a pillow. Other skeletons were -also found, as was likewise an interment of burnt bones, and some flint -and stone instruments. The outer circle was constructed of very large -stones inclining inwards, and covered with small stones and earth, and -thus forming an extremely durable mound. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67.] - -Both of these examples, if denuded of their mounds, would form striking -and very perfect stone circles, and would be among the best remaining -examples of small “Druidical circles,” as they are commonly called. - -[Illustration: Fig. 68.] - -Where the circles have been formed of upright stones, they have not, -certainly, always been covered with the mound, but have formed a kind -of ring fence, a sort of sacred enclosure, around the barrow. A great -number of examples of this kind exist in different districts, and will -easily be recognised by the zealous archæologist. The circle next -shown, on figs. 68 and 69, is that on Stanton Moor, known by the name -of the “Nine Ladies.” This circle, of which a plan is here given, is -formed of a circular mound of earth, on which the upright stones are -placed. It is about thirty-six feet in diameter. It has formerly -consisted of a larger number of stones; those that are now remaining -being at irregular distances, varying from eight to nineteen feet -apart. In the centre are the remains of a rifled sepulchral mound. - -[Illustration: Fig. 69.] - -Another circle, bearing the same name, “The Nine Ladies,” is on -Hartle Moor, but of this only four stones are now remaining. It has -undoubtedly been a sepulchral mound, encircled by upright stones. On -other parts of these moors other circles have existed, or still exist, -which have, by excavations, been proved to have enclosed sepulchral -deposits. - -On Brassington Moor, near a fine chambered tumulus, now unfortunately -destroyed, existed two similar circles, the one thirty-nine, and the -other twenty-two, feet in diameter. On Leam Moor, too, circles are -known to have existed, surrounding interments. On Eyam Moor circles of -this kind, encircling sepulchral mounds, exist. One of these is about -a hundred feet in diameter, and is, like the “Nine Ladies” on Stanton -Moor, formed of a circular mound of earth, on which the stones are -placed. Only ten of the stones remain _in situ_. In the centre a cist -was discovered many years ago. Other circles occur in the same county, -on Abney Moor, on Froggat Edge, on the East Moor, on Hathersage Moor, -and in other localities. - -[Illustration: Fig. 70.] - -On Dartmoor, in Devonshire, many circles yet remain, as they do also -in Cornwall and in other counties. Mr. Blight, who has paid a vast -deal of attention to the antiquities of his native county, Cornwall, -has collected together many data concerning these structures, which -tend to throw much light upon their modes of construction, as well -as uses. To his researches I am indebted for much of the following -information regarding the Cornish circles, and also for the diagrams -which illustrate it. Upright stones were, as in the case of the ring -fences already named, placed at tolerably regular intervals around the -barrow, either on the natural surface of the ground or on a circular -embankment thrown up for the purpose. The intervening spaces were -then, in many instances, filled in with small stones, so as to form -a compact kind of wall, as shown in the next engraving. This mode -of construction was adopted for encircling grave-mounds, and in the -forming of hut dwellings, etc. It will easily be seen that in course -of time the loose walled parts would be thrown down and disappear, -while the uprights, being firmly fixed in the ground, would remain, and -would thus form the stone circles as now seen, and as commonly called -“Druidical circles.” In some instances, as in the case of the circle -enclosing a perfect stone cist, covered by a mound, at Sancreed, -shown on fig. 71, the upright stones touched each other, and thus -formed a remarkably fine enclosure. This circle is about fifteen feet -in diameter. Another variety is shown in fig. 72. This is a double -circle, or rather two circles, one within the other, and about two feet -apart, surrounding a stone cist. The stones in this example nearly -touch each other. A somewhat similar one, but with the circles farther -apart from each other, exists in the Isle of Man, and is shown on the -ground plan (fig. 73). The mound in this instance, probably, rose -from the inner circle only, and covered the central cist. In several -instances the interment was not in the centre of the circle, but was -made in different situations within its area. For instance, in the -next example (fig. 74), from Trewavas Head, the cist is near to the -circle of stones. The outer diameter of the mound is thirty-five feet, -the diameter of the circle of stones being nineteen feet six inches. -Other examples, similar in arrangement, might be adduced. Fig. 75 -shows a totally different construction. In this instance the circle is -composed of a number of stone cists, or sepulchral chambers, pretty -close together, end to end. This curious example, of which a somewhat -analogous one exists in the Channel Islands (see fig. 76), is on Mule -Hill, in the Isle of Man. Fig. 77 shows the remains of a stone circle -surrounding the larger of a pair of “twin-barrows,” of which some of -the stones have now disappeared. The circle is about seventy feet in -diameter, and the stones vary from six to eight feet in height. Fig. -78 is the plan of another “twin-barrow,” so called, the circle in the -larger being about thirty-five, and the smaller twenty-four, feet in -diameter. In the centre, at A B, are the remains of a stone cist, or -chamber. “The mounds were both cairns of loose stones. Remains of other -barrows, similarly formed, occur in the vicinity. There were two within -a few hundred yards of the ‘twin-barrow’ last described, the greater -portions of which have recently been taken away to build a neighbouring -hedge, but of which I found enough to show how they were built. -First, there was an enclosing circle of stones, some placed upright, -some longitudinally (fig. 79), the intention being simply to make an -enclosing fence; within this the grave was constructed; then small -stones heaped over the whole, the cairn extending, by about six feet, -outside the built circle.” The more perfect of the “twin-barrows” also -had the cairn extending beyond the circle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 71.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 72.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 73.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 74.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 75.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 76.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 77.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 78.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 79.] - -Some larger circles, such, for instance, as the Bosawen-ûn circle, -eighty feet in diameter (fig. 80), the Aber circle (fig. 81), and -others, it is supposed, may have been formed around a group of -interments, instead of single interments, as in many of the others. -In some instances a single stone was placed to mark the place of -interment. Three such exist in the barrow at Berriew (fig. 82). A large -circle (fig. 83), twenty-seven yards, in diameter, on Penmaenmaur, was -constructed of several uprights, connected by smaller masonry. Here the -interments were apparently made beside the pillars. Against the inner -side of the tallest pillar A, on the eastern part, were the remains -of a small stone cist; while against the pillar B, facing it on the -opposite side, was heaped up a small cairn. The whole is surrounded by -a ditch, within which, at C, is another small cairn. - -[Illustration: Fig. 80.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 81.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 82.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 83.] - -Arbor-Low, in the High Peak of Derbyshire, to which allusion has been -made, is represented in fig. 84. No sepulchral remains have been -discovered within the circle, but barrows of great extent, which have -yielded important remains on being excavated, are closely connected -with it. It is, however, probable, that interments have existed, and -been removed in past ages. - -[Illustration: Fig. 84.] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - - Ancient British or Celtic Period--Pottery--Mode of - manufacture--Arrangement in classes--Cinerary or Sepulchral - Urns--Food Vessels--Drinking Cups--Incense Cups--Probably - Sepulchral Urns for Infants--Other examples of Pottery. - - -Having spoken of the principles of construction of the grave-mounds of -the Celtic period, and described the various modes of interment which -they exhibit, I now proceed to speak of the objects found in them. -Before doing so, however, it is necessary to say, that in the course -of examination of barrows of this period it not unfrequently happens -that the spot where the funeral pyre has been lit can very clearly be -perceived. In these instances the ground beneath is generally found to -be burned to some considerable depth; sometimes, indeed, it is burned -to a fine red colour, and approaches somewhat to brick. Where it was -intended that the remains should be collected together, and placed in -an urn for interment, I apprehend, from careful examination, that the -urn, being formed of clay--most probably, judging from the delicacy -of touch, and from the impress of fingers which occasionally remains, -by the females of the tribes--and ornamented according to the taste -of the manipulator, was placed in the funeral fire, and there baked, -while the body of the deceased was being consumed. The remains of the -calcined bones, the flints, etc, were then gathered up together, and -placed in the urn; over which the mound was next raised. When it was -not intended to use an urn, then the remains were collected together, -piled up in a small heap, or occasionally enclosed in a skin or cloth, -and covered to some little thickness with earth, and occasionally with -small stones. Another fire was then lit on the top of this small mound, -which had the effect of baking the earth, and enclosing the remains -of calcined bones, etc., in a kind of crust, resembling in colour and -hardness a partly baked brick. Over this, as usual, the mound was -afterwards raised. - -The most important feature in the construction of the grave-mounds of -the Celtic period is, perhaps, the pottery, and to this, therefore, -the present chapter will be devoted. The pottery of this period may -be safely arranged in four classes;[25] viz., 1. _Sepulchral Urns_, -which have contained, or been inverted over, calcined human bones. 2. -_Food Vessels_ (so called), which are supposed to have contained an -offering of food, and which are more usually found with unburnt bodies -than along with interments by cremation. 3. _Drinking Cups_, which -are usually ornamented. 4. _Incense Cups_ (erroneously so called for -want of more knowledge of their use), which are very small vessels, -found only with burnt bones, and usually containing them, in the large -cinerary urns. - -The pottery was, without doubt, made on, or near to, the spot where -found. It was, there is every probability, the handiwork of the females -of the tribe, and occasionally exhibits no little elegance of form, and -no small degree of ornamentation. The urns, of whatever kind they may -be, are formed of the coarse common clay of the district where made, -occasionally mixed with small pebbles and gravel; they are entirely -wrought by hand, without the assistance of the wheel, and are, the -larger vessels especially, extremely thick. - -From their imperfect firing, the vessels of this period are usually -called “sun-baked” or “sun-dried,” but this is a grave error, as any -one conversant with examples cannot fail, on careful examination, -to see. If the vessels were “sun-baked” only, their burial in the -earth--in the tumuli wherein, some two thousand years ago, they were -deposited, and where they have all that time remained--would soon -soften them, and they would, ages ago, have returned to their old -clayey consistency. As it is, the urns have remained of their original -form, and although, from imperfect baking, they are sometimes found -partially softened, they still retain their form, and soon regain their -original hardness. They bear abundant evidence of the action of fire, -and are, indeed, sometimes sufficiently burned for the clay to have -attained a red colour--a result which no “sun-baking” could produce. -They are mostly of an earthy brown colour outside, and almost black in -fracture, and many of the cinerary urns bear internal and unmistakable -evidence of having been filled with the burnt bones and ashes of the -deceased, while those ashes were of a glowing and intense heat. They -were, most probably, fashioned by the females of the tribe, on the -death of their relative, from the clay to be found nearest to the spot, -and baked on or by the funeral pyre. The glowing ashes and bones were -then, as I have already stated, collected together, and placed in the -urn, and the flint implements, and occasionally other relics belonging -to the deceased, deposited along with them. - -The _Cinerary_, or _Sepulchral, Urns_ vary very considerably in size, -in form, in ornamentation, and in material--the latter, naturally, -depending on the locality where the urns were made; and, as a general -rule, they differ also in the different tribes. Those which are -supposed to be the most ancient, from the fact of their frequently -containing flint instruments along with the calcined bones, are of -large size, ranging from nine or ten, to sixteen or eighteen inches -in height. Those which are considered to belong to a somewhat later -period, when cremation had again become general, are of a smaller size, -and of a somewhat finer texture. With them objects of flint are rarely -found, but articles of bronze are occasionally discovered. The general -form of the cinerary urns will be best understood from the annexed -engravings. - -The principal characteristic of the cinerary urns found in Derbyshire -and Staffordshire, and in some other districts, is a deep overlapping -border or rim, and their ornamentation, always produced by indenting or -pressing twisted thongs into the soft clay, or by simple incisions, or -by indentations produced by simple means, as will be more particularly -named later on, is frequently very elaborate. It usually consists -of diagonal lines (see fig. 85) arranged in a variety of ways, or -of herring-bone or zigzag lines, or of reticulations, or of rows of -punctures, etc., etc. This ornamentation is usually confined to the -upper portion of the urn, including the over-lapping rim and the neck; -and in many instances the upper edge and the inside of the rim were in -like manner ornamented. Some of the more usual forms are the following. - -[Illustration: Fig. 85.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 86.] - -Fig. 86, from a barrow at Monsal Dale, was found along with many -other interesting relics. It is twelve inches in height, and has a -deep overlapping border. When found, it was inverted over a deposit -of calcined bones placed on some rough stones on the natural surface, -and having among them a calcined bone pin. Near it was a large mass -of limestone, and a celt-shaped instrument five inches long, with -a cutting edge, formed from the lower jaw of some animal. Another -excellent example is exhibited in the urn from Ballidon Moor (fig. 87). -It is eleven and a half inches in height, and measured nine inches -in diameter at the mouth. It is ornamented by patterns impressed in -the soft clay from a twisted thong. It contained burnt bones; amongst -them were a portion of an animal’s jaw, a fine bone pin, four inches -long, rats’ bones, a fragment of pottery, and a flint arrow-head. The -presence of partially burnt human bones in the sand, the discolouration -of the latter, and the occurrence of calcined rats’ bones in the urns, -demonstrated the fact of the corpse having been consumed upon the spot. -The following engraving (fig. 88), exhibiting a section of the barrow, -will show the position of the urn when found, and also of the other -interments which it contained.[26] - -[Illustration: Fig. 87.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 88.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 89.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 90.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 91.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 92.] - -Fig. 89, from Trentham, Staffordshire, is a remarkably fine urn of the -same character as the preceding examples, and fig. 90, from Darwen, -Lancashire, has a central band as well as the overlapping rim. Figs. -91 and 92 are of totally different form; their ornamentation consisting -of incised lines and impressed thumb marks, etc.[27] They are from -Dorsetshire. The next example, from Darley Dale (fig. 93), is of a -different type, as are also figs. 94, from Stone, Staffordshire, and -95 and 96, from Cleatham, in Lincolnshire. Other forms, again, are -shown on fig. 97, from the Calais Wold-barrow, Yorkshire, discovered -by Mr. Mortimer. It is eleven inches in height, and is ornamented -with a number of small semi-punctures. A very fine urn was discovered -by the Rev. Canon Greenwell in a barrow on Sutton Brow, near Thirsk, -in the same county. It is sixteen inches in height, and eighteen in -width, and is ornamented with lines produced by an impressed cord or -thong, and by semi-punctures or indentations. The next example (fig. -98) is from Darley Dale, and is, as will be seen from the engraving, -of a very different character from the other examples given. Around -the upper portion are encircling lines, between which is the usual -zigzag ornament. Around the central band, too, are encircling lines, -between which are a series of vertical zigzag lines. The whole of the -ornamentation has been produced by pressing twisted thongs into the -pliant clay--some, however, being of much tighter twist than others. -Inside, the rim is ornamented with encircling and diagonal lines. It -has on its centre band four projecting handles or loops, which are -pierced, as shown in the engraving. Another form, with small loops on -its sides, is shown on fig. 99, which was found in one of the Cornish -barrows, as was also fig. 100, which appears to have a kind of ear, or -semi-handle, at its sides. - -[Illustration: Fig. 93.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 94.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 95.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 96.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 97.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 98.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 99.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 100.] - -The _Food Vessels_, the next division, vary considerably, in form, in -size, and in ornamentation, from the very rudest to the most elegant -and elaborate. These vessels are generally wide at the mouth, and -taper gradually downwards from the central band. They are found both -where the interments have been by inhumation and by cremation, but -much more frequently with the former. In these instances they are more -usually placed near the head of the skeleton than in other positions, -although they are occasionally found placed otherwise. Their average -size is from four to six inches in height, and the ornamentation is -produced in the same manner as has already been spoken of in reference -to the cinerary urns, viz., by impressing twisted thongs or cords into -the soft clay, by punctures, and by indentations produced in a variety -of ways. - -The “food vessels,” like the cinerary urns, have evidently been made -from the clay of the district where the interment has taken place, and -they have been “fired” to about an equal degree of hardness with them. - -Their general form will be best understood from the following examples, -chosen from different districts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 101.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 102.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 103.] - -The first example (fig. 99), from Trentham, in Staffordshire, is, it -will be seen, of very rude form and make, and its ornamentation of -simple character. Fig. 102, from Fimber, in Yorkshire (5⅝ inches in -depth and 6½ inches wide at the mouth), is of a more usual form, and is -more advanced in point of ornamentation. Fig. 103 is from Hitter Hill, -Derbyshire, as is also fig. 104. They were found in the interments -shown on figs. 10, 11, and 12. - -[Illustration: Fig. 104.] - -The first of these urns is four and three quarter inches in height, and -five and a half inches in diameter at the top. It is richly ornamented -with the usual diagonal and herring-bone lines, formed by twisted -thongs impressed into the soft clay, in its upper part. Around the body -of the urn itself, however, is a pattern of lozenge form, very unusual -on vessels of this period. The second urn is five and a quarter inches -in height, and six and a quarter inches in diameter at the top. It -is very richly ornamented with the characteristic patterns found on -the Celtic urns of this district, and is one of the finest and most -elaborately ornamented which has been exhumed. - -On Wykeham Moor, Yorkshire, some urns of a different form, wide at the -mouth, were discovered by that hard-working antiquary, the Rev. Canon -Greenwell. - -[Illustration: Fig. 105.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 106.] - -Fig. 105 is from Monsal Dale, Derbyshire, and fig. 106, from Fimber, -Yorkshire, was found along with fig. 107. These, as will be at once -seen, are of a different character from the preceding examples, in -so far that on four sides they have in the central sunk band a kind -of handle or raised stud, which in some instances is pierced in the -same manner as the cinerary urn (figs. 98 and 99). They are among the -most elaborate, in point of ornamentation, of any of these interesting -vessels. Other forms, besides those indicated, are occasionally found. - -The _Drinking Cups_ are the most highly and elaborately ornamented -of any of the varieties of Celtic fictile art found in barrows. -They are found with the skeleton, and are usually placed behind the -shoulder. In size they range from about six to nine inches in height. -They are usually tall in form, contracted in the middle, globular in -their lower half, and expanding at the mouth. Their ornamentation, -always elaborate, usually covers the whole surface, and is composed -of indented lines placed in a variety of ways, so as to form often -intricate, but always beautiful, patterns, and by other indentations, -etc. They are much more delicate in manipulation than the other -varieties of urns. - -Instances have been known in which a kind of incrustation has been very -perceptible on their inner surface, thus showing that their use as -vessels for holding liquor is certain, the incrustation being produced -by the gradual drying up of the liquid with which they had been filled -when placed with the dead body. - -Fig. 107, from a barrow at Fimber, is an elegant and highly -characteristic example of this kind of vessel. It stood close behind -the shoulders of the skeleton of a strong-boned middle-aged man, -which lay on its right side. The ornamentation is most elaborate and -delicate, and it is, perhaps, one of the finest and best preserved -examples in existence. - -The next two engravings (figs. 108 and 109) show two excellent -examples, the first from the Hay Top barrow and the second from a -barrow at Grind-Low, of a slightly different form at the mouth. The -next example (fig. 110), found in Derbyshire, is of different shape, -and has the unusual feature of being ornamented in quite as elaborate a -manner on its bottom as it is around its sides. The bottom is shown on -fig. 111. The ornamentation throughout is produced by the indentations -of twisted thongs into the soft clay. Figs. 112 and 113 are of a -different form and character; the first of these is from Roundway Hill, -Wiltshire (see fig. 8 for interment with which this interesting -vessel was found), and the second from “Gospel Hillock,” in Derbyshire. -Others of a similar form have been found also in Yorkshire and other -counties. - -[Illustration: Fig. 107.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 108.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 109.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 110.] - -Those which have been engraved are, perhaps, the most usual of -the forms of the drinking cups, but other shapes are occasionally -discovered. - -[Illustration: Fig. 111.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 112.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 113.] - -The next division, the so-called “_Incense Cups_,” a name which ought -to be discarded, consists of diminutive vessels which, when found at -all (which is seldom) are found _inside_ the sepulchral urns, placed -on, or among, the calcined bones, and frequently themselves also filled -with burnt bones. They range from an inch and a half to about three -inches in height, and are sometimes highly ornamented, and at others -plain. - -The examples I here introduce (figs. 114 to 125) will give a good -general idea of these curious little vessels, which I believe have -not been “incense cups,” but small urns to receive the ashes of an -infant, perhaps sacrificed at the death of its mother, so as to -admit of being placed within the larger urn containing the remains of -its parent. The contents of barrows give, as I have before stated, -incontestable evidence of the practice of sacrificing not only horses, -dogs, and oxen, but of human beings, at the graves of the Ancient -Britons. Slaves were sacrificed at their masters’ graves; and wives, -there can be no doubt, were sacrificed and buried with their husbands, -to accompany them in the invisible world upon which they were entering. -It is reasonable, therefore, to infer that infants were occasionally -sacrificed on the death of their mothers, in the belief that they would -thus partake of her care in the strange land to which, by death, she -was removed. Whether from sacrifice, or whether from natural causes, -the mother and her infant may have died together, it is only reasonable -to infer from the situation in which these “incense cups” are found -(either placed on the top of a heap of burnt bones, or inside the -sepulchral urn containing them), and from their usually containing -small calcined bones, that they were receptacles for the ashes of the -infant, to be buried along with those of its mother. - -[Illustration: Fig. 114.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 115.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 116.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 117.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 118.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 119.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 120.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 121.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 122.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 123.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 124.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 125.] - -The form will be seen to vary from the simplest salt-cellar-like cup to -the more elaborately rimmed and ornamented vase. Some are pierced with -holes, as if for suspension, and one or two examples have handles at -the side. The best examples of this kind are those shown on figs. 120, -124, and 125. - -Among the most curious vessels of this period may possibly be reckoned -the singular one here engraved (fig. 126), of which form only two -examples have been discovered. They are much in shape like the drinking -cups before engraved, but have the addition of a handle at the side, -which gives them the character of mugs. One of these is in the Ely -museum, and the other in the Bateman museum. - -[Illustration: Fig. 126.] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - - Ancient British or Celtic Period--Implements of - Stone--Celts--Stone Hammers--Stone Hatchets, Mauls, - etc.--Triturating Stones--Flint Implements--Classification - of Flints--Jet Articles--Necklaces, Studs, etc.--Bone - Instruments--Bronze Celts, Daggers, etc.--Gold Articles. - - -The implements of stone found in the Celtic grave-mounds, or in their -immediate neighbourhood, consist of celts[28] or adzes, hammer-heads -or axe-heads, mauls, etc., etc. They are of various materials--chert, -shale, green-stone, syenite, basalt, porphyry, felstone, serpentine, -sandstone, limestone, etc., etc., and of various degrees of finish and -workmanship. - -Stone celts of one form or other are the most common of all stone -implements. In shape they are not inaptly described as being like the -mussel shell. The lower, or cutting end is slightly convex, and rubbed -down to a fine-shaped edge. As this cutting edge has become dulled or -chipped by use it has been again and again rubbed down and sharpened, -until, in many instances which have come under my notice, the celt has -been shortened fully one-third or more of its original length. The -forms of these instruments will be seen in the examples here following -(fig. 127 and in the succeeding figures). Fig. 132 is, perhaps, the -most usual of these forms. It is of the same type as the first example -on the previous engraving. Another excellent example is given on the -illustration (fig. 134). It is of chert, and has, as will be seen, -straight sides instead of the usual curved ones. It is now 5½ inches -long, but has probably originally been much longer, having been rubbed -down in sharpening. - -[Illustration: Fig. 127.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 128.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 129.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 130.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 131.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 132.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 133.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 134.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 135.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 136.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 137.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 138.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 139.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 140.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 141.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 142.] - -Stone hammers are occasionally found in grave-mounds. They vary much -both in form and size, as will be best understood from the following -engravings. Fig. 133 was found at Woolaton, and is remarkable for -being hollow on its upper and lower surfaces, and ribbed or fluted -along its sides. It is eleven inches[29] long, four inches in width, -and three inches in thickness. Fig. 135, found at Winster, is thin, -very taper, and of very different form. It is ten inches long. Other -examples are shown in figs. 136 and 137. Occasionally they partake -more of the hatchet shape. A good example is fig. 138, and others of -still more elaborate form have occasionally been discovered. Examples -of another variety, generally called mauls, which partake more of the -common mallet form, are here given on figs. 139, 140, and 141. The -first is from Horsley, Derbyshire, and the other two are from Ireland. -A different variety (named punches or cutters) is shown on fig. 142, -which was found at Mickleover. - -[Illustration: Fig. 143.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 144.] - -Rough stones, which have probably been used for triturating purposes, -for the grinding of corn, etc., are occasionally found. In the -Derbyshire barrows, for instance, portions of rubbed stones, and -also of rubbers, have now and then been discovered. Two triturating -stones, belonging to a different period, are given, for purposes of -comparison, on figs. 143 and 144.[30] Whetstones, spindle-whorls, and -other objects of stone, are also occasionally found. One of these -spindle-whorls is shown on fig. 145. - -[Illustration: Fig. 145.] - -FLINTS, _i.e._, various instruments formed of flint, are undoubtedly -the most abundant of any relics of the Ancient Britons found in or -about grave-mounds. They are extremely varied in form, and many of -them are of the most exquisite workmanship--such, indeed, as would -completely baffle the skill, great though that skill undoubtedly is, -of “Flint Jack”[31] to copy. The arrangement, classification, and -nomenclature of flints is at present so uncertain, and so mixed up -with absurd theories, that it is difficult to know how to place them -in a common-sense manner. All I shall attempt to do in my present -work--which is intended to describe, generally, the relics to be found -in the barrows of the period, and not to be a disquisition on flints -alone--will be to give examples of some of the more usual forms which -have from time to time been found, so as to facilitate comparisons with -those of various districts and countries. - -Of barbed arrow-heads, the examples here given will be sufficient to -show the variety of forms and sizes which are usually found. The three -first examples are from Green-Low, and are in the Bateman museum; the -next three (figs. 149, 150, and 151) are also from Derbyshire examples -in my own collection; fig. 152 is also from my own collection, but of -a totally different form, approaching to the next example, fig. 153, -which is in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy. Fig. 149 will be -noticed to be peculiarly elegant in form, and marvellously delicate in -manufacture--the barbs being extremely sharp and clearly defined. It is -engraved of its full size, as are most of the other examples. Fig. 150 -measures two and five-eighths inches in length. - -[Illustration: Fig. 146.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 147.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 148.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 149.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 150.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 151.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 152.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 153.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 154.] - -The dagger-blade variety is of what is usually called the “leaf-shaped” -type, and is the prototype of the bronze dagger of a later period. The -example here given (fig. 154) is from Green-Low, and is of remarkably -fine form. Another, and of perhaps much finer form, is shown on the -accompanying plate (fig. 155). It was found at Arbow-Low, in June, -1865, and is five and seven-eighths inches in length, and nearly two -and a quarter inches in width in the centre. In its thickest part it -is scarcely three-eighths of an inch in thickness, and is chopped -and worked with the utmost nicety to a fine edge. It will be noticed -that its sides, as they begin to diminish, are deeply serrated for -fastening with thongs to the haft or handle. It is engraved the exact -size of the original. - -[Illustration: Fig. 155.] - -The next illustrations exhibit a different variety of flints. They -are arrow-heads of the leaf-shaped types, and exhibit four varieties. -Figs. 156 and 157 are from Calais Wold, in Yorkshire; fig. 158 is -from Gunthorpe, in Lincolnshire; and fig. 159, which is of remarkably -elegant form, is from Ringham-Low, Derbyshire. They are engraved of -their full size. This type of flint varies, it will be seen, from -the acutely angled and sharply pointed shapes to those of a nicely -rounded and egg-shaped form. Two other remarkable examples, possibly -spear-heads, are here engraved, from the Calais Wold barrow, in -Yorkshire (figs. 160 and 161). They are among the finest examples which -have ever been found. - -[Illustration: Fig. 156.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 157.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 158.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 159.] - -Another type, one not common in England, is shown on fig. 162. It is -a fine example, and was found in Derbyshire. It is deeply serrated on -the edges, and at its base is cut for tying with a thong. It is here -engraved of its full size. - -[Illustration: Fig. 160.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 161.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 162.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 163.] - -Fig. 163 is a modification of this form, and is a good example of its -kind. Figs. 164 and 165 are Derbyshire examples in my own collection, -and are good specimens of another class of flint instruments not -unfrequently found in grave-mounds and elsewhere. - -[Illustration: Fig. 164.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 165.] - -Another variety, again, and one which varies extremely, both in size -and in form, is what, I suppose for want of a better name, is the kind -usually called “scrapers,” or “flint knives.” One example (fig. 166) -will be sufficient. - -[Illustration: Fig. 166.] - -Another description, again, which appears more intended for throwing -than for any other purpose, and which, with its sharp cutting edges, -and the unerring aim of the Briton, must have been indeed a deadly -weapon, is frequently found, and is shown on fig. 167. It is a simple -circular lump of flint, an inch and a half or a couple of inches or -more in diameter; flat on one side and chipped into a roundness on the -other. These are often called “thumb flints.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 167.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 168.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 169.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 170.] - -Flakes of various sizes and forms constantly occur, and are called by -many absurd names. Small, delicately formed, and very beautiful flints, -of an oviform or circular shape, are also found (fig. 168), as are a -large number of other forms besides those I have illustrated. These -will, however, be sufficient for my present purpose, and will enable -the reader to form a pretty correct and extended estimate of the -number and variety of flints which the grave-mounds produce. Celts of -flint are also occasionally found. An example here shown (fig. 170) was -discovered in a very interesting barrow called “Gospel Hillock,” at Cow -Dale, near Buxton, by Captain Lukis. It measured four and a half inches -in length. - -[Illustration: Fig. 171.] - -In JET, the articles found consist of beads, rings, necklaces, studs, -etc., and some of these are of the utmost beauty. A very elaborate -example of necklace, found by Mr. Bateman in the cist (fig. 28) on -Middleton Moor, is here engraved (fig. 171). The beads of which it is -composed lay about the neck of the skeleton. It was formed of variously -shaped beads and other ornaments of jet and bone curiously ornamented. -The various pieces of this elaborate necklace count 420 in number; -348 being thin laminæ, 54 of cylindrical form, and the remaining 18, -conical studs and perforated plates, some of which are ornamented with -punctures. - -Another example (fig. 172), with elongated beads, and pierced ornaments -of bone, is here given. - -[Illustration: Fig. 172.] - -Another good example is engraved on the next page. It was found at -Fimber, by Mr. Mortimer, and consists of 171 laminæ, or small jet discs -(No. 2), and a triangular pendant, or centre, of jet (No. 3), an inch -in length, and perforated in the middle. - -Studs and pendants of jet are of various forms, and are perforated for -suspension in a variety of ways. Fig. 174 shows a jet stud from Gospel -Hillock. It is engraved of its full size, as is also the next example -(fig. 175), from the Calais Wold barrow. These are very similar in -form, and in their perforations. Another form, a ring pierced for -suspension, is shown on fig. 176. - -[Illustration: Fig. 173.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 174.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 175.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 176.] - -Implements of bone are frequently found, but in many instances their -use is not easily determined. They consist chiefly of modelling tools -(supposed to have been used in the manufacture of pottery), pins, -mesh-rules, studs, pendants, and other personal ornaments; lance-heads, -spear-heads, whistles (?), hammers, and beads. Some of these are shown -in figs. 177 to 182. - -[Illustration: Fig. 177.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 178.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 179.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 180.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 181.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 182.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 183.] - -In BRONZE, the articles found are celts, daggers, awls, pins, etc. -Celts are, however, but seldom met with in barrows, although frequently -ploughed up in the course of agricultural operations. Palstaves and -socketed celts, etc., are also occasionally picked up. The ordinary -form of celt will be best understood by the engravings here given -(figs. 183 and 185) from Irish examples, and by the next figure (187), -from Moot-Low, near Dove Dale. One of these celts, of precisely similar -form to fig. 187, found in a barrow at Shuttlestone, has been the -means of throwing considerable light on the mode of interment adopted. -The barrow contained “the skeleton of a man in the prime of life and of -fine proportions, apparently the sole occupant of the mound, who had -been interred whilst enveloped in a skin of dark red colour, the hairy -surface of which had left many traces both upon the surrounding earth -and upon the verdigris or patina coating of a bronze axe-shaped celt -and dagger, deposited with the skeleton. On the former weapon there -are also beautifully distinct impressions of fern leaves, handfuls of -which, in a compressed and half-decayed state, surrounded the bones -from head to foot. From these leaves being discernible on one side -of the celt only, whilst the other side presents traces of leather -alone, it is certain that the leaves were placed first as a couch for -the reception of the corpse, with its accompaniments, and after these -had been deposited, were then further added in quantity sufficient to -protect the body from the earth.”[32] With the skeleton, besides the -celt, were a fine bronze dagger, with two rivets for attachments to the -handle, which had been of horn, the impression of the grain being quite -distinctly perceptible; a small jet bead; and a circular flint. The -celt had been, as was evident from the grain of wood still remaining, -driven vertically, for about two inches of its length, into a wooden -handle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 184.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 185.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 186.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 187.] - -Other forms of celts are shown on the accompanying series of figures -(184, 185, 186, and 188 to 195), and another excellent example is fig. -196, which has the loop (as also fig. 197) for attaching to the handle -by means of a thong. A great many other varieties are also met with. - -The bronze daggers which barrows have afforded vary in length from two -and a half or three, to five and a half or six, inches, on the average; -the larger ones being an inch and a half to three inches in breadth -at their broadest part, where the handle has been attached, from whence -they taper gradually down to the point. They are sometimes ribbed or -fluted. In most instances the handle has been attached by three rivets; -in some cases, however, as in fig. 198, only two have been used, and -occasionally there is evidence of the attachment being effected by -thong or other ligature. The handles were of horn or wood, and were -usually semi-lunar where attached to the blade; in one instance, -however, the blade has a “tang” or “shank,” which has fitted into the -square-ended handle, to which it has been fastened by a single peg. The -blades occasionally present incontestible evidence of long use, having -been worn down by repeated sharpenings. In the instance of the dagger -found at Stanshope, which had been fastened to the handle by a couple -of rivets as well as by ligatures, evidence existed of its having been -enclosed in a sheath of leather, and this example also presented the -somewhat curious feature of impressions of maggots, which had probably -made their way from the decaying body into the inside of the sheath, -between it and the blade, and had there remained, and thus gradually -become marked upon the corrugated surface of the bronze. - -[Illustration: Fig. 188.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 189.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 190.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 191.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 197.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 192.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 193.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 194.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 195.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 196.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 198.] - -Articles of gold, and coins, are extremely rare as found _in_ -grave-mounds, although not unusually turned up in their neighbourhoods, -and in places which have been inhabited by the pre-historic races. -Simply for the purpose of showing the character of some of the Celtic -coins, the following engravings are given. - -[Illustration: Fig. 199.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 200.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 201.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 202.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 203.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 204.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 205.] - -Of torques of gold, and other remains in that metal, I shall speak in a -later chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - - Romano-British Period--General characteristics--Modes of - Burial--Customs attendant on Burial--Interments by cremation - and by inhumation--Barrows--Tombs of Stone--Lead Coffins--Clay - and Tile Coffins--Sepulchral Inscriptions, etc. - - -The grave-mounds and burial-places of the Romano-British period -are, naturally, in many districts, far more abundant than those of -the preceding period, while, in others again, as in Derbyshire and -Cornwall, and some other counties, they are far less common than the -Celtic ones. In these counties the Roman was, it would seem, more of -a “bird of passage” (as well as, to some extent, a “bird of prey”) -than a settler, and the consequence is, that no remains--or next to -no remains--of villas or of settlements are found, and that where -burial has taken place it has not unusually been in the same mound with -those of an earlier period. The Ancient Briton raised the mounds over -the remains of his own people; and his Roman subjugator, as occasion -required, took possession of them, and therein laid his own dead. Thus -the same barrow is sometimes found to contain, besides its primary -Celtic interment, and others belonging to the same race, later deposits -(nearer to the surface or to the side) of the Romano-British or of the -Anglo-Saxon periods. - -In other counties, where the Roman population made permanent -settlements and built their towns and villas, regular cemeteries -were formed for the burial of their dead, and to these mainly are -we indebted for a knowledge of their customs and of their arts. The -burials were, as in the previous period, both by inhumation and by -cremation. The first appears to have been the most ancient practice of -the Roman people, and it was not, as is stated, until the time of the -dictator Sylla that burning of the dead was practised. From his time -downward both of these usages were in vogue, according as the friends -of the deceased preferred. So indiscriminately were these usages -adopted in England that both are found in the same burial-places, and -indeed (as in those of the Celtic period) in close proximity to each -other. - -The cemeteries attached to Roman towns were outside the walls, -and usually by the road leading to the chief town--Londinium. In -the country the owner of a villa had his burial-place in his own -precincts.[33] Almost always, except when the interment was made in an -earlier barrow, the dead were laid near to the living. In fact, the -Roman seems, even when dead, to have still courted the proximity of the -living, for he always by preference sought to establish his last home -as near as possible to the most frequented road; and the inscriptions -on his roadside tomb often contained appeals to the passers-by--in -terms such as SISTE VIATOR (_stay, traveller_), or, TV QVISQVIS ES -QVI TRANSIS (_thou, whoever thou art, who passest_)--to think on the -departed. The epitaph on a Roman named Lollius, published by Grüter, -concludes with the following words, intimating that he was placed by -the roadside in order that the passer-by might say, “Farewell, Lollius!” - - HIC . PROPTER . VIAM . POSITVS - UT . DICANT . PRAETEREVNTES - LOLLI . VALE. - -These examples will explain the position of the cemeteries of Uriconium -and other Roman towns in Britain. - -Mr. Wright, than whom no one is more able to speak authoritatively -on the matter, thus speaks of the burial customs and observances of -the Romans in Britain; and as it is necessary, before speaking of the -objects found with the sepulchral remains of the people, to give a -sketch of the formalities attending their death and burial, his account -will add considerable interest to their consideration. - -“The last duty to the dying man was to close his eyes, which was -usually performed by his children, or by his nearest relatives, who, -after he had breathed his last, caused his body first to be washed -with warm water, and afterwards to be anointed. Those who performed -this last-mentioned office were called _pollinctores_. The corpse was -afterwards dressed, and placed on a litter in the hall, with its feet -to the entrance door, where it was to remain seven days. This ceremony -was termed _collocatio_, and the object of it is said to have been to -show that the deceased had died a natural death, and that he had not -been murdered. In accordance with the popular superstition, a small -piece of money was placed in the mouth, which it was supposed would -be required to pay the boatman Charon for the passage over the river -Styx. In the case of persons of substance, incense was burnt in the -hall, which was often decked with branches of cypress, and a keeper was -appointed, who did not quit the body until the funeral was completed. -The public having been invited by proclamation to attend the funeral, -the body was carried out on the seventh day, and borne in procession, -attended by the relatives, friends, and whoever chose to attend, -accompanied by musicians, and sometimes with dancers, mountebanks, and -performers of various descriptions. With rich people, the images of -their ancestors were carried in the procession, which always passed -through the Forum on its way to the place of burial, and sometimes -a friend mounted the rostrum, and pronounced a funeral oration. In -earlier times the burial always took place by night, and was attended -with persons carrying lamps or torches, but this practice seems to -have been afterwards neglected; yet the lamps still continued to be -carried in the procession. Women, who were called _præficæ_, were -employed not only to howl their lamentations over the deceased, and -chant his praises, like the Irish keeners, but to cry also; and their -tears, it appears, were collected into small vessels of glass; and -this circumstance is termed, in some of the inscriptions found on the -Continent, being ‘buried with tears’--_sepultus cum lacrymis_; and the -tomb is spoken of as being ‘full of tears’--TVMVL . LACRIM . PLEN. - -“The next ceremony was that of burning the body. In the earlier ages of -their history the Romans are said to have buried the bodies of their -dead entire, without burning; and there seems to be no doubt that, at -all events, the two practices, burning the body and cremation, existed -at the same time; but the latter appears to have become gradually more -fashionable, until few but paupers were buried otherwise. In the age -of the Antonines the practice of cremation was finally abolished in -Italy; but the imperial ordinances appear to have had but little effect -in the distant provinces, where the two manners of burial continued -to exist simultaneously. Both are accordingly found in the Roman -cemeteries in Britain, in interments which were undoubtedly not those -of Christians. Perhaps the practices varied in different parts of the -island, according to the usages of the country from which the colonists -derived their origin. It is a circumstance worthy of remark that, as -far as discoveries yet go, no trace has been met with of burials in the -Roman cemeteries of Uriconium, otherwise than by burning the dead. - -“The funeral pile, _pyra_, was built of the most inflammable woods, -to which pitch was added, and other things, which often rendered this -part of the ceremony very expensive. An inscription, preserved by -Grüter, speaks of some persons whose property was only sufficient to -pay for the funeral pile and the pitch to burn their bodies--_nec ex -eorum bonis plus inventum est quam quod sufficeret ad emendam pyram et -picem quibus corpora cremarentur_. It had been ordered by a law of the -Twelve Tables, that the funeral pile must be formed of timber which -was rough and untouched by the axe, but this rule was perhaps not very -closely adhered to in later times. When the body was laid on the pile, -the latter was sprinkled with wine and other liquors, and incense and -various unguents and odoriferous spices were thrown upon it. It was -now, according to some accounts, that the _naulum_, or the coin for the -payment of the passage over the Styx, was placed in the mouth of the -corpse, and at the same time the eyes were opened. Fire was applied -to the pile by the nearest relatives of the deceased, who, in doing -this, turned their faces from it while it was burning; the relatives -and friends often threw into the fire various objects, such as personal -ornaments, and even favourite animals and birds. When the whole was -reduced to ashes, these were sprinkled with wine (and sometimes with -milk), accompanied with an invitation to the _manes_, or spirit of the -deceased. The reader will call to mind the lines of Virgil (Æn. vi. -226):-- - - ‘Postquam collapsi cineres, et flamma quievit, - Relliquias vino et bibulam lavere favillam, - Ossaque lecta cado texit Corynæus aëno.’ - -“The next proceeding, indeed, was to collect what remained of the bones -from the ashes, which was the duty of the mother of the deceased, or, -if the parents were not living, of the children, and was followed by a -new offering of tears. Some of the old writers speak of the difficulty -of separating the remains of the burnt bones from the wood ashes, and -we accordingly find them usually mixed together. When collected, the -bones were deposited in an urn, which was made of various materials. -The urn in Virgil was made of brass, or perhaps bronze. Instances are -mentioned of silver, and even gold, being used for this purpose, as -well as of marble; and those found in Britain are often of glass, but -the more common material was earthenware. One of the performers in -the ceremony, whose duty this was, then purified the attendants by -sprinkling them thrice with water, with an olive branch (if that could -be obtained), and the _præficæ_ pronounced the word _Ilicet_ (said to -be a contraction of _Ire licet_, ‘you may go’). Those who had attended -the funeral, thrice addressed the word _Vale_ (farewell) to the manes -of the dead, and departed. A sumptuous supper was usually given after -the funeral to the relatives and friends. - -“In the case of people of better rank, the body was burnt on the ground -which had been purchased for the sepulchre, but for the poorer people -there was a public burning-place, which was called the _ustrina_, where -the process was probably much less expensive, and whence the urn, with -the remains (_relliquiæ_) of the deceased, was carried to be interred. -The tombs of rich families were often large and even splendid edifices, -with rooms inside, in the walls of which were small recesses, where the -urns were placed. None of the buildings remain in any Roman cemetery -in our island, but we can hardly doubt that such tombs did exist in -the cemetery of Uriconium, and that they were scattered along the side -of the Watling Street. At one place at Uriconium the foundations of -a small building were met with, which appeared to have consisted of -an oblong square, with a rectangular recess behind, but the western -portion of it has been destroyed by the process of draining. When -opened, ashes and fragments of an urn were found in the enclosed space, -so that it is not improbable that this may have been a tomb with a -room. An inscribed stone, which was found not far from this spot, -bears evidence, in the appearance of its reverse side and in its form, -of having been fixed against a wall, probably over a door.” The urn was -perhaps here interred beneath the floor of the room. In many cases the -dead body was certainly burnt on the spot where it was to be buried. -A square pit had been dug, on the floor of which the funeral pile had -been laid. The fire had then been lit in the pit or grave, and the body -consumed in its own grave. Remains of the timber of the funeral pile -still remained in a pit of this kind at Uriconium, as it had sunk on -the floor, the ends of which were unconsumed, and the earth underneath -quite red from burning. - -In most of the other interments in the cemetery of Uriconium, a small -hole or pit appears to have been sunk in the ground, and the urn, -which had no doubt been brought from the _ustrina_, was placed in it -and covered up. These interments were not far distant from each other, -and appear to have been placed in rows, nearly parallel to the road. -Perhaps the ground may have been bought for this purpose in common, by -associations of the townsmen, such as trade corporations, or it may -have been set aside for burial purposes by the municipal authorities, -and sold in small portions to individuals, as the practice now exists -in modern cemeteries. The average depth at which the urns have been -found is somewhat less than four feet, so that, allowing two feet for -the accumulation of soil, the Romans seem to have dug pits about two -feet deep for their reception. - -Coins were, as has just been stated, buried with the dead, in -conformity with a superstitious belief that they would expedite the -passage of the soul across the lake in Hades. The magic power of money -in all connections with human life originated this custom. In all -worldly matters money then was, as it unfortunately now still is, the -main, if not the only, sure passport to place and honour; and thus -it was believed that the soul of the man who had not received the -usual rites of burial, and in whose mouth no fee for the ferryman of -the Stygian lake had been placed,[34] would wander hopelessly on its -banks, while decent interment and a small brass coin would obviate any -disagreeable inquiries that Charon might else be inclined to make as -to the merits or claims of the applicant. Thus in the cinerary urns of -the period of which I am speaking coins are very commonly found, and -also in interments by inhumation a small coin has, in more than one -instance in Derbyshire, been found with the skull, in such a manner -as to leave no doubt of its having been placed in the mouth of the -deceased. In some instances a considerable number of coins have been -found deposited together, or scattered about, in a barrow, along with -human remains. In Haddon Field a large number of coins, principally -consisting of third brass of Constantine, Constans, Constantius II., -Valentinian, Valens, and Gratian, were found, along with bones and -fragments of pottery, traces of decayed wood, and a portion of a glass -vessel. At Minning-Low, the fine chambered tumulus described on p. 54, -_ante_, where several interments of the Romano-British period have -undoubtedly been made in the earlier Celtic mound, many Roman coins, -along with portions of sepulchral urns, etc., have from time to time -been found. These are principally of Claudius Gothicus, Constantine the -Great, Constantine Junior, Valentinian, and Constantius. In a barrow -near Parwich, upwards of eighty coins of the later emperors were found. -At most places, in fact, where Roman interments have taken place, coins -have been found, and these range from an early to a late period in -Roman history. - -When interment was by inhumation, in many instances the body was simply -laid in the earth without any further covering than the usual dress. In -other instances there are abundant appearances of the body having been -enclosed in a wooden coffin or chest. In others, again, the body had -been enclosed in a stone sarcophagus or chest, which was occasionally -elaborately carved. Sometimes, again, coffins of lead were used. Mounds -or barrows over sepulchral chambers and other modes of interment were -frequently raised, to which I shall have to draw further attention. -Examples of the first and most simple of these modes of burial have -been discovered in different parts of the country, those at Bartlow -Hills and at Little Chester being, perhaps, among the most notable. -At the latter place a skeleton of a man found some years ago lay full -length on its back, the arms straight down by the sides. Iron rivets, -which were found much corroded, lay near various parts of the body, and -a thin stratum of ferruginous matter encased the skeleton at a little -distance from the body and limbs. From these circumstances it is to be -inferred that the deceased was interred in his armour. Other interments -by inhumation have been recently discovered in the same neighbourhood, -but without, in some instances, the ferruginous appearances. The -remains of horses were found along with them. Interments by inhumation -have also been found at Brough and at other stations in the same -county, and, as later deposits, in Celtic barrows. Those where the -bones have been found _in situ_ appear, like the one I have spoken of -at Little Chester, at Bartlow, and at other places, to have been laid -at full length on the back, the arms straight down by the sides. They -appear in most instances to have been simply laid in a very shallow -grave, but little below the surface of the already formed mound, and to -have been then covered to no great thickness with earth. Those found at -Bartlow lay parallel to, but a short distance apart from, each other, -their heads to the west and feet to the east. They were laid flat on -their backs, their limbs straight out, their arms by their sides, and -hands on the thighs. Some coins of Constantine and Tetricus, and other -little matters, were found with them.[35] Traces of wooden chests or -coffins were discernible around these skeletons, and this feature is -not uncommon in burials of this description. - -When the body was placed in a stone chest or sarcophagus, it was in -full dress, on its back, on the bottom of the chest, and any relics -which were intended to be buried with it were laid about. The chest, -as is evident from the examples found at York, was then partly filled -with liquid lime, the face alone not being covered with the corroding -liquid. When now found, a perfect impression of the figure is preserved -in the bed of lime in which it was encased, and in some instances even -the colour and texture of the dress is plainly distinguishable.[36] -Frequently the stone chest contained a leaden coffin, in which the body -was placed. A remarkably fine sculptured chest found in London,[37] -and others found at York,[38] will be sufficient references to these -interesting sarcophagi, which are occasionally inscribed. - -A tomb of a different description, which will be seen to partake -largely of the construction of the stone cist of the earlier period, is -here engraved (fig. 206). It is formed of ten rough slabs of gritstone, -two on each side, one at each end, and four others laid as covering -on the top. On removing the covering stones, a regularly shaped mass -of lime presented itself, which had derived its form from a wooden -coffin that had so nearly perished as to leave only small fragments -behind. The wood was evidently cedar. On turning over this mass of lime -an impression of the body of a man, which had been enveloped in, or -covered with, a coarse linen cloth, fragments of which still remained, -was distinctly seen. In another instance the impression of the body of -a woman who had been clothed in rich purple, with a small child laid -upon her lap, was distinctly visible in the lime. - -[Illustration: Fig. 206.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 207.] - -Coffins of lead are of not unfrequent occurrence in the cemeteries -of London, Colchester, York, Kingsholme, Southfleet, Ozengal, and -elsewhere. They are, as will be seen by the example from Colchester -(fig. 207),[39] usually ornamented with raised escallop shells, -beaded mouldings, annulets, etc, in a variety of ways. The next -engraving (fig. 208) exhibits a leaden coffin discovered in 1864 at -Bishopstoke,[40] in Hampshire. The lead which formed the coffin was -about a quarter of an inch in thickness. The coffin, which was five -feet six inches in length, and sixteen and a half inches in breadth, -inside measure, had not been cast in a mould, but the lead cut so as -to form the sides. The lid appeared to be formed of one sheet, and -had been bent or lapped over the lower part of the coffin. The lead -was much corroded, and lime had evidently been placed in the coffin. -There was none of the ornamentation on the outside, so common on leaden -cists. Nearly the whole of the skeleton remained, but the skull was -broken. The teeth were perfect and good. The skeleton was that of -a female. Inside the cist were the remains of small glass bottles, -probably lachrymatories. The glass was thin, and of a very pale green -colour. There was no appearance of handles to the glass vessels, nor -were there any marks of ornamentation on them, except a faint line or -ring marked upon one of the three necks found. Around the coffin were -the remains of the wooden chest in which it had been placed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 208.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 209.] - -Coffins of baked clay, and cists formed of tiles, were also used. Of -these, many examples have been found at York and at Aldborough. One of -peculiar form, from the latter place, is here given (fig. 209). - -Sepulchral chambers, sometimes of considerable size, were occasionally -built above ground, and these were sometimes, like the immense -chambered burial-places of earlier times, covered with a gigantic mound -or barrow. A remarkable example of this is Eastlow Hill, in Suffolk, -where the tomb appeared like a miniature house, of strong masonry, with -the roof tiled and peaked. It was built upon a mass of concrete, the -size of the tomb being twelve, by six and a half, feet. The walls were -two feet thick, and the extreme height of the tomb, or house, was five -feet. The interior was a cylindrical vault, and in the middle stood the -leaden coffin containing the skeleton. The wooden chest in which it had -been encased had decayed away, but some fragments and a number of nails -remained. Over this remarkable tomb the mound called Eastlow Hill had -been raised. - -When the burial was by incremation, the ashes were carefully placed -in the cinerary urn, and interred either by themselves, or with more -or less ostentatious surroundings. In many instances a hole was dug -in the earth, or in a Celtic barrow, and the urn, on being placed in -it, simply covered with a flat stone. At other times it was placed in -a sarcophagus, or chest, and surrounded with vessels of various kinds -and with other relics. At others, again, it was enclosed in a leaden, -or stone, or other vessel, before being consigned to the earth. In -many cases barrows were raised over these remains. There was a general -belief in the minds of the Roman people that articles of various kinds -buried or burnt with their dead, would add to the comfort and happiness -of the spirit in another world. Thus jewels, personal ornaments, food, -wine, articles for the toilet, culinary vessels, pottery, and glass of -various kinds, and numberless other articles were buried or burned with -the bodies. Branches of trees and garlands were also burned or buried -with the dead. - -Some remarkable examples of tombs and graves containing burials by -cremation have been discovered at the Bartlow Hills, at Colchester, at -Uriconium, at Rochester, at York, at Chester, and in other places. The -grave, or chest, was formed of wood, or tiles, or of stone. In this -the urn containing the ashes of the dead was placed, and around it -were put smaller vessels which probably contained ointments, balsams, -and other offerings; a lamp; and other articles. One example, formed -by tiles, contained when discovered a few years ago, besides fragments -of the cinerary urn, four earthenware bottles, six pateræ, three small -urn-shaped vessels, a terra-cotta lamp, and a lachrymatory. A chest of -stone (fig. 210) found at Avisford, Sussex, contained a large square -vase of fine green glass, filled with burnt bones, and around it were -placed three elegant vases with handles, several pateræ, a pair of -sandals elegantly and fancifully studded with brass nails, an oval dish -with handle containing a fine agate, a double-handled glass bottle, and -three lamps placed on projections in the angles of the chest. - -[Illustration: Fig. 210.] - -An example of a tomb formed of tiles is shown on the next engraving -(fig. 211). It was found at York, and is composed of ten roof tiles, -with a row of ridge tiles at the top. Within this the interment -had taken place. The tiles were inscribed with the impress of the -Sixth Legion-- LEG VI VI (_Legio Sexta Victrix_--“the Sixth Legion -victorious.”) - -[Illustration: Fig. 211.] - -Sepulchral inscriptions to the memory of the deceased are not uncommon, -and one or two examples of their style of wording will be sufficient. -One, at York, reads thus:-- - - D . M . SIMPLICIAE . FLORENTINE - ANIME . INNOCENTISSIME - QVE . VIXIT . MENSES . DECEM - FELICIVS . SIMPLEX . PATER . FECIT - LEG . VI . V. - -“To the gods of the shades. To Simplicia Florentina, a most innocent -thing, who lived ten months. Her father of the Sixth Legion, the -victorious, made this.” Another, from Carvoran in Northumberland, is -thus affectionately worded:-- - - D . M - AVRE . FAIAE - D . SALONAS - AVR . MARCVS - C . OBESEQ . CON - IVG . SANCTIS - SIMAE . QVAE . VI - XIT ANNIS XXXIII - SINE VLLA MACVLA - -“To the gods of the shades. To Aurelia Faia, a native of Salona, -Aurelius Marcus, a centurion, out of affection for his most holy -wife, who lived thirty-three years without any stain.” Another, from -Caerleon, is thus:-- - - D . M . IVL . IVLIANVS - MIL . LEG . II . AVG . STIP - XVIII . ANNOR . XL - HIC . SITVS . EST - CVRA . AGENTE - AMANDA - CONIVGE - -“To the gods of the shades. Julius Julianus, a soldier of the Second -Legion, the Augustan, served eighteen years, aged forty, is laid -here by the care of Amanda his wife.” Another, from Chesters, in -Northumberland, is as follows:-- - - D . M . S - FABIE HONOR - ATE . FABIVS . HON - ORATIVS . TRIBVN - COH . I . VANGION - ET . AVRELIA . EGLIC - IANE . FECER - VNT . FILIE . D - VLCISSIMME - -“Sacred to the gods of the shades. To Fabia Honorata, Fabius -Honoratius, Tribune, of the First Cohort of Vangiones, and Aurelia -Egleciane, made this to their daughter most sweet.” And one at Bath is -thus:-- - - D . M. - AEL . MERCV - RIALI . CORNICVL - VACIA . SOROR - FECIT - -“To the gods of the shades. To Ælius Mercurialis, a trumpeter, his -sister Vacia made this.” - -The articles which the grave-mounds and cemeteries of the -Romano-British period most frequently produce are pottery of various -kinds; glass vessels; coins; arms, both of bronze and of iron; fibulæ, -armillæ, and other personal ornaments; knives, scissors, etc.; and a -large variety of other things. To a brief notice of these contents of -the graves I shall next, in this division of my work, confine myself. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - - Romano-British Period--Pottery--Durobrivian Ware--Upchurch - Ware--Salopian Ware--Pottery found at Uriconium--Potteries of - the New Forest, of Yorkshire, and of other places--Sepulchral - Urns--Domestic and other vessels. - - -The pottery of the Romano-British period, so far as relates to what -is found in the grave-mounds of that people, consists, in the main, -of cinerary urns, jugs (so called), pateræ, amphoræ, bowls, and vases -of various kinds. Of the pottery alone of this period, sufficient -interesting matter to fill a couple of goodly volumes might easily be -written. It will, therefore, be at once understood that in a work like -the present, which is simply intended to be a descriptive sketch of the -contents of grave-mounds, elaborate accounts of the different kinds of -ware made by that people, and of the modes of manufacture which they -adopted, would be unnecessary. The principal divisions are the Samian -ware, the Durobrivian ware, the pottery of the Upchurch marshes, the -Hampshire ware, the Salopian ware, and the Yorkshire wares, and to -these divisions I shall devote some few pages, and in so doing express -thanks to my friend, Mr. Thomas Wright, for some excellent articles[41] -on the Durobrivian, the Upchurch, and the Samian wares, which he has -written. Before proceeding to speak of the different vessels found with -interments, it will be well to glance at these different wares and -their characteristics. - -[Illustration: Fig. 212.] - -The _Durobrivian_ or _Castor ware_, as it is variously called, is the -production of the extensive Romano-British potteries on the river Nen -in Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire, which, with settlements, -are computed to have covered a district of some twenty square miles -in extent. The discovery of this pottery and of the kilns in which -its productions were fired, etc.--one of which is engraved on fig. -212--is due to the late Mr. Artis, who prosecuted his examination of -the locality with great perseverance and skill. There are several -varieties of this Durobrivian ware, and two especially have been -remarked; the first, blue or slate-coloured, the other reddish-brown -or of a dark copper colour. The former was coloured by a simple though -curious process, which Mr. Artis was enabled to investigate in a very -satisfactory manner. It will, perhaps, be best told in his own words. -“During an examination of the pigments used by the Roman potters of -this place,” he says, “I was led to the conclusion that the blue and -slate-coloured vessels met with here in such abundance, were coloured -by suffocating the fire of the kiln at the time when its contents had -acquired a degree of heat sufficient to ensure uniformity of colour. -I had so firmly made up my mind upon the process of manufacturing and -firing this peculiar kind of earthenware, that for some time previous -to the recent discovery [in 1844] I had denominated the kilns in which -it had been fired _smother kilns_. The mode of manufacturing the -bricks of which these kilns are made is worthy of notice. The clay -was previously mixed with about one-third of rye in the chaff, which, -being consumed by the fire, left cavities in the room of the grains. -This might have been intended to modify expansion and contraction, as -well as to assist the gradual distribution of the colouring vapour. -The mouth of the furnace and top of the kiln were, no doubt, stopped; -thus we find every part of the kiln, from the inside wall to the earth -on the outside, and every part of the clay wrappers of the dome, -penetrated with the colouring exhalation. As further proof that the -colouring of the ware was imparted by firing, I collected the clays of -the neighbourhood, including specimens from the immediate vicinity of -the smother kilns. In colour some of these clays resembled the ware -after firing, and some were darker. I submitted them to a process -similar to that I have described. The clays dug near the kilns whitened -in firing, probably from being bituminous. I also put some fragments -of the blue pottery into the kiln; they came out precisely of the same -colour as the clay fired with them, which had been taken from the side -of the kilns. The experiment proved to me that the colour could not -be attributed to any metallic oxide, either existing in the clay or -applied externally; and this conclusion is confirmed by the appearance -of the clay wrappers of the dome of the kiln. It should be remarked, -that this colour is so volatile that it is expelled by a second firing -in an open kiln.” Fortunately, some of the kilns remained almost -entire, and many had been left with the pottery partly packed in them -for firing, so that there was no difficulty in understanding the nature -of the process here employed by the Roman potters. - -[Illustration: Fig. 213.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 214.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 215.] - -This Durobrivian pottery is especially interesting, from its being -covered with ornaments and figures, in relief, like those on the -Samian ware, but not like it cast from moulds. “The vessel,” Mr. Artis -remarks, “after being thrown upon the wheel, would be allowed to become -somewhat firm, but only sufficiently so for the purpose of the lathe. -In the indented ware, the indenting would have to be performed with -the vessel in as pliable a state as it could be taken from the lathe.” -The ornamenter then took a slip of rather liquid material, and with an -implement made for the purpose, formed all the ornaments and figures -with the hand. The slip used for this purpose was often white, which -was laid on a dark ground. “The vessels, on which are displayed a -variety of hunting subjects, representations of fishes, scrolls, and -human figures, were all glazed after the figures were laid on; where, -however, the decorations are white, the vessels were glazed before the -ornaments were added. Ornamenting with figures of animals was effected -by means of sharp and blunt skewery instruments, and a slip of suitable -consistency. These instruments seem to have been of two kinds: one -thick enough to carry sufficient slip for the nose, neck, body, and -front thigh; the other of a more delicate kind, for a thinner slip for -the tongue, lower jaws, eye, fore and hind legs, and tail. There seems -to have been no retouching after the slip trailed from the instrument.” - -Of the forms of mere ornamentation of this ware, the scroll ornaments -appear to have been the most popular. The arrangement and combination -of the scrolls, which are sufficiently varied, are often both tasteful -and very effective. In the cut (fig. 216) I have selected two examples -of the most common forms of this kind of ornamentation, and others I -show on the following engravings, figs. 217, 218, and 219, and again on -figs. 213, 214, and 215. - -[Illustration: Fig. 216.] - -“It is, however, the figured pottery of Durobrivæ, which presents some -of the characteristics of the Samian ware, that possesses the greatest -interest for the antiquary and the historian. The variety of subjects -in the Samian ware is far greater, and they are treated in a more -elaborate and more highly finished style of art, yet similar classes -of subjects appear to have enjoyed greater popularity than others in -the Durobrivian and Samian pottery, and we can hardly help suspecting -that there was some design of imitating, or perhaps a sentiment of -rivalry. Considering that they were only executed with the hand, and -it would appear rapidly, the style of drawing is remarkably good and -spirited. But they have another and a peculiar value; when we consider -that they were certainly executed in this country, and by artists who -could hardly have done otherwise than copy what was constantly before -their eyes, we can have no doubt that these are all true pictures, -pictures which we could hardly in any other way have obtained, of -life in Britain under the Romans, and they show us, as well as could -be shown in subjects capable of being represented by such artists, -those occupations in which the enjoyment of life was then believed -to consist. The more common of these subjects are hunting scenes and -scenes taken from the amphitheatre or racecourse.” For instance, the -dog hunting the hare, given in our cut (fig. 220) taken from an example -of Durobrivian ware engraved in Artis’s plates, must be recognized at -once as a greyhound, the same variety of dog which is still used for -the same purpose. It has been suggested that this may be the dog to -which the Romans gave the name of _vertagus_, and which is said to have -been a British dog. Martial describes it in one of his epigrams as-- - - “Divisa Britannia mittit - Veloces, nostrique orbis venatibus aptos.” - Nemesiani _Cynegetica_, l. 123. - -[Illustration: Fig. 217.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 218.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 219.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 220.] - -Other examples of hunting subjects are here given (figs. 221 to 225), -and others again will be found on a subsequent page. - -[Illustration: Fig. 221.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 222.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 223.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 224.] - -The engravings fig. 223 and 224, taken from a sample of this pottery -given in one of Mr. Artis’s plates, represents the British staghound -of the Roman period chasing a stag. We have a different dog in other -examples, as in fig. 225, which is taken from a very remarkable vessel -of this ware, now known as the Colchester vase, where it appears -driving before it both stags and hares. The hunting of the boar is also -introduced in some examples of this pottery. Gladiatorial combats are -also favourite subjects on the pottery made at Durobrivæ, as on the -Samian ware, and they leave no doubt that these cruel and degrading -exhibitions were cherished by the Romans in Britain as well as in Italy. - -[Illustration: Fig. 225.] - -That very remarkable monument of the ceramic art in Roman Britain, -known as the “Colchester vase,” was found in 1853, in the Roman -cemetery which occupied the site of West Lodge, near Colchester. It -had been used as a sepulchral urn, and when found contained calcined -bones, and was covered with an inverted shallow vessel or dish. “The -ornamentations consist of three groups, one of which is the flight -of stags and hares pursued by a dog, given in our cut (fig. 225). -The second and, perhaps we may say, the principal group represents, -in perfectly correct drawings, the combat of the two classes of -gladiators, a _Secutor_ and a _Retiarius_, the latter of whom, -vanquished, has dropped his trident, and raises his hand to implore the -mercy of the spectators. The _Secutor_, with a close helmet over his -head, and a short sword in his hand, advances to strike the fatal blow, -unless arrested by the success of his adversary’s appeal. Over the head -of the _Retiarius_ is the inscription, VALENTINV LEGIONIS XXX., meaning -clearly, “Valentinus, of the thirtieth legion,” which was doubtless the -name of the individual here represented. A similar inscription over the -head of the _Secutor_ is read without difficulty--MEMN.N.SAC.VIIII., -which is explained by Mr. Roach Smith, who considers the A in SAC -as an error for E, as standing for _Memnius_ (or _Memnon_) _numeri -secutorum victor ter_; _i.e._, “Memnius, or Memnon, of the number (or -band) of secutors, conqueror thrice.” There is no reason for supposing -that this inscription has any reference to the individual whose -remains were buried in the vase, but it has probably reference to some -remarkable gladiatorial combat which had created a sensation in Roman -Britain, like some one of the celebrated boxing matches of modern -times; sufficiently so to have become a popular subject of pictorial -representation.[42] - -“The third group on the Colchester vase also represents a performance -which was very popular among the Romans and among Saxons, and, indeed, -throughout the Middle Ages, that of a bear-tamer and disciplined -bear. The bear, in this case, appears inclined to be rebellious, and -his keeper, whose left arm bears what appears to be a shield, and -his legs and right arm protected by bands or thongs, is menacing the -animal with a whip. An assistant is approaching, with what appear to -be two staves in his hands, for the purpose also of intimidating the -ferocious animal. Over the head of the man holding the whip are the -letters SECVNDVS MARIO, the intended application of which is not very -clear.”[43] - -On another vase in the British Museum, the figures represent a -chariot-race in the Roman racecourse or stadium. - -[Illustration: Fig. 226.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 227.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 228.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 229.] - -Another class of subjects of extreme interest, as coming from a -Romano-British pottery, are mythological subjects, which appear to have -been rather a favourite ornament of the Durobrivian pottery. Fragments -of several vessels, with the figures of the seven gods and goddesses, -have been met with. Another characteristic of the Durobrivian ware, -consists of indentations made in the side of the vessel, while still -soft, but after it had left the lathe, and continued with regularity -round it. Sometimes, where little ornament was employed on the rest -of the vase, these indentations were left quite plain; sometimes -an ornament was introduced in the centre; and not unfrequently the -indentation was formed into a niche for the reception of a figure. For -indented vases see figs. 226, 228, and 229. - -The _Upchurch ware_, so called because made on the tract of land now -known as the Upchurch Marshes, on the river Medway below Chatham, is -next in importance, as far as extent of works go, to the Castor ware. -The district where these pot-works are proved to have existed extends -to a distance of five or six miles in length, and from one to two miles -in breadth, and throughout this tract a bed of refuse pottery exists. -This is seen to the best advantage about Otterham Creek, not far from -Upchurch church, and from its being first noticed here the name of -Upchurch ware has arisen. - -“The Roman ware made in the Upchurch potteries presents distinctive -peculiarities which cannot be mistaken, and it must have been in -great repute, certainly the next after the foreign Samian and the -native Durobrivian wares, in this province of the empire. Like the -Durobrivian, too, it has been found on Roman sites in France and -Germany, so that it was probably exported. As Battely has described -it, the greater proportion of this ware is of a ‘blackish colour,’ or -rather of a bluish or greyish black, which was produced, no doubt, -by the process of the smother-kiln, already described in connection -with the Durobrivian pottery. Some of the Upchurch pottery presents -a colour approaching to dark drab. Examples of both are given. The -forms, as well as the sizes, vary greatly, but they all present those -delicate forms of the curve which we recognise at once as coming from -the hands of the Roman artist. The texture of the pottery itself is -fine, and it is very thin. The ornamentation also is varied, but not -very elaborate or very refined. One of the patterns consists of a -band of half-circles, made with compasses, from each of which a band -of parallel lines descends vertically. Examples of various kinds of -ornament are given in the accompanying woodcut (fig. 230). The little -vessel in the front of the cut has had two handles, but one is lost; it -is supposed to be an incense pot. - -[Illustration: Fig. 230.] - -“The instruments used in the ornamentation of this pottery appear to -have been of a very rude description, and were, as it seems, chiefly -mere sticks, some sharpened to a point, and others with a transverse -section cut into notches. The former were used in tracing the lines -already described; the latter had the section formed into a square, or -rhomboid, the surface of which was cut into parallel lines crossing -each other, so as to form a dotted figure, and this was stamped on -the surface of the pottery in various combinations and arrangements. -Sometimes these dots are arranged so as to form bands, as in the -example in the back of the group. The large urn in the middle of the -group furnishes an example of another kind of ornamentation found -on the Upchurch pottery, formed by parallel intersecting lines. In -its shape this vessel has much the appearance of a sepulchral urn. -A considerable quantity of this pottery is without ornament at all. -Among this unornamented pottery are found, especially, jug-shaped -vessels, commonly with a handle. Two of these vessels are represented -in the group, in which is also shown a curiously shaped plain urn -and an unornamented vessel of another form. At different spots over -the locality which was covered by these potteries, Mr. Roach Smith -has found remains which indicate the former existence of kilns, and -further researches will most probably bring to light some of the kilns -themselves. Traces have also been found of the residences and of the -graves of the potters.”[44] - -[Illustration: Fig. 231.] - -The _Romano-Salopian_ potteries--the works which produced such a large -quantity of vessels from the clay of the Severn valley, probably in -the neighbourhood of Broseley, which bed is still worked for fictile -purposes--were, there is reason to believe, much less extensive than -either of those spoken of, but yet they must, from the large quantity -of examples which have been dug up at Wroxeter, have been of some -considerable extent. Of these wares, “two sorts especially are found in -considerable abundance; the one white, the other of a rather light red -colour. The white, which is made of what is commonly called Broseley -clay, and is rather coarse in texture, consists chiefly of rather -handsomely shaped jugs of different sizes, of mortaria, and of bowls -of different shapes and sizes, which are often painted with stripes -of red and yellow. The other variety, the red Romano-Salopian ware, -is also made from one of the clays of the Severn valley, but it is of -a finer texture, and consists principally of jugs not dissimilar to -those in the white ware, except in a very different form of mouth, -and of bowl-shaped colanders.”[45] A group of vessels of the Salopian -ware is here given (fig. 232). These examples are all from Uriconium -(Wroxeter), and have been found in the cemetery there. They are -cinerary urns which have, of course, contained the ashes of the dead, -and domestic vessels which have been buried along with them. - -The pottery of the New Forest bears in some respects a striking -resemblance to that from Castor. The clays there found were white and -fawn-coloured.[46] The Yorkshire productions present some peculiarities -in pattern which will be noticed later on, and those of Oxfordshire are -somewhat similar to the Castor ware. Of other pot manufactories it will -not be necessary to speak in this work.[47] - -The sepulchral urns--those which were intended to receive the burnt -bones of the dead--vary much in size as well as in form, material, and -ornamentation. Many are of globular form, and of a dark bluish-grey -colour in fracture They are somewhat coarse in texture, and are thrown -on the wheel. The engraving (fig. 234) exhibits one of these vessels. -When found, it was, like the others I am about to notice, filled -with burnt bones. The engravings (figs. 235 and 236) show two urns -containing human remains, the smaller one of which, found at Little -Chester, is formed of a black clay, mixed with small pieces of broken -shells--a kind of pottery much used for sepulchral purposes. The larger -urn is of a hard and compact clay, and is beautifully “thrown” on the -wheel. These examples are entirely devoid of ornament. A good example -of this form will be seen in the centre of the group (fig. 230), but in -this instance the urn is covered with a reticulated ornament. Examples -whose forms partake a little more of the jar shape will be noticed -on fig. 232, and others are given on Fig. 233, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 6. -Fig. 237 is from Little Chester, and is formed of a fine reddish-brown -clay, and is ornamented with “slip” in an unusual manner. It measures -3½ inches only in height, and the same in diameter at the mouth. When -found, it was filled with burnt bones, among which were some small -fragments of bronze ornaments, which had evidently been burned along -with the body. The next examples (figs. 238, 242, 248, and 249), are -of a different character, both in ornamentation and in colour of clay. - -[Illustration: Fig. 232.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 233.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 234.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 235.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 236.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 237.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 238.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 239.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 240.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 241.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 242.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 243.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 244.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 245.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 246.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 247.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 248.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 249.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 254.] - -The domestic vessels, and other varieties of Roman pottery found with -interments, vary very considerably one from another, so much so, -indeed, as almost to require a detailed dissertation on the entire -fictile arts of that people. Examples of some of the different vessels -which are found are shown on figs. 243 to 266, and on figs. 230, 232, -and 233, which exhibit some of the more usual and better known forms. -Figs. 250, 252, and 253 are amphoræ, found in London, as was also the -small amphora-shaped vessel, fig. 251. Fig. 254 is a good typical -example of a mortarium, of which considerable numbers, usually in -fragments, are found wherever there has been a Roman settlement. The -next group (fig. 255) represents five examples of blackware vessels, -the ornaments on which are produced by tracing lines on the surface. -The remainder of the engravings (figs. 258 to 268) exhibit cups, bowls, -unguentaria of different forms, and various shapes of vases. They are -all characteristic examples of Romano-British ware, and will be useful -to the student in correctly appropriating any specimens which may fall -into his hands. - -[Illustration: Fig. 250.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 251.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 252.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 253.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 255.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 256.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 257.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 258.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 259.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 260.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 261.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 262.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 263.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 264.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 265.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 266.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 267.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 268.] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - - Romano-British Period--Pottery--Samian Ware--Potters’ - Stamps--Varieties of Ornamentation--Glass Vessels--Sepulchral - Vases, etc.--Lachrymatories--Bowls--Beads--Coins found with - Interments. - - -In the preceding chapters I have purposely avoided including vessels of -Samian ware. As these are frequently found with sepulchral deposits, I -now proceed to speak of this peculiar and beautiful ware. - -[Illustration: Fig. 269.] - -_Samian ware_ is that peculiarly fine, close-textured, and -richly-coloured red-ware, which is so frequently found, and is so well -known to antiquaries. The body of this ware is of a fine red colour, -but its surface is of a deeper and richer tone, much like the best -red sealing-wax. It is extremely hard and brittle, and is sonorous in -sound when struck. The vessels of this ware consist for the most part -of bowls, cups, and pateræ or dishes, in each of which divisions are -found an almost endless variety of forms, and while some are perfectly -plain, others are more or less covered with ornaments--figures of men, -animals, foliage, borders, etc.,--in relief. These relief ornaments -were produced from moulds, and the names of the makers of the vessels -were also frequently stamped upon them. Of these ornaments and -potters’ marks, Mr. Wright says, “The potter’s name was placed in a -small rectangular label, as in the examples given on figs. 270, 271, -272, 273, and 274. The name was most commonly put in the genitive -case, combined with O or OF, abbreviations of the word _officina_, -as in the example given in our cut, where OF MODESTI stands for -_officina Modesti_, _i.e._ ‘from the workshop of Modestus;’ or with -M for _manu_, as COBNERTI M, for _Cobnerti manu_, ‘by’ or ‘from the -hand of Cobnertus.’ Sometimes the name is given in the nominative -case, followed by F or FE, for _fecit_, as COCVRO F, for _Cocuro -fecit_, ‘Cocuro made it.’ Doubled or ligulated letters are frequently -introduced into these inscriptions, an example of which is given in -the lower figure to the right, where the first letter is the ligulated -T and E, and the name is TETTVR. Sometimes we meet with an error in -the spelling of the word; and in one or two instances the person who -made the stamp inscribed the name carelessly, so that it read direct -on the stamp, and consequently it is reversed in the impression on the -pottery. An example is given in the cut, where the inscription reversed -reads PRASSO·O. The name is not always placed in a square label, though -examples to the contrary are rare. In a few instances it has been found -inscribed round a small circle. It is a peculiarity of the Arrentine -ware, described by Fabroni, that the label not unfrequently assumes -the form of the sole of a man’s foot. The stamp of this form given in -our cut occurs on a piece of the red Samian ware found at Lillebonne, -in Normandy. The inscription appears to be HIL·O·L·TITI, which may -perhaps stand for _Hilarii officina liberti Titi_, ‘from the workshop -of Hilarius, the freedman of Titus.’ The next cut (fig. 276) represents -one of the stamps used for impressing the label with the potter’s name. -It was found at Lezoux, in Auvergne and presents the name AVSTRI·OF. -‘from the workshop of Austen.’ A similar die of a potter named -Cobnertus is preserved in the museum at Sevres. Both these names occur -on specimens of Samian ware found in England. Other potters’ names are -shown on figs. 272 to 275. The first of these bears the name CELSINVS -. F .; the second, MICCIO; the third, AISTIVI.M; and the fourth is the -one referring to Aretium.” - -[Illustration: Figs. 270 and 271.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 272.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 273.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 274.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 275.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 276.] - - -Similar dies for stamping the ornaments and figures have also been -found in France. In the latter, each die contained a single figure, or, -at all events, a single group, and this explains why the same figures -are so frequently found on the pottery in different combinations. One -of these dies contains a single festoon and tassel of the well-known -festoon ornament, so common on this pottery. - -[Illustration: Fig. 277.] - -The ornamental borders which are most commonly met with on Samian -ware are elegant festoon-and-tassel borders, and the egg-and-tongue -ornament, both of which, as well as a border consisting of a range of -figures representing the Medicean Venus, are shown on the accompanying -engraving (fig. 277) of a fine bowl found in London. Wavy lines -and lines of circles are also common, and we frequently meet with -scroll-work of very elegant design, commonly formed of leaves, flowers, -and fruit. Examples, selected from a numerous variety, are given on -engravings (figs. 278 to 282). These scrolls are generally used to -form a border round the upper part of the bowl, as shown on figs. 280 -and 281. The foliage most in favour for these scrolls was that of -the vine, and the ivy (fig. 282), and also that of the strawberry; -the former of which especially shows that this pottery was, as Pliny -says of the Samian ware, particularly intended for the service of the -table. The ivy-leaf, indeed, is almost the only ornament of the plainer -description of this red ware. Sometimes the leaves of the vine are -gracefully intermingled with the clusters of the fruit, and with little -birds which are feeding upon the latter, as in the fragment represented -in our cut (fig. 283). - -[Illustration: Fig. 278.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 279.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 280.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 281.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 282.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 283.] - -Animals of all kinds are found in abundance among the ornaments of the -Samian ware. Among these the boar was a great favourite. For instance, -a cup will be divided into compartments, in which figure alternately -two boars, and a man confronting them with a spear. In a similar -compartment under arches, in another, we have two heads of lions above, -and below, a rabbit and a dog. Another, again, is ornamented with -fishes, separated by squares filled with a singular ornament, which is -perhaps intended to represent water. Sometimes the whole outside of a -bowl is covered with birds, beasts, and fishes mixed together in the -utmost confusion. - -[Illustration: Fig. 284.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 285.] - -The subjects in which human figures are introduced present still -greater variety, and it need hardly be added that they are much more -interesting. Subjects from the classical mythology are very common, and -among the figures of the deities we recognize some, such as the Venus -de Medici (fig. 277), which were copied from well-known models of art. -Combats of pygmies and cranes appear as favourite subjects, as in the -paintings, etc., in Pompeii. Sacrifices and religious ceremonies are -not uncommon; and especially bacchanalian processions, and dances of -bacchantes and satyrs--another proof that this ware was used for the -festive board. The spirited manner in which figure subjects are often -treated, will be seen by the engravings we have given, and by examples -to be found in most collections. One vessel represents a bacchanalian -scene, in which Silenus figures among satyrs and fauns. A faun is -drinking from a horn supplied from a wine skin which he holds in his -left hand, while Silenus attempts to snatch it from his hands. Genii, -one of whom appears with wings on another fragment of the same vessel, -appear to be directing or presiding over the scene. Among other very -favourite subjects are hunting scenes, gladiatorial combats, and the -sports of the amphitheatre. Others represent sacrifices and religious -offerings. Musicians performing on various instruments are also common; -and domestic scenes are depicted in great variety. Many of these are -of a character not to be described, but sufficiently characteristic -of the degraded state of morality under the Roman empire. The bowls -here engraved (figs. 285 and 286) are good examples of these kinds -of decoration. Another is ornamented with a series of figures, which -appear to have no connection one with another. In the middle is a -bacchanal with his thirsus; to the right of him a figure playing on a -double pipe; on both sides a group of bears; and to the extreme right a -charioteer, followed by a bear “rampant.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 286.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 287.] - -The great quantity of this Samian ware which is found on Roman sites -admits of easy explanation, from the circumstance that it was held in -great favour, and that the manufactories on the Continent continued to -work with activity in producing it during the whole Roman period. The -number of names of potters, collected from fragments found in England -alone, amounts to more than two thousand, and we must suppose them to -have been spread over a long period. - -[Illustration: Fig. 288.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 289.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 290.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 291.] - -Other examples of the common forms of Samian-ware vessels are given -on figs. 288 to 291, and a clay mould for forming heads on pottery, -discovered by myself at Headington, is shown on fig. 287. - -_Glass_ was very successfully and beautifully worked by the Romans, -not only abroad, but in Britain, and vessels of this material are -frequently found with sepulchral deposits. They are of great variety, -and evidently made for many different uses. Those found in the graves -are usually those made for holding the burnt bones of the dead; small -vessels, commonly called lachrymatories, although their use was most -probably that of holding the unguents and aromatics usually buried with -the dead; small bowls, cups, or drinking vessels; and beads. - -[Illustration: Fig. 292.] - -Of the sepulchral vessels of glass the one here engraved (fig. 292), -from Bartlow Hills, will show the general form. They are of somewhat -thick green glass, with neck and handle, and are literally bottles. -The one from Bartlow Hills is of square form, and is six inches in -height and four inches square on the bottom. Others are round in -form. They contained the calcined bones of the dead. Of the forms of -the small vessels known as lachrymatories, to which I have alluded, -the examples in pottery on figs. 259 to 263 will convey a tolerably -correct idea. They are usually from three to five inches in height. One -found at Mount Bures, Colchester, is a remarkable example, being made -of beautifully variegated glass. Cups or bowls, or, as they may not -inaptly be called, basins, are of the common basin form, or jar shaped. -They are usually of green glass, and of elegant workmanship. Beads -are, perhaps, the most frequently found of any remains of Roman glass; -this being of course owing to their more solid and, consequently, less -perishable nature. They are of various kinds and sizes, and are more -or less ornamented. The accompanying examples (figs. 294, 295, 296, -and 297), will be sufficient to direct attention to these interesting -relics. A number of beads, said to have been found with undoubted -Roman remains, are shown on fig. 298. - -[Illustration: Fig. 293.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 294.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 295.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 296.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 297.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 298.] - -The COINS found along with Romano-British interments are, of course, -of various emperors and of various periods. They are only occasionally -found, and, when discovered, cannot, it must be remembered, be -taken as any criterion as to date of deposit, or, indeed, cannot be -considered alone as evidence of the barrow or interment belonging to -the Romano-British period. The Romans seem to have sowed their coins -broadcast over the whole length and breadth of the land, to have -thrown them about as they would useless chaff, to have buried them in -urns in every conceivable place, and to have deposited them, either -singly or otherwise, in the barrows of their predecessors. It is -unnecessary to speak, then, of the varieties of coins which are from -time to time turned up by the antiquary in his researches into the -early grave-mounds. They form but a thousandth part of the coins which -are found away from interments. - -It may, however, be well, as showing the relative proportions of -the coins of different emperors found in this country, to give the -following analysis, by Mr. Roach Smith, of more than eleven hundred -coins picked up at different times in one locality--Richborough in Kent. - - Augustus 7 - Agrippa 1 - Tiberius 2 - Antonia, wife of Drusus, sen. 1 - Caligula 2 - Claudius 15 - Nero 11 - Vespasian 13 - Titus 1 - Domitian 10 - Nerva 1 - Trajan 7 - Hadrian 5 - Sabina 5 - Ællius Cæsar 1 - Antoninus Pius 5 - Faustina 3 - Marc Aurelius 4 - Faustina 5 - Lucius Verus 2 - Lucilla 1 - Commodus 2 - Severus 5 - Julia Domna 3 - Caracalla 3 - Julia Maesa 1 - Severus Alexander 7 - Gordianus 6 - Philippus 4 - Valerianus 3 - Valerianus, junior 1 - Galliense 19 - Salonina 4 - Postumus 10 - Victorinus 14 - Marius 1 - Tetricus 13 - Claudius Gothicus 15 - Luntillus 2 - Aurelianus 4 - Tacitus 5 - Florianus 1 - Probus 7 - Garinus 1 - Numerainus 2 - Diocletianus 8 - Maximianus 16 - Caräusius 94 - Allectus 45 - Constantius 4 - Helena 8 - Theodora 13 - Galerius Maximianus 1 - Maxentius 2 - Romulus 1 - Licinius 12 - Licinius, junior 1 - Constantine the Great 149 - Fausta 2 - Crispus 18 - Delmatius 1 - Constantine II. 98 - Constans 77 - Constantius II. 42 - Urbs Roma 52 - Constantinoplis 60 - Magnentius 21 - Decentius 4 - Julianus II. 7 - Helena 1 - Jovianus 1 - Valentinianus 22 - Valens 39 - Gratianus 49 - Theodosius 14 - Magnus Maximus 6 - Victor 3 - Eugenius 1 - Arcadius 27 - Honorius 8 - Constantine III. 1 - ---- - Total 1144 - -Of these coins, fifty-six only were of silver, six of gold, fifteen of -billon, or base silver, and the remainder were of brass, the greater -portion being, naturally, what are denominated “third brass.” - - - - -CHAPTER X. - - Romano-British Period--Arms--Swords--Spears, - etc.--Knives--Fibulæ--Armillæ--Torques of Gold, etc.--Other - Personal Ornaments--Horse-shoes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 301.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 302.] - -Of ARMS but few examples are found in grave-mounds, although more -abundant in the neighbourhood of Roman stations and towns. They consist -of swords, daggers, spear-heads, and other weapons. They are, however, -perhaps the most scarce of any remains of the period. The swords of -bronze (figs. 299 and 300) which have frequently been ascribed to the -British period, are now pretty generally admitted to belong possibly -to Roman times. The examples engraved are of the most general type, as -are also the next engravings of spear and lance heads. The first (fig. -301), which is of iron, is from Little Chester, where it was found -along with human remains. Fig. 302 is of bronze, and is, as will be -seen, of somewhat unusual form, and has a loop on either side. The next -(fig. 303) is of bronze, and is three and a half inches long. It is of -remarkably good form, deeply socketed, like the preceding example, and -of a kind of leaf shape. Arrow-heads are also occasionally found. Of -these the example here engraved is a good type. It is of bronze, and -measures about an inch and a quarter in length. - -[Illustration: Fig. 299.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 300.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 303.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 304.] - -Iron knives are occasionally found with interments. Some remarkable -instances of this have been recently brought to light near Plymouth, -and others again at Wetton and other places. The knives are of the form -engraved on fig. 305. They appear to have had wooden handles, which, of -course, except small traces of texture, have entirely decayed away. -Another knife, although not actually found with an interment, shows the -form so well that it is here engraved. It was nine and a half inches -long, of peculiar shape, still retaining its handle of stag’s horn, -rubbed or worn smooth; the good preservation of which we may attribute -to having been imbedded in the fire-hardened earth, and sufficiently -deep to secure it from injury by the fire. With the knives in the -Plymouth cemetery were found portions of scissors, of the form of the -sheep-shears of the present day, and these have also been found in -other localities. They were of iron, and several fragments of other -implements of the same material were at the same time discovered. - -[Illustration: Fig. 305.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 306.] - -Of FIBULÆ an almost endless variety in form, in size, and in material -has at one time or other been exhumed. They are, however, but very -occasionally found with interments. The most usual form, perhaps, is -that which is commonly called harp-shaped, or bowed, and this is of -such extreme variety that scarcely two examples out of the hundreds -that are known are precisely alike. Several have a cross bar at the -top, and are hence called “cruciform” (figs. 307, 310 to 312, and 315). -Others have coiled springs of wire at the top, variously fashioned. -Some of these are extremely complicated and ingenious, as will be seen -by the engraved examples. The more simple of the twisted springs, a -coiled spring only, formed by the end of the bow being attenuated into -the pin, is known as the “rat-trap spring,” from its coiled resemblance -to the spring used in those “vermin killers.” Examples to show this -form are here given (figs. 313, 314, 316, and 317). This form of fibula -is generally known as the “dolphin” shape. Occasionally wire only, -twisted in like manner as recently reproduced for skeleton shawl pins, -are found. Sometimes the fibula really assumed the form of an animal, -a bird or a serpent, with an inflated body. One of this character is -engraved on fig. 318. It is of one continuous piece of bronze, and the -pin, having a coiled spring, answers to the tail of the serpent, and -hooks into a projection on the neck. - -[Illustration: Fig. 307.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 308.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 309.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 310.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 311.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 312.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 313.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 314.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 315.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 316.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 317.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 318.] - -The ornamentation is as varied as the form. Sometimes they are chased -or engraved in minute patterns of rows of dots, scales, etc.; at -others, enamelled or inlaid; and at others, again, raised ornaments are -riveted upon their surface. Instances of S-shaped fibulæ also occur, as -do many other grotesque forms. - -[Illustration: Fig. 319.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 320.] - -Circular fibulæ are occasionally met with, and these, like the bowed -forms, vary very considerably in design. Sometimes they are flat on -the face, and enamelled or inlaid in different colours. One of the most -curious, but elegant, modifications of the circular form is fig. 320, -where the ends, which are serpents’ heads, are turned back to the sides -of the body. - -ARMILLÆ, or bracelets, are found both in bronze, in silver, and in -gold. They vary very considerably in form. Of these, one example (fig. -321) will be sufficient. The pair here represented are of base silver, -and bear evidence of having been much worn. Examples of analogous type -have been found at Castleford and other places. Other armlets partake -more of the character of torques, torquis, or collar; and others, -again, are simply bars of metal, twisted in one or more coils, like a -spiral spring, around the wrist. - -[Illustration: Fig. 321.] - -While speaking of armlets and torques, it may not be out of place, as -I purposely omitted them in the Celtic division of this work, to say -a few words about the latter. There can be no doubt that the torque -was worn both by the ancient Briton and by his Roman conqueror, and -therefore it is perhaps best, as it is at present not easy to say which -of the known examples are to be attributed to the earlier and which to -the later of these periods, to speak of them generally under this head. - -The torque, or torquis, is said, by ancient writers, to have been first -used by the Persians and by the nations of Northern and Western Europe. -Virgil describes it as worn by the Trojans when they came to colonize -Italy:-- - - “Omnibus in morem tonsa coma pressa corona, - Cornea bina ferunt præfixo hastilia ferro; - Pars leves humero pharetras; it pectore summo - Flexilis obtorti per collum circulus auri.” - -It is first mentioned in Roman history in the year 360 B.C., when -Manlius, having torn a torque of gold from the neck of a vanquished -Gaul--here is evidence of its being a decoration worn by a similar race -to our ancient British population _before_ being spoken of in Roman -history--placed it on his own, and received, from this circumstance, -the name of Torquatus. From this time the practice was adopted in -the wars with the Gauls--the example set by Torquatus Manlius being -frequently followed by the Roman leaders,--and the torque being -adopted as a reward for military merit. “The Roman writers speak of -them as worn by the Britons; and the Queen of the Iceni, Boadicea, is -described by Dion Cassius as having a torquis of gold round her neck. -This was the metal of which they were usually made. They consisted of -a long piece of gold, twisted or spiral, doubled back in the form of -a short hook at each end, and then turned into the form of a circle.” -The torque was known to, and worn by, the Egyptians, the Persians, -Persepolitans, the Gauls, and the Britons, as well as, later on, to -the Romans, and it was very usual, as is evident by the many examples -which have been found, with the Irish celts. The most usual forms -will be found engraved in the catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy, -the largest known example measuring five feet seven inches in length. -A remarkably fine example of this type, found on the borders of -Derbyshire and Staffordshire, measures three feet nine and a quarter -inches. Many other varieties are found, sometimes formed of square bars -of gold twisted spirally, sometimes of flat bars of the same metal -twisted in a lighter manner, and sometimes, again, of more than one bar -twisted together. The ends, too, are of various forms: sometimes being -simply hooks, and at others swelling out into cup-shaped terminations, -and at others partaking of the form of a serpent’s head, etc. A very -remarkable torque, now belonging to Her Majesty, was found in 1848 in -Needwood Forest, and is here engraved (fig. 322). It is formed of eight -cords of gold plaited together, and weighs 1 lb. 1 oz. 7 dwts. and 10 -grains. Another example of a different character, from Ireland, is here -given (fig. 323). - -[Illustration: Fig. 322.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 323. - -_Side View_] - -It is safer, perhaps, although there is no doubt that torques were -worn by the Romans, to assign them to the British period than to that -of their conquerors. Much, however, necessarily depends on the remains -found with them, and the locality where discovered. - -Other personal ornaments, and bone and bronze pins, hair-pins, etc., -are occasionally found, but need no special notice here. Instruments of -the toilette, too, are occasionally discovered. Prominent among these -is the mirror, or speculum, which is sometimes found in the graves -of Roman ladies. Among the most interesting of these are some found -in a Roman cemetery at Plymouth. They consist of a circular plate of -polished metal, generally of bronze set in a frame of the same metal or -otherwise, and have a handle to hold them by. They are of much the same -form as the small handled toilet glasses of the present day. The back -was generally, as in the case of the Plymouth examples, “ornamented -with a considerable quantity of scroll engraving. The pattern of one -of these consists of three circular figures, the two bottom ones being -larger than that which I take to be the central top one. Although each -circular scroll differs from the others, they are evidently figured -upon one general plan; the lines within, being segments of circles of -various sizes, form crescents with various modifications. Some portions -of the engraving, in order to give solidity to its character, were -filled in with numerous striated spots, consisting of three lines one -way and three lines at right angles to them. The entire surface of the -mirror was surrounded by a narrow border or rim, which was formed of a -separate piece, and folded over the margin. This specimen was damaged -in many parts, particularly upon the under surface, and some of the -edge was entirely eaten away, but where the rim was preserved the plate -was not only in good preservation, but not even oxidized, retaining -the bright colour of the bronze as perfectly as when, probably, in use -by its ancient possessor. A second had the handle attached to it. The -handle is cast in one piece in the form of a loop, having been made -by folding one half back against the other, and securing them in that -position by a band, the two free ends being spread out to hold the -mirror, which is received in a groove, and supported on each side by a -scroll work of bronze, of much of which, although lost, the impression -still remains upon the plate. The greater diameter of the mirror is -eight inches, that of the handle of the duplicate specimen, which -is supposed to be of the same size as the missing handle, is four -inches.” Several of these mirrors have been found in the cemeteries at -Colchester and in other places. - -Combs, both of wood and bone, are also found in the interments, as -are strigils, tweezers, locks and keys of numberless forms and sizes, -remains of small caskets, and a great many other articles. Of combs I -shall say a few words when speaking of those of the Anglo-Saxon period. - -Horse-shoes of this period are occasionally met with in interments when -the horse has been buried with his rider, or otherwise. One example, -so as to show the form, will be sufficient. It was found at Gloucester -some years ago, along with the lamp and circular fibulæ here engraved, -and with other relics of the same period. Of the other articles it will -not be necessary to make further mention. - -[Illustration: Fig. 324.] - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - - Anglo-Saxon Period--Distribution of Anglo-Saxon Population - over England--General characteristics of Grave-mounds--Modes - of Burial--Poem of Beowulf--Interments by Cremation and by - Inhumation--Articles deposited with the Dead--Positions of the - Body--Double and other Interments--Burial in Urns--Cemeteries - and Barrows. - - -The grave-mounds and cemeteries of the Anglo-Saxon period present -marked and decided features of difference to those of either of the -preceding periods; and again, the characters of these mounds and -cemeteries vary in different parts of the kingdom, according as such -districts were inhabited by different tribes or peoples. - -The date usually assigned to the first coming of the Saxons into -England, after the final departure of the Romans, is the middle of -the fifth century. They landed on the Isle of Thanet, and shortly -afterwards established themselves in Kent, and became a kingdom. -“Within thirty years another body of Saxons settled upon the south -coast of Britain, taking possession of the tract now called Sussex, -or the South Saxons. At the beginning of the sixth century a third -detachment from the same Germanic family landed further westward, and -founded the kingdom of the West Saxons, in which was included the Isle -of Wight. From the same source which supplies the brief notices of -these events, we learn that towards the middle of the sixth century -were formed the states of the East and Middle Saxons, in the districts -which, in consequence, took the names of Essex and Middlesex. We also -gather that the Angles who settled in the east and north-east of -Britain, and in the interior parts, probably made their first descents -towards the middle of the sixth century; so that the kingdoms known -as those of the East Angles (Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire), -the Middle Angles, the Northumbrians (from the Humber northwards), and -Mercia (on the borders of Wales), appear not to have been definitely -settled until at least a century after the landing of the Saxons in -Kent, in A.D. 449. Vague and unsatisfactory as are most of the details -of Saxon history, the gradual subjugation of Britain by successive -immigrations of Teutonic tribes may at least be accepted as the most -reconcilable with reason; and there seems nothing very repugnant to -the more rigid rules of criticism to regard these tribes under their -historic designation of Jutes, Saxons, and Angles; and, further, to -believe that at least a century was required to transform Britain, -after the Romans, into a heptarchy of Teutonic kingdoms. - -“Testing our Saxon antiquities with reference to the usually received -chronology of the advent and settlement in Britain of the Teutonic -tribes, it would be no unimportant result should they be in accordance -with accepted historical facts. They will be invested with novel and -higher interest if they should be found to carry in their form and -character certain peculiarities which suggest earlier and later dates, -and a diversity of parentage. For instance, if in the remains of the -Kentish Saxons and in those of the Isle of Wight we may recognise, -from close resemblance to each other, the weapons, the ornaments, -and the domestic implements of the Jutes; if, in the cemeteries of -Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, and Norfolk, we may, in like manner, identify -the funeral usages of the Angles; and in remains found in the midland -and western districts see still different peculiarities, but which -point to a kindred origin; it is not improbable that discoveries may -enable us to resuscitate, as it were, our remote predecessors; to -restore to those of the various Saxon kingdoms the very objects which -accompanied them when living: to the men, their weapons; to the women, -their peculiar jewellery, and those more humble and homely objects -which we may look upon as emblems of their domestic virtues. It is -not a slight analogy in some instances only that will establish this -theory; it must spring from the remains themselves, and be palpable and -convincing, or it must be rejected.”[48] - -Bearing this in mind, and also bearing in mind the modifications -which only a few years make in fashions and customs; and also bearing -in mind that although for convenience sake, as well as for want of -more definite knowledge, we call the whole population by the one term -of Anglo-Saxons, yet they were divided into as distinct classes, or -families, or tribes, as at the present day; we shall quite readily -understand why the modes of burial, and the objects found in the -graves, of one district are different from those, although coeval, -found in others. At the present day we use the general term Englishmen -for the whole of our population, and no better or clearer term could -be adopted; but we must bear in mind that the differences both -of appearance, of habits, of customs, of dialect, nay, of almost -everything, are as marked among us as if the inhabitants of the -various counties were each settlers from different nations. The men -of Derbyshire, for instance, are as far removed as well can be in -general character and in language from those of Somersetshire; and -these, again, are both totally dissimilar from the “Men of Kent,” -from the Lancashire operative, from the Yorkshiremen, or the men of -Devonshire, Hampshire, and many other counties. Each of these districts -has, and always has had, and long, long may it continue to have! its -own peculiar customs, its own peculiar habits, its own peculiar -observances; and each has what might almost be termed a _nationality_ -of its own, which it holds despite the levelling influence of railways -and other modern contrivances. If it is so at the present day, with a -settled population of so many centuries’ standing, how much more must -it have been so when each district was peopled by a different tribe -of settlers, speaking to some extent different languages, holding -different views, following different occupations, and observing -different customs! - -The grave-mounds and cemeteries of these different districts exhibit -a marked difference in modes of burial, in style and decoration of -pottery, and in characteristics of other remains, which will be made -apparent in the following _resumé_ of their varied contents. Thus, -as Mr. Smith says, “in Kent one of the most conspicuous features -in the Saxon sepulchral remains is the richly ornamented circular -fibulæ. These are sparingly found beyond the district occupied by the -earliest Saxon settlers. When they do occur, here and there, they -are exceptions; but throughout the county of Kent it would be a rare -occurrence to discover a Saxon funeral deposit without an example -of this elegant and peculiar ornament. In Suffolk, in Norfolk, in -Cambridgeshire, in Northamptonshire, in Leicestershire, and further -north, these circular fibulæ do but casually appear, but others of -a totally distinct character abound. In Berkshire, Oxfordshire, -and Gloucestershire are found saucer-shaped fibulae unlike either -of these two classes, and forming a third variety. In Suffolk, in -Cambridgeshire, in Leicestershire, and in other parts, have been -repeatedly found metal implements or ornaments, which I have designated -by the modern name of _chatellaine_, to give some notion of their form -and use. These remarkable objects in no instance have been found in -Kent, but other objects have been found in Kentish barrows which have -nowhere else been discovered.” - -The sepulchral remains of the Anglo-Saxons are of two general -classes--barrows and cemeteries--and in these the modes of burial have -been both by inhumation and by cremation. - -The grave-mounds, or barrows, are, as a rule, of much less altitude, -and of smaller dimensions, generally, than those of either of the -preceding periods. In some districts they are found in extensive -groups, frequently occupying elevated sites; at other times they are -solitary, and frequently the elevation above the surrounding surface is -so slight as to be scarcely perceptible except to the most practised -eye. Fortunately the mounds and cemeteries are particularly rich in -remains, and thus enable us to form a clearer idea of the habits, -and manners, and lives of our Saxon forefathers than we can of their -predecessors. In Kent, Sussex, and the Isle of Wight, Saxon graves -abound on the Downs; and in Derbyshire, Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, -Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, Norfolk, and -Yorkshire, cemeteries of more or less extent and importance exist, with -here and there a solitary barrow, or a group of barrows. Like their -Roman predecessors the Anglo-Saxons, to some extent, took possession -of, and buried in, the grave-mounds of the Ancient Britons, and it is -not a very unusual occurrence to find overlying the primary deposit an -interment of the Saxon period. - -Fortunately an early Anglo-Saxon poem, recounting the adventures of -the chieftain Beowulf, is preserved to us, and gives us a valuable and -highly graphic and interesting description of the ceremonies attendant -on his burial; the lighting of the funeral pyre, the burning of the -body of the hero, the raising of the mound over his remains, and the -articles placed beside him in his last home. Dying he - - bæꝺ̣ þæꞇ ᵹe ᵹe-ƿoꞃhꞇon - æꝼꞇeꞃ ƿineꞅ ꝺæꝺū - in bǽl-ꞅꞇeꝺe - beoꞃh þone heán, - micelne anꝺ mæꞃne.-- - -Which is translated:-- - - “he bad that ye should make, - according to the deeds of your friend, - on the place of the funeral pyle, - the lofty barrow - large and famous.” - -His request was carried out, the funeral pile raised, and every -preparation befitting his deeds was made. The pile was-- - - “hung round with helmets, - with boards of war,[49] - and with bright byrnies,[50] - as he had requested. - Then the heroes, weeping, - laid down in the midst - the famous chieftain, - their dear lord. - Then began on the hill, - the warriors, to awake - the mightiest of funeral fires; - the wood-smoke rose aloft - dark from the fire; - noisily it went - mingled with weeping.” - -The body of the hero having been consumed by the wood-fire, in the -midst of weeping friends, the people began to raise the barrow over his -ashes. This mound-- - - “was high and broad, - by the sailors over the waves - to be seen afar. - And they built up - during ten days - the beacon of the war-renowned. - They surrounded it with a wall - in the most honourable manner - that wise men - could desire. - They put into the mound - rings and bright gems, - all such ornaments - as before from the hoard - the fierce-minded men - had taken; - they suffered the earth to hold - the treasure of warriors, - gold on the earth, - where it yet remains - as useless to men - as it was of old.” - -When the burial was simply by inhumation, the body appears usually to -have been placed in a shallow grave, over which the mound was raised. -The graves were of rectangular form, and of various depths. On the -floor of the grave or pit the body was laid flat on its back, the arms -straight down by its sides, the hands resting on the pelvis, and the -feet close together. It was buried in full dress, and surrounded by a -number of articles pertaining to the deceased--both personal ornaments, -domestic instruments and vessels, and other things--and that had been -used or valued by him or her. Sometimes the body was enclosed in a -wooden chest or coffin before being placed in the grave. The grave, in -either of these cases, was then filled in--usually with a tempered or -“puddled” earth, which formed a close and extremely compact mass--and -the mound raised over it. This mound or hillock was called a _hlœw_, or -a _beorh_, _beorgh_, or _bearw_, from the first of which the name now -commonly used, _low_, is derived, and from the last the equally common -name _barrow_ originates. - -[Illustration: Fig. 325.] - -With the females, necklaces, rings, ear-rings, brooches, chatelaines, -keys, buckets, caskets, beads, combs, pins, needles, bracelets, -thread-boxes, tumblers, and a variety of other articles were found. -With the males, swords, spears, knives, shields, buckles, brooches, -querns, draught-men, etc., etc., are found. The warrior was usually -laid, in his full dress, flat on his back (as already spoken of); his -spears lying on his right side, his sword and knife on his left, and -his shield laid on the centre of his body. The accompanying engraving -(fig. 325) of a grave opened by the late Mr. Bateman, on Lapwing Hill, -will pretty tolerably illustrate this mode of Anglo-Saxon burial. -Beneath the bones of the skeleton were “traces of light-coloured hair, -as if from a hide, resting upon a considerable quantity of decayed -wood, indicating a plank of some thickness, or the bottom of a coffin. -At the left of the body was a long and broad iron sword, enclosed in -a sheath made of thin wood covered with ornamental leather. Under or -by the hilt of the sword was a short iron knife, and a little way -above the right shoulder were two small javelin heads, four and a half -inches long, of the same metal, which had lain so near each other as to -become united by corrosion. Among the stones which filled the grave, -and about a foot from the bottom, were many objects of corroded iron, -including nine loops of hoop iron (as shown in the engraving) about an -inch broad, which had been fixed to thick wood by long nails; eight -staples, or eyes, which had been driven through a plank, and clenched; -and one or two other objects of more uncertain application, all which -were dispersed at intervals round the corpse throughout the length -of the grave, and which may therefore have been attached to a bier -or coffin in which the deceased was conveyed to the grave from some -distant place. Indications existed of the shield having been placed -in its usual position over the centre of the body, but no umbone was -in this instance found. The mounds are usually, as in this instance, -very low, frequently not being raised more than a foot above the -natural surface of the ground. The earth was, as I have stated, usually -“puddled” or tempered with water, and thus the body in the grave became -closely imbedded in a compact and tenacious mass.” - -That the tempering, or puddling, was accompanied with some corrosive -preparation, there can be little doubt; for it is a fact, though a very -remarkable one, that whilst the skeletons of the Celtic period are -found in good condition, and in some instances perfect and sound, those -of the Anglo-Saxons have, almost invariably, entirely disappeared. -Thus, in a Celtic barrow, the primary interment of that period may be -found in perfect condition, while the secondary interment, that of the -Anglo-Saxon, although some centuries later in date, and some three or -four feet nearer the surface, will have decayed away and completely -disappeared. Thus, in a barrow at Wyaston, which had been raised over -the body of a Saxon lady, every indication of the body had disappeared, -with the exception of the enamel coating of the teeth, while a splendid -necklace of beads, a silver ring, silver ear-rings, and a silver brooch -or fibula, remained _in situ_ where the flesh and bones had once been. -Another instance (to which I shall have occasion again to allude) which -may be named, was the barrow at Benty Grange--a mound not more than -two feet in elevation, but of considerable dimensions, and surrounded -by a small fosse or trench, raised over the remains of a Saxon of -high rank. In this mound, although a curious and unique helmet, the -silver mountings of a leather drinking-cup, some highly interesting -and beautiful enamelled ornaments, and other objects, as well as -indications of the garments, remained, not a vestige of the body, -with the exception of some of the hair, was to be seen. The lovely -and delicate form of the female and the form of the stalwart warrior -or noble had alike returned to their parent earth, leaving no trace -behind, save the enamel of _her_ teeth and traces of _his_ hair alone, -while the ornaments they wore and took pride in, and the surroundings -of their stations, remained to tell their tale at this distant date. -In a barrow at Tissington, in which the primary (Celtic) interment was -perfect, the later Saxon one had entirely disappeared, while the sword -and umbone of the shield remained as they had been placed. - -The mode of interment with the funeral fire, as well as the raising -of the barrow, is curiously illustrated by the opening of two Saxon -graves at Winster. A large wood fire had, apparently, been made upon -the natural surface of the ground. In this a part of the stones to be -used for covering the body, and some of the weapons of the deceased, -were burned. After the fire was exhausted the body was laid on the spot -where it had been kindled, the spear, sword, or what not, placed about -it, and the stones which had been burnt piled over it. The soil was -then heaped up to the required height to form the mound. - -Usually, of course, the graves contain only one body, but instances -occasionally occur in which two or more bodies have been buried at the -same time. For instance, at Ozengal a grave has been opened which was -found to contain two skeletons. They were those of a man and a woman -who were laid close together, side by side, with their faces to each -other. In another were three skeletons, those of a man, a woman, and a -little girl. The lady lay in the middle, her husband on her right hand, -and their little daughter on her left; they lay arm in arm. In other -cases two or more interments have been found, usually lying side by -side, on their backs. - -In many Anglo-Saxon barrows, bones, thrown in indiscriminate heaps -or otherwise, are found at the top, over the original interments. -These are, very plausibly, conjectured to be the remains of slaves or -captives slain at the funeral, and thrown on the graves of their master -or mistress. - -When the burial has been by cremation, the ashes, after the burning -of the body which is so graphically described in the extract I have -given from Beowulf, were collected together and placed in urns. These -were usually buried in small graves, and their mouths not unfrequently -covered with flat stones. Some very extensive cemeteries where the -burials have been by this mode, have been discovered in Derbyshire, -Nottinghamshire, Northamptonshire, and other counties. With these it is -very unusual to find any remains of personal ornaments or weapons. Two -extensive and remarkable cemeteries of this kind have been discovered -at Kingston and at King’s Newton, both near Derby. At the first of -these places an extensive cemetery was uncovered in 1844, and resulted -in the exhumation of a large number of urns--indeed, so large a number -that, unfortunately, at least two hundred were totally destroyed by the -workmen before the fact of the discovery became known. On the surface -no indication of burials existed; but as the ground had, some sixty -years before, for a long period been under plough cultivation, and as -the mounds would originally have been very low, this is not remarkable. -The urns had been placed on the ground in shallow pits or trenches. -They were filled with burnt bones, and the mouth of each had been -covered with a flat stone. They were, when found, close to the surface, -so that the mounds could only have been slightly elevated when first -formed. Of the form of the urns I shall have to speak later on. The -cemetery at King’s Newton was discovered during the autumn of 1867, and -a large number of fragmentary urns were exhumed. The mode of interment -was precisely similar to that at Kingston, and the urns were of the -same character as those there discovered. There were no traces, in -either instance, of mounds having been raised, although most probably -they had originally existed. To the pottery found in these cemeteries -I shall refer later on. Cremation was the predominating practice among -the Angles, including Mercia, and the modes of burning the body, and -of interment of the calcined bones in ornamental urns, which I have -described in the two cemeteries just spoken of, are characteristic -of that kingdom. King’s Newton is within three miles of Repton -(Repandune), the capital of the kingdom of Mercia, and the burial place -of Mercian kings, and Kingston is also but a few miles distant. - -In some cases the burial has been without urns--the ashes being simply -gathered together in a small heap in the grave, or on the surface, and -the mound raised over it. - -I will now, as in the previous divisions, proceed to speak of the more -usual descriptions of relics which are found in the grave-mounds of -the Anglo-Saxons, and I will, as in those divisions, commence with the -fictile remains. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - - Anglo-Saxon Period--Pottery, general characteristics - of--Cinerary Urns--Saxon Urn with Roman Inscription--Frankish - and other Urns--Cemeteries at King’s Newton, etc.--Mode of - Manufacture--Impressed Ornaments. - - -The pottery of the Anglo-Saxon period, so far as examples have come -down to us, are almost, if not entirely, confined to sepulchral urns. -We know, from the illuminated MSS. of the period, to which we are -accustomed to turn for information upon almost any point, that other -vessels--pitchers, dishes, etc.--were made and used, but for those -which have come down to us we are indebted to the grave-mounds; and, -in these, sepulchral vessels, almost exclusively, are found to occur. -Cinerary urns are, therefore, almost the only known productions of -the Saxon potteries, and these, like those of the Celtic period, were -doubtless, in most cases, made near the spot where the burial took -place, and were formed of the clays of the neighbourhood. This is -proved, incontestably, in the case of the urns found at King’s Newton, -where the bed of clay still exists, and has very recently been used for -common pottery purposes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 326.] - -The shapes of the cinerary urns are somewhat peculiar, and partake -largely of the Frankish form. Instead of being wide at the mouth, -like the Celtic urns, they are contracted, and have a kind of neck -instead of the overhanging lip or rim which characterizes so much of -the sepulchral pottery of that period. The urns are formed by hand, -not on the wheel, like so many of the Romano-British period, and -they are, as a rule, perhaps, more firmly fired than the Celtic ones. -They are usually of a dark-coloured clay, sometimes nearly black, -at other times they are dark brown, and occasionally of a slate or -greenish tint, produced by surface colouring. The general form of these -interesting fictile vessels will be best understood by reference to -the engravings which follow. One of these (on fig. 326) will be seen -to have projecting knobs or bosses, which have been formed by simply -pressing out the pliant clay from the inside with the hand. In other -examples these raised bosses take the form of ribs gradually swelling -out from the bottom, till, at the top they expand into semi-egg-shaped -protuberances. The ornamentation on the urns from these cemeteries -usually consists of encircling incised lines in bands or otherwise, -and vertical or zigzag lines arranged in a variety of ways, and not -unfrequently the knobs or protuberances of which I have just spoken. -Sometimes, also, they present evident attempts at imitation of the -Roman egg-and-tongue ornament. The marked features of the pottery -of this period are the frequency of small punctured or impressed -ornaments, which are introduced along with the lines or bands with very -good effect. These ornaments were evidently produced by the end of a -stick cut and notched across in different directions so as to produce -crosses and other patterns. In some districts--especially in the East -Angles--these vessels are ornamented with simple patterns painted upon -their surface in white; but so far as my knowledge goes, no example of -this kind of decoration has been found in the Mercian cemeteries. - -Of these urns--the East Anglian, etc.--Mr. Wright (to whom, and to Mr. -Roach Smith, is mainly due the credit of having correctly appropriated -them to the Anglo-Saxon period), thus speaks:-- - -“The pottery is usually made of a rather dark clay, coloured outside -brown or dark slate colour, which has sometimes a tint of green, and -is sometimes black. These urns appear often to have been made with the -hand, without the employment of the lathe; the texture of the clay is -rather coarse, and they are rarely well baked. The favourite ornaments -are bands of parallel lines encircling the vessel, or vertical and -zigzags, sometimes arranged in small bands, and sometimes on a larger -scale covering half the elevation of the urn; and in this latter case -the spaces are filled up with small circles and crosses, and other -marks, stamped or painted in white. Other ornaments are met with, some -of which are evidently unskilful attempts at imitating the well-known -egg-and-tongue and other ornaments of the Roman Samian ware, which, -from the specimens, and even fragments, found in their graves, appear -to have been much admired and valued by the Anglo-Saxons. But a still -more characteristic peculiarity of the pottery of the Anglo-Saxon -burial urns consists in raised knobs or bosses, arranged symmetrically -round them, and sometimes forming a sort of ribs, while in the ruder -examples they become mere round lumps, or even present only a slight -swelling of the surface of the vessel. - -[Illustration: Fig. 327.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 328.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 329.] - -“That these vessels belong to the early Anglo-Saxon period is proved -beyond any doubt by the various objects, such as arms, personal -ornaments, etc., which are found with them, and they present evident -imitations both of Roman forms and of Roman ornamentation. But one of -these urns has been found accompanied with remarkable circumstances, -which not only show its relative date, but illustrate a fact in -the ethnological history of this early period. Among the Faussett -collection of Anglo-Saxon antiquities is an urn which Bryan Faussett -appears to have obtained from North Elmham, in Norfolk, and which -contained the bones of a child. It is represented in the accompanying -engraving (fig. 327), and will be seen at once to be perfectly -identical in character with the East Anglian sepulchral urns. But -Mr. Roach Smith, in examining the various objects in the Faussett -collection, preparatory to his edition of Bryan Faussett’s ‘_Inventorum -Sepulchrale_,’ discovered on one side of this urn a Roman sepulchral -inscription, which is easily read as follows:-- - - D. M. ‘To the gods of the shades. - LAELIAE To Lælia - RVFINAE Rufina. - VIXIT·A·XIII She lived thirteen years, - M·III·D·VI. three months, and six days.’ - -To this Roman girl, with a purely Roman name, belonged, no doubt, -the few bones which were found in the Anglo-Saxon burial urn when -Bryan Faussett received it, and this circumstance illustrates several -important as well as interesting questions relating to our early -history. It proves, in the first place, what no judicious historian -now doubts, that the Roman population remained in the island after -the withdrawal of the Roman power, and mixed with the Anglo-Saxon -conquerors; that they continued to retain for some time at least -their old manners and language, and even their Paganism and their -burial ceremonies, for this is the purely Roman form of sepulchral -inscriptions; and that, with their own ceremonies, they buried in the -common cemetery of the new Anglo-Saxon possessors of the land, for this -urn was found in an Anglo-Saxon burial ground. This last circumstance -had already been suspected by antiquaries, for traces of Roman -interment in the well-known Roman leaden coffins had been found in the -Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Ozingell, in the Isle of Thanet; and other -similar discoveries have, I believe, been made elsewhere. The fact of -this Roman inscription on an Anglo-Saxon burial urn, found immediately -in the district of the Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, which have produced so -many of these East Anglian urns, proves further that these urns belong -to a period following immediately upon the close of what we call the -Roman period.” - -The sepulchral vases found in the district of the middle Angles vary -but slightly in form from the East Anglian burial urns. An example -is given in fig. 328, from Chestersovers, in Warwickshire, where it -was found with an iron sword, a spear-head, and other articles of -Anglo-Saxon character. - -“If we had not abundant proofs of the Anglo-Saxon character of this -pottery at home,” continues Mr. Wright, “we should find sufficient -evidences of it among the remains of the kindred tribes on the -Continent, the old Germans, or Alemanni, and the Franks. Some years -ago an early cemetery, belonging to the Germans, or Alemanni, who then -occupied the banks of the Upper Rhine, was discovered near a hamlet -called Selzen, on the northern bank of that river, not far above -Mayence, and the rather numerous objects found in it are, I believe, -preserved in the Mayence Museum. They were communicated to the public -by the brothers Lindenschmit, in a well-illustrated volume published -in 1848, under the title ‘_Das Germanische Todtenlager bei Selzen in -der Provinz Reinhessen_.’ When this book appeared in England, our -antiquaries were astonished to find in the objects discovered in the -Alemannic cemeteries of the country bordering on the Rhine a character -entirely identical with that of their own Anglo-Saxon antiquities, -by which the close affinity of the two races was strikingly -illustrated. More recently, the subject has been further illustrated -in the description by Ludwig Lindenschmit of the collection of the -national antiquities in the Ducal Museum of Hohenzollern, and in -other publications. About the same time with the first labours of the -Lindenschmits, a French antiquary, Dr. Rigollot, was calling attention -in France to similar discoveries in the cemeteries which the Teutonic -invaders of Picardy had left behind them, and in which he recognized -the same character as that displayed by the similar remains of the -Anglo-Saxons in our island. Similar discoveries have been made in -Burgundy and in Switzerland, the ancient country of the Helvetii; and -it is hardly necessary here to do more than mention the great and -valuable researches carried on by the Abbé Cochet among the Frankish -graves in Normandy. It has thus become an established fact that the -varied remains of the tribes, all of Teutonic descent, who settled on -the borders of the Roman empire along the whole extent of the country -from Great Britain to Switzerland, present the same character and bear -a close resemblance.” - -A few figures will be sufficient to illustrate this resemblance as far -as regards the pottery, and these are here given, in which figs. 330 -and 332 are Alemannic vases from the cemetery of Selzen. It will be -seen that they resemble exactly in form those East Anglian urns we have -given in our plate, and the same ornamentation is also found among our -Anglo-Saxon pottery. These urns are described as being usually made of -the clay of the neighbourhood, in most cases turned on a lathe, but -many of them imperfectly baked. They are found in graves where the body -had not undergone cremation, and were used for containing articles of -a miscellaneous description. In one grave, at the feet of the skeleton -of a gigantic warrior, was found one of these urns, containing two -bronze fibulæ, a comb, a number of beads, a pair of shears, flints and -steel, and a bronze ring. Fig. 334 is an urn procured at Cologne, and -is slate-coloured, with an ornament of circular stamps. - -[Illustration: Fig. 330.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 331.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 332.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 333.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 334.] - -Figs. 331 and 333 are Frankish urns obtained by the Abbé Cochet from -Londinières in Normandy, and show at a glance the identity of the -Frankish pottery with the Germanic as well as with the Anglo-Saxon. -The first of these is surrounded with a row of the well-known bosses, -which are equally characteristic of the three divisions of this -Teutonic pottery, Anglo-Saxon, Frankish, and Alemannic. Above these -bosses is an ornament identical with that of the East Anglian urn with -the sepulchral inscription, given on fig. 327. The urn represented -in fig. 331 has an ornament which is evidently an imitation of the -egg-and-tongue ornament so common on the Roman pottery. The Abbé -Cochet collected in the course of his excavations in Normandy several -hundreds of these Frankish urns, which all present the same general -character. - -The next four examples are earthen vessels found in the lacustrine -habitations of Switzerland, of which so much has been written during -the last few years. Figs. 335, 336, and 337, are taken from the plates -illustrative of the communications of Dr. Ferdinand Keller to the -_Transactions_ of the Antiquarian Society of Zurich, and fig. 338, -also from the Zurich _Transactions_, and found in a Pfahlbau, near -Allensbach on the Untersee, on the borders of Switzerland and Germany. -A single glance will show a great similarity of form with those of the -Anglo-Saxons from our own country. - -[Illustration: Fig. 339.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 340.] - -The following engravings will exhibit a striking variety of cinerary -urns of the Anglo-Saxon period, from the Mercian cemetery at King’s -Newton. Fig. 339 is six and a quarter inches in height. It is -ornamented with encircling bands or lines and impressed ornaments. -In the upper band is a series of small circular indentations, with -a dot in the centre of each, and in the lower band are three rows of -dots. Between these bands is a series of indented crosses, which may -be described as in some degree approaching to crosses _patée_ in form. -At the bottom are also small square indentations, with diagonal lines. -Fig. 342 is seven inches in height. It is ornamented with encircling -lines, the central band bearing a double row of dots; the band at the -bottom of the neck a series of small indented quatre-foil flowers; and -the lower one a series of square indentations with diagonal lines. -Fig. 341 is one of the most elaborately ornamented urns which has ever -been discovered.[51] The remainder of the examples vary from these -and from each other, in point both of form and decoration. Some of -these have herring-bone lines, others simple punctures, and others, -again, encircling lines only. The marked features of the pottery of -this period is the frequency of small punctured or impressed ornaments, -which are introduced along with the lines or bands, with very good -effect. These ornaments were evidently produced by the end of a stick, -cut and notched across in different directions, so as to produce -crosses and other patterns, and by twisted slips of metal, etc. In the -annexed woodcut I have endeavoured to show two of the notched stick -“punches,” such as I have reason to believe were used for pressing into -the soft clay, and also two of the impressed patterns produced by it. - -[Illustration: Figs. 335 to 338.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 341.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 342.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 343.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 344.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 345.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 346.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 347.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 348.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 349.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 350.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 351.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 352.] - -Other varieties of pottery found in the Anglo-Saxon graves are a -species of cup, and upright vessels, one of which is shown on fig. 327. -Fragments of pitchers have also occasionally been found, as also have -portions of coarse dishes. In the Kentish graves, most of the pottery -is of the Roman period, and consists of Samian pateræ and other vessels -of that manufacture; and cups, etc., of the Upchurch and Castor wares, -etc. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - - Anglo-Saxon Period--Glass - Vessels--Drinking-glasses--Tumblers--Ale-glasses--Beads--Necklaces - --Ear-rings--Coins, - etc. - - -The glass vessels found in the grave-mounds of the Anglo-Saxon period -are principally drinking-cups of different forms, and decanter-shaped -vessels, which are closely analogous in shape to our common glass -toilet water-bottles. The Anglo-Saxons are supposed by most writers -to have derived their knowledge of the art of glass-making from -their Roman predecessors, but of this more proof is wanting. So very -different in most of its characteristics is the Saxon glass from -the Roman, that it is difficult to believe that the one is but an -imitation of the other. The forms are in many instances similar to -those found in Frankish graves, and it is certain that the art was -practised simultaneously in the Saxon period in Germany, France, and -our own country. The drinking-cups of glass were formed either rounded -or pointed at the bottom, so that they could not stand, and thus when -filled the liquor was obliged to be drunk off before the cup could -be set down inverted on the table. From this circumstance our modern -name for drinking-glasses--_tumblers_--takes its origin, although not -now in the original sense, our present “tumblers” being particularly -safe and firm when set on the table, and not necessitating the whole -of the contents being quaffed at once. Figs. 353 and 354 exhibit two -drinking-glasses of this kind, the first of which is ribbed. They -are from the Kentish graves. Fig. 355 is a glass cup from Cow-Low, -Derbyshire, found by the late Mr. Bateman, and which, from the care -which had been taken in enclosing it in a wooden box, must have been -no little prized by the deceased lady. The cup, of thick green glass, -a bone comb, some small instruments of iron, a piece of perforated -bone, and a necklace with pendant ornaments, with other articles, were -found enclosed in a box, or casket, made of ash wood, half an inch in -thickness, with two hinges and a small lock, which had, when placed in -the grave, been carefully wrapped in woollen cloth. The interment was -in many respects a highly interesting one. A cup of similar form is -shown on fig. 358, and other examples of glasses are shown on the same -group. - -[Illustration: Fig. 353.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 354.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 355.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 356.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 357.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 358.] - -These examples, it will be seen, must have been held in the open palms -of the hand, as is seen so frequently represented in illuminations, -and must have been emptied of their contents before being returned, -inverted, to the board. - -[Illustration: Fig. 359.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 360.] - -Another form, figs. 356 and 357, is the long ale-glass, the shape of -which is probably derived from the drinking-horns which were in use. -They, and other of the Saxon glasses, were often ornamented with a -raised thread or band on their outer surface, arranged either spirally -or otherwise. In _Beowulf_ these glasses are spoken of-- - - Þeᵹn nẏꞇꞇe beheolꝺ - ꞅe þeon hanꝺa bœꞃ - hꞃoꝺen ealo-ƿæᵹe. - - “The Thane observed his office, - he that in his hand bare - the twisted ale-cup.” - -This form of glass is well illustrated in the next engraving, fig. 359, -from a MS. of the twelfth century. In it the cup-bearer holds the glass -in one hand and the jug in the other, from which he has just filled it. -As an accompaniment to this I give another engraving, which shows the -cellarer with the barrels and two large earthenware pitchers, which, -it will be observed, are ornamented in precisely the same manner as -some of the urns I have engraved. Another excellent example of the -use of these glasses at a banquet is shown on fig. 361, where a mixed -company of males and females are seated at a banquet, and pledging each -other in them. It is from the Cottonian MSS. in the British Museum. - -[Illustration: Fig. 361.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 362.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 363.] - -The next two figures (362 and 363) show two of the decanter-shaped -vessels to which I have alluded, and figs. 364, 365, and 366 again -exhibit a different variety--one in which the ornament is formed of a -number of what may almost be called handles--hollow protuberances, or -claws, attached at the upper and lower ends. Many specimens of these -curious glasses have been found in graves in different districts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 365.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 364.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 366.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 367.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 368.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 369.] - -Among the most profuse of Anglo-Saxon remains are the beads and -necklaces of glass, of amber, and of other materials, many of which -are of extreme beauty. The greater part of the beads which are found -are composed of glass, transparent and opaque; variegated clays of -different colours; and of amber. Less frequently beads of amethystine -quartz, of crystal, and of other rare natural substances are found. -Sometimes the beads are formed singly, and at other times they are -in couplets or triplets. Beads of metal--gold and silver--and of -stones set in the same precious metals, have also been exhumed. Beads -mounted on rings, or, more properly speaking, threaded on rings, -are of not unfrequent occurrence, and appear, in many instances, to -have been intended for the ears. The three engravings (figs. 367, -368, and 369) will serve as examples of beads. The first, engraved -full size, is of glass, and is ornamented with red, white, and yellow -waves. The other two are of clay, with yellow stripes. They are from -Sibertswold. The beads from the Kentish barrows are perhaps the most -extensive in number, as well as the most varied in form, material, and -ornamentation, of any. The next illustration (fig. 370) shows a series -of twenty-seven beads, which formed the necklace of an Anglo-Saxon -lady, whose grave was opened by Mr. Bateman at Wyaston. In this barrow, -which was thirty-three feet in diameter, and four feet high in the -centre, were discovered the remains of a human skeleton, consisting -merely of the enamel crowns of the teeth, which, though themselves but -scanty mementoes of female loveliness, were accompanied by several -articles indicating that the deceased was not unaccustomed to add -the ornaments of dress to the charms of nature. These comprise a -handsome necklace of twenty-seven beads, a silver finger-ring, silver -ear-rings, and a circular brooch or fibula. Five of the beads are of -amber, carefully rounded into a globular shape, the largest an inch -diameter; the remaining twenty-two (two of which are broken) are mostly -small, and made of porcelain or opaque glass, very prettily variegated -with blue, yellow, or red, on a white or red ground. The finger-ring -is made of thick silver wire, twisted into an ornamental knot at the -junction of the ends. The ear-rings are too slight and fragmentary for -description. The fibula is a circular ring, ribbed on the front, an -inch and a half diameter, composed of a doubtful substance. The remains -of the teeth show the person to have been rather youthful, and afford -another instance of the extreme decay of the skeleton usual in Saxon -deposits in this part of the country, whilst those which we have reason -to reckon centuries more ancient are mostly well preserved. Rings of -silver, with cylindrical, or globular, or flattened beads attached, are -of common occurrence in the Kentish and other graves. Of pendants I -shall speak a little later on. - -[Illustration: Fig. 370.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 371.] - -Coins have only occasionally been discovered with Anglo-Saxon -interments, and these have, in most instances, been of the preceding -Roman period. Byzantine, Frankish, and Merovingian coins have likewise -been found in the graves. Coins, to which loops are attached, so as to -be worn as personal ornaments, are also found. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - - Anglo-Saxon - Period--Arms--Swords--Knives--Spears--Shields--Umbones of - Shields--Buckles--Helmets--Benty-Grange Tumulus--The Sacred - Boar--Grave at Barlaston--Enamelled Discs and pendant - Ornaments, etc.--Horse Shoes. - - -The arms of the Anglo-Saxons, so far as is known from the contents of -their graves, consisted of swords, spears, knives, shields, daggers, -etc., and occasionally with the men, besides these things, are found -remains of helmets, ornaments from horse-trappings, buckles, axes, and -many other articles. - -The swords are straight-bladed, usually double-edged, with hilts of -metal or wood. The scabbards were sometimes of wood, sometimes of -leather, and sometimes again of bronze, and are often elaborately -ornamented at the chape. The sword here engraved (fig. 372) was found -in a barrow at Tissington, in Derbyshire. It had originally been -enclosed in a wooden scabbard or sheath, which had apparently been -covered with leather, and mounted with ornamented silver. Most of this -ornamentation was decayed and lost, but sufficient remained to show -that the sword had been of no ordinary beauty and value, and must have -belonged to some person of note. The traces of silver ornamentation at -the head are indicated on the engraving. The chape, which is simply -rounded, is of silver, and the rivets still remain, as do also those by -which the leather was attached to the wood. The sword is thirty-four -inches in length, and two inches and a half in breadth. Across its -upper part lay a small fragment of the shield, and near it, spread -about, were a few pieces of iron, some of which, when joined together, -proved to be a spear-head of the usual form of the period. It had -doubtless been broken and disturbed at the time when the bones were -dispersed by the planting of the trees. - -[Illustration: Fig. 372.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 373.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 374.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 375.] - -A remarkably fine sword (fig. 373) was found in 1868 at Grimsthorpe. -It is of iron, and remains encased in its bronze scabbard in a more -perfect state than usual. The extreme length of the sword and scabbard, -from pommel to chape, is thirty-one inches; the length of the scabbard -from guard to point of chape, twenty-four inches. The breadth at the -mouth is one inch and seven-eighths. The guard is of bronze, and is -engraved on fig. 374. The scabbard is formed of thin plate bronze, and -has an encircling band of the same material to hold the upper points -of the chape to its sides. The length of the chape from the band is -six inches and a half. The chape, which is exquisitely formed, is -engraved on fig. 375, and will be seen to be of unusual beauty. It is -in a remarkably perfect condition, and, being formed of bronze (the -scabbards of the period to which it belongs being usually of wood -with metal chape and fittings), is of great rarity and interest. The -chape had been set with six small, and one large, stones, as will be -seen by the engraving. Some of these, which were probably garnets, -were remaining. They had been affixed to their places by small rivets -passing through their centres. A series of fifteen examples of -Anglo-Saxon swords (figs. 376 to 390) from illuminated MSS., etc., are -here given for purposes of comparison. Some of these will be found to -be of precisely similar form to those already given, and others, again, -have trefoiled pommels. - -[Illustration: Fig. 376.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 377.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 378.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 379.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 380.] - -[Illustration: Figs. 381 to 390.] - -A good figure of a swordsman, with sword and shield, is also given on -the next figure (fig. 391). - -[Illustration: Fig. 391.] - -Swords with ornamental pommels and hilts are of rare occurrence, but -examples occur in the Faussett and other collections. Probably those -with ornamented hilts would also have their chapes correspondingly -ornamented. In _Beowulf_ occur these lines:-- - - “When he did off from himself - his iron coat of mail, - the helmet from his head, - gave his ornamented sword, - the costliest of irons, - to his servant.” - -And again:-- - - anꝺ þa hilꞇ ꞅomoꝺ - ꞅince páᵹe. - - (“And with it the hilt - variegated with treasure.”) - -A remarkable hilt, bearing an inscription in Runic characters, was -found at Ash, in Kent. It is of silver. On one side is the Runic -inscription engraved in the metal, on the other a zigzag and other -ornaments. A hilt of this kind must undoubtedly have been the one so -graphically described in _Beowulf_, where a sword, inscribed with the -name of its first owner and with other matters of extreme interest, is -“looked upon” and pondered over. The passage is thus:-- - - “He looked upon the hilt, - the old legacy, - on which was written the origin - of the ancient contest; - after the flood slew, - the pouring ocean, - the race of giants; - daringly they behaved; - that was a strange race - to the eternal Lord, - therefore to them their last reward - through floods of water - the ruler gave. - So was on the surface - of the bright gold - with Runic letters - rightly marked, - set and said, - for whom that sword, - the costliest of irons, - was first made, - with twisted hilt and variegated like a snake.” - -The runes on the hilt first spoken of and engraved would doubtless, if -properly translated, tell as pleasant and as interesting a story as the -one narrated by Beowulf. - -[Illustration: Figs. 392 to 396.] - -The knife or dagger (the _seax_), which is of iron, is of different -forms. The most usual shapes are given on figs. 392 to 396. The larger -were used for war purposes, the smaller for domestic purposes--the -Saxon carrying his own knife with him for his food, attached to his -belt, both at home and to the banquets of his friends. The _seax_, as a -weapon, is frequently alluded to in _Beowulf_: thus, when _Beowulf_ and -the Mother of Grendal, the fiend, were struggling together:-- - - “She beset then the hall-guest, - and drew her _seax_, - broad, brown-edged.” - -And in another part, when Beowulf was fighting with the dragon, after -having broken his sword in the contest, he - - “Drew his deadly _seax_, - bitter and battle-sharp, - that he on his birnie[52] bore.” - -Spear and javelin heads are of frequent occurrence; they are of iron, -and, although varying considerably, both in size and shape, they all -bear a strong and marked resemblance to each other, and have sockets. -Their “peculiarity is a longitudinal slit in the socket which received -the wooden handle or staff, and which, after being fixed, was closed -with iron rings, string-braided, and rivets.”[53] Examples are given -in figs. 333 to 403, and again on fig. 404. In interments the spear -usually lies by the right side of the skeleton, where the position of -the shaft may be traced by a line of decayed wood; at the bottom a -metal ferule or ring is sometimes found. The axe is usually of the form -here shown, and is of iron. It will be seen how closely some of these -resemble the forms found depicted by Anglo-Saxon artists in the MSS. of -the period, a selection from which is here given. - -[Illustration: Figs. 397 to 403.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 404.] - -The shield appears to have been made of wood, and to have been circular -in form. It was frequently covered with leather, and sometimes with -thin sheets of bronze. The boss or umbone was of various forms and -sizes, as will be shortly shown. The wood of which the shield was -composed appears from Beowulf to have been that of the linden tree:-- - - “He seized his shield, - the yellow linden-wood.” - -The shield was often called a “war-board;” and we learn that Beowulf, -when he was preparing to encounter the fire-dragon, knowing that a -wooden shield would be no proof against fire, ordered one “all of iron” -to be made for him:-- - - “Then commanded he to be made for him - the refuge of warriors, - _all of iron,_ - the lord of eorls, - a wondrous _war-board_; - he knew right well - that him forest wood - might not help, - linden-wood against fire.” - -One of the most remarkable remains of shields which has been brought -to light is the one at Grimsthorpe,[54] where, on the breast of the -skeleton, lay a mass of decayed wood, a quantity of ferruginous -dust--probably the remains of the handle and inside fittings of the -shield--and remains of decomposed leather. On these lay two thin plates -of bronze, and the umbone or boss of the same metal, which had formed -the outer covering of the “war-board.” These two plates and the umbone -are engraved on fig. 405. The discs or plates of bronze are little -thicker than ordinary writing-paper. They each measure twelve and a -half inches from point to point, and are three and three quarter inches -in width in the middle. They have a raised border of curious design -around their outer edge, and they have been, like the boss, attached -to the shield by pins or rivets. The boss is of very unusual form, and -has been attached to the shield by rivets or pins; it is ornamented -with engraved lines. From this curious discovery it would appear that -this warrior of the Yorkshire Wolds bore a shield formed of wood and -covered with leather; that it was faced with plates of bronze, and had -a bronze umbone; and that the handle, and probably the strengthening -bars, on the inner side were of iron. - -[Illustration: Fig. 405.] - -Many handles of iron, belonging to shields, have been found in the -Kentish and other barrows. The shield, in interments, was usually -placed flat on the centre of the body, as shown on fig. 325. - -[Illustration: Fig. 406.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 407.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 408.] - -The umbone or boss of the shield was, as I have said, of various -forms. The most usual shapes are, perhaps, those here given from -Kentish graves (figs. 406 and 407), and fig. 408, from Tissington, -where it was found along with the sword before described (fig. 372). -This extremely interesting relic, which is among the largest ever -found, measures nine inches in height. It is, of course, of iron, and -is of the same type as one found at Sibertswold, which is engraved in -the “_Inventorum Sepulchrale_.” The texture of cloth in which it had -been enfolded when placed by the body of the hero by whom it was borne, -is distinctly traceable on several parts of its surface. The umbone, -as it lay, was surrounded with the wood, in a complete state of decay, -which had once formed the shield; and small fragments of corroded -iron, which were doubtless a part of the mountings of the shield, were -scattered about. - -Of the form of the Anglo-Saxon shield and its umbone, a tolerably good -idea may be formed by the series of examples here given (figs. 409 to -416), from the illuminated MSS. of the period. - -[Illustration: Figs. 409 to 416.] - -Of Saxon armour the remains yielded to us by the graves are few and -far between. Buckles, such as probably fastened the belt or girdle to -which the knife, the sword, etc., were suspended, and others which -have doubtless belonged to some portions of the dress, are the most -abundant. They are of varied form, some being of particularly elegant -design, partaking of the character of the fibulæ of the period. Twelve -examples from the Kentish graves are given on figs. 417 to 428. - -Helmets, or head coverings, in a fragmentary state, have on some few -occasions been found. The most remarkable discovery of this kind which -has been made is the one which was found by my friend, the late Mr. -Bateman, at Benty Grange,[55] in Derbyshire, in the year 1848. The -account of this discovery is so full of interest, and so curious, that -I give it in Mr. Bateman’s own words. He says:-- - -“It was our good fortune to open a barrow which afforded a more -instructive collection of relics than has ever been discovered in the -county, and which are not surpassed in interest by any remains hitherto -recovered from any Anglo-Saxon burying-place in the kingdom. - -[Illustration: Fig. 417.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 418.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 419.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 420.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 421.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 422.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 423.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 424.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 425.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 426.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 427.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 428.] - -“The barrow, which is on a farm called Benty Grange, a high and bleak -situation to the right of the road from Ashbourn to Buxton, near the -eighth milestone from the latter place, is of inconsiderable elevation, -perhaps not more than two feet at the highest point, but is spread over -a pretty large area, and is surrounded by a small fosse or trench. -About the centre, and upon the natural soil, had been laid the only -body the barrow ever contained, of which not a vestige besides the hair -could be distinguished. Near the place which, from the presence of -hair, was judged to have been the situation of the head, was a curious -assemblage of ornaments, which, from the peculiarly indurated nature -of the earth, it was impossible to remove with any degree of success. -The most remarkable are the silver edging and ornaments of a leathern -cup, about three inches in diameter at the mouth, which was decorated -by four wheel-shaped ornaments and two crosses of thin silver, affixed -by pins of the same metal, clenched inside (fig. 429). The other -articles found in the same situation consist of personal ornaments, -the chief of which are two circular enamels upon copper 1¾ diameter, -in narrow silver frames, and a third, which was so far decomposed as -to be irrecoverable (see group, fig. 430); they are enamelled with a -yellow interlaced dracontine pattern, intermingled with that peculiar -scroll design, visible on the same class of ornaments figured in -‘Vestiges,’ p. 25, and used in several MSS. of the seventh century, for -the purpose of decorating the initial letters. The principle of this -design consists of three spiral lines springing from a common centre, -and each involution forming an additional centre, for an extension -of the pattern, which may be adapted to fill spaces of almost any -form. Mr. Westwood has shown in a most able paper in the 40th No. -of the Journal of the Archæological Institute, that this style of -ornamentation is peculiar to the Anglo-Saxon and Irish artists of the -period before stated. The pattern was first cut in the metal, threads -of it being left to show the design, by which means cells were formed, -in which the enamel was placed before fusion, the whole being then -polished became what is known as _champ-levé_ enamel. There were also -with these enamels a knot of very fine wire, and a quantity of thin -bone, variously ornamented with lozenges, etc., which were mostly too -much decayed to bear removal; they appeared to have been attached to -some garment of silk, as the glossy fibre of such a fabric was very -perceptible when they were first uncovered, though it shortly vanished -when exposed to the air. Proceeding westward from the head for about -six feet, we arrived at a large mass of oxydized iron, which being -removed with the utmost care, and having been since repaired where -unavoidably broken, now presents a mass of chainwork, and the frame of -a helmet. The latter consists of a skeleton formed of iron bands (fig. -431) radiating from the crown of the head, and riveted to a circle of -the same metal which encompassed the brow: from the impression on the -metal it is evident that the outside was covered with plates of horn -disposed diagonally so as to produce a herring-bone pattern; the ends -of these plates were secured beneath with strips of horn corresponding -with the iron framework, and attached to it by ornamental rivets of -silver at intervals of about an inch and a half from each other. On -the bottom of the front rib, which projects so as to form a nasal, is -a small silver cross, slightly ornamented round the edges by a beaded -moulding; and on the crown of the helmet is an elliptical bronze plate -supporting the figure of an animal carved in iron, with bronze eyes, -now much corroded, but perfectly distinct as the representation of -a hog. There are, too, many fragments, some more or less ornamented -with silver, which have been riveted to some part of the helmet in a -manner not to be explained or even understood; there are also some -small buckles of iron, which probably served to fasten it upon the -head. Amongst the chainwork is a very curious six-pronged instrument -of iron, in shape much like an ordinary hay-fork, with the difference -of the tang, which in the latter is driven into the shaft, being in -this instrument flattened and doubled over so as to form a small loop, -apparently convenient for suspension; whether it belonged to the -helmet or the corselet, next to be described, is uncertain. The iron -chainwork already named consists of a large number of links of two -kinds, attached to each other by small rings, half an inch in diameter; -one kind are flat and lozenge-shaped, about an inch and a half long; -the others are all of one kind, but of different lengths, varying from -four to ten inches. They are simply lengths of square rod iron with -perforated ends, through which pass the rings connecting them with the -diamond-shaped links; they all show the impression of cloth over a -considerable part of the surface, and it is, therefore, no improbable -conjecture that they would originally constitute a kind of quilted -cuirass, by being sewn up within, or upon, a doublet of strong cloth. -The peculiarly indurated and corrosive nature of the soil in this -barrow is a point of some interest, and it will not be out of place to -state that such has generally been the case in tumuli in Derbyshire, -where the more important Saxon burials have taken place, whilst the -more ancient Celtic interments are generally found in good condition, -owing to there having been no special preparation of the earth, which -in these cases has undergone a mixing or tempering with some corrosive -liquid, the result of which is the presence of thin ochrey veins in the -earth, and the decomposition of nearly the whole of the human remains. -The following extract from Professor Worsaae’s ‘Antiquities of Denmark’ -illustrates the helmet, which is the only example of the kind hitherto -discovered, either in this country or on the Continent:-- - -[Illustration: Fig. 429.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 430.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 431.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 432.] - -“‘The helmets of the ancient Scandinavians, which were furnished with -crests, usually in the form of animals, were probably in most cases -only the skins of the heads of animals, drawn over a framework of wood -or leather, as the coat of mail was usually of strong quilted linen, or -thick woven cloth.’” - -To this the translator of the English edition appends the important -information, that “the animal generally represented was the boar; and -it is to this custom that reference is made in _Beowulf_, where the -poet speaks of the boar of gold, the boar hard as iron.” - - “Sƿẏn eal ᵹẏlꝺen, - Eoꝼeꞃ Iꞃen-heꞃꝺ.” - -Nor are allusions to this custom of wearing the figure of a boar--not -in honour of the animal, but of Freya, to whom it was sacred--confined -to Beowulf; they are to be found in the _Edda_ and in the _Sagas_; -while Tacitus, in his work, “De Moribus Germanorum”, distinctly refers -to the same usage and its religious intention, as propitiating the -protection of their goddess in battle. As a further illustration, not -only of the helmet, but also of the chainwork, the following extracts -from Beowulf are transcribed from Mr. C. R. Smith’s “Collectanea -Antiqua,” vol. ii., p. 240:-- - - eoꝼeꞃ-líc ꞅción “They seemed a boar’s form - oꞃ-oꝼeꞃ hleoꞃ bæꞃon; to bear over their cheeks; - ᵹe-hꞃoꝺen ᵹolꝺe, twisted with gold, - ꝼáh anꝺ ꝼýꞃ-heaꞃꝺ, variegated and hardened in the fire, - ꝼeꞃh ƿeaꞃꝺe heólꝺ. this kept the guard of life: - - I. 604. - - be-ꝼonᵹen ꝼꞃeá-ƿꞃáꞅnum, Surrounded with lordly chains, - ꞅƿa híne ꝼẏꞃn ꝺaᵹum even as in days of yore - ƿoꞃhꞇe ƿæpna ꞅmið, the weapon smith had wrought it, - ƿunꝺꞃum ꞇeóꝺe, had wondrously furnished it, [swine, - be-ꞅeꞇꞇe ꞅƿín-lícum, had set it round with the shapes of - ꝥ hine ꞅẏðan nó that never afterwards - bꞃonꝺ né beaꝺo-mecaꞅ brand or war-knife - bíꞇan ne meahꞇon: might have power to bite it: - - I. 2901 - - æꞇ þæm áꝺe ƿæꞅ At the pile was - eþ-ᵹe-ꞅýne easy to be seen - ꞅƿáꞇ-ꝼah ꞅẏꞃce, the mail shirt covered with gore, - ꞅƿýn eal-ᵹẏlꝺen, the hog of gold, - eoꝼeꞃ íꞃen heaꞃꝺ: the boar hard as iron: - - I. 2213. - - Heꞇ ðá in-beꞃan Then commanded he to bring in - eaꝼoꞃ-heáꝼod-ꞅeᵹn, the boar, an ornament to the head, - heaþo-ꞅꞇeapne helm, the helmet lofty in war, - heꞃe-bẏꞃnan, the grey mail coat, - ᵹuð-ꞅƿeoꞃꝺ ᵹeáꞇo-líc: the ready battle sword.” - - I. 4299. - -It will be noticed in these extracts that “mail coat” or “mail shirt” -is twice mentioned, as well as the “helmet lofty in war.” Thus -the passages in a remarkable degree illustrate this extraordinary -discovery, which embraced a coat of mail along with the helmet and -other objects. The coat appears to have consisted of a mass of -chainwork, the links of which were attached to each other by small -rings. - -Fragments of another helmet were the following year found in another -barrow in the same neighbourhood, at Newhaven, along with other objects -of interest. The barrow had, however, at some previous time been -grievously mutilated. Of this barrow Mr. Bateman says: “We opened a -mutilated mound of earth in a field near Newhaven House, called the -Low, two-thirds of which had been removed, and the remainder more -or less disturbed, so that nothing was found in its original state, -which is much to be regretted, as the contents appear to be late in -date, and different in character from anything we have before found in -tumuli. The mound itself, being constructed of tempered earth, bore -some analogy to the grave-hill of the Saxon Thegn, opened at Benty -Grange about a year before, and, like it, was without human remains, if -we except a few fragments of calcined bone, which are too minute to be -certainly assigned either to a human or animal subject. The articles -found comprise many small pieces of thin iron straps or bands, more or -less overlaid with bronze, which are by no means unlike the framework -of the helmet found at Benty Grange. There is also a boss of thin -bronze, three inches diameter, pierced with three holes for attachment -to the dress, (?) and divided by raised concentric circles, between -which the metal is ornamented with a dotted chevron pattern, in the -angles of which are small roses punched by a die. Another object in -bronze is a small round vessel or box of thick cast metal, surrounded -by six vertical ribs, and having two perforated ears, serving probably -better to secure the lid and suspend the box. Although it measures less -than an inch in height, and less than two in diameter, it weighs full -3½ ounces. A similar box, with the lid, on which is a cross formed of -annulets, found with Roman remains at Lincoln, is engraved at page -30 of the Lincoln Book of the Archæological Institute, where it is -called a pyx. Two others, discovered at Lewes, are engraved in the -‘Archæologia,’ vol. xxxi., page 437, one of which has the lid bearing -a cross precisely similar to the Lincoln example, whence it is certain -that they must be assigned to a Christian period, probably not long -previous to the extinction of the Saxon monarchy. The last object there -is occasion to describe is an iron ferrule or hoop, an inch and a half -in diameter, one edge of which is turned inwards, so as to prevent -its slipping up the shaft on which it has been fixed. We also found -some shapeless pieces of melted glass, which, from their variegated -appearance, might be the product of fused beads; and observed many -pieces of charred wood throughout the mound, which may possibly not -have been of a sepulchral character.” - -Another helmet, or defensive cap, was found some years ago at -Leckhampton Hill, in Gloucestershire, the ribs of which bear a striking -analogy to the one here described. - -A remarkable discovery, which included portions of what is very -plausibly considered to be a helmet, was also, a few years ago, made on -the estate of Mr. Francis Wedgwood, at Barlaston, in Staffordshire. The -particulars of this I now for the first time make public. The grave, -which was seven feet in length by two feet in width, was cut in the -solid red-sandstone rock. It was about fifteen inches in depth at the -deepest part, which was at the south-east corner, and died out with the -slope of the hill towards the north-west, and the earth which covered -it (which had probably been tempered in the usual manner) was only a -few inches in thickness. It was on the slope of the hill. At the upper -or northerly end of the grave a basin-like cavity, two or three inches -in depth, was cut in the floor of rock (see A in the plan, fig. 433). -In this hollow, which had evidently been intended for the helmeted -head of the deceased to rest in, was found the remains of what I have -alluded to as justly considered to be remains of a bronze helmet. The -skeleton had, as is so frequently the case in Anglo-Saxon interments, -entirely disappeared, but on its right side lay the sword (B), and on -the left a knife (C). - -The fragments in the cavity consisted of several pieces of curved -bronze, highly ornamented, which had probably, with other plain curved -pieces, formed the framework of the helmet; some thin plates of bronze; -a flat ring of bronze, beautifully ornamented (fig. 434), which is -conjectured to have been the top of the framework of the helmet; and -three enamelled discs, of a similar character to what have been -elsewhere found, with hooks for suspension, or attachment to leather -or other substance. One of these is engraved, of its real size, on the -next illustration (fig. 435). The centre is of enamel mosaic work, -ground down level with the metal, as in the old Chinese enamels. - -[Illustration: Fig. 433.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 434.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 435.] - -The inference to be drawn from this curious discovery is, that the -grave was that of a Saxon of high rank, who had been buried in his full -dress, and that the cavity had been specially cut out in the floor of -the rock grave to admit of the helmet being worn as when he was living. -No remains of a shield were noticed, nor were any other remains found -in the locality, which was carefully dug over for the purpose. - -[Illustration: Fig. 436.] - -Enamelled discs, or pendants, such as I have just spoken of (see fig. -435), have been occasionally found in other localities, as will have -been noticed in the course of the last few pages. The use of these -curious objects is very obscure, and I am not aware that any very -particular attention has been paid to them. Portions of these were -found in the Benty Grange barrow (fig. 430), along with the Saxon -helmet. A very perfect example was found in a barrow on Middleton Moor, -Derbyshire, in 1788,[56] where it was found lying near the shoulder. In -the same barrow was a portion of another enamelled ornament, the iron -umbone of a shield, and a thin vessel of bronze--described as like a -shallow basin--which probably formed a portion of a helmet. These two -interesting relics are here engraved (figs. 436 and 437). The first -of these will be seen to bear a striking resemblance to the Barlaston -example (fig. 435), and the second, in form, to be very similar to the -next example (fig. 438), from the museum of the Royal Irish Academy. -Some precisely similar objects--similar in design and in size to figs. -435 and 436--were found at Chesterton. Of the four of these objects -there found, two are precisely alike, and had hooks for suspension in -the same manner as is shown on fig. 435; the other two have no hooks, -and are of a different pattern of enamelling. Other examples have been -brought to light in different localities, but these will be sufficient -for my present purpose. - -[Illustration: Fig. 437.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 438.] - -It is, of course, very difficult to come to any conclusion, in the -present state of our knowledge of Anglo-Saxon history, as to the -original uses of these and other objects. That these enamelled and -handled discs were intended for suspension by their hooks there can -be but little doubt, and it seems not improbable that they might -serve as pendants to the helmet; the two with hooks possibly hanging -as ear-guards or coverings, and the others being attached by pins or -rivets to, perhaps, the front and back of the circle. It is hoped -that ultimately the use of these curious relics may be correctly -ascertained. In the barrow at Grimthorpe, already referred to, a disc -of somewhat similar character, of thin metal, was found. It had been -attached by three pins or rivets, the holes for which remained. It was -not enamelled, but decorated with raised ornaments. It is engraved of -its full size on fig. 439. - -[Illustration: Fig. 439.] - -A singular plate of cast and chased bronze, strongly gilt, and set with -garnets, found in Northamptonshire, and now in the Bateman museum, is -engraved in the “Reliquary,” vol. i. It has at the back, besides a -central projection, four pierced projections for attachment to leather -or other substance, and four “swivel” projections, if they may be so -termed, on its edges, to which other matters have been attached by -rivets, which are still remaining. - -Enamelling and goldsmiths’ work were evidently arts in which the -Anglo-Saxon artificers excelled; some of the rings and fibulæ, and -other relics, being of extreme elegance and richness, and of great -beauty in design. - -Having spoken of the arms, helmets, etc., found in Anglo-Saxon -graves, it will be well before proceeding to describe the personal -ornaments, to note that horse-shoes are occasionally met with in -interments, showing that the horse was, in some instances, buried -with its rider. Having given, on fig. 324, the form of a horse-shoe -of the Romano-British period, I now engrave examples of those of the -Anglo-Saxon times. Figs. 440 and 441 are two shoes from a Saxon grave -in Berkshire. - -[Illustration: Fig. 440.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 441.] - -They will be seen to be of a very different form to those of the -preceding era. One has calkins, but the other is without, and both are -even on the outer edge, not “bulged,” as those of Roman times are. -In illustration of this matter, I am enabled, through the courtesy -of my friend Mr. Fleming, to give the accompanying engraving from -his admirable work on “Horse-shoes and Horse-shoeing,” to which I -would direct the attention of all who are interested in this branch -of archæological inquiry. The engraving represents the contents of -a grave-mound excavated at Selzen, on the Rhine, by Lindenschmidt, -in which, along with the skeleton of the warrior, were the skull and -other remains of his horse, with portions of horse-shoes, as well as -some urns of good character, and of close resemblance to those of our -Anglo-Saxon period. Tumuli containing the remains of horses are of -unfrequent occurrence in England, and therefore this example becomes -interesting as an illustration for comparison. - -[Illustration: Fig. 442.] - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - - Anglo-Saxon Period--Fibulæ--Enamelled circular Fibulæ--Gold - Fibulæ--Pendant Cross--Cruciform Fibulæ--Penannular - Fibulæ--Irish and English examples--Pendant Ornaments, etc. - - -The fibulæ of the Anglo-Saxon period are the most remarkable, perhaps, -of any of the products of the grave-mounds of that people. They are -of extreme interest, not merely from their design and the excellence -of their workmanship, or from their various forms and styles of -ornamentation, but because by their varieties the different races to -which they belonged can, in great measure, be determined. - -The more beautiful and elaborate, and at the same time the richest -in effect, of these various forms of fibulæ are those of circular -form, which, although found in various parts of the kingdom, are more -abundant in the barrows of Kent than elsewhere. The finest of these -ever discovered was found in 1771, “near the neck, or rather more -towards the right shoulder,” of the female skeleton in a grave six feet -deep, ten feet long, and eight feet wide, on Kingston Down, along with -some small silver fibulæ, a golden amulet, some small hinges, a chain, -some bronze vessels, pottery, and a variety of other articles. This -fibula, here engraved (fig. 443), which is quite unique, “stands at the -head of a class by no means extensive, characterized by being formed of -separate plates of metal, enclosed by a band round the edges. The shell -of this extraordinary brooch is entirely of gold. The upper surface is -divided into no less than seven compartments, subdivided into cells of -various forms. Those of the first and fifth are semi-circles, with a -peculiar graduated figure, somewhat resembling the steps or base of a -cross, which also occurs in all the compartments, and in four circles, -placed cross-wise with triangles. The cells within this step-like -figure and the triangular are filled with turquoises; the remaining -cells of the various compartments with garnets, laid upon gold-foil, -except the sixth, which forms an umbo, and bosses in the circle, which -are composed apparently of mother-of-pearl. The second and fourth -compartments contain vermicular gold chain-work, neatly milled and -attached to the ground of the plate. The reverse of the fibula is also -richly decorated.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 443.] - -The vertical hinge of the acus is ornamented with a cross set with -stones, and with filigree work round its base. The clasp which receives -the point of the acus is formed to represent a serpent’s head, the -eyes and nostrils of which, and the bending of the neck, are marked in -filigree. This precious jewel was secured by a loop which admitted of -its being sewn upon the dress. - -Another remarkably fine example, found on the breast of a female -skeleton in Berkshire, is now in the Ashmolean museum. It measures two -inches and seven-eighths in diameter. The base is formed of a thin -plate of silver, above which, resting apparently on a bed of paste, is -a plate of copper, to which is affixed a frame-work of the same metal, -giving the outline of the pattern. The four divisions of the exterior -circle were originally filled with paste, on which were laid thin -laminæ of gold, ornamented with an interlaced pattern in gold wire of -two sizes, delicately milled or notched, resembling rope-work. Of these -compartments one is now vacant. This wire ornament was pressed into the -gold plate beneath, and there are no traces of any other means than -pressure having been used to fix it. The four smaller circles and that -in the centre are ornamented with bosses of a white substance, either -ivory or bone, but the material is so much decomposed it is difficult -to say which; these bosses are attached to the copper plate beneath -by iron pins. The entire face of the fibula was originally set with -small pieces of garnet-coloured glass laid upon hatched gold-foil. The -upper and lower plates of this ornament are bound together by a band of -copper gilt, slightly grooved. The acus is lost. - -[Illustration: Fig. 444.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 445.] - -The magnificent circular fibula of gold here engraved (fig. 444) was -discovered some years ago in a barrow on Winster Moor, in Derbyshire. -It was formed of gold filigree work, which was mounted on a silver -plate. It was set with stones or paste on chequered gold-foil, and -measured two inches in diameter. Along with this fibula were found the -following interesting articles: a cross of pure gold, ornamented, like -the fibula, with filigree work, and having a garnet cut in facets set -in its centre (fig. 445); a silver armlet; two glass vessels, and a -number of beads. These and some other articles were all found by the -sides of two cinerary urns. - -Many of the circular fibulæ are, of course, of a much smaller and less -elaborate character than those here given. They all, however, bear, -exclusive of the fact of their being found along with other evidences -of the period to which they belong, characteristics which cannot well -be mistaken. - -[Illustration: Fig. 446.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 447.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 448.] - -These circular fibulæ appear to have been worn by the Anglo-Saxon -ladies on the breast or, occasionally, shoulder. They were probably, -therefore, used for fastening the dress on the bosom, as is so often -seen in illuminated MSS. and on tombs of a later period. - -[Illustration: Fig. 449.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 450.] - -Another extensive class of Anglo-Saxon fibulæ are what are usually -called, though not very satisfactorily, cruciform, or cross-shaped. -Fibulæ of this class are, perhaps, most abundant in the midland and -south-eastern counties, but they are of very rare occurrence in Kent. -They would appear, therefore, to have appertained mostly to the Angles, -who were the inhabitants of Mercia, East Anglia, and Northumbria. They -are sometimes of silver, but usually of bronze, and are variously -ornamented with interlaced work, heads, and borders of various designs. -Their form will be best understood from the accompanying engravings, -which exhibit some of the most usual varieties. They are from -Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire, and -will serve as typical examples of this class of brooch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 451.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 452.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 453.] - -Another totally distinct kind of fibula, or brooch, which is -considered to be peculiarly of Irish type, but which, nevertheless, is -occasionally met with in England, remains to be noticed. I allude, of -course, to brooches of the penannular form,[57] the general type of -which will be understood by the engravings given on figs. 453, 454, and -455, which are all Irish examples of more or less decorative character. -The originals are in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy, as are also -many other exquisite specimens of these interesting examples of early -art. - -[Illustration: Fig. 454.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 455.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 456.] - -The one next figured (fig. 456) was discovered in Westmoreland, and -described and engraved in the _Archæological Journal_, vol. ix. page -90. This beautiful fibula I here engrave of a reduced size. The ring, -it will be seen, moves freely round the upper half of the brooch, the -lower or flat part of which is divided so as to allow of the passage -of the acus through it. “It is set with flat bosses, five on either -side. Each of these flat dilated parts of this curious ornament appears -to proceed from the jaws of a monstrous head, imperfectly simulating -that of a serpent or dragon; and between the jaw is introduced the -intertwined triplet, or _triquetra_, the same ornament which is found -on the sculptured cross at Kirk Michael, Isle of Man, and on some Saxon -coins.” This example is of silver. With it was found a silver armlet--a -simple twisted bar of decreasing thickness towards the extremities, -which are hooked. The dimensions of the fibula are, length of acus, -eleven inches; greatest diameter of circular part, five inches; width -of the dilated part, two inches; weight, 8 oz. 8 dwt. - -[Illustration: Fig. 457.] - -By far the finest example found in England is the one next figured -(fig. 457). It was found in 1862, near the picturesque village of -Bonsall, in the High Peak of Derbyshire. It is of bronze, and is -here engraved of its full size. The ring measures three inches and -seven-eighths in its greatest diameter, and the acus, which is not -engraved of its full length, is six inches and three-quarters long. - -It has originally been set with amber or paste, and has been richly -gilt and enamelled. The interlaced ornaments are most exquisitely and -elaborately formed, and are of great variety, and the heads of animals -are of excellent and characteristic form. The head of the acus, or -pin, is large and beautifully ornamented, and, like the ring, has been -set with studs. The pin itself, as will be seen by the accompanying -engraving (fig. 458), is flattened and made thin at its upper end, and -bent so as to allow of the free passage of the ring through it, and is -riveted on to the ornamented plate in front. - -[Illustration: Fig. 458.] - -It is remarkable that, in this fibula, the ring, which, like other -examples of this form of brooch, has been made to play freely for half -its circumference through the acus, has been riveted to the head of -the pin in the position shown in the engraving. That it has been much -worn in this position--_across_ the breast or shoulder--is evident from -the ring being much worn where the pin has pressed against it when -clasped. I believe this is the only example on record in which the -pin has been _fixed_ to the side of the ring, and this was certainly -not the original intention of the maker of the brooch, but was done -subsequently. This will be seen by the engraving of the profile of the -head of the acus, on fig. 458. On one or two examples of penannular -brooches, inscriptions in Ogham characters have been found, and it -is highly interesting to be able to add that, on the back of the -Derbyshire example, faint traces of Oghams still remain. - -[Illustration: Fig. 459.] - -Another brooch, of silver, found in England, though different in form -from the expanded examples just given, and although of later date, is -nevertheless of the same construction. It is engraved of a reduced -size on fig. 459. “The acus has been broken off. There appears to have -been a third knob, now lost, which should correspond with the knob B, -the acus passing between the two. The upper knob A is very loose, and -moves freely around the ring. The knob B turns, but much less freely, -and does not pass over C, having merely a lateral motion of one-fourth -of an inch.” The diameter of the widest part is nearly five and a half -inches; the globular ornaments measure one and a quarter inches in -diameter. The under side of each of the balls is flat, and is engraved -with ornaments, as shown on the engraving. This brooch belongs to Mr. -C. Carus Wilson, and closely resembles some of the Irish examples. - -Of the mode of wearing penannular brooches, the late Mr. Fairholt -says: “By the sumptuary laws of the ancient Irish, the size of these -brooches, or fibulæ, were regulated according to the rank of the -wearer. The highest price of a _silver_ bodkin for a king or an -_ollamh_, which, according to Vallancy, was _thirty_ heifers, when made -of refined silver; the lowest value attached to them being the worth -of three heifers. From this it may be inferred, that the rank of the -wearer might always be guessed at from the fibulæ he wore.” The rank -of the wearers of the “Tara Brooch”--the most famous of all the Irish -brooches at present known--and of the Derbyshire example, must, judging -from their large size and truly exquisite workmanship, have been high. - -The extreme rarity of brooches of this form in England, leads one, -naturally, to the conclusion that they were not much worn by the -inhabitants of this country, and that, therefore, they can hardly -be considered to belong to the nationality, if I may so speak, of -the Anglo-Saxons. Nevertheless, examples having been here found in -close proximity to undoubted Anglo-Saxon remains, and the style of -ornamentation being strictly in keeping with much belonging to that -period, there can be no doubt that they must be included amongst our -Anglo-Saxon antiquities. - -Some of the most beautiful objects, along with the fibulæ, which -the graves of the Anglo-Saxons yield, are the pendant ornaments of -various kinds which were worn by that race of people. The objects of -this class are extremely varied; but their beauty, like those of the -richly studded and gilt fibulæ, and the enamelled studs and bosses, -cannot well be understood without the aid of coloured illustrations. Of -these a set of exquisite pendants were found along with several other -interesting objects, in a barrow on Brassington Moor, by Mr. Bateman. -Eleven of these pendants are large and brilliantly coloured garnets -beautifully set in pure gold, two are entirely of gold, and the third, -also of gold, is of spiral wire. Two beads, one of green glass, the -other of white and blue glass, were also found. - -Gold drops of a similar character to those just described have been -frequently found in the Kentish graves, as have also one or two crosses -very similar to the one engraved on a previous page (fig. 445). -Circular pendants of gold and other materials, decorated with enamelled -or raised interlaced and other ornaments, or set with garnets and other -stones, are also found. Among the most interesting of this class of -pendant ornaments are coins to which loops have been attached. Examples -have been found in Kent and elsewhere, and show that the fashion to -some extent indulged in at the present day of wearing coins attached to -watch chains, etc., is at least of Anglo-Saxon origin. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - - Anglo-Saxon Period--Buckets--Drinking-cups of wood--Bronze - Bowls--Bronze Boxes--Combs--Tweezers--Châtelaines--Girdle - Ornaments--Keys--Hair-pins--Counters, or Draughtmen, and - Dice--Querns--Triturating Stones, etc.--Conclusion. - - -Buckets, so called, and very appropriately, from their close -resemblance in form to our modern vessels bearing that name, are -occasionally found in Anglo-Saxon graves. They are small wooden vessels -bound round with hoops or rims of bronze, more or less ornamented, -and have a handle of the same metal arched over their tops. Of course -in every case the wooden staves of which they were composed, and -which were of ash, are decomposed, the hoops, handle, and mountings -alone remaining. They vary very much in size; one from Bourne Park -had the lower hoop twelve inches in diameter, and the upper one ten -inches, and the whole height appears to have been about a foot; the -handle was hooked at its ends exactly the same as in our present -buckets, and fitted into loops on the sides; it had three looped -bronze feet to stand upon. Other examples only measure four or five -inches in diameter. The example here engraved (fig. 460) was found in -Northamptonshire, along with other remains. It is composed of three -encircling hoops of bronze, and has its handle and attachments also of -the same metal. - -[Illustration: Fig. 460.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 461.] - -The next example (fig. 461) is from Fairford, in Gloucestershire, and -is three inches in height, and four inches in diameter. The hoops -and mountings are of bronze. Another example, which I give for the -purpose of comparison, is from Envermeu, in Normandy (fig. 462). Of the -use of these utensils nothing certain, of course, is known, but it is -conjectured they were used for bringing in mead, ale, or wine, to fill -the drinking-cups--the objection to this as a general rule being their -very small size. “The Anglo-Saxon translation of the Book of Judges -(vii. 20) rendered _hydrias confregissent_, by ‘ꞇo-bꞃœcon pa bucaꞅ,’ -_i.e._ ‘they broke the buckets.’ A common name for this vessel, which -was properly called _buc_, was _œscen_, signifying literally a vessel -made of ash, the favourite wood of the Anglo-Saxons.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 462.] - -Drinking-cups were sometimes of wood. Of these, two examples are here -given. The first of these has a rim of brass, the second a like rim -attached by overlapping bands. It has also a number of small bands of -the same metal riveted on to mend cracks in the wood. They were found -in a barrow on Sibertswold Down, in Kent. - -[Illustration: Fig. 463.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 464.] - -Bowls of bronze are occasionally also found. Some of these are plain, -others enamelled or otherwise ornamented, and others, again, gilt. -Many of them appear from their form to have been of Roman origin. -Some remarkably fine examples have been yielded by the graves of Kent -and other districts. The one here engraved (fig. 465) was found at -Over-Haddon, in Derbyshire, along with the remains of a circular -enamelled disc of the kind described on a previous page, and other -relics. The bowl was seven inches in diameter, and had originally two -handles. They are supposed to have been used for placing hot meats -in, on the table. They range in size from four or five to twelve or -fourteen inches in diameter. - -[Illustration: Fig. 465.] - -Small boxes of bronze are occasionally found, and are of different -forms. Some are plain upright boxes with lids, just intended to hold -sewing materials--in fact, the work-boxes of the Saxon ladies--and -others are rather large, and have been intended to contain the -comb, etc.: they are, therefore, a kind of dressing-cases. The box -engraved on fig. 466 was found along with other Saxon remains near -Church Sterndale. The grave, which was cut in the rock, contained a -skeleton of a woman; the lower bones were fairly preserved, but of -the upper parts there were but few remains, the enamel crowns of the -teeth being in the best condition. “At the left hip was a small iron -knife four inches long, and where the right shoulder had been was -an assemblage of curious articles, the most important of which was -a small bronze box or canister, with a lid to slide on, measuring -altogether two inches high, and the same in diameter. When found, it -was much crushed, but still retained, inside, remains of thread, and -bore on the outside impressions of linen cloth. Close to it were two -bronze pins or broken needles, and a mass of corroded iron, some of -which has been wire chainwork connected with a small bronze ornament -with five perforations, plated with silver, and engraved with a cable -pattern, near which were two iron implements of larger size, the whole -comprising the girdle and châtelaine, with appendages, of a Saxon lady. -Many pieces of hazel stick were found in contact with these relics, -which were probably the remains of a basket in which they were placed -at the funeral. All the iron shows impressions of woven fabrics, three -varieties being distinguishable; namely, coarse and fine linen, and -coarse flannel or woollen cloth. The box is very faintly ornamented by -lozenges, produced by the intersection of oblique lines scratched in -the metal.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 466.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 467.] - -The next engraving shows a bronze box of quite a different character, -found with Anglo-Saxon remains at Newhaven. It is two inches in -diameter, but very thick. It has six vertical ribs and two bars for -attachment of the lid. - -[Illustration: Fig. 468.] - -Needles and pins are frequently met with. The two shown on fig. 466 -will, however, be sufficient to call attention to these minute objects. - -Combs of the Anglo-Saxon period differ but little from those of the -Romans, or indeed from those of the present day. They were, both Roman -and Saxon, sometimes toothed on one side and sometimes on both sides, -and were made alike of wood, of metal, of bone, and of ivory. Boxwood -appears to have been so much used for the manufacture of combs as to -have occasionally given its own name to them. Thus Martial says:-- - - “Quid faciet nullos hic inventura capillos, - Multifido buxus quæ tibi dente datur?” - -Wooden combs have naturally for the most part perished, but fragments -have occasionally been found. Combs, both of bronze and iron, of the -Roman period, have also been discovered. The greater part, however, -both of that and of the Saxon period, which have been exhumed, are of -bone and ivory. A good example of the single-edged or “backed” comb is -given on fig. 469; they varied much in ornamentation. The next (fig. -470) is toothed on both its edges, and has guards or covers to fit on -the teeth, in the same manner as common pocket-combs of the present -day. The next is a comb with a handle, which was dredged up out of the -river Thames. The period is somewhat uncertain, but I give it for the -purpose of comparison, as I do also the three next figures, the first -of which is from the mummy graves at Arica, the second a modern wooden -comb from the same district, and the third an Indian scalp-comb. Combs -from Rangoon, in the Burmese empire, and from China, are also very -curiously illustrative of those of early races found in our own country. - -[Illustration: Fig. 469.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 470.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 471.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 472.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 473.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 474.] - -Mirrors such as are found in Roman graves are occasionally, but very -rarely, met with; they were, of course, articles for the toilet. Shears -or scissors of iron, some of which are of precisely the same form as -our modern sheep-shears, and others of the shape of scissors of the -present day, are of not unfrequent occurrence. Tweezers, too, are -occasionally met with. The usual form is shown on fig. 475. They are of -bronze, and were, it is said, used for pulling out superfluous hairs -from the body. They with the scissors were frequently worn attached to -the girdle, along with other instruments, of which I shall now say a -few words. - -[Illustration: Fig. 475.] - -Châtelaines, or girdle-hangers, are among the most interesting of -discoveries in the graves of Saxon females. They consist of a bunch -of small implements of various kinds--keys, tweezers, scissors, -tooth-picks, ear-picks, nail-cleaners, etc., and ornaments of one kind -or other--hung on a chain, which being attached to the girdle hung down -by the side to the thigh, or, in some instances, evidently as low as -the knee. The various instruments are of silver, bronze, or iron, and -are generally, the iron especially, corroded into an almost shapeless -mass. The silver and bronze being more endurable, the instruments of -these metals are better preserved. The example here given (fig. 476) -is from one of the Kentish graves. Of some of the articles found the -use is unknown, but most can be easily identified. A bunch of what is -supposed to be three latch-keys is given on fig. 477, and on the next -figure, 478, two curious objects, the use of which has probably been to -hang small instruments on, to attach them to the girdle. For the same -use, probably, are the curious and somewhat puzzling objects which are -occasionally met with, and are here shown on fig. 479. They are found -in pairs, attached at the top, and vary much in the pattern of the -lower extremities. Probably the girdle passed through the upper part, -and keys and other objects would be hung on the lower ends. Each side -of the one here engraved is six and a half inches in length. A large -variety of girdle ornaments have been found in different districts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 476.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 477.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 478.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 479.] - -Hair-pins are of various forms and lengths. They are generally of -bronze, but sometimes of bone. They are sometimes plain, but at -others highly ornamented, occasionally being richly enamelled. Fig. -480 is of unique form, and has three flat pendants of bronze attached -to its head by a ring. Besides hair-pins, numbers of metal pins for -domestic purposes are met with. - -[Illustration: Fig. 480.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 481.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 482.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 483.] - -Of locks and keys, scales and weights, and many other articles, it will -not be necessary to speak at further length than simply to note that -they are sometimes found in Saxon graves. Bells--small hand-bells--too, -are found in the graves of women. They are of bronze or iron, and of -the rectangular form so characteristic of Saxon bells of larger size. - -One of the most curious set of objects which the Saxon graves of -Derbyshire have produced is a set of twenty-eight bone counters, or -draughtmen, some of which are shown on the following engraving (fig. -484) where they are represented of their full size. They were found by -Mr. Bateman in a barrow near Cold Eaton, along with an interment of -burnt bones, some fragments of iron, and portions of two bone combs. -The draughtmen, as they are supposed to be, and the combs, had been -burnt with the body. The following is Mr. Bateman’s account of this -curious discovery:-- - -“The barrow was about twenty yards across, with a central elevation -of eighteen inches, and was entirely composed of earth. The original -deposit was placed in a circular hole, eighteen inches in diameter, -sunk about six inches in the stony surface of the land on which the -barrow was raised, so that the entire depth from the top of the latter -was two feet. The interment consisted of a quantity of calcined human -bones, which lay upon a thin layer of earth at the bottom of the hole, -as compactly as if they had at first been deposited within a shallow -basket or similar perishable vessel. Upon them lay some fragments of -iron, part of two bone combs, and twenty-eight convex objects of bone, -like button-moulds. - -“The pieces of iron have been attached to some article of perishable -material; the largest fragment has a good-sized loop, as if for -suspension. One of the combs has been much like the small-tooth comb -used in our nurseries, and is ornamented by small annulets cut in the -bone; the other is of more elaborate make, having teeth on each side -as the former, but being strengthened by a rib up the middle of both -sides, covered with a finely cut herring-bone pattern, and attached by -iron rivets. - -“The twenty-eight bone objects (of which nine are engraved on fig. -484) consist of flattened hemispherical pieces, mostly with dots on -the convex side; in some, dots within annulets. They vary from half an -inch to an inch in diameter, and have generally eight, nine, or ten -dots each; but these are disposed so irregularly that it would be -difficult to count them off-hand, which leads to the conclusion that -these counters would not be employed for playing any game dependent -upon numbers, like dominoes or dice, but that they were more probably -used for a game analogous to draughts. This is most likely to be the -fact, as draughtmen have occasionally been found in Scandinavian -grave-mounds; and we must assign this interment to the Saxons, whose -customs were in many respects identical. All the articles found in this -barrow have undergone the process of combustion, along with the human -remains.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 484.] - -In Yorkshire, some years ago, a stone, marked in small squares like a -draught-board, was found at Scambridge.[58] In a grave at Gilton, in -Kent, two small dice, here engraved of their full size (fig. 485), were -found. They were formed of ivory or bone. - -[Illustration: Fig. 485.] - -Querns, or hand-mills, for grinding corn, have on many occasions been -found in or about Anglo-Saxon interments. The one engraved on the next -figure (fig. 486) was found in a Saxon grave in the grounds of Miss -Worsley, at Winster, along with many other interesting relics. One half -of the quern had been burnt along with the body, as had also many of -the stones which formed the mound. - -[Illustration: Fig. 486.] - -The next (fig. 487) is from Kings Newton, the same locality referred to -under the head of Anglo-Saxon pottery. Portions of stones which have -evidently formed triturating stones, or grinders, are occasionally -found in the grave-mounds of different periods. These have doubtless -been of the same general character with the two here engraved for -comparison (figs. 488 and 489). Similar stones are found in Ireland. - -[Illustration: Fig. 487.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 488.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 489.] - -Besides the objects here spoken of, a large variety of interesting -remains of a miscellaneous character are found in the Saxon graves, -but which, however interesting they may be, do not require in my -present work to be specially noted. - - * * * * * - -I have endeavoured in the foregoing pages to give, in as brief a form -as was consistent with a clear description of the objects, a faithful -picture of the endless stores of treasures which the grave-mounds -of our earliest forefathers open out to us, and to point out, with -the aid of illustrations, the characteristics of each of the three -great divisions, so as to enable my readers correctly to appropriate -any remains which may come under their notice. I have purposely, -and studiously, avoided theory and conjecture as far as was at all -possible; contenting myself rather with bringing forward facts, which -observations, personal or otherwise, into the grave-mounds and their -contents have established, than speculating upon matters which can have -no real bearing upon the subject. - -It is said that “there is nothing new under the sun.” The researches -which have been made into the grave-mounds of the three great -periods--the Celtic, the Romano-British, and the Anglo-Saxon--tend -immeasurably to show the approximate truth of this adage, and my -readers, from the foregoing pages, will be able to judge pretty -correctly how many of our so-called _modern_ inventions and appliances -were common to, and in use by, our predecessors of “centuries and tens -of centuries” of years gone by. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Abney Moor, 75 - Abury, 71 - Adzes, 109, et seq. - Aldborough, 145 - Ale Glasses, 229, et seq. - Allemanic Pottery, 221 - Amber Beads, 134 - Anglo-Saxon Armour, 252, et seq. - Anglo-Saxon Arms, 236 to 264 - Anglo-Saxon Banquet, 231 - Anglo-Saxon Buckets, 280 to 282 - Anglo-Saxon Cellarer, 230 - Anglo-Saxon Coins, 235 - Anglo-Saxon Cup-bearer, 230 - Anglo-Saxon Fibulæ, 267 to 279 - Anglo-Saxon Glass, 228 to 235 - Anglo-Saxon Horse shoes, 264 - Anglo-Saxon Interments, 202 to 213 - Anglo-Saxon Interments in Celtic Barrows, 13 - Anglo-Saxon MSS., 230, 239, 240, 282 - Anglo-Saxon Period, 202 to 298 - Anglo-Saxon Personal Ornaments, 233 to 235 - Anglo-Saxon Poem of Beowulf, 206, et seq., 241, 255, 256 - Anglo-Saxon Population, 202, et seq. - Anglo-Saxon Pottery, 214 to 227 - Animal Bones, 23, 39 - Arbor-Low, 3, 71, 82, 4, 50, 71, 82, 117 - Arica, 287 - Armlets, 196, 27 - Armour, 248, et seq., 253, 254 - Arrow-heads, Bronze, 193 - Arrow-heads, Flint, 115, et seq. - Artis, 152, et seq. - Ash, 241 - Ashborne, 250 - Ashbury, 67 - Avisford, 147 - Axe-heads, 109, et seq. - - - Balidon Moor, 87 - Ballynageerah, 62 - Banquet, 230 - Barlaston, 258 to 263 - Barrows, distribution of, 1 - Barrows, Elliptical, 6 - Barrows, Long, 5 - Barrows, meaning of, 4 - Barrows, (see Grave-mounds) - Barrows, Twin, 5 - Bartlow, 142, 147, 185 - Basin, Stone, 60 - Baslow, 4, 33 - Bateman, T., 12, 24, 115, 123, 209, 233, 250, 256, 263, 279, 293 - Bath, 149 - Battley, 162 - Beads, Amber, 234 - Beads, Clay, 233 - Beads, Glass, 186, 187 - Beads, Jet, 123, et seq., 233 to 235 - Bells, 292 - Benty Grange, 211, 250, et seq., 257, 261 - Beowulf, 206, et seq., 230, 240, 241, 255, 256 - Berkshire, 67 - Berriew, 80 - Bishopstoke, 144 - Blake-Low, 4 - Blind-Low, 4 - Boar-Low, 4 - Boar, Sacred, 253 to 257 - Bone Implements, 42, 48, 124 to 128 - Bonsall, 275 - Borther-Low, 4 - Bottles-Low, 4 - Boulders, 33 - Bourne Park, 280 - Bowls, 283, 284 - Boxes, Bronze, 257, 284, 285, 286 - Boyne, 57 - Brassington Moor, 74 - Brennanstown, 63 - Brier Low, 3 - Briggs, J. J., 225 - Bronze Bowls, 283, 284 - Bronze Box, 257, 284, 285, 286 - Bronze Celts, 25, 128 to 131 - Bronze Daggers, 48, 130, 131, 132 - Bronze Pins, 35 - Brooch (see Fibulæ) - Broseley, 165, 168 - Broughton, 35 - Brown-Low, 4 - Buckets, 280, 281, 282 - Buckles, 248, 249, 250 - Burnt Bones, 31 to 43 - Buxton, 3, 122, 123, 250 - - - Caerleon, 149 - Calais Wold, 116, 120, 124 - Caldon-Low, 4 - Cal-Low, 4 - Calver-Low, 4 - Cambridgeshire, 35, 289 - Carvoran, 148 - Casking-Low, 4 - Castleford, 196 - Castor 164 - Castor Potter’s Kiln, 152 - Castor Pottery, 152 to 162 - Cellarer, 230 - Celtic or Ancient British Period, 6 to 133 - Celtic Bone Articles, 123 to 126 - Celtic Bronze Celts, 128 to 132 - Celtic Bronze Daggers, 132, 133 - Celtic Chambered Tumuli, 50 to 71 - Celtic Coins, 132, 133 - Celtic Cromlechs, 27, 50 to 71 - Celtic Flint Implements, 114 to 121 - Celtic Gold Articles, 132 - Celtic Interments, 6 to 49 - Celtic Jet Articles, 122 to 125 - Celtic Pottery, 83 to 107 - Celtic Stone Circles, 10, 71 to 82 - Celtic Stone Implements, 108 to 114 - Celts, Bronze, 128 to 131 - Celts, Flint, 122 - Celts, Stone, 109, 110, 111 - Cemeteries, Roman, 134, et seq. - Cemeteries, Kingston, 212 - Cemeteries, Kings Newton, 212, 222, et seq. - Cemeteries, Saxon, 212, et seq. - Chain-work, 254 - Chambers, Sepulchral, 146 - Chambered Tumuli, 55 to 71 - Chambers of Stone, 27, 50, 55 to 71, 146, et seq. - Channel Islands, 63 - Châtelaines, 289 - Chatham, 160, 162 - Chelmorton-Low, 4 - Chester, 147 - Chesters, 149 - Chestersovers, 219 - Chesterton, 262 - Chest, Stone, 143, et seq. - Chisels, 109 - Chun Cromlech, 53 - Church Sterndale, 284 - Cinerary Urns, Anglo-Saxon, 214, et seq. - Cinerary Urns, Celtic, 31, 34, 84 to 95 - Cinerary Urns, Frankish, 221 - Cinerary Urns, Romano-British, 161, et seq. - Circles of Stone, 10, 71 to 82 - Circles of (see Stone Circles) - Cist, Stone, 11, et seq., 36 - Clay Coffins, 145 - Cloth, Burial in, 35 - Cloth, Interment in, 35, 45 - Cloth, Woollen Garment, 45, 46 - Cochét, 221 - Cock-Low, 4 - Coffins, Clay, 145. - Coffins, Lead, 144 - Coffins, Stone, 143 - Coffins, Tile, 147 - Coffins, Wood, 143 - Coins, Ancient British, 133 - Coins, Roman, 32, 55, 136, 141, 187, 188 - Coins, Saxon, 235 - Colchester, 143, 144, 146, 147, 157, 159, 185, 201 - Colchester, Vase, 159 - Cold Eaton, 293 - Combs, 201, 286, 287, 288, 293 - Contracted Positions, 11, et seq. - Cop-Low, 4 - Cornwall, 2, 51, 75 - Counters, 292 to 295 - Cow Dale, 123 - Cow-Low, 4, 228 - Craike Hill, 43 - Cremation, Interments by, 11, 31, 134, et seq., 202, et seq. - Cromlech, Ballynageerah, 62 - Cromlech, Brennanstown, 63 - Cromlech, Chun, 53, 54 - Cromlech, De Tus, 27 - Cromlech, Drumloghan, 61 - Cromlech, Gaulstown, 62 - Cromlech, Gib Hill, 43 - Cromlech, Glencullen, 63 - Cromlech, Howth, 63 - Cromlech, Kells, 61 - Cromlech, Kilternan, 63 - Cromlech, Kits Coty House, 53 - Cromlech, Knockeen, 61 - Cromlech, Knock Mary, 63 - Cromlech, L’Ancresse, 63 - Cromlech, Lanyon, 51, 52 - Cromlech, Minning-Low, 54, 55 - Cromlech, Molfra, 54 - Cromlech, Monasterboise, 61 - Cromlech, Mount Brown, 63 - Cromlech, Mount Venus, 63 - Cromlech, Plas Newydd, 54, 55 - Cromlech, Rathkenny, 63 - Cromlech, Shandanagh, 63 - Cromlech, Zennor, 54 - Cronkstone-Low, 4 - Cross, 253, 269 - Cup-bearer, 239 - - - Daggers, Bronze, 130, 131, 132 - Daggers, Flint, 117, et seq. - Daggers, Iron, 242, 243 - Danish interments, 44 to 50 - Darley Dale, 92, 94 - Dars-Low, 4 - Dartmoor, 75 - Darwen, 90 - Davis, Dr., 16, 22 - Derbyshire Barrows, 2, 3, 4, 16, et seq. - Devonshire, 75 - Dewlish, 7 - Dice, 294, 295 - Discs, enamelled, etc., 260 to 264 - Dominoes, 294 - Dorsetshire Barrows, 2, 3, 7, 47, 91 - Double interments, 25, 29, 30 - Dove Dale, 128 - Dow-Low, 4 - Dowth, 59, 61, 66 - Drake-Low, 4 - Draughtboard, 294 - Draughtmen, 292, 293, 294 - Draughts, Game, 292, 293, 294 - Drinking Cup, 43, 44, 100 to 104, 251, 282, 283 - Druidical Circles, 10, 71 to 82 - Durobrivian Pottery, 152 to 162 - - - Earl Stemdale, 3 - Ear-picks, 289 - East-Low Hill, 146 - East-Moor, 75 - Elk-Low, 4, 72 - Ely, 107 - Enamelled Discs, etc., 260 to 264 - Enamels, 251, 266, 267, et seq. - Enamels, Chinese, 260 - Enamels, Roman, 196 - Enamels, Saxon, 260 to 264 - End-Low, 4 - Envermeu, 282 - Extended positions, 11, et seq. - - - Fairford, 280 - Fairholt, F.W., 278 - Farlow, 4 - Faussett Collection, 217 - Fibulæ, Anglo-Saxon, 266 to 279 - Fibulæ, Roman, 193 to 196 - Fimber, 43, 44, 97, 124 - Flax Dale, 33, 71 - Fleming, G., 264 - “Flint-Jack,” 115 - Flint Acutely Angled, 119 - Flint Barbed Arrow-heads, 115, 116 - Flint Celts, 122, 123 - Flint Dagger-blades, 117, 118 - Flint Flakes, 121 - Flint Implements, 115 to 123 - Flint Leaf-shaped, 119 - Flint Notched, 118, 120 - Flint Thumb, 122 - Flint Various, 121, 122 - Food Vessels, 44, 95 to 100 - Foo Low, 4 - Fowse-Low, 4 - Fox-Low, 4 - Frankish Pottery, 221 - Froggatt Edge, 75 - - - Galley-Low, 4 - Garment, Woollen, 45 - Gaulstown, 62 - Germany, 160 - Gib-Low, 4 - Gilton, 295 - Girdle-hangers, 289, 290, 291 - Girdle-Ornaments, 290, 291 - Glass, Ale, 229, 230, 232 - Glass, Beads, 185, 231 to 235 - Glass, Bowls, 186, 228, 229 - Glass, Decanters (?) 231 - Glass, Lachrymatories, 186 - Glass, Roman, 145, 185 to 188 - Glass, Saxon, 228 to 235 - Glass, Sepulchral Vessels, 185 - Glass, Tumblers, 229 - Glencullen, 63 - Gloucester, 201 - Gloucestershire, 70 - Gold Articles, 132, 133, 266 to 279 - Gold Drops, 279 - Gold Torques, 133, 196 to 199 - Gospel Hillock, 104, 121, 123, 124 - Grave-mounds, Anglo-Saxon, 202 to 298 - Grave-mounds, Celtic, 6 to 132 - Grave-mounds, Construction of, 6, et seq., 33, 38, 134 to 143, 202 - to 213 - Grave-mounds, Danish (?) 44 to 50 - Grave-mounds, Distribution of, 2 - Grave-mounds, Romano-British, 134 to 201 - Great-Low, 4 - Green-Low, 4, 114, 115 - Grimthorpe, 238, 245, 246, 263 - Grinders (see Querns) - Grind-Low, 4, 100 - Gris-Low, 4 - Gristhorpe, 44 - Grub-Low, 4 - Gruter, 135 - Guernsey, 27 - Gunthorpe, 116, 120 - - - Haddon, 141 - Hair-pins, 290, 292 - Hammer-head, 42, 109, et seq. - Hampshire, 143, 149 - Hand-mills, 295, 296 - Hard-Low, 4 - Har-Low, 4 - Hartington, 3 - Hartle Moor, 74 - Hatchet, 109, 113 - Hathersage Moor, 75 - Hawks-Low, 4 - Hay Top, 100 - Helmets, 248, et seq. - Herns-Low, 4 - High-Low, 4 - High-Needham, 3 - Hitter Hill, 6, et seq., 16, 98 - Hob Hurst’s House, 33 - Hog’s Bones, 23 - Horning-Low, 4 - Horse-shoes, 201, 264, 265 - Horsley, 114 - Houe, meaning of, 4 - Howth, 63 - Huck-Low, 4 - - - Immolation of Infants, 106 - Immolation of Slaves, 106 - Immolation of Wives, 91, 106 - Incense Cups, 84, 104 to 107 - Inscriptions, Sepulchral, 135, 148, 149, 150 - Interment by Cremation, 11, 31, 134, et seq., 202, et seq. - Interment by Inhumation, 11 to 49, 134, et seq. - Interment in Cloth, 35, 45, 46 - Interment in Skin, 35 - Interment in Tree-Coffins, 44 to 50 - Interment in Pit, 43 - Inverted Urns, 33, 34 - Ireland, 28, 63, 113 - - - Javelins, 243, 244 - Jet, 25, 44, 123 to 126 - Jet, Necklaces, 44, 123, 124, 125 - Jet, Pendants, 124, 126 - Jet, Ring, 126 - Jet, Studs, 123, 124, 126 - Jutland, 46 - - - Kells, 28 - Kens-Low, 4 - Kent, 53 - Keys, 201, 289, 292 - Kilkenny, 63 - Kilternan, 63 - Kingsholme, 144 - Kingston, 212, 215, 266, 267 - Kings Newton, 212, 214 to 227, 295 - Kirk Michael, 274 - Kit’s Coty House, 53 - Kneeling position, 11, et seq. - Knives, 193, 242, 243 - Knock-Low, 4 - Knok Mary, 63 - Knot-Low, 4 - - - Lady-Low, 4 - Laidman’s-Low, 4 - Lake Dwellings, 45 - Lamp, 201 - Lancashire, 90 - Lapwing Hill, 209 - Lark’s-Low, 4 - Lead Coffins, 144, 145 - Lead Ore, 31 - Lead Pigs of, 32 - Lead Smelting, 32 - Lean-Low, 4 - Leckhampton, 258 - Lewes, 257 - Liffs-Low, 4, 42 - Lillebonne, 177 - Lincoln, 257 - Lincolnshire, 35 - Lindenschmidt, 219, 265 - Little Chester, 142, 168, 169, 190 - Locks, 201, 292 - Lollius, 135 - Lomber-Low, 4 - Londinières, 221 - London, 135, 142, 143, 144, 148, 171, 175, et seq. - Long Low, 36 - Lord’s Down, 7 - Low, meaning of, 4 - Low, (see Grave-mounds) - Lowsey-Low, 4 - Lukis, Capt. 123 - Lukis, F. C., 27 - - - Mail, Coat of, 255, 256 - Mauls, 109, et seq. - Mayence, 219 - May-Low, 4 - Medway, 160 - Mick-Low, 4 - Mickleover, 114 - Middleton, 3, 33, 41, 123, 261 - Minning-Low, 54, 141 - Mirrors, 199, 290 - Modelling Tools, 124 - Money-Low, 4 - Monsal Dale, 28, 86, 98 - Mortimer, 43, 44, 97, 124 - Moot-Low, 4, 127, 128 - Mount Brown, 63 - Mount Venus, 63 - Musden-Low, 4 - Mutti-Low Hill, 35 - - - Nail-cleaners, 289 - Necklace, Glass, 187, 232, et seq. - Necklace, Jet, 44, 123 to 126 - Necklace, Jet, and Bone, 124 - Needham-Low, 4 - Needwood, 198 - Nen, 152 - Nether-Low, 4 - New Forest, 149, 165 - New Grange, 61, 66 - Newhaven, 3, 256 - Normandy, 174 - North Elmham, 217 - Northumberland, 46, 148 - Nowth, 59 - - - Ochre, 43 - Off-Low, 4 - Oghams, 61, 277 - Otterham Creek, 162 - Over Haddon, 284 - Oxfordshire, 164 - Ox-Low, 4 - Ozengall, 144, 211 - - - Painstor-Low, 4 - Palstaves, 128 - Paradis, 27 - Parcelly Hay, 3, 25, 26 - Pars-Low, 4 - Parwich, 141 - Peg-Low, 4 - Pendants, Bone, 125, 126 - Pendants, Enamelled, etc., 260 to 264 - Pendants, Gold, 279 - Pendants, Jet, 124 to 126 - Penannular Brooch (see Fibulæ) - Phœnix Park, 63 - Pigtor-Low, 4 - Pike-Low, 4 - Pinch-Low, 4 - Pins, Hair, 290, 292 - Pit Interments, 43, 44 - Plymouth, 192, 193, 199 - Pottery, Amphoræ, 171, 172 - Pottery, Anglo-Saxon, 214 to 227 - Pottery, Celtic, 83 to 108 - Pottery, Domestic Vessels, etc., 170 to 174 - Pottery, Drinking Cups, Celtic, 100 to 104 - Pottery, Durobrivian or Castor, 151, 152 to 162 - Pottery, Food Vessels, Celtic, 95 to 100 - Pottery, Frankish, 214 to 227 - Pottery, Hampshire, 151, 165, 166 - Pottery, Handled Cups, Celtic, 107 - Pottery, “Incense Cups,” Celtic, 104 to 107 - Potters’ Kilns, 152, 154, 183 - Potters’ Marks, 176, 177, 178 - Potters’ Mortaria, 172, 173 - Potters’ Punches, 227 - Potters’ Sepulchral Urns, Celtic, 31, 34, 84 to 95 - Potters’ Sepulchral Urns, Roman, 156 et seq. - Potters’ Sepulchral Urns, Saxon, 215 to 227 - Potters’ Stamps, 177, 227 - Potters’ Unguentaria, 171 to 174 - Potters, Manufacture of, 84, 152 to 184, 227 - Potters, Romano-British, 151 to 184 - Potters, Salopian, 151, 164, 165 - Potters, Samian, 151, 157 to 184 - Potters, Upchurch, 151, 162, 163, 164 - Potters, Yorkshire, 151, 166 - - - Queen-Low, 4 - Querns, 295, 296 (see also Grinders and Triturating Stones) - - - Rains-Low, 4 - Rangoon, 287 - Rats’ Bones, 16, 87, 90 - Ravens-Low, 4 - Red Ochre, 43 - Repton, 213 - Ribden-Low, 4 - Rick-Low, 4 - Rigollot, 220 - Ringham-Low, 4, 116, 119, 120 - Rings, 235 - Rings, Jet, 124, 126 - Rochester, 147 - Rocky-Low, 4 - Rollrich, 71 - Rolly-Low, 4, 34 - Roman Arms, etc., 190, et seq. - Roman Cemeteries, 134, et seq. - Roman Coins, 55, 141, 187, 188 - Roman Coins, as payment for passage over Styx, 136, 141 - Roman Glass 184 to 188 - Roman Personal Ornaments, 193, et seq. - Roman Population, 134, et seq. - Roman Pottery, 151 to 184 - Romano-British Period, 134 to 201 - Rouge, 43 - Round-Low, 4, 32 - Roundway Hill, 16, 100 - Rusden-Low, 4 - Runes, 241 - - - Sacrifice of Infants, 106 - Sacrifice of Slaves, 106 - Sacrifice of Wives, 91, 106 - Saint-Low, 4 - Salona, 147 - Salopian Pottery, 164, 165 - Samian Ware, 175 to 184 - Sancreed, 76 - Sarcophagus, 143, et seq. - Scales and Weights, 292 - Scambridge, 294, 295 - Scarborough, 47 - Scissors, 289 - Scrapers of Flint, 121 - Seax, 240, et seq. - Selzen, 219 - Selzen, 265 - Sepulchral remains, Anglo-Saxon, 202 to 298 - Sepulchral remains, Celtic, 1 to 133 - Sepulchral remains, Frankish, 221 - Sepulchral remains, Danish, 44 to 50 - Sepulchral remains, Romano-British, 134 to 201 - Sepulchral Chambers, 146 - Sepulchral Glass, 185 - Sepulchral Inscriptions, 135, 148, et seq., 217 - Sepulchral Urns (see Cinerary Urns) - Shandanagh, 63 - Shears, 289 - Shields, 243 to 248 - Shields, Umbones of, 246, 247, 261 - Shields, from MSS., 248 - Shuttlestone-Low, 24, 130 - Sibertswold, 247, 282 - Sitting-Low, 4 - Sitting position, 11, et seq. - Skeleton, positions of, 11, et seq. - Skins, interment in, 24, 35 - Skull, Hitter Hill, 21 - Skull, distributions of, 22 - Skull, Long-Low, 39 - Skull, Gristhorpe, 47 - Sliper-Low, 5 - Smerrill Moor, 12 - Smith, C. R., 160, 164, 204, 216, 255 - Southfleet, 144 - Spear-heads, 190, 192, 243, 244 - Spindle-whorls, 114 - Staden-Low, 4 - Staffordshire Barrows, 4, 86, 89, 92, 96 - Stan-Low, 4 - Stanshope, 132 - Stanton Moor, 73 - Sterndale, 33, 284 - Stone Chambers, 27, 50, 55 to 71, 146, et seq. - Stone Circles, 10, 27, 34, 71 to 82 - Stone Circles, Abney Moor, 75 - Stone Circles, Abury, 71 - Stone Circles, Arbor-Low, 3, 71, 82 - Stone Circles, Berriew, 80 - Stone Circles, Boscawen-Un, 80 - Stone Circles, Brassington Moor, 74 - Stone Circles, Channel Islands, 78 - Stone Circles, Cornish, 75 - Stone Circles, Dartmoor, 75 - Stone Circles, East Moor, 75 - Stone Circles, Elk-Low, 72 - Stone Circles, Eyam Moor, 74 - Stone Circles, Flax Dale, 71 - Stone Circles, formation of, 71 - Stone Circles, Froggatt Edge, 75 - Stone Circles, Haitle Moor, 74 - Stone Circles, Hathersage Moor, 75 - Stone Circles, Isle of Man, 76, 78 - Stone Circles, Mule Hill, 78 - Stone Circles, “Nine Ladies,” 73, 74 - Stone Circles, Penmeanmaur, 80, 81 - Stone Circles, Rollrich, 71 - Stone Circles, Sancreed, 76 - Stone Circles, Stanton Moor, 73, 74 - Stone Circles, Stonehenge, 71 - Stone Circles, Trewavas, Head, 76 - Stone Cists, 11, 17, et seq., 33, 36, et seq., 143, et seq. - Stone Coffins, 143, 144, et seq. - Stone Implements of, 109, et seq. - Stone, 92 - Stoney Littleton, 67 - Stonehenge, 71 - Stowborough, 47 - Strigils, 201 - Studs, Bone, 122,126 - Studs, Jet, 124, 126 - Sussex, 146 - Suttee, 91 - Sutton Brow, 92 - Swinscoe, 22 - Swiss Lake Villages, 45 - Swords, Roman, 190, 191 - Swords Saxon, 236 to 242 - Swords from MSS., 239, 240 - Swordsman, 240 - - - Taddington, 67, 69 - Tara Brooch, 278 - Thirkel-Low, 4 - Thirsk, 92 - Thoo-Low, 4, 5 - Three-Lows, 5 - Thumb Flints, 121 - Tile Tombs, 147, 148 - Tissington, 13, 211, 236, 247 - Toothpicks, 289 - Torques, 133, 196 to 199 - Totmans-Low, 4 - Tree-Coffins, 44, 45, 50 - Trentham, 89, 96 - Triturating Stones, 114, 295, 296 - (see also “Querns”) - Tump, meaning of, 4 - Tumuli, Chambered, 55 to 71 - (see Grave-mounds) - Tumulus, Etruscan, 55 - Twin-Barrows, 37, 78, 79 - Tweezers, 201, 289 - - - Uley, 70 - Umbones of Shields, 246, 247, 261 - Upchurch, 162, et seq. - Upchurch, Pottery, 162 to 164 - Upright position, 11, et seq. - Uriconium, 137, (see also Wroxeter) - - - Vale, 27 - Vole, Water, 16, 89, 90 - - - Ward-Low, 5, 34 - Warry-Low, 5 - Water Rat, 16, 89, 90 - Water Vole, 16, 89, 90 - Wath, 47 - Wedgwood, F., 258 - Weights, 292 - Wellbeloved, 163 - Wellow, 67 - West Lodge, 157 - Westwood, 253 - Wetton, 193 - Whetstones, 114 - White-Low, 5 - Willoughby, 113 - Wilson, C. C., 278 - Wiltshire Barrows, 2, 16, 100 - Winster, 3, 111, 211, 268, 269, 295, 296 - Withery-Low, 5 - Woolaton, 109 - Woollen Cloth, 45 - Wool-Low, 5 - Worsaae, 255 - Worsley, Miss, 295 - Wright, T., 135, 151, et seq., 176, et seq., 216 - Wroxeter, 137, 141, 147, 162 to 165 - Wyaston, 210, 233 - Wye, 28 - Wykeham, 98 - - - Yarns-Low, 5 - York, 142, 143, 144, et seq. - Yorkshire Barrows, 2, 5, 7, 25, 35, 44, 47, 97, 164 - Yorkshire Pottery, 151 - Youlgreave, 33 - - -Watson & Hazell, Printers, London and Aylesbury. - - - - -Dedicated to the Right Hon. LORD LYTTON. - -_In One handsome Volume, Foolscap 4to., cloth gilt, price 25s_. - -WOMANKIND - -IN WESTERN EUROPE, - -from the Earliest Ages to the Seventeenth Century. - -=By THOMAS WRIGHT, M.A., F.S.A.= - -Illustrated with numerous Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings. - - * * * * * - - -“It is something more than a drawing-room ornament. It is an elaborate -and careful summary of all that one of our most learned antiquaries, -after years of pleasant labour, on a very pleasant subject, has been -able to learn as to the condition of women from the earliest times. -It is beautifully illustrated, both in colours--mainly from ancient -illuminations--and also by a profusion of woodcuts, portraying the -various fashions by which successive ages of our history have been -marked.”--_The Times_. - - -“We should be at a loss to find words of excessive praise for the -learning, judgment, and delicate art with which the author has -gathered, arranged, and presented the multifarious materials of -a fascinating narrative, that would be told effectively by the -embellishments of the book, even if the illustrations were not -accompanied with words of explanatory text.”--_Athenæum_. - - -“This is much more than a pretty illustrated book. It is a repertory -of antiquarian literature on the costume, social habits, domestic -pursuits, and position of the sex, and the illustrations are from -all sorts of recondite sources--MS. illuminations of the Romances, -Psalters, and Chronicles. It reflects great credit on the writer, whose -vast stores of information and research have been, in this instance, -well employed. The volume is quite an encyclopædia on a special -subject.”--_Saturday Review_. - - -“As a work of art, no less than of literary elucidation, this book is -perfect in all its parts, and most honourable to its publishers.... -The letterpress enhances the value of the work itself a hundredfold, -as might have been expected from so well known and learned an -antiquarian as Mr. Wright, whose participation in so choice a work -makes it in every respect worthy of a place in every public and -well-selected library, where art and literature are alike patronized -and admired.”--_Bell’s Weekly Messenger_. - - -“We cannot justly class Mr. Wright’s ‘Womankind’ amongst the ephemeral -books of the season; yet it is admirably suited to answer the purpose -of a gift-book--and much more; and it would be unfair to leave it -until its less solid neighbours had been cleared out of hand. The -high antiquarian renown of the author would alone guarantee that -we should have no frivolous, superficial dissertation on the mere -outward phenomena of ‘femininity’ in past times--no mere sentimental -declamation in favour of woman’s advancement to a social place which -she never before claimed. On the contrary, we have a faithful, -unshrinking, photographically minute account of the relations between -women and men, and of female manners, dress, social duties, and -position, literary achievements, and participation in public life, from -the date at which authentic history takes cognizance of the condition -of the European nations.... Mr. Wright’s ‘Womankind’--like the ideal of -the gentle sex--is fitted, not for the festive season alone, but for -every time.”--_Daily Telegraph._ - - -“The author’s name, on whatever subject he writes, is a guarantee for -thorough scholarship, solid information, lucid exposition, and careful -delineation; and in this work all these qualities are conspicuous. Mr. -Wright believes, and with good reason, ‘that a history of the female -sex, in that particular division of mankind to which we ourselves -belong, would not be unacceptable to the general reader.’ Such a -history he has here produced, and in doing so, has left nothing to -be desired.... In every sense this is a splendid book, for which we -heartily thank Mr. Wright.”--_Illustrated Times._ - - -“Never has history been made more charming than in this excellent -volume. Whatever page is opened, some pleasant little narrative, -historic or romantic; some sketch of the womankind of Chaucer’s days, -or of the heroines of the Romaunt of the Rose; some striking pictures -of Anglo-Saxon life, or some quaint costumes, or ever-changing -fashions, constantly attract, and interest, and inform.”--_Birmingham -Daily Post._ - - -“To the general public, the appearance of such a work is a surprise, -the more agreeable because, while it is the work of an accomplished -scholar, who has nowhere deviated from the scholar’s path to win -ephemeral applause, it nevertheless appeals to universal sympathies, -and so abounds in attractions as to demand to be regarded as -emphatically _the_ book of the season.”--_Gardeners’ Magazine._ - - -“Externally and internally it is absolutely splendid, the binding and -illustrations being a perfect marvel of beauty and richness. But in -the interest of its subject, as well as in its mode of treatment, Mr. -Wright’s present work will command the respect and praise of the man -of letters and the philosopher, quite as much as it is sure to enlist -the sympathies and extort the admiration of a less exacting class of -readers. The book is beautifully written, the style being at once -chaste and ornate.”--_Eddowes’s Shrewsbury Journal._ - - -“It is one of the most interesting, instructive, and valuable books -of the nineteenth century. At this particular period of the agitation -of woman’s rights, we may say in truth that this book is a treasury -of knowledge to the historian, the politician, the moral philosopher, -and the reformer; while, at the same time, in its romantic incidents -illustrative of social life in different ages of Western Europe, it -surpasses in interest the most skilful and attractive fictions of the -day.”--_New York Morning Herald._ - - -GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Of this stone circle, one of the next in importance to Stonehenge, -an account will be given in a future chapter. - -[2] This remarkable barrow was excavated by Mr. Warne, and a fully -detailed account given by him in his valuable work, the “Celtic -Antiquities of Dorset,” from which the illustration is taken. - -[3] See Crania Britannica, one of the most valuable ethnological works -ever issued. - -[4] It will be well to bear in mind that when “rats’ bones” are -mentioned, it must be understood that they are the bones, not of the -common rat, but of the water-vole or water-rat. They are very abundant -in Derbyshire barrows, and, indeed, are so frequently found in them, -that their presence in a mound is considered to be a certain indication -of the presence of human remains. “The barrows of Derbyshire, a hilly, -almost mountainous, county, abounding with beautiful brooks and rills, -inhabited by the water-vole, were made use of for its _hybernacula_, -or winter retreats, into which it stored its provisions, and where it -passed its time during the cold and frosty season. It is a rodent, -or gnawer, or vegetable eater, and, as I have described elsewhere, -has a set of grinding-teeth of the utmost beauty, and fitted most -admirably for the food on which it lives. The part of the matter which -is curious to the antiquary is, that the bones in Derbyshire barrows -are frequently perceived to have been gnawed by the scalpri-form -incisors of these animals. I have endeavoured to explain, in the -note referred to, that all the rodents amuse themselves, or possibly -preserve their teeth in a naturally useful state, and themselves in -health, by gnawing any object that comes in their way. This is well -known to every boy who keeps rabbits. I remember, some years ago, -seeing a very fine black squirrel in the house of a workman in this -town, which had been sent him by his son from Canada. It was found that -it was impossible to keep this animal in any wooden house. He would -gnaw a road out of the strongest wooden cage that could be made for -him, in a few hours. In consequence, his owner made him a _tin cage_, -in which he was kept securely. In confirmation of what I have said -respecting the water-voles, vegetable feeders, gnawing the bones of the -ancient Britons in barrows, I may refer to Linnæus’s most interesting -_Tour in Lapland_. When in Lycksele, Lapland, June 1, he describes the -_Kodda_, or hut of the Laplander, and incidentally remarks, “Everywhere -around the huts I observed horns of the reindeer lying neglected, and -it is remarkable that they were gnawed, and sometimes half devoured, -by squirrels.”--I. 127. That is, if anything were truly devoured, it -was the antlers, not the bodies. “The bones of the _Arvicola_, or -water-vole, were found in the exploration of the colossal tumulus of -Fontenay de Marmion, which was one of the galleried tumuli, opened in -1829, near Caen in Normandy. It belonged to the primeval period of the -ancient Gauls.--Mem. de la Soc. des Antiq. de Normandie, 1831-3, p. -282.”--_Dr. Davis._ - -[5] See Note on the Distortions which present themselves in the crania -of the Ancient Britons, by J. Barnard Davis, M.D., in the “Natural -History Review” for July, 1862, page 290. - -[6] The elliptical form was evidently, in this case, the result of -accident. The original mound had been circular, but the elongated form -had been the consequence of successive interments. - -[7] Plate II., Decade 1. - -[8] Journal of the British Archæological Association, vol. i, p. 25. - -[9] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 78. - -[10] There are in Derbyshire lead mines worked at the present day which -were worked, at all events, in the Romano-British period. Roman coins, -fibulæ, and other remains are occasionally found in them. - -[11] “Ten Years’ Diggings.” - -[12] Although I am describing the position in which the urns have been -placed, it must not for a moment be supposed that they are often found -in a perfect state, or in the position in which they have originally -been placed. On the contrary, the urns are usually very much crushed, -and not unfrequently, from pressure of the superincumbent mass of -stones and earth, are found on their sides, and crushed flat. - -[13] This skull has been most skilfully figured in “Crania Britannica,” -where it is carefully described and compared with other examples by Dr. -Davis, who gives an admirable account of the discoveries at Long-Low, -and of the characteristics of the different crania found there. Of the -skull here shown Dr. Davis says it is “remarkably regular, narrow, -and long; of good shape, medium thickness, and presenting few of the -harsh peculiarities of the ancient British race; on the contrary, there -is about it an air of slenderness and refinement. In some features -it assimilates to the modern English cranium, although decidedly -narrow, whilst its genuine and remote antiquity is determined by -unquestioned evidence. It belongs, in an eminent degree, to the class -of dolichocephalic skulls, and is the cranium of a man of about forty -years of age.” - -[14] Described in the “Reliquary,” vol. ix. - -[15] For a full account of this discovery see the “Reliquary,” vol. vi. -page 1. - -[16] This woollen cloth must be regarded as a _woven_ texture, but -whether it were woven in so artificial a machine as a loom may be -questioned. A great variety of contrivances have been used for weaving, -_i.e._, crossing alternately threads passed in opposite directions, -the warp and the woof, by what are called _savage_ races. Still it is -not at all improbable that a people so advanced in pastoral habits, -possessed some machine for weaving, bearing a relation to a primitive -loom. Both warp and woof are composed, as might be expected, of a -simply spun thread of one strand. Perforated stones are found in -British and Danish barrows, and perforated pieces of earthenware in the -Swiss Lake villages, even of the stone period, which are regarded as -spindle-whorls. - -[17] It is worthy of remark, that this noble mound, with its very early -interments, has been made a place of sepulture in more recent times, -many Roman coins and remains of that period having been found there. - -[18] These immense monoliths have originally, it is estimated, been -upwards of thirty in number, and to have been placed probably ten -yards apart. The largest remaining stone stands between eight and nine -feet above the ground, and is seventeen feet in circumference. It is -estimated to weigh upwards of seven tons. Several of the stones have -entirely disappeared, of others fragments remain scattered about. - -[19] For an excellent notice of this and other remains, the reader is -referred to Mr. W. F. Wakeman’s “Handbook of Irish Antiquities,”--the -best and most compact little work on the subject which has been issued, -and one which will be found extremely useful to the archæological -student--to which I am indebted for some of the accompanying engravings. - -[20] For the loan of these seven engravings I am indebted to the -Council of the “Historical and Archæological Association of Ireland,” -(formerly the “Kilkenny and South-east of Ireland Archæological -Society,”) in whose journal--one of the most valuable of antiquarian -publications--they have appeared. This Association is one of the most -useful that has ever been established, and deserves the best support, -not only of Irish, but of English antiquaries. - -[21] F. C. Lukis. - -[22] Vol. i. p. 142. - -[23] T. Wright. - -[24] “Archæological Journal,” vol xi., p. 315. - -[25] For articles upon this subject see the “Reliquary, Quarterly -Archæological Journal and Review,” vol. ii., pages 61 to 70; and Mr. -Bateman’s “Ten Years’ Diggings,” page 279. - -[26] This barrow has been admirably described in that magnificent work, -“CRANIA BRITANNICA,”--a work which every ethnologist and antiquary -ought to possess, and which contains far more information than any -other book extant. The following extract from the work explains the -section:-- - -“Above this cist a cairn of fragments of sandstone had been raised -most likely before interments by cremation were practised on the spot. -The dark horizontal line of our woodcut indicates the situation of a -stratum of burnt earth traversing the barrow at this height. Funereal -rites, by incineration, had evidently been celebrated on this surface; -which was scattered over with a thin layer of wood-charcoal. In the -centre of the barrow, and resting upon this carbonaceous deposit, -stood a fine urn of dark British pottery, 11 inches high, and 9 at its -greatest diameter at the top; not in the more commonly inverted, but -in an upright position. It is ornamented in the usual style of lineal -impressions, most probably made by a twisted thong of untanned leather, -with rows of lines, alternately upright and horizontal, around the -upper division; and in the middle the lines are varied into the zigzag, -having distinct _crosses_ and other impressions in the intervals. It -contained calcined bones in a clean state, and mingled with them a -portion of the jaw of some animal; bones of the water-vole (_Arvicola -amphibius_, Desmar.), so common in the Derbyshire barrows; a bone -pin, 4 inches in length, and finely pointed; and a flint arrow-head; -all calcined. The urn was closed by a large flat stone, the two ends -of which rested upon side walls, so as to protect the deposit, and -secure it from superincumbent pressure. Did this urn contain the -inconsiderable yet sacred remains of one whose devotion in life the -distinguished dead below had oft experienced--one who held life itself -subordinate to his fate? The fearful conjecture seems not by any means -improbable. - -“Interred in the soil above this portion of the barrow, and lying -amongst loose stones, the remains of four other skeletons occurred, -placed in the primitive flexed position. One of these had apparently -been disturbed at no long period subsequent to interment, and the bones -laid in order before they had become decayed--a practice adopted by -some uncivilized people in more modern times. - -“This barrow of the British period presents unquestionable evidences -of very primeval times, and contained the relics of a true aboriginal -inhabitant of these islands, piously laid in his last resting-place -with great care, but in all rude simplicity. It is rich in instruction, -and marked by precise phases of information. It shows almost certainly -the contemporaneous adoption of inhumation and cremation--the latter, -perhaps, yielding to the first a short precedency; or possibly, in this -instance, a rite of the nature of a “Suttee,” and subordinate to the -former.” - -[27] Warne’s “Celtic Tumuli of Dorsetshire.” - -[28] _Celt_, from _Celtis_, a chisel. - -[29] This is one of the largest examples which have been found. It is -in my own collection, having been most kindly presented to me by the -Hon. and Rev. C. Willoughby. - -[30] For a lengthened description and classification of the various -forms of stone implements, the reader is referred to a new work, “The -Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain,” by that able antiquary, -Mr. John Evans, the author of the admirable volume on “Ancient British -Coins,” by which his name is so well known. - -[31] For a memoir, with portrait, of this remarkable character, and an -account of his doings, see the _Reliquary_, vol, viii., p. 65, _et seq._ - -[32] “Ten Years’ Diggings.” - -[33] _Reliquary_ for October, 1861. - -[34] “Nec habet quem porrigat ore trientem.”--JUVENAL. - -[35] The skull of one of these, an excellent typical example of a Roman -in the very prime of life, is engraved in “Crania Britannica,” pl. 30. - -[36] See example in the York museum. - -[37] “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. iii., p. 45. - -[38] “Proceedings of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society;” -Wellbeloved’s “Eburacum;” “Crania Britannica,” etc. - -[39] Now in the Bateman Museum. - -[40] See the _Reliquary_, vol. iv., p. 185. - -[41] In the _Intellectual Observer_. - -[42] See Mr. Roach Smith’s interesting account of this vase in the -“Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. iv., pp. 82-89. - -[43] Wright. - -[44] Thomas Wright. - -[45] Wright. - -[46] For an interesting account of these potteries, see Wise’s “New -Forest.” - -[47] For a detailed account of all the different pot-works and their -productions, see my “Ceramic Art in England.” - -[48] C. R. Smith. - -[49] Shields. - -[50] Armour. - -[51] A detailed account of this discovery will be found, from the pens -of Mr. Briggs, the Editor, and others, in the “Reliquary,” vol. ix. - -[52] Coat of mail. - -[53] C. R. Smith. - -[54] See the “Reliquary Quarterly Archæological Journal and Review,” -vol. ix. p. 180. - -[55] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 28. - -[56] “Vestiges,” p. 24. - -[57] For a more extended and fully illustrated account of penannular -brooches, the reader is referred to the “Reliquary,” vol. iii. - -[58] “Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 231. - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original. - -One instance of unpaired double quotation marks in the original -was not corrrected. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS*** - - -******* This file should be named 52906-0.txt or 52906-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/5/2/9/0/52906 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - diff --git a/old/52906-0.zip b/old/52906-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5b7140c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h.zip b/old/52906-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b55267a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/52906-h.htm b/old/52906-h/52906-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 0356a43..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/52906-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13475 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.1//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/DTD/xhtml11.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> -<head> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> -<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Grave-mounds and Their Contents, by Llewellynn Frederick William Jewitt</title> - <style type="text/css"> - -a { - text-decoration: none} - -.antiqua { - font-size: 120%; - font-family: Fraktur, Textur, "Olde English Mt", "Olde English", Gothic, Blackletter, arial} - -.gesperrt { - letter-spacing: 15px} - -#coverpage { - text-align: center; - margin: 2em auto} - -body { - padding: 4px; - margin: auto 10%} - -p { - text-align: justify} - -.small { - font-size: small} - -.medium { - font-size: medium} - -.large { - font-size: large} - -.x-large { - font-size: x-large} - -.uppercase { - text-transform: uppercase} - -h1, h2 { - page-break-before: always} - -h1, h2, h3 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; - font-weight: normal; - margin: 2em auto 1em auto} - -.ph1 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; - font-size: xx-large; - margin: 2em auto 1em auto} - -p.author { - text-align: right; - margin: auto 5%} - -.hang { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 2em} - -p.drop:first-letter { - float: left; - clear: left; - font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, serif; - font-size: 300%; - line-height: 70%; - padding: 4px 2px 0 0} - -hr { - border-top: 4px double #004200} - -hr.tb { - width: 45%; margin: 2em 27.5%; clear: both} - -ul {list-style-type: none} - -.index { - list-style: none} - -.ifrst { - font-weight: bold; - margin: 2em auto auto auto} - -.isub1 { - margin-left: 1em; - padding-left: 3em; - text-indent: -3em} - -/* Tables */ -.table { - display: table; - margin: auto} - -.tcell { - text-align: center; - display: table-cell} - -.tcell p { - margin: auto 0.5em} - -table { - margin: 2em auto} - -th { - padding: 20px 5px 5px 5px} - -td { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 2.5em; - padding-right: 0.5em} - -.tdr { - vertical-align: top; - text-align: right} - -.tdrb { - vertical-align: bottom; - text-align: right} - -.bt { - border-top: solid 2px} -/* End Tables */ - -.smcap { - font-variant: small-caps} - -.caption { - text-align: center} - -/* Images */ -img { - border: none; - max-width: 100%} - -.figcenter { - clear: both; - margin: 2em auto; - text-align: center; - max-width: 600px} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnotes { - margin: 2em auto; - border: 4px double #004200} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-weight: normal; - font-size: x-small; - line-height: .1em; - text-decoration: none; - white-space: nowrap /* keeps footnote on same line as referenced text */} - -.footnote p:first-child { - text-indent: -2.5em} - -.footnote p { - margin: 1em; - padding-left: 2.5em} - -.label { - width: 2em; - display: inline-block; - text-align: right; - text-decoration: none} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - color: #004200; - position: absolute; - right: 5px; - font-weight: normal; - font-size: small; - text-align: right; -} /* page numbers */ - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - border: #004200 double 4px; - color: black; - margin: 2em auto; - padding: 1em} - -@media handheld { - -.pagenum { - display: none} - -p.drop:first-letter { - float: left; - clear: left} -} - -/* Poetry */ - -.poetry { - margin: auto; - text-align: center} - -.poem { - margin: auto; - display: inline-block; - text-align: left} - -.poem .stanza { - margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em} - .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i1 {display: block; margin-left: 0.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i12 {display: block; margin-left: 6em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i16 {display: block; margin-left: 8em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 1em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i25 {display: block; margin-left: 12.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - .poem span.i9 {display: block; margin-left: 4.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - - h1.pg,h2.pg,h3.pg { font-weight: bold; } - h1.pg { margin-top: 0em; } - h4 { text-align: center; - clear: both; } - hr.full { width: 100%; - margin-top: 3em; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - height: 4px; - border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ - border-style: solid; - border-color: #000000; - clear: both; } - </style> -</head> -<body> -<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, Grave-mounds and Their Contents, by -Llewellynn Frederick William Jewitt</h1> -<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States -and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no -restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it -under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this -eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you are not -located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this ebook.</p> -<p>Title: Grave-mounds and Their Contents</p> -<p> A Manual of Archæology, as Exemplified in the Burials of the Celtic, the Romano-British, and the Anglo-Saxon Periods</p> -<p>Author: Llewellynn Frederick William Jewitt</p> -<p>Release Date: August 29, 2016 [eBook #52906]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS***</p> -<p> </p> -<h4>E-text prepared by Charlene Taylor, Wayne Hammond,<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4> -<p> </p> -<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> - <tr> - <td valign="top"> - Note: - </td> - <td> - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - <a href="https://archive.org/details/gravemoundstheir00jewiuoft"> - https://archive.org/details/gravemoundstheir00jewiuoft</a><br /> - <br /> - Some characters might not display in this html version. - If so, the reader should consult the UTF-8 - text file <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52906/52906-0.txt">52906-0.txt</a> - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52906/52906-0.txt) - or the original page images referred to above. - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p> </p> -<hr class="full" /> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> - -<div id="coverpage"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">i</span></p> - -<h1>GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.</h1> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">ii</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">iii</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">iv</span></p> - -<div id="frontispiece" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CIB HILL TUMULUS, NEAR ARBOR-LOW, DERBYSHIRE.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p> - -<p class="ph1"> -<span class="antiqua">Grave-mounds and their Contents:</span><br /> - -<span class="x-large">A MANUAL OF ARCHÆOLOGY,</span><br /> - -<span class="small">AS EXEMPLIFIED IN THE</span><br /> - -<span class="large table">BURIALS OF THE CELTIC, THE ROMANO-BRITISH, AND<br /> -THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIODS.</span><br /> - -<span class="small">BY</span><br /> - -<span class="x-large">LLEWELLYNN JEWITT, F.S.A.,</span><br /> - -<span class="small">ETC., ETC.</span><br /> - -<span class="x-large antiqua">With nearly Five Hundred Illustrations.</span><br /><br /><br /> - -<span class="medium table">LONDON:<br /> - -GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS,<br /> -5, PATERNOSTER ROW.<br /> -<br /> -1870.</span> -</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span></p> - -<p class="caption"> -TO<br /> -<br /> -<span class="large">MY OLD AND MUCH-ESTEEMED FRIEND,</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="x-large">JOSEPH MAYER, <span class="smcap">Esq.</span>,</span><br /> -<br /> -FELLOW OF THE SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF LONDON;<br /> -FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NORTHERN ANTIQUARIES<br /> -OF COPENHAGEN;<br /> -FELLOW OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY;<br /> -MEMBER OF THE SOCIETIES OF ANTIQUARIES OF<br /> -FRANCE, NORMANDY, THE MORINI,<br /> -ETC., ETC., ETC.;<br /> -ONE OF THE MOST ARDENT AND ZEALOUS OF ARCHÆOLOGISTS,<br /> -AND MOST KINDLY OF MEN;<br /> -THE PRINCELY DONOR TO THE PUBLIC<br /> -OF THE FINEST AND MOST EXTENSIVE<br /> -MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITIES<br /> -EVER COLLECTED TOGETHER BY A SINGLE INDIVIDUAL;<br /> -<br /> -I, WITH TRUE PLEASURE,<br /> -<br /> -<span class="x-large antiqua">Dedicate this Volume.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="large">LLEWELLYNN JEWITT.</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p> - -<h2 id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> - -<table> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdrb small">Page</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Grave-mounds in general—Their Historical Importance—General -Situation—Known as Barrows, Houes, Tumps, and Lows—List -of Names—Division into Periods</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Ancient British or Celtic Period—General characteristics of the -Barrows—Modes of construction—Interments by inhumation -and by cremation—Positions of the Body—Hitter Hill Barrow—Elliptical -Barrow at Swinscoe—Burial in contracted -position—In sitting and kneeling positions—Double Interments</td> - <td class="tdrb">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Ancient British or Celtic Period—Interment by cremation—Discovery -of lead—Burial in Urns—Positions of Urns—Heaps of -burnt Bones—Burnt Bones enclosed in cloth and skins—Stone -Cists—Long-Low—Liff’s-Low, etc.—Pit Interments—Tree-coffins</td> - <td class="tdrb">31</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Ancient British or Celtic Period—Sepulchral Chambers of Stone—Cromlechs—Chambered -Tumuli—New Grange and Dowth—The -Channel Islands—Wieland Smith’s Cave, and others—Stone -Circles—For what purpose formed—Formation of Grave-mounds—Varieties -of Stone Circles—Examples of different -kinds—Arbor-Low, etc.</td> - <td class="tdrb">50 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Ancient British or Celtic Period—Pottery—Mode of manufacture—Arrangement -in classes—Cinerary or Sepulchral Urns—Food -Vessels—Drinking-cups—Incense Cups—Probably Sepulchral -Urns for Infants—Other examples of Pottery</td> - <td class="tdrb">83</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Ancient British or Celtic Period—Implements of Stone—Celts—Stone -Hammers—Stone Hatchets, Mauls, etc.—Triturating -Stones—Flint Implements—Classification of Flints—Jet articles—Necklaces, -Studs, etc.—Bone Instruments—Bronze -Celts, Daggers, etc.—Gold articles</td> - <td class="tdrb">109</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Romano-British Period—General Characteristics—Modes of Burial—Customs -attendant on Burial—Interments by cremation and -by inhumation—Barrows—Tombs of Stone—Lead Coffins—Clay -and Tile Coffins—Sepulchral Inscriptions, etc.</td> - <td class="tdrb">134</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Romano-British Period—Pottery—Durobrivian Ware—Upchurch -Ware—Salopian Ware—Pottery found at Uriconium—Potteries -of the New Forest, of Yorkshire, and of other places—Sepulchral -Urns—Domestic and other vessels</td> - <td class="tdrb">151</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Romano-British Period—Pottery—Samian Ware—Potters’ Stamps—Varieties -of Ornamentation—Glass Vessels—Sepulchral -Vases, etc.—Lachrymatories—Bowls—Beads—Coins found -with Interments</td> - <td class="tdrb">175</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Romano-British Period—Arms—Swords—Spears, etc.—Knives—Fibulæ—Armillæ—Torques -of Gold, etc.—Other Personal -Ornaments</td> - <td class="tdrb">190 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Anglo-Saxon Period—Distribution of Anglo-Saxon Population over -England—General characteristics of Grave-mounds—Modes of -Burial—Poem of Beowulf—Interments by cremation and by -inhumation—Articles deposited with the Dead—Positions of -the Body—Double and other Interments—Burial in Urns—Cemeteries -and Barrows</td> - <td class="tdrb">202</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Anglo-Saxon Period—Pottery, general characteristics of—Cinerary -Urns—Saxon Urn with Roman Inscription—Frankish and other -Urns—Cemeteries at Kings Newton, etc.—Mode of manufacture—Impressed -Ornaments</td> - <td class="tdrb">214</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Anglo-Saxon Period—Glass Vessels—Drinking-glasses—Tumblers—Ale-glasses—Beads—Necklaces—Ear-rings—Coins, -etc.</td> - <td class="tdrb">228</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Anglo-Saxon Period—Arms—Swords—Knives—Spears—Shields—Umbones -of Shields—Buckles—Helmets—Benty-Grange Tumulus—The -Sacred Boar—Grave at Barlaston—Enamelled -Discs and pendant Ornaments, etc.—Horse-shoes</td> - <td class="tdrb">236</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Anglo-Saxon Period—Fibulæ—Enamelled circular Fibulæ—Gold -Fibulæ—Pendant Cross—Cruciform Fibulæ—Penannular Fibulæ—Irish -and English examples—Pendant Ornaments, etc.</td> - <td class="tdrb">266</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.</a></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="hang">Anglo-Saxon Period—Buckets—Drinking-cups of wood—Bronze -Bowls—Bronze Boxes—Combs—Tweezers—Châtelaines—Girdle -Ornaments—Keys—Hair-pins—Counters, or Draughtmen, -and Dice—Querns—Triturating Stones, etc.—Conclusion</td> - <td class="tdrb">280</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></p> - -<h2 id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> - -<table> - <tr> - <th colspan="3">ANCIENT BRITISH OR CELTIC PERIOD.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="small">Fig.</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdrb small">Page</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td><a href="#frontispiece">Gib Hill Tumulus. (Frontispiece.)</a></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td><a href="#fig_2">Section of Grave-mound, Lord’s Down, Dewlish, Dorset</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td><a href="#fig_3">Section of Grave-mound, Gib Hill, Derbyshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td><a href="#fig_4">Section of Grave-mound, with two modes of interment by cremation</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td><a href="#fig_5">Section of Grave-mound, with inverted urn</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td><a href="#fig_6">Interment, Smerril Moor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td><a href="#fig_7">Interment, Tissington</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td><a href="#fig_8">Interment, Roundway Hill</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">14</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td><a href="#fig_9">Interment, Hitter Hill</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td><a href="#fig_10">Plan of Barrow, showing interments, Hitter Hill</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">17</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td><a href="#fig_11">Interments, Hitter Hill</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">18</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - <td><a href="#fig_12">Interments, Hitter Hill</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - <td><a href="#fig_13">Skull, Hitter Hill</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">21</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td><a href="#fig_14">Plan, with interments, Swinscoe</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">23</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - <td><a href="#fig_15">Interment, sitting position, Parcelly Hay</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">26</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - <td><a href="#fig_16">Interment, sitting position, Monsal Dale</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">28</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">17</td> - <td><a href="#fig_17">Plan of Barrow, with interments, Monsal Dale</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">29</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">18</td> - <td><a href="#fig_18">Plan of Barrow, with interments, Cressbrook</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">19</td> - <td><a href="#fig_19">Section of Barrow</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">32</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - <td><a href="#fig_20">Stone Cist, Baslow Moor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">33</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">21</td> - <td><a href="#fig_21">Section of Barrow</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">33</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - <td><a href="#fig_22">Inverted Urn, with burnt bones, Wardlow</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">34</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">23</td> - <td><a href="#fig_23">Plan of Long-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">36</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - <td><a href="#fig_24">Stone Cist, Long-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">38</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - <td><a href="#fig_25">Skull, Long-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">39</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">26</td> - <td><a href="#fig_26">Skull, Long-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">39</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">27</td> - <td><a href="#fig_27">Mode of construction, Long-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">28</td> - <td><a href="#fig_28">Stone Cist, Middleton Moor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">41</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">29</td> - <td><a href="#fig_29">Stone Cist, Liff’s-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">42</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - <td><a href="#fig_30">Stone Cist, Gib Hill</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">43</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">31</td> - <td><a href="#fig_31">Portion of woollen garment, Scale House</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">32</td> - <td><a href="#fig_32">Tree-coffin, Gristhorpe</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">48</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">33</td> - <td><a href="#fig_33">Tree-coffin, Gristhorpe</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">48</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">34</td> - <td><a href="#fig_34">Dagger, etc., Gristhorpe</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">49</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">35</td> - <td><a href="#fig_35">Flint, etc., Gristhorpe</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">49</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">36</td> - <td><a href="#fig_36">Tree-coffin, boat shape</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">49</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">37</td> - <td><a href="#fig_37">Cromlech, Lanyon</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">52</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">38</td> - <td><a href="#fig_38">Cromlech, Lanyon plan</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">52</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">39</td> - <td><a href="#fig_39">Cromlech, Chun</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">53</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - <td><a href="#fig_40">Cromlech, Chun plan</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">53</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">41</td> - <td><a href="#fig_41">Cromlech, Plas Newydd</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">54</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">42</td> - <td><a href="#fig_42">Minning-Low, plan</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">55</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">43</td> - <td><a href="#fig_43">New Grange, general view</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">56</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">44</td> - <td><a href="#fig_44">New Grange, entrance to passage</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">57</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">45</td> - <td><a href="#fig_45">Dowth, general view</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">58</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">46</td> - <td><a href="#fig_46">Dowth, entrance to passage</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">58</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">47</td> - <td><a href="#fig_47">Cromlech, Knockeen</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">59</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">48</td> - <td><a href="#fig_48">Cromlech, Knockeen plan</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">59</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">49</td> - <td><a href="#fig_49">Cromlech, Gaulstown</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - <td><a href="#fig_50">Cromlech, Gaulstown plan</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">51</td> - <td><a href="#fig_51">Cromlech, Ballynageerah</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">61</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">52</td> - <td><a href="#fig_52">Cromlech, Ballynageerah</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">62</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">53</td> - <td><a href="#fig_53">Cromlech, Ballynageerah plan</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">62</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">54</td> - <td><a href="#fig_54">Cromlech, L’Ancresse</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">63</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">55</td> - <td><a href="#fig_55">Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, south entrance</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">64</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">56</td> - <td><a href="#fig_56">Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, opening in north chamber</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">65</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">57</td> - <td><a href="#fig_57">Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, plan of chamber</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">65</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">58</td> - <td><a href="#fig_58">Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, carved stones</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">65</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">59</td> - <td><a href="#fig_59">Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, carved stones</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">66</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - <td><a href="#fig_60">Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, carved stones</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">66</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">61</td> - <td><a href="#fig_61">Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, carved stones</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">67</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">62</td> - <td><a href="#fig_62">Chambered Tumulus, Stony Littleton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">68</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">63</td> - <td><a href="#fig_63">Chambered Tumulus, Stony Littleton plan</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">58</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">64</td> - <td><a href="#fig_64">Chambered Tumulus, Five Wells, Taddington</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">69</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">65</td> - <td><a href="#fig_65">Chambered Tumulus, Five Wells, Taddington plan</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">69</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">66</td> - <td><a href="#fig_66">Flax Dale Barrow, plan</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">67</td> - <td><a href="#fig_67">Section, Elk-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">73</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">68</td> - <td><a href="#fig_68">Stone Circle, “Nine Ladies,” Stanton Moor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">73</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">69</td> - <td><a href="#fig_69">Stone Circle, “Nine Ladies,” Stanton Moor plan</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">74 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">70</td> - <td><a href="#fig_70">Stone Circle, construction of</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">75</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">71</td> - <td><a href="#fig_71">Stone Circle, Sancreed</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">76</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">72</td> - <td><a href="#fig_72">Stone Circle,</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">76</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">73</td> - <td><a href="#fig_73">Stone Circle, Isle of Man</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">76</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">74</td> - <td><a href="#fig_74">Stone Circle, Trewavas Head</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">77</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">75</td> - <td><a href="#fig_75">Stone Circle, Mule Hill</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">77</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">76</td> - <td><a href="#fig_76">Stone Circle, Channel Islands</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">78</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">77</td> - <td><a href="#fig_77">Stone Circle, with “twin barrow”</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">78</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">78</td> - <td><a href="#fig_78">Stone Circle, with “twin barrow”</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">79</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">79</td> - <td><a href="#fig_79">Stone Circle, construction</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">79</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">80</td> - <td><a href="#fig_80">Stone Circle, Boscawen-un</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">80</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">81</td> - <td><a href="#fig_81">Stone Circle, Aber</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">80</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">82</td> - <td><a href="#fig_82">Stone Circle, Berriew</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">81</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">83</td> - <td><a href="#fig_83">Stone Circle, Penmaenmaur</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">81</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">84</td> - <td><a href="#fig_84">Stone Circle, Arbor-Low, Derbyshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">82</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">85</td> - <td><a href="#fig_85">Pottery—fragment, Darwen</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">86</td> - <td><a href="#fig_86">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Monsal Dale</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">87</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">87</td> - <td><a href="#fig_87">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Ballidon Moor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">88</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">88</td> - <td><a href="#fig_88">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Ballidon Moor <i>in situ</i></a></td> - <td class="tdrb">88</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">89</td> - <td><a href="#fig_89">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Trentham</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">89</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">90</td> - <td><a href="#fig_90">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Darwen</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">91</td> - <td><a href="#fig_91">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Dorsetshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">91</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">92</td> - <td><a href="#fig_92">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Dorsetshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">91</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">93</td> - <td><a href="#fig_93">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Darley Dale</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">92</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">94</td> - <td><a href="#fig_94">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Stone</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">93</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">95</td> - <td><a href="#fig_95">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Cleatham</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">93</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">96</td> - <td><a href="#fig_96">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Cleatham</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">93</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">97</td> - <td><a href="#fig_97">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Calais Wold, Yorkshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">94</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">98</td> - <td><a href="#fig_98">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Darley Dale</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">95</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">99</td> - <td><a href="#fig_99">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Tredinney</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">96</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - <td><a href="#fig_100">Pottery—Cinerary Urn, Morvah</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">96</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">101</td> - <td><a href="#fig_101">Pottery—Food vessel, Trentham</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">97</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">102</td> - <td><a href="#fig_102">Pottery—Food vessel, Fimber</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">98</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">103</td> - <td><a href="#fig_103">Pottery—Food vessel, Hitter Hill</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">98</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">104</td> - <td><a href="#fig_104">Pottery—Food vessel, Hitter Hill</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">99</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">105</td> - <td><a href="#fig_105">Pottery—Food vessel, Monsal Dale</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">106</td> - <td><a href="#fig_106">Pottery—Food vessel, Fimber</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">107</td> - <td><a href="#fig_107">Pottery—Drinking-cup, Fimber</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">102</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">108</td> - <td><a href="#fig_108">Pottery—Drinking-cup, Hay Top, Monsal Dale</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">102</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">109</td> - <td><a href="#fig_109">Pottery—Drinking-cup, Grind-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">102</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">110</td> - <td><a href="#fig_110">Pottery—Drinking-cup, Elk-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">103</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">111</td> - <td><a href="#fig_111">Pottery—Drinking-cup, Elk-Low bottom</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">104 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">112</td> - <td><a href="#fig_112">Pottery—Drinking-cup, Roundway Hill</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">104</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">113</td> - <td><a href="#fig_113">Pottery—Drinking-cup, Gospel Hillock</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">105</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">114</td> - <td><a href="#fig_114">Pottery—Incense cup, Yorkshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">115</td> - <td><a href="#fig_115">Pottery—Incense cup, Yorkshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">116</td> - <td><a href="#fig_116">Pottery—Incense cup, Yorkshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">117</td> - <td><a href="#fig_117">Pottery—Incense cup, Yorkshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">118</td> - <td><a href="#fig_118">Pottery—Incense cup, Yorkshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">119</td> - <td><a href="#fig_119">Pottery—Incense cup, Yorkshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">120</td> - <td><a href="#fig_120">Pottery—Incense cup, Dorsetshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">121</td> - <td><a href="#fig_121">Pottery—Incense cup, Yorkshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">122</td> - <td><a href="#fig_122">Pottery—Incense cup, Stanton Moor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">107</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">123</td> - <td><a href="#fig_123">Pottery—Incense cup, Baslow</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">107</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">124</td> - <td><a href="#fig_124">Pottery—Incense cup, Dorsetshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">107</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">125</td> - <td><a href="#fig_125">Pottery—Incense cup, Darley Dale</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">107</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">126</td> - <td><a href="#fig_126">Pottery—Handled vessel, Yorkshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">108</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">127</td> - <td><a href="#fig_127">Stone celts, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">110</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">128</td> - <td><a href="#fig_128">Stone celts, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">110</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">129</td> - <td><a href="#fig_129">Stone celts, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">110</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">130</td> - <td><a href="#fig_130">Stone celts, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">110</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">131</td> - <td><a href="#fig_131">Stone celts, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">110</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">132</td> - <td><a href="#fig_132">Stone celt, Derbyshire example</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">110</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">133</td> - <td><a href="#fig_133">Stone hammer-head, Wollaton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">111</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">134</td> - <td><a href="#fig_134">Stone celt, Derbyshire example</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">112</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">135</td> - <td><a href="#fig_135">Stone hammer-head, Winster</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">112</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">136</td> - <td><a href="#fig_136">Stone hammer-head, Cambridgeshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">112</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">137</td> - <td><a href="#fig_137">Stone hammer-head, Trentham</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">112</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">138</td> - <td><a href="#fig_138">Stone hammer-head, Dorsetshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">113</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">139</td> - <td><a href="#fig_139">Stone mauls, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">113</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">140</td> - <td><a href="#fig_140">Stone mauls, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">113</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">141</td> - <td><a href="#fig_141">Stone mauls, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">113</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">142</td> - <td><a href="#fig_142">Stone hammer-head, Mickleover</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">113</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">143</td> - <td><a href="#fig_143">Triturating stones</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">114</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">144</td> - <td><a href="#fig_144">Triturating stones</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">114</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">145</td> - <td><a href="#fig_145">Spindle whorl</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">115</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">146</td> - <td><a href="#fig_146">Flint arrow-heads, Greenlow and other places in Derbyshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">116</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">147</td> - <td><a href="#fig_147">Flint arrow-heads, Greenlow and other places in Derbyshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">116</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">148</td> - <td><a href="#fig_148">Flint arrow-heads, Greenlow and other places in Derbyshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">116</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">149</td> - <td><a href="#fig_149">Flint arrow-heads, Greenlow and other places in Derbyshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">116</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">150</td> - <td><a href="#fig_150">Flint arrow-heads, Greenlow and other places in Derbyshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">116</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">151</td> - <td><a href="#fig_152">Flint arrow-heads, Greenlow and other places in Derbyshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">116</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">153</td> - <td><a href="#fig_153">Flint arrow-heads, Greenlow and other places in Derbyshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">116</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">146</td> - <td><a href="#fig_146">Flint arrow-heads, Greenlow and other places in Derbyshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">116 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">154</td> - <td><a href="#fig_154">Flint, Green-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">117</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">155</td> - <td><a href="#fig_155">Flint, Arbor-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">118</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">156</td> - <td><a href="#fig_156">Flint, Calais Wold</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">119</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">157</td> - <td><a href="#fig_157">Flint, Calais Wold</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">119</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">158</td> - <td><a href="#fig_158">Flint, Gunthorpe</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">119</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">159</td> - <td><a href="#fig_159">Flint, Ringham-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">119</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">160</td> - <td><a href="#fig_160">Flint, Calais Wold</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">119</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">161</td> - <td><a href="#fig_161">Flint, Calais Wold</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">119</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">162</td> - <td><a href="#fig_162">Flint, Derbyshire examples</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">120-122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">163</td> - <td><a href="#fig_163">Flint, Derbyshire examples</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">120-122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">164</td> - <td><a href="#fig_164">Flint, Derbyshire examples</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">120-122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">165</td> - <td><a href="#fig_165">Flint, Derbyshire examples</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">120-122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">166</td> - <td><a href="#fig_166">Flint, Derbyshire examples</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">120-122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">167</td> - <td><a href="#fig_167">Flint, Derbyshire examples</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">120-122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">168</td> - <td><a href="#fig_168">Flint, Derbyshire examples</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">120-122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">169</td> - <td><a href="#fig_169">Flint, Derbyshire examples</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">120-122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">170</td> - <td><a href="#fig_170">Flint celt, Gospel Hillock</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">122</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">171</td> - <td><a href="#fig_171">Necklace of jet, Middleton Moor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">123</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">172</td> - <td><a href="#fig_172">Necklace of jet and bone</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">124</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">173</td> - <td><a href="#fig_173">Necklace of jet, Fimber</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">125</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">174</td> - <td><a href="#fig_174">Jet studs, Gospel Hillock</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">126</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">175</td> - <td><a href="#fig_175">Jet studs, Calais Wold</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">126</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">176</td> - <td><a href="#fig_176">Jet pendant, Derbyshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">126</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">177</td> - <td><a href="#fig_177">Bone implement, Green-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">126</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">178</td> - <td><a href="#fig_178">Bone implement, Thor’s Cave, etc.</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">127</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">179</td> - <td><a href="#fig_179">Bone implement, Thor’s Cave, etc.</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">127</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">180</td> - <td><a href="#fig_180">Bone implement, Thor’s Cave, etc.</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">127</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">181</td> - <td><a href="#fig_181">Bone implement, Thor’s Cave, etc.</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">127</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">182</td> - <td><a href="#fig_182">Bone pendant, Arbor-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">127</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">183</td> - <td><a href="#fig_183">Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">128</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">184</td> - <td><a href="#fig_184">Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">129</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">185</td> - <td><a href="#fig_185">Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">129</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">186</td> - <td><a href="#fig_186">Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">129</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">187</td> - <td><a href="#fig_187">Bronze celt, Moot-Low</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">129</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">188</td> - <td><a href="#fig_188">Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">189</td> - <td><a href="#fig_189">Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">190</td> - <td><a href="#fig_190">Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">191</td> - <td><a href="#fig_191">Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">192</td> - <td><a href="#fig_192">Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">193</td> - <td><a href="#fig_193">Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">194</td> - <td><a href="#fig_194">Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">195</td> - <td><a href="#fig_195">Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">131 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">xvi</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">196</td> - <td><a href="#fig_196">Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">197</td> - <td><a href="#fig_197">Bronze socketed celt, Kirk Ireton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">131</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">198</td> - <td><a href="#fig_198">Bronze dagger, Bottisham</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">132</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">199</td> - <td><a href="#fig_199">Coin, Mount Batten</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">133</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">200</td> - <td><a href="#fig_200">Coin, Mount Batten</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">133</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">201</td> - <td><a href="#fig_201">Coin, Mount Batten</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">133</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">202</td> - <td><a href="#fig_202">Coin, Mount Batten</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">133</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">203</td> - <td><a href="#fig_203">Coin, Mount Batten</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">133</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">204</td> - <td><a href="#fig_204">Coin, Birkhill</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">133</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">205</td> - <td><a href="#fig_205">Coin, Blandford</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">133</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="3">ROMANO-BRITISH PERIOD.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">206</td> - <td><a href="#fig_206">Cist of stone, York</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">144</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">207</td> - <td><a href="#fig_207">Leaden coffin, Colchester</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">144</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">208</td> - <td><a href="#fig_208">Leaden coffin, Bishopstoke</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">145</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">209</td> - <td><a href="#fig_209">Clay coffin, Aldborough</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">145</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">210</td> - <td><a href="#fig_210">Chest of stone, with pottery, etc., Avisford</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">147</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">211</td> - <td><a href="#fig_211">Tomb of tiles, York</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">148</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">212</td> - <td><a href="#fig_212">Potter’s kiln, Castor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">152</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">213</td> - <td><a href="#fig_213">Pottery, Headington</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">154</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">214</td> - <td><a href="#fig_214">Pottery, Headington</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">154</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">215</td> - <td><a href="#fig_215">Pottery, Headington</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">154</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">216</td> - <td><a href="#fig_216">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, scroll ornaments</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">155</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">217</td> - <td><a href="#fig_217">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, scroll ornaments</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">157</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">218</td> - <td><a href="#fig_218">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, scroll ornaments</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">157</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">219</td> - <td><a href="#fig_219">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, scroll ornaments</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">157</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">220</td> - <td><a href="#fig_220">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, hare hunting</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">157</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">221</td> - <td><a href="#fig_221">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, hare hunting</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">158</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">222</td> - <td><a href="#fig_222">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, hare hunting</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">158</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">223</td> - <td><a href="#fig_223">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, stag hunting</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">158</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">224</td> - <td><a href="#fig_224">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, stag hunting</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">158</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">225</td> - <td><a href="#fig_225">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, stag hunting</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">159</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">226</td> - <td><a href="#fig_226">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, indented urn</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">161</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">227</td> - <td><a href="#fig_227">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, cup</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">161</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">228</td> - <td><a href="#fig_228">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, indented urn</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">161</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">229</td> - <td><a href="#fig_229">Pottery, Durobrivian ware, indented urn</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">161</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">230</td> - <td><a href="#fig_230">Pottery, Upchurch ware, group of vessels</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">163</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">231</td> - <td><a href="#fig_231">Pottery, Upchurch ware, urn</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">164</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">232</td> - <td><a href="#fig_232">Pottery, Salopian ware, group of vessels</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">166</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">233</td> - <td><a href="#fig_233">Pottery, group, Headington</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">167</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">234</td> - <td><a href="#fig_234">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Toot Hill</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">167 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">xvii</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">235</td> - <td><a href="#fig_235">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Little Chester</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">168</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">236</td> - <td><a href="#fig_236">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Leicester</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">168</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">237</td> - <td><a href="#fig_237">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Little Chester</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">169</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">238</td> - <td><a href="#fig_238">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn,</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">169</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">239</td> - <td><a href="#fig_239">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn,</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">169</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">240</td> - <td><a href="#fig_240">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, London</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">241</td> - <td><a href="#fig_241">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Water Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">242</td> - <td><a href="#fig_242">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, London</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">243</td> - <td><a href="#fig_243">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Leicester</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">244</td> - <td><a href="#fig_244">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Winchester</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">245</td> - <td><a href="#fig_245">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Castor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">246</td> - <td><a href="#fig_246">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Water Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">247</td> - <td><a href="#fig_247">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Castor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">170</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">248</td> - <td><a href="#fig_248">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Castor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">171</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">249</td> - <td><a href="#fig_249">Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, London</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">171</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">250</td> - <td><a href="#fig_250">Pottery, Amphora London</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">172</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">251</td> - <td><a href="#fig_251">Pottery, Amphora London</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">172</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">252</td> - <td><a href="#fig_252">Pottery, Amphora London</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">172</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">253</td> - <td><a href="#fig_253">Pottery, Amphora London</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">172</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">254</td> - <td><a href="#fig_254">Pottery, Mortarium London</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">171</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">255</td> - <td><a href="#fig_255">Pottery, group, Headington</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">173</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">256</td> - <td><a href="#fig_256">Pottery, Headington</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">173</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">257</td> - <td><a href="#fig_257">Pottery, Headington</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">173</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">258</td> - <td><a href="#fig_258">Pottery, Headington</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">173</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">259</td> - <td><a href="#fig_259">Pottery, various localities</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">259</td> - <td><a href="#fig_259">Pottery, various localities</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">259</td> - <td><a href="#fig_259">Pottery, various localities</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">260</td> - <td><a href="#fig_260">Pottery, various localities</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">261</td> - <td><a href="#fig_261">Pottery, various localities</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">262</td> - <td><a href="#fig_262">Pottery, various localities</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">263</td> - <td><a href="#fig_263">Pottery, various localities</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">264</td> - <td><a href="#fig_264">Pottery, various localities</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">265</td> - <td><a href="#fig_265">Pottery, various localities</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">266</td> - <td><a href="#fig_266">Pottery, various localities</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">267</td> - <td><a href="#fig_267">Pottery, Samian ware, cup, Leicester</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">175</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">268</td> - <td><a href="#fig_268">to 275 Potters’ marks</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">176</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">276</td> - <td><a href="#fig_276">Potters’ stamp</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">177</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">277</td> - <td><a href="#fig_277">Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, London</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">178</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">278</td> - <td><a href="#fig_278">Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, Arezzo</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">179</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">279</td> - <td><a href="#fig_279">Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, Arezzo</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">179</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">280</td> - <td><a href="#fig_280">Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, London</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">179</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">281</td> - <td><a href="#fig_281">Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, London</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">180</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">282</td> - <td><a href="#fig_282">Pottery, Samian ware, patera London</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">180</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">283</td> - <td><a href="#fig_283">Pottery, Samian ware, foliage</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">181 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">xviii</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">284</td> - <td><a href="#fig_284">Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, Castor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">182</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">285</td> - <td><a href="#fig_285">Pottery, Samian ware, bacchanalian scene</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">182</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">286</td> - <td><a href="#fig_286">Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, Castor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">183</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">287</td> - <td><a href="#fig_287">Pottery, Samian ware, Cologne</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">183</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">288</td> - <td><a href="#fig_288">to 291 Samian ware, cups, etc., London</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">184</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">292</td> - <td><a href="#fig_292">Glass, sepulchral vessel, Bartlow Hills</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">185</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">293</td> - <td><a href="#fig_293">Glass, bowl, Leicester</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">186</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">294</td> - <td><a href="#fig_294">to 297 Glass beads</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">186</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">298</td> - <td><a href="#fig_298">Glass beads, etc.</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">187</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">299</td> - <td><a href="#fig_299">Sword, Lough Lea</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">191</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">300</td> - <td><a href="#fig_300">Sword, Lincolnshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">191</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">301</td> - <td><a href="#fig_301">Spear or lance-head, Little Chester</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">190</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">302</td> - <td><a href="#fig_302">Spear or lance-head, Hartshay</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">190</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">303</td> - <td><a href="#fig_303">Spear or lance-head, Wardlow</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">192</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">304</td> - <td><a href="#fig_304">Arrow-head, bronze</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">192</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">305</td> - <td><a href="#fig_305">Knife</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">192</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">306</td> - <td><a href="#fig_306">Knife Wetton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">193</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">307</td> - <td><a href="#fig_307">Fibula, Waleby</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">194</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">308</td> - <td><a href="#fig_308">Fibula, Elton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">194</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">309</td> - <td><a href="#fig_309">Fibula, Monsal Dale</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">194</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">310</td> - <td><a href="#fig_310">to 315 Fibulæ, various localities</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">194</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">316</td> - <td><a href="#fig_316">Fibula, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">194</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">317</td> - <td><a href="#fig_317">Fibula, Little Chester</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">194</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">318</td> - <td><a href="#fig_318">Fibula, Bottisham</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">195</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">319</td> - <td><a href="#fig_319">Fibula, Elton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">195</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">320</td> - <td><a href="#fig_320">Fibula, Hoylake</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">195</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">321</td> - <td><a href="#fig_321">Armillæ, Stony Middleton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">196</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">322</td> - <td><a href="#fig_322">Torques, Needwood Forest</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">198</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">323</td> - <td><a href="#fig_323">Torques, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">199</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">324</td> - <td><a href="#fig_324">Horse-shoe, lamp, and fibulæ, Gloucester</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">201</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <th colspan="3">ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">325</td> - <td><a href="#fig_325">Plan of interment, Lapwing Dale</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">209</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">326</td> - <td><a href="#fig_326">Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Kingston</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">215</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">327</td> - <td><a href="#fig_327">Pottery, Cinerary Urns, North Elmham</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">217</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">328</td> - <td><a href="#fig_328">Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Chestersovers</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">217</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">329</td> - <td><a href="#fig_329">Pottery, drinking vessel</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">217</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">330</td> - <td><a href="#fig_330">Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Selzen</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">221</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">331</td> - <td><a href="#fig_331">Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Londinières</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">221</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">332</td> - <td><a href="#fig_332">Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Selzen</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">221</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">333</td> - <td><a href="#fig_333">Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Londinières</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">221 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xix">xix</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">334</td> - <td><a href="#fig_334">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Cologne</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">221</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">335</td> - <td><a href="#fig_335">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Pfahlbau</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">223</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">336</td> - <td><a href="#fig_336">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Pfahlbau</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">223</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">337</td> - <td><a href="#fig_337">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Pfahlbau</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">223</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">338</td> - <td><a href="#fig_338">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Pfahlbau</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">223</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">339</td> - <td><a href="#fig_339">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">222</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">340</td> - <td><a href="#fig_340">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">222</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">341</td> - <td><a href="#fig_341">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">224</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">342</td> - <td><a href="#fig_342">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">224</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">343</td> - <td><a href="#fig_343">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">224</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">344</td> - <td><a href="#fig_344">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">225</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">345</td> - <td><a href="#fig_345">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">225</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">346</td> - <td><a href="#fig_346">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">225</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">347</td> - <td><a href="#fig_347">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">226</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">348</td> - <td><a href="#fig_348">Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Kings Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">226</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">349</td> - <td><a href="#fig_349">Pottery, notched stick</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">227</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">350</td> - <td><a href="#fig_350">Pottery, notched stick</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">227</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">351</td> - <td><a href="#fig_351">Pottery, punctured ornament, Kings Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">227</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">352</td> - <td><a href="#fig_352">Pottery, cup, Kings Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">227</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">353</td> - <td><a href="#fig_353">Glass tumblers</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">229</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">354</td> - <td><a href="#fig_354">Glass tumblers</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">229</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">355</td> - <td><a href="#fig_355">Glass tumblers</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">229</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">356</td> - <td><a href="#fig_356">Ale-glasses</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">229</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">357</td> - <td><a href="#fig_357">Ale-glasses</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">229</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">358</td> - <td><a href="#fig_358">Glass cups</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">229</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">359</td> - <td><a href="#fig_359">Cup-bearer, with ale-glass</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">230</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">360</td> - <td><a href="#fig_360">Cellarer, with barrels and pitchers</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">230</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">361</td> - <td><a href="#fig_361">Banquet</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">231</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">362</td> - <td><a href="#fig_362">Glasses, decanter shape</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">231</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">363</td> - <td><a href="#fig_363">Glasses, decanter shape</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">231</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">364</td> - <td><a href="#fig_364">Ale-glasses</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">232</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">365</td> - <td><a href="#fig_365">Ale-glasses</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">232</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">366</td> - <td><a href="#fig_366">Ale-glasses</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">232</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">367</td> - <td><a href="#fig_367">Glass and clay beads</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">233</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">368</td> - <td><a href="#fig_368">Glass and clay beads</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">233</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">369</td> - <td><a href="#fig_369">Glass and clay beads</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">233</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">370</td> - <td><a href="#fig_370">Glass and amber necklace</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">234</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">371</td> - <td><a href="#fig_371">Glass Bead and ring</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">235</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">372</td> - <td><a href="#fig_372">Sword, Tissington</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">237</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">373</td> - <td><a href="#fig_373">Sword, Grimthorpe</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">237</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">374</td> - <td><a href="#fig_374">Sword, Grimthorpe guard</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">237</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">375</td> - <td><a href="#fig_375">Sword, Grimthorpe chape</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">237</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">376</td> - <td><a href="#fig_376">to 390 Swords, from illuminated MSS.</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">239</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">391</td> - <td><a href="#fig_391">Swordsman with shield and sword</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">240</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">392</td> - <td><a href="#fig_392">to 396 Knives or daggers, Kentish graves</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">242</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">397</td> - <td><a href="#fig_397">to 403 Spear-heads, Kentish graves, etc.</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">244</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">404</td> - <td><a href="#fig_404">Spears, from illuminated MSS.</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">244</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">405</td> - <td><a href="#fig_405">Shield plates, etc., Grimthorpe</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">246</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">406</td> - <td><a href="#fig_406">Umbone of shield, Kentish graves</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">247</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">407</td> - <td><a href="#fig_407">Umbone of shield, Kentish graves</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">247 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xx">xx</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">408</td> - <td><a href="#fig_408">Umbone of shield, Tissington</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">247</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">409</td> - <td><a href="#fig_409">to 416 Shields, from illuminated MSS.</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">248</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">417</td> - <td><a href="#fig_417">to 428 Buckles, from Kentish graves</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">249, 250</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">429</td> - <td><a href="#fig_429">Drinking-cup, Benty Grange</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">251</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">430</td> - <td><a href="#fig_430">Enamelled ornaments, etc., Benty Grange</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">251</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">431</td> - <td><a href="#fig_431">Helmet, Benty Grange</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">253</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">432</td> - <td><a href="#fig_432">Ornaments, Benty Grange</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">253</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">433</td> - <td><a href="#fig_433">Plan of interment, Barlaston</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">259</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">434</td> - <td><a href="#fig_434">Bronze ring, Barlaston</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">259</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">435</td> - <td><a href="#fig_435">Enamelled disc, Barlaston</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">260</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">436</td> - <td><a href="#fig_436">Enamelled disc, Middleton Moor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">261</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">437</td> - <td><a href="#fig_437">Enamelled ornament, Middleton Moor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">262</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">438</td> - <td><a href="#fig_438">Enamelled ornament, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">262</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">439</td> - <td><a href="#fig_439">Bronze disc and rivets, Grimthorpe</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">263</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">440</td> - <td><a href="#fig_440">Horse-shoe, Berkshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">264</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">441</td> - <td><a href="#fig_441">Horse-shoe, Berkshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">264</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">442</td> - <td><a href="#fig_442">Plan of interment, Rhine</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">265</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">443</td> - <td><a href="#fig_443">Fibula, Kingston Down</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">267</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">444</td> - <td><a href="#fig_444">Fibula, Winster Moor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">269</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">445</td> - <td><a href="#fig_445">Pendant cross, Winster Moor</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">269</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">446</td> - <td><a href="#fig_446">Fibula, Sittingbourne</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">270</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">447</td> - <td><a href="#fig_447">Fibula, Wingham</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">270</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">448</td> - <td><a href="#fig_448">Fibula, Kent</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">270</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">449</td> - <td><a href="#fig_449">Fibula, Stowe Heath</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">271</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">450</td> - <td><a href="#fig_450">Fibula, Ingarsby</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">271</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">451</td> - <td><a href="#fig_451">Fibula, Northamptonshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">272</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">452</td> - <td><a href="#fig_452">Fibula, Stow Heath</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">272</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">453</td> - <td><a href="#fig_453">Fibula, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">272</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">454</td> - <td><a href="#fig_454">Fibula, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">273</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">455</td> - <td><a href="#fig_455">Fibula, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">273</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">456</td> - <td><a href="#fig_456">Fibula, Westmoreland</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">274</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">457</td> - <td><a href="#fig_457">Fibula, Bonsall</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">275</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">458</td> - <td><a href="#fig_458">Fibula, Bonsall</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">276</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">459</td> - <td><a href="#fig_459">Fibula, Westmoreland</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">277</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">460</td> - <td><a href="#fig_460">Bucket, Northamptonshire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">281</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">461</td> - <td><a href="#fig_461">Bucket, Fairford</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">281</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">462</td> - <td><a href="#fig_462">Bucket, Envermeu</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">282</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">463</td> - <td><a href="#fig_463">Drinking-cup, Sibertswold</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">283</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">464</td> - <td><a href="#fig_464">Drinking-cup, Sibertswold</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">283</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">465</td> - <td><a href="#fig_465">Bronze bowl, Over-Haddon</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">284</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">466</td> - <td><a href="#fig_466">Bronze box, etc., Church Sterndale</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">285</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">467</td> - <td><a href="#fig_467">Bronze ornament, Church Sterndale</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">285 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxi">xxi</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">468</td> - <td><a href="#fig_468">Bronze box, Newhaven</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">286</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">469</td> - <td><a href="#fig_469">Comb, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">287</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">470</td> - <td><a href="#fig_470">Comb, Kent</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">287</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">471</td> - <td><a href="#fig_471">Comb, Thames</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">288</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">472</td> - <td><a href="#fig_472">Comb, Arica</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">288</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">473</td> - <td><a href="#fig_473">Comb, Arica</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">288</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">474</td> - <td><a href="#fig_474">Comb, Indian scalp</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">288</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">475</td> - <td><a href="#fig_475">Comb, Tweezers, Leicestershire</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">289</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">476</td> - <td><a href="#fig_476">Châtelaines, Kent</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">290</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">477</td> - <td><a href="#fig_477">Latch-keys (?) Ozengall</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">291</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">478</td> - <td><a href="#fig_478">Girdle suspenders, Wilbraham</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">291</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">479</td> - <td><a href="#fig_479">Girdle suspenders, Searby</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">291</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">480</td> - <td><a href="#fig_480">Hair-pin, Searby</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">292</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">481</td> - <td><a href="#fig_481">Hair-pin, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">292</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">482</td> - <td><a href="#fig_482">Hair-pin, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">292</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">483</td> - <td><a href="#fig_483">Hair-pin, Royal Irish Academy</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">292</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">484</td> - <td><a href="#fig_484">Draughtmen, Cold Eaton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">294</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">485</td> - <td><a href="#fig_485">Dice, Gilton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">295</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">486</td> - <td><a href="#fig_486">Quern, Winster</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">295</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">487</td> - <td><a href="#fig_487">Quern, Kings Newton</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">296</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">488</td> - <td><a href="#fig_488">Triturating stones</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">296</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">489</td> - <td><a href="#fig_489">Triturating stones</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">296</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxii">xxii</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiii">xxiii</span></p> - -<h2 id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</h2> - -<p>The object of the following work is, I apprehend, so -obvious as to render an introduction scarcely needful. It -may be well, however, to remark, that it is the only work -of its kind which has ever been issued, and that therefore, -taking a stand of its own, and following no other either -in plan or treatment of its subject, it is hoped that it will -command the attention of antiquaries and of all who are -interested in the history and the manners and habits of -our early forefathers.</p> - -<p>It has long appeared to me that a general <i>résumé</i> of -the almost endless store of knowledge presented by the -very varied relics of the grave-mounds of the three -great divisions of our history—the Celtic, the Romano-British, -and the Anglo-Saxon—kept distinct from the -histories of those peoples, and from extraneous matters, -and treating them more in a general than in an ethnological -manner, could not fail to be a useful addition to our -archæological literature, and would prove of great value -and convenience to the general reader, as well as to the -antiquary and the historian. Thus it is that I have been -induced to prepare the present volume. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiv">xxiv</span></p> - -<p>I have treated my subject in a popular manner, divesting -it of technicalities, of theories, and of discursive matter, -and have endeavoured, as far as space would permit, -to give, simply and clearly, as correct an insight as possible -into the modes of burial adopted in early times in -our own country, and into the various remains of different -races which an examination of their grave-mounds discloses.</p> - -<p>Having great faith in the usefulness of engravings, and -believing that, if judiciously introduced, a work of the -kind cannot be too profusely illustrated, I have brought -together in my present volume a larger number of engravings -than could well have been expected; and these, -I trust, will add much to its usefulness and value. To all -my kind friends who have aided me in this matter I give -my hearty thanks.</p> - -<p>The work may have some, perhaps many, defects. If -such exist, I shall be thankful to have them pointed out, -and to remedy them in a future edition.</p> - -<p class="author"> -LLEWELLYNN JEWITT.<br /> -</p> - -<p> -<span class="smcap">Winster Hall,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 4em;" class="smcap">Derbyshire.</span> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> - -<p class="ph1"><span class="antiqua">Grave-mounds and their Contents.</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Grave-mounds in General—Their Historical Importance—General Situation—Known -as Barrows, Houes, Tumps, and Lows—List of Names—Division -into Periods.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">To</span> the grave-mounds of the early inhabitants of our -island, more than to any other source, we are indebted -for our knowledge of their arts, their habits, and their occupations. -Indeed, to these mounds and their contents, we -owe almost all the knowledge we possess as to the history -of the races and peoples who have preceded us, and -are enabled to determine, approximately, their chronological -succession as masters of the soil.</p> - -<p>From the very earliest ages men of every race have bestowed -peculiar care over the graves of the dead, and -have marked to later ages, in an unmistakable manner, these -places of sepulture, which have, in many instances, been -preserved with religious care to modern times. Thus the -relics which they contain have come down to us intact, and -even now tell their wondrous tale, in a language of their -own, of ages and of races of beings long since passed -away. A single implement of stone or of flint; a weapon -or an ornament of bronze, of iron, or of bone; a bead of jet -or of glass; an urn, or even a fragment of pottery; or any one -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> -of the infinity of other relics which are exhumed, no matter -to what period they belong, or from what locality they may -have come; one and all tell their own tale, and supply new -links to our ever-extending chain of knowledge.</p> - -<p>To the graves, then, of our earliest ancestors, must we -mainly turn for a knowledge of their history and of their -modes of life; and a careful examination and comparison -of their contents will enable us to arrive at certain data on -which, not only to found theories, but to build up undying -and faultless historical structures.</p> - -<p>As, wherever the country was populated, interments of -the dead must, as a necessity, have taken place, these all-important -store-houses of after-knowledge exist, or have -existed, to more or less extent in almost every district -throughout the land, and give evidence, whenever opened -by experienced hands, of their historical value and importance. -The earliest grave-mounds are mostly found in the -mountainous districts of the land—among the hills and fastnesses; -the latter overspreading hill and valley and plain -alike. Thus, in Cornwall and Yorkshire, in Derbyshire and -in Dorsetshire, in Wiltshire and in many other districts, -the earliest interments are, or have been, abundant; while the -later ones, besides being mixed up with them in the districts -named, are spread over every other county. In the counties -just named Celtic remains abound more than those of any -other period. In Dorsetshire, for instance, that county, as -the venerable Stukeley declares, “for sight of barrows not to -be equalled in the world,” the early mounds abound on the -downs and on the lofty Ridgeway, an immense range of hills -of some forty miles in extent, while those of a later period lie -in other parts of the county. In Yorkshire, again, they abound -chiefly in the wolds; and in Cornwall, on the high lands. -The same, again, of Derbyshire, where they lie for the most -part scattered over the wild, mountainous, and beautiful district -known as the High Peak—a district occupying nearly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> -one half of the county, and containing within its limits -many towns, villages, and other places of extreme interest. -In this it resembles Dorsetshire; for in the district comprised -in the Ridgeway and the downs are very many -highly interesting and important places, around which the -tumuli are most plentiful.</p> - -<p>It is true that here and there in Derbyshire, as in other -counties, an early grave-mound exists in the southern or -lowland portion of the county; but, as a rule, they may be -almost said to be peculiar, and confined, to the northern, or -hilly district, where in some parts they are very abundant. -Indeed, there are districts where there is scarcely a hill, even -in that land, where</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i12">“Hills upon hills,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Mountains on mountains rise,”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>where a barrow does not exist or is not known to have -existed. In passing along the old high-road, for instance, -over Middleton Moor by way of Arbor Low,<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> Parcelly Hay, -High Needham, Earl Sterndale, and Brier Low, to Buxton, -or along the high-roads by way of Winster, Hartington, or -Newhaven, the practised eye has no difficulty in resting on -the forms of grave-mounds on the summits of the different -hills or mountains, whose outlines stand out clear and distinct -against the sky.</p> - -<p>The situations chosen by the early inhabitants for the -burial of their dead were, in many instances, grand in the -extreme. Formed on the tops of the highest hills, or on -lower but equally imposing positions, the grave-mounds -commanded a glorious prospect of hill and dale, wood and -water, rock and meadow, of many miles in extent, and on -every side stretching out as far as the eye could reach, while -they themselves could be seen from afar off in every direction -by the tribes who had raised them, while engaged either -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> -in hunting or in their other pursuits. They became, indeed, -land-marks for the tribes, and were, there can be but little -doubt, used by them as places of assembling.</p> - -<p>Sepulchral tumuli are known as barrows, lows, houes, -tumps, etc. <i>Barrow</i> is of pretty general use; <i>low</i> is almost -universal in Derbyshire, Staffordshire, and other districts; -<i>tump</i> is in use in Gloucestershire, etc.; and <i>houe</i> in Yorkshire.</p> - -<p>In Derbyshire and Staffordshire, the term “Low” is so -very usual that, wherever met with, it may be taken as a -sure indication of a barrow now existing or having once -existed at the spot. As a proof of this, it will only be -necessary to say that at about two hundred places in Derbyshire -alone, and at about half that number on the neighbouring -borders of Staffordshire, which bear the affix of -<i>Low</i>, barrows are known to exist or have already been -opened. For my present purpose, it will be sufficient to give -the few following names:—Arbor-Low, Kens-Low, Ringham-Low, -Blake-Low, Fox-Low, Gib-Low, Green-Low, -Great-Low, Grind-Low, Cal-Low, Chelmorton-Low, Casking-Low, -Larks-Low, Thirkel-Low, Ribden-Low, Har-Low, -Bas-Low, High-Low, Foo-Low, Lean-Low, Huck-Low, -Borther-Low, Dow-Low, Totman’s-Low, Staden-Low, -Stan-Low, Blind-Low, Boar-Low, Bottles-Low, Brown-Low, -Caldon-Low, Calver-Low, Cock-Low, Cop-Low, Cow-Low, -Cronkstone-Low, Dars-Low, Drake-Low, Elk-Low, -End-Low, Far-Low, Pike-Low, Fowse-Low, Galley-Low, -Gris-Low, Grub-Low, Herns-Low, Hawks-Low, Horning-Low, -Hard-Low, Knock-Low, Knot-Low, Laidmans-Low, -Lady-Low, Liffs-Low, Lomber-Low, Lousy-Low, Mick-Low, -Moot-Low, Money-Low, Musden-Low, May-Low, -Needham-Low, Nether-Low, Ox-Low, Off-Low, Pars-Low, -Painstor-Low, Peg-Low, Pigtor-Low, Pike-Low, Pinch-Low, -Queen-Low, Ravens-Low, Rains-Low, Rick-Low, -Rocky-Low, Rolley-Low, Round-Low, Rusden-Low, -Saint-Low, Sitting-Low, Sliper-Low, Thoo-Low Three-Lows, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> -Ward-Low, Warry-Low, White-Low, Whithery-Low, -Wool-Low, and Yarns-Low. To some of these I -shall again have occasion to make reference. In Yorkshire, -the names of William Houe, Three Houes, and Three -Tremblers Houes, will be sufficient indication of the local -use of the term “Houe.”</p> - -<p>Grave-mounds may, naturally, be divided into the three -great periods; the Celtic, the Romano-British, and the -Anglo-Saxon. This division will be adopted in the present -volume, and it will be its aim, while speaking of the characteristics -of each, to classify and describe their contents, -and to point out, briefly, such circumstances of interment, -and such evidences of customs, as they may present, and -which may appear to be of sufficient interest and importance -to its plan.</p> - -<p>Of the forms of barrows, and their characteristics and -modes of construction, occasion will be taken to speak in a -later chapter. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Ancient British, or Celtic, Period—General characteristics of the Barrows—Modes -of construction—Interments by inhumation and by cremation—Positions -of the body—Hitter Hill Barrow—Elliptical Barrow -at Swinscoe—Burial in contracted position—In sitting and kneeling -positions—Double interments.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> barrows of the Celtic, or ancient British, period -vary in their form and size as much as they do in their -modes of construction, and in their contents. Sometimes -they are simply mounds of earth raised over the interment; -sometimes heaps of stones piled up over the body; -and sometimes again a combination of cist and earth and -stone. Generally speaking the mounds are circular, rising -gradually and gently from the level of the ground towards -the centre, but in some instances the rise is somewhat -acute. Now and then they are oval in form. Where -elliptical barrows occur (generally known as “long barrows”), -they are, I have reason to believe, not matters of -original design, but of accident, through additional interments; -and I much doubt the propriety of archæologists -at the present day continuing the very questionable nomenclature -adopted by Sir R. C. Hoare and others. In some -cases, however, as in the instances of chambered or walled -tumuli, the elliptical form of the barrow can be easily -understood. An examination of a very large number of -barrows leads me to the opinion that the original form of -all was circular, and that no deviation from that form, and -no difference in section, can be taken as indicative of -period or of race. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span></p> - -<p>The other appellation occasionally used, of “twin barrows,” -is further evidence of this—two interments having -been made within a short distance of each other, and the -mounds raised over them running into and joining each -other. It may, however, for purposes of description, and -for this alone, be well to retain the names, while discarding -much of the theory and of the system which has been attempted -to be established regarding them.</p> - -<p>The mounds of earth alluded to, present occasionally -highly interesting and curious features, and show that, like -those of a different construction, they have frequently been -used for successive interments. The section of one of -these is shown on the next page. It is one of a group of -six barrows on Lord’s Down, in the parish of Dewlish, in -Dorsetshire. It was eighty-two feet in diameter, and -fourteen feet in height in the centre. The primary interment, -an urn, was placed in a cist cut in the chalk sub-soil. -Over the urn was raised a small cairn of flints, and the -cist was then filled in, and raised a little above the surface -with chalk rubble. Over this was a layer of earth, upon -which an interment had taken place, and in its turn -covered with a thick layer of chalk rubble, in the centre -of which, in a cist, another interment had again been -made. Above this rose another layer of earth, another of -chalk, and then a final one of earth, on each of which interments -had at different periods been made. Thus the -tumulus, which was formed of alternate layers of chalk and -earth, exhibited no less than six successive sepulchral -deposits.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> The interments were both by inhumation and -cremation.</p> - -<div id="fig_2" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_2.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig.2.</p> -<p class="table">1. Earth to the depth of three feet.<br /> -2. Chalk, two feet in depth.<br /> -3. Earth to the depth of three feet.<br /> -4. Loose rubble chalk, three feet in depth.<br /> -5. Earth, one foot in depth.<br /> -6. Chalk rubble, six inches in depth.<br /> -Cist, filled with chalk rubble and flints, two feet in depth.<br /> -</p> -</div> - -<p>Another example of a barrow of this period is shown in -section on the <a href="#fig_3">fig. 3</a>. There had originally been four -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> -small mounds, or barrows, formed in a group, on the -natural surface of the ground (see the two dotted lines in -the engraving). They were composed of tempered earth, -approaching in tenacity almost to clay, and on these the -general mound was raised to a height of about eighteen -feet, and was composed of earth, intermixed with loose -rubbly limestones. Nearly at the top, in the centre, a stone -cist, enclosing an interment, was discovered. It was in -form a perfect, though miniature, example of what are -commonly called cromlechs.</p> - -<div id="fig_3" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_3.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 3.</p> -</div> - -<p>It is not an unfrequent occurrence in barrows to find -that interments have been made at different periods and by -different races, as will be hereafter shown.</p> - -<p>The two examples of mounds of earth already given will -show the successive layers which have occurred in their -formation. The simpler, and intact, mounds of earth, -which are very common, require no illustration. They -are simply immense circular heaps of earth raised over -the interment, whether in cist or not.</p> - -<p>Barrows, or mounds, of stone are of frequent occurrence. -They are of very simple construction. The interment, -whether by cremation or otherwise, having been made in a -natural or artificial cist, or simply laid upon the natural -surface of the ground, rough stones were placed in a large -circle around it, and an immense quantity of stones were -then piled up to a height of several feet. Some of these -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -cairns are of very great size, and cover a large area of -ground. Sections of two tumuli of this description are -given in figs. <a href="#fig_4">4</a> and <a href="#fig_5">5</a>. The cairn of stone was, as will be -seen, covered to some depth with earth; perhaps in some -instances this might be a part of the original design, but in -most cases the soil which now covers these stone barrows -may be traced to the ordinary process of decay of vegetation -in successive ages.</p> - -<div id="fig_4" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_4.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 4.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_5" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_5.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 5.</p> -</div> - -<p>Barrows were not unfrequently surrounded by a circle of -stones, set upright in the ground. These circles, in many -instances, remain to the present day in different parts of the -kingdom, and, the barrow itself having disappeared, are -commonly called by the general appellation of “Druidical -circles.” But of these, later on. The construction of the -stone circles varied considerably. In some instances the -upright stones were pretty close together; in others, wide -apart; and in others, again, the spaces between the uprights -were filled in with a rude loose rubble masonry, which thus -formed a continuous wall.</p> - -<p>Some tumuli contained stone chambers and passages, -formed of massive upright slabs, and covered with immense -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> -blocks of stone. Over these chambers, etc., the -mounds of earth, or of stone, or of both combined, were -raised, as will be hereafter shown.</p> - -<p>Interments in the Celtic grave-mounds were both by inhumation -and cremation, and the modes of interment, in -both these divisions, was very varied.</p> - -<p>Where inhumation obtained, the body was sometimes -laid on its side, in a contracted position; at others, extended -full length on its back or side; and in other -instances, again, was placed in an upright sitting or kneeling -posture. Occasionally, too, where more than one body -has been buried at the same time, they have been laid face -to face, with their arms encircling each other; at other -times an infant has been placed in its mother’s arms.</p> - -<p>When cremation has been practised, the remains have -either been gathered together in a small heap on the -surface of the ground—sometimes enclosed in a small -cist, at others left uncovered, and at others covered with -a small slab of stone—or wrapped in a cloth or skin (the -bone or bronze pin which has fastened the napkin being -occasionally found), or enclosed in cinerary urns, inverted -or otherwise. In some instances, even when placed in -urns, they were first enclosed in a cloth.</p> - -<p>These are the general characteristics of the interments -of the Celtic period, and they will be best understood by -the following examples.</p> - -<p>When the body has been buried in a contracted position, -it is found lying on its side; the left side being the most -usual. The head generally inclines a little forward; the -knees are drawn up near to the chest, and the heels to the -thighs; the elbows are brought near to the knees,—frequently, -indeed, one of them will be found beneath, and -the other on, the knees, which have thus been held between -them; and the hands are frequently brought up to the -front of the face. This position, which is after all, perhaps, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> -the most easy and natural one to choose, will be best -understood by the following engraving (<a href="#fig_6">fig. 6</a>), which -shows an interment found in a barrow on Smerril Moor, -opened by my much lamented friend the late Mr. Thomas -Bateman. In this case the body had been laid on its left -side in an irregularly formed cavity on the surface of the -natural rock, on a bed of clay, over which, as usual, the -mound was formed of loose stones and mould. Behind -the skeleton, as will be seen in the engraving, was found a -remarkably fine “drinking cup,” along with a bone meshing -rule or modelling tool, twelve inches long, made from -the rib of a horse or cow; a flint dagger; an arrow-head; -and some other implements, also of flint, all of which had -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> -been burned. The femur of this skeleton measured nineteen -and a half inches, and the tibia sixteen inches.</p> - -<div id="fig_6" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_6.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 6.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_7" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_7.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 7.</p> -</div> - -<p>The next example (<a href="#fig_7">fig. 7</a>), from Tissington, will be -seen to have been laid in very much the same position. -It lies on its left side, the knees drawn up, and the -feet, elbows, and hands in the position I have already -described. This barrow possessed considerable interest, -from the fact that a later interment—of the Anglo-Saxon -period—had been made immediately above the figure here -subjoined. To this I shall refer under the head of Anglo-Saxon. -In the same barrow, shown at <small>A</small> on the engraving, -was a deposit of burnt bones. <a href="#fig_8">Fig. 8</a>, again, shows an interment -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> -in the contracted position, the head, in this instance, -resting upon the left hand. The skeleton lay in an oblong -oval cist, five feet long by two and a half feet wide, smoothly -hollowed out of the chalk, and over this the mound was raised. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> -Along with it were found a bronze dagger, a barbed -arrow-head of flint, a beautiful drinking cup and other -objects. This example is from Roundway Hill, in North -Wiltshire.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> Another excellent example, from Hitter Hill, -Derbyshire, is given in the next engraving (<a href="#fig_9">fig. 9</a>), which -shows successive interments, each being on the left side, -in the usual contracted position.</p> - -<div id="fig_8" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_8.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 8.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_9" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_9.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 9.</p> -</div> - -<p>Of this barrow, the opening of which presented peculiarly -interesting features, a tolerably detailed account will be -advisable. It was opened by myself and Mr. Lucas in -1862. The mound, which was about twenty-two feet in -diameter, was composed of rough stone and earth intermixed. -It was only about three feet in height, its centre -being somewhat sunk. The first opening was made at the -part marked <small>A</small> on the accompanying ground-plan (<a href="#fig_10">fig. 10</a>), -where, from the outside, we cut a trench, four feet in width, -in a north-easterly direction, towards the centre of the barrow, -and soon came upon an interment of burnt and unburnt human -bones. Along with these were an immense quantity of -rats’ bones<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> and snail-shells. After proceeding to a distance -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> -of seven feet, we came upon the side, or what may -almost be called the entrance, of a cist formed partly of the -natural rock, and partly of stones set up edgewise. The -dimensions of this cist were about forty inches by twenty-six -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> -inches, and it was two feet in depth, the floor being -three feet six inches below the surface. The cist was -formed between two portions of natural rock, and protected -at its entrance by a large flat stone set up edgwise, and -other stones filled up the interstices at the sides. It was -also covered with a large flat stone. On clearing away the -surrounding earth, after removing the covering stone, we -were rewarded by finding that the cist contained the fragmentary -remains of a young person, which had lain on its -right side, in the usual position, with the knees drawn up. -The accompanying engraving (<a href="#fig_11">fig. 11</a>) will show the opened -cist, with the stone across its entrance, and the interment -<i>in situ</i>. In front of the skeleton, and close to its hands, -was a remarkably good and perfect food vessel, which was -richly ornamented with the diagonal and herring-bone lines, -formed by twisted thongs impressed into the soft clay.</p> - -<div id="fig_10" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_10.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 10.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_11" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_11.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 11.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span></p> - -<p>The next morning we dug a trench four feet wide, on the -west side towards the centre, as shown at <small>B</small> on the plan -(<a href="#fig_10">fig. 10</a>), and the day’s labours had an equally satisfactory -result. At about the same distance as on the previous day -we came to the side of a cist, immediately in front of which, -at <small>F</small> on the plan, lay a heap of burnt bones, and a few -flakes of burnt flint. Having cleared away the surrounding -stones and earth, and removed the large flat covering stones, -which showed above the surface of the mound, we found -the cist to be composed on one side by the natural rock, and -on the other by flat stones set up on edge. Its dimensions -were about one foot ten inches by four feet, and it contained -a large quantity of rats’ bones and snails’ shells. In this -cist was an interment of an adult, much crushed by one of -the large covering stones having fallen upon it. Thanks to -this circumstance, however, a food vessel, which we discovered, -owed its preservation. The body lay in the usual -contracted position, on its right side, as shown on the ground-plan -at <small>B</small>, and in front and close to the hands was the food -vessel, which, like the other, was taken out entire. It is -five and a quarter inches in height, and six and a quarter -inches in diameter at the top, and is richly ornamented.</p> - -<p>Continuing the excavations to the south, we found that -another cist <small>C</small> adjoined the one just described, and was, like -it, formed of flat stones set up edgewise; in fact, it was like -one long cist divided across the middle. In this second -cist, besides the usual accompaniment of rats’ bones, was -the remains of an interment, sufficiently <i>in situ</i> to show -that the skeleton had, like the others, been deposited in a -contracted position. A small fragment of pottery was also -found, but owing to the cist being so near the surface the -stones had been partially crushed in, and thus both the deposit -and the urn had become destroyed. A portion of a -stone hammer was also found.</p> - -<p>The two cists are here shown (<a href="#fig_12">fig. 12</a>), which also shows -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> -the central interment at a higher level, to be hereafter -described.</p> - -<p>On the following Monday we resumed our operations by -making an opening on the north-west side, as shown at D on -the plan. Here, again, at a few feet from the outer edge, we -came upon an interment <small>H</small>, without a cist, accompanied by -an unusual quantity of rats’ bones. Continuing the excavation, -we were again rewarded by the discovery of a fine cist, -but at a greater depth than those before described. Above -this cist we found some large bones of the ox, and on the -covering stone was a deposit of burnt bones and ashes, with -innumerable quantities of rats’ bones.</p> - -<div id="fig_12" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_12.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 12.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_13" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_13.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 13.</p> -</div> - -<p>The cist, which was covered with one extremely large -flat stone, we found to be formed partly of the natural rock, -and partly—like the others—of flat stones set up edgewise; -and it was, without exception, the most compact and neatly -formed of any which have come under our observation. Its -form will be seen on the plan at <small>D</small>, and its appearance, when -the interior soil was removed, is shown on <a href="#fig_9">fig. 9</a>. The dimensions -of the cist were as follows:—Width at the foot, -twenty-four inches; extreme length, forty inches; general -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> -depth, twenty inches. The floor was composed of the -natural surface of the rock, with some small flat stones laid -to make it level, and at the narrow end a raised edge of -stone, rudely hollowed in the centre, formed a pillow on -which the head rested. The sides of the cist were square -on the one side to the length of twenty-eight, and on the -other of twenty-one, inches, and it then gradually became -narrower until at the head its width was only ten inches. -When the cist was cleared of its accumulation of soil and -rats’ bones—of which scores of jaw-bones were present, -thus showing the large number of these ravaging animals -which had taken up their abode there—it presented one of -the most beautiful and interesting examples of primeval -architecture ever exhumed. It contained the skeleton of -an adult, laid on his left side, in the usual contracted position, -but without any pottery or flint. The skull, of which -an outline engraving is given on <a href="#fig_13">fig. 13</a>, is a most interesting -and characteristic example of the cranium of an -ancient Coritanian Briton. It is brachy-cephalic, and is the -subject of deformity from nursing on the cradle-board in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> -infancy.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> It is the skull of a middle-aged man, and is -remarkably well formed. The bones, with the exception -of some of the small ones, were all remaining, and -formed a skeleton of considerable ethnological interest. -The small bones were gnawed away by the rats, and it is -curious to see to what distances, in some interments, these -active little animals have dragged even large bones from -their original resting-places. It may not be without interest -to note, that within the skull of this skeleton the bones of a -rat, head and all, were found imbedded in the soil, along with -some small stones, which he doubtless had dragged in with -him on his last excursion. We continued our excavations -in a north-easterly direction, as shown at <small>G</small> on the plan, and -found another interment, but without a cist or any other -notable remains; and next day we commenced opening that -portion of the centre of the barrow between the cists already -described, and soon came upon an interment of an adult -person, as shown on the plan at <small>E</small>. The bones were very -much disturbed, but sufficient remained to show that the -deceased had been placed on his left side, in the same contracted -position as the others in this mound. The body was -not more than twelve inches below the surface, and was -much disturbed, but it is more than probable the top of the -barrow had at some distant time been taken off, most likely -for the sake of the stone. The position of this interment -will be seen on reference to the plan, and it is also shown -on figs. <a href="#fig_9">9</a>, <a href="#fig_11">11</a>, and <a href="#fig_12">12</a>.</p> - -<p>In addition to these illustrations, it will be sufficient to -give the annexed engraving (<a href="#fig_14">fig. 14</a>), which shows the position -of a number of interments uncovered by Mr. Bateman -in the centre of an elliptical barrow<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> at Swinscoe. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> -interments were as follows:—1. A young adult, lying in a -contracted position, on its right side, in a shallow grave cut -about six inches deep in the chert rock, with a stone placed -on edge at the head, and another at the feet. 2. A young adult, -lying on its right side, an upright stone at its head. 3. A -middle-aged person, lying with the face upwards, and guarded -by a large stone at its side. 4. The bones of a young hog, -enclosed in a stone cist. 5. Remains of a cinerary urn and -burnt bones. 6. Skeleton of an aged man, lying in a contracted -position, on its left side, upon a thin layer of charred -wood. 7. A deposit of burnt bones. 8. Skeleton, very fragmentary. -9. A double interment, consisting of two skeletons, -with a flat stone on edge by their side. These were an -adult, and a child of a few months old only. 10. Skeleton of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> -an aged man, lying in the usual position, on his left side, -enclosed in a circle of stones. Behind him lay a handsome -drinking-cup. 12. Portions of a skeleton in a pentagonal -cist. 13. Skeleton of a young person, placed close up to an -upright flat stone. 14. Skull and portions of a skeleton. -Several flints and other remains were found with these -various interments.</p> - -<div id="fig_14" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_14.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 14.</p> -</div> - -<p>Interments where the body has lain extended are of much -rarer occurrence, in this period, than those just described. -Some few instances have been brought to light in Derbyshire, -and in other counties, but they are indeed “few and -far between,” and are the very rare exceptions to a general -rule. One of the most interesting of these instances is the -one called “Shuttlestone Low,” opened a few years ago by -Mr. Bateman, and thus described by him: “It consisted -of a compact mass of tempered earth down to the natural -surface of the land, below which point, in the centre of the -barrow, there appeared a large collection of immense limestones, -the two uppermost being placed on edge, and all below -being laid flat, though without any other order or design -than was sufficient to prevent the lowest course resting upon -the floor of the grave inside which they were piled up, and -which was cut out to the depth of at least eight feet below the -natural surface; thus rendering the total depth, from the top -of the mound to the floor of the grave, not less than twelve -feet. Underneath the large stones lay the skeleton of a -man, in the prime of life, and of fine proportions, apparently -the sole occupant of the mound; who had been interred -while enveloped in a skin of dark-red colour, the hairy surface -of which had left many traces both upon the surrounding -earth and upon the verdigris, or patina, coating; a bronze -axe-shaped celt and dagger deposited with the skeleton. On -the former weapon there are also beautifully distinct impressions -of fern leaves, handfuls of which, in a compressed -and half-decayed state, surrounded the bones from head to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> -foot. From these leaves being discernible on one side of -the celt only, whilst the other side presents traces of leather -alone, it is certain that the leaves were placed first as a -couch for the reception of the corpse, with its accompaniments, -and after these had been deposited, were then further -added in quantity sufficient to protect the body from the -earth. The position of the weapons with respect to the -body is well ascertained, and is further evidenced by the -bronze having imparted a vivid tinge of green to the bones -where in contact with them. Close to the head were one -small black bead of jet and a circular flint; in contact with -the left upper arm lay a bronze dagger with a very sharp -edge, having two rivets for the attachment of the handle, -which was of horn, the impression of the grain of that substance -being quite distinct around the studs. About the -middle of the left thigh-bone was placed the bronze celt -which is of the plainest axe-shaped type. The cutting edge -was turned towards the upper part of the person, and the -instrument itself has been inserted vertically into a wooden -handle, by being driven in for about two inches at the narrow -end—at least the grain of the wood runs in the same -direction as the longest dimension of the celt,—a fact not -unworthy of the notice of any inclined to explain the precise -manner of mounting these curious implements. The -skull—which is decayed on the left side, from the body having -lain with that side down—is of the platy-cephalic form, with -prominent parietal tubers—the femur measures 18½ inches.”</p> - -<p>Another good instance is from Yorkshire, where two -skeletons were found side by side, extended, with their heads -respectively east and west, lying in a bed of charcoal.</p> - -<p>Occasionally, as has been stated on a previous page, interments -have been made in an upright sitting position. -Instances of this kind are rare and very curious. Our engraving -(<a href="#fig_15">fig. 15</a>) shows an interment of this kind, which -occurred in a barrow at Parcelly Hay. The body had been -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> -placed in a sitting posture, leaning back against the side of -the cist, which was only three feet in height, and not more -than that in its greatest width. The cist was roughly covered -in with large slabs of limestone. The skull, which was a -remarkably fine one, has been engraved in “Crania Britannica.”<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> -On the covering-stones lay another skeleton, among -the loose stones of which the barrow itself was composed. -This secondary interment was accompanied by a fine axe-head -of stone and a bronze dagger. Of course the seated -skeleton must have been of an earlier date still. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span></p> - -<div id="fig_15" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_15.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 15.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another remarkable instance of this kind of interment—but -this time in a kneeling position—was discovered in -the Cromlech De Tus, or De Hus, in Guernsey, by -Mr. F. C. Lukis.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> This interesting relic is situated near -Paradis, in the parish of Vale, and is a chambered tumulus -of simple but excellent construction. The mound -is surrounded by a circle of stones, about twenty yards in -diameter. In the centre is the principal chamber, covered -with large flat stones, and from it to the extremity of the -mound, on the east, was a passage formed by upright -stones, and covered here and there with cap-stones dividing -it into chambers. On the north side of this passage was -a chamber formed by upright stones, on which rested the -large flat covering stone; and close to this was another -similar but smaller chamber. In the first were discovered -“vases, bone instruments, celts, and human remains.” In -the latter, on removing the soil at the top, “the upper part -of two human skulls were exposed to view. One was -facing the north, and the other the south, but both disposed -in a line from east to west,”—in other words, side by side, -and shoulder to shoulder, but facing opposite ways. They -were skeletons of adult males, and, on clearing away the -soil, they were found to have been buried at the same time. -“The perfect regular position of a person kneeling on the -floor, in an upright posture, with the arms following the -direction of the column, pelvis, and thigh-bones, and gradually -surrounded by the earth, in like manner as may be -conceived would be done were the persons buried alive, -will give an exact representation of this singular discovery.”</p> - -<p>Another excellent example of this very unusual mode of -interment—this time in a sitting posture—was discovered -by some tufa-getters, and examined by Mr. Bateman, in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -Monsal Dale, and is shown on the accompanying engraving, -<a href="#fig_16">fig. 16</a>, which exhibits a section of the rock, -etc.; and shows the position of the skeleton, and the manner -in which the cavity containing the body had been filled -up with the river sand. The body in this case, as in the -last, had been placed in the cavity, in a sitting position, and -must have been so placed from an opening in front. The -cavity was ten or twelve feet above the bed of the river -Wye, and above it were some five feet in thickness of solid -tufa rock, while, from the face of the rock, the cavity was -about twelve feet. The body may therefore be said to have -been entombed in the middle of the solid rock. The roof -of the cavity when found was beautifully covered with stalactites. -The skeleton was that of a young person, and -near it were found a flint and some other matters. The -cavity was filled to part way up the skull with sand.</p> - -<div id="fig_16" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_16.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 16.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another example of interment in a sitting posture was -discovered some years ago, at Kells in Ireland. These -will be sufficient to show the curious character of this mode -of interment. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span></p> - -<div id="fig_17" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_17.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 17.</p> -</div> - -<p>Several examples of double interments, besides those -described above, have been discovered in different localities. -One of the most curious is the one in the largest cist, -in <a href="#fig_17">fig. 17</a>. In this cist, which is composed of four upright -slabs of stone,<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> were the skeletons of a man and woman, -and the remains of two children; the family having probably -been immolated at the death of its head, and all -buried together. A small urn was found in the same cist; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> -and in the same barrow, in other portions which were excavated, -as shown in the plan, were other interments, both -by cremation and by inhumation.</p> - -<div id="fig_18" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_18.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 18.</p> -</div> - -<p>In No. 9, on <a href="#fig_14">fig. 14</a>, an interment of a mother and her -child together is shown. Another instance is shown on -the next engraving, <a href="#fig_18">fig. 18</a>. In this instance the woman -was laid in the usual contracted position, on her left side, -with her head to the east. Close in front of the breast, lying -in the arms in the same contracted position, lay the -infant. Some flints and a fragment of pottery were found -along with this touching interment. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Ancient British or Celtic Period—Interment by cremation—Discovery -of lead—Burial in urns—Positions of urns—Heaps of burnt bones—Burnt -bones enclosed in cloth and skins—Stone cists—Long-Low—Liff’s-Low, -etc.—Pit interments—Tree-coffins.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">When</span> the interment has been by <small>CREMATION</small>, the remains -of the burnt bones, etc., have been collected -together and placed either in a small heap, or enclosed in -a skin or cloth, or placed in a cinerary urn, which is sometimes -found in an upright position, its mouth covered with a -flat stone, and at others inverted over a flat stone or on the -natural surface of the earth. This position, with the mouth -downwards, is, perhaps, the most usual of the two. In some -instances the bones were clearly enclosed, or wrapped, in a -cloth before being placed in the urn. The place where the -burning of the body has taken place is generally tolerably -close to the spot on which the urn rests, or on which the heap -of burnt bones has been piled up. Wherever the burning has -taken place there is evidence of an immense amount of heat -being used; the soil, for some distance below the surface, -being in many places burned to a redness almost like brick. -Remains of charcoal, the refuse of the funeral pyre, are -very abundant, and in some instances I have found the -lead ore, which occurs in veins in the limestone formation -of Derbyshire, so completely smelted with the heat that it -has run into the crevices among the soil and loose stones, -and looks, when dug out, precisely like straggling roots of -trees.</p> - -<p>Is it too much to suppose that the discovery of lead may -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> -be traced to the funeral pyre of our early forefathers? I -think it not improbable that, the fact of seeing the liquid -metal run from the fire as the ore which lay about became -accidentally smelted, would give the people their first insight -into the art of making lead—an art which we know was -practised at a very early period in Derbyshire and other -districts of this kingdom.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> Pigs of lead of the Romano-British -period, inscribed with the names of emperors and -of legions, have occasionally been found; but much earlier -than these are some cakes (if the term can be allowed) of -lead which have evidently been cast in the saucer-shaped -hollows of stones. Of these, which are purely British, -some examples have fortunately been preserved.</p> - -<p>But to resume. The positions I have spoken of in which -the cinerary urns and heaps of burnt bones have been -usually found, will be best understood by the accompanying -engravings. The first (<a href="#fig_19">fig. 19</a>) represents a section of a barrow -in which, at <i>a</i>, is shown a sepulchral urn in an upright -position, capped with a flat stone; and at <i>b</i> a heap of burnt -bones piled up in the usual fashion, and first covered with -earth and then with the loose stones of which the whole -barrow was composed.</p> - -<div id="fig_19" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_19.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 19.</p> -</div> - -<p>The next engraving (<a href="#fig_20">fig. 20</a>) again shows, within a cist, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> -in a barrow on Baslow Moor called “Hob Hurst’s House,”<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> -two heaps of bones, the one simply collected together in a -small heap, and the other guarded by a row of small sandstone -“boulders” all of which had been subjected to fire. -The next illustration (<a href="#fig_21">fig. 21</a>) gives a section of the Flax -Dale barrow at Middleton by Youlgreave, which shows the -inverted position of the sepulchral urn. This barrow was -formed on a plan commonly adopted by the ancient -Britons, and will therefore serve as an example of mode -of construction as well as of the inverted position of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -urn. A circle of large rough stones was laid on the surface -of the ground, marking the extent of the proposed mound. -Within this the interments, whether in an urn or not, were -placed, and the mound was then raised of stones to the required -height, and afterwards covered to some thickness -with earth, and thus the outer circle of the barrow was considerably -extended, as will be seen by the engraving.</p> - -<div id="fig_20" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_20.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 20.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_21" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_21.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 21.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another excellent example of the inverted position of the -sepulchral urns is here given (<a href="#fig_22">fig. 22</a>) from one of the cists in -Rolly-Low, near Wardlow. I have chosen it because, when -found by Mr. Bateman, it had received a considerable fracture -on one side, and thus showed the burnt bones which it -contained, through the aperture. The urn was about sixteen -inches in height and twelve inches in diameter, and -was ornamented in the usual manner with indentations -produced by a twisted thong. It was inverted over a deposit -of calcined human bones, among which was a large -red deer’s horn, also calcined. The urn was so fragile as -to be broken to pieces on removal.</p> - -<div id="fig_22" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_22.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 22.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span></p> - -<p>In some urns discovered in Cambridgeshire, at Muttilow -Hill, the Hon. R. C. Neville found that the calcined bones -had been collected and wrapped in cloth before being placed -in the urns. The contents of one of the urns he describes -as “burnt human bones enveloped in a cloth, which, on -looking into the vessel, gave them the appearance of being -viewed through a yellow gauze veil, but which upon being -touched dissolved into fine powder.”<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> The urns were all -inverted.</p> - -<p>A somewhat peculiar feature of urn burial was discovered -at Broughton, in Lincolnshire, where the urn containing -the burnt bones was placed upright on the surface -of the ground, and another urn, made to fit the mouth, inverted -into it to form a cover.</p> - -<p>In instances where the ashes of the dead have been collected -from the funeral pyre, and laid in a skin or cloth before -interment, the bone or bronze pins with which the “bundle” -was fastened still remain, although, of course, the cloth itself -has long since perished.</p> - -<p>In other instances small stones have been placed around, -and upon, the heap of burnt bones before raising the mound -over the remains.</p> - -<p>It is frequently found in barrows, where the interment -has been by cremation, that there will be one or more -deposits in cinerary urns, while in different parts of the -mound, sometimes close by the urn, there will be small -heaps of burnt bones without any urn. The probable solution -of this is, that the simple heaps of bones were those of -people who had been sacrificed at the death of the head of -the family, and burned around him. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span></p> - -<p>It is a very frequent occurrence in barrows for the interments -to be made in stone cists, and these, of course, vary -both in size and in form, according to the nature of the spot -chosen, and to the requirements of each particular case. -The cists are usually formed of rough slabs of limestone, -grit-stone, granite, or other material which the district offers, -set up edgeways on the surface of the ground, so as to form -a sort of irregular-square, rhomboidal, or other shaped compartment. -In this the interment, whether of the body itself -or of the urn containing the calcined bones, or of the -calcined bones without an urn, has been made, and then the -cist has been covered with one or more flat stones, over -which the cairn of stones, or earth, or both, has been raised. -Some barrows contain several such cists, in each of which -a single, or in some instances a double, interment has been -made. Excellent examples of these are afforded by the accompanying -engravings, and by figs. <a href="#fig_9">9</a>, <a href="#fig_10">10</a>, <a href="#fig_11">11</a>, <a href="#fig_12">12</a>, <a href="#fig_15">15</a>, <a href="#fig_17">17</a>, -<a href="#fig_20">20</a>, <a href="#fig_28">28</a>, and <a href="#fig_29">29</a>. Occasionally, when the natural surface of -the ground was not sufficiently even or solid for the interment -to be as conveniently made as might be wished, a flooring -of rough slabs of stone was laid for the body to rest -upon. This was the case in a barrow called “Long-Low,” -near Wetton, in the moorlands of Staffordshire (shown on -<a href="#fig_24">fig. 24</a>), which was opened by Mr. Carrington.</p> - -<div id="fig_23" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_23.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 23.</p> -</div> - -<p>As there are some singular features connected with this -barrow, a detailed account of the mode of its construction -becomes necessary. This very peculiar barrow had been -thought, time out of mind, to be a “mine rake,” and attempts -have from time to time been made by lead miners to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> -find a shaft, by removing certain portions of the mound—a -shaft had, in fact, been sunk very nearly in the centre of -the barrow. This rendered the operations of opening both -difficult and laborious. Long-Low is what is usually denominated -a “twin barrow,” consisting of two circular -mounds, connected by a bank, which altogether are 220 -yards long. A plan of this barrow, drawn to scale, is shown -on the accompanying engraving (<a href="#fig_23">fig. 23</a>). The circular -mound at the north-east end is thirty yards across and seven -feet high in the centre, that at the south-west end not so -large; the connecting bank at its base is fifteen yards wide, -and where entire about six feet in height, with regular sloping -sides where not mutilated. “The barrow runs in a -straight line along the highest part of the land, a strong -wall, separating the fields, is built over it lengthways, the -stone for which, like other field walls in the vicinity, appears -to have been procured from the bank of the tumulus, which, -with the exception of some parts of the surface, is formed -of large flat stones, which have evidently been procured in -the immediate neighbourhood, where the surface of the land -is lowered to a considerable extent. This is the only instance -(as far as my experience goes) of a barrow being -formed of stones got by quarrying, they being generally -composed of such stones as are found on the surface of uncultivated -land, which, owing to exposure to the atmosphere, -have their angular points rounded. The strata in -the neighbourhood of this barrow are but slightly consolidated, -and are separated from each other by a thin seam of -earthy matter, and abound with vertical cracks, so that -it would not be a difficult task to dig out stones with -sharpened stakes—the principal instruments, I presume, for -such purposes in primitive times.”</p> - -<p>The internal construction of this cairn is singular. By -making holes in various places along the bank, was found a -low wall in the centre, built with large stones, which appears -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> -to be carried the whole length of the bank. Against -this, large flat stones, with their tops reclining against the -wall, are placed, thus leaving many vacancies, and showing -an economical way of raising the mound at less expenditure -both of labour and materials. The portions of this -which have been laid bare are, with remains of interments, -shown on the plan (<a href="#fig_23">fig. 23</a>) at <small>C</small>, <small>D</small>, <small>E</small>, and <small>F</small>.</p> - -<p>A large cist, or chamber, was discovered near the centre of -the large mound. It was formed by four immense stones, -inclosing an area six feet long, five feet wide, and about four -feet deep. In all probability the capstone had been removed, -as none was found. On the cist being cleared, was discovered -a regular paved floor of limestone, entirely covered -over with human bones, presenting a confused mass of the -relics of humanity. The skeletons lying in the primitive -position, crossed each other in all directions. They proved -to be the remains of thirteen individuals, both males and -females, varying from infancy to old age. The interior of -this cist is shown on the accompanying engraving, and its -position in the mound will be seen at <small>A</small> on the plan.</p> - -<div id="fig_24" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_24.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 24.</p> -</div> - -<p>On the floor were found three arrow-heads of flint, -wrought into beautiful thin leaf-shaped instruments, and -many other calcined flakes of the same material; also -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> -bones of the ox, hog, deer, and dog. Not far from the cist, -and near the surface, was found a skeleton minus the head, -imbedded in gravel, rats’ bones, and charcoal. On the floor -some animal bones were found that had been burned, also -neatly wrought arrow-heads and pieces of flint, and fragments -of two human skulls. The point of a bone spear -and a bone pin were found during our labours in this mound. -“Another skeleton was found in the bank, crushed into small -fragments; and where another grave had been made in the -bank, for a secondary interment, the sides and bottom -were found to have been burned to lime, which now resembled -old mortar, to an extent that could not have been -effected by an ordinary fire. It is not unusual to find small -stones burnt to lime on the floors of barrows; in the present -instance it had acquired a hardness almost equal to the -stones, effected during a very long period by imbibing carbonic -acid gas from the atmosphere, to which it had free -access; pieces several inches thick were broken up intermixed -with charcoal.”</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div class="tcell" id="fig_25"> -<img src="images/fig_25.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 25.</p> -</div> - -<div class="tcell" id="fig_26"> -<img src="images/fig_26.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 26.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>On one side of the cist two skulls lay close together, and -mixed up with a skeleton, the bones of which, in some -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -instances, crossed each other; in the centre lay the fine skull -shown in figs. <a href="#fig_25">25</a> and <a href="#fig_26">26</a>.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> Two other remarkable skulls, -one of a woman of about fifty years of age, and the other of -a girl not more than seven years old, were also found.</p> - -<div id="fig_27" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_27.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 27.</p> -</div> - -<p>When the mound at the other extremity of the “bank” was -opened, calcined bones and animal remains only were found, -but the singular construction of this portion of the barrow -made ample compensation for the paucity of relics. It appeared -that the longitudinal wall, noticed before, terminated -in the centre of this mound; and at its termination another -and well-built wall was carried crossways at right angles with -it (<a href="#fig_27">fig. 27</a>), which was laid bare to the length of more than -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> -half the diameter of the mound—it was three feet in height—the -whole extent was not proved. From the centre of this -wall, and forming a straight line with the longitudinal one, -there was a row of thin moderately large stones, set on -edge, by the ends being set in the soil that formed the floor -of the mound; these were placed with their edges close -together, and occasionally in two or three ranks, as if for -better support in an upright position. They were from 1½ -to 2 feet in height, and were extended from the wall to the -length of five yards. The burnt bones were found in the -west angle formed by the cross wall and the upright stones, -as shown in the engraving. It appeared as though the -bones had originally been deposited near the surface, as -they were now found in the interstices betwixt the stones, -from near the top to the bottom. This mound was formed -of large stones, like the other parts, reared against each -other all around, with their tops inclining towards the -centre.</p> - -<p>A tolerably good cist, formed of rough masses of stone -surrounding the body, is the one engraved on <a href="#fig_28">fig. 28</a>, from -Middleton. This cist contained the skeleton of a woman, -lying on her left side, in a partially contracted position. -Above her lay the remains of an infant, and about her neck -were the beads of a remarkably fine necklace of jet.</p> - -<div id="fig_28" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_28.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 28.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_29" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_29.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 29.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another good example of a stone cist is the next (fig. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -29), from Liff’s-Low. The cist was formed of eight large -slabs of rough limestone, set edgewise; and formed a chamber -of very compact and almost octagonal form. It contained -the skeleton of a man, lying in a partly contracted -posture on his left side, the face looking to the west. Behind -the knees was placed a hammer-head, formed of the -lower part of the horn of the red deer. One end is rounded -and polished, and the other knotched across, somewhat, (to -use a homely comparison) like what is usually called a -“wafer-seal.” Behind the head were a number of miscellaneous -but highly interesting articles, showing, as they -did after the lapse of so many centuries, that “the savage -Briton, reposing in this cairn, had cultivated the art of -making war amongst the inhabitants of the forest in preference -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> -to molesting his fellow savages; as almost the first -observed articles were a pair of enormous tusks of the wild -boar, trophies of some, perhaps his last, sylvan triumph. -Next came two arrow-heads of flint, delicately chipped, and -of unusual form; two spear-heads of the same material; -two flint knives, polished on the edge, one of them serrated -on the back in order to serve as a saw; and numerous -pieces of flint of indescribable form and use, which, together -with all the flint instruments enumerated above, seem to -have undergone a partial calcination, being gray, tinted -with various shades of blue and pink. With these articles -were found three pieces of red ochre, the rouge of these unsophisticated -huntsmen, which, even now, on being wetted, -impart a bright red colour to the skin, which is by no -means easy to discharge.” With these articles lay a small -urn of unique form.</p> - -<p>On <a href="#fig_30">fig. 30</a> is shown a remarkably pretty cist, formed of -four upright stones, supporting a capstone. It contained a -vase of good form.</p> - -<div id="fig_30" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_30.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 30.</p> -</div> - -<p>Pit interments are occasionally met with, but are very -rare. One instance will suffice: it is that at Craike Hill, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> -near Fimber, Yorkshire, and was opened by Mr. Mortimer.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> -In it no less than four interments were made, one above -another, in a pit or grave covered over by a mound. The -two lower and the upper were skeletons in the usual contracted -positions; the other a heap of calcined bones, with -a fine food vessel. Near the upper skeleton was another -heap of burnt bones and another food vessel. With one of -the skeletons, that of a female, was found a splendid necklace -of jet, and a drinking cup of elaborate design. These -are all engraved in the present volume.</p> - -<p>Burials in tree-coffins, of various periods, have been -occasionally met with in grave-mounds, and a few words -concerning them may here be introduced. One of the most -interesting was found recently by that indefatigable antiquary, -the Rev. Canon Greenwell, at Scale House, in -Yorkshire.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> The barrow was about thirty feet in diameter, -and five feet in height, and was surrounded by a circle of -soil at the base. It was entirely composed of soil, interspersed -here and there with fragments of charcoal, firmly -compacted. On the top, for a space of about six or seven -feet in diameter, a covering of flattish stones was laid just -below the surface. On digging down at this spot it was -found that a hollow had been made in the natural surface, -that had been filled up with soil, upon which had been -placed a few stones and then a coffin, constructed of the -trunk of a small oak tree. This primitive coffin was laid -north and south, the thicker end, which no doubt contained -the head of the corpse, towards the south; which was also -the case in the Gristhorpe barrow. The oaken trunk, or -tree-coffin, was seven feet three inches in length, and one -foot eleven inches in diameter, at the spot in which it was -measured. The Gristhorpe coffin “is seven feet and a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> -half long, and three feet three inches broad.” Above the -coffin the soil was finer, and upon this finer stratum was -situated a layer of dark matter a good deal burned, and -containing pieces of charcoal. Over the whole was a -covering of the ordinary compacted soil of which the barrow -was composed. The body inhumed in this tree-coffin, -and not burned, had gone totally to decay, leaving only a -whitish unctuous matter behind. This substance was no -doubt <i>adipocire</i>, the production of which is to be accounted -for by the extreme wetness of the barrow. Before interment -the corpse had been clothed, or wrapped, <i>from head to -foot</i> in a woollen fabric,<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> a specimen of which is represented -in the following figure:—</p> - -<div id="fig_31" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_31.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 31.</p> -</div> - -<p>There were no flint chippings discovered in the soil of -which the barrow was composed, or other object, and -nothing else was contained in the tree-coffin, save the body -in its wrappings. Some pieces of a bright black substance -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> -like pitch, which appeared to have been placed on the inside -of the coffin, on examination are found to be composed -of carbon and oxide of iron.</p> - -<p>It is most unfortunate that this curious and interesting -barrow had been previously opened at the top. By this -proceeding the tree-coffin had been broken through, and its -contents disturbed about the middle. And it is also much -to be regretted that the barrow was saturated with moisture, -which had percolated into the coffin, carrying the soil -with it. By this means all the contents of the barrow, -save the <i>adipocire</i> of the body itself, including both the -tree-coffin and the woollen garment, had acquired a rottenness -which precluded the recovery of anything more than -mere fragments. Those of the woollen dress were so filled -with particles of soil, and at the same time so tender, as to -admit of being reclaimed only in a very imperfect manner. -The woollen cloth, which went from head to foot, there is -no doubt had been loosely wrapped round the body, in the -manner of a shroud, not swathed like an Egyptian mummy, -so that “the fabric filled the whole of the inside of the -coffin from end to end.” Hence, as is confirmed by the -barrows opened in Jutland, there is every reason to infer -that it was the ordinary woollen dress of the individual interred -in the tumulus, who must have held such a position -in society as to ensure these great attentions to his remains.</p> - -<p>“In many ancient British barrows marks of the garments -of the deceased have been discovered, in which the body -appears to have been wrapped before interment. Indications -of skin dresses are seen early, and after these, in the -bronze and iron periods, where the rust of weapons has retained -impressions of such grave-clothes, tissues of linen -and woollen appear. Mr. Bateman met with signs of such -textures, and in the case of the Tosson cists, in Northumberland, -from one of which the skull of plate 54 of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> -<i>Crania Britannica</i> was derived, an iron spear-head was -found in one of them, and there were signs of two fabrics -of cloth impressed upon the oxidized surface of this relic.</p> - -<p>“Again, British barrows have been opened containing -tree-coffins, in which the remains have been inhearsed. The -celebrated Gristhorpe barrow, the skeleton from which is -preserved in the Scarborough Museum, and of the skull of -which there is a fine engraving, plate 52, and a careful description -by Dr. Thurnam, in the work just named, offers -an instance of a tree-coffin formed of a split oak of small -girth. In this case, the body had been wrapped in the skin -of some animal having soft hair. The interment had belonged -to the ancient British late stone or the bronze period. -The coffin contained three flakes, or rude implements of -flint, as well as objects made of bronze and bone. In the -course of the description alluded to, there are references to -many other examples of coffins hollowed out of solid trunks, -oaken and tree-coffins. These appear to belong to very -different periods, extending from the ancient British to -early Saxon, and perhaps Christian times. That called -the “King Barrow,” at Stowborough, in Dorsetshire, -contained an oaken tree-coffin with the body in an envelope -of deer-skins. It is said, that more recently a barrow -opened in the wolds of Yorkshire offered fragments of an -oaken coffin, together with the remains of a British urn. -Also, at Wath, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, in an -oaken coffin an urn was found of the later British type, the -whole being enclosed in a barrow.”</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_32" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_32.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 32.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_33" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_33.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 33.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The Gristhorpe coffin, shown on figs. <a href="#fig_32">32</a> and <a href="#fig_33">33</a>, consisted -of the trunk of a large oak, roughly hewn, and split into -two portions. The markings seemed to indicate that it had -been hollowed with chisels of flint; but that the tree had -been cut down with a much larger tool, the marks being -such as would be made by a stone hatchet. It is seven and -a half feet long and three feet three inches broad. In the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> -bottom is a hole three inches in length. The lid was kept -in place by the uneven fracture of the wood. The back -was in good preservation, with its coatings of lichens distinct. -At the narrow end of the lid, cut in the bark, was a -sort of leaf-shaped knob, perhaps intended for a handle. -The objects found in the coffin alluded to above are shown -on figs. <a href="#fig_34">34</a> and <a href="#fig_35">35</a>. In these engravings, Nos. 1, 2, and 6 are -flakes of flint. The first has been slightly chipped at the -edge, but the others are simply split off from the native -flint. No. 5 is a bronze dagger, three and a half inches -long, but much corroded—the two rivets showing that the -handle was not of much thickness. No. 4, no doubt the -top of such handle, is a disc of bone, polished, and of oval -shape with perforations on either side for the pins by which -it was fastened. No. 8 is a small implement of wood, with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> -a rounded head, and flattened on one side to about half its -length. No. 3 is the fragment of a ring of horn—a fastening, -perhaps, of the dress. On the lower part of the breast -was an ornament of very brittle material, in the form of a -rosette, with two loose ends. By the side was a shallow -basket, about six inches in diameter, formed of bark, curiously -stitched with the sinews of animals; at the bottom -were decomposed remains, perhaps of food. There was -also a quantity of vegetable substance, mixed with lanceolate -foliage supposed to be that of the mistletoe.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_34" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_34.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 34.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_35" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_35.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 35.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_36" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_36.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 36.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another form—which may be called the “boat shape”—of -tree-coffin is here shown for the purpose of comparison. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Ancient British or Celtic Period—Sepulchral Chambers of stone—Cromlechs—Chambered -Tumuli—New Grange and Dowth—The Channel -Islands—Wieland Smith’s Cave, and others—Stone Circles—For what -purpose formed—Formation of Grave-mounds—Varieties of Stone -Circles—Examples of different kinds—Arbor Low, etc.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">One</span> of the most important classes of barrows is that -which contains sepulchral chambers of stone; not the -simple cists which have been spoken of in the preceding -chapter, but of a larger, more complicated, or colossal character. -Mounds of this description exist, to more or less -extent, in different districts. In most instances the mound -itself, <i>i.e.</i>, the earth or loose stones of which the superincumbent -mound was composed, has been removed, and -the gigantic sepulchral chamber alone left standing. In -many instances the mounds have been removed for the -sake of the soil of which they were formed, or for the -purpose of levelling the ground in the destructive march of -agricultural progress. In many cases, however, they have -doubtless been removed in the hope of finding treasure beneath; -it being a common belief that immense stores of -gold—in one instance the popular belief was that a “coach -of gold” was buried beneath—were there for digging for. -Where the mounds have been removed, and the colossal -megalithic structures allowed to remain, they have an imposing -and solemn appearance, and seem almost to excuse -the play of imagination indulged in by our early antiquaries -in naming them Cromlechs, and in giving to them a -false interest by making them out to be “Druids’ altars”—altars -on which the Druids made their sacrifices. These -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> -same authorities have, indeed, gone so far in their inventions -as to affirm, that when the capstone was lower on one -side than another, as must necessarily frequently be the -case, it was so constructed that the blood of the victims -might run off in that direction, and be caught by the priests; -that some of the naturally formed hollows in the stones were -scooped out by hand to receive the heart and hold its blood -for the highest purposes; and that when the cromlech was -a double one, the larger was used for the sacrifice, and -the smaller for the Arch-Druid himself whilst sacrificing.</p> - -<p>Researches which have been made in recent times show -the absurdity of all this, and prove beyond doubt that the -cromlechs are neither more nor less than sepulchral chambers -denuded of their mounds. In several instances they -have been found intact, and, these mounds being excavated, -have been brought to light in a perfect state. These -instances have occurred in Cornwall, in Derbyshire, and in -other districts of England, as well as in the Channel -Islands and elsewhere. One instance is that of the Lanyon -cromlech in Cornwall. It seems that some seventy -years ago “the farmer” to whom the ground belonged cast -a longing eye on what appeared to be an immense heap of -rich mould, and he resolved to cart it away and spread it -over his fields. Accordingly he commenced operations, -his men day after day digging away at the mound, and -carting the soil off to the fields. By the time some hundred -cart loads or so had been removed the men came -to a large stone, which defied their efforts at removal, -and, not knowing what it might be, or what it might -lead to, they went on removing the surrounding earth, -and gradually cleared, on all its sides, the majestic cromlech -which is now one of the prides of Cornwall. -This highly interesting chamber contained a heap of -broken urns and human bones. This “Lanyon cromlech,” -a view of which is given on <a href="#fig_37">fig. 37</a>, consists -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> -now of three immense upright stones, on which rests -an enormous capstone, measuring about eighteen and -a half feet in length and about nine feet in width, and is -computed to weigh above fifteen tons. How such stones -were raised and placed on the rough upright stone supports -which had been prepared for them is almost beyond comprehension, -when it is recollected that they were raised by -a people who were devoid of machinery.</p> - -<div id="fig_37" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_37.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 37.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_38" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_38.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 38.</p> -</div> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i12">“The heart,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Aching with thoughts of human littleness,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Asks, without hope of knowing, whose the strength<br /></span> -<span class="i0">That poised thee here.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>This cromlech when first uncovered consisted of <i>four</i> -upright stones, on which rested the capstone. In 1815, -during a tremendous storm, the capstone and one of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> -supports were thrown down. In 1824 the capstone was -replaced, under the superintendence of Lieut. Goldsmith, -R.N., and at this time a piece was broken off at <small>A</small>. The -fourth upright stone was not replaced, having been broken -when thrown down. <a href="#fig_37">Fig. 37</a> shows the cromlech as replaced. -<a href="#fig_38">Fig. 38</a> is a plan of it, showing the uprights and -the capstone. The large outline is the capstone, the part -marked A being the part broken off; the shaded parts -are the present three uprights; and <small>B</small> the fourth upright, -broken.</p> - -<div id="fig_39" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_39.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 39.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_40" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_40.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 40.</p> -</div> - -<p>Kits Cotty House, in Kent; the Chun cromlech, in Cornwall -(figs. <a href="#fig_39">39</a> and <a href="#fig_40">40</a>)—the covering stone of which is calculated -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -to weigh twenty tons; the Molfra cromlech, in the -same county, which consists of a compact cist closed on -three sides and open on the fourth; the Zenor cromlech; -the Plas Newydd cromlech, and many others which it is not -necessary to enumerate, are all of the same class. The -Plas Newydd (<a href="#fig_41">fig. 41</a>) is a double cromlech, the two -chambers being close together, end to end. The capstone -of the largest, which is about twelve feet in length by ten -feet in breadth, originally rested on seven stones, two of -which have disappeared. The two erections undoubtedly -were originally covered with a single mound.</p> - -<div id="fig_41" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_41.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 41.</p> -</div> - -<p>At Minninglow, in Derbyshire, erections of this kind -occur, but, not being denuded of their mounds, are still -partially buried. The mound is of large size. Under the -centre and in four places in the area of the circle are large -cists, which if cleared from the earth would be fine cromlechs -of precisely the same form as those just described. -They are formed of large slabs of the limestone of the -district, placed upright on the ground, and are covered -with immense capstones of the same material. All these -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> -chambers had contained interments. The accompanying -plan (<a href="#fig_42">fig. 42</a>) of some of these cists gives the situation of -the stones forming the sides of the large chamber; of the -passage leading to it; of the slabs which closed its entrance; -and of the covers or capstones. The chamber is -rather more than five feet in height, and the largest capstone -about seven feet square, and of great thickness. A -kind of wall similar to those which have been found to -encircle some of the Etruscan tumuli, forms the circle of -this mound, which rises to a height of more than fifteen -feet from the surface of the ground.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a></p> - -<div id="fig_42" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_42.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 42.</p> -</div> - -<p>The general arrangement of this example will be seen to -bear an analogy to the Plas Newydd and others spoken of, -and shows by what an easy transition the building of galleries, -or a series of chambers for family tombs, in these -large mounds, would be arrived at. Of this kind some very -large examples exist in Ireland, and in the Channel Islands, -as well as in various parts of England. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span></p> - -<div id="fig_43" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_43.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 43.</p> -</div> - -<p>One of the most important in size, as well as in general -interest; is the one at New Grange, county Meath. “The -cairn, which even in its present ruinous condition measures -about seventy feet in height, and is nearly three hundred -feet in diameter, from a little distance presents the appearance -of a grassy hill, partly wooded; but upon examination -the coating of earth is found to be altogether superficial, -and in several places the stones, of which the hill is entirely -composed, are laid bare. A circle of enormous stones, of -which eleven remain above ground,<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> originally encircled its -base. The opening (of which an engraving is shown on -<a href="#fig_44">fig. 44</a>) was accidentally discovered about the year 1699, by -labouring men employed in the removal of stones for the -repair of a road. The gallery, of which it is the external -entrance, extends in a direction nearly north and south, -and communicates with a chamber, or cave, nearly in the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> -centre of the mound. This gallery, which measures in -length about fifty feet, is at its entrance from the exterior -about four feet in height, in breadth at the top three feet -two inches, and at the base three feet five inches. These -dimensions it retains, except in one or two places, where the -stones appear to have been forced from their original -position, for a distance of twenty-one feet from the external -entrance. Thence towards the interior its sides gradually -increase, and its height where it forms the chamber is -eighteen feet. Enormous blocks of stone, apparently water-worn, -and supposed to have been brought from the mouth -of the Boyne, form the sides of the passage; and it is -roofed with similar stones. The ground plan of the chamber -is cruciform; the head and arms of the cross being formed -by three recesses, one placed directly fronting the entrance, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> -the others east and west, and each containing a basin of -granite. The sides of these recesses are composed of -immense blocks of stone, several of which bear a great -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> -variety of carvings.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> In front of the entrance (<a href="#fig_44">fig. 44</a>) -will be seen one of these carved stones.”</p> - -<div id="fig_44" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_44.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 44.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_45" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_45.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 45.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_46" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_46.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 46.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_47" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_47.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 47.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_48" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_48.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 48.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_49" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_49.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 49.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_50" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_50.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 50.</p> -</div> - -<p>At Dowth and Nowth (Dubhath and Cnobh), very similar -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> -chambered tumuli exist, the former of which is also remarkable -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> -for its sculptural stones, which bear a strong -resemblance to those at New Grange. The Cairn of Dowth -here engraved (<a href="#fig_45">fig. 45</a>), is of immense size, and contains a -cruciform chamber similar to that at New Grange, with a -passage twenty-seven feet in length, composed—as was the -chamber—of enormous stones. On some of the stones -were carvings and Oghams. The mouth of the passage -leading to the cruciform chamber is shown on <a href="#fig_46">fig. 46</a>.</p> - -<div id="fig_51" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_51.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 51.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_52" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_52.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 52.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_53" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_53.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 53.</p> -</div> - -<p>Other excellent examples of Irish cromlechs and chambers -are those at Monasterboise (“Calliagh Dirras House”); -Drumloghan (full of Oghams); Kells; Knockeen (figs. <a href="#fig_47">47</a> -and <a href="#fig_48">48</a>); where the right supporting stones are six in number, -and arranged rectangularly, so as to form a distinct chamber -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> -at the S.E. end, the large covering stone being 12 feet -by 8 feet, and weighing about four tons, and the -smaller one about half that size; Gaulstown (figs. <a href="#fig_49">49</a> and -<a href="#fig_50">50</a>), the inner chamber of which measures 7 feet by 6 feet -4 inches, and is seven feet in height; Ballynageerah (figs. -<a href="#fig_51">51</a>, <a href="#fig_52">52</a>, and <a href="#fig_53">53</a>), the capstone of which is cleverly and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> -curiously poised on two only of the upright stones, as will -be seen by the engravings;<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> Howth, Shandanagh, Brennanstown, -Glencullen, Kilternan, Mount Brown, Rathkenny, -Mount Venus, and Knock Mary, Phœnix Park, as -well as at many other places.</p> - -<div id="fig_54" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_54.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 54.</p> -</div> - -<p>In the Channel Islands the indefatigable and laudable -researches of Mr. Lukis show that the galleried stone chambers -of the tumuli in that district had been used by successive -generations for many ages. One of the most important of -these is the gigantic chambered burial place, surrounded by -a stone circle, at L’Ancresse, in Guernsey. In this, “five -large capstones are seen rising above the sandy embankment -which surrounds the place; these rest on the props -beneath, and the whole catacomb is surrounded by a circle -of upright stones of different dimensions.” The length of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> -the cromlech is 41 feet from west to east, and about 17 feet -from north to south, on the exterior of the stones. At the -eastern entrance the remains of a smaller chamber is still -seen; it consisted of three or four capstones, and was -about seven feet in length, but evidently within the outer -circle of stones.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> In a careful examination made by Mr. -Lukis, many highly interesting features were brought to -light, of which he has given an excellent account in the -“Archæological Journal,”<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> to which the reader cannot do -better than refer. The engravings there given, show the -interiors of some of the chambers, with their deposits <i>in -situ</i>, and exhibit some of the highly interesting relics found -during the excavations. The pottery was of a totally distinct -character from that of the Celtic period found in England, -some of the forms being of what are usually considered -the Anglo-Saxon type, and are the result of the use -of these chambers by successive generations, as already -named.</p> - -<div id="fig_55" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_55.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 55.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another of the more remarkable structures of the Channel -Islands is that of Gavr Innis, in the Morbihan, Brittany. -The tumulus is about thirty feet high, and its circumference -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> -at the base about 300 feet. The cromlech is entered from -the south end (<a href="#fig_55">fig. 55</a>), <a href="#fig_56">fig. 56</a> being the opening on the north, -and consists of 14 upright stones on the east side, 13 on -the west, and 2 on the north, supporting, in all, 10 capstones. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> -In general features it bears a strong resemblance -to those at New Grange, Dowth, and other places. The -remarkable feature of this chambered tumulus is that the -stones composing the passage are for the most part sculptured -in lines and patterns, which have been described as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> -very similar to the patterns tattooed on their faces and bodies -by the New Zealanders. Examples of these will be seen -on the accompanying engravings, which exhibit some of -the more marked and distinct of the patterns noticed and -copied by Mr. Lukis, in his examination of this mound, and -described by him in the journal of the British Archæological -Association, to the Council of which I am indebted for -these illustrations.</p> - -<div id="fig_56" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_56.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 56.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_57" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_57.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 57.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_58" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_58.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 58.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_59" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_59.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 59.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_60" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_60.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 60.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_61" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_61.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 61.</p> -</div> - -<p>In England, besides those already named, and others, -“Wayland,” or “Wieland Smith’s Cave,” at Ashbury, in -Berkshire; one at Stoney Littleton, near Wellow, in Somersetshire; -the “Five Wells,” at Taddington, in Derbyshire; -and one or two others in the same county, as well as in -other places, are the most important. The annexed woodcut, -<a href="#fig_62">fig. 62</a>, exhibits a section of the chambered tumulus at -Stoney Littleton, and <a href="#fig_63">fig. 63</a> is a ground plan of the same. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> -“The entrance was on the north-west side, where a stone -upwards of seven feet long and three and a half feet wide, -supported by two others, left a square aperture of about four -feet high, which had been closed by another large stone. -This entrance led to a long passage or avenue, extending in -the direction from north-west to south-east forty-seven feet -six inches, and varying in breadth. There were three -transepts, or recesses, on each side. The side walls were -formed of thin laminæ of stone piled closely together without -cement, and a rude kind of arched roof made of stones so -placed as to overlap each other. When the large stones in -the side walls did not join, the interstices were filled up -with layers of small ones.”<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> Interments had evidently -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> -been made in each of these chambers, some by cremation, -and others by inhumation, but the bones were scattered -about, the result of previous rifling of its contents. One -urn was found.</p> - -<div id="fig_62" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_62.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 62.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_63" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_63.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 63.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_64" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_64.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 64.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_65" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_65.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 65.</p> -</div> - -<p>The chambered tumulus, called the “Five Wells,” near -Taddington, of which an engraving is here given (<a href="#fig_64">fig. 64</a>), -has been a mound of large size, and the chambers and passages, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> -or gallery, have been extensive. A plan of this -tumulus is given in <a href="#fig_65">fig. 65</a>. The “Five Wells” tumulus -consists of two vaults or chambers, situated near the centre -of a cairn (which is about thirty yards in diameter), each -approached by a separate gallery or avenue, formed by -large limestones standing edgeways, extending through -the tumulus, respectively in a south-east and north-west -direction. These chambers are marked <small>B</small> and <small>G</small> on the -plan, <small>G</small> being the cist engraved on <a href="#fig_64">fig. 64</a>. <small>E</small> <small>E</small> <small>E</small> are -stones supposed to be the capstones thrown down. Another -five-chambered tumulus in the same county is called -Ringham-Low, which has many interesting remains.</p> - -<p>Another extremely important mound of this description -is the one at Uley, in Gloucestershire, of which an able -account has been written by Dr. Thurnham.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> The mound -is about 120 feet in length, 85 feet in its greatest breadth, -and about 10 feet in height. It is higher and broader at -its east end than elsewhere. The entrance at the east end -is a trilithon, formed by a large flat stone upwards of eight -feet in length, and four and a half in depth, and supported -by two upright stones which face each other, so as to leave -a space of about two and a half feet between the lower -edge of the large stone and the natural ground. Entering -this, a gallery appears, running from east to west, about -twenty-two feet in length, four and a half in average width, -and five in height; the sides formed of large slabs of -stone, set edgeways, the spaces between being filled in -with smaller stones. The roof is formed, as usual, of flat -slabs, laid across and resting on the side-slabs. There are -two smaller chambers on one side, and there is evidence -of two others having existed on the other side. Several -skeletons were found in this fine tumulus when it was -opened, many years ago.</p> - -<p>It will have been noticed that circles of stones surrounding -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> -grave-mounds have frequently been named in this and -the preceding chapter. It will, therefore, be well to devote -a few lines to these interesting remains.</p> - -<p>Circles of stone of one kind or other are not unfrequently -to be noticed in various parts of the kingdom, and they vary -as much in their size and in their character as they do in -their other features. The bases of grave-mounds were -frequently defined by these circles, and sometimes by a -shallow fosse, and occasionally by a combination of both. -To this circumstance the origin of many of the circles of -stones remaining to this day are to be traced; while others -of a far larger construction, and of a totally different character, -such as those of Stonehenge, Abury, Rollrich, and, -probably, Arbor-Low, have been formed for totally different -purposes. With these larger ones, except in so far as they -are connected with sepulchral tumuli, I have in my present -work but little to do. Of the smaller ones, those which -have surrounded grave-mounds, I will now proceed to give -some particulars.</p> - -<p>Excavations into various grave-mounds have proved -beyond doubt the fact that, in many instances, when an -interment was made, the size of the proposed cairn to be -raised over the remains was marked by a circle of stones -laid on the surface of the ground, or inclining inwards, or -set upright in the earth. The stones were then piled up -within this enclosure, till the whole size and altitude of the -mound was reached. In the case of the Flax Dale barrow, -this mode of construction is shown in the next engraving -(<a href="#fig_66">fig. 66</a>). A circle of large flat stones was placed upon the -surface of the earth, around the interment (which in this -case consisted of calcined bones, in urns and without), and -upon these a second course of stones was placed. The -mound was then raised in the manner indicated in <a href="#fig_4">fig. 4</a>, -and over this a thick layer of earth was laid, which increased -both the circumference and the altitude of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> -barrow. To render this crust more compact, fires were -evidently lit on the circumference of the circle, which had -the effect, by burning the soil, of hardening it, and making -it in some cases almost of the consistency of brick.</p> - -<div id="fig_66" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_66.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 66.</p> -</div> - -<p>An example of the second mode of construction I have -indicated is at Elk-Low, a section of which is given on <a href="#fig_67">fig. -67</a>. The barrow has a depression running around its upper -surface, something like an elevated fosse, as will be seen -in the section. The interments were made on the natural -surface of the ground, where, in the centre, lay a skeleton, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> -on its right side, in a contracted position, with its head -resting on a piece of limestone which was placed as a -pillow. Other skeletons were also found, as was likewise -an interment of burnt bones, and some flint and stone -instruments. The outer circle was constructed of very -large stones inclining inwards, and covered with small -stones and earth, and thus forming an extremely durable -mound.</p> - -<div id="fig_67" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_67.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 67.</p> -</div> - -<p>Both of these examples, if denuded of their mounds, -would form striking and very perfect stone circles, and -would be among the best remaining examples of small -“Druidical circles,” as they are commonly called.</p> - -<div id="fig_68" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_68.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 68.</p> -</div> - -<p>Where the circles have been formed of upright stones, -they have not, certainly, always been covered with the -mound, but have formed a kind of ring fence, a sort of -sacred enclosure, around the barrow. A great number of examples -of this kind exist in different districts, and will easily -be recognised by the zealous archæologist. The circle -next shown, on figs. <a href="#fig_68">68</a> and <a href="#fig_69">69</a>, is that on Stanton Moor, -known by the name of the “Nine Ladies.” This circle, -of which a plan is here given, is formed of a circular -mound of earth, on which the upright stones are placed. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> -It is about thirty-six feet in diameter. It has formerly consisted -of a larger number of stones; those that are now -remaining being at irregular distances, varying from eight to -nineteen feet apart. In the centre are the remains of a -rifled sepulchral mound.</p> - -<div id="fig_69" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_69.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 69.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another circle, bearing the same name, “The Nine -Ladies,” is on Hartle Moor, but of this only four stones -are now remaining. It has undoubtedly been a sepulchral -mound, encircled by upright stones. On other parts of -these moors other circles have existed, or still exist, which -have, by excavations, been proved to have enclosed sepulchral -deposits.</p> - -<p>On Brassington Moor, near a fine chambered tumulus, -now unfortunately destroyed, existed two similar circles, -the one thirty-nine, and the other twenty-two, feet in -diameter. On Leam Moor, too, circles are known to have -existed, surrounding interments. On Eyam Moor circles -of this kind, encircling sepulchral mounds, exist. One of -these is about a hundred feet in diameter, and is, like the -“Nine Ladies” on Stanton Moor, formed of a circular -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> -mound of earth, on which the stones are placed. Only ten -of the stones remain <i>in situ</i>. In the centre a cist was discovered -many years ago. Other circles occur in the same -county, on Abney Moor, on Froggat Edge, on the East -Moor, on Hathersage Moor, and in other localities.</p> - -<div id="fig_70" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_70.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 70.</p> -</div> - -<p>On Dartmoor, in Devonshire, many circles yet remain, -as they do also in Cornwall and in other counties. Mr. -Blight, who has paid a vast deal of attention to the antiquities -of his native county, Cornwall, has collected -together many data concerning these structures, which -tend to throw much light upon their modes of construction, -as well as uses. To his researches I am indebted for much -of the following information regarding the Cornish circles, -and also for the diagrams which illustrate it. Upright -stones were, as in the case of the ring fences already -named, placed at tolerably regular intervals around the -barrow, either on the natural surface of the ground or on a -circular embankment thrown up for the purpose. The -intervening spaces were then, in many instances, filled in -with small stones, so as to form a compact kind of wall, as -shown in the next engraving. This mode of construction -was adopted for encircling grave-mounds, and in the forming -of hut dwellings, etc. It will easily be seen that in -course of time the loose walled parts would be thrown -down and disappear, while the uprights, being firmly fixed -in the ground, would remain, and would thus form the -stone circles as now seen, and as commonly called “Druidical -circles.” In some instances, as in the case of the -circle enclosing a perfect stone cist, covered by a mound, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> -at Sancreed, shown on <a href="#fig_71">fig. 71</a>, the upright stones touched -each other, and thus formed a remarkably fine enclosure. -This circle is about fifteen feet in diameter. Another -variety is shown in <a href="#fig_72">fig. 72</a>. This is a double circle, or -rather two circles, one within the other, and about two feet -apart, surrounding a stone cist. The stones in this example -nearly touch each other. A somewhat similar one, but -with the circles farther apart from each other, exists in the -Isle of Man, and is shown on the ground plan (<a href="#fig_73">fig. 73</a>). -The mound in this instance, probably, rose from the inner -circle only, and covered the central cist. In several instances -the interment was not in the centre of the circle, -but was made in different situations within its area. For -instance, in the next example (<a href="#fig_74">fig. 74</a>), from Trewavas -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -Head, the cist is near to the circle of stones. The outer -diameter of the mound is thirty-five feet, the diameter of -the circle of stones being nineteen feet six inches. Other -examples, similar in arrangement, might be adduced. -<a href="#fig_75">Fig. 75</a> shows a totally different construction. In this -instance the circle is composed of a number of stone cists, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> -or sepulchral chambers, pretty close together, end to end. -This curious example, of which a somewhat analogous one -exists in the Channel Islands (see <a href="#fig_76">fig. 76</a>), is on Mule Hill, -in the Isle of Man. <a href="#fig_77">Fig. 77</a> shows the remains of a stone -circle surrounding the larger of a pair of “twin-barrows,” -of which some of the stones have now disappeared. -The circle is about seventy feet in diameter, and the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> -stones vary from six to eight feet in height. <a href="#fig_78">Fig. 78</a> is -the plan of another “twin-barrow,” so called, the circle -in the larger being about thirty-five, and the smaller -twenty-four, feet in diameter. In the centre, at <span class="smcap">A B</span>, are -the remains of a stone cist, or chamber. “The mounds -were both cairns of loose stones. Remains of other -barrows, similarly formed, occur in the vicinity. There -were two within a few hundred yards of the ‘twin-barrow’ -last described, the greater portions of which have recently -been taken away to build a neighbouring hedge, but of -which I found enough to show how they were built. First, -there was an enclosing circle of stones, some placed upright, -some longitudinally (<a href="#fig_79">fig. 79</a>), the intention being -simply to make an enclosing fence; within this the grave -was constructed; then small stones heaped over the whole, -the cairn extending, by about six feet, outside the built -circle.” The more perfect of the “twin-barrows” also -had the cairn extending beyond the circle.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_71" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_71.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 71.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_72" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_72.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 72.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_73" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_73.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 73.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_74" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_74.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 74.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_75" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_75.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 75.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_76" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_76.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 76.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_77" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_77.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 77.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_78" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_78.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 78.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_79" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_79.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 79.</p> -</div> - -<p>Some larger circles, such, for instance, as the Bosawen-ûn -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> -circle, eighty feet in diameter (<a href="#fig_80">fig. 80</a>), the Aber circle -(<a href="#fig_81">fig. 81</a>), and others, it is supposed, may have been formed -around a group of interments, instead of single interments, -as in many of the others. In some instances a single stone -was placed to mark the place of interment. Three such -exist in the barrow at Berriew (<a href="#fig_82">fig. 82</a>). A large circle -(<a href="#fig_83">fig. 83</a>), twenty-seven yards, in diameter, on Penmaenmaur, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> -was constructed of several uprights, connected by -smaller masonry. Here the interments were apparently -made beside the pillars. Against the inner side of the -tallest pillar <small>A</small>, on the eastern part, were the remains of a -small stone cist; while against the pillar <small>B</small>, facing it on the -opposite side, was heaped up a small cairn. The whole is -surrounded by a ditch, within which, at <small>C</small>, is another small -cairn.</p> - -<div id="fig_80" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_80.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 80.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_81" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_81.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 81.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_82" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_82.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 82.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_83" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_83.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 83. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Arbor-Low, in the High Peak of Derbyshire, to which -allusion has been made, is represented in <a href="#fig_84">fig. 84</a>. No -sepulchral remains have been discovered within the circle, -but barrows of great extent, which have yielded important -remains on being excavated, are closely connected with it. -It is, however, probable, that interments have existed, and -been removed in past ages.</p> - -<div id="fig_84" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_84.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 84. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Ancient British or Celtic Period—Pottery—Mode of manufacture—Arrangement -in classes—Cinerary or Sepulchral Urns—Food Vessels—Drinking -Cups—Incense Cups—Probably Sepulchral Urns for Infants—Other -examples of Pottery.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">Having</span> spoken of the principles of construction of -the grave-mounds of the Celtic period, and described -the various modes of interment which they exhibit, I now -proceed to speak of the objects found in them. Before doing -so, however, it is necessary to say, that in the course of -examination of barrows of this period it not unfrequently -happens that the spot where the funeral pyre has been lit -can very clearly be perceived. In these instances the -ground beneath is generally found to be burned to some -considerable depth; sometimes, indeed, it is burned to a -fine red colour, and approaches somewhat to brick. Where -it was intended that the remains should be collected together, -and placed in an urn for interment, I apprehend, -from careful examination, that the urn, being formed of clay—most -probably, judging from the delicacy of touch, and -from the impress of fingers which occasionally remains, by -the females of the tribes—and ornamented according to the -taste of the manipulator, was placed in the funeral fire, and -there baked, while the body of the deceased was being consumed. -The remains of the calcined bones, the flints, etc, -were then gathered up together, and placed in the urn; -over which the mound was next raised. When it was not -intended to use an urn, then the remains were collected -together, piled up in a small heap, or occasionally enclosed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> -in a skin or cloth, and covered to some little thickness with -earth, and occasionally with small stones. Another fire was -then lit on the top of this small mound, which had the effect -of baking the earth, and enclosing the remains of calcined -bones, etc., in a kind of crust, resembling in colour and -hardness a partly baked brick. Over this, as usual, the -mound was afterwards raised.</p> - -<p>The most important feature in the construction of the -grave-mounds of the Celtic period is, perhaps, the pottery, -and to this, therefore, the present chapter will be devoted. -The pottery of this period may be safely arranged in four -classes;<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> viz., 1. <i>Sepulchral Urns</i>, which have contained, -or been inverted over, calcined human bones. 2. <i>Food -Vessels</i> (so called), which are supposed to have contained -an offering of food, and which are more usually found -with unburnt bodies than along with interments by cremation. -3. <i>Drinking Cups</i>, which are usually ornamented. -4. <i>Incense Cups</i> (erroneously so called for want of more -knowledge of their use), which are very small vessels, -found only with burnt bones, and usually containing them, -in the large cinerary urns.</p> - -<p>The pottery was, without doubt, made on, or near to, the -spot where found. It was, there is every probability, the -handiwork of the females of the tribe, and occasionally exhibits -no little elegance of form, and no small degree of -ornamentation. The urns, of whatever kind they may be, -are formed of the coarse common clay of the district where -made, occasionally mixed with small pebbles and gravel; -they are entirely wrought by hand, without the assistance -of the wheel, and are, the larger vessels especially, extremely -thick.</p> - -<p>From their imperfect firing, the vessels of this period are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> -usually called “sun-baked” or “sun-dried,” but this is a -grave error, as any one conversant with examples cannot -fail, on careful examination, to see. If the vessels were -“sun-baked” only, their burial in the earth—in the tumuli -wherein, some two thousand years ago, they were deposited, -and where they have all that time remained—would soon -soften them, and they would, ages ago, have returned to their -old clayey consistency. As it is, the urns have remained -of their original form, and although, from imperfect baking, -they are sometimes found partially softened, they still retain -their form, and soon regain their original hardness. They -bear abundant evidence of the action of fire, and are, indeed, -sometimes sufficiently burned for the clay to have -attained a red colour—a result which no “sun-baking” -could produce. They are mostly of an earthy brown colour -outside, and almost black in fracture, and many of the -cinerary urns bear internal and unmistakable evidence of -having been filled with the burnt bones and ashes of the -deceased, while those ashes were of a glowing and intense -heat. They were, most probably, fashioned by the females -of the tribe, on the death of their relative, from the clay to -be found nearest to the spot, and baked on or by the funeral -pyre. The glowing ashes and bones were then, as I have -already stated, collected together, and placed in the urn, and -the flint implements, and occasionally other relics belonging -to the deceased, deposited along with them.</p> - -<p>The <i>Cinerary</i>, or <i>Sepulchral, Urns</i> vary very considerably -in size, in form, in ornamentation, and in material—the -latter, naturally, depending on the locality where the urns -were made; and, as a general rule, they differ also in the -different tribes. Those which are supposed to be the most -ancient, from the fact of their frequently containing flint instruments -along with the calcined bones, are of large size, -ranging from nine or ten, to sixteen or eighteen inches in -height. Those which are considered to belong to a somewhat -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> -later period, when cremation had again become general, -are of a smaller size, and of a somewhat finer texture. -With them objects of flint are rarely found, but articles of -bronze are occasionally discovered. The general form of -the cinerary urns will be best understood from the annexed -engravings.</p> - -<p>The principal characteristic of the cinerary urns found in -Derbyshire and Staffordshire, and in some other districts, -is a deep overlapping border or rim, and their ornamentation, -always produced by indenting or pressing twisted thongs -into the soft clay, or by simple incisions, or by indentations -produced by simple means, as will be more particularly -named later on, is frequently very elaborate. It usually -consists of diagonal lines (see <a href="#fig_85">fig. 85</a>) arranged in a variety -of ways, or of herring-bone or zigzag lines, or of reticulations, -or of rows of punctures, etc., etc. This ornamentation -is usually confined to the upper portion of the urn, -including the over-lapping rim and the neck; and in many -instances the upper edge and the inside of the rim were in -like manner ornamented. Some of the more usual forms -are the following.</p> - -<div id="fig_85" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_85.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 85.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_86" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_86.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 86.</p> -</div> - -<p><a href="#fig_86">Fig. 86</a>, from a barrow at Monsal Dale, was found along -with many other interesting relics. It is twelve inches in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> -height, and has a deep overlapping border. When found, -it was inverted over a deposit of calcined bones placed on -some rough stones on the natural surface, and having among -them a calcined bone pin. Near it was a large mass of -limestone, and a celt-shaped instrument five inches long, -with a cutting edge, formed from the lower jaw of some -animal. Another excellent example is exhibited in the -urn from Ballidon Moor (<a href="#fig_87">fig. 87</a>). It is eleven and a half -inches in height, and measured nine inches in diameter at -the mouth. It is ornamented by patterns impressed in the -soft clay from a twisted thong. It contained burnt bones; -amongst them were a portion of an animal’s jaw, a fine -bone pin, four inches long, rats’ bones, a fragment of pottery, -and a flint arrow-head. The presence of partially -burnt human bones in the sand, the discolouration of the -latter, and the occurrence of calcined rats’ bones in the urns, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> -demonstrated the fact of the corpse having been consumed -upon the spot. The following engraving (<a href="#fig_88">fig. 88</a>), exhibiting -a section of the barrow, will show the position of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> -urn when found, and also of the other interments which it -contained.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a></p> - -<div id="fig_87" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_87.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 87.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_88" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_88.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 88.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_89" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_89.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 89.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_90" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_90.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 90.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_91" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_91.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 91.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_92" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_92.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 92.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p><a href="#fig_89">Fig. 89</a>, from Trentham, Staffordshire, is a remarkably -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> -fine urn of the same character as the preceding examples, -and <a href="#fig_90">fig. 90</a>, from Darwen, Lancashire, has a central band -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> -as well as the overlapping rim. Figs. <a href="#fig_91">91</a> and <a href="#fig_92">92</a> are of -totally different form; their ornamentation consisting of -incised lines and impressed thumb marks, etc.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> They are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> -from Dorsetshire. The next example, from Darley Dale -(<a href="#fig_93">fig. 93</a>), is of a different type, as are also figs. <a href="#fig_94">94</a>, from -Stone, Staffordshire, and <a href="#fig_95">95</a> and <a href="#fig_96">96</a>, from Cleatham, in Lincolnshire. -Other forms, again, are shown on <a href="#fig_97">fig. 97</a>, from -the Calais Wold-barrow, Yorkshire, discovered by Mr. Mortimer. -It is eleven inches in height, and is ornamented with -a number of small semi-punctures. A very fine urn was discovered -by the Rev. Canon Greenwell in a barrow on Sutton -Brow, near Thirsk, in the same county. It is sixteen -inches in height, and eighteen in width, and is ornamented -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> -with lines produced by an impressed cord or thong, and by -semi-punctures or indentations. The next example (<a href="#fig_98">fig. 98</a>) -is from Darley Dale, and is, as will be seen from the engraving, -of a very different character from the other examples -given. Around the upper portion are encircling lines, between -which is the usual zigzag ornament. Around the -central band, too, are encircling lines, between which are a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span> -series of vertical zigzag lines. The whole of the ornamentation -has been produced by pressing twisted thongs into the -pliant clay—some, however, being of much tighter twist -than others. Inside, the rim is ornamented with encircling -and diagonal lines. It has on its centre band four projecting -handles or loops, which are pierced, as shown in the -engraving. Another form, with small loops on its sides, is -shown on <a href="#fig_99">fig. 99</a>, which was found in one of the Cornish -barrows, as was also <a href="#fig_100">fig. 100</a>, which appears to have a kind -of ear, or semi-handle, at its sides.</p> - -<div id="fig_93" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_93.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 93.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_94" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_94.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 94.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_95" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_95.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 95.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_96" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_96.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 96.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_97" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_97.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 97.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_98" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_98.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 98. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span></p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_99" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_99.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 99.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_100" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_100.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 100.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>Food Vessels</i>, the next division, vary considerably, -in form, in size, and in ornamentation, from the very -rudest to the most elegant and elaborate. These vessels are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> -generally wide at the mouth, and taper gradually downwards -from the central band. They are found both where -the interments have been by inhumation and by cremation, -but much more frequently with the former. In these instances -they are more usually placed near the head of the -skeleton than in other positions, although they are occasionally -found placed otherwise. Their average size is -from four to six inches in height, and the ornamentation is -produced in the same manner as has already been spoken -of in reference to the cinerary urns, viz., by impressing -twisted thongs or cords into the soft clay, by punctures, -and by indentations produced in a variety of ways.</p> - -<p>The “food vessels,” like the cinerary urns, have evidently -been made from the clay of the district where the -interment has taken place, and they have been “fired” to -about an equal degree of hardness with them.</p> - -<p>Their general form will be best understood from the -following examples, chosen from different districts.</p> - -<div id="fig_101" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_101.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 101.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_102" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_102.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 102.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_103" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_103.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 103.</p> -</div> - -<p>The first example (<a href="#fig_99">fig. 99</a>), from Trentham, in Staffordshire, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> -is, it will be seen, of very rude form and make, and -its ornamentation of simple character. <a href="#fig_102">Fig. 102</a>, from -Fimber, in Yorkshire (5⅝ inches in depth and 6½ inches -wide at the mouth), is of a more usual form, and is more -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> -advanced in point of ornamentation. <a href="#fig_103">Fig. 103</a> is from -Hitter Hill, Derbyshire, as is also <a href="#fig_104">fig. 104</a>. They were -found in the interments shown on figs. <a href="#fig_10">10</a>, <a href="#fig_11">11</a>, and <a href="#fig_12">12</a>.</p> - -<div id="fig_104" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_104.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 104.</p> -</div> - -<p>The first of these urns is four and three quarter inches in -height, and five and a half inches in diameter at the top. -It is richly ornamented with the usual diagonal and herring-bone -lines, formed by twisted thongs impressed into the -soft clay, in its upper part. Around the body of the urn -itself, however, is a pattern of lozenge form, very unusual -on vessels of this period. The second urn is five and a -quarter inches in height, and six and a quarter inches in -diameter at the top. It is very richly ornamented with the -characteristic patterns found on the Celtic urns of this -district, and is one of the finest and most elaborately ornamented -which has been exhumed.</p> - -<p>On Wykeham Moor, Yorkshire, some urns of a different -form, wide at the mouth, were discovered by that hard-working -antiquary, the Rev. Canon Greenwell.</p> - -<div id="fig_105" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_105.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 105.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_106" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_106.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 106.</p> -</div> - -<p><a href="#fig_105">Fig. 105</a> is from Monsal Dale, Derbyshire, and <a href="#fig_106">fig. 106</a>, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> -from Fimber, Yorkshire, was found along with <a href="#fig_107">fig. 107</a>. -These, as will be at once seen, are of a different character -from the preceding examples, in so far that on four sides -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> -they have in the central sunk band a kind of handle or -raised stud, which in some instances is pierced in the -same manner as the cinerary urn (figs. <a href="#fig_98">98</a> and <a href="#fig_99">99</a>). They are -among the most elaborate, in point of ornamentation, of -any of these interesting vessels. Other forms, besides those -indicated, are occasionally found.</p> - -<p>The <i>Drinking Cups</i> are the most highly and elaborately -ornamented of any of the varieties of Celtic fictile art -found in barrows. They are found with the skeleton, and -are usually placed behind the shoulder. In size they range -from about six to nine inches in height. They are usually -tall in form, contracted in the middle, globular in their -lower half, and expanding at the mouth. Their ornamentation, -always elaborate, usually covers the whole surface, -and is composed of indented lines placed in a variety of -ways, so as to form often intricate, but always beautiful, -patterns, and by other indentations, etc. They are much -more delicate in manipulation than the other varieties of -urns.</p> - -<p>Instances have been known in which a kind of incrustation -has been very perceptible on their inner surface, thus -showing that their use as vessels for holding liquor is -certain, the incrustation being produced by the gradual -drying up of the liquid with which they had been filled -when placed with the dead body.</p> - -<p><a href="#fig_107">Fig. 107</a>, from a barrow at Fimber, is an elegant and -highly characteristic example of this kind of vessel. It -stood close behind the shoulders of the skeleton of a strong-boned -middle-aged man, which lay on its right side. The -ornamentation is most elaborate and delicate, and it is, -perhaps, one of the finest and best preserved examples in -existence.</p> - -<p>The next two engravings (figs. <a href="#fig_108">108</a> and <a href="#fig_109">109</a>) show two -excellent examples, the first from the Hay Top barrow -and the second from a barrow at Grind-Low, of a slightly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> -different form at the mouth. The next example (<a href="#fig_110">fig. 110</a>), -found in Derbyshire, is of different shape, and has the -unusual feature of being ornamented in quite as elaborate a -manner on its bottom as it is around its sides. The bottom -is shown on <a href="#fig_111">fig. 111</a>. The ornamentation throughout is -produced by the indentations of twisted thongs into the -soft clay. Figs. <a href="#fig_112">112</a> and <a href="#fig_113">113</a> are of a different form and -character; the first of these is from Roundway Hill, Wiltshire -(see <a href="#fig_8">fig. 8</a> for interment with which this interesting -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> -vessel was found), and the second from “Gospel Hillock,” -in Derbyshire. Others of a similar form have been found -also in Yorkshire and other counties.</p> - -<div id="fig_107" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_107.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 107.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_108" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_108.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 108.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_109" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_109.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 109.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_110" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_110.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 110.</p> -</div> - -<p>Those which have been engraved are, perhaps, the most -usual of the forms of the drinking cups, but other shapes -are occasionally discovered.</p> - -<div id="fig_111" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_111.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 111.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_112" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_112.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 112.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_113" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_113.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 113.</p> -</div> - -<p>The next division, the so-called “<i>Incense Cups</i>,” a name -which ought to be discarded, consists of diminutive vessels -which, when found at all (which is seldom) are found -<i>inside</i> the sepulchral urns, placed on, or among, the calcined -bones, and frequently themselves also filled with burnt -bones. They range from an inch and a half to about three -inches in height, and are sometimes highly ornamented, -and at others plain.</p> - -<p>The examples I here introduce (figs. <a href="#fig_114">114</a> to <a href="#fig_125">125</a>) will give -a good general idea of these curious little vessels, which -I believe have not been “incense cups,” but small urns to -receive the ashes of an infant, perhaps sacrificed at the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> -death of its mother, so as to admit of being placed within -the larger urn containing the remains of its parent. The -contents of barrows give, as I have before stated, incontestable -evidence of the practice of sacrificing not only -horses, dogs, and oxen, but of human beings, at the graves -of the Ancient Britons. Slaves were sacrificed at their -masters’ graves; and wives, there can be no doubt, were -sacrificed and buried with their husbands, to accompany -them in the invisible world upon which they were entering. -It is reasonable, therefore, to infer that infants were -occasionally sacrificed on the death of their mothers, in -the belief that they would thus partake of her care in -the strange land to which, by death, she was removed. -Whether from sacrifice, or whether from natural causes, -the mother and her infant may have died together, it is -only reasonable to infer from the situation in which these -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -“incense cups” are found (either placed on the top of a -heap of burnt bones, or inside the sepulchral urn containing -them), and from their usually containing small -calcined bones, that they were receptacles for the ashes of -the infant, to be buried along with those of its mother.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_114" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_114.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 114.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_115" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_115.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 115.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_116" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_116.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 116.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_117" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_117.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 117.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_118" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_118.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 118.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_119" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_119.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 119.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_120" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_120.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 120.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_121" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_121.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 121.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_122" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_122.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 122.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_123" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_123.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 123.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_124" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_124.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 124.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_125" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_125.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 125.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The form will be seen to vary from the simplest salt-cellar-like -cup to the more elaborately rimmed and ornamented -vase. Some are pierced with holes, as if for -suspension, and one or two examples have handles at the -side. The best examples of this kind are those shown on -figs. <a href="#fig_120">120</a>, <a href="#fig_124">124</a>, and <a href="#fig_125">125</a>.</p> - -<p>Among the most curious vessels of this period may possibly -be reckoned the singular one here engraved (<a href="#fig_126">fig. 126</a>), of -which form only two examples have been discovered. They -are much in shape like the drinking cups before engraved, -but have the addition of a handle at the side, which gives -them the character of mugs. One of these is in the Ely -museum, and the other in the Bateman museum.</p> - -<div id="fig_126" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_126.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 126. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Ancient British or Celtic Period—Implements of Stone—Celts—Stone -Hammers—Stone Hatchets, Mauls, etc.—Triturating Stones—Flint -Implements—Classification of Flints—Jet Articles—Necklaces, Studs, -etc.—Bone Instruments—Bronze Celts, Daggers, etc.—Gold Articles.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> implements of stone found in the Celtic grave-mounds, -or in their immediate neighbourhood, consist -of celts<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> or adzes, hammer-heads or axe-heads, mauls, etc., -etc. They are of various materials—chert, shale, green-stone, -syenite, basalt, porphyry, felstone, serpentine, sandstone, -limestone, etc., etc., and of various degrees of -finish and workmanship.</p> - -<p>Stone celts of one form or other are the most common of -all stone implements. In shape they are not inaptly described -as being like the mussel shell. The lower, or cutting -end is slightly convex, and rubbed down to a fine-shaped -edge. As this cutting edge has become dulled or chipped -by use it has been again and again rubbed down and -sharpened, until, in many instances which have come under -my notice, the celt has been shortened fully one-third or -more of its original length. The forms of these instruments -will be seen in the examples here following (<a href="#fig_127">fig. 127</a> -and in the succeeding figures). <a href="#fig_132">Fig. 132</a> is, perhaps, the -most usual of these forms. It is of the same type as the -first example on the previous engraving. Another excellent -example is given on the illustration (<a href="#fig_134">fig. 134</a>). It is of -chert, and has, as will be seen, straight sides instead of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> -usual curved ones. It is now 5½ inches long, but has probably -originally been much longer, having been rubbed down -in sharpening.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_127" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_127.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 127.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_128" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_128.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 128.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_129" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_129.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 129.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_130" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_130.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 130.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_131" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_131.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 131.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_132" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_132.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 132.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_133" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_133.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 133.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_134" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_134.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 134.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_135" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_135.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 135.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_136" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_136.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 136.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_137" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_137.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 137.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_138" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_138.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 138.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_139" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_139.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 139.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_140" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_140.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 140.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_141" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_141.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 141.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_142" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_142.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 142.</p> -</div> - -<p>Stone hammers are occasionally found in grave-mounds. -They vary much both in form and size, as will be best -understood from the following engravings. <a href="#fig_133">Fig. 133</a> was -found at Woolaton, and is remarkable for being hollow on -its upper and lower surfaces, and ribbed or fluted along -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> -its sides. It is eleven inches<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> long, four inches in width, -and three inches in thickness. <a href="#fig_135">Fig. 135</a>, found at Winster, -is thin, very taper, and of very different form. It is ten -inches long. Other examples are shown in figs. <a href="#fig_136">136</a> and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> -<a href="#fig_137">137</a>. Occasionally they partake more of the hatchet shape. -A good example is <a href="#fig_138">fig. 138</a>, and others of still more elaborate -form have occasionally been discovered. Examples of -another variety, generally called mauls, which partake more -of the common mallet form, are here given on figs. <a href="#fig_139">139</a>, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> -<a href="#fig_140">140</a>, and <a href="#fig_141">141</a>. The first is from Horsley, Derbyshire, and -the other two are from Ireland. A different variety (named -punches or cutters) is shown on <a href="#fig_142">fig. 142</a>, which was found -at Mickleover.</p> - -<div id="fig_143" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_143.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 143.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_144" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_144.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 144.</p> -</div> - -<p>Rough stones, which have probably been used for triturating -purposes, for the grinding of corn, etc., are occasionally -found. In the Derbyshire barrows, for instance, portions of -rubbed stones, and also of rubbers, have now and then been -discovered. Two triturating stones, belonging to a different -period, are given, for purposes of comparison, on figs. -<a href="#fig_143">143</a> and <a href="#fig_144">144</a>.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> Whetstones, spindle-whorls, and other -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> -objects of stone, are also occasionally found. One of these -spindle-whorls is shown on <a href="#fig_145">fig. 145</a>.</p> - -<div id="fig_145" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_145.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 145.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Flints</span>, <i>i.e.</i>, various instruments formed of flint, are undoubtedly -the most abundant of any relics of the Ancient -Britons found in or about grave-mounds. They are extremely -varied in form, and many of them are of the most -exquisite workmanship—such, indeed, as would completely -baffle the skill, great though that skill undoubtedly is, of -“Flint Jack”<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> to copy. The arrangement, classification, -and nomenclature of flints is at present so uncertain, and -so mixed up with absurd theories, that it is difficult to know -how to place them in a common-sense manner. All I shall -attempt to do in my present work—which is intended to -describe, generally, the relics to be found in the barrows of -the period, and not to be a disquisition on flints alone—will -be to give examples of some of the more usual forms which -have from time to time been found, so as to facilitate comparisons -with those of various districts and countries.</p> - -<p>Of barbed arrow-heads, the examples here given will be -sufficient to show the variety of forms and sizes which are -usually found. The three first examples are from Green-Low, -and are in the Bateman museum; the next three (figs. -<a href="#fig_149">149</a>, <a href="#fig_150">150</a>, and <a href="#fig_151">151</a>) are also from Derbyshire examples in -my own collection; <a href="#fig_152">fig. 152</a> is also from my own collection, -but of a totally different form, approaching to the next -example, <a href="#fig_153">fig. 153</a>, which is in the museum of the Royal -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> -Irish Academy. <a href="#fig_149">Fig. 149</a> will be noticed to be peculiarly -elegant in form, and marvellously delicate in manufacture—the -barbs being extremely sharp and clearly defined. It -is engraved of its full size, as are most of the other -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> -examples. <a href="#fig_150">Fig. 150</a> measures two and five-eighths inches -in length.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_146" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_146.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 146.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_147" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_147.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 147.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_148" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_148.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 148.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_149" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_149.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 149.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_150" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_150.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 150.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_151" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_151.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 151.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_152" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_152.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 152.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_153" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_153.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 153.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_154" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_154.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 154.</p> -</div> - -<p>The dagger-blade variety is of what is usually called the -“leaf-shaped” type, and is the prototype of the bronze -dagger of a later period. The example here given (<a href="#fig_154">fig. 154</a>) -is from Green-Low, and is of remarkably fine form. Another, -and of perhaps much finer form, is shown on the accompanying -plate (<a href="#fig_155">fig. 155</a>). It was found at Arbow-Low, in -June, 1865, and is five and seven-eighths inches in length, -and nearly two and a quarter inches in width in the centre. -In its thickest part it is scarcely three-eighths of an inch -in thickness, and is chopped and worked with the utmost -nicety to a fine edge. It will be noticed that its sides, as -they begin to diminish, are deeply serrated for fastening -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> -with thongs to the haft or handle. It is engraved the exact -size of the original.</p> - -<div id="fig_155" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_155.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 155.</p> -</div> - -<p>The next illustrations exhibit a different variety of flints. -They are arrow-heads of the leaf-shaped types, and exhibit -four varieties. Figs. <a href="#fig_156">156</a> and <a href="#fig_157">157</a> are from Calais Wold, -in Yorkshire; <a href="#fig_158">fig. 158</a> is from Gunthorpe, in Lincolnshire; -and <a href="#fig_159">fig. 159</a>, which is of remarkably elegant form, -is from Ringham-Low, Derbyshire. They are engraved of -their full size. This type of flint varies, it will be seen, -from the acutely angled and sharply pointed shapes to those -of a nicely rounded and egg-shaped form. Two other remarkable -examples, possibly spear-heads, are here engraved, -from the Calais Wold barrow, in Yorkshire (figs. <a href="#fig_160">160</a> and -<a href="#fig_161">161</a>). They are among the finest examples which have -ever been found.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_156" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_156.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 156.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_157" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_157.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 157.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_158" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_158.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 158.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_159" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_159.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 159.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Another type, one not common in England, is shown on -<a href="#fig_162">fig. 162</a>. It is a fine example, and was found in Derbyshire. -It is deeply serrated on the edges, and at its base is cut for -tying with a thong. It is here engraved of its full size. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_160" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_160.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 160.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_161" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_161.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 161.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_162" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_162.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 162.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_163" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_163.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 163. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p><a href="#fig_163">Fig. 163</a> is a modification of this form, and is a good -example of its kind. Figs. <a href="#fig_164">164</a> and <a href="#fig_165">165</a> are Derbyshire -examples in my own collection, and are good specimens of -another class of flint instruments not unfrequently found -in grave-mounds and elsewhere.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_164" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_164.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 164.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_165" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_165.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 165.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Another variety, again, and one which varies extremely, -both in size and in form, is what, I suppose for want of a -better name, is the kind usually called “scrapers,” or “flint -knives.” One example (<a href="#fig_166">fig. 166</a>) will be sufficient.</p> - -<div id="fig_166" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_166.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 166.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another description, again, which appears more intended -for throwing than for any other purpose, and which, with its -sharp cutting edges, and the unerring aim of the Briton, -must have been indeed a deadly weapon, is frequently -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> -found, and is shown on <a href="#fig_167">fig. 167</a>. It is a simple circular -lump of flint, an inch and a half or a couple of inches or -more in diameter; flat on one side and chipped into a -roundness on the other. These are often called “thumb -flints.”</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_168" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_168.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 168.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_167" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_167.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 167.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_169" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_169.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 169.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_170" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_170.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 170.</p> -</div> - -<p>Flakes of various sizes and forms constantly occur, and -are called by many absurd names. Small, delicately -formed, and very beautiful flints, of an oviform or circular -shape, are also found (<a href="#fig_168">fig. 168</a>), as are a large number of -other forms besides those I have illustrated. These will, -however, be sufficient for my present purpose, and will -enable the reader to form a pretty correct and extended -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> -estimate of the number and variety of flints which the -grave-mounds produce. Celts of flint are also occasionally -found. An example here shown (<a href="#fig_170">fig. 170</a>) was discovered -in a very interesting barrow called “Gospel Hillock,” at -Cow Dale, near Buxton, by Captain Lukis. It measured -four and a half inches in length.</p> - -<div id="fig_171" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_171.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 171.</p> -</div> - -<p>In <span class="smcap">Jet</span>, the articles found consist of beads, rings, necklaces, -studs, etc., and some of these are of the utmost -beauty. A very elaborate example of necklace, found by -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> -Mr. Bateman in the cist (<a href="#fig_28">fig. 28</a>) on Middleton Moor, is -here engraved (<a href="#fig_171">fig. 171</a>). The beads of which it is composed -lay about the neck of the skeleton. It was formed of variously -shaped beads and other ornaments of jet and bone -curiously ornamented. The various pieces of this elaborate -necklace count 420 in number; 348 being thin laminæ, -54 of cylindrical form, and the remaining 18, conical studs -and perforated plates, some of which are ornamented with -punctures.</p> - -<p>Another example (<a href="#fig_172">fig. 172</a>), with elongated beads, and -pierced ornaments of bone, is here given.</p> - -<div id="fig_172" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_172.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 172.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another good example is engraved on the next page. It -was found at Fimber, by Mr. Mortimer, and consists of -171 laminæ, or small jet discs (No. 2), and a triangular -pendant, or centre, of jet (No. 3), an inch in length, and -perforated in the middle.</p> - -<p>Studs and pendants of jet are of various forms, and are -perforated for suspension in a variety of ways. <a href="#fig_174">Fig. 174</a> -shows a jet stud from Gospel Hillock. It is engraved of its -full size, as is also the next example (<a href="#fig_175">fig. 175</a>), from the -Calais Wold barrow. These are very similar in form, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> -in their perforations. Another form, a ring pierced for -suspension, is shown on <a href="#fig_176">fig. 176</a>.</p> - -<div id="fig_173" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_173.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 173.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_174" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_174.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 174.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_175" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_175.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 175.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_176" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_176.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 176.</p> -</div> - -<p>Implements of bone are frequently found, but in many -instances their use is not easily determined. They consist -chiefly of modelling tools (supposed to have been used in -the manufacture of pottery), pins, mesh-rules, studs, pendants, -and other personal ornaments; lance-heads, spear-heads, -whistles (?), hammers, and beads. Some of these -are shown in figs. <a href="#fig_177">177</a> to <a href="#fig_182">182</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span></p> - -<div id="fig_177" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_177.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 177.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_178" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_178.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 178.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_179" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_179.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 179.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_180" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_180.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 180.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_181" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_181.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 181.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_182" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_182.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 182. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span></p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_183" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_183.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 183.</p> -</div> - -<p>In <span class="smcap">Bronze</span>, the articles found are celts, daggers, awls, -pins, etc. Celts are, however, but seldom met with in -barrows, although frequently ploughed up in the course of -agricultural operations. Palstaves and socketed celts, etc., -are also occasionally picked up. The ordinary form of celt -will be best understood by the engravings here given (figs. -<a href="#fig_183">183</a> and <a href="#fig_185">185</a>) from Irish examples, and by the next figure -(<a href="#fig_187">187</a>), from Moot-Low, near Dove Dale. One of these -celts, of precisely similar form to <a href="#fig_187">fig. 187</a>, found in a barrow -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> -at Shuttlestone, has been the means of throwing considerable -light on the mode of interment adopted. The -barrow contained “the skeleton of a man in the prime of -life and of fine proportions, apparently the sole occupant -of the mound, who had been interred whilst enveloped in a -skin of dark red colour, the hairy surface of which had left -many traces both upon the surrounding earth and upon the -verdigris or patina coating of a bronze axe-shaped celt and -dagger, deposited with the skeleton. On the former weapon -there are also beautifully distinct impressions of fern leaves, -handfuls of which, in a compressed and half-decayed state, -surrounded the bones from head to foot. From these -leaves being discernible on one side of the celt only, whilst -the other side presents traces of leather alone, it is certain -that the leaves were placed first as a couch for the reception -of the corpse, with its accompaniments, and after these -had been deposited, were then further added in quantity -sufficient to protect the body from the earth.”<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> With the -skeleton, besides the celt, were a fine bronze dagger, with -two rivets for attachments to the handle, which had been of -horn, the impression of the grain being quite distinctly -perceptible; a small jet bead; and a circular flint. The -celt had been, as was evident from the grain of wood still -remaining, driven vertically, for about two inches of its -length, into a wooden handle.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_184" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_184.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 184.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_185" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_185.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 185.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_186" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_186.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 186.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_187" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_187.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 187.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Other forms of celts are shown on the accompanying -series of figures (<a href="#fig_184">184</a>, <a href="#fig_185">185</a>, <a href="#fig_186">186</a>, and <a href="#fig_188">188</a> to <a href="#fig_195">195</a>), and another -excellent example is <a href="#fig_196">fig. 196</a>, which has the loop (as also <a href="#fig_197">fig. -197</a>) for attaching to the handle by means of a thong. A -great many other varieties are also met with.</p> - -<p>The bronze daggers which barrows have afforded vary in -length from two and a half or three, to five and a half -or six, inches, on the average; the larger ones being an -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> -inch and a half to three inches in breadth at their broadest -part, where the handle has been attached, from whence -they taper gradually down to the point. They are sometimes -ribbed or fluted. In most instances the handle has -been attached by three rivets; in some cases, however, as -in <a href="#fig_198">fig. 198</a>, only two have been used, and occasionally there -is evidence of the attachment being effected by thong or -other ligature. The handles were of horn or wood, and -were usually semi-lunar where attached to the blade; in -one instance, however, the blade has a “tang” or “shank,” -which has fitted into the square-ended handle, to which it -has been fastened by a single peg. The blades occasionally -present incontestible evidence of long use, having been -worn down by repeated sharpenings. In the instance of -the dagger found at Stanshope, which had been fastened to -the handle by a couple of rivets as well as by ligatures, -evidence existed of its having been enclosed in a sheath of -leather, and this example also presented the somewhat -curious feature of impressions of maggots, which had probably -made their way from the decaying body into the inside -of the sheath, between it and the blade, and had there -remained, and thus gradually become marked upon the -corrugated surface of the bronze.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_188" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_188.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 188.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_189" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_189.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 189.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_190" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_190.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 190.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_191" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_191.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 191.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_197" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_197.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 197.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_192" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_192.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 192.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_193" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_193.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 193.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_194" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_194.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 194.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_195" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_195.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 195.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_196" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_196.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 196.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_198" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_198.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 198.</p> -</div> - -<p>Articles of gold, and coins, are extremely rare as found -<i>in</i> grave-mounds, although not unusually turned up in their -neighbourhoods, and in places which have been inhabited -by the pre-historic races. Simply for the purpose of showing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> -the character of some of the Celtic coins, the following -engravings are given.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_199" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_199.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 199.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_200" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_200.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 200.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_201" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_201.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 201.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_202" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_202.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 202.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_203" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_203.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 203.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_204" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_204.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 204.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_205" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_205.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 205.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Of torques of gold, and other remains in that metal, I -shall speak in a later chapter. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Romano-British Period—General characteristics—Modes of Burial—Customs -attendant on Burial—Interments by cremation and by inhumation—Barrows—Tombs -of Stone—Lead Coffins—Clay and Tile -Coffins—Sepulchral Inscriptions, etc.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> grave-mounds and burial-places of the Romano-British -period are, naturally, in many districts, far -more abundant than those of the preceding period, while, -in others again, as in Derbyshire and Cornwall, and some -other counties, they are far less common than the Celtic -ones. In these counties the Roman was, it would seem, -more of a “bird of passage” (as well as, to some extent, a -“bird of prey”) than a settler, and the consequence is, that -no remains—or next to no remains—of villas or of settlements -are found, and that where burial has taken place it -has not unusually been in the same mound with those of an -earlier period. The Ancient Briton raised the mounds over -the remains of his own people; and his Roman subjugator, -as occasion required, took possession of them, and therein -laid his own dead. Thus the same barrow is sometimes -found to contain, besides its primary Celtic interment, and -others belonging to the same race, later deposits (nearer to -the surface or to the side) of the Romano-British or of the -Anglo-Saxon periods.</p> - -<p>In other counties, where the Roman population made -permanent settlements and built their towns and villas, -regular cemeteries were formed for the burial of their dead, -and to these mainly are we indebted for a knowledge of -their customs and of their arts. The burials were, as in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> -the previous period, both by inhumation and by cremation. -The first appears to have been the most ancient practice of -the Roman people, and it was not, as is stated, until the -time of the dictator Sylla that burning of the dead was -practised. From his time downward both of these usages -were in vogue, according as the friends of the deceased -preferred. So indiscriminately were these usages adopted -in England that both are found in the same burial-places, -and indeed (as in those of the Celtic period) in close proximity -to each other.</p> - -<p>The cemeteries attached to Roman towns were outside -the walls, and usually by the road leading to the chief -town—Londinium. In the country the owner of a villa -had his burial-place in his own precincts.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> Almost always, -except when the interment was made in an earlier barrow, -the dead were laid near to the living. In fact, the Roman -seems, even when dead, to have still courted the proximity -of the living, for he always by preference sought to establish -his last home as near as possible to the most frequented -road; and the inscriptions on his roadside tomb often contained -appeals to the passers-by—in terms such as <span class="smcap">SISTE -VIATOR</span> (<i>stay, traveller</i>), or, <span class="smcap">TV QVISQVIS ES QVI TRANSIS</span> (<i>thou, -whoever thou art, who passest</i>)—to think on the departed. -The epitaph on a Roman named Lollius, published by -Grüter, concludes with the following words, intimating that -he was placed by the roadside in order that the passer-by -might say, “Farewell, Lollius!”</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">HIC . PROPTER . VIAM . POSITVS<br /></span> -<span class="i2">UT . DICANT . PRAETEREVNTES<br /></span> -<span class="i9">LOLLI . VALE.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>These examples will explain the position of the cemeteries -of Uriconium and other Roman towns in Britain.</p> - -<p>Mr. Wright, than whom no one is more able to speak -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span> -authoritatively on the matter, thus speaks of the burial customs -and observances of the Romans in Britain; and as it -is necessary, before speaking of the objects found with the -sepulchral remains of the people, to give a sketch of the -formalities attending their death and burial, his account -will add considerable interest to their consideration.</p> - -<p>“The last duty to the dying man was to close his eyes, -which was usually performed by his children, or by his -nearest relatives, who, after he had breathed his last, caused -his body first to be washed with warm water, and afterwards -to be anointed. Those who performed this last-mentioned -office were called <i>pollinctores</i>. The corpse was -afterwards dressed, and placed on a litter in the hall, with -its feet to the entrance door, where it was to remain seven -days. This ceremony was termed <i>collocatio</i>, and the object -of it is said to have been to show that the deceased had -died a natural death, and that he had not been murdered. -In accordance with the popular superstition, a small piece -of money was placed in the mouth, which it was supposed -would be required to pay the boatman Charon for the passage -over the river Styx. In the case of persons of substance, -incense was burnt in the hall, which was often -decked with branches of cypress, and a keeper was appointed, -who did not quit the body until the funeral was -completed. The public having been invited by proclamation -to attend the funeral, the body was carried out on the -seventh day, and borne in procession, attended by the -relatives, friends, and whoever chose to attend, accompanied -by musicians, and sometimes with dancers, mountebanks, -and performers of various descriptions. With rich -people, the images of their ancestors were carried in the -procession, which always passed through the Forum on its -way to the place of burial, and sometimes a friend mounted -the rostrum, and pronounced a funeral oration. In earlier -times the burial always took place by night, and was attended -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> -with persons carrying lamps or torches, but this -practice seems to have been afterwards neglected; yet -the lamps still continued to be carried in the procession. -Women, who were called <i>præficæ</i>, were employed not only -to howl their lamentations over the deceased, and chant his -praises, like the Irish keeners, but to cry also; and their -tears, it appears, were collected into small vessels of glass; -and this circumstance is termed, in some of the inscriptions -found on the Continent, being ‘buried with tears’—<i>sepultus -cum lacrymis</i>; and the tomb is spoken of as -being ‘full of tears’—<span class="smcap">TVMVL . LACRIM . PLEN</span>.</p> - -<p>“The next ceremony was that of burning the body. In the -earlier ages of their history the Romans are said to have -buried the bodies of their dead entire, without burning; -and there seems to be no doubt that, at all events, the two -practices, burning the body and cremation, existed at the -same time; but the latter appears to have become gradually -more fashionable, until few but paupers were buried otherwise. -In the age of the Antonines the practice of cremation -was finally abolished in Italy; but the imperial ordinances -appear to have had but little effect in the distant provinces, -where the two manners of burial continued to exist simultaneously. -Both are accordingly found in the Roman cemeteries -in Britain, in interments which were undoubtedly -not those of Christians. Perhaps the practices varied in -different parts of the island, according to the usages of the -country from which the colonists derived their origin. It is -a circumstance worthy of remark that, as far as discoveries -yet go, no trace has been met with of burials in the Roman -cemeteries of Uriconium, otherwise than by burning the -dead.</p> - -<p>“The funeral pile, <i>pyra</i>, was built of the most inflammable -woods, to which pitch was added, and other things, which -often rendered this part of the ceremony very expensive. -An inscription, preserved by Grüter, speaks of some persons -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> -whose property was only sufficient to pay for the funeral -pile and the pitch to burn their bodies—<i>nec ex eorum bonis -plus inventum est quam quod sufficeret ad emendam pyram -et picem quibus corpora cremarentur</i>. It had been ordered -by a law of the Twelve Tables, that the funeral pile must -be formed of timber which was rough and untouched by the -axe, but this rule was perhaps not very closely adhered to -in later times. When the body was laid on the pile, the -latter was sprinkled with wine and other liquors, and incense -and various unguents and odoriferous spices were -thrown upon it. It was now, according to some accounts, -that the <i>naulum</i>, or the coin for the payment of the passage -over the Styx, was placed in the mouth of the corpse, and -at the same time the eyes were opened. Fire was applied -to the pile by the nearest relatives of the deceased, who, in -doing this, turned their faces from it while it was burning; -the relatives and friends often threw into the fire various -objects, such as personal ornaments, and even favourite -animals and birds. When the whole was reduced to ashes, -these were sprinkled with wine (and sometimes with milk), -accompanied with an invitation to the <i>manes</i>, or spirit of -the deceased. The reader will call to mind the lines of -Virgil (Æn. vi. 226):—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">‘Postquam collapsi cineres, et flamma quievit,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Relliquias vino et bibulam lavere favillam,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Ossaque lecta cado texit Corynæus aëno.’<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>“The next proceeding, indeed, was to collect what remained -of the bones from the ashes, which was the duty of -the mother of the deceased, or, if the parents were not -living, of the children, and was followed by a new offering -of tears. Some of the old writers speak of the difficulty of -separating the remains of the burnt bones from the wood -ashes, and we accordingly find them usually mixed together. -When collected, the bones were deposited in an -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> -urn, which was made of various materials. The urn in -Virgil was made of brass, or perhaps bronze. Instances -are mentioned of silver, and even gold, being used for this -purpose, as well as of marble; and those found in Britain -are often of glass, but the more common material was -earthenware. One of the performers in the ceremony, -whose duty this was, then purified the attendants by -sprinkling them thrice with water, with an olive branch (if -that could be obtained), and the <i>præficæ</i> pronounced the -word <i>Ilicet</i> (said to be a contraction of <i>Ire licet</i>, ‘you may -go’). Those who had attended the funeral, thrice addressed -the word <i>Vale</i> (farewell) to the manes of the dead, and -departed. A sumptuous supper was usually given after the -funeral to the relatives and friends.</p> - -<p>“In the case of people of better rank, the body was burnt -on the ground which had been purchased for the sepulchre, -but for the poorer people there was a public burning-place, -which was called the <i>ustrina</i>, where the process was probably -much less expensive, and whence the urn, with the -remains (<i>relliquiæ</i>) of the deceased, was carried to be interred. -The tombs of rich families were often large and -even splendid edifices, with rooms inside, in the walls of -which were small recesses, where the urns were placed. -None of the buildings remain in any Roman cemetery in -our island, but we can hardly doubt that such tombs did -exist in the cemetery of Uriconium, and that they were -scattered along the side of the Watling Street. At one -place at Uriconium the foundations of a small building -were met with, which appeared to have consisted of an -oblong square, with a rectangular recess behind, but the -western portion of it has been destroyed by the process of -draining. When opened, ashes and fragments of an urn -were found in the enclosed space, so that it is not improbable -that this may have been a tomb with a room. An -inscribed stone, which was found not far from this spot, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> -bears evidence, in the appearance of its reverse side and in -its form, of having been fixed against a wall, probably over -a door.” The urn was perhaps here interred beneath the -floor of the room. In many cases the dead body was -certainly burnt on the spot where it was to be buried. A -square pit had been dug, on the floor of which the funeral -pile had been laid. The fire had then been lit in the pit or -grave, and the body consumed in its own grave. Remains -of the timber of the funeral pile still remained in a pit of -this kind at Uriconium, as it had sunk on the floor, the -ends of which were unconsumed, and the earth underneath -quite red from burning.</p> - -<p>In most of the other interments in the cemetery of -Uriconium, a small hole or pit appears to have been sunk -in the ground, and the urn, which had no doubt been -brought from the <i>ustrina</i>, was placed in it and covered up. -These interments were not far distant from each other, and -appear to have been placed in rows, nearly parallel to the -road. Perhaps the ground may have been bought for this -purpose in common, by associations of the townsmen, such -as trade corporations, or it may have been set aside for -burial purposes by the municipal authorities, and sold in -small portions to individuals, as the practice now exists in -modern cemeteries. The average depth at which the urns -have been found is somewhat less than four feet, so that, -allowing two feet for the accumulation of soil, the Romans -seem to have dug pits about two feet deep for their reception.</p> - -<p>Coins were, as has just been stated, buried with the -dead, in conformity with a superstitious belief that they -would expedite the passage of the soul across the lake in -Hades. The magic power of money in all connections -with human life originated this custom. In all worldly -matters money then was, as it unfortunately now still is, -the main, if not the only, sure passport to place and honour; -and thus it was believed that the soul of the man who -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> -had not received the usual rites of burial, and in whose -mouth no fee for the ferryman of the Stygian lake had -been placed,<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> would wander hopelessly on its banks, while -decent interment and a small brass coin would obviate any -disagreeable inquiries that Charon might else be inclined -to make as to the merits or claims of the applicant. Thus -in the cinerary urns of the period of which I am speaking -coins are very commonly found, and also in interments -by inhumation a small coin has, in more than one instance -in Derbyshire, been found with the skull, in such a manner -as to leave no doubt of its having been placed in the mouth -of the deceased. In some instances a considerable number -of coins have been found deposited together, or scattered -about, in a barrow, along with human remains. In Haddon -Field a large number of coins, principally consisting of -third brass of Constantine, Constans, Constantius II., Valentinian, -Valens, and Gratian, were found, along with -bones and fragments of pottery, traces of decayed wood, -and a portion of a glass vessel. At Minning-Low, the -fine chambered tumulus described on p. 54, <i>ante</i>, where -several interments of the Romano-British period have undoubtedly -been made in the earlier Celtic mound, many -Roman coins, along with portions of sepulchral urns, etc., -have from time to time been found. These are principally -of Claudius Gothicus, Constantine the Great, Constantine -Junior, Valentinian, and Constantius. In a barrow near -Parwich, upwards of eighty coins of the later emperors -were found. At most places, in fact, where Roman interments -have taken place, coins have been found, and these -range from an early to a late period in Roman history.</p> - -<p>When interment was by inhumation, in many instances -the body was simply laid in the earth without any further -covering than the usual dress. In other instances there -are abundant appearances of the body having been enclosed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> -in a wooden coffin or chest. In others, again, the -body had been enclosed in a stone sarcophagus or chest, -which was occasionally elaborately carved. Sometimes, -again, coffins of lead were used. Mounds or barrows -over sepulchral chambers and other modes of interment -were frequently raised, to which I shall have to draw -further attention. Examples of the first and most simple -of these modes of burial have been discovered in different -parts of the country, those at Bartlow Hills and at Little -Chester being, perhaps, among the most notable. At -the latter place a skeleton of a man found some years -ago lay full length on its back, the arms straight down -by the sides. Iron rivets, which were found much corroded, -lay near various parts of the body, and a thin -stratum of ferruginous matter encased the skeleton at a -little distance from the body and limbs. From these -circumstances it is to be inferred that the deceased was -interred in his armour. Other interments by inhumation -have been recently discovered in the same neighbourhood, -but without, in some instances, the ferruginous appearances. -The remains of horses were found along with them. Interments -by inhumation have also been found at Brough -and at other stations in the same county, and, as later -deposits, in Celtic barrows. Those where the bones have -been found <i>in situ</i> appear, like the one I have spoken -of at Little Chester, at Bartlow, and at other places, to -have been laid at full length on the back, the arms straight -down by the sides. They appear in most instances to -have been simply laid in a very shallow grave, but little -below the surface of the already formed mound, and to -have been then covered to no great thickness with earth. -Those found at Bartlow lay parallel to, but a short distance -apart from, each other, their heads to the west and -feet to the east. They were laid flat on their backs, their -limbs straight out, their arms by their sides, and hands -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span> -on the thighs. Some coins of Constantine and Tetricus, -and other little matters, were found with them.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> Traces -of wooden chests or coffins were discernible around these -skeletons, and this feature is not uncommon in burials of -this description.</p> - -<p>When the body was placed in a stone chest or sarcophagus, -it was in full dress, on its back, on the bottom -of the chest, and any relics which were intended to be -buried with it were laid about. The chest, as is evident -from the examples found at York, was then partly filled -with liquid lime, the face alone not being covered with -the corroding liquid. When now found, a perfect impression -of the figure is preserved in the bed of lime in -which it was encased, and in some instances even the -colour and texture of the dress is plainly distinguishable.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> -Frequently the stone chest contained a leaden coffin, in -which the body was placed. A remarkably fine sculptured -chest found in London,<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> and others found at York,<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> will -be sufficient references to these interesting sarcophagi, -which are occasionally inscribed.</p> - -<p>A tomb of a different description, which will be seen to -partake largely of the construction of the stone cist of the -earlier period, is here engraved (<a href="#fig_206">fig. 206</a>). It is formed of -ten rough slabs of gritstone, two on each side, one at each -end, and four others laid as covering on the top. On removing -the covering stones, a regularly shaped mass of -lime presented itself, which had derived its form from a -wooden coffin that had so nearly perished as to leave only -small fragments behind. The wood was evidently cedar. -On turning over this mass of lime an impression of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> -body of a man, which had been enveloped in, or covered -with, a coarse linen cloth, fragments of which still remained, -was distinctly seen. In another instance the impression of -the body of a woman who had been clothed in rich purple, -with a small child laid upon her lap, was distinctly visible -in the lime.</p> - -<div id="fig_206" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_206.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 206.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_207" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_207.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 207.</p> -</div> - -<p>Coffins of lead are of not unfrequent occurrence in the -cemeteries of London, Colchester, York, Kingsholme, -Southfleet, Ozengal, and elsewhere. They are, as will be -seen by the example from Colchester (<a href="#fig_207">fig. 207</a>),<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> usually -ornamented with raised escallop shells, beaded mouldings, -annulets, etc, in a variety of ways. The next engraving -(<a href="#fig_208">fig. 208</a>) exhibits a leaden coffin discovered in 1864 at -Bishopstoke,<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> in Hampshire. The lead which formed the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> -coffin was about a quarter of an inch in thickness. The -coffin, which was five feet six inches in length, and sixteen -and a half inches in breadth, inside measure, had not been -cast in a mould, but the lead cut so as to form the sides. -The lid appeared to be formed of one sheet, and had been -bent or lapped over the lower part of the coffin. The lead -was much corroded, and lime had evidently been placed -in the coffin. There was none of the ornamentation on the -outside, so common on leaden cists. Nearly the whole of -the skeleton remained, but the skull was broken. The teeth -were perfect and good. The skeleton was that of a female. -Inside the cist were the remains of small glass bottles, -probably lachrymatories. The glass was thin, and of a -very pale green colour. There was no appearance of handles -to the glass vessels, nor were there any marks of ornamentation -on them, except a faint line or ring marked upon one -of the three necks found. Around the coffin were the -remains of the wooden chest in which it had been placed.</p> - -<div id="fig_208" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_208.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 208.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_209" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_209.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 209.</p> -</div> - -<p>Coffins of baked clay, and cists formed of tiles, were also -used. Of these, many examples have been found at York -and at Aldborough. One of peculiar form, from the latter -place, is here given (<a href="#fig_209">fig. 209</a>). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span></p> - -<p>Sepulchral chambers, sometimes of considerable size, -were occasionally built above ground, and these were -sometimes, like the immense chambered burial-places of -earlier times, covered with a gigantic mound or barrow. -A remarkable example of this is Eastlow Hill, in Suffolk, -where the tomb appeared like a miniature house, of strong -masonry, with the roof tiled and peaked. It was built upon -a mass of concrete, the size of the tomb being twelve, by -six and a half, feet. The walls were two feet thick, and the -extreme height of the tomb, or house, was five feet. The -interior was a cylindrical vault, and in the middle stood the -leaden coffin containing the skeleton. The wooden chest -in which it had been encased had decayed away, but some -fragments and a number of nails remained. Over this -remarkable tomb the mound called Eastlow Hill had been -raised.</p> - -<p>When the burial was by incremation, the ashes were -carefully placed in the cinerary urn, and interred either by -themselves, or with more or less ostentatious surroundings. -In many instances a hole was dug in the earth, or in a -Celtic barrow, and the urn, on being placed in it, simply -covered with a flat stone. At other times it was placed in -a sarcophagus, or chest, and surrounded with vessels of -various kinds and with other relics. At others, again, it -was enclosed in a leaden, or stone, or other vessel, before -being consigned to the earth. In many cases barrows were -raised over these remains. There was a general belief in -the minds of the Roman people that articles of various -kinds buried or burnt with their dead, would add to the -comfort and happiness of the spirit in another world. -Thus jewels, personal ornaments, food, wine, articles for -the toilet, culinary vessels, pottery, and glass of various -kinds, and numberless other articles were buried or burned -with the bodies. Branches of trees and garlands were also -burned or buried with the dead. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span></p> - -<p>Some remarkable examples of tombs and graves containing -burials by cremation have been discovered at the -Bartlow Hills, at Colchester, at Uriconium, at Rochester, -at York, at Chester, and in other places. The grave, or -chest, was formed of wood, or tiles, or of stone. In this -the urn containing the ashes of the dead was placed, and -around it were put smaller vessels which probably contained -ointments, balsams, and other offerings; a lamp; -and other articles. One example, formed by tiles, contained -when discovered a few years ago, besides fragments of the -cinerary urn, four earthenware bottles, six pateræ, three -small urn-shaped vessels, a terra-cotta lamp, and a lachrymatory. -A chest of stone (<a href="#fig_210">fig. 210</a>) found at Avisford, -Sussex, contained a large square vase of fine green glass, -filled with burnt bones, and around it were placed three -elegant vases with handles, several pateræ, a pair of sandals -elegantly and fancifully studded with brass nails, an -oval dish with handle containing a fine agate, a double-handled -glass bottle, and three lamps placed on projections -in the angles of the chest.</p> - -<div id="fig_210" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_210.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 210.</p> -</div> - -<p>An example of a tomb formed of tiles is shown on the -next engraving (<a href="#fig_211">fig. 211</a>). It was found at York, and is -composed of ten roof tiles, with a row of ridge tiles at the -top. Within this the interment had taken place. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> -tiles were inscribed with the impress of the Sixth Legion— -<span class="smcap">LEG VI VI</span> (<i>Legio Sexta Victrix</i>—“the Sixth Legion victorious.”)</p> - -<div id="fig_211" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_211.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Figs. 211.</p> -</div> - -<p>Sepulchral inscriptions to the memory of the deceased -are not uncommon, and one or two examples of their style -of wording will be sufficient. One, at York, reads thus:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">D . M . SIMPLICIAE . FLORENTINE<br /></span> -<span class="i0">ANIME . INNOCENTISSIME<br /></span> -<span class="i0">QVE . VIXIT . MENSES . DECEM<br /></span> -<span class="i0">FELICIVS . SIMPLEX . PATER . FECIT<br /></span> -<span class="i0">LEG . VI . V.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>“To the gods of the shades. To Simplicia Florentina, -a most innocent thing, who lived ten months. Her father -of the Sixth Legion, the victorious, made this.” Another, -from Carvoran in Northumberland, is thus affectionately -worded:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">D . M<br /></span> -<span class="i0">AVRE . FAIAE<br /></span> -<span class="i0">D . SALONAS<br /></span> -<span class="i0">AVR . MARCVS<br /></span> -<span class="i0">C . OBESEQ . CON<br /></span> -<span class="i0">IVG . SANCTIS<br /></span> -<span class="i0">SIMAE . QVAE . VI<br /></span> -<span class="i0">XIT ANNIS XXXIII<br /></span> -<span class="i0">SINE VLLA MACVLA<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span></p> - -<p>“To the gods of the shades. To Aurelia Faia, a native -of Salona, Aurelius Marcus, a centurion, out of affection for -his most holy wife, who lived thirty-three years without any -stain.” Another, from Caerleon, is thus:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">D . M . IVL . IVLIANVS<br /></span> -<span class="i0">MIL . LEG . II . AVG . STIP<br /></span> -<span class="i0">XVIII . ANNOR . XL<br /></span> -<span class="i0">HIC . SITVS . EST<br /></span> -<span class="i0">CVRA . AGENTE<br /></span> -<span class="i0">AMANDA<br /></span> -<span class="i0">CONIVGE<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>“To the gods of the shades. Julius Julianus, a soldier -of the Second Legion, the Augustan, served eighteen years, -aged forty, is laid here by the care of Amanda his wife.” -Another, from Chesters, in Northumberland, is as follows:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">D . M . S<br /></span> -<span class="i0">FABIE HONOR<br /></span> -<span class="i0">ATE . FABIVS . HON<br /></span> -<span class="i0">ORATIVS . TRIBVN<br /></span> -<span class="i0">COH . I . VANGION<br /></span> -<span class="i0">ET . AVRELIA . EGLIC<br /></span> -<span class="i0">IANE . FECER<br /></span> -<span class="i0">VNT . FILIE . D<br /></span> -<span class="i0">VLCISSIMME<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>“Sacred to the gods of the shades. To Fabia Honorata, -Fabius Honoratius, Tribune, of the First Cohort of Vangiones, -and Aurelia Egleciane, made this to their daughter -most sweet.” And one at Bath is thus:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">D . M.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">AEL . MERCV<br /></span> -<span class="i0">RIALI . CORNICVL<br /></span> -<span class="i0">VACIA . SOROR<br /></span> -<span class="i0">FECIT<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span></p> - -<p>“To the gods of the shades. To Ælius Mercurialis, a -trumpeter, his sister Vacia made this.”</p> - -<p>The articles which the grave-mounds and cemeteries of -the Romano-British period most frequently produce are -pottery of various kinds; glass vessels; coins; arms, both -of bronze and of iron; fibulæ, armillæ, and other personal -ornaments; knives, scissors, etc.; and a large variety of -other things. To a brief notice of these contents of the -graves I shall next, in this division of my work, confine -myself. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Romano-British Period—Pottery—Durobrivian Ware—Upchurch Ware—Salopian -Ware—Pottery found at Uriconium—Potteries of the -New Forest, of Yorkshire, and of other places—Sepulchral Urns—Domestic -and other vessels.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> pottery of the Romano-British period, so far as relates -to what is found in the grave-mounds of that -people, consists, in the main, of cinerary urns, jugs (so -called), pateræ, amphoræ, bowls, and vases of various kinds. -Of the pottery alone of this period, sufficient interesting -matter to fill a couple of goodly volumes might easily be -written. It will, therefore, be at once understood that in a -work like the present, which is simply intended to be a descriptive -sketch of the contents of grave-mounds, elaborate -accounts of the different kinds of ware made by that people, -and of the modes of manufacture which they adopted, -would be unnecessary. The principal divisions are the -Samian ware, the Durobrivian ware, the pottery of the -Upchurch marshes, the Hampshire ware, the Salopian -ware, and the Yorkshire wares, and to these divisions I -shall devote some few pages, and in so doing express -thanks to my friend, Mr. Thomas Wright, for some excellent -articles<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> on the Durobrivian, the Upchurch, and the -Samian wares, which he has written. Before proceeding -to speak of the different vessels found with interments, -it will be well to glance at these different wares and their -characteristics. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span></p> - -<div id="fig_212" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_212.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 212.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>Durobrivian</i> or <i>Castor ware</i>, as it is variously -called, is the production of the extensive Romano-British -potteries on the river Nen in Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire, -which, with settlements, are computed to -have covered a district of some twenty square miles in -extent. The discovery of this pottery and of the kilns -in which its productions were fired, etc.—one of which -is engraved on <a href="#fig_212">fig. 212</a>—is due to the late Mr. Artis, -who prosecuted his examination of the locality with great -perseverance and skill. There are several varieties of -this Durobrivian ware, and two especially have been -remarked; the first, blue or slate-coloured, the other reddish-brown -or of a dark copper colour. The former was -coloured by a simple though curious process, which Mr. -Artis was enabled to investigate in a very satisfactory manner. -It will, perhaps, be best told in his own words. -“During an examination of the pigments used by the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> -Roman potters of this place,” he says, “I was led to the -conclusion that the blue and slate-coloured vessels met -with here in such abundance, were coloured by suffocating -the fire of the kiln at the time when its contents had -acquired a degree of heat sufficient to ensure uniformity of -colour. I had so firmly made up my mind upon the process -of manufacturing and firing this peculiar kind of -earthenware, that for some time previous to the recent discovery -[in 1844] I had denominated the kilns in which it -had been fired <i>smother kilns</i>. The mode of manufacturing -the bricks of which these kilns are made is worthy of -notice. The clay was previously mixed with about one-third -of rye in the chaff, which, being consumed by the fire, -left cavities in the room of the grains. This might have -been intended to modify expansion and contraction, as well -as to assist the gradual distribution of the colouring vapour. -The mouth of the furnace and top of the kiln were, no -doubt, stopped; thus we find every part of the kiln, from -the inside wall to the earth on the outside, and every part -of the clay wrappers of the dome, penetrated with the -colouring exhalation. As further proof that the colouring -of the ware was imparted by firing, I collected the clays of -the neighbourhood, including specimens from the immediate -vicinity of the smother kilns. In colour some of these -clays resembled the ware after firing, and some were -darker. I submitted them to a process similar to that I -have described. The clays dug near the kilns whitened in -firing, probably from being bituminous. I also put some -fragments of the blue pottery into the kiln; they came out -precisely of the same colour as the clay fired with them, -which had been taken from the side of the kilns. The -experiment proved to me that the colour could not be attributed -to any metallic oxide, either existing in the clay or -applied externally; and this conclusion is confirmed by the -appearance of the clay wrappers of the dome of the kiln. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> -It should be remarked, that this colour is so volatile that it -is expelled by a second firing in an open kiln.” Fortunately, -some of the kilns remained almost entire, and many had -been left with the pottery partly packed in them for firing, -so that there was no difficulty in understanding the nature -of the process here employed by the Roman potters.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_213" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_213.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 213.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_214" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_214.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 214.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_215" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_215.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 215.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>This Durobrivian pottery is especially interesting, from -its being covered with ornaments and figures, in relief, -like those on the Samian ware, but not like it cast from -moulds. “The vessel,” Mr. Artis remarks, “after being -thrown upon the wheel, would be allowed to become somewhat -firm, but only sufficiently so for the purpose of the -lathe. In the indented ware, the indenting would have to -be performed with the vessel in as pliable a state as it -could be taken from the lathe.” The ornamenter then took -a slip of rather liquid material, and with an implement -made for the purpose, formed all the ornaments and figures -with the hand. The slip used for this purpose was often -white, which was laid on a dark ground. “The vessels, on -which are displayed a variety of hunting subjects, representations -of fishes, scrolls, and human figures, were all -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> -glazed after the figures were laid on; where, however, the -decorations are white, the vessels were glazed before the -ornaments were added. Ornamenting with figures of animals -was effected by means of sharp and blunt skewery -instruments, and a slip of suitable consistency. These instruments -seem to have been of two kinds: one thick -enough to carry sufficient slip for the nose, neck, body, and -front thigh; the other of a more delicate kind, for a thinner -slip for the tongue, lower jaws, eye, fore and hind legs, and -tail. There seems to have been no retouching after the -slip trailed from the instrument.”</p> - -<p>Of the forms of mere ornamentation of this ware, the -scroll ornaments appear to have been the most popular. -The arrangement and combination of the scrolls, which are -sufficiently varied, are often both tasteful and very effective. -In the cut (<a href="#fig_216">fig. 216</a>) I have selected two examples of the -most common forms of this kind of ornamentation, and -others I show on the following engravings, figs. <a href="#fig_217">217</a>, <a href="#fig_218">218</a>, -and <a href="#fig_219">219</a>, and again on figs. <a href="#fig_213">213</a>, <a href="#fig_214">214</a>, and <a href="#fig_215">215</a>.</p> - -<div id="fig_216" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_216.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 216.</p> -</div> - -<p>“It is, however, the figured pottery of Durobrivæ, which -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> -presents some of the characteristics of the Samian ware, -that possesses the greatest interest for the antiquary and -the historian. The variety of subjects in the Samian ware -is far greater, and they are treated in a more elaborate and -more highly finished style of art, yet similar classes of subjects -appear to have enjoyed greater popularity than others -in the Durobrivian and Samian pottery, and we can hardly -help suspecting that there was some design of imitating, -or perhaps a sentiment of rivalry. Considering that they -were only executed with the hand, and it would appear -rapidly, the style of drawing is remarkably good and -spirited. But they have another and a peculiar value; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> -when we consider that they were certainly executed in -this country, and by artists who could hardly have done -otherwise than copy what was constantly before their -eyes, we can have no doubt that these are all true pictures, -pictures which we could hardly in any other way have obtained, -of life in Britain under the Romans, and they -show us, as well as could be shown in subjects capable of -being represented by such artists, those occupations in -which the enjoyment of life was then believed to consist. -The more common of these subjects are hunting scenes and -scenes taken from the amphitheatre or racecourse.” For -instance, the dog hunting the hare, given in our cut (<a href="#fig_220">fig. -220</a>) taken from an example of Durobrivian ware engraved -in Artis’s plates, must be recognized at once as a greyhound, -the same variety of dog which is still used for the -same purpose. It has been suggested that this may be the -dog to which the Romans gave the name of <i>vertagus</i>, and -which is said to have been a British dog. Martial describes -it in one of his epigrams as—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i16">“Divisa Britannia mittit<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Veloces, nostrique orbis venatibus aptos.”<br /></span> -<span class="i25">Nemesiani <i>Cynegetica</i>, l. 123.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_217" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_217.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 217.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_218" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_218.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 218.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_219" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_219.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 219.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_220" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_220.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 220.</p> -</div> - -<p>Other examples of hunting subjects are here given (figs. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> -<a href="#fig_221">221</a> to <a href="#fig_225">225</a>), and others again will be found on a subsequent -page.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_221" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_221.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 221.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_222" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_222.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 222.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_223" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_223.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 223.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_224" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_224.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 224.</p> -</div> - -<p>The engravings <a href="#fig_223">fig. 223</a> and <a href="#fig_224">224</a>, taken from a sample of -this pottery given in one of Mr. Artis’s plates, represents the -British staghound of the Roman period chasing a stag. We -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> -have a different dog in other examples, as in <a href="#fig_225">fig. 225</a>, which -is taken from a very remarkable vessel of this ware, now -known as the Colchester vase, where it appears driving before -it both stags and hares. The hunting of the boar is -also introduced in some examples of this pottery. Gladiatorial -combats are also favourite subjects on the pottery -made at Durobrivæ, as on the Samian ware, and they leave -no doubt that these cruel and degrading exhibitions were -cherished by the Romans in Britain as well as in Italy.</p> - -<div id="fig_225" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_225.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 225.</p> -</div> - -<p>That very remarkable monument of the ceramic art in -Roman Britain, known as the “Colchester vase,” was found -in 1853, in the Roman cemetery which occupied the site of -West Lodge, near Colchester. It had been used as a -sepulchral urn, and when found contained calcined bones, -and was covered with an inverted shallow vessel or dish. -“The ornamentations consist of three groups, one of which -is the flight of stags and hares pursued by a dog, given in -our cut (<a href="#fig_225">fig. 225</a>). The second and, perhaps we may say, -the principal group represents, in perfectly correct drawings, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> -the combat of the two classes of gladiators, a <i>Secutor</i> -and a <i>Retiarius</i>, the latter of whom, vanquished, has dropped -his trident, and raises his hand to implore the mercy of the -spectators. The <i>Secutor</i>, with a close helmet over his -head, and a short sword in his hand, advances to strike the -fatal blow, unless arrested by the success of his adversary’s -appeal. Over the head of the <i>Retiarius</i> is the inscription, -<span class="smcap">VALENTINV LEGIONIS XXX.</span>, meaning clearly, “Valentinus, -of the thirtieth legion,” which was doubtless the -name of the individual here represented. A similar inscription -over the head of the <i>Secutor</i> is read without difficulty—<span class="smcap">MEMN.N.SAC.VIIII.</span>, -which is explained by Mr. Roach -Smith, who considers the <small>A</small> in <small>SAC</small> as an error for <small>E</small>, as -standing for <i>Memnius</i> (or <i>Memnon</i>) <i>numeri secutorum victor -ter</i>; <i>i.e.</i>, “Memnius, or Memnon, of the number (or band) -of secutors, conqueror thrice.” There is no reason for supposing -that this inscription has any reference to the individual -whose remains were buried in the vase, but it has -probably reference to some remarkable gladiatorial combat -which had created a sensation in Roman Britain, like some -one of the celebrated boxing matches of modern times; -sufficiently so to have become a popular subject of pictorial -representation.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a></p> - -<p>“The third group on the Colchester vase also represents -a performance which was very popular among the Romans -and among Saxons, and, indeed, throughout the Middle -Ages, that of a bear-tamer and disciplined bear. The bear, in -this case, appears inclined to be rebellious, and his keeper, -whose left arm bears what appears to be a shield, and his -legs and right arm protected by bands or thongs, is menacing -the animal with a whip. An assistant is approaching, -with what appear to be two staves in his hands, for the purpose -also of intimidating the ferocious animal. Over the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> -head of the man holding the whip are the letters <span class="smcap">SECVNDVS -MARIO</span>, the intended application of which is not very clear.”<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a></p> - -<p>On another vase in the British Museum, the figures -represent a chariot-race in the Roman racecourse or stadium.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_226" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_226.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 226.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_227" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_227.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 227.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_228" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_228.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 228.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_229" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_229.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 229.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another class of subjects of extreme interest, as coming -from a Romano-British pottery, are mythological subjects, -which appear to have been rather a favourite ornament of -the Durobrivian pottery. Fragments of several vessels, -with the figures of the seven gods and goddesses, have -been met with. Another characteristic of the Durobrivian -ware, consists of indentations made in the side of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> -vessel, while still soft, but after it had left the lathe, and -continued with regularity round it. Sometimes, where -little ornament was employed on the rest of the vase, these -indentations were left quite plain; sometimes an ornament -was introduced in the centre; and not unfrequently the -indentation was formed into a niche for the reception of -a figure. For indented vases see figs. <a href="#fig_226">226</a>, <a href="#fig_228">228</a>, and <a href="#fig_229">229</a>.</p> - -<p>The <i>Upchurch ware</i>, so called because made on the tract -of land now known as the Upchurch Marshes, on the river -Medway below Chatham, is next in importance, as far as -extent of works go, to the Castor ware. The district -where these pot-works are proved to have existed extends to -a distance of five or six miles in length, and from one to -two miles in breadth, and throughout this tract a bed of -refuse pottery exists. This is seen to the best advantage -about Otterham Creek, not far from Upchurch church, and -from its being first noticed here the name of Upchurch -ware has arisen.</p> - -<p>“The Roman ware made in the Upchurch potteries presents -distinctive peculiarities which cannot be mistaken, -and it must have been in great repute, certainly the next -after the foreign Samian and the native Durobrivian wares, -in this province of the empire. Like the Durobrivian, too, -it has been found on Roman sites in France and Germany, -so that it was probably exported. As Battely has described it, -the greater proportion of this ware is of a ‘blackish colour,’ -or rather of a bluish or greyish black, which was produced, -no doubt, by the process of the smother-kiln, already described -in connection with the Durobrivian pottery. Some -of the Upchurch pottery presents a colour approaching to -dark drab. Examples of both are given. The forms, as -well as the sizes, vary greatly, but they all present those -delicate forms of the curve which we recognise at once as -coming from the hands of the Roman artist. The texture -of the pottery itself is fine, and it is very thin. The ornamentation -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> -also is varied, but not very elaborate or very -refined. One of the patterns consists of a band of half-circles, -made with compasses, from each of which a band -of parallel lines descends vertically. Examples of various -kinds of ornament are given in the accompanying woodcut -(<a href="#fig_230">fig. 230</a>). The little vessel in the front of the cut has had -two handles, but one is lost; it is supposed to be an incense -pot.</p> - -<div id="fig_230" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_230.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 230.</p> -</div> - -<p>“The instruments used in the ornamentation of this pottery -appear to have been of a very rude description, and -were, as it seems, chiefly mere sticks, some sharpened to a -point, and others with a transverse section cut into notches. -The former were used in tracing the lines already described; -the latter had the section formed into a square, or rhomboid, -the surface of which was cut into parallel lines crossing -each other, so as to form a dotted figure, and this was -stamped on the surface of the pottery in various combinations -and arrangements. Sometimes these dots are arranged -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> -so as to form bands, as in the example in the back -of the group. The large urn in the middle of the group -furnishes an example of another kind of ornamentation -found on the Upchurch pottery, formed by parallel intersecting -lines. In its shape this vessel has much the appearance -of a sepulchral urn. A considerable quantity of this -pottery is without ornament at all. Among this unornamented -pottery are found, especially, jug-shaped vessels, -commonly with a handle. Two of these vessels are represented -in the group, in which is also shown a curiously -shaped plain urn and an unornamented vessel of another -form. At different spots over the locality which was covered -by these potteries, Mr. Roach Smith has found remains -which indicate the former existence of kilns, and further -researches will most probably bring to light some of the -kilns themselves. Traces have also been found of the -residences and of the graves of the potters.”<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p> - -<div id="fig_231" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_231.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 231.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>Romano-Salopian</i> potteries—the works which produced -such a large quantity of vessels from the clay of the -Severn valley, probably in the neighbourhood of Broseley, -which bed is still worked for fictile purposes—were, there -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> -is reason to believe, much less extensive than either of those -spoken of, but yet they must, from the large quantity of -examples which have been dug up at Wroxeter, have been -of some considerable extent. Of these wares, “two sorts -especially are found in considerable abundance; the one -white, the other of a rather light red colour. The white, -which is made of what is commonly called Broseley clay, -and is rather coarse in texture, consists chiefly of rather -handsomely shaped jugs of different sizes, of mortaria, and -of bowls of different shapes and sizes, which are often -painted with stripes of red and yellow. The other variety, -the red Romano-Salopian ware, is also made from one of -the clays of the Severn valley, but it is of a finer texture, -and consists principally of jugs not dissimilar to those in -the white ware, except in a very different form of mouth, -and of bowl-shaped colanders.”<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> A group of vessels of -the Salopian ware is here given (<a href="#fig_232">fig. 232</a>). These examples -are all from Uriconium (Wroxeter), and have been found in -the cemetery there. They are cinerary urns which have, of -course, contained the ashes of the dead, and domestic vessels -which have been buried along with them.</p> - -<p>The pottery of the New Forest bears in some respects -a striking resemblance to that from Castor. The clays -there found were white and fawn-coloured.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> The Yorkshire -productions present some peculiarities in pattern which -will be noticed later on, and those of Oxfordshire are somewhat -similar to the Castor ware. Of other pot manufactories -it will not be necessary to speak in this work.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a></p> - -<p>The sepulchral urns—those which were intended to receive -the burnt bones of the dead—vary much in size as -well as in form, material, and ornamentation. Many are of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> -globular form, and of a dark bluish-grey colour in fracture -They are somewhat coarse in texture, and are thrown on -the wheel. The engraving (<a href="#fig_234">fig. 234</a>) exhibits one of these -vessels. When found, it was, like the others I am about -to notice, filled with burnt bones. The engravings (figs. -<a href="#fig_235">235</a> and <a href="#fig_236">236</a>) show two urns containing human remains, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> -the smaller one of which, found at Little Chester, is formed -of a black clay, mixed with small pieces of broken shells—a -kind of pottery much used for sepulchral purposes. The -larger urn is of a hard and compact clay, and is beautifully -“thrown” on the wheel. These examples are entirely devoid -of ornament. A good example of this form will be -seen in the centre of the group (<a href="#fig_230">fig. 230</a>), but in this instance -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> -the urn is covered with a reticulated ornament. Examples -whose forms partake a little more of the jar shape will -be noticed on <a href="#fig_232">fig. 232</a>, and others are given on <a href="#fig_233">Fig. 233</a>, -Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 6. <a href="#fig_237">Fig. 237</a> is from Little Chester, and is -formed of a fine reddish-brown clay, and is ornamented -with “slip” in an unusual manner. It measures 3½ inches -only in height, and the same in diameter at the mouth. -When found, it was filled with burnt bones, among which -were some small fragments of bronze ornaments, which -had evidently been burned along with the body. The next -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> -examples (figs. <a href="#fig_238">238</a>, <a href="#fig_242">242</a>, <a href="#fig_248">248</a>, and <a href="#fig_249">249</a>), are of a different -character, both in ornamentation and in colour of clay.</p> - -<div id="fig_232" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_232.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 232.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_233" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_233.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 233.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_234" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_234.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 234.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_235" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_235.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 235.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_236" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_236.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 236.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_237" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_237.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 237.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_238" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_238.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 238.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_239" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_239.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 239.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_240" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_240.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 240.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_241" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_241.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 241.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_242" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_242.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 242.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_243" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_243.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 243.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_244" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_244.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 244.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_245" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_245.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 245.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_246" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_246.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 246.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_247" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_247.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 247.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_248" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_248.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 248.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_249" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_249.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 249.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_254" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_254.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 254.</p> -</div> - -<p>The domestic vessels, and other varieties of Roman pottery -found with interments, vary very considerably one -from another, so much so, indeed, as almost to require -a detailed dissertation on the entire fictile arts of that -people. Examples of some of the different vessels which are -found are shown on figs. <a href="#fig_243">243</a> to <a href="#fig_266">266</a>, and on figs. <a href="#fig_230">230</a>, <a href="#fig_232">232</a>, -and <a href="#fig_233">233</a>, which exhibit some of the more usual and better -known forms. Figs. <a href="#fig_250">250</a>, <a href="#fig_252">252</a>, and <a href="#fig_253">253</a> are amphoræ, found -in London, as was also the small amphora-shaped vessel, -<a href="#fig_251">fig. 251</a>. <a href="#fig_254">Fig. 254</a> is a good typical example of a mortarium, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> -of which considerable numbers, usually in fragments, -are found wherever there has been a Roman settlement. -The next group (<a href="#fig_255">fig. 255</a>) represents five examples of blackware -vessels, the ornaments on which are produced by -tracing lines on the surface. The remainder of the engravings -(figs. <a href="#fig_258">258</a> to <a href="#fig_268">268</a>) exhibit cups, bowls, unguentaria -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span> -of different forms, and various shapes of vases. They are -all characteristic examples of Romano-British ware, and -will be useful to the student in correctly appropriating any -specimens which may fall into his hands.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_250" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_250.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 250.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_251" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_251.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 251.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_252" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_252.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 252.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_253" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_253.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 253.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_255" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_255.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 255.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_256" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_256.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 256.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_257" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_257.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 257.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_258" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_258.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 258.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_259" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_259.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 259.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_260" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_260.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 260.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_261" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_261.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 261.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_262" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_262.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 262.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_263" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_263.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 263.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_264" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_264.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 264.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_265" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_265.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 265.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_266" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_266.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 266.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_267" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_267.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 267.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_268" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_268.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 268. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Romano-British Period—Pottery—Samian Ware—Potters’ Stamps—Varieties -of Ornamentation—Glass Vessels—Sepulchral Vases, etc.—Lachrymatories—Bowls—Beads—Coins -found with Interments.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">In</span> the preceding chapters I have purposely avoided including -vessels of Samian ware. As these are frequently -found with sepulchral deposits, I now proceed to -speak of this peculiar and beautiful ware.</p> - -<div id="fig_269" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_269.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 269.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>Samian ware</i> is that peculiarly fine, close-textured, and -richly-coloured red-ware, which is so frequently found, and -is so well known to antiquaries. The body of this ware is -of a fine red colour, but its surface is of a deeper and richer -tone, much like the best red sealing-wax. It is extremely -hard and brittle, and is sonorous in sound when struck. -The vessels of this ware consist for the most part of bowls, -cups, and pateræ or dishes, in each of which divisions are -found an almost endless variety of forms, and while some are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> -perfectly plain, others are more or less covered with ornaments—figures -of men, animals, foliage, borders, etc.,—in -relief. These relief ornaments were produced from moulds, -and the names of the makers of the vessels were also frequently -stamped upon them. Of these ornaments and -potters’ marks, Mr. Wright says, “The potter’s name was -placed in a small rectangular label, as in the examples given -on figs. <a href="#fig_270">270</a>, <a href="#fig_271">271</a>, <a href="#fig_272">272</a>, <a href="#fig_273">273</a>, and <a href="#fig_274">274</a>. The name was most commonly -put in the genitive case, combined with O or OF, -abbreviations of the word <i>officina</i>, as in the example given -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span> -in our cut, where OF MODESTI stands for <i>officina Modesti</i>, -<i>i.e.</i> ‘from the workshop of Modestus;’ or with M for -<i>manu</i>, as COBNERTI M, for <i>Cobnerti manu</i>, ‘by’ or ‘from -the hand of Cobnertus.’ Sometimes the name is given in -the nominative case, followed by F or FE, for <i>fecit</i>, as -COCVRO F, for <i>Cocuro fecit</i>, ‘Cocuro made it.’ Doubled -or ligulated letters are frequently introduced into these -inscriptions, an example of which is given in the lower -figure to the right, where the first letter is the ligulated T -and E, and the name is TETTVR. Sometimes we meet -with an error in the spelling of the word; and in one or -two instances the person who made the stamp inscribed -the name carelessly, so that it read direct on the stamp, -and consequently it is reversed in the impression on the -pottery. An example is given in the cut, where the inscription -reversed reads PRASSO·O. The name is not -always placed in a square label, though examples to the -contrary are rare. In a few instances it has been found -inscribed round a small circle. It is -a peculiarity of the Arrentine ware, -described by Fabroni, that the label -not unfrequently assumes the form of -the sole of a man’s foot. The stamp -of this form given in our cut occurs -on a piece of the red Samian ware -found at Lillebonne, in Normandy. -The inscription appears to be HIL·O·L·TITI, -which may perhaps -stand for <i>Hilarii officina liberti Titi</i>, -‘from the workshop of Hilarius, the -freedman of Titus.’ The next cut (<a href="#fig_276">fig. -276</a>) represents one of the stamps -used for impressing the label with -the potter’s name. It was found at -Lezoux, in Auvergne and presents the name AVSTRI·OF. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> -‘from the workshop of Austen.’ A similar die of a potter -named Cobnertus is preserved in the museum at Sevres. -Both these names occur on specimens of Samian ware -found in England. Other potters’ names are shown on -figs. <a href="#fig_272">272</a> to <a href="#fig_275">275</a>. The first of these bears the name CELSINVS . F .; -the second, MICCIO; the third, AISTIVI.M; -and the fourth is the one referring to Aretium.”</p> - -<div class="table"> -<img id="fig_270" src="images/fig_270.jpg" alt="" /><br /> -</div> -<div class="table"> -<img id="fig_271" src="images/fig_271.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Figs. 270 and 271.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_272" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_272.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 272.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_273" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_273.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 273.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_274" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_274.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 274.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_275" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_275.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 275.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_276" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_276.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 276.</p> -</div> - -<p>Similar dies for stamping the ornaments and figures -have also been found in France. In the latter, each die -contained a single figure, or, at all events, a single group, -and this explains why the same figures are so frequently -found on the pottery in different combinations. One of -these dies contains a single festoon and tassel of the well-known -festoon ornament, so common on this pottery.</p> - -<div id="fig_277" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_277.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 277.</p> -</div> - -<p>The ornamental borders which are most commonly met -with on Samian ware are elegant festoon-and-tassel borders, -and the egg-and-tongue ornament, both of which, as -well as a border consisting of a range of figures representing -the Medicean Venus, are shown on the accompanying -engraving (<a href="#fig_277">fig. 277</a>) of a fine bowl found in -London. Wavy lines and lines of circles are also common, -and we frequently meet with scroll-work of very elegant -design, commonly formed of leaves, flowers, and fruit. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span> -Examples, selected from a numerous variety, are given on -engravings (figs. <a href="#fig_278">278</a> to <a href="#fig_282">282</a>). These scrolls are generally -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> -used to form a border round the upper part of the bowl, as -shown on figs. <a href="#fig_280">280</a> and <a href="#fig_281">281</a>. The foliage most in favour -for these scrolls was that of the vine, and the ivy (<a href="#fig_282">fig. 282</a>), -and also that of the strawberry; the former of which especially -shows that this pottery was, as Pliny says of the -Samian ware, particularly intended for the service of the -table. The ivy-leaf, indeed, is almost the only ornament -of the plainer description of this red ware. Sometimes the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> -leaves of the vine are gracefully intermingled with the -clusters of the fruit, and with little birds which are feeding -upon the latter, as in the fragment represented in our -cut (<a href="#fig_283">fig. 283</a>).</p> - -<div id="fig_278" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_278.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 278.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_279" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_279.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 279.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_280" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_280.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 280.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_281" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_281.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 281.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_282" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_282.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 282.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_283" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_283.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 283.</p> -</div> - -<p>Animals of all kinds are found in abundance among the -ornaments of the Samian ware. Among these the boar -was a great favourite. For instance, a cup will be divided -into compartments, in which figure alternately two boars, -and a man confronting them with a spear. In a similar -compartment under arches, in another, we have two heads -of lions above, and below, a rabbit and a dog. Another, -again, is ornamented with fishes, separated by squares -filled with a singular ornament, which is perhaps intended -to represent water. Sometimes the whole outside of a -bowl is covered with birds, beasts, and fishes mixed together -in the utmost confusion.</p> - -<div id="fig_284" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_284.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 284.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_285" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_285.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 285.</p> -</div> - -<p>The subjects in which human figures are introduced present -still greater variety, and it need hardly be added that they are -much more interesting. Subjects from the classical mythology -are very common, and among the figures of the deities -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> -we recognize some, such as the Venus de Medici (<a href="#fig_277">fig. 277</a>), -which were copied from well-known models of art. Combats -of pygmies and cranes appear as favourite subjects, as in the -paintings, etc., in Pompeii. Sacrifices and religious ceremonies -are not uncommon; and especially bacchanalian -processions, and dances of bacchantes and satyrs—another -proof that this ware was used for the festive board. The -spirited manner in which figure subjects are often treated, -will be seen by the engravings we have given, and by -examples to be found in most collections. One vessel -represents a bacchanalian scene, in which Silenus figures -among satyrs and fauns. A faun is drinking from a -horn supplied from a wine skin which he holds in his left -hand, while Silenus attempts to snatch it from his hands. -Genii, one of whom appears with wings on another fragment -of the same vessel, appear to be directing or presiding -over the scene. Among other very favourite subjects are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> -hunting scenes, gladiatorial combats, and the sports of the -amphitheatre. Others represent sacrifices and religious -offerings. Musicians performing on various instruments -are also common; and domestic scenes are depicted in -great variety. Many of these are of a character not to -be described, but sufficiently characteristic of the degraded -state of morality under the Roman empire. The bowls -here engraved (figs. <a href="#fig_285">285</a> and <a href="#fig_286">286</a>) are good examples of these -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> -kinds of decoration. Another is ornamented with a series -of figures, which appear to have no connection one with -another. In the middle is a bacchanal with his thirsus; -to the right of him a figure playing on a double pipe; on -both sides a group of bears; and to the extreme right a -charioteer, followed by a bear “rampant.”</p> - -<div id="fig_286" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_286.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 286.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_287" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_287.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 287.</p> -</div> - -<p>The great quantity of this Samian ware which is found -on Roman sites admits of easy explanation, from the circumstance -that it was held in great favour, and that the -manufactories on the Continent continued to work with -activity in producing it during the whole Roman period. -The number of names of potters, collected from fragments -found in England alone, amounts to more than two thousand, -and we must suppose them to have been spread over -a long period.</p> - -<div id="fig_288" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_288.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 288.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_289" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_289.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 289.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_290" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_290.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 290.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_291" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_291.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 291.</p> -</div> - -<p>Other examples of the common forms of Samian-ware -vessels are given on figs. <a href="#fig_288">288</a> to <a href="#fig_291">291</a>, and a clay mould for -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span> -forming heads on pottery, discovered by myself at Headington, -is shown on <a href="#fig_287">fig. 287</a>.</p> - -<p><i>Glass</i> was very successfully and beautifully worked by the -Romans, not only abroad, but in Britain, and vessels of this -material are frequently found with sepulchral deposits. -They are of great variety, and evidently made for many -different uses. Those found in the graves are usually those -made for holding the burnt bones of the dead; small -vessels, commonly called lachrymatories, although their use -was most probably that of holding the unguents and aromatics -usually buried with the dead; small bowls, cups, or -drinking vessels; and beads.</p> - -<div id="fig_292" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_292.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 292.</p> -</div> - -<p>Of the sepulchral vessels of glass the one here engraved -(<a href="#fig_292">fig. 292</a>), from Bartlow Hills, will show the general form. -They are of somewhat thick green glass, with neck and handle, -and are literally bottles. The one from Bartlow Hills is -of square form, and is six inches in height and four inches -square on the bottom. Others are round in form. They -contained the calcined bones of the dead. Of the forms of -the small vessels known as lachrymatories, to which I have -alluded, the examples in pottery on figs. <a href="#fig_259">259</a> to <a href="#fig_263">263</a> will -convey a tolerably correct idea. They are usually from -three to five inches in height. One found at Mount Bures, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> -Colchester, is a remarkable example, being made of beautifully -variegated glass. Cups or bowls, or, as they may -not inaptly be called, basins, are of the common basin form, -or jar shaped. They are usually of green glass, and of -elegant workmanship. Beads are, perhaps, the most frequently -found of any remains of Roman glass; this being of -course owing to their more solid and, consequently, less -perishable nature. They are of various kinds and sizes, -and are more or less ornamented. The accompanying -examples (figs. <a href="#fig_294">294</a>, <a href="#fig_295">295</a>, <a href="#fig_296">296</a>, and <a href="#fig_297">297</a>), will be sufficient to -direct attention to these interesting relics. A number of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> -beads, said to have been found with undoubted Roman -remains, are shown on <a href="#fig_298">fig. 298</a>.</p> - -<div id="fig_293" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_293.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 293.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_294" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_294.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 294.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_295" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_295.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 295.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_296" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_296.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 296.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_297" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_297.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 297.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_298" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_298.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 298.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Coins</span> found along with Romano-British interments -are, of course, of various emperors and of various periods. -They are only occasionally found, and, when discovered, -cannot, it must be remembered, be taken as any criterion -as to date of deposit, or, indeed, cannot be considered alone -as evidence of the barrow or interment belonging to the -Romano-British period. The Romans seem to have sowed -their coins broadcast over the whole length and breadth of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> -the land, to have thrown them about as they would useless -chaff, to have buried them in urns in every conceivable -place, and to have deposited them, either singly or otherwise, -in the barrows of their predecessors. It is unnecessary -to speak, then, of the varieties of coins which are -from time to time turned up by the antiquary in his researches -into the early grave-mounds. They form but -a thousandth part of the coins which are found away -from interments.</p> - -<p>It may, however, be well, as showing the relative proportions -of the coins of different emperors found in this -country, to give the following analysis, by Mr. Roach -Smith, of more than eleven hundred coins picked up at -different times in one locality—Richborough in Kent.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Augustus</td> - <td class="tdrb">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Agrippa</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tiberius</td> - <td class="tdrb">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Antonia, wife of Drusus, sen.</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caligula</td> - <td class="tdrb">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Claudius</td> - <td class="tdrb">15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nero</td> - <td class="tdrb">11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vespasian</td> - <td class="tdrb">13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Titus</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Domitian</td> - <td class="tdrb">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nerva</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Trajan</td> - <td class="tdrb">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hadrian</td> - <td class="tdrb">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sabina</td> - <td class="tdrb">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ællius Cæsar</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Antoninus Pius</td> - <td class="tdrb">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Faustina</td> - <td class="tdrb">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Marc Aurelius</td> - <td class="tdrb">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Faustina</td> - <td class="tdrb">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lucius Verus</td> - <td class="tdrb">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lucilla</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Commodus</td> - <td class="tdrb">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Severus</td> - <td class="tdrb">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Julia Domna</td> - <td class="tdrb">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caracalla</td> - <td class="tdrb">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Julia Maesa</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Severus Alexander</td> - <td class="tdrb">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Gordianus</td> - <td class="tdrb">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Philippus</td> - <td class="tdrb">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Valerianus</td> - <td class="tdrb">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Valerianus, junior</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Galliense</td> - <td class="tdrb">19</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Salonina</td> - <td class="tdrb">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Postumus</td> - <td class="tdrb">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Victorinus</td> - <td class="tdrb">14</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Marius</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tetricus</td> - <td class="tdrb">13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Claudius Gothicus</td> - <td class="tdrb">15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Luntillus</td> - <td class="tdrb">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Aurelianus</td> - <td class="tdrb">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tacitus</td> - <td class="tdrb">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Florianus</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Probus</td> - <td class="tdrb">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Garinus</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Numerainus</td> - <td class="tdrb">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Diocletianus</td> - <td class="tdrb">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Maximianus</td> - <td class="tdrb">16</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caräusius</td> - <td class="tdrb">94</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Allectus</td> - <td class="tdrb">45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Constantius</td> - <td class="tdrb">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Helena</td> - <td class="tdrb">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Theodora</td> - <td class="tdrb">13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Galerius Maximianus</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Maxentius</td> - <td class="tdrb">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Romulus</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Licinius</td> - <td class="tdrb">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Licinius, junior</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Constantine the Great</td> - <td class="tdrb">149</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Fausta</td> - <td class="tdrb">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Crispus</td> - <td class="tdrb">18 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Delmatius</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Constantine II.</td> - <td class="tdrb">98</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Constans</td> - <td class="tdrb">77</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Constantius II.</td> - <td class="tdrb">42</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Urbs Roma</td> - <td class="tdrb">52</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Constantinoplis</td> - <td class="tdrb">60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Magnentius</td> - <td class="tdrb">21</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Decentius</td> - <td class="tdrb">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Julianus II.</td> - <td class="tdrb">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Helena</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Jovianus</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Valentinianus</td> - <td class="tdrb">22</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Valens</td> - <td class="tdrb">39</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Gratianus</td> - <td class="tdrb">49</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Theodosius</td> - <td class="tdrb">14</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Magnus Maximus</td> - <td class="tdrb">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Victor</td> - <td class="tdrb">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eugenius</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Arcadius</td> - <td class="tdrb">27</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Honorius</td> - <td class="tdrb">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Constantine III.</td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">Total</td> - <td class="tdrb bt">1144</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Of these coins, fifty-six only were of silver, six of gold, -fifteen of billon, or base silver, and the remainder were of -brass, the greater portion being, naturally, what are denominated -“third brass.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Romano-British Period—Arms—Swords—Spears, etc.—Knives—Fibulæ—Armillæ—Torques -of Gold, etc.—Other Personal Ornaments—Horse-shoes.</p> - -<div id="fig_301" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_301.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 301.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_302" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_302.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 302.</p> -</div> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">Of</span> <span class="smcap">Arms</span> but few examples are found in grave-mounds, -although more abundant in the neighbourhood of -Roman stations and towns. They consist of swords, -daggers, spear-heads, and other weapons. They are, however, -perhaps the most scarce of any remains of the period. -The swords of bronze (figs. <a href="#fig_299">299</a> and <a href="#fig_300">300</a>) which have frequently -been ascribed to the British period, are now pretty -generally admitted to belong possibly to Roman times. The -examples engraved are of the most general type, as are also -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span> -the next engravings of spear and lance heads. The first -(<a href="#fig_301">fig. 301</a>), which is of iron, is from Little Chester, where it -was found along with human remains. <a href="#fig_302">Fig. 302</a> is of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> -bronze, and is, as will be seen, of somewhat unusual form, -and has a loop on either side. The next (<a href="#fig_303">fig. 303</a>) is of -bronze, and is three and a half inches long. It is of remarkably -good form, deeply socketed, like the preceding -example, and of a kind of leaf shape. Arrow-heads are also -occasionally found. Of these the example here engraved is -a good type. It is of bronze, and measures about an inch -and a quarter in length.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_299" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_299.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 299.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_300" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_300.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 300.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_303" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_303.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 303.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_304" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_304.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 304.</p> -</div> - -<p>Iron knives are occasionally found with interments. -Some remarkable instances of this have been recently -brought to light near Plymouth, and others again at Wetton -and other places. The knives are of the form engraved on -<a href="#fig_305">fig. 305</a>. They appear to have had wooden handles, which, -of course, except small traces of texture, have entirely decayed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> -away. Another knife, although not actually found -with an interment, shows the form so well that it is here -engraved. It was nine and a half inches long, of peculiar -shape, still retaining its handle of stag’s horn, rubbed or -worn smooth; the good preservation of which we may -attribute to having been imbedded in the fire-hardened earth, -and sufficiently deep to secure it from injury by the fire. -With the knives in the Plymouth cemetery were found portions -of scissors, of the form of the sheep-shears of the -present day, and these have also been found in other -localities. They were of iron, and several fragments of -other implements of the same material were at the same -time discovered.</p> - -<div id="fig_305" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_305.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 305.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_306" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_306.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 306.</p> -</div> - -<p>Of <span class="smcap">Fibulæ</span> an almost endless variety in form, in size, -and in material has at one time or other been exhumed. -They are, however, but very occasionally found with interments. -The most usual form, perhaps, is that which is -commonly called harp-shaped, or bowed, and this is of -such extreme variety that scarcely two examples out of -the hundreds that are known are precisely alike. Several -have a cross bar at the top, and are hence called “cruciform” -(figs. <a href="#fig_307">307</a>, <a href="#fig_310">310</a> to <a href="#fig_312">312</a>, and <a href="#fig_315">315</a>). Others have coiled -springs of wire at the top, variously fashioned. Some of these -are extremely complicated and ingenious, as will be seen by -the engraved examples. The more simple of the twisted -springs, a coiled spring only, formed by the end of the -bow being attenuated into the pin, is known as the “rat-trap -spring,” from its coiled resemblance to the spring used -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span> -in those “vermin killers.” Examples to show this form -are here given (figs. <a href="#fig_313">313</a>, <a href="#fig_314">314</a>, <a href="#fig_316">316</a>, and <a href="#fig_317">317</a>). This form of -fibula is generally known as the “dolphin” shape. Occasionally -wire only, twisted in like manner as recently reproduced -for skeleton shawl pins, are found. Sometimes the -fibula really assumed the form of an animal, a bird or a -serpent, with an inflated body. One of this character is -engraved on <a href="#fig_318">fig. 318</a>. It is of one continuous piece of -bronze, and the pin, having a coiled spring, answers to the -tail of the serpent, and hooks into a projection on the neck.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_307" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_307.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 307.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_308" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_308.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 308.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_309" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_309.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 309.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_310" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_310.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 310.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_311" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_311.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 311.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_312" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_312.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 312.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_313" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_313.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 313.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_314" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_314.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 314.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_315" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_315.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 315.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_316" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_316.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 316.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_317" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_317.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 317.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_318" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_318.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 318.</p> -</div> - -<p>The ornamentation is as varied as the form. Sometimes -they are chased or engraved in minute patterns of rows -of dots, scales, etc.; at others, enamelled or inlaid; and -at others, again, raised ornaments are riveted upon their -surface. Instances of S-shaped fibulæ also occur, as do -many other grotesque forms.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_319" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_319.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 319.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_320" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_320.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 320.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Circular fibulæ are occasionally met with, and these, -like the bowed forms, vary very considerably in design. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> -Sometimes they are flat on the face, and enamelled or -inlaid in different colours. One of the most curious, but -elegant, modifications of the circular form is <a href="#fig_320">fig. 320</a>, where -the ends, which are serpents’ heads, are turned back to the -sides of the body.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Armillæ</span>, or bracelets, are found both in bronze, in silver, -and in gold. They vary very considerably in form. Of -these, one example (<a href="#fig_321">fig. 321</a>) will be sufficient. The pair -here represented are of base silver, and bear evidence of -having been much worn. Examples of analogous type -have been found at Castleford and other places. Other -armlets partake more of the character of torques, torquis, -or collar; and others, again, are simply bars of metal, -twisted in one or more coils, like a spiral spring, around -the wrist.</p> - -<div id="fig_321" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_321.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 321.</p> -</div> - -<p>While speaking of armlets and torques, it may not be -out of place, as I purposely omitted them in the Celtic -division of this work, to say a few words about the latter. -There can be no doubt that the torque was worn both by -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> -the ancient Briton and by his Roman conqueror, and therefore -it is perhaps best, as it is at present not easy to say -which of the known examples are to be attributed to the -earlier and which to the later of these periods, to speak -of them generally under this head.</p> - -<p>The torque, or torquis, is said, by ancient writers, to have -been first used by the Persians and by the nations of -Northern and Western Europe. Virgil describes it as worn -by the Trojans when they came to colonize Italy:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Omnibus in morem tonsa coma pressa corona,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Cornea bina ferunt præfixo hastilia ferro;<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Pars leves humero pharetras; it pectore summo<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Flexilis obtorti per collum circulus auri.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>It is first mentioned in Roman history in the year 360 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, -when Manlius, having torn a torque of gold from the neck -of a vanquished Gaul—here is evidence of its being a -decoration worn by a similar race to our ancient British -population <i>before</i> being spoken of in Roman history—placed -it on his own, and received, from this circumstance, the -name of Torquatus. From this time the practice was -adopted in the wars with the Gauls—the example set by -Torquatus Manlius being frequently followed by the Roman -leaders,—and the torque being adopted as a reward for -military merit. “The Roman writers speak of them as -worn by the Britons; and the Queen of the Iceni, Boadicea, -is described by Dion Cassius as having a torquis of gold -round her neck. This was the metal of which they were -usually made. They consisted of a long piece of gold, -twisted or spiral, doubled back in the form of a short hook -at each end, and then turned into the form of a circle.” -The torque was known to, and worn by, the Egyptians, the -Persians, Persepolitans, the Gauls, and the Britons, as -well as, later on, to the Romans, and it was very usual, as -is evident by the many examples which have been found, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> -with the Irish celts. The most usual forms will be found -engraved in the catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy, the -largest known example measuring five feet seven inches in -length. A remarkably fine example of this type, found on -the borders of Derbyshire and Staffordshire, measures three -feet nine and a quarter inches. Many other varieties are -found, sometimes formed of square bars of gold twisted -spirally, sometimes of flat bars of the same metal twisted -in a lighter manner, and sometimes, again, of more than one -bar twisted together. The ends, too, are of various forms: -sometimes being simply hooks, and at others swelling out -into cup-shaped terminations, and at others partaking of -the form of a serpent’s head, etc. A very remarkable torque, -now belonging to Her Majesty, was found in 1848 in Needwood -Forest, and is here engraved (<a href="#fig_322">fig. 322</a>). It is formed -of eight cords of gold plaited together, and weighs 1 lb. 1 oz. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> -7 dwts. and 10 grains. Another example of a different -character, from Ireland, is here given (<a href="#fig_323">fig. 323</a>).</p> - -<div id="fig_322" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_322.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 322.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_323" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_323.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 323.<br /> -<i>Side View</i></p> -</div> - -<p>It is safer, perhaps, although there is no doubt that -torques were worn by the Romans, to assign them to the -British period than to that of their conquerors. Much, however, -necessarily depends on the remains found with them, -and the locality where discovered.</p> - -<p>Other personal ornaments, and bone and bronze pins, hair-pins, -etc., are occasionally found, but need no special notice -here. Instruments of the toilette, too, are occasionally -discovered. Prominent among these is the mirror, or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> -speculum, which is sometimes found in the graves of Roman -ladies. Among the most interesting of these are some -found in a Roman cemetery at Plymouth. They consist -of a circular plate of polished metal, generally of bronze -set in a frame of the same metal or otherwise, and have a -handle to hold them by. They are of much the same form -as the small handled toilet glasses of the present day. The -back was generally, as in the case of the Plymouth examples, -“ornamented with a considerable quantity of scroll -engraving. The pattern of one of these consists of three -circular figures, the two bottom ones being larger than that -which I take to be the central top one. Although each -circular scroll differs from the others, they are evidently -figured upon one general plan; the lines within, being segments -of circles of various sizes, form crescents with various -modifications. Some portions of the engraving, in order to -give solidity to its character, were filled in with numerous -striated spots, consisting of three lines one way and three -lines at right angles to them. The entire surface of the -mirror was surrounded by a narrow border or rim, which -was formed of a separate piece, and folded over the margin. -This specimen was damaged in many parts, particularly -upon the under surface, and some of the edge was entirely -eaten away, but where the rim was preserved the plate was -not only in good preservation, but not even oxidized, retaining -the bright colour of the bronze as perfectly as when, -probably, in use by its ancient possessor. A second had -the handle attached to it. The handle is cast in one piece -in the form of a loop, having been made by folding one half -back against the other, and securing them in that position -by a band, the two free ends being spread out to hold the -mirror, which is received in a groove, and supported on each -side by a scroll work of bronze, of much of which, although -lost, the impression still remains upon the plate. The -greater diameter of the mirror is eight inches, that of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span> -handle of the duplicate specimen, which is supposed to be -of the same size as the missing handle, is four inches.” -Several of these mirrors have been found in the cemeteries -at Colchester and in other places.</p> - -<p>Combs, both of wood and bone, are also found in the interments, -as are strigils, tweezers, locks and keys of numberless -forms and sizes, remains of small caskets, and a -great many other articles. Of combs I shall say a few -words when speaking of those of the Anglo-Saxon period.</p> - -<p>Horse-shoes of this period are occasionally met with in -interments when the horse has been buried with his rider, -or otherwise. One example, so as to show the form, will -be sufficient. It was found at Gloucester some years ago, -along with the lamp and circular fibulæ here engraved, and -with other relics of the same period. Of the other articles -it will not be necessary to make further mention.</p> - -<div id="fig_324" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_324.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 324. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Anglo-Saxon Period—Distribution of Anglo-Saxon Population over England—General -characteristics of Grave-mounds—Modes of Burial—Poem -of Beowulf—Interments by Cremation and by Inhumation—Articles -deposited with the Dead—Positions of the Body—Double -and other Interments—Burial in Urns—Cemeteries and Barrows.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> grave-mounds and cemeteries of the Anglo-Saxon -period present marked and decided features of difference -to those of either of the preceding periods; and again, -the characters of these mounds and cemeteries vary in -different parts of the kingdom, according as such districts -were inhabited by different tribes or peoples.</p> - -<p>The date usually assigned to the first coming of the -Saxons into England, after the final departure of the -Romans, is the middle of the fifth century. They landed -on the Isle of Thanet, and shortly afterwards established -themselves in Kent, and became a kingdom. “Within -thirty years another body of Saxons settled upon the -south coast of Britain, taking possession of the tract now -called Sussex, or the South Saxons. At the beginning -of the sixth century a third detachment from the same -Germanic family landed further westward, and founded -the kingdom of the West Saxons, in which was included -the Isle of Wight. From the same source which supplies -the brief notices of these events, we learn that -towards the middle of the sixth century were formed the -states of the East and Middle Saxons, in the districts -which, in consequence, took the names of Essex and -Middlesex. We also gather that the Angles who settled -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span> -in the east and north-east of Britain, and in the interior -parts, probably made their first descents towards the -middle of the sixth century; so that the kingdoms known -as those of the East Angles (Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire), -the Middle Angles, the Northumbrians (from -the Humber northwards), and Mercia (on the borders of -Wales), appear not to have been definitely settled until at -least a century after the landing of the Saxons in Kent, -in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 449. Vague and unsatisfactory as are most of the -details of Saxon history, the gradual subjugation of Britain -by successive immigrations of Teutonic tribes may at least -be accepted as the most reconcilable with reason; and there -seems nothing very repugnant to the more rigid rules of -criticism to regard these tribes under their historic designation -of Jutes, Saxons, and Angles; and, further, to believe -that at least a century was required to transform Britain, -after the Romans, into a heptarchy of Teutonic kingdoms.</p> - -<p>“Testing our Saxon antiquities with reference to the -usually received chronology of the advent and settlement -in Britain of the Teutonic tribes, it would be no unimportant -result should they be in accordance with accepted -historical facts. They will be invested with novel and -higher interest if they should be found to carry in their -form and character certain peculiarities which suggest -earlier and later dates, and a diversity of parentage. For -instance, if in the remains of the Kentish Saxons and in -those of the Isle of Wight we may recognise, from close -resemblance to each other, the weapons, the ornaments, -and the domestic implements of the Jutes; if, in the -cemeteries of Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, and Norfolk, we -may, in like manner, identify the funeral usages of the -Angles; and in remains found in the midland and western -districts see still different peculiarities, but which point to -a kindred origin; it is not improbable that discoveries -may enable us to resuscitate, as it were, our remote predecessors; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> -to restore to those of the various Saxon kingdoms -the very objects which accompanied them when -living: to the men, their weapons; to the women, their -peculiar jewellery, and those more humble and homely -objects which we may look upon as emblems of their -domestic virtues. It is not a slight analogy in some -instances only that will establish this theory; it must -spring from the remains themselves, and be palpable and -convincing, or it must be rejected.”<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p> - -<p>Bearing this in mind, and also bearing in mind the -modifications which only a few years make in fashions -and customs; and also bearing in mind that although -for convenience sake, as well as for want of more definite -knowledge, we call the whole population by the one term -of Anglo-Saxons, yet they were divided into as distinct -classes, or families, or tribes, as at the present day; we -shall quite readily understand why the modes of burial, -and the objects found in the graves, of one district are -different from those, although coeval, found in others. -At the present day we use the general term Englishmen -for the whole of our population, and no better or clearer -term could be adopted; but we must bear in mind that the -differences both of appearance, of habits, of customs, of -dialect, nay, of almost everything, are as marked among -us as if the inhabitants of the various counties were each -settlers from different nations. The men of Derbyshire, -for instance, are as far removed as well can be in general -character and in language from those of Somersetshire; -and these, again, are both totally dissimilar from the “Men -of Kent,” from the Lancashire operative, from the Yorkshiremen, -or the men of Devonshire, Hampshire, and -many other counties. Each of these districts has, and -always has had, and long, long may it continue to have! -its own peculiar customs, its own peculiar habits, its own -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> -peculiar observances; and each has what might almost be -termed a <i>nationality</i> of its own, which it holds despite the -levelling influence of railways and other modern contrivances. -If it is so at the present day, with a settled population of so -many centuries’ standing, how much more must it have -been so when each district was peopled by a different tribe -of settlers, speaking to some extent different languages, -holding different views, following different occupations, -and observing different customs!</p> - -<p>The grave-mounds and cemeteries of these different -districts exhibit a marked difference in modes of burial, -in style and decoration of pottery, and in characteristics -of other remains, which will be made apparent in the -following <i>resumé</i> of their varied contents. Thus, as Mr. -Smith says, “in Kent one of the most conspicuous features -in the Saxon sepulchral remains is the richly ornamented -circular fibulæ. These are sparingly found beyond the -district occupied by the earliest Saxon settlers. When -they do occur, here and there, they are exceptions; but -throughout the county of Kent it would be a rare occurrence -to discover a Saxon funeral deposit without an example -of this elegant and peculiar ornament. In Suffolk, -in Norfolk, in Cambridgeshire, in Northamptonshire, in -Leicestershire, and further north, these circular fibulæ do -but casually appear, but others of a totally distinct character -abound. In Berkshire, Oxfordshire, and Gloucestershire -are found saucer-shaped fibulae unlike either of these two -classes, and forming a third variety. In Suffolk, in Cambridgeshire, -in Leicestershire, and in other parts, have -been repeatedly found metal implements or ornaments, -which I have designated by the modern name of <i>chatellaine</i>, -to give some notion of their form and use. These remarkable -objects in no instance have been found in Kent, but -other objects have been found in Kentish barrows which -have nowhere else been discovered.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span></p> - -<p>The sepulchral remains of the Anglo-Saxons are of two -general classes—barrows and cemeteries—and in these the -modes of burial have been both by inhumation and by cremation.</p> - -<p>The grave-mounds, or barrows, are, as a rule, of much less -altitude, and of smaller dimensions, generally, than those -of either of the preceding periods. In some districts they -are found in extensive groups, frequently occupying elevated -sites; at other times they are solitary, and frequently the -elevation above the surrounding surface is so slight as to -be scarcely perceptible except to the most practised eye. -Fortunately the mounds and cemeteries are particularly -rich in remains, and thus enable us to form a clearer idea -of the habits, and manners, and lives of our Saxon forefathers -than we can of their predecessors. In Kent, Sussex, -and the Isle of Wight, Saxon graves abound on the -Downs; and in Derbyshire, Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, -Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, -Norfolk, and Yorkshire, cemeteries of more or less extent -and importance exist, with here and there a solitary barrow, -or a group of barrows. Like their Roman predecessors -the Anglo-Saxons, to some extent, took possession of, -and buried in, the grave-mounds of the Ancient Britons, -and it is not a very unusual occurrence to find overlying -the primary deposit an interment of the Saxon period.</p> - -<p>Fortunately an early Anglo-Saxon poem, recounting the -adventures of the chieftain Beowulf, is preserved to us, and -gives us a valuable and highly graphic and interesting -description of the ceremonies attendant on his burial; the -lighting of the funeral pyre, the burning of the body of the -hero, the raising of the mound over his remains, and the -articles placed beside him in his last home. Dying he</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">bæꝺ̣ þæꞇ ᵹe ᵹe-ƿoꞃhꞇon<br /></span> -<span class="i0">æꝼꞇeꞃ ƿineꞅ ꝺæꝺū<br /></span> -<span class="i0">in bǽl-ꞅꞇeꝺe<br /></span> -<span class="i0">beoꞃh þone heán,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">micelne anꝺ mæꞃne.—<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span></p> - -<p>Which is translated:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“he bad that ye should make,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">according to the deeds of your friend,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">on the place of the funeral pyle,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the lofty barrow<br /></span> -<span class="i1">large and famous.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>His request was carried out, the funeral pile raised, and -every preparation befitting his deeds was made. The pile -was—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“hung round with helmets,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">with boards of war,<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a><br /></span> -<span class="i1">and with bright byrnies,<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a><br /></span> -<span class="i1">as he had requested.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Then the heroes, weeping,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">laid down in the midst<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the famous chieftain,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">their dear lord.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Then began on the hill,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the warriors, to awake<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the mightiest of funeral fires;<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the wood-smoke rose aloft<br /></span> -<span class="i1">dark from the fire;<br /></span> -<span class="i1">noisily it went<br /></span> -<span class="i1">mingled with weeping.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The body of the hero having been consumed by the -wood-fire, in the midst of weeping friends, the people -began to raise the barrow over his ashes. This mound—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“was high and broad,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">by the sailors over the waves<br /></span> -<span class="i1">to be seen afar.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">And they built up<br /></span> -<span class="i1">during ten days<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the beacon of the war-renowned.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">They surrounded it with a wall<br /></span> -<span class="i1">in the most honourable manner<br /></span> -<span class="i1">that wise men<br /></span> -<span class="i1">could desire.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">They put into the mound<br /></span> -<span class="i1">rings and bright gems,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">all such ornaments<br /></span> -<span class="i0"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span></span> -<span class="i1">as before from the hoard<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the fierce-minded men<br /></span> -<span class="i1">had taken;<br /></span> -<span class="i1">they suffered the earth to hold<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the treasure of warriors,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">gold on the earth,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">where it yet remains<br /></span> -<span class="i1">as useless to men<br /></span> -<span class="i1">as it was of old.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>When the burial was simply by inhumation, the body -appears usually to have been placed in a shallow grave, -over which the mound was raised. The graves were of -rectangular form, and of various depths. On the floor of -the grave or pit the body was laid flat on its back, the -arms straight down by its sides, the hands resting on the -pelvis, and the feet close together. It was buried in full -dress, and surrounded by a number of articles pertaining to -the deceased—both personal ornaments, domestic instruments -and vessels, and other things—and that had been -used or valued by him or her. Sometimes the body was -enclosed in a wooden chest or coffin before being placed in -the grave. The grave, in either of these cases, was then -filled in—usually with a tempered or “puddled” earth, -which formed a close and extremely compact mass—and -the mound raised over it. This mound or hillock was called -a <i>hlœw</i>, or a <i>beorh</i>, <i>beorgh</i>, or <i>bearw</i>, from the first of -which the name now commonly used, <i>low</i>, is derived, and -from the last the equally common name <i>barrow</i> originates.</p> - -<div id="fig_325" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_325.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 325.</p> -</div> - -<p>With the females, necklaces, rings, ear-rings, brooches, -chatelaines, keys, buckets, caskets, beads, combs, pins, -needles, bracelets, thread-boxes, tumblers, and a variety of -other articles were found. With the males, swords, spears, -knives, shields, buckles, brooches, querns, draught-men, -etc., etc., are found. The warrior was usually laid, in his -full dress, flat on his back (as already spoken of); his -spears lying on his right side, his sword and knife on his -left, and his shield laid on the centre of his body. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span> -accompanying engraving (<a href="#fig_325">fig. 325</a>) of a grave opened by -the late Mr. Bateman, on Lapwing Hill, will pretty tolerably -illustrate this mode of Anglo-Saxon burial. Beneath -the bones of the skeleton were “traces of light-coloured -hair, as if from a hide, resting upon a considerable quantity -of decayed wood, indicating a plank of some thickness, or -the bottom of a coffin. At the left of the body was a long -and broad iron sword, enclosed in a sheath made of thin -wood covered with ornamental leather. Under or by the -hilt of the sword was a short iron knife, and a little way -above the right shoulder were two small javelin heads, four -and a half inches long, of the same metal, which had lain so -near each other as to become united by corrosion. Among -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span> -the stones which filled the grave, and about a foot from the -bottom, were many objects of corroded iron, including nine -loops of hoop iron (as shown in the engraving) about an inch -broad, which had been fixed to thick wood by long nails; -eight staples, or eyes, which had been driven through a plank, -and clenched; and one or two other objects of more uncertain -application, all which were dispersed at intervals round the -corpse throughout the length of the grave, and which may -therefore have been attached to a bier or coffin in which the -deceased was conveyed to the grave from some distant -place. Indications existed of the shield having been placed -in its usual position over the centre of the body, but no -umbone was in this instance found. The mounds are -usually, as in this instance, very low, frequently not being -raised more than a foot above the natural surface of the -ground. The earth was, as I have stated, usually -“puddled” or tempered with water, and thus the body -in the grave became closely imbedded in a compact and -tenacious mass.”</p> - -<p>That the tempering, or puddling, was accompanied with -some corrosive preparation, there can be little doubt; for it -is a fact, though a very remarkable one, that whilst the -skeletons of the Celtic period are found in good condition, -and in some instances perfect and sound, those of the -Anglo-Saxons have, almost invariably, entirely disappeared. -Thus, in a Celtic barrow, the primary interment of that -period may be found in perfect condition, while the secondary -interment, that of the Anglo-Saxon, although some -centuries later in date, and some three or four feet nearer -the surface, will have decayed away and completely disappeared. -Thus, in a barrow at Wyaston, which had been -raised over the body of a Saxon lady, every indication of -the body had disappeared, with the exception of the enamel -coating of the teeth, while a splendid necklace of beads, a -silver ring, silver ear-rings, and a silver brooch or fibula, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> -remained <i>in situ</i> where the flesh and bones had once been. -Another instance (to which I shall have occasion again to -allude) which may be named, was the barrow at Benty -Grange—a mound not more than two feet in elevation, but -of considerable dimensions, and surrounded by a small -fosse or trench, raised over the remains of a Saxon of high -rank. In this mound, although a curious and unique helmet, -the silver mountings of a leather drinking-cup, some -highly interesting and beautiful enamelled ornaments, and -other objects, as well as indications of the garments, remained, -not a vestige of the body, with the exception of some of the -hair, was to be seen. The lovely and delicate form of the -female and the form of the stalwart warrior or noble had -alike returned to their parent earth, leaving no trace behind, -save the enamel of <i>her</i> teeth and traces of <i>his</i> hair alone, -while the ornaments they wore and took pride in, and the -surroundings of their stations, remained to tell their tale at -this distant date. In a barrow at Tissington, in which the -primary (Celtic) interment was perfect, the later Saxon one -had entirely disappeared, while the sword and umbone of -the shield remained as they had been placed.</p> - -<p>The mode of interment with the funeral fire, as well as -the raising of the barrow, is curiously illustrated by the -opening of two Saxon graves at Winster. A large wood -fire had, apparently, been made upon the natural surface of -the ground. In this a part of the stones to be used for -covering the body, and some of the weapons of the deceased, -were burned. After the fire was exhausted the body -was laid on the spot where it had been kindled, the spear, -sword, or what not, placed about it, and the stones which -had been burnt piled over it. The soil was then heaped up -to the required height to form the mound.</p> - -<p>Usually, of course, the graves contain only one body, but -instances occasionally occur in which two or more bodies -have been buried at the same time. For instance, at Ozengal -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> -a grave has been opened which was found to contain two -skeletons. They were those of a man and a woman who -were laid close together, side by side, with their faces to -each other. In another were three skeletons, those of a -man, a woman, and a little girl. The lady lay in the middle, -her husband on her right hand, and their little daughter on -her left; they lay arm in arm. In other cases two or more -interments have been found, usually lying side by side, on -their backs.</p> - -<p>In many Anglo-Saxon barrows, bones, thrown in indiscriminate -heaps or otherwise, are found at the top, over the -original interments. These are, very plausibly, conjectured -to be the remains of slaves or captives slain at the funeral, -and thrown on the graves of their master or mistress.</p> - -<p>When the burial has been by cremation, the ashes, after -the burning of the body which is so graphically described -in the extract I have given from Beowulf, were collected together -and placed in urns. These were usually buried in -small graves, and their mouths not unfrequently covered -with flat stones. Some very extensive cemeteries where -the burials have been by this mode, have been discovered -in Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, Northamptonshire, and -other counties. With these it is very unusual to find any -remains of personal ornaments or weapons. Two extensive -and remarkable cemeteries of this kind have been discovered -at Kingston and at King’s Newton, both near Derby. -At the first of these places an extensive cemetery was uncovered -in 1844, and resulted in the exhumation of a large -number of urns—indeed, so large a number that, unfortunately, -at least two hundred were totally destroyed by the -workmen before the fact of the discovery became known. On -the surface no indication of burials existed; but as the ground -had, some sixty years before, for a long period been under -plough cultivation, and as the mounds would originally have -been very low, this is not remarkable. The urns had been -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span> -placed on the ground in shallow pits or trenches. They -were filled with burnt bones, and the mouth of each had -been covered with a flat stone. They were, when found, -close to the surface, so that the mounds could only have -been slightly elevated when first formed. Of the form of the -urns I shall have to speak later on. The cemetery at -King’s Newton was discovered during the autumn of 1867, -and a large number of fragmentary urns were exhumed. -The mode of interment was precisely similar to that at -Kingston, and the urns were of the same character as those -there discovered. There were no traces, in either instance, -of mounds having been raised, although most probably they -had originally existed. To the pottery found in these cemeteries -I shall refer later on. Cremation was the predominating -practice among the Angles, including Mercia, and -the modes of burning the body, and of interment of the calcined -bones in ornamental urns, which I have described in -the two cemeteries just spoken of, are characteristic of that -kingdom. King’s Newton is within three miles of Repton -(Repandune), the capital of the kingdom of Mercia, and the -burial place of Mercian kings, and Kingston is also but a -few miles distant.</p> - -<p>In some cases the burial has been without urns—the -ashes being simply gathered together in a small heap in -the grave, or on the surface, and the mound raised over it.</p> - -<p>I will now, as in the previous divisions, proceed to speak -of the more usual descriptions of relics which are found in -the grave-mounds of the Anglo-Saxons, and I will, as in -those divisions, commence with the fictile remains. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Anglo-Saxon Period—Pottery, general characteristics of—Cinerary -Urns—Saxon Urn with Roman Inscription—Frankish and other Urns—Cemeteries -at King’s Newton, etc.—Mode of Manufacture—Impressed -Ornaments.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> pottery of the Anglo-Saxon period, so far as examples -have come down to us, are almost, if not -entirely, confined to sepulchral urns. We know, from the -illuminated MSS. of the period, to which we are accustomed -to turn for information upon almost any point, that -other vessels—pitchers, dishes, etc.—were made and used, -but for those which have come down to us we are indebted -to the grave-mounds; and, in these, sepulchral vessels, -almost exclusively, are found to occur. Cinerary urns are, -therefore, almost the only known productions of the Saxon -potteries, and these, like those of the Celtic period, were -doubtless, in most cases, made near the spot where the -burial took place, and were formed of the clays of the -neighbourhood. This is proved, incontestably, in the case -of the urns found at King’s Newton, where the bed of clay -still exists, and has very recently been used for common -pottery purposes.</p> - -<div id="fig_326" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_326.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 326.</p> -</div> - -<p>The shapes of the cinerary urns are somewhat peculiar, -and partake largely of the Frankish form. Instead of being -wide at the mouth, like the Celtic urns, they are contracted, -and have a kind of neck instead of the overhanging lip or -rim which characterizes so much of the sepulchral pottery -of that period. The urns are formed by hand, not on the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span> -wheel, like so many of the Romano-British period, and -they are, as a rule, perhaps, more firmly fired than the -Celtic ones. They are usually of a dark-coloured clay, -sometimes nearly black, at other times they are dark -brown, and occasionally of a slate or greenish tint, produced -by surface colouring. The general form of these -interesting fictile vessels will be best understood by reference -to the engravings which follow. One of these (on -<a href="#fig_326">fig. 326</a>) will be seen to have projecting knobs or bosses, -which have been formed by simply pressing out the pliant -clay from the inside with the hand. In other examples -these raised bosses take the form of ribs gradually swelling -out from the bottom, till, at the top they expand into semi-egg-shaped -protuberances. The ornamentation on the -urns from these cemeteries usually consists of encircling -incised lines in bands or otherwise, and vertical or zigzag -lines arranged in a variety of ways, and not unfrequently -the knobs or protuberances of which I have just spoken. -Sometimes, also, they present evident attempts at imitation -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span> -of the Roman egg-and-tongue ornament. The marked -features of the pottery of this period are the frequency of -small punctured or impressed ornaments, which are introduced -along with the lines or bands with very good effect. -These ornaments were evidently produced by the end of a -stick cut and notched across in different directions so as to -produce crosses and other patterns. In some districts—especially -in the East Angles—these vessels are ornamented -with simple patterns painted upon their surface in white; -but so far as my knowledge goes, no example of this kind -of decoration has been found in the Mercian cemeteries.</p> - -<p>Of these urns—the East Anglian, etc.—Mr. Wright (to -whom, and to Mr. Roach Smith, is mainly due the credit of -having correctly appropriated them to the Anglo-Saxon -period), thus speaks:—</p> - -<p>“The pottery is usually made of a rather dark clay, -coloured outside brown or dark slate colour, which has -sometimes a tint of green, and is sometimes black. These -urns appear often to have been made with the hand, -without the employment of the lathe; the texture of the -clay is rather coarse, and they are rarely well baked. The -favourite ornaments are bands of parallel lines encircling -the vessel, or vertical and zigzags, sometimes arranged -in small bands, and sometimes on a larger scale covering -half the elevation of the urn; and in this latter case -the spaces are filled up with small circles and crosses, -and other marks, stamped or painted in white. Other -ornaments are met with, some of which are evidently -unskilful attempts at imitating the well-known egg-and-tongue -and other ornaments of the Roman Samian ware, -which, from the specimens, and even fragments, found in -their graves, appear to have been much admired and -valued by the Anglo-Saxons. But a still more characteristic -peculiarity of the pottery of the Anglo-Saxon burial -urns consists in raised knobs or bosses, arranged symmetrically -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> -round them, and sometimes forming a sort of ribs, -while in the ruder examples they become mere round -lumps, or even present only a slight swelling of the surface -of the vessel.</p> - -<div id="fig_327" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_327.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 327.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_328" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_328.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 328.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_329" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_329.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 329.</p> -</div> - -<p>“That these vessels belong to the early Anglo-Saxon -period is proved beyond any doubt by the various objects, -such as arms, personal ornaments, etc., which are found -with them, and they present evident imitations both of -Roman forms and of Roman ornamentation. But one of -these urns has been found accompanied with remarkable -circumstances, which not only show its relative date, but -illustrate a fact in the ethnological history of this early -period. Among the Faussett collection of Anglo-Saxon -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> -antiquities is an urn which Bryan Faussett appears to have -obtained from North Elmham, in Norfolk, and which contained -the bones of a child. It is represented in the -accompanying engraving (<a href="#fig_327">fig. 327</a>), and will be seen at -once to be perfectly identical in character with the East -Anglian sepulchral urns. But Mr. Roach Smith, in examining -the various objects in the Faussett collection, -preparatory to his edition of Bryan Faussett’s ‘<i>Inventorum -Sepulchrale</i>,’ discovered on one side of this urn a Roman -sepulchral inscription, which is easily read as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>D. M.</td> - <td>‘To the gods of the shades.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>LAELIAE</td> - <td>To Lælia</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>RVFINAE</td> - <td>Rufina.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>VIXIT·A·XIII</td> - <td>She lived thirteen years,</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>M·III·D·VI.</td> - <td>three months, and six days.’</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>To this Roman girl, with a purely Roman name, belonged, -no doubt, the few bones which were found in the Anglo-Saxon -burial urn when Bryan Faussett received it, and -this circumstance illustrates several important as well as -interesting questions relating to our early history. It -proves, in the first place, what no judicious historian now -doubts, that the Roman population remained in the island -after the withdrawal of the Roman power, and mixed with -the Anglo-Saxon conquerors; that they continued to retain -for some time at least their old manners and language, and -even their Paganism and their burial ceremonies, for this -is the purely Roman form of sepulchral inscriptions; and -that, with their own ceremonies, they buried in the common -cemetery of the new Anglo-Saxon possessors of the land, -for this urn was found in an Anglo-Saxon burial ground. -This last circumstance had already been suspected by antiquaries, -for traces of Roman interment in the well-known -Roman leaden coffins had been found in the Anglo-Saxon -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span> -cemetery at Ozingell, in the Isle of Thanet; and other -similar discoveries have, I believe, been made elsewhere. -The fact of this Roman inscription on an Anglo-Saxon -burial urn, found immediately in the district of the Anglo-Saxon -cemeteries, which have produced so many of these -East Anglian urns, proves further that these urns belong to -a period following immediately upon the close of what we -call the Roman period.”</p> - -<p>The sepulchral vases found in the district of the middle -Angles vary but slightly in form from the East Anglian -burial urns. An example is given in <a href="#fig_328">fig. 328</a>, from Chestersovers, -in Warwickshire, where it was found with an iron -sword, a spear-head, and other articles of Anglo-Saxon -character.</p> - -<p>“If we had not abundant proofs of the Anglo-Saxon -character of this pottery at home,” continues Mr. Wright, -“we should find sufficient evidences of it among the remains -of the kindred tribes on the Continent, the old Germans, or -Alemanni, and the Franks. Some years ago an early -cemetery, belonging to the Germans, or Alemanni, who -then occupied the banks of the Upper Rhine, was discovered -near a hamlet called Selzen, on the northern bank of that -river, not far above Mayence, and the rather numerous objects -found in it are, I believe, preserved in the Mayence -Museum. They were communicated to the public by the -brothers Lindenschmit, in a well-illustrated volume published -in 1848, under the title ‘<i>Das Germanische Todtenlager bei -Selzen in der Provinz Reinhessen</i>.’ When this book appeared -in England, our antiquaries were astonished to find in -the objects discovered in the Alemannic cemeteries of the -country bordering on the Rhine a character entirely identical -with that of their own Anglo-Saxon antiquities, by which -the close affinity of the two races was strikingly illustrated. -More recently, the subject has been further illustrated in -the description by Ludwig Lindenschmit of the collection -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> -of the national antiquities in the Ducal Museum of -Hohenzollern, and in other publications. About the same -time with the first labours of the Lindenschmits, a French -antiquary, Dr. Rigollot, was calling attention in France to -similar discoveries in the cemeteries which the Teutonic -invaders of Picardy had left behind them, and in which he -recognized the same character as that displayed by the similar -remains of the Anglo-Saxons in our island. Similar discoveries -have been made in Burgundy and in Switzerland, -the ancient country of the Helvetii; and it is hardly necessary -here to do more than mention the great and valuable researches -carried on by the Abbé Cochet among the Frankish -graves in Normandy. It has thus become an established -fact that the varied remains of the tribes, all of Teutonic -descent, who settled on the borders of the Roman empire -along the whole extent of the country from Great Britain -to Switzerland, present the same character and bear a close -resemblance.”</p> - -<p>A few figures will be sufficient to illustrate this resemblance -as far as regards the pottery, and these are here -given, in which figs. <a href="#fig_330">330</a> and <a href="#fig_332">332</a> are Alemannic vases from -the cemetery of Selzen. It will be seen that they resemble -exactly in form those East Anglian urns we have given in -our plate, and the same ornamentation is also found among -our Anglo-Saxon pottery. These urns are described as -being usually made of the clay of the neighbourhood, in -most cases turned on a lathe, but many of them imperfectly -baked. They are found in graves where the body had not -undergone cremation, and were used for containing articles -of a miscellaneous description. In one grave, at the feet -of the skeleton of a gigantic warrior, was found one of these -urns, containing two bronze fibulæ, a comb, a number of -beads, a pair of shears, flints and steel, and a bronze ring. -<a href="#fig_334">Fig. 334</a> is an urn procured at Cologne, and is slate-coloured, -with an ornament of circular stamps. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span></p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_330" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_330.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 330.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_331" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_331.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 331.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_332" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_332.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 332.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_333" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_333.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 333.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_334" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_334.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 334.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Figs. <a href="#fig_331">331</a> and <a href="#fig_333">333</a> are Frankish urns obtained by the -Abbé Cochet from Londinières in Normandy, and show at -a glance the identity of the Frankish pottery with the Germanic -as well as with the Anglo-Saxon. The first of these -is surrounded with a row of the well-known bosses, which are -equally characteristic of the three divisions of this Teutonic -pottery, Anglo-Saxon, Frankish, and Alemannic. Above -these bosses is an ornament identical with that of the East -Anglian urn with the sepulchral inscription, given on <a href="#fig_327">fig. -327</a>. The urn represented in <a href="#fig_331">fig. 331</a> has an ornament -which is evidently an imitation of the egg-and-tongue ornament -so common on the Roman pottery. The Abbé Cochet -collected in the course of his excavations in Normandy -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span> -several hundreds of these Frankish urns, which all present -the same general character.</p> - -<p>The next four examples are earthen vessels found in the -lacustrine habitations of Switzerland, of which so much -has been written during the last few years. Figs. <a href="#fig_335">335</a>, <a href="#fig_336">336</a>, -and <a href="#fig_337">337</a>, are taken from the plates illustrative of the communications -of Dr. Ferdinand Keller to the <i>Transactions</i> -of the Antiquarian Society of Zurich, and <a href="#fig_338">fig. 338</a>, also from -the Zurich <i>Transactions</i>, and found in a Pfahlbau, near -Allensbach on the Untersee, on the borders of Switzerland -and Germany. A single glance will show a great similarity -of form with those of the Anglo-Saxons from our own -country.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_339" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_339.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 339.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_340" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_340.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 340.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The following engravings will exhibit a striking variety -of cinerary urns of the Anglo-Saxon period, from the -Mercian cemetery at King’s Newton. <a href="#fig_339">Fig. 339</a> is six and -a quarter inches in height. It is ornamented with encircling -bands or lines and impressed ornaments. In the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> -upper band is a series of small circular indentations, with -a dot in the centre of each, and in the lower band are three -rows of dots. Between these bands is a series of indented -crosses, which may be described as in some degree approaching -to crosses <i>patée</i> in form. At the bottom are -also small square indentations, with diagonal lines. <a href="#fig_342">Fig. 342</a> -is seven inches in height. It is ornamented with encircling -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span> -lines, the central band bearing a double row of dots; the -band at the bottom of the neck a series of small indented -quatre-foil flowers; and the lower one a series of square indentations -with diagonal lines. <a href="#fig_341">Fig. 341</a> is one of the -most elaborately ornamented urns which has ever been discovered.<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> -The remainder of the examples vary from these -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> -and from each other, in point both of form and decoration. -Some of these have herring-bone lines, others simple punctures, -and others, again, encircling lines only. The marked -features of the pottery of this period is the frequency of -small punctured or impressed ornaments, which are introduced -along with the lines or bands, with very good effect. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> -These ornaments were evidently produced by the end of a -stick, cut and notched across in different directions, so as to -produce crosses and other patterns, and by twisted slips of -metal, etc. In the annexed woodcut I have endeavoured to -show two of the notched stick “punches,” such as I have -reason to believe were used for pressing into the soft clay, -and also two of the impressed patterns produced by it.</p> - -<div id="fig_335" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_335.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Figs. 335.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_336" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_336.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Figs. 336.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_337" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_337.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Figs. 337.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_338" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_338.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Figs. 338.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_341" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_341.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 341.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_342" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_342.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 342.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_343" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_343.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 343.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_344" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_344.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 344.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_345" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_345.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 345.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_346" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_346.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 346.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_347" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_347.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 347.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_348" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_348.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 348.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_349" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_349.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 349.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_350" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_350.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 350.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_351" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_351.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 351.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_352" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_352.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 352.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Other varieties of pottery found in the Anglo-Saxon -graves are a species of cup, and upright vessels, one of -which is shown on <a href="#fig_327">fig. 327</a>. Fragments of pitchers have -also occasionally been found, as also have portions of -coarse dishes. In the Kentish graves, most of the pottery -is of the Roman period, and consists of Samian pateræ -and other vessels of that manufacture; and cups, etc., of -the Upchurch and Castor wares, etc. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Anglo-Saxon Period—Glass Vessels—Drinking-glasses—Tumblers—Ale-glasses—Beads—Necklaces—Ear-rings—Coins, -etc.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> glass vessels found in the grave-mounds of the -Anglo-Saxon period are principally drinking-cups of -different forms, and decanter-shaped vessels, which are -closely analogous in shape to our common glass toilet -water-bottles. The Anglo-Saxons are supposed by most -writers to have derived their knowledge of the art of glass-making -from their Roman predecessors, but of this more -proof is wanting. So very different in most of its characteristics -is the Saxon glass from the Roman, that it -is difficult to believe that the one is but an imitation of -the other. The forms are in many instances similar to -those found in Frankish graves, and it is certain that the -art was practised simultaneously in the Saxon period in -Germany, France, and our own country. The drinking-cups -of glass were formed either rounded or pointed at -the bottom, so that they could not stand, and thus when -filled the liquor was obliged to be drunk off before the -cup could be set down inverted on the table. From this -circumstance our modern name for drinking-glasses—<i>tumblers</i>—takes -its origin, although not now in the original -sense, our present “tumblers” being particularly safe and -firm when set on the table, and not necessitating the whole -of the contents being quaffed at once. Figs. <a href="#fig_353">353</a> and <a href="#fig_354">354</a> -exhibit two drinking-glasses of this kind, the first of which -is ribbed. They are from the Kentish graves. <a href="#fig_355">Fig. 355</a> is -a glass cup from Cow-Low, Derbyshire, found by the late -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span> -Mr. Bateman, and which, from the care which had been -taken in enclosing it in a wooden box, must have been no -little prized by the deceased lady. The cup, of thick green -glass, a bone comb, some small instruments of iron, a piece -of perforated bone, and a necklace with pendant ornaments, -with other articles, were found enclosed in a box, or casket, -made of ash wood, half an inch in thickness, with two -hinges and a small lock, which had, when placed in the -grave, been carefully wrapped in woollen cloth. The interment -was in many respects a highly interesting one. -A cup of similar form is shown on <a href="#fig_358">fig. 358</a>, and other examples -of glasses are shown on the same group.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_353" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_353.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 353.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_354" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_354.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 354.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_355" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_355.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 355.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_356" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_356.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 356.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_357" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_357.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 357.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_358" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_358.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 358. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span></p> -</div> - -<p>These examples, it will be seen, must have been held in -the open palms of the hand, as is seen so frequently represented -in illuminations, and must have been emptied of -their contents before being returned, inverted, to the board.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_359" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_359.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 359.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_360" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_360.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 360.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Another form, figs. <a href="#fig_356">356</a> and <a href="#fig_357">357</a>, is the long ale-glass, -the shape of which is probably derived from the drinking-horns -which were in use. They, and other of the Saxon -glasses, were often ornamented with a raised thread or -band on their outer surface, arranged either spirally or -otherwise. In <i>Beowulf</i> these glasses are spoken of—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Þeᵹn nẏꞇꞇe beheolꝺ<br /></span> -<span class="i0">ꞅe þeon hanꝺa bœꞃ<br /></span> -<span class="i0">hꞃoꝺen ealo-ƿæᵹe.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“The Thane observed his office,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">he that in his hand bare<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the twisted ale-cup.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>This form of glass is well illustrated in the next engraving, -<a href="#fig_359">fig. 359</a>, from a MS. of the twelfth century. In it the cup-bearer -holds the glass in one hand and the jug in the other, -from which he has just filled it. As an accompaniment to -this I give another engraving, which shows the cellarer -with the barrels and two large earthenware pitchers, which, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span> -it will be observed, are ornamented in precisely the same -manner as some of the urns I have engraved. Another -excellent example of the use of these glasses at a banquet -is shown on <a href="#fig_361">fig. 361</a>, where a mixed company of males and -females are seated at a banquet, and pledging each other in -them. It is from the Cottonian MSS. in the British -Museum.</p> - -<div id="fig_361" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_361.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 361.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_362" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_362.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 362.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_363" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_363.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 363.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The next two figures (<a href="#fig_362">362</a> and <a href="#fig_363">363</a>) show two of the decanter-shaped -vessels to which I have alluded, and figs. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> -<a href="#fig_364">364</a>, <a href="#fig_365">365</a>, and <a href="#fig_366">366</a> again exhibit a different variety—one in -which the ornament is formed of a number of what may -almost be called handles—hollow protuberances, or claws, -attached at the upper and lower ends. Many specimens -of these curious glasses have been found in graves in -different districts.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_365" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_365.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 365.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_364" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_364.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 364.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_366" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_366.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 366.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_367" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_367.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 367.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_368" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_368.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 368.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_369" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_369.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 369.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Among the most profuse of Anglo-Saxon remains are the -beads and necklaces of glass, of amber, and of other materials, -many of which are of extreme beauty. The greater -part of the beads which are found are composed of glass, -transparent and opaque; variegated clays of different -colours; and of amber. Less frequently beads of amethystine -quartz, of crystal, and of other rare natural substances -are found. Sometimes the beads are formed singly, -and at other times they are in couplets or triplets. Beads -of metal—gold and silver—and of stones set in the same -precious metals, have also been exhumed. Beads mounted -on rings, or, more properly speaking, threaded on rings, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> -are of not unfrequent occurrence, and appear, in many -instances, to have been intended for the ears. The three -engravings (figs. <a href="#fig_367">367</a>, <a href="#fig_368">368</a>, and <a href="#fig_369">369</a>) will serve as examples -of beads. The first, engraved full size, is of glass, and is -ornamented with red, white, and yellow waves. The other -two are of clay, with yellow stripes. They are from Sibertswold. -The beads from the Kentish barrows are perhaps -the most extensive in number, as well as the most varied -in form, material, and ornamentation, of any. The next -illustration (<a href="#fig_370">fig. 370</a>) shows a series of twenty-seven beads, -which formed the necklace of an Anglo-Saxon lady, whose -grave was opened by Mr. Bateman at Wyaston. In this -barrow, which was thirty-three feet in diameter, and four -feet high in the centre, were discovered the remains of a -human skeleton, consisting merely of the enamel crowns of -the teeth, which, though themselves but scanty mementoes -of female loveliness, were accompanied by several articles -indicating that the deceased was not unaccustomed to add -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> -the ornaments of dress to the charms of nature. These -comprise a handsome necklace of twenty-seven beads, a -silver finger-ring, silver ear-rings, and a circular brooch or -fibula. Five of the beads are of amber, carefully rounded -into a globular shape, the largest an inch diameter; the -remaining twenty-two (two of which are broken) are mostly -small, and made of porcelain or opaque glass, very prettily -variegated with blue, yellow, or red, on a white or red -ground. The finger-ring is made of thick silver wire, -twisted into an ornamental knot at the junction of the ends. -The ear-rings are too slight and fragmentary for description. -The fibula is a circular ring, ribbed on the front, an inch -and a half diameter, composed of a doubtful substance. -The remains of the teeth show the person to have been -rather youthful, and afford another instance of the extreme -decay of the skeleton usual in Saxon deposits in this part of -the country, whilst those which we have reason to reckon -centuries more ancient are mostly well preserved. Rings -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span> -of silver, with cylindrical, or globular, or flattened beads -attached, are of common occurrence in the Kentish and -other graves. Of pendants I shall speak a little later on.</p> - -<div id="fig_370" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_370.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 370.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_371" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_371.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 371.</p> -</div> - -<p>Coins have only occasionally been discovered with Anglo-Saxon -interments, and these have, in most instances, been -of the preceding Roman period. Byzantine, Frankish, -and Merovingian coins have likewise been found in the -graves. Coins, to which loops are attached, so as to be -worn as personal ornaments, are also found. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Anglo-Saxon Period—Arms—Swords—Knives—Spears—Shields—Umbones -of Shields—Buckles—Helmets—Benty-Grange Tumulus—The -Sacred Boar—Grave at Barlaston—Enamelled Discs and pendant -Ornaments, etc.—Horse Shoes.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> arms of the Anglo-Saxons, so far as is known from -the contents of their graves, consisted of swords, -spears, knives, shields, daggers, etc., and occasionally -with the men, besides these things, are found remains of -helmets, ornaments from horse-trappings, buckles, axes, -and many other articles.</p> - -<p>The swords are straight-bladed, usually double-edged, with -hilts of metal or wood. The scabbards were sometimes of -wood, sometimes of leather, and sometimes again of bronze, -and are often elaborately ornamented at the chape. The -sword here engraved (<a href="#fig_372">fig. 372</a>) was found in a barrow at -Tissington, in Derbyshire. It had originally been enclosed -in a wooden scabbard or sheath, which had apparently been -covered with leather, and mounted with ornamented silver. -Most of this ornamentation was decayed and lost, but -sufficient remained to show that the sword had been of no -ordinary beauty and value, and must have belonged to -some person of note. The traces of silver ornamentation -at the head are indicated on the engraving. The chape, -which is simply rounded, is of silver, and the rivets still -remain, as do also those by which the leather was attached -to the wood. The sword is thirty-four inches in length, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> -and two inches and a half in breadth. Across its upper -part lay a small fragment of the shield, and near it, spread -about, were a few pieces of iron, some of which, when -joined together, proved to be a spear-head of the usual form -of the period. It had doubtless been broken and disturbed -at the time when the bones were dispersed by the planting -of the trees.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_372" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_372.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 372.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_373" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_373.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 373.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_374" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_374.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 374.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_375" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_375.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 375.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>A remarkably fine sword (<a href="#fig_373">fig. 373</a>) was found in 1868 at -Grimsthorpe. It is of iron, and remains encased in its -bronze scabbard in a more perfect state than usual. The -extreme length of the sword and scabbard, from pommel -to chape, is thirty-one inches; the length of the scabbard -from guard to point of chape, twenty-four inches. The -breadth at the mouth is one inch and seven-eighths. The -guard is of bronze, and is engraved on <a href="#fig_374">fig. 374</a>. The scabbard -is formed of thin plate bronze, and has an encircling -band of the same material to hold the upper points of the -chape to its sides. The length of the chape from the band -is six inches and a half. The chape, which is exquisitely -formed, is engraved on <a href="#fig_375">fig. 375</a>, and will be seen to be of -unusual beauty. It is in a remarkably perfect condition, -and, being formed of bronze (the scabbards of the period to -which it belongs being usually of wood with metal chape -and fittings), is of great rarity and interest. The chape -had been set with six small, and one large, stones, as will -be seen by the engraving. Some of these, which were -probably garnets, were remaining. They had been affixed -to their places by small rivets passing through their centres. -A series of fifteen examples of Anglo-Saxon swords (figs. -<a href="#fig_376">376</a> to <a href="#fig_381">390</a>) from illuminated MSS., etc., are here given for -purposes of comparison. Some of these will be found to be -of precisely similar form to those already given, and others, -again, have trefoiled pommels. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span></p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_376" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_376.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 376.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_377" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_377.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 377.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_378" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_378.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 378.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_379" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_379.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 379.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_380" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_380.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 380.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_381" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_381.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Figs. 381 to 390. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span></p> -</div> - -<p>A good figure of a swordsman, with sword and shield, -is also given on the next figure (<a href="#fig_391">fig. 391</a>).</p> - -<div id="fig_391" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_391.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 391.</p> -</div> - -<p>Swords with ornamental pommels and hilts are of rare -occurrence, but examples occur in the Faussett and other -collections. Probably those with ornamented hilts would -also have their chapes correspondingly ornamented. In -<i>Beowulf</i> occur these lines:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“When he did off from himself<br /></span> -<span class="i1">his iron coat of mail,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the helmet from his head,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">gave his ornamented sword,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the costliest of irons,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">to his servant.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span></p> - -<p>And again:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">anꝺ þa hilꞇ ꞅomoꝺ<br /></span> -<span class="i0">ꞅince páᵹe.<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">(“And with it the hilt<br /></span> -<span class="i2">variegated with treasure.”)<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>A remarkable hilt, bearing an inscription in Runic characters, -was found at Ash, in Kent. It is of silver. On one -side is the Runic inscription engraved in the metal, on the -other a zigzag and other ornaments. A hilt of this kind -must undoubtedly have been the one so graphically described -in <i>Beowulf</i>, where a sword, inscribed with the -name of its first owner and with other matters of extreme -interest, is “looked upon” and pondered over. The passage -is thus:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“He looked upon the hilt,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the old legacy,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">on which was written the origin<br /></span> -<span class="i1">of the ancient contest;<br /></span> -<span class="i1">after the flood slew,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the pouring ocean,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the race of giants;<br /></span> -<span class="i1">daringly they behaved;<br /></span> -<span class="i1">that was a strange race<br /></span> -<span class="i1">to the eternal Lord,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">therefore to them their last reward<br /></span> -<span class="i1">through floods of water<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the ruler gave.<br /></span> -<span class="i1">So was on the surface<br /></span> -<span class="i1">of the bright gold<br /></span> -<span class="i1">with Runic letters<br /></span> -<span class="i1">rightly marked,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">set and said,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">for whom that sword,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the costliest of irons,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">was first made,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">with twisted hilt and variegated like a snake.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The runes on the hilt first spoken of and engraved -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> -would doubtless, if properly translated, tell as pleasant and -as interesting a story as the one narrated by Beowulf.</p> - -<div id="fig_392" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_392.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Figs. 392 to 396.</p> -</div> - -<p>The knife or dagger (the <i>seax</i>), which is of iron, is of -different forms. The most usual shapes are given on -figs. <a href="#fig_392">392</a> to <a href="#fig_392">396</a>. The larger were used for war purposes, the -smaller for domestic purposes—the Saxon carrying his own -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> -knife with him for his food, attached to his belt, both at -home and to the banquets of his friends. The <i>seax</i>, as a -weapon, is frequently alluded to in <i>Beowulf</i>: thus, when -<i>Beowulf</i> and the Mother of Grendal, the fiend, were struggling -together:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“She beset then the hall-guest,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">and drew her <i>seax</i>,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">broad, brown-edged.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>And in another part, when Beowulf was fighting with the -dragon, after having broken his sword in the contest, he</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Drew his deadly <i>seax</i>,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">bitter and battle-sharp,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">that he on his birnie<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> bore.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>Spear and javelin heads are of frequent occurrence; they -are of iron, and, although varying considerably, both in size -and shape, they all bear a strong and marked resemblance -to each other, and have sockets. Their “peculiarity is a -longitudinal slit in the socket which received the wooden -handle or staff, and which, after being fixed, was closed -with iron rings, string-braided, and rivets.”<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> Examples are -given in figs. <a href="#fig_333">333</a> to <a href="#fig_397">403</a>, and again on <a href="#fig_404">fig. 404</a>. In interments -the spear usually lies by the right side of the -skeleton, where the position of the shaft may be traced by a -line of decayed wood; at the bottom a metal ferule or ring -is sometimes found. The axe is usually of the form here -shown, and is of iron. It will be seen how closely some -of these resemble the forms found depicted by Anglo-Saxon -artists in the MSS. of the period, a selection from which -is here given.</p> - -<div id="fig_397" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_397.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Figs. 397 to 403.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_404" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_404.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 404.</p> -</div> - -<p>The shield appears to have been made of wood, and to -have been circular in form. It was frequently covered with -leather, and sometimes with thin sheets of bronze. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> -boss or umbone was of various forms and sizes, as will be -shortly shown. The wood of which the shield was composed -appears from Beowulf to have been that of the linden -tree:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“He seized his shield,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the yellow linden-wood.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The shield was often called a “war-board;” and we learn -that Beowulf, when he was preparing to encounter the fire-dragon, -knowing that a wooden shield would be no proof -against fire, ordered one “all of iron” to be made for him:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Then commanded he to be made for him<br /></span> -<span class="i1">the refuge of warriors,<br /></span> -<span class="i1"><i>all of iron,</i><br /></span> -<span class="i1">the lord of eorls,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">a wondrous <i>war-board</i>;<br /></span> -<span class="i1">he knew right well<br /></span> -<span class="i1">that him forest wood<br /></span> -<span class="i1">might not help,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">linden-wood against fire.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>One of the most remarkable remains of shields which has -been brought to light is the one at Grimsthorpe,<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> where, on -the breast of the skeleton, lay a mass of decayed wood, a -quantity of ferruginous dust—probably the remains of the -handle and inside fittings of the shield—and remains of -decomposed leather. On these lay two thin plates of bronze, -and the umbone or boss of the same metal, which had formed -the outer covering of the “war-board.” These two plates -and the umbone are engraved on <a href="#fig_405">fig. 405</a>. The discs or plates -of bronze are little thicker than ordinary writing-paper. -They each measure twelve and a half inches from point -to point, and are three and three quarter inches in width -in the middle. They have a raised border of curious -design around their outer edge, and they have been, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span> -like the boss, attached to the shield by pins or rivets. -The boss is of very unusual form, and has been attached -to the shield by rivets or pins; it is ornamented -with engraved lines. From this curious discovery it would -appear that this warrior of the Yorkshire Wolds bore a -shield formed of wood and covered with leather; that it -was faced with plates of bronze, and had a bronze umbone; -and that the handle, and probably the strengthening bars, -on the inner side were of iron.</p> - -<div id="fig_405" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_405.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 405.</p> -</div> - -<p>Many handles of iron, belonging to shields, have been -found in the Kentish and other barrows. The shield, in -interments, was usually placed flat on the centre of the -body, as shown on <a href="#fig_325">fig. 325</a>.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_406" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_406.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 406.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_407" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_407.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 407.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_408" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_408.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 408.</p> -</div> - -<p>The umbone or boss of the shield was, as I have said, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> -of various forms. The most usual shapes are, perhaps, -those here given from Kentish graves (figs. <a href="#fig_406">406</a> and <a href="#fig_407">407</a>), -and <a href="#fig_408">fig. 408</a>, from Tissington, where it was found along -with the sword before described (<a href="#fig_372">fig. 372</a>). This extremely -interesting relic, which is among the largest ever found, -measures nine inches in height. It is, of course, of iron, -and is of the same type as one found at Sibertswold, which -is engraved in the “<i>Inventorum Sepulchrale</i>.” The texture -of cloth in which it had been enfolded when placed by the -body of the hero by whom it was borne, is distinctly traceable -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> -on several parts of its surface. The umbone, as it -lay, was surrounded with the wood, in a complete state of -decay, which had once formed the shield; and small fragments -of corroded iron, which were doubtless a part of the -mountings of the shield, were scattered about.</p> - -<p>Of the form of the Anglo-Saxon shield and its umbone, -a tolerably good idea may be formed by the series of -examples here given (figs. <a href="#fig_409">409</a> to <a href="#fig_409">416</a>), from the illuminated -MSS. of the period.</p> - -<div id="fig_409" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_409.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Figs. 409 to 416.</p> -</div> - -<p>Of Saxon armour the remains yielded to us by the -graves are few and far between. Buckles, such as probably -fastened the belt or girdle to which the knife, the -sword, etc., were suspended, and others which have doubtless -belonged to some portions of the dress, are the most -abundant. They are of varied form, some being of particularly -elegant design, partaking of the character of the -fibulæ of the period. Twelve examples from the Kentish -graves are given on figs. <a href="#fig_417">417</a> to <a href="#fig_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p>Helmets, or head coverings, in a fragmentary state, have -on some few occasions been found. The most remarkable -discovery of this kind which has been made is the one -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> -which was found by my friend, the late Mr. Bateman, at -Benty Grange,<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> in Derbyshire, in the year 1848. The -account of this discovery is so full of interest, and so -curious, that I give it in Mr. Bateman’s own words. He -says:—</p> - -<p>“It was our good fortune to open a barrow which afforded -a more instructive collection of relics than has ever been -discovered in the county, and which are not surpassed in -interest by any remains hitherto recovered from any Anglo-Saxon -burying-place in the kingdom.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_417" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_417.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 417.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_418" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_418.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 418.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_419" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_419.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 419.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_420" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_420.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 420.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_421" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_421.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 421.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_422" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_422.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 422.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_423" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_423.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 423.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_424" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_424.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 424.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_425" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_425.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 425.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_426" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_426.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 426.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_427" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_427.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 427.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_428" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_428.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 428.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>“The barrow, which is on a farm called Benty Grange, a -high and bleak situation to the right of the road from Ashbourn -to Buxton, near the eighth milestone from the latter -place, is of inconsiderable elevation, perhaps not more than -two feet at the highest point, but is spread over a pretty -large area, and is surrounded by a small fosse or trench. -About the centre, and upon the natural soil, had been laid -the only body the barrow ever contained, of which not a -vestige besides the hair could be distinguished. Near the -place which, from the presence of hair, was judged to have -been the situation of the head, was a curious assemblage -of ornaments, which, from the peculiarly indurated nature -of the earth, it was impossible to remove with any degree -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> -of success. The most remarkable are the silver edging and -ornaments of a leathern cup, about three inches in diameter -at the mouth, which was decorated by four wheel-shaped -ornaments and two crosses of thin silver, affixed by pins of -the same metal, clenched inside (<a href="#fig_429">fig. 429</a>). The other -articles found in the same situation consist of personal -ornaments, the chief of which are two circular enamels upon -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span> -copper 1¾ diameter, in narrow silver frames, and a third, -which was so far decomposed as to be irrecoverable (see -group, <a href="#fig_430">fig. 430</a>); they are enamelled with a yellow interlaced -dracontine pattern, intermingled with that peculiar scroll -design, visible on the same class of ornaments figured in -‘Vestiges,’ p. 25, and used in several MSS. of the seventh -century, for the purpose of decorating the initial letters. -The principle of this design consists of three spiral lines -springing from a common centre, and each involution -forming an additional centre, for an extension of the pattern, -which may be adapted to fill spaces of almost any form. -Mr. Westwood has shown in a most able paper in the 40th -No. of the Journal of the Archæological Institute, that this -style of ornamentation is peculiar to the Anglo-Saxon and -Irish artists of the period before stated. The pattern was first -cut in the metal, threads of it being left to show the design, -by which means cells were formed, in which the enamel -was placed before fusion, the whole being then polished -became what is known as <i>champ-levé</i> enamel. There were -also with these enamels a knot of very fine wire, and a -quantity of thin bone, variously ornamented with lozenges, -etc., which were mostly too much decayed to bear removal; -they appeared to have been attached to some garment of silk, -as the glossy fibre of such a fabric was very perceptible -when they were first uncovered, though it shortly vanished -when exposed to the air. Proceeding westward from the -head for about six feet, we arrived at a large mass of oxydized -iron, which being removed with the utmost care, and -having been since repaired where unavoidably broken, now -presents a mass of chainwork, and the frame of a helmet. -The latter consists of a skeleton formed of iron bands (<a href="#fig_431">fig. -431</a>) radiating from the crown of the head, and riveted to a -circle of the same metal which encompassed the brow: from -the impression on the metal it is evident that the outside was -covered with plates of horn disposed diagonally so as to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span> -produce a herring-bone pattern; the ends of these plates -were secured beneath with strips of horn corresponding -with the iron framework, and attached to it by ornamental -rivets of silver at intervals of about an inch and a half -from each other. On the bottom of the front rib, which -projects so as to form a nasal, is a small silver cross, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> -slightly ornamented round the edges by a beaded moulding; -and on the crown of the helmet is an elliptical bronze -plate supporting the figure of an animal carved in iron, -with bronze eyes, now much corroded, but perfectly distinct -as the representation of a hog. There are, too, many fragments, -some more or less ornamented with silver, which -have been riveted to some part of the helmet in a manner -not to be explained or even understood; there are also -some small buckles of iron, which probably served to fasten -it upon the head. Amongst the chainwork is a very curious -six-pronged instrument of iron, in shape much like an ordinary -hay-fork, with the difference of the tang, which in -the latter is driven into the shaft, being in this instrument -flattened and doubled over so as to form a small loop, -apparently convenient for suspension; whether it belonged -to the helmet or the corselet, next to be described, is uncertain. -The iron chainwork already named consists of a -large number of links of two kinds, attached to each other -by small rings, half an inch in diameter; one kind are flat -and lozenge-shaped, about an inch and a half long; the -others are all of one kind, but of different lengths, varying -from four to ten inches. They are simply lengths of square -rod iron with perforated ends, through which pass the -rings connecting them with the diamond-shaped links; -they all show the impression of cloth over a considerable -part of the surface, and it is, therefore, no improbable conjecture -that they would originally constitute a kind of -quilted cuirass, by being sewn up within, or upon, a doublet -of strong cloth. The peculiarly indurated and corrosive -nature of the soil in this barrow is a point of some interest, -and it will not be out of place to state that such has generally -been the case in tumuli in Derbyshire, where the more -important Saxon burials have taken place, whilst the more -ancient Celtic interments are generally found in good condition, -owing to there having been no special preparation -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span> -of the earth, which in these cases has undergone a mixing -or tempering with some corrosive liquid, the result of -which is the presence of thin ochrey veins in the earth, -and the decomposition of nearly the whole of the human -remains. The following extract from Professor Worsaae’s -‘Antiquities of Denmark’ illustrates the helmet, which is -the only example of the kind hitherto discovered, either in -this country or on the Continent:—</p> - -<div id="fig_429" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_429.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 429.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_430" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_430.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 430.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_431" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_431.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 431.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_432" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_432.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 432.</p> -</div> - -<p>“‘The helmets of the ancient Scandinavians, which were -furnished with crests, usually in the form of animals, were -probably in most cases only the skins of the heads of -animals, drawn over a framework of wood or leather, as -the coat of mail was usually of strong quilted linen, or thick -woven cloth.’”</p> - -<p>To this the translator of the English edition appends -the important information, that “the animal generally represented -was the boar; and it is to this custom that reference -is made in <i>Beowulf</i>, where the poet speaks of the boar of -gold, the boar hard as iron.”</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Sƿẏn eal ᵹẏlꝺen,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Eoꝼeꞃ Iꞃen-heꞃꝺ.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>Nor are allusions to this custom of wearing the figure of -a boar—not in honour of the animal, but of Freya, to whom -it was sacred—confined to Beowulf; they are to be found -in the <i>Edda</i> and in the <i>Sagas</i>; while Tacitus, in his work, -“De Moribus Germanorum”, distinctly refers to the same -usage and its religious intention, as propitiating the protection -of their goddess in battle. As a further illustration, -not only of the helmet, but also of the chainwork, the following -extracts from Beowulf are transcribed from Mr. -C. R. Smith’s “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. ii., p. 240:— -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span></p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>eoꝼeꞃ-líc ꞅción</td> - <td>“They seemed a boar’s form</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>oꞃ-oꝼeꞃ hleoꞃ bæꞃon;</td> - <td>to bear over their cheeks;</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>ᵹe-hꞃoꝺen ᵹolꝺe,</td> - <td>twisted with gold,</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>ꝼáh anꝺ ꝼýꞃ-heaꞃꝺ,</td> - <td>variegated and hardened in the fire,</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>ꝼeꞃh ƿeaꞃꝺe heólꝺ.</td> - <td>this kept the guard of life:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdrb">I. 604.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>be-ꝼonᵹen ꝼꞃeá-ƿꞃáꞅnum,</td> - <td>Surrounded with lordly chains,</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>ꞅƿa híne ꝼẏꞃn ꝺaᵹum</td> - <td>even as in days of yore</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>ƿoꞃhꞇe ƿæpna ꞅmið,</td> - <td>the weapon smith had wrought it,</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>ƿunꝺꞃum ꞇeóꝺe,</td> - <td>had wondrously furnished it, [swine,</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>be-ꞅeꞇꞇe ꞅƿín-lícum,</td> - <td>had set it round with the shapes of</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>ꝥ hine ꞅẏðan nó</td> - <td>that never afterwards</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>bꞃonꝺ né beaꝺo-mecaꞅ</td> - <td>brand or war-knife</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>bíꞇan ne meahꞇon:</td> - <td>might have power to bite it:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdrb">I. 2901</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>æꞇ þæm áꝺe ƿæꞅ</td> - <td>At the pile was</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>eþ-ᵹe-ꞅýne</td> - <td>easy to be seen</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>ꞅƿáꞇ-ꝼah ꞅẏꞃce,</td> - <td>the mail shirt covered with gore,</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>ꞅƿýn eal-ᵹẏlꝺen,</td> - <td>the hog of gold,</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>eoꝼeꞃ íꞃen heaꞃꝺ:</td> - <td>the boar hard as iron:</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdrb">I. 2213.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Heꞇ ðá in-beꞃan</td> - <td>Then commanded he to bring in</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>eaꝼoꞃ-heáꝼod-ꞅeᵹn,</td> - <td>the boar, an ornament to the head,</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>heaþo-ꞅꞇeapne helm,</td> - <td>the helmet lofty in war,</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>heꞃe-bẏꞃnan,</td> - <td>the grey mail coat,</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>ᵹuð-ꞅƿeoꞃꝺ ᵹeáꞇo-líc:</td> - <td>the ready battle sword.”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdrb">I. 4299.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>It will be noticed in these extracts that “mail coat” or -“mail shirt” is twice mentioned, as well as the “helmet -lofty in war.” Thus the passages in a remarkable degree -illustrate this extraordinary discovery, which embraced a -coat of mail along with the helmet and other objects. The -coat appears to have consisted of a mass of chainwork, the -links of which were attached to each other by small rings.</p> - -<p>Fragments of another helmet were the following year -found in another barrow in the same neighbourhood, at -Newhaven, along with other objects of interest. The -barrow had, however, at some previous time been grievously -mutilated. Of this barrow Mr. Bateman says: -“We opened a mutilated mound of earth in a field near -Newhaven House, called the Low, two-thirds of which had -been removed, and the remainder more or less disturbed, -so that nothing was found in its original state, which is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span> -much to be regretted, as the contents appear to be late in -date, and different in character from anything we have -before found in tumuli. The mound itself, being constructed -of tempered earth, bore some analogy to the grave-hill -of the Saxon Thegn, opened at Benty Grange about a -year before, and, like it, was without human remains, if we -except a few fragments of calcined bone, which are too -minute to be certainly assigned either to a human or animal -subject. The articles found comprise many small pieces of -thin iron straps or bands, more or less overlaid with bronze, -which are by no means unlike the framework of the helmet -found at Benty Grange. There is also a boss of thin -bronze, three inches diameter, pierced with three holes for -attachment to the dress, (?) and divided by raised concentric -circles, between which the metal is ornamented with a -dotted chevron pattern, in the angles of which are small -roses punched by a die. Another object in bronze is a small -round vessel or box of thick cast metal, surrounded by six -vertical ribs, and having two perforated ears, serving probably -better to secure the lid and suspend the box. Although -it measures less than an inch in height, and less than two in -diameter, it weighs full 3½ ounces. A similar box, with the -lid, on which is a cross formed of annulets, found with -Roman remains at Lincoln, is engraved at page 30 of the -Lincoln Book of the Archæological Institute, where it is -called a pyx. Two others, discovered at Lewes, are engraved -in the ‘Archæologia,’ vol. xxxi., page 437, one of -which has the lid bearing a cross precisely similar to the -Lincoln example, whence it is certain that they must be -assigned to a Christian period, probably not long previous -to the extinction of the Saxon monarchy. The last object -there is occasion to describe is an iron ferrule or hoop, -an inch and a half in diameter, one edge of which is turned -inwards, so as to prevent its slipping up the shaft on which -it has been fixed. We also found some shapeless pieces of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span> -melted glass, which, from their variegated appearance, -might be the product of fused beads; and observed many -pieces of charred wood throughout the mound, which may -possibly not have been of a sepulchral character.”</p> - -<p>Another helmet, or defensive cap, was found some years -ago at Leckhampton Hill, in Gloucestershire, the ribs of -which bear a striking analogy to the one here described.</p> - -<p>A remarkable discovery, which included portions of what -is very plausibly considered to be a helmet, was also, a few -years ago, made on the estate of Mr. Francis Wedgwood, at -Barlaston, in Staffordshire. The particulars of this I now -for the first time make public. The grave, which was -seven feet in length by two feet in width, was cut in the -solid red-sandstone rock. It was about fifteen inches in -depth at the deepest part, which was at the south-east -corner, and died out with the slope of the hill towards the -north-west, and the earth which covered it (which had -probably been tempered in the usual manner) was only -a few inches in thickness. It was on the slope of the hill. -At the upper or northerly end of the grave a basin-like -cavity, two or three inches in depth, was cut in the floor of -rock (see <small>A</small> in the plan, <a href="#fig_433">fig. 433</a>). In this hollow, which -had evidently been intended for the helmeted head of the -deceased to rest in, was found the remains of what I have -alluded to as justly considered to be remains of a bronze -helmet. The skeleton had, as is so frequently the case in -Anglo-Saxon interments, entirely disappeared, but on its -right side lay the sword (<small>B</small>), and on the left a knife (<small>C</small>).</p> - -<p>The fragments in the cavity consisted of several pieces -of curved bronze, highly ornamented, which had probably, -with other plain curved pieces, formed the framework of the -helmet; some thin plates of bronze; a flat ring of bronze, -beautifully ornamented (<a href="#fig_434">fig. 434</a>), which is conjectured to -have been the top of the framework of the helmet; and three -enamelled discs, of a similar character to what have been -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span> -elsewhere found, with hooks for suspension, or attachment -to leather or other substance. One of these is engraved, -of its real size, on the next illustration (<a href="#fig_435">fig. 435</a>). The -centre is of enamel mosaic work, ground down level with -the metal, as in the old Chinese enamels.</p> - -<div id="fig_433" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_433.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 433.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_434" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_434.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 434.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_435" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_435.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 435.</p> -</div> - -<p>The inference to be drawn from this curious discovery is, -that the grave was that of a Saxon of high rank, who had -been buried in his full dress, and that the cavity had been -specially cut out in the floor of the rock grave to admit of -the helmet being worn as when he was living. No remains -of a shield were noticed, nor were any other remains found -in the locality, which was carefully dug over for the purpose.</p> - -<div id="fig_436" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_436.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 436.</p> -</div> - -<p>Enamelled discs, or pendants, such as I have just spoken -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span> -of (see <a href="#fig_435">fig. 435</a>), have been occasionally found in other -localities, as will have been noticed in the course of the -last few pages. The use of these curious objects is very -obscure, and I am not aware that any very particular -attention has been paid to them. Portions of these were -found in the Benty Grange barrow (<a href="#fig_430">fig. 430</a>), along with the -Saxon helmet. A very perfect example was found in a barrow -on Middleton Moor, Derbyshire, in 1788,<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> where it was -found lying near the shoulder. In the same barrow was a -portion of another enamelled ornament, the iron umbone -of a shield, and a thin vessel of bronze—described as like -a shallow basin—which probably formed a portion of a helmet. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span> -These two interesting relics are here engraved (figs. -436 and <a href="#fig_437">437</a>). The first of these will be seen to bear a -striking resemblance to the Barlaston example (<a href="#fig_435">fig. 435</a>), -and the second, in form, to be very similar to the next -example (<a href="#fig_438">fig. 438</a>), from the museum of the Royal Irish -Academy. Some precisely similar objects—similar in design -and in size to figs. <a href="#fig_435">435</a> and <a href="#fig_436">436</a>—were found at Chesterton. -Of the four of these objects there found, two are -precisely alike, and had hooks for suspension in the same -manner as is shown on <a href="#fig_435">fig. 435</a>; the other two have no -hooks, and are of a different pattern of enamelling. Other -examples have been brought to light in different localities, -but these will be sufficient for my present purpose.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_437" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_437.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 437.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_438" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_438.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 438.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>It is, of course, very difficult to come to any conclusion, -in the present state of our knowledge of Anglo-Saxon -history, as to the original uses of these and other objects. -That these enamelled and handled discs were intended for -suspension by their hooks there can be but little doubt, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span> -it seems not improbable that they might serve as pendants -to the helmet; the two with hooks possibly hanging as ear-guards -or coverings, and the others being attached by pins -or rivets to, perhaps, the front and back of the circle. It -is hoped that ultimately the use of these curious relics may -be correctly ascertained. In the barrow at Grimthorpe, -already referred to, a disc of somewhat similar character, -of thin metal, was found. It had been attached by three -pins or rivets, the holes for which remained. It was not -enamelled, but decorated with raised ornaments. It is engraved -of its full size on <a href="#fig_439">fig. 439</a>.</p> - -<div id="fig_439" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_439.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 439.</p> -</div> - -<p>A singular plate of cast and chased bronze, strongly gilt, -and set with garnets, found in Northamptonshire, and now -in the Bateman museum, is engraved in the “Reliquary,” -vol. i. It has at the back, besides a central projection, -four pierced projections for attachment to leather or other -substance, and four “swivel” projections, if they may be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span> -so termed, on its edges, to which other matters have been -attached by rivets, which are still remaining.</p> - -<p>Enamelling and goldsmiths’ work were evidently arts in -which the Anglo-Saxon artificers excelled; some of the -rings and fibulæ, and other relics, being of extreme elegance -and richness, and of great beauty in design.</p> - -<p>Having spoken of the arms, helmets, etc., found in -Anglo-Saxon graves, it will be well before proceeding to -describe the personal ornaments, to note that horse-shoes -are occasionally met with in interments, showing that the -horse was, in some instances, buried with its rider. -Having given, on <a href="#fig_324">fig. 324</a>, the form of a horse-shoe of the -Romano-British period, I now engrave examples of those -of the Anglo-Saxon times. Figs. 440 and <a href="#fig_441">441</a> are two -shoes from a Saxon grave in Berkshire.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_440" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_440.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 440.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_441" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_441.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 441.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>They will be seen to be of a very different form to those -of the preceding era. One has calkins, but the other is -without, and both are even on the outer edge, not “bulged,” -as those of Roman times are. In illustration of this matter, -I am enabled, through the courtesy of my friend Mr. -Fleming, to give the accompanying engraving from his admirable -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> -work on “Horse-shoes and Horse-shoeing,” to which -I would direct the attention -of all who are interested in -this branch of archæological -inquiry. The engraving represents -the contents of a -grave-mound excavated at -Selzen, on the Rhine, by -Lindenschmidt, in which, -along with the skeleton of -the warrior, were the skull -and other remains of his -horse, with portions of horse-shoes, -as well as some urns of -good character, and of close -resemblance to those of our -Anglo-Saxon period. Tumuli -containing the remains -of horses are of unfrequent -occurrence in England, and -therefore this example becomes -interesting as an -illustration for comparison.</p> - -<div id="fig_442" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_442.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 442. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Anglo-Saxon Period—Fibulæ—Enamelled circular Fibulæ—Gold Fibulæ—Pendant -Cross—Cruciform Fibulæ—Penannular Fibulæ—Irish -and English examples—Pendant Ornaments, etc.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> fibulæ of the Anglo-Saxon period are the most -remarkable, perhaps, of any of the products of the -grave-mounds of that people. They are of extreme interest, -not merely from their design and the excellence of their -workmanship, or from their various forms and styles of -ornamentation, but because by their varieties the different -races to which they belonged can, in great measure, be -determined.</p> - -<p>The more beautiful and elaborate, and at the same time -the richest in effect, of these various forms of fibulæ are -those of circular form, which, although found in various -parts of the kingdom, are more abundant in the barrows of -Kent than elsewhere. The finest of these ever discovered -was found in 1771, “near the neck, or rather more towards -the right shoulder,” of the female skeleton in a grave six -feet deep, ten feet long, and eight feet wide, on Kingston -Down, along with some small silver fibulæ, a golden amulet, -some small hinges, a chain, some bronze vessels, -pottery, and a variety of other articles. This fibula, here -engraved (<a href="#fig_443">fig. 443</a>), which is quite unique, “stands at the -head of a class by no means extensive, characterized by -being formed of separate plates of metal, enclosed by a -band round the edges. The shell of this extraordinary -brooch is entirely of gold. The upper surface is divided -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span> -into no less than seven compartments, subdivided into -cells of various forms. Those of the first and fifth are -semi-circles, with a peculiar graduated figure, somewhat -resembling the steps or base of a cross, which also occurs -in all the compartments, and in four circles, placed cross-wise -with triangles. The cells within this step-like figure -and the triangular are filled with turquoises; the remaining -cells of the various compartments with garnets, laid -upon gold-foil, except the sixth, which forms an umbo, and -bosses in the circle, which are composed apparently of -mother-of-pearl. The second and fourth compartments -contain vermicular gold chain-work, neatly milled and attached -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> -to the ground of the plate. The reverse of the -fibula is also richly decorated.”</p> - -<div id="fig_443" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_443.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 443.</p> -</div> - -<p>The vertical hinge of the acus is ornamented with a -cross set with stones, and with filigree work round its -base. The clasp which receives the point of the acus is -formed to represent a serpent’s head, the eyes and nostrils -of which, and the bending of the neck, are marked in -filigree. This precious jewel was secured by a loop which -admitted of its being sewn upon the dress.</p> - -<p>Another remarkably fine example, found on the breast of -a female skeleton in Berkshire, is now in the Ashmolean -museum. It measures two inches and seven-eighths in -diameter. The base is formed of a thin plate of silver, -above which, resting apparently on a bed of paste, is a -plate of copper, to which is affixed a frame-work of the same -metal, giving the outline of the pattern. The four divisions -of the exterior circle were originally filled with paste, -on which were laid thin laminæ of gold, ornamented with -an interlaced pattern in gold wire of two sizes, delicately -milled or notched, resembling rope-work. Of these compartments -one is now vacant. This wire ornament was pressed -into the gold plate beneath, and there are no traces of any -other means than pressure having been used to fix it. The -four smaller circles and that in the centre are ornamented -with bosses of a white substance, either ivory or bone, but -the material is so much decomposed it is difficult to say -which; these bosses are attached to the copper plate beneath -by iron pins. The entire face of the fibula was originally -set with small pieces of garnet-coloured glass laid upon -hatched gold-foil. The upper and lower plates of this ornament -are bound together by a band of copper gilt, slightly -grooved. The acus is lost.</p> - -<div id="fig_444" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_444.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 444.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_445" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_445.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 445.</p> -</div> - -<p>The magnificent circular fibula of gold here engraved (<a href="#fig_444">fig. -444</a>) was discovered some years ago in a barrow on Winster -Moor, in Derbyshire. It was formed of gold filigree -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span> -work, which was mounted on a silver plate. It was set with -stones or paste on chequered gold-foil, and measured two -inches in diameter. Along with this fibula were found the -following interesting articles: a cross of pure gold, ornamented, -like the fibula, with filigree work, and having a -garnet cut in facets set in its centre (<a href="#fig_445">fig. 445</a>); a silver armlet; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span> -two glass vessels, and a number of beads. These and -some other articles were all found by the sides of two -cinerary urns.</p> - -<p>Many of the circular fibulæ are, of course, of a much -smaller and less elaborate character than those here given. -They all, however, bear, exclusive of the fact of their being -found along with other evidences of the period to which -they belong, characteristics which cannot well be mistaken.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_446" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_446.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 446.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_447" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_447.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 447.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_448" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_448.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 448.</p> -</div> - -<p>These circular fibulæ appear to have been worn by the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span> -Anglo-Saxon ladies on the breast or, occasionally, shoulder. -They were probably, therefore, used for fastening the dress -on the bosom, as is so often seen in illuminated MSS. and -on tombs of a later period.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_449" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_449.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 449.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_450" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_450.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 450.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Another extensive class of Anglo-Saxon fibulæ are what -are usually called, though not very satisfactorily, cruciform, -or cross-shaped. Fibulæ of this class are, perhaps, most -abundant in the midland and south-eastern counties, but -they are of very rare occurrence in Kent. They would appear, -therefore, to have appertained mostly to the Angles, -who were the inhabitants of Mercia, East Anglia, and -Northumbria. They are sometimes of silver, but usually -of bronze, and are variously ornamented with interlaced -work, heads, and borders of various designs. Their form -will be best understood from the accompanying engravings, -which exhibit some of the most usual varieties. They are -from Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span> -and will serve as typical examples of this class -of brooch.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_451" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_451.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 451.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_452" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_452.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 452.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_453" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_453.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 453.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another totally distinct kind of fibula, or brooch, which is -considered to be peculiarly of Irish type, but which, nevertheless, -is occasionally met with in England, remains to be -noticed. I allude, of course, to brooches of the penannular -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> -form,<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> the general type of which will be understood by the -engravings given on figs. <a href="#fig_453">453</a>, <a href="#fig_454">454</a>, and <a href="#fig_455">455</a>, which are all -Irish examples of more or less decorative character. The -originals are in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy, -as are also many other exquisite specimens of these interesting -examples of early art.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_454" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_454.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 454.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_455" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_455.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 455.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_456" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_456.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 456.</p> -</div> - -<p>The one next figured (<a href="#fig_456">fig. 456</a>) was discovered in Westmoreland, -and described and engraved in the <i>Archæological -Journal</i>, vol. ix. page 90. This beautiful fibula I here engrave -of a reduced size. The ring, it will be seen, moves -freely round the upper half of the brooch, the lower -or flat part of which is divided so as to allow of the -passage of the acus through it. “It is set with flat -bosses, five on either side. Each of these flat dilated -parts of this curious ornament appears to proceed from -the jaws of a monstrous head, imperfectly simulating that -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span> -of a serpent or dragon; and between the jaw is introduced -the intertwined triplet, or <i>triquetra</i>, the same ornament -which is found on the sculptured cross at Kirk Michael, -Isle of Man, and on some Saxon coins.” This example is -of silver. With it was found a silver armlet—a simple -twisted bar of decreasing thickness towards the extremities, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span> -which are hooked. The dimensions of the fibula are, -length of acus, eleven inches; greatest diameter of circular -part, five inches; width of the dilated part, two inches; -weight, 8 oz. 8 dwt.</p> - -<div id="fig_457" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_457.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 457.</p> -</div> - -<p>By far the finest example found in England is the one -next figured (<a href="#fig_457">fig. 457</a>). It was found in 1862, near the picturesque -village of Bonsall, in the High Peak of Derbyshire. -It is of bronze, and is here engraved of its full size. The -ring measures three inches and seven-eighths in its greatest -diameter, and the acus, which is not engraved of its full -length, is six inches and three-quarters long.</p> - -<p>It has originally been set with amber or paste, and has -been richly gilt and enamelled. The interlaced ornaments -are most exquisitely and elaborately formed, and are of -great variety, and the heads of animals are of excellent and -characteristic form. The head of the acus, or pin, is large -and beautifully ornamented, and, like the -ring, has been set with studs. The pin -itself, as will be seen by the accompanying -engraving (<a href="#fig_458">fig. 458</a>), is flattened and made -thin at its upper end, and bent so as to -allow of the free passage of the ring through -it, and is riveted on to the ornamented -plate in front.</p> - -<div id="fig_458" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_458.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 458.</p> -</div> - -<p>It is remarkable that, in this fibula, the -ring, which, like other examples of this form -of brooch, has been made to play freely -for half its circumference through the acus, -has been riveted to the head of the pin in -the position shown in the engraving. That -it has been much worn in this position—<i>across</i> -the breast or shoulder—is evident -from the ring being much worn where the -pin has pressed against it when clasped. I believe this is -the only example on record in which the pin has been -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span> -<i>fixed</i> to the side of the ring, and this was certainly not the -original intention of the maker of the brooch, but was done -subsequently. This will be seen by the engraving of the -profile of the head of the acus, on <a href="#fig_458">fig. 458</a>. On one or two -examples of penannular brooches, inscriptions in Ogham -characters have been found, and it is highly interesting to -be able to add that, on the back of the Derbyshire example, -faint traces of Oghams still remain.</p> - -<div id="fig_459" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_459.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 459.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another brooch, of silver, found in England, though -different in form from the expanded examples just given, and -although of later date, is nevertheless of the same construction. -It is engraved of a reduced size on <a href="#fig_459">fig. 459</a>. “The acus -has been broken off. There appears to have been a third -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> -knob, now lost, which should correspond with the knob <small>B</small>, -the acus passing between the two. The upper knob <small>A</small> is -very loose, and moves freely around the ring. The knob <small>B</small> -turns, but much less freely, and does not pass over <small>C</small>, -having merely a lateral motion of one-fourth of an inch.” -The diameter of the widest part is nearly five and a half -inches; the globular ornaments measure one and a quarter -inches in diameter. The under side of each of the balls is -flat, and is engraved with ornaments, as shown on the engraving. -This brooch belongs to Mr. C. Carus Wilson, -and closely resembles some of the Irish examples.</p> - -<p>Of the mode of wearing penannular brooches, the late -Mr. Fairholt says: “By the sumptuary laws of the ancient -Irish, the size of these brooches, or fibulæ, were regulated -according to the rank of the wearer. The highest price of -a <i>silver</i> bodkin for a king or an <i>ollamh</i>, which, according to -Vallancy, was <i>thirty</i> heifers, when made of refined silver; -the lowest value attached to them being the worth of three -heifers. From this it may be inferred, that the rank of the -wearer might always be guessed at from the fibulæ he wore.” -The rank of the wearers of the “Tara Brooch”—the most -famous of all the Irish brooches at present known—and of -the Derbyshire example, must, judging from their large -size and truly exquisite workmanship, have been high.</p> - -<p>The extreme rarity of brooches of this form in England, -leads one, naturally, to the conclusion that they were not -much worn by the inhabitants of this country, and that, -therefore, they can hardly be considered to belong to the -nationality, if I may so speak, of the Anglo-Saxons. Nevertheless, -examples having been here found in close proximity -to undoubted Anglo-Saxon remains, and the style of -ornamentation being strictly in keeping with much belonging -to that period, there can be no doubt that they must be -included amongst our Anglo-Saxon antiquities.</p> - -<p>Some of the most beautiful objects, along with the fibulæ, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> -which the graves of the Anglo-Saxons yield, are the pendant -ornaments of various kinds which were worn by that -race of people. The objects of this class are extremely -varied; but their beauty, like those of the richly studded -and gilt fibulæ, and the enamelled studs and bosses, cannot -well be understood without the aid of coloured illustrations. -Of these a set of exquisite pendants were found along -with several other interesting objects, in a barrow on Brassington -Moor, by Mr. Bateman. Eleven of these pendants -are large and brilliantly coloured garnets beautifully set in -pure gold, two are entirely of gold, and the third, also of -gold, is of spiral wire. Two beads, one of green glass, the -other of white and blue glass, were also found.</p> - -<p>Gold drops of a similar character to those just described -have been frequently found in the Kentish graves, as have -also one or two crosses very similar to the one engraved -on a previous page (<a href="#fig_445">fig. 445</a>). Circular pendants of gold -and other materials, decorated with enamelled or raised -interlaced and other ornaments, or set with garnets and -other stones, are also found. Among the most interesting -of this class of pendant ornaments are coins to which loops -have been attached. Examples have been found in Kent -and elsewhere, and show that the fashion to some extent -indulged in at the present day of wearing coins attached to -watch chains, etc., is at least of Anglo-Saxon origin. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.</h2> - -<p class="hang">Anglo-Saxon Period—Buckets—Drinking-cups of wood—Bronze Bowls—Bronze -Boxes—Combs—Tweezers—Châtelaines—Girdle Ornaments—Keys—Hair-pins—Counters, -or Draughtmen, and Dice—Querns—Triturating -Stones, etc.—Conclusion.</p> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">Buckets,</span> so called, and very appropriately, from their -close resemblance in form to our modern vessels -bearing that name, are occasionally found in Anglo-Saxon -graves. They are small wooden vessels bound round with -hoops or rims of bronze, more or less ornamented, and have -a handle of the same metal arched over their tops. Of course -in every case the wooden staves of which they were composed, -and which were of ash, are decomposed, the hoops, -handle, and mountings alone remaining. They vary very -much in size; one from Bourne Park had the lower hoop -twelve inches in diameter, and the upper one ten inches, -and the whole height appears to have been about a foot; -the handle was hooked at its ends exactly the same as in -our present buckets, and fitted into loops on the sides; it -had three looped bronze feet to stand upon. Other examples -only measure four or five inches in diameter. The example -here engraved (<a href="#fig_460">fig. 460</a>) was found in Northamptonshire, -along with other remains. It is composed of three encircling -hoops of bronze, and has its handle and attachments -also of the same metal.</p> - -<div id="fig_460" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_460.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 460.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_461" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_461.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 461.</p> -</div> - -<p>The next example (<a href="#fig_461">fig. 461</a>) is from Fairford, in Gloucestershire, -and is three inches in height, and four inches -in diameter. The hoops and mountings are of bronze. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span> -Another example, which I give for the purpose of comparison, -is from Envermeu, in Normandy (<a href="#fig_462">fig. 462</a>). Of -the use of these utensils nothing certain, of course, is -known, but it is conjectured they were used for bringing in -mead, ale, or wine, to fill the drinking-cups—the objection -to this as a general rule being their very small size. “The -Anglo-Saxon translation of the Book of Judges (vii. 20) -rendered <i>hydrias confregissent</i>, by ‘ꞇo-bꞃœcon pa bucaꞅ,’ -<i>i.e.</i> ‘they broke the buckets.’ A common name for this -vessel, which was properly called <i>buc</i>, was <i>œscen</i>, signifying -literally a vessel made of ash, the favourite wood of the -Anglo-Saxons.”</p> - -<div id="fig_462" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_462.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 462.</p> -</div> - -<p>Drinking-cups were sometimes of wood. Of these, two -examples are here given. The first of these has a rim of -brass, the second a like rim attached by overlapping bands. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> -It has also a number of small bands of the same metal -riveted on to mend cracks in the wood. They were found -in a barrow on Sibertswold Down, in Kent.</p> - -<div id="fig_463" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_463.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 463.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_464" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_464.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 464.</p> -</div> - -<p>Bowls of bronze are occasionally also found. Some of -these are plain, others enamelled or otherwise ornamented, -and others, again, gilt. Many of them appear from their -form to have been of Roman origin. Some remarkably fine -examples have been yielded by the graves of Kent and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span> -other districts. The one here engraved (<a href="#fig_465">fig. 465</a>) was -found at Over-Haddon, in Derbyshire, along with the remains -of a circular enamelled disc of the kind described -on a previous page, and other relics. The bowl was seven -inches in diameter, and had originally two handles. They -are supposed to have been used for placing hot meats in, -on the table. They range in size from four or five to twelve -or fourteen inches in diameter.</p> - -<div id="fig_465" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_465.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 465.</p> -</div> - -<p>Small boxes of bronze are occasionally found, and are of -different forms. Some are plain upright boxes with lids, -just intended to hold sewing materials—in fact, the work-boxes -of the Saxon ladies—and others are rather large, and -have been intended to contain the comb, etc.: they are, -therefore, a kind of dressing-cases. The box engraved on -<a href="#fig_466">fig. 466</a> was found along with other Saxon remains near -Church Sterndale. The grave, which was cut in the rock, -contained a skeleton of a woman; the lower bones were -fairly preserved, but of the upper parts there were but few -remains, the enamel crowns of the teeth being in the best -condition. “At the left hip was a small iron knife four -inches long, and where the right shoulder had been was an -assemblage of curious articles, the most important of which -was a small bronze box or canister, with a lid to slide on, -measuring altogether two inches high, and the same in -diameter. When found, it was much crushed, but still -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span> -retained, inside, remains of thread, and bore on the outside -impressions of linen cloth. Close to it were two bronze -pins or broken needles, and a mass of corroded iron, some -of which has been wire chainwork connected with a small -bronze ornament with five perforations, plated with silver, -and engraved with a cable pattern, near which were two -iron implements of larger size, the whole comprising the -girdle and châtelaine, with appendages, of a Saxon lady. -Many pieces of hazel stick were found in contact with these -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span> -relics, which were probably the remains of a basket in which -they were placed at the funeral. All the iron shows impressions -of woven fabrics, three varieties being distinguishable; -namely, coarse and fine linen, and coarse flannel or woollen -cloth. The box is very faintly ornamented by lozenges, -produced by the intersection of oblique lines scratched in -the metal.”</p> - -<div id="fig_466" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_466.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 466.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_467" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_467.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 467.</p> -</div> - -<p>The next engraving shows a bronze box of quite a different -character, found with Anglo-Saxon remains at Newhaven. -It is two inches in diameter, but very thick. It has -six vertical ribs and two bars for attachment of the lid.</p> - -<div id="fig_468" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_468.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 468.</p> -</div> - -<p>Needles and pins are frequently met with. The two -shown on <a href="#fig_466">fig. 466</a> will, however, be sufficient to call attention -to these minute objects.</p> - -<p>Combs of the Anglo-Saxon period differ but little from -those of the Romans, or indeed from those of the present -day. They were, both Roman and Saxon, sometimes -toothed on one side and sometimes on both sides, and were -made alike of wood, of metal, of bone, and of ivory. Boxwood -appears to have been so much used for the manufacture -of combs as to have occasionally given its own name -to them. Thus Martial says:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Quid faciet nullos hic inventura capillos,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">Multifido buxus quæ tibi dente datur?”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span></p> - -<p>Wooden combs have naturally for the most part perished, -but fragments have occasionally been found. Combs, both -of bronze and iron, of the Roman period, have also been -discovered. The greater part, however, both of that and of -the Saxon period, which have been exhumed, are of bone -and ivory. A good example of the single-edged or “backed” -comb is given on <a href="#fig_469">fig. 469</a>; they varied much in ornamentation. -The next (<a href="#fig_470">fig. 470</a>) is toothed on both its edges, and has -guards or covers to fit on the teeth, in the same manner as -common pocket-combs of the present day. The next is a -comb with a handle, which was dredged up out of the river -Thames. The period is somewhat uncertain, but I give it -for the purpose of comparison, as I do also the three next -figures, the first of which is from the mummy graves at -Arica, the second a modern wooden comb from the same -district, and the third an Indian scalp-comb. Combs from -Rangoon, in the Burmese empire, and from China, are also -very curiously illustrative of those of early races found in -our own country.</p> - -<div id="fig_469" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_469.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 469.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_470" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_470.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 470. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span></p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_471" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_471.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 471.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_472" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_472.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 472.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_473" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_473.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 473.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_474" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_474.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 474. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Mirrors such as are found in Roman graves are occasionally, -but very rarely, met with; they were, of course, -articles for the toilet. Shears or scissors of iron, some of -which are of precisely the same form as our modern sheep-shears, -and others of the shape of scissors of the present -day, are of not unfrequent occurrence. Tweezers, too, are -occasionally met with. The usual form is shown on <a href="#fig_475">fig. 475</a>. -They are of bronze, and were, it is said, used for pulling -out superfluous hairs from the body. They with the scissors -were frequently worn attached to the girdle, along with -other instruments, of which I shall now say a few words.</p> - -<div id="fig_475" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_475.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 475.</p> -</div> - -<p>Châtelaines, or girdle-hangers, are among the most interesting -of discoveries in the graves of Saxon females. They -consist of a bunch of small implements of various kinds—keys, -tweezers, scissors, tooth-picks, ear-picks, nail-cleaners, -etc., and ornaments of one kind or other—hung on a chain, -which being attached to the girdle hung down by the side -to the thigh, or, in some instances, evidently as low as the -knee. The various instruments are of silver, bronze, or -iron, and are generally, the iron especially, corroded into -an almost shapeless mass. The silver and bronze being -more endurable, the instruments of these metals are better -preserved. The example here given (<a href="#fig_476">fig. 476</a>) is from one -of the Kentish graves. Of some of the articles found the -use is unknown, but most can be easily identified. A bunch -of what is supposed to be three latch-keys is given on -<a href="#fig_477">fig. 477</a>, and on the next figure, <a href="#fig_478">478</a>, two curious objects, -the use of which has probably been to hang small instruments -on, to attach them to the girdle. For the same use, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span> -probably, are the curious and somewhat puzzling objects -which are occasionally met with, and are here shown -on <a href="#fig_479">fig. 479</a>. They are found in pairs, attached at the top, -and vary much in the pattern of the lower extremities. -Probably the girdle passed through the upper part, and -keys and other objects would be hung on the lower ends. -Each side of the one here engraved is six and a half inches -in length. A large variety of girdle ornaments have been -found in different districts.</p> - -<div id="fig_476" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_476.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 476.</p> -</div> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_477" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_477.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 477.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_478" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_478.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 478.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id="fig_479" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_479.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 479.</p> -</div> - -<p>Hair-pins are of various forms and lengths. They are -generally of bronze, but sometimes of bone. They are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> -sometimes plain, but at others highly ornamented, occasionally -being richly enamelled. <a href="#fig_480">Fig. 480</a> is of unique -form, and has three flat pendants of bronze attached to its -head by a ring. Besides hair-pins, numbers of metal pins -for domestic purposes are met with.</p> - -<div class="table"> -<div id="fig_480" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_480.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 480.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_481" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_481.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 481.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_482" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_482.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 482.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_483" class="tcell"> -<img src="images/fig_483.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 483.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Of locks and keys, scales and weights, and many other -articles, it will not be necessary to speak at further length -than simply to note that they are sometimes found in Saxon -graves. Bells—small hand-bells—too, are found in the -graves of women. They are of bronze or iron, and of the -rectangular form so characteristic of Saxon bells of larger -size.</p> - -<p>One of the most curious set of objects which the Saxon -graves of Derbyshire have produced is a set of twenty-eight -bone counters, or draughtmen, some of which are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> -shown on the following engraving (<a href="#fig_484">fig. 484</a>) where they are -represented of their full size. They were found by Mr. -Bateman in a barrow near Cold Eaton, along with an -interment of burnt bones, some fragments of iron, and -portions of two bone combs. The draughtmen, as they -are supposed to be, and the combs, had been burnt with -the body. The following is Mr. Bateman’s account of -this curious discovery:—</p> - -<p>“The barrow was about twenty yards across, with a -central elevation of eighteen inches, and was entirely -composed of earth. The original deposit was placed in -a circular hole, eighteen inches in diameter, sunk about six -inches in the stony surface of the land on which the barrow -was raised, so that the entire depth from the top of the -latter was two feet. The interment consisted of a quantity -of calcined human bones, which lay upon a thin layer of -earth at the bottom of the hole, as compactly as if they -had at first been deposited within a shallow basket or -similar perishable vessel. Upon them lay some fragments -of iron, part of two bone combs, and twenty-eight convex -objects of bone, like button-moulds.</p> - -<p>“The pieces of iron have been attached to some article -of perishable material; the largest fragment has a good-sized -loop, as if for suspension. One of the combs has been -much like the small-tooth comb used in our nurseries, and -is ornamented by small annulets cut in the bone; the other -is of more elaborate make, having teeth on each side as the -former, but being strengthened by a rib up the middle of -both sides, covered with a finely cut herring-bone pattern, -and attached by iron rivets.</p> - -<p>“The twenty-eight bone objects (of which nine are engraved -on <a href="#fig_484">fig. 484</a>) consist of flattened hemispherical pieces, -mostly with dots on the convex side; in some, dots within -annulets. They vary from half an inch to an inch in diameter, -and have generally eight, nine, or ten dots each; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span> -but these are disposed so irregularly that it would be difficult -to count them off-hand, which leads to the conclusion -that these counters would not be employed for playing any -game dependent upon numbers, like dominoes or dice, but -that they were more probably used for a game analogous -to draughts. This is most likely to be the fact, as draughtmen -have occasionally been found in Scandinavian grave-mounds; -and we must assign this interment to the Saxons, -whose customs were in many respects identical. All the -articles found in this barrow have undergone the process of -combustion, along with the human remains.”</p> - -<div id="fig_484" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_484.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 484.</p> -</div> - -<p>In Yorkshire, some years ago, a stone, marked in small -squares like a draught-board, was found at Scambridge.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span> -In a grave at Gilton, in Kent, two small dice, here engraved -of their full size (<a href="#fig_485">fig. 485</a>), were found. They were -formed of ivory or bone.</p> - -<div id="fig_485" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_485.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 485.</p> -</div> - -<p>Querns, or hand-mills, for grinding corn, have on many -occasions been found in or about Anglo-Saxon interments. -The one engraved on the next figure (<a href="#fig_486">fig. 486</a>) was found -in a Saxon grave in the grounds of Miss Worsley, at -Winster, along with many other interesting relics. One -half of the quern had been burnt along with the body, as -had also many of the stones which formed the mound.</p> - -<div id="fig_486" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_486.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 486.</p> -</div> - -<p>The next (<a href="#fig_487">fig. 487</a>) is from Kings Newton, the same -locality referred to under the head of Anglo-Saxon pottery. -Portions of stones which have evidently formed triturating -stones, or grinders, are occasionally found in the grave-mounds -of different periods. These have doubtless been of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span> -the same general character with the two here engraved for -comparison (figs. <a href="#fig_488">488</a> and <a href="#fig_489">489</a>). Similar stones are found -in Ireland.</p> - -<div id="fig_487" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_487.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 487.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_488" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_488.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 488.</p> -</div> - -<div id="fig_489" class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig_489.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Fig. 489.</p> -</div> - -<p>Besides the objects here spoken of, a large variety of -interesting remains of a miscellaneous character are found -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span> -in the Saxon graves, but which, however interesting they -may be, do not require in my present work to be specially -noted.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>I have endeavoured in the foregoing pages to give, in as -brief a form as was consistent with a clear description of -the objects, a faithful picture of the endless stores of treasures -which the grave-mounds of our earliest forefathers -open out to us, and to point out, with the aid of illustrations, -the characteristics of each of the three great divisions, -so as to enable my readers correctly to appropriate -any remains which may come under their notice. I have -purposely, and studiously, avoided theory and conjecture as -far as was at all possible; contenting myself rather with -bringing forward facts, which observations, personal or -otherwise, into the grave-mounds and their contents have -established, than speculating upon matters which can have -no real bearing upon the subject.</p> - -<p>It is said that “there is nothing new under the sun.” -The researches which have been made into the grave-mounds -of the three great periods—the Celtic, the Romano-British, -and the Anglo-Saxon—tend immeasurably to show -the approximate truth of this adage, and my readers, from -the foregoing pages, will be able to judge pretty correctly -how many of our so-called <i>modern</i> inventions and appliances -were common to, and in use by, our predecessors of -“centuries and tens of centuries” of years gone by. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span></p> - -<div class="table"> -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2> - -<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">Abney Moor, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li>Abury, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li>Adzes, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Aldborough, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> -<li>Ale Glasses, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Allemanic Pottery, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> -<li>Amber Beads, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Armour, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Arms, <a href="#Page_236">236</a> to <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Banquet, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Buckets, <a href="#Page_280">280</a> to <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Cellarer, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Coins, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Cup-bearer, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Fibulæ, <a href="#Page_267">267</a> to <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Glass, <a href="#Page_228">228</a> to <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Horse shoes, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Interments, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> to <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Interments in Celtic Barrows, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon MSS., <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Period, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> to <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Personal Ornaments, <a href="#Page_233">233</a> to <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Poem of Beowulf, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Population, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Anglo-Saxon Pottery, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> to <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> -<li>Animal Bones, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> -<li>Arbor-Low, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> -<li>Arica, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> -<li>Armlets, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li>Armour, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> -<li>Arrow-heads, Bronze, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li>Arrow-heads, Flint, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Artis, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Ash, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> -<li>Ashborne, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> -<li>Ashbury, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> -<li>Avisford, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> -<li>Axe-heads, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, et seq.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Balidon Moor, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> -<li>Ballynageerah, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> -<li>Banquet, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> -<li>Barlaston, <a href="#Page_258">258</a> to <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> -<li>Barrows, distribution of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> -<li>Barrows, Elliptical, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> -<li>Barrows, Long, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li>Barrows, meaning of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Barrows, (see Grave-mounds)</li> -<li>Barrows, Twin, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li>Bartlow, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> -<li>Basin, Stone, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> -<li>Baslow, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> -<li>Bateman, T., <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> -<li>Bath, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -<li>Battley, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li>Beads, Amber, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> -<li>Beads, Clay, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> -<li>Beads, Glass, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> -<li>Beads, Jet, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_233">233</a> to <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> -<li>Bells, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> -<li>Benty Grange, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> -<li>Beowulf, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> -<li>Berkshire, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> -<li>Berriew, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li>Bishopstoke, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> -<li>Blake-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span></li> -<li>Blind-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Boar-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Boar, Sacred, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> to <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> -<li>Bone Implements, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> to <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li>Bonsall, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> -<li>Borther-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Bottles-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Boulders, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> -<li>Bourne Park, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> -<li>Bowls, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> -<li>Boxes, Bronze, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> -<li>Boyne, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> -<li>Brassington Moor, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li>Brennanstown, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Brier Low, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li>Briggs, J. J., <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> -<li>Bronze Bowls, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> -<li>Bronze Box, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> -<li>Bronze Celts, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> to <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -<li>Bronze Daggers, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -<li>Bronze Pins, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> -<li>Brooch (see Fibulæ)</li> -<li>Broseley, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> -<li>Broughton, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> -<li>Brown-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Buckets, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> -<li>Buckles, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> -<li>Burnt Bones, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> to <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li>Buxton, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Caerleon, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -<li>Calais Wold, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> -<li>Caldon-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Cal-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Calver-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Cambridgeshire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> -<li>Carvoran, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> -<li>Casking-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Castleford, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> -<li>Castor <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li>Castor Potter’s Kiln, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li>Castor Pottery, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> to <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li>Cellarer, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> -<li>Celtic or Ancient British Period, <a href="#Page_6">6</a> to <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> -<li>Celtic Bone Articles, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> to <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li>Celtic Bronze Celts, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> to <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -<li>Celtic Bronze Daggers, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> -<li>Celtic Chambered Tumuli, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> to <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li>Celtic Coins, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> -<li>Celtic Cromlechs, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> to <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li>Celtic Flint Implements, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> to <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> -<li>Celtic Gold Articles, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -<li>Celtic Interments, <a href="#Page_6">6</a> to <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> -<li>Celtic Jet Articles, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> to <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> -<li>Celtic Pottery, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> to <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li>Celtic Stone Circles, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> to <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li>Celtic Stone Implements, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> to <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> -<li>Celts, Bronze, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> to <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -<li>Celts, Flint, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> -<li>Celts, Stone, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> -<li>Cemeteries, Roman, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Cemeteries, Kingston, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> -<li>Cemeteries, Kings Newton, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Cemeteries, Saxon, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Chain-work, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> -<li>Chambers, Sepulchral, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> -<li>Chambered Tumuli, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> to <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li>Chambers of Stone, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> to <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Channel Islands, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Châtelaines, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> -<li>Chatham, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li>Chelmorton-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Chester, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> -<li>Chesters, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -<li>Chestersovers, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> -<li>Chesterton, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> -<li>Chest, Stone, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Chisels, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> -<li>Chun Cromlech, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> -<li>Church Sterndale, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> -<li>Cinerary Urns, Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Cinerary Urns, Celtic, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a> to <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> -<li>Cinerary Urns, Frankish, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> -<li>Cinerary Urns, Romano-British, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Circles of Stone, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> to <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li>Circles of (see Stone Circles)</li> -<li>Cist, Stone, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> -<li>Clay Coffins, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> -<li>Cloth, Burial in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> -<li>Cloth, Interment in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> -<li>Cloth, Woollen Garment, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> -<li>Cochét, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> -<li>Cock-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Coffins, Clay, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span></li> -<li>Coffins, Lead, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> -<li>Coffins, Stone, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> -<li>Coffins, Tile, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> -<li>Coffins, Wood, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> -<li>Coins, Ancient British, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> -<li>Coins, Roman, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> -<li>Coins, Saxon, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> -<li>Colchester, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li>Colchester, Vase, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> -<li>Cold Eaton, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> -<li>Combs, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> -<li>Contracted Positions, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Cop-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Cornwall, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li>Counters, <a href="#Page_292">292</a> to <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> -<li>Cow Dale, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> -<li>Cow-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> -<li>Craike Hill, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li>Cremation, Interments by, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Cromlech, Ballynageerah, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Brennanstown, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Chun, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, De Tus, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Drumloghan, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Gaulstown, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Gib Hill, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Glencullen, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Howth, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Kells, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Kilternan, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Kits Coty House, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Knockeen, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Knock Mary, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, L’Ancresse, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Lanyon, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Minning-Low, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Molfra, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Monasterboise, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Mount Brown, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Mount Venus, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Plas Newydd, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Rathkenny, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Shandanagh, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Cromlech, Zennor, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> -<li>Cronkstone-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Cross, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> -<li>Cup-bearer, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Daggers, Bronze, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -<li>Daggers, Flint, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Daggers, Iron, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> -<li>Danish interments, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> to <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li>Darley Dale, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -<li>Dars-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Dartmoor, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li>Darwen, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> -<li>Davis, Dr., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> -<li>Derbyshire Barrows, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Devonshire, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li>Dewlish, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> -<li>Dice, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> -<li>Discs, enamelled, etc., <a href="#Page_260">260</a> to <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> -<li>Dominoes, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> -<li>Dorsetshire Barrows, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> -<li>Double interments, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> -<li>Dove Dale, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li>Dow-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Dowth, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li>Drake-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Draughtboard, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> -<li>Draughtmen, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> -<li>Draughts, Game, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> -<li>Drinking Cup, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> to <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> -<li>Druidical Circles, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> to <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li>Durobrivian Pottery, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> to <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Earl Stemdale, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li>Ear-picks, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> -<li>East-Low Hill, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> -<li>East-Moor, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li>Elk-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li>Ely, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li>Enamelled Discs, etc., <a href="#Page_260">260</a> to <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> -<li>Enamels, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Enamels, Chinese, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> -<li>Enamels, Roman, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> -<li>Enamels, Saxon, <a href="#Page_260">260</a> to <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> -<li>End-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Envermeu, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> -<li>Extended positions, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, et seq.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fairford, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> -<li>Fairholt, F.W., <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> -<li>Farlow, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Faussett Collection, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> -<li>Fibulæ, Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_266">266</a> to <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> -<li>Fibulæ, Roman, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> to <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> -<li>Fimber, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> -<li>Flax Dale, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span></li> -<li>Fleming, G., <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> -<li>“Flint-Jack,” <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li>Flint Acutely Angled, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> -<li>Flint Barbed Arrow-heads, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> -<li>Flint Celts, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> -<li>Flint Dagger-blades, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> -<li>Flint Flakes, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> -<li>Flint Implements, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> to <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> -<li>Flint Leaf-shaped, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> -<li>Flint Notched, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> -<li>Flint Thumb, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> -<li>Flint Various, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> -<li>Food Vessels, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> to <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li>Foo Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Fowse-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Fox-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Frankish Pottery, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> -<li>Froggatt Edge, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Galley-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Garment, Woollen, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> -<li>Gaulstown, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> -<li>Germany, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li>Gib-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Gilton, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> -<li>Girdle-hangers, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> -<li>Girdle-Ornaments, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> -<li>Glass, Ale, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> -<li>Glass, Beads, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a> to <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> -<li>Glass, Bowls, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> -<li>Glass, Decanters (?) <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> -<li>Glass, Lachrymatories, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> -<li>Glass, Roman, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> to <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> -<li>Glass, Saxon, <a href="#Page_228">228</a> to <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> -<li>Glass, Sepulchral Vessels, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> -<li>Glass, Tumblers, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> -<li>Glencullen, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Gloucester, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li>Gloucestershire, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> -<li>Gold Articles, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a> to <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> -<li>Gold Drops, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> -<li>Gold Torques, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> to <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> -<li>Gospel Hillock, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> -<li>Grave-mounds, Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> to <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> -<li>Grave-mounds, Celtic, <a href="#Page_6">6</a> to <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -<li>Grave-mounds, Construction of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> to <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> to <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> -<li>Grave-mounds, Danish (?) <a href="#Page_44">44</a> to <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li>Grave-mounds, Distribution of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> -<li>Grave-mounds, Romano-British, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> to <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li>Great-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Green-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li>Grimthorpe, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> -<li>Grinders (see Querns)</li> -<li>Grind-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li>Gris-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Gristhorpe, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li>Grub-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Gruter, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> -<li>Guernsey, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li>Gunthorpe, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Haddon, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> -<li>Hair-pins, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> -<li>Hammer-head, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Hampshire, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -<li>Hand-mills, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> -<li>Hard-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Har-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Hartington, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li>Hartle Moor, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li>Hatchet, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li>Hathersage Moor, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li>Hawks-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Hay Top, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li>Helmets, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Herns-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>High-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>High-Needham, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li>Hitter Hill, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> -<li>Hob Hurst’s House, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> -<li>Hog’s Bones, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -<li>Horning-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Horse-shoes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> -<li>Horsley, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> -<li>Houe, meaning of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Howth, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Huck-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Immolation of Infants, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li>Immolation of Slaves, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li>Immolation of Wives, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li>Incense Cups, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> to <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li>Inscriptions, Sepulchral, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> -<li>Interment by Cremation, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Interment by Inhumation, <a href="#Page_11">11</a> to <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, et seq. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span></li> -<li>Interment in Cloth, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> -<li>Interment in Skin, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> -<li>Interment in Tree-Coffins, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> to <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li>Interment in Pit, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li>Inverted Urns, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> -<li>Ireland, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Javelins, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> -<li>Jet, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> to <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li>Jet, Necklaces, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> -<li>Jet, Pendants, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li>Jet, Ring, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li>Jet, Studs, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li>Jutland, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kells, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> -<li>Kens-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Kent, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> -<li>Keys, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> -<li>Kilkenny, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Kilternan, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Kingsholme, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> -<li>Kingston, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> -<li>Kings Newton, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> to <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> -<li>Kirk Michael, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> -<li>Kit’s Coty House, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> -<li>Kneeling position, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Knives, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> -<li>Knock-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Knok Mary, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Knot-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lady-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Laidman’s-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Lake Dwellings, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> -<li>Lamp, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li>Lancashire, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> -<li>Lapwing Hill, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> -<li>Lark’s-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Lead Coffins, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> -<li>Lead Ore, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> -<li>Lead Pigs of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> -<li>Lead Smelting, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> -<li>Lean-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Leckhampton, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> -<li>Lewes, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> -<li>Liffs-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> -<li>Lillebonne, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> -<li>Lincoln, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> -<li>Lincolnshire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> -<li>Lindenschmidt, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> -<li>Little Chester, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> -<li>Locks, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> -<li>Lollius, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> -<li>Lomber-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Londinières, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> -<li>London, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Long Low, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> -<li>Lord’s Down, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> -<li>Low, meaning of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Low, (see Grave-mounds)</li> -<li>Lowsey-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Lukis, Capt. <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> -<li>Lukis, F. C., <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mail, Coat of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> -<li>Mauls, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Mayence, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> -<li>May-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Medway, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li>Mick-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Mickleover, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> -<li>Middleton, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> -<li>Minning-Low, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> -<li>Mirrors, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> -<li>Modelling Tools, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> -<li>Money-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Monsal Dale, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> -<li>Mortimer, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> -<li>Moot-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li>Mount Brown, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Mount Venus, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Musden-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Mutti-Low Hill, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nail-cleaners, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> -<li>Necklace, Glass, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Necklace, Jet, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> to <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li>Necklace, Jet, and Bone, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> -<li>Needham-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Needwood, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> -<li>Nen, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li>Nether-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>New Forest, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li>New Grange, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li>Newhaven, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> -<li>Normandy, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> -<li>North Elmham, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> -<li>Northumberland, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> -<li>Nowth, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ochre, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li>Off-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Oghams, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> -<li>Otterham Creek, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li>Over Haddon, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> -<li>Oxfordshire, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li>Ox-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Ozengall, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Painstor-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Palstaves, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li>Paradis, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li>Parcelly Hay, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> -<li>Pars-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Parwich, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> -<li>Peg-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Pendants, Bone, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li>Pendants, Enamelled, etc., <a href="#Page_260">260</a> to <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> -<li>Pendants, Gold, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> -<li>Pendants, Jet, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> to <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li>Penannular Brooch (see Fibulæ)</li> -<li>Phœnix Park, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Pigtor-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Pike-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Pinch-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Pins, Hair, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> -<li>Pit Interments, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li>Plymouth, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> -<li>Pottery, Amphoræ, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> -<li>Pottery, Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> to <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> -<li>Pottery, Celtic, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> to <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -<li>Pottery, Domestic Vessels, etc., <a href="#Page_170">170</a> to <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> -<li>Pottery, Drinking Cups, Celtic, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> to <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> -<li>Pottery, Durobrivian or Castor, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> to <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li>Pottery, Food Vessels, Celtic, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> to <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li>Pottery, Frankish, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> to <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> -<li>Pottery, Hampshire, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> -<li>Pottery, Handled Cups, Celtic, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li>Pottery, “Incense Cups,” Celtic, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> to <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li>Potters’ Kilns, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> -<li>Potters’ Marks, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> -<li>Potters’ Mortaria, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> -<li>Potters’ Punches, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> -<li>Potters’ Sepulchral Urns, Celtic, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a> to <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> -<li>Potters’ Sepulchral Urns, Roman, <a href="#Page_156">156</a> et seq.</li> -<li>Potters’ Sepulchral Urns, Saxon, <a href="#Page_215">215</a> to <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> -<li>Potters’ Stamps, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> -<li>Potters’ Unguentaria, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> to <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> -<li>Potters, Manufacture of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> to <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> -<li>Potters, Romano-British, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> to <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> -<li>Potters, Salopian, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li>Potters, Samian, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a> to <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> -<li>Potters, Upchurch, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li>Potters, Yorkshire, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Queen-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Querns, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a> (see also Grinders and Triturating Stones)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rains-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Rangoon, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> -<li>Rats’ Bones, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> -<li>Ravens-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Red Ochre, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li>Repton, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> -<li>Ribden-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Rick-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Rigollot, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> -<li>Ringham-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> -<li>Rings, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> -<li>Rings, Jet, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li>Rochester, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> -<li>Rocky-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Rollrich, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li>Rolly-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> -<li>Roman Arms, etc., <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Roman Cemeteries, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Roman Coins, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> -<li>Roman Coins, as payment for passage over Styx, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> -<li>Roman Glass <a href="#Page_184">184</a> to <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> -<li>Roman Personal Ornaments, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Roman Population, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Roman Pottery, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> to <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> -<li>Romano-British Period, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> to <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li>Rouge, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li>Round-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> -<li>Roundway Hill, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li>Rusden-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Runes, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sacrifice of Infants, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span></li> -<li>Sacrifice of Slaves, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li>Sacrifice of Wives, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li>Saint-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Salona, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> -<li>Salopian Pottery, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li>Samian Ware, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> to <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> -<li>Sancreed, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li>Sarcophagus, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Scales and Weights, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> -<li>Scambridge, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> -<li>Scarborough, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li>Scissors, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> -<li>Scrapers of Flint, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> -<li>Seax, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Selzen, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> -<li>Selzen, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> -<li>Sepulchral remains, Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> to <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> -<li>Sepulchral remains, Celtic, <a href="#Page_1">1</a> to <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> -<li>Sepulchral remains, Frankish, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> -<li>Sepulchral remains, Danish, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> to <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li>Sepulchral remains, Romano-British, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> to <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li>Sepulchral Chambers, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> -<li>Sepulchral Glass, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> -<li>Sepulchral Inscriptions, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> -<li>Sepulchral Urns (see Cinerary Urns)</li> -<li>Shandanagh, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> -<li>Shears, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> -<li>Shields, <a href="#Page_243">243</a> to <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> -<li>Shields, Umbones of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> -<li>Shields, from MSS., <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> -<li>Shuttlestone-Low, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> -<li>Sibertswold, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> -<li>Sitting-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Sitting position, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Skeleton, positions of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Skins, interment in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> -<li>Skull, Hitter Hill, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> -<li>Skull, distributions of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> -<li>Skull, Long-Low, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> -<li>Skull, Gristhorpe, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li>Sliper-Low, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li>Smerrill Moor, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> -<li>Smith, C. R., <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> -<li>Southfleet, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> -<li>Spear-heads, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> -<li>Spindle-whorls, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> -<li>Staden-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Staffordshire Barrows, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> -<li>Stan-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Stanshope, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -<li>Stanton Moor, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> -<li>Sterndale, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> -<li>Stone Chambers, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> to <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Stone Circles, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> to <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Abney Moor, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Abury, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Arbor-Low, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Berriew, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Boscawen-Un, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Brassington Moor, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Channel Islands, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Cornish, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Dartmoor, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, East Moor, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Elk-Low, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Eyam Moor, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Flax Dale, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, formation of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Froggatt Edge, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Haitle Moor, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Hathersage Moor, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Isle of Man, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Mule Hill, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, “Nine Ladies,” <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Penmeanmaur, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Rollrich, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Sancreed, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Stanton Moor, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li>Stone Circles, Trewavas, Head, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li>Stone Cists, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Stone Coffins, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Stone Implements of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Stone, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> -<li>Stoney Littleton, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> -<li>Stonehenge, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li>Stowborough, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li>Strigils, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li>Studs, Bone, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,<a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li>Studs, Jet, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li>Sussex, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> -<li>Suttee, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> -<li>Sutton Brow, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span></li> -<li>Swinscoe, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> -<li>Swiss Lake Villages, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> -<li>Swords, Roman, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> -<li>Swords Saxon, <a href="#Page_236">236</a> to <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> -<li>Swords from MSS., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> -<li>Swordsman, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Taddington, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> -<li>Tara Brooch, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> -<li>Thirkel-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Thirsk, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> -<li>Thoo-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li>Three-Lows, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li>Thumb Flints, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> -<li>Tile Tombs, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> -<li>Tissington, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> -<li>Toothpicks, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> -<li>Torques, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> to <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> -<li>Totmans-Low, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Tree-Coffins, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li>Trentham, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> -<li>Triturating Stones, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> -<li class="isub1">(see also “Querns”)</li> -<li>Tump, meaning of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li>Tumuli, Chambered, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> to <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub1">(see Grave-mounds)</li> -<li>Tumulus, Etruscan, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li>Twin-Barrows, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li>Tweezers, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Uley, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> -<li>Umbones of Shields, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> -<li>Upchurch, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Upchurch, Pottery, <a href="#Page_162">162</a> to <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li>Upright position, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Uriconium, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, (see also Wroxeter)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Vale, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li>Vole, Water, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ward-Low, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> -<li>Warry-Low, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li>Water Rat, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> -<li>Water Vole, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> -<li>Wath, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li>Wedgwood, F., <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> -<li>Weights, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> -<li>Wellbeloved, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> -<li>Wellow, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> -<li>West Lodge, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> -<li>Westwood, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> -<li>Wetton, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li>Whetstones, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> -<li>White-Low, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li>Willoughby, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li>Wilson, C. C., <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> -<li>Wiltshire Barrows, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li>Winster, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> -<li>Withery-Low, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li>Woolaton, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> -<li>Woollen Cloth, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> -<li>Wool-Low, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li>Worsaae, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> -<li>Worsley, Miss, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> -<li>Wright, T., <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, et seq., <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> -<li>Wroxeter, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a> to <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li>Wyaston, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> -<li>Wye, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> -<li>Wykeham, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Yarns-Low, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li>York, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, et seq.</li> -<li>Yorkshire Barrows, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li>Yorkshire Pottery, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li>Youlgreave, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li></ul> -</div> - -<h3>Watson & Hazell, Printers, London and Aylesbury. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span></h3> - -<p class="ph1"><span class="large">Dedicated to the Right Hon. LORD LYTTON.<br /> - -<i>In One handsome Volume, Foolscap 4to., cloth gilt, price 25s</i>.</span><br /> - -<span class="gesperrt">WOMANKIND</span><br /> - -<span class="x-large">IN WESTERN EUROPE,</span><br /> - -<span class="x-large antiqua">from the Earliest Ages to the Seventeenth Century.</span><br /> - -<span class="large"><b>By THOMAS WRIGHT, M.A., F.S.A.</b></span><br /> - -<span class="large">Illustrated with numerous Coloured Plates and Wood -Engravings.</span></p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>“It is something more than a drawing-room ornament. It is an -elaborate and careful summary of all that one of our most learned antiquaries, -after years of pleasant labour, on a very pleasant subject, has -been able to learn as to the condition of women from the earliest times. -It is beautifully illustrated, both in colours—mainly from ancient illuminations—and -also by a profusion of woodcuts, portraying the various -fashions by which successive ages of our history have been marked.”—<i>The -Times</i>.</p> - -<p>“We should be at a loss to find words of excessive praise for the -learning, judgment, and delicate art with which the author has gathered, -arranged, and presented the multifarious materials of a fascinating narrative, -that would be told effectively by the embellishments of the book, -even if the illustrations were not accompanied with words of explanatory -text.”—<i>Athenæum</i>.</p> - -<p>“This is much more than a pretty illustrated book. It is a repertory -of antiquarian literature on the costume, social habits, domestic pursuits, -and position of the sex, and the illustrations are from all sorts of -recondite sources—MS. illuminations of the Romances, Psalters, and -Chronicles. It reflects great credit on the writer, whose vast stores of -information and research have been, in this instance, well employed. -The volume is quite an encyclopædia on a special subject.”—<i>Saturday -Review</i>.</p> - -<p>“As a work of art, no less than of literary elucidation, this book is -perfect in all its parts, and most honourable to its publishers.... The -letterpress enhances the value of the work itself a hundredfold, as -might have been expected from so well known and learned an antiquarian -as Mr. Wright, whose participation in so choice a work makes it in -every respect worthy of a place in every public and well-selected library, -where art and literature are alike patronized and admired.”—<i>Bell’s -Weekly Messenger</i>.</p> - -<p>“We cannot justly class Mr. Wright’s ‘Womankind’ amongst the -ephemeral books of the season; yet it is admirably suited to answer the -purpose of a gift-book—and much more; and it would be unfair to -leave it until its less solid neighbours had been cleared out of hand. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span> -The high antiquarian renown of the author would alone guarantee that -we should have no frivolous, superficial dissertation on the mere outward -phenomena of ‘femininity’ in past times—no mere sentimental -declamation in favour of woman’s advancement to a social place which -she never before claimed. On the contrary, we have a faithful, unshrinking, -photographically minute account of the relations between -women and men, and of female manners, dress, social duties, and position, -literary achievements, and participation in public life, from the -date at which authentic history takes cognizance of the condition of the -European nations.... Mr. Wright’s ‘Womankind’—like the ideal of -the gentle sex—is fitted, not for the festive season alone, but for every -time.”—<i>Daily Telegraph.</i></p> - -<p>“The author’s name, on whatever subject he writes, is a guarantee -for thorough scholarship, solid information, lucid exposition, and careful -delineation; and in this work all these qualities are conspicuous. Mr. -Wright believes, and with good reason, ‘that a history of the female -sex, in that particular division of mankind to which we ourselves -belong, would not be unacceptable to the general reader.’ Such a history -he has here produced, and in doing so, has left nothing to be desired.... -In every sense this is a splendid book, for which we heartily -thank Mr. Wright.”—<i>Illustrated Times.</i></p> - -<p>“Never has history been made more charming than in this excellent -volume. Whatever page is opened, some pleasant little narrative, historic -or romantic; some sketch of the womankind of Chaucer’s days, or -of the heroines of the Romaunt of the Rose; some striking pictures of -Anglo-Saxon life, or some quaint costumes, or ever-changing fashions, -constantly attract, and interest, and inform.”—<i>Birmingham Daily Post.</i></p> - -<p>“To the general public, the appearance of such a work is a surprise, -the more agreeable because, while it is the work of an accomplished -scholar, who has nowhere deviated from the scholar’s path to win -ephemeral applause, it nevertheless appeals to universal sympathies, -and so abounds in attractions as to demand to be regarded as emphatically -<i>the</i> book of the season.”—<i>Gardeners’ Magazine.</i></p> - -<p>“Externally and internally it is absolutely splendid, the binding and -illustrations being a perfect marvel of beauty and richness. But in the -interest of its subject, as well as in its mode of treatment, Mr. Wright’s -present work will command the respect and praise of the man of letters -and the philosopher, quite as much as it is sure to enlist the sympathies -and extort the admiration of a less exacting class of readers. The -book is beautifully written, the style being at once chaste and ornate.”—<i>Eddowes’s -Shrewsbury Journal.</i></p> - -<p>“It is one of the most interesting, instructive, and valuable books of -the nineteenth century. At this particular period of the agitation of -woman’s rights, we may say in truth that this book is a treasury of -knowledge to the historian, the politician, the moral philosopher, and -the reformer; while, at the same time, in its romantic incidents illustrative -of social life in different ages of Western Europe, it surpasses in -interest the most skilful and attractive fictions of the day.”—<i>New York -Morning Herald.</i></p> - -<h3>GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW, -LONDON.</h3> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<h2 id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES:</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a> -Of this stone circle, one of the next in importance to Stonehenge, -an account will be given in a future chapter.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a> -This remarkable barrow was excavated by Mr. Warne, and a fully -detailed account given by him in his valuable work, the “Celtic Antiquities -of Dorset,” from which the illustration is taken.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a> -See Crania Britannica, one of the most valuable ethnological works -ever issued.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a> -It will be well to bear in mind that when “rats’ bones” are mentioned, -it must be understood that they are the bones, not of the common rat, -but of the water-vole or water-rat. They are very abundant in Derbyshire -barrows, and, indeed, are so frequently found in them, that their -presence in a mound is considered to be a certain indication of the presence -of human remains. “The barrows of Derbyshire, a hilly, almost -mountainous, county, abounding with beautiful brooks and rills, inhabited -by the water-vole, were made use of for its <i>hybernacula</i>, or winter -retreats, into which it stored its provisions, and where it passed its time -during the cold and frosty season. It is a rodent, or gnawer, or vegetable -eater, and, as I have described elsewhere, has a set of grinding-teeth -of the utmost beauty, and fitted most admirably for the food on which it -lives. The part of the matter which is curious to the antiquary is, that -the bones in Derbyshire barrows are frequently perceived to have been -gnawed by the scalpri-form incisors of these animals. I have endeavoured -to explain, in the note referred to, that all the rodents amuse themselves, -or possibly preserve their teeth in a naturally useful state, and themselves -in health, by gnawing any object that comes in their way. -This is well known to every boy who keeps rabbits. I remember, some -years ago, seeing a very fine black squirrel in the house of a workman in this -town, which had been sent him by his son from Canada. It was found -that it was impossible to keep this animal in any wooden house. He -would gnaw a road out of the strongest wooden cage that could be made -for him, in a few hours. In consequence, his owner made him a <i>tin cage</i>, -in which he was kept securely. In confirmation of what I have said respecting -the water-voles, vegetable feeders, gnawing the bones of the -ancient Britons in barrows, I may refer to Linnæus’s most interesting -<i>Tour in Lapland</i>. When in Lycksele, Lapland, June 1, he describes the -<i>Kodda</i>, or hut of the Laplander, and incidentally remarks, “Everywhere -around the huts I observed horns of the reindeer lying neglected, and it -is remarkable that they were gnawed, and sometimes half devoured, by -squirrels.”—I. 127. That is, if anything were truly devoured, it was the -antlers, not the bodies. “The bones of the <i>Arvicola</i>, or water-vole, were -found in the exploration of the colossal tumulus of Fontenay de Marmion, -which was one of the galleried tumuli, opened in 1829, near Caen in -Normandy. It belonged to the primeval period of the ancient Gauls.—Mem. -de la Soc. des Antiq. de Normandie, 1831-3, p. 282.”—<i>Dr. Davis.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">5</a> -See Note on the Distortions which present themselves in the crania -of the Ancient Britons, by J. Barnard Davis, M.D., in the “Natural -History Review” for July, 1862, page 290.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">6</a> -The elliptical form was evidently, in this case, the result of accident. -The original mound had been circular, but the elongated form had been -the consequence of successive interments.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">7</a> -Plate II., Decade 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">8</a> -Journal of the British Archæological Association, vol. i, p. 25.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">9</a> -“Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 78.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">10</a> -There are in Derbyshire lead mines worked at the present day which -were worked, at all events, in the Romano-British period. Roman coins, -fibulæ, and other remains are occasionally found in them.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">11</a> -“Ten Years’ Diggings.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">12</a> -Although I am describing the position in which the urns have been -placed, it must not for a moment be supposed that they are often found -in a perfect state, or in the position in which they have originally been -placed. On the contrary, the urns are usually very much crushed, and -not unfrequently, from pressure of the superincumbent mass of stones -and earth, are found on their sides, and crushed flat.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">13</a> -This skull has been most skilfully figured in “Crania Britannica,” -where it is carefully described and compared with other examples by Dr. -Davis, who gives an admirable account of the discoveries at Long-Low, -and of the characteristics of the different crania found there. Of the -skull here shown Dr. Davis says it is “remarkably regular, narrow, and -long; of good shape, medium thickness, and presenting few of the -harsh peculiarities of the ancient British race; on the contrary, there is -about it an air of slenderness and refinement. In some features it assimilates -to the modern English cranium, although decidedly narrow, whilst -its genuine and remote antiquity is determined by unquestioned evidence. -It belongs, in an eminent degree, to the class of dolichocephalic -skulls, and is the cranium of a man of about forty years of -age.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">14</a> -Described in the “Reliquary,” vol. ix.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">15</a> -For a full account of this discovery see the “Reliquary,” vol. vi. -page 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">16</a> -This woollen cloth must be regarded as a <i>woven</i> texture, but -whether it were woven in so artificial a machine as a loom may be -questioned. A great variety of contrivances have been used for weaving, -<i>i.e.</i>, crossing alternately threads passed in opposite directions, the -warp and the woof, by what are called <i>savage</i> races. Still it is not -at all improbable that a people so advanced in pastoral habits, possessed -some machine for weaving, bearing a relation to a primitive loom. Both -warp and woof are composed, as might be expected, of a simply spun -thread of one strand. Perforated stones are found in British and Danish -barrows, and perforated pieces of earthenware in the Swiss Lake villages, -even of the stone period, which are regarded as spindle-whorls.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">17</a> -It is worthy of remark, that this noble mound, with its very early -interments, has been made a place of sepulture in more recent times, -many Roman coins and remains of that period having been found there.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">18</a> -These immense monoliths have originally, it is estimated, been -upwards of thirty in number, and to have been placed probably ten yards -apart. The largest remaining stone stands between eight and nine feet -above the ground, and is seventeen feet in circumference. It is estimated -to weigh upwards of seven tons. Several of the stones have entirely -disappeared, of others fragments remain scattered about.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">19</a> -For an excellent notice of this and other remains, the reader is referred -to Mr. W. F. Wakeman’s “Handbook of Irish Antiquities,”—the -best and most compact little work on the subject which has been issued, -and one which will be found extremely useful to the archæological student—to -which I am indebted for some of the accompanying engravings.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">20</a> -For the loan of these seven engravings I am indebted to the -Council of the “Historical and Archæological Association of Ireland,” -(formerly the “Kilkenny and South-east of Ireland Archæological -Society,”) in whose journal—one of the most valuable of antiquarian -publications—they have appeared. This Association is one of the most -useful that has ever been established, and deserves the best support, not -only of Irish, but of English antiquaries.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">21</a> -F. C. Lukis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">22</a> -Vol. i. p. 142.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">23</a> -T. Wright.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">24</a> -“Archæological Journal,” vol xi., p. 315.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">25</a> -For articles upon this subject see the “Reliquary, Quarterly Archæological -Journal and Review,” vol. ii., pages 61 to 70; and Mr. Bateman’s -“Ten Years’ Diggings,” page 279.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">26</a> -This barrow has been admirably described in that magnificent work, -“<span class="smcap">Crania Britannica</span>,”—a work which every ethnologist and antiquary -ought to possess, and which contains far more information than any -other book extant. The following extract from the work explains the -section:— -</p> -<p><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">“Above this cist a cairn of fragments of sandstone had been raised</span><br /> -most likely before interments by cremation were practised on the spot. -The dark horizontal line of our woodcut indicates the situation of a -stratum of burnt earth traversing the barrow at this height. Funereal -rites, by incineration, had evidently been celebrated on this surface; -which was scattered over with a thin layer of wood-charcoal. In the -centre of the barrow, and resting upon this carbonaceous deposit, stood -a fine urn of dark British pottery, 11 inches high, and 9 at its greatest -diameter at the top; not in the more commonly inverted, but in an upright -position. It is ornamented in the usual style of lineal impressions, -most probably made by a twisted thong of untanned leather, with rows -of lines, alternately upright and horizontal, around the upper division; -and in the middle the lines are varied into the zigzag, having distinct -<i>crosses</i> and other impressions in the intervals. It contained calcined -bones in a clean state, and mingled with them a portion of the jaw of -some animal; bones of the water-vole (<i>Arvicola amphibius</i>, Desmar.), -so common in the Derbyshire barrows; a bone pin, 4 inches in length, -and finely pointed; and a flint arrow-head; all calcined. The urn was -closed by a large flat stone, the two ends of which rested upon side -walls, so as to protect the deposit, and secure it from superincumbent -pressure. Did this urn contain the inconsiderable yet sacred remains of -one whose devotion in life the distinguished dead below had oft experienced—one -who held life itself subordinate to his fate? The fearful -conjecture seems not by any means improbable.</p> - -<p>“Interred in the soil above this portion of the barrow, and lying -amongst loose stones, the remains of four other skeletons occurred, -placed in the primitive flexed position. One of these had apparently -been disturbed at no long period subsequent to interment, and the bones -laid in order before they had become decayed—a practice adopted by -some uncivilized people in more modern times.</p> - -<p>“This barrow of the British period presents unquestionable evidences -of very primeval times, and contained the relics of a true aboriginal inhabitant -of these islands, piously laid in his last resting-place with great -care, but in all rude simplicity. It is rich in instruction, and marked by -precise phases of information. It shows almost certainly the contemporaneous -adoption of inhumation and cremation—the latter, perhaps, -yielding to the first a short precedency; or possibly, in this instance, a -rite of the nature of a “Suttee,” and subordinate to the former.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">27</a> -Warne’s “Celtic Tumuli of Dorsetshire.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">28</a> -<i>Celt</i>, from <i>Celtis</i>, a chisel.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">29</a> -This is one of the largest examples which have been found. It is -in my own collection, having been most kindly presented to me by the -Hon. and Rev. C. Willoughby.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">30</a> -For a lengthened description and classification of the various forms -of stone implements, the reader is referred to a new work, “The Ancient -Stone Implements of Great Britain,” by that able antiquary, Mr. John -Evans, the author of the admirable volume on “Ancient British Coins,” -by which his name is so well known.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">31</a> -For a memoir, with portrait, of this remarkable character, and an -account of his doings, see the <i>Reliquary</i>, vol, viii., p. 65, <i>et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">32</a> -“Ten Years’ Diggings.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">33</a> -<i>Reliquary</i> for October, 1861.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">34</a> -“Nec habet quem porrigat ore trientem.”—<span class="smcap">Juvenal.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">35</a> -The skull of one of these, an excellent typical example of a Roman -in the very prime of life, is engraved in “Crania Britannica,” pl. 30.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">36</a> -See example in the York museum.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">37</a> -“Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. iii., p. 45.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">38</a> -“Proceedings of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society;” Wellbeloved’s -“Eburacum;” “Crania Britannica,” etc.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">39</a> -Now in the Bateman Museum.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">40</a> -See the <i>Reliquary</i>, vol. iv., p. 185.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">41</a> -In the <i>Intellectual Observer</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">42</a> -See Mr. Roach Smith’s interesting account of this vase in the “Collectanea -Antiqua,” vol. iv., pp. 82-89.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">43</a> -Wright.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">44</a> -Thomas Wright.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">45</a> -Wright.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">46</a> -For an interesting account of these potteries, see Wise’s “New -Forest.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">47</a> -For a detailed account of all the different pot-works and their productions, -see my “Ceramic Art in England.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">48</a> -C. R. Smith.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">49</a> -Shields.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">50</a> -Armour.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">51</a> -A detailed account of this discovery will be found, from the pens of -Mr. Briggs, the Editor, and others, in the “Reliquary,” vol. ix.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">52</a> -Coat of mail.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">53</a> -C. R. Smith.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">54</a> -See the “Reliquary Quarterly Archæological Journal and Review,” -vol. ix. p. 180.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">55</a> -“Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 28.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">56</a> -“Vestiges,” p. 24.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">57</a> -For a more extended and fully illustrated account of penannular -brooches, the reader is referred to the “Reliquary,” vol. iii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">58</a> -“Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 231.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="transnote"> - -<h3>Transcriber's Note:</h3> - -<p>Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.</p> - -<p>One instance of unpaired double quotation marks in the original -was not corrrected.</p> -</div> - -<p> </p> -<p> </p> -<hr class="full" /> -<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS***</p> -<p>******* This file should be named 52906-h.htm or 52906-h.zip *******</p> -<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/5/2/9/0/52906">http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/9/0/52906</a></p> -<p> -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed.</p> - -<p>Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. -</p> - -<h2 class="pg">START: FULL LICENSE<br /> -<br /> -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE<br /> -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</h2> - -<p>To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license.</p> - -<h3 class="pg">Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works</h3> - -<p>1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8.</p> - -<p>1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.</p> - -<p>1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others.</p> - -<p>1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States.</p> - -<p>1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:</p> - -<p>1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed:</p> - -<blockquote><p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United - States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost - no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use - it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with - this eBook or online - at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you - are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws - of the country where you are located before using this - ebook.</p></blockquote> - -<p>1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.</p> - -<p>1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work.</p> - -<p>1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.</p> - -<p>1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License.</p> - -<p>1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.</p> - -<p>1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.</p> - -<p>1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that</p> - -<ul> -<li>You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation."</li> - -<li>You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works.</li> - -<li>You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work.</li> - -<li>You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.</li> -</ul> - -<p>1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.</p> - -<p>1.F.</p> - -<p>1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment.</p> - -<p>1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE.</p> - -<p>1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem.</p> - -<p>1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.</p> - -<p>1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions.</p> - -<p>1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. </p> - -<h3 class="pg">Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm</h3> - -<p>Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life.</p> - -<p>Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org.</p> - -<h3 class="pg">Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation</h3> - -<p>The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.</p> - -<p>The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact</p> - -<p>For additional contact information:</p> - -<p> Dr. Gregory B. Newby<br /> - Chief Executive and Director<br /> - gbnewby@pglaf.org</p> - -<h3 class="pg">Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation</h3> - -<p>Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS.</p> - -<p>The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/donate">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>.</p> - -<p>While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate.</p> - -<p>International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.</p> - -<p>Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate</p> - -<h3 class="pg">Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.</h3> - -<p>Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support.</p> - -<p>Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition.</p> - -<p>Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org</p> - -<p>This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.</p> - -</body> -</html> - diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a4cf3f8..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/cover.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_10.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_10.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8df31c8..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_10.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_100.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_100.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index adaebb4..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_100.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_101.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_101.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3312332..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_101.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_102.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_102.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 712fb8e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_102.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_103.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_103.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7fc7fd7..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_103.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_104.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_104.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ba6be87..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_104.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_105.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_105.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1dd2eee..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_105.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_106.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_106.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5544611..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_106.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_107.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_107.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6aa75ca..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_107.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_108.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_108.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 92374e5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_108.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_109.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_109.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 13c5a47..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_109.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_11.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_11.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cfa86fe..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_11.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_110.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_110.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 426458a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_110.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_111.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_111.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 22cf598..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_111.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_112.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_112.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e3b4e3a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_112.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_113.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_113.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c0571bd..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_113.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_114.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_114.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b58cc98..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_114.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_115.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_115.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 03ef9b7..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_115.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_116.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_116.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c94852e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_116.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_117.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_117.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bb8e8c1..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_117.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_118.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_118.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2477141..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_118.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_119.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_119.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ab8344b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_119.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_12.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_12.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d020996..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_12.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_120.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_120.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3d675e4..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_120.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_121.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_121.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 79691c1..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_121.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_122.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_122.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4d91cda..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_122.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_123.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_123.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6712eed..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_123.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_124.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_124.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 14b953a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_124.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_125.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_125.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7b89682..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_125.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_126.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_126.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3df733d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_126.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_127.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_127.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4c9ccde..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_127.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_128.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_128.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b30e67a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_128.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_129.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_129.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0314e26..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_129.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_13.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_13.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 91f23db..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_13.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_130.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_130.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8f8f469..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_130.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_131.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_131.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 56569b1..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_131.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_132.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_132.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 693f27d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_132.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_133.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_133.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 07a49c3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_133.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_134.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_134.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3333630..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_134.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_135.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_135.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 563826f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_135.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_136.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_136.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3cc360a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_136.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_137.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_137.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index dd5956e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_137.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_138.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_138.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index da1f23c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_138.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_139.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_139.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0e9cf38..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_139.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_14.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_14.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index deb72c5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_14.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_140.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_140.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 80612f6..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_140.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_141.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_141.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 29493eb..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_141.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_142.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_142.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 50684c1..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_142.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_143.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_143.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5c7a736..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_143.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_144.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_144.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 22e4351..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_144.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_145.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_145.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d6ed463..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_145.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_146.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_146.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 58c945f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_146.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_147.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_147.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f67e27a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_147.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_148.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_148.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ba46db0..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_148.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_149.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_149.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index dbd3142..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_149.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_15.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_15.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 38a57c1..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_15.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_150.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_150.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1a913e1..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_150.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_151.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_151.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a95942f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_151.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_152.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_152.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f327bf8..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_152.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_153.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_153.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b7ab4c3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_153.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_154.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_154.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 92d8cfe..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_154.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_155.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_155.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8d1efff..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_155.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_156.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_156.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d8d330e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_156.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_157.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_157.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 27e4a43..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_157.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_158.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_158.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 800da54..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_158.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_159.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_159.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5098b13..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_159.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_16.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_16.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 92f77aa..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_16.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_160.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_160.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7b60cb3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_160.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_161.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_161.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d7b9460..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_161.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_162.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_162.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e3036a0..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_162.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_163.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_163.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 99759b3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_163.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_164.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_164.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3d2c2eb..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_164.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_165.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_165.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 968f93f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_165.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_166.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_166.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ea0fb02..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_166.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_167.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_167.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5dc1650..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_167.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_168.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_168.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8b40039..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_168.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_169.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_169.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2109db1..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_169.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_17.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_17.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 74588cf..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_17.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_170.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_170.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6042e7a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_170.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_171.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_171.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4cd55f2..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_171.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_172.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_172.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0fa2f3f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_172.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_173.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_173.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 986da8b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_173.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_174.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_174.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index eec842e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_174.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_175.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_175.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 495e3f9..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_175.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_176.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_176.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d451ed1..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_176.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_177.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_177.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 339cf9b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_177.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_178.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_178.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c71c4e9..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_178.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_179.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_179.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3d0232b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_179.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_18.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_18.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 789f437..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_18.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_180.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_180.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 585620c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_180.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_181.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_181.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index dcc7fd6..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_181.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_182.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_182.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7f995ff..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_182.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_183.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_183.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 99ded4f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_183.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_184.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_184.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e888b81..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_184.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_185.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_185.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 960f431..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_185.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_186.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_186.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5637f8d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_186.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_187.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_187.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c524356..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_187.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_188.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_188.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 154e757..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_188.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_189.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_189.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 330c38d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_189.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_19.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_19.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 541dcc2..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_19.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_190.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_190.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 22fcb02..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_190.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_191.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_191.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 122fc06..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_191.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_192.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_192.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f08bda1..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_192.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_193.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_193.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bdab265..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_193.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_194.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_194.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 51f27bc..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_194.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_195.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_195.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7683afe..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_195.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_196.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_196.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8688854..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_196.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_197.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_197.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c990e8c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_197.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_198.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_198.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 886316d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_198.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_199.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_199.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9894860..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_199.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_2.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_2.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a450ba3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_2.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_20.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_20.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9322133..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_20.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_200.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_200.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1b54b20..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_200.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_201.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_201.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index aa10a6e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_201.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_202.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_202.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5cfaf6d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_202.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_203.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_203.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e4660c5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_203.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_204.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_204.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 36b815c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_204.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_205.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_205.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5355324..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_205.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_206.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_206.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2e53bf5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_206.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_207.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_207.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1e0b7de..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_207.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_208.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_208.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cae4220..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_208.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_209.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_209.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 26463d0..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_209.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_21.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_21.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1f11886..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_21.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_210.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_210.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1b35c74..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_210.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_211.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_211.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 63ebf90..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_211.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_212.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_212.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7f4b094..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_212.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_213.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_213.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ff3e394..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_213.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_214.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_214.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a115ddc..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_214.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_215.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_215.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1978340..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_215.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_216.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_216.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ef6b2f6..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_216.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_217.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_217.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c8a4b6e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_217.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_218.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_218.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c708165..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_218.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_219.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_219.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d3f638e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_219.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_22.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_22.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 322643f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_22.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_220.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_220.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8e5e4ba..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_220.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_221.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_221.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 44f4032..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_221.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_222.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_222.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 42b3061..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_222.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_223.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_223.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a79dd83..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_223.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_224.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_224.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index acf649a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_224.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_225.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_225.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 308ed43..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_225.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_226.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_226.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e67e847..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_226.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_227.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_227.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1cde86b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_227.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_228.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_228.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bc1c984..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_228.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_229.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_229.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2d8ac6d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_229.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_23.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_23.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4187b49..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_23.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_230.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_230.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1d24acf..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_230.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_231.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_231.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index be21b12..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_231.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_232.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_232.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 39931fe..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_232.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_233.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_233.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 931da54..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_233.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_234.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_234.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 37fed60..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_234.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_235.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_235.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 023af6b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_235.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_236.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_236.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 40545ce..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_236.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_237.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_237.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1ebe227..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_237.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_238.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_238.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4c21ff0..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_238.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_239.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_239.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d239dd4..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_239.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_24.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_24.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9c5a3d2..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_24.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_240.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_240.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6bacefe..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_240.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_241.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_241.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b34cd68..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_241.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_242.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_242.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 768c907..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_242.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_243.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_243.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1e7916f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_243.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_244.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_244.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e5cc5c6..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_244.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_245.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_245.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 040cf3c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_245.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_246.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_246.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bb56a8e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_246.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_247.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_247.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 923ef26..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_247.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_248.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_248.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9b4782b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_248.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_249.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_249.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7aaa91d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_249.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_25.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_25.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 960a735..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_25.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_250.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_250.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6a73db5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_250.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_251.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_251.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c7d8186..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_251.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_252.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_252.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2757379..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_252.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_253.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_253.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c22dc9f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_253.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_254.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_254.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 93c3b2c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_254.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_255.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_255.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index de6fc4c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_255.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_256.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_256.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 32291be..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_256.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_257.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_257.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e8808be..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_257.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_258.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_258.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 08b3b2d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_258.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_259.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_259.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 22fd7db..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_259.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_26.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_26.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 08a9ee7..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_26.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_260.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_260.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2377925..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_260.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_261.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_261.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 697b958..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_261.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_262.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_262.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2d53440..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_262.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_263.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_263.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 30b6aa2..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_263.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_264.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_264.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2ba0705..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_264.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_265.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_265.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 79611bf..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_265.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_266.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_266.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a3033bb..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_266.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_267.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_267.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2354fef..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_267.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_268.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_268.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 78a7fe4..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_268.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_269.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_269.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 316fa55..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_269.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_27.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_27.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 65f4d22..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_27.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_270.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_270.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5f36a9b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_270.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_271.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_271.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index da60092..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_271.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_272.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_272.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 47dc450..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_272.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_273.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_273.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a0f965f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_273.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_274.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_274.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 866ce0b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_274.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_275.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_275.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b04a512..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_275.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_276.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_276.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ab30f4f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_276.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_277.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_277.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 65c4ecc..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_277.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_278.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_278.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7352714..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_278.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_279.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_279.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3f5bf32..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_279.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_28.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_28.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9997a5f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_28.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_280.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_280.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 05ff425..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_280.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_281.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_281.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 020da9c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_281.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_282.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_282.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 261b004..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_282.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_283.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_283.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f331a5f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_283.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_284.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_284.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a782207..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_284.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_285.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_285.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a861539..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_285.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_286.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_286.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 126591e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_286.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_287.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_287.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index aefcaed..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_287.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_288.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_288.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 847b456..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_288.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_289.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_289.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0a8cf16..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_289.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_29.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_29.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ab21ab3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_29.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_290.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_290.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2c3cc23..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_290.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_291.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_291.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a4005de..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_291.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_292.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_292.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1017db0..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_292.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_293.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_293.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b308e3b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_293.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_294.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_294.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fa05976..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_294.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_295.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_295.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0ba50f2..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_295.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_296.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_296.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 327bfba..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_296.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_297.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_297.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2666ca0..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_297.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_298.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_298.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f04cfa8..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_298.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_299.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_299.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2c43b27..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_299.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_3.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_3.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4e4d0d0..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_3.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_30.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_30.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b5c6594..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_30.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_300.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_300.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4f482d6..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_300.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_301.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_301.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4656899..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_301.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_302.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_302.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index aee6ab4..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_302.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_303.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_303.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 45cb70a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_303.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_304.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_304.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c731e25..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_304.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_305.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_305.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 912da6b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_305.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_306.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_306.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cc3490e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_306.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_307.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_307.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3b5bfdb..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_307.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_308.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_308.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index dfa0168..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_308.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_309.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_309.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 24e97de..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_309.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_31.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_31.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9545443..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_31.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_310.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_310.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7391ea5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_310.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_311.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_311.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d10b037..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_311.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_312.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_312.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ada6481..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_312.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_313.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_313.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 433ef33..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_313.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_314.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_314.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f35a15a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_314.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_315.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_315.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c0c29a3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_315.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_316.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_316.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6a49716..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_316.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_317.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_317.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d083759..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_317.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_318.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_318.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f7952c5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_318.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_319.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_319.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c0553ea..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_319.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_32.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_32.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 71b728e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_32.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_320.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_320.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index dc1cfbc..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_320.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_321.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_321.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5d21576..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_321.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_322.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_322.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index df25dc6..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_322.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_323.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_323.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 85a3748..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_323.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_324.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_324.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 04d51e8..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_324.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_325.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_325.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 971d999..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_325.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_326.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_326.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c533ac4..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_326.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_327.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_327.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4ac2a34..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_327.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_328.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_328.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 111ee70..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_328.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_329.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_329.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 88405d0..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_329.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_33.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_33.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 70346ea..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_33.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_330.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_330.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0164348..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_330.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_331.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_331.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ed497df..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_331.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_332.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_332.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c5abe1b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_332.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_333.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_333.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d966993..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_333.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_334.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_334.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5a925cc..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_334.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_335.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_335.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e3f11a3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_335.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_336.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_336.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9e23665..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_336.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_337.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_337.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 172bc45..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_337.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_338.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_338.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ac3cfea..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_338.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_339.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_339.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6e11375..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_339.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_34.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_34.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 578b790..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_34.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_340.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_340.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1215c30..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_340.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_341.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_341.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b02d239..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_341.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_342.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_342.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7c1d42c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_342.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_343.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_343.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e245097..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_343.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_344.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_344.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0ef3720..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_344.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_345.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_345.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0232d56..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_345.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_346.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_346.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bf5ebda..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_346.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_347.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_347.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1298142..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_347.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_348.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_348.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d759226..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_348.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_349.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_349.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5e71080..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_349.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_35.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_35.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4526b67..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_35.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_350.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_350.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9f87621..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_350.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_351.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_351.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f9062a6..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_351.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_352.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_352.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fe07579..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_352.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_353.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_353.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 74d0df4..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_353.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_354.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_354.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 788c3c8..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_354.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_355.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_355.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1552e64..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_355.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_356.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_356.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 92b777d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_356.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_357.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_357.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 21d5c92..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_357.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_358.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_358.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 54f0bae..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_358.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_359.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_359.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8083a86..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_359.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_36.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_36.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 075b653..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_36.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_360.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_360.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f1b8d30..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_360.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_361.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_361.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c2c8d82..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_361.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_362.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_362.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7fa6db9..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_362.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_363.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_363.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2d09082..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_363.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_364.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_364.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 356b123..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_364.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_365.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_365.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 988561e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_365.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_366.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_366.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f2c2cef..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_366.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_367.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_367.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ee0ebde..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_367.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_368.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_368.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ec66c72..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_368.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_369.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_369.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f899488..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_369.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_37.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_37.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e98a537..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_37.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_370.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_370.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 307a314..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_370.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_371.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_371.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 05d15c5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_371.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_372.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_372.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6b092d4..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_372.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_373.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_373.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 60e82ba..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_373.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_374.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_374.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7f3baed..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_374.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_375.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_375.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3b7b783..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_375.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_376.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_376.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1354718..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_376.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_377.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_377.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e16de4a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_377.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_378.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_378.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6484e28..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_378.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_379.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_379.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7eeb2b6..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_379.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_38.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_38.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4a382b0..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_38.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_380.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_380.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7440285..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_380.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_381.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_381.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a9e6d7f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_381.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_39.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_39.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4c6f1b4..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_39.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_391.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_391.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index dbe154e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_391.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_392.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_392.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2e11615..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_392.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_397.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_397.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2f41f99..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_397.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_4.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_4.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1dda7b7..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_4.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_40.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_40.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 379067c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_40.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_404.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_404.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 471d160..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_404.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_405.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_405.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 42ac781..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_405.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_406.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_406.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 37932ac..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_406.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_407.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_407.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7bccf50..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_407.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_408.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_408.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 29b25ce..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_408.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_409.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_409.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 45b216e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_409.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_41.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_41.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5f37a8a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_41.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_417.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_417.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index df25a4c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_417.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_418.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_418.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9a09b5b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_418.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_419.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_419.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c58af9d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_419.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_42.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_42.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5886de3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_42.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_420.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_420.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a445c97..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_420.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_421.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_421.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 58c95e0..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_421.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_422.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_422.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f5b94d2..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_422.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_423.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_423.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 18bd32c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_423.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_424.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_424.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 28e3d27..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_424.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_425.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_425.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index edaf6af..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_425.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_426.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_426.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 83dca0d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_426.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_427.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_427.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4120874..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_427.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_428.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_428.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9c262ee..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_428.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_429.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_429.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 00cb790..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_429.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_43.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_43.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0a90478..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_43.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_430.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_430.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5611ad3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_430.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_431.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_431.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4966abb..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_431.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_432.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_432.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3997211..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_432.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_433.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_433.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ed37b48..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_433.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_434.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_434.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5bc4f66..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_434.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_435.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_435.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f7e5e30..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_435.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_436.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_436.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f316c62..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_436.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_437.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_437.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3ab2714..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_437.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_438.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_438.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1a67259..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_438.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_439.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_439.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cfc545a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_439.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_44.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_44.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c884796..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_44.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_440.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_440.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 82bb9a8..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_440.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_441.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_441.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 654c173..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_441.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_442.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_442.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e3cc9d5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_442.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_443.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_443.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fe9ff65..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_443.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_444.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_444.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 82f0b09..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_444.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_445.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_445.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8ae0eb2..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_445.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_446.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_446.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 640bae0..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_446.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_447.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_447.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6428205..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_447.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_448.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_448.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d00ddd5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_448.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_449.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_449.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 31af98c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_449.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_45.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_45.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7c55675..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_45.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_450.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_450.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4805198..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_450.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_451.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_451.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index eafd283..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_451.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_452.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_452.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 55fdffb..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_452.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_453.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_453.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 900efc7..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_453.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_454.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_454.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d21e8c5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_454.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_455.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_455.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 40c336b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_455.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_456.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_456.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bf59608..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_456.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_457.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_457.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3d00ee3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_457.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_458.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_458.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1160b4d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_458.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_459.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_459.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d91e3b7..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_459.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_46.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_46.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 64fefe5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_46.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_460.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_460.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 899815e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_460.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_461.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_461.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3563b06..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_461.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_462.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_462.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a1607b4..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_462.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_463.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_463.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 554c043..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_463.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_464.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_464.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f16e566..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_464.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_465.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_465.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d7d6c43..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_465.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_466.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_466.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d6f800a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_466.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_467.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_467.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0f60c89..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_467.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_468.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_468.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0d9f399..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_468.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_469.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_469.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c1d4c3c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_469.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_47.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_47.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4041b6b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_47.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_470.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_470.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 41e8988..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_470.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_471.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_471.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3cf9739..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_471.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_472.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_472.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 520e9e1..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_472.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_473.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_473.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3b31431..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_473.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_474.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_474.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fee2c46..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_474.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_475.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_475.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b5f7497..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_475.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_476.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_476.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a68f726..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_476.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_477.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_477.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 382d5cb..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_477.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_478.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_478.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4343a55..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_478.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_479.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_479.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ab989e3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_479.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_48.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_48.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b3a35a2..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_48.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_480.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_480.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fcea65c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_480.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_481.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_481.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9f3cafb..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_481.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_482.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_482.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 01d1202..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_482.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_483.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_483.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 779fb15..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_483.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_484.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_484.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4d7fda8..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_484.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_485.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_485.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 46235d0..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_485.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_486.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_486.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6bad2d7..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_486.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_487.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_487.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8541948..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_487.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_488.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_488.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 66c012d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_488.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_489.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_489.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 805d02e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_489.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_49.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_49.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5b68142..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_49.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_5.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_5.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bce9eb7..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_5.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_50.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_50.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 08279eb..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_50.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_51.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_51.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f5c81c5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_51.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_52.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_52.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0c64824..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_52.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_53.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_53.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cbc33d3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_53.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_54.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_54.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d847e93..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_54.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_55.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_55.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 06e1d2a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_55.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_56.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_56.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fab9ea3..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_56.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_57.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_57.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a0ca98b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_57.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_58.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_58.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7aeea21..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_58.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_59.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_59.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e0103be..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_59.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_6.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_6.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fce80ca..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_6.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_60.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_60.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 90bdf5e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_60.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_61.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_61.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 950c834..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_61.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_62.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_62.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 278098b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_62.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_63.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_63.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5bb9096..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_63.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_64.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_64.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a45adff..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_64.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_65.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_65.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 912b045..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_65.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_66.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_66.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 11b363a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_66.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_67.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_67.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 832d33c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_67.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_68.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_68.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1da2f36..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_68.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_69.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_69.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 43ec6a6..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_69.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_7.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_7.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c6bd756..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_7.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_70.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_70.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a43bedb..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_70.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_71.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_71.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index aa3727e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_71.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_72.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_72.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index de5fef2..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_72.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_73.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_73.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c10e314..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_73.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_74.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_74.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9518cc9..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_74.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_75.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_75.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c91c579..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_75.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_76.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_76.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a607a48..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_76.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_77.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_77.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d750fc5..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_77.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_78.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_78.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5713563..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_78.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_79.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_79.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 267be90..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_79.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_8.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_8.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1333e7d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_8.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_80.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_80.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 506af3e..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_80.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_81.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_81.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e409f33..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_81.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_82.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_82.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3ec74ce..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_82.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_83.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_83.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 27f0c86..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_83.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_84.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_84.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 843d587..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_84.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_85.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_85.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 74431b1..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_85.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_86.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_86.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3f6410f..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_86.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_87.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_87.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 034db25..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_87.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_88.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_88.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a0a2ec9..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_88.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_89.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_89.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 19acc12..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_89.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_9.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_9.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b32d2ee..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_9.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_90.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_90.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 850695c..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_90.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_91.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_91.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f24a903..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_91.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_92.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_92.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 953dc1a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_92.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_93.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_93.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5e40b2b..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_93.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_94.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_94.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9606191..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_94.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_95.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_95.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7ebe620..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_95.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_96.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_96.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 305851d..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_96.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_97.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_97.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f250669..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_97.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_98.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_98.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7ff292a..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_98.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/fig_99.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/fig_99.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 68fdcca..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/fig_99.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52906-h/images/frontispiece.jpg b/old/52906-h/images/frontispiece.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c119c78..0000000 --- a/old/52906-h/images/frontispiece.jpg +++ /dev/null |
